Proceedings - Environmental Design Research Association

Transcription

Proceedings of the 46th Annual Conference of the
Environmental Design Research Association
Los Angeles, California
May 27 - 30, 2015
Editors: Nisha A. Fernando, Ph.D., & Greg Allen Barker, AIA
Associate Editors:
Janice Bissell; Jill Eyres; Gowri Betrabet Gulwadi; Esperanza Harper;
Nana Kirk; Seunghae Lee; Myra Miller; Kate O’Donnell;
Sarah Schuster-Tucker; Zhe Wang; Helena Yoon
EDRA46LosAngeles Conference Co-Chairs
Greg Allen Barker, AIA, Programming Co-Chair
Nisha A. Fernando, Ph.D., Proposals Co-Chair
EDRA46LosAngeles Conference Committee
Mary Anne Akers
Cherif Amor
Janice Bissell
David Boeck
Lynne Dearborn
Jill Eyres
Jay Farbstein
Gowri Betrabet Gulwadi
Tasoulla Hadjiyanni
Esperanza Harper
Nana Kirk
Eunsil Lee
Seunghae Lee
Georgia Lindsay
Myra Miller
Joni Palmer
Lubomir Popov
Ipek Rohlof
Henry Sanoff
Kapila D. Silva,
Sarah Schuster-Tucker
Zhe Wang
Jeremy Wells
Helena Yoon
EDRA46LosAngeles Sponsors and Exhibitors
Urban Communication Foundation
Ball State University
Radford University
EDRA Board of Directors
Shauna Mallory-Hill, Chair
Gowri Betrabet Gulwadi, Chair-Elect
Paula Horrigan, Secretary
David Boeck, Treasurer
Marwa Abdelmonem, Student Representative
Mallika Bose, Ex-Officio
Jennifer Senick
Rula Awwad-Rafferty
Lubomir Popov
Nick Watkins
Lynda Schneekloth, Emeritus
EDRA Organizational Members
EDRA Placemakers
American Art Resources
Andrews University
BBH Design
HKS Inc
Kansas State University
Kuwait University
Rutgers Center for Green Building
The Pennsylvania State University
Texas Tech University - College of Architecture
Universite de Montreal
University of Colorado Boulder Program in Environmental Design
University of Idaho - College of Art & Architecture
University of Manitoba
Urban Communication Foundation
WorkingSpaces
Gowri Betrabet Gulwadi
Keith Diaz Moore
Peter Hourihan
Susan Mazer
Lynn Paxson
EDRA Wayfinders
Sherry Ahrentzen
Cherif Amor
David Boeck
Paula Horrigan
Robin Moore
Katherine Morris
Thierry Rosenheck
April Spivack
Dan Stokols
Rich Elliot Wener
Copyright © 2015, The Environmental Design Research Association (EDRA) www.edra.org
22 N. Carroll Street, Suite 300 • Madison, WI 53703
ISBN 978-1-329-09136-8
All rights reserved. No part of this book covered by copyright herein may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means – graphic, photocopy, recording, taping, or digital – without written permission of the publisher.
Table of Contents
Introduction..........................................................................................................................................................v
Keynote Address
Towards a Neuroscience for Architecture................................................................................................................1
Plenary Sessions
Cinema and the People-Environment Relationship: Cities on the Silver (and other) Screens................................2
Designing for the Spectrum: From Neuroscience to Design Actions .....................................................................3
Mobile Sessions
Mobile Intensive: Share/Collaborate/Learn/Advance: Democratic Design Without Borders.................................7
Mobile Session I: Sustainable Connections - Aging in Community in Los Angeles..............................................7
Mobile Session II: Palos Verdes Estates: The Romantic Dreams of a New California City...................................8
Mobile Session III: Google Glass Navigation - Testing Parahippocampal Place Area Involvement......................9
Mobile Session IV: The Big Wild Wilderness Parks: Sex, Lies, and Real Estate...................................................9
Career Award
Craig Zimring, PhD, College of Architecture, Georgia Institute of Technology...................................................13
Service Award
Atiya Mahmood, PhD, Department of Gerontology, Simon Fraser University ....................................................14
Michael Brill Award
Seunghae Lee, Associate Professor, Oregon State University and Paul Platosh, PhD, Student,
Oregon State University...................................................................................................................................15
Refereed Full Papers
Neuroaesthetic Studies in Architecture: Insights From Neuroscience on Aesthetic Experience...........................19
Older People’s Well-being Affordances at the Local High Street: A Study of Local
Town Centres in Edinburgh..............................................................................................................................26
Wayfinding Design as a Tool for Community Empowerment and Storytelling:
A Case Study From Central Appalachia...........................................................................................................35
Leveraging Urban Ecosystems for Comprehensive Climate-Adaptive Design:
An Approach Framework for Landscape Architects........................................................................................42
A Green Lesson: Measuring the Impacts of LEED Certification Credits on People,
Planet, and Profit of K-12 Schools...................................................................................................................48
Challenges and Opportunities in the Formation of Design Professionals.............................................................60
Generational Differences in Project Research Approaches...................................................................................66
Designing for Diversity: A Research Informed Design Study on Universal Workspaces.....................................74
Inclusive Educational Spaces for Children with Autism; Development of Ethically
Appropriate Research Tools.............................................................................................................................81
iii
Refereed Full Papers (continued)
The Artifact Model of Architecture: Integrating Buildings and Social Environments..........................................90
Social Interaction in Student Residence Halls Through an Architectural Lens:
A Method for Categorizing Student Residence Halls......................................................................................96
Scholastic Restorative Environments: Architectural Settings: Their Effects on Our
Perceptions, Spearheading New Cognitive and Neural Restoration Methods...............................................106
Walking With Your Head in the Clouds: The Influence of Pathway Design on Mindfulness,
Recall, and Affective State.............................................................................................................................111
Empowering Young Children: Multi-Method Exploration of Young Children’s Preference
for Natural or Manufactured Elements in Outdoor Preschool Settings..........................................................118
Thematic Abstracts
Action Research...................................................................................................................................................127
Active Neighborhoods.........................................................................................................................................129
Autism and Environment.....................................................................................................................................131
Building Performance..........................................................................................................................................133
Children’s Environments.....................................................................................................................................135
Cross-Cultural Issues...........................................................................................................................................137
Design Education.................................................................................................................................................145
Environmental Perception....................................................................................................................................160
Everyday Environments.......................................................................................................................................164
Gerontology.........................................................................................................................................................165
Health and Active Living.....................................................................................................................................167
Healthcare Environments.....................................................................................................................................171
Healthy Environments.........................................................................................................................................176
Lighting in Environments....................................................................................................................................178
Natural Settings....................................................................................................................................................180
Neighborhoods.....................................................................................................................................................186
Neuroscience Related To Environment-Behaviors..............................................................................................188
POE/Programming...............................................................................................................................................195
Preservation of Heritage......................................................................................................................................198
Publishing............................................................................................................................................................201
Reflective Environments......................................................................................................................................203
Research Practice.................................................................................................................................................204
Residential Environments....................................................................................................................................209
Restorative Environments....................................................................................................................................215
School & Educational Environments...................................................................................................................216
iv
Thematic Abstracts (continued)
Socio-Politics of Environments...........................................................................................................................220
Sustainable Design...............................................................................................................................................222
Theory Development...........................................................................................................................................229
Universal Design..................................................................................................................................................230
Urban Greening....................................................................................................................................................233
Urban Planning....................................................................................................................................................237
Urban Public Spaces............................................................................................................................................241
Walkability...........................................................................................................................................................243
Wayfinding...........................................................................................................................................................247
Women’s Healthcare Environments.....................................................................................................................249
Work Environments.............................................................................................................................................251
EDRAShorts......................................................................................................................................................257
Display Poster Presentations.......................................................................................................................271
Author Index....................................................................................................................................................285
EDRA46LosAngeles Reviewers..................................................................................................................290
v
vi
Introduction
B
uilt or natural, micro or macro, personal or collective, environments are the stages where human
actors live, play, work, relax, and heal. We are intricately connected to our immediate and
imaginary environments through the functional affordances they create, embracing the symbolic
meanings they offer. We also constantly shape and reshape the environments we inhabit based on our
physical, social, cultural, and psychological needs. These ever-changing human connections to their
environments are invariably critical to our deeper understanding of processes, products, and policies in
environmental design research and practice. Through decades of incisive dialogues, insightful theories,
empirical research and critical practice, we have built a strong foundation of environment-behavior
knowledge through EDRA.
In keeping with this robust tradition, EDRA46 takes a leap in a new direction and introduces an imperative
opportunity to add a neurobiological dimension to the rigor of the Environmental Design Research
discourse. Neuroscience brings forth a different perspective of human responses to environments; it
posits the reasoning of environment-behavior interactions and reactions within a biological realm. Our
brains reveal to us, with enormous clarity, the hidden mechanisms of environmental preferences, feelings,
emotions, and sentiments. Neuroscience can provide a substantive theoretical knowledge base connecting
our brains to our behavior and explain to us how we can map the dynamic interactions between human
behavior and built or natural environments. We act and react to our surroundings because of the ways we
are wired both as a neuro-biological entity and as a product of social, cultural, and psychological factors.
To fulfill this multi-dimensional inquiry, EDRA46 formally joins hands with neuroscientists for the very
first time to bring forth a unique platform to create a collective body of scholarship linking the built
environment, behavior, and neuroscience.
The stimulating landscape of Los Angeles has provided EDRA46 with a wealth of issues and opportunities
to foster a contemporary exchange of ideas among academics and professionals from a broad range of
disciplines. The juxtaposition of this large, thriving urban area bordered by mountain wilderness and
the Pacific Ocean has presented opportunities to explore the relationships between the built and natural
environments, health, sustainability, and distribution of economic resources. The proximity of institutions
of higher learning and research with major neuroscience programs, within Los Angeles and relatively close
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in La Jolla and San Diego has provided the opportune conditions to invite and engage some of the world’s
foremost neuroscientists in our explorations of human behavior and the built environment.
This year, EDRA46 attracted a variety of submissions (530 overall) with an acceptance rate of 63%.
Amongst the accepted submissions are 17 full papers, 122 abstracts, 14 symposia, 6 workshops, and
3 professional development tutorials. Additionally, it hosts 148 posters, 24 EDRAShorts, 4 half-day
intensives and 3 full-day intensives. The conference also hosts international presenters from 28 countries.
The conference is organized to present a variety of themes, including neuroscience related environmentbehavior under which oral presentations are grouped. While neuroscience is the main focus of the collective
conference, the thematic presentations offer an array of research topics that are of interest to the breadth of
disciplines represented at the conference. EDRA46 reinforces this interdisciplinary core of environmentbehavior research and practice by linking its critical discourse with neuroscience. It delivers an important
message that the silos do not exist in environment-behavior research and its realm is truly boundless.
Greg Allen Barker, AIA
EDRA46LosAngeles Co-Chair
viii
Nisha A. Fernando, Ph.D.
EDRA46LosAngeles Co-Chair
Invited Papers
and Special
Presentations
Invited Papers & Special Presentations
Keynote Address
Towards A Neuroscience for Architecture
Thomas D. Albright, Professor and Conrad T. Prebys Chair
in Vision Research, Salk Institute for Biological Studies
Thursday, May 28, 2015 6:00pm-7:00pm
Neuroscience is a new research discipline in the armament of longstanding efforts to understand the
influence of built environments over human mental function and behavior. Using a variety of powerful
experimental approaches, and focusing efforts on the information processing capacities of the brain,
we have begun to develop an empirical understanding of how design features influence the acquisition,
organization and use of information present in the built environment. Based on this understanding, we
argue that selective pressures over the course of human evolution have yielded a visual brain that has
highly specific and tunable organizational properties for representing key statistics of the environment,
such as commonly occurring features and conjunctions of features. Simple visual pattern types, which
are commonly used in architectural and decorative design, mirror these environmental statistics. These
patterns are readily seen without scrutiny, yielding a “sense of order” because they tap into existing
neuronal substrates. A fuller understanding of these relationships between organizational properties of the
brain and visual environmental statistics may lead to novel design principles.
Thomas D. Albright is Professor and Conrad T. Prebys Chair in Vision Research at the Salk Institute
for Biological Studies, where he joined the faculty in 1986. Albright is also Director of the Salk Institute
Center for the Neurobiology of Vision, Adjunct Professor of Psychology and Neurosciences at the
University of California, San Diego, and Visiting Centenary Professor at the Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore. Albright is an authority on the neural basis of visual perception, memory and visually guided
behavior, probing the relationship between the activity of brain cells and perceptual state. His laboratory
seeks to understand how visual perception is affected by attention, behavioral goals, and memories of
previous experiences. His discoveries address the ways in which context influences visual perceptual
experience and the mechanisms of visual associative memory and visual imagery. An important goal of
this work is the development of therapies for blindness and perceptual impairments resulting from disease,
trauma or developmental disorders of the brain. A second aim of Dr. Albright’s work is to use our growing
knowledge of brain, perception and memory to inform design in architecture and the arts, and to leverage
societal decisions and public policy. Albright received a Ph.D. in psychology and neuroscience from
Princeton University. He is a recipient of numerous honors for his work, including the National Academy
of Sciences Award for Initiatives in Research. Albright is a member of the National Academy of Sciences,
a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, a fellow of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, and an associate of the Neuroscience Research Program. He is past-president
(2012-2014) of the Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture, a member of the National Academy of
Sciences Committee on Science, Technology, and Law, and serves on the Scientific Advisory Committee
for the Indian National Brain Research Center.
May 2015 – brainSTORM
1
Plenary Sessions
Cinema and the PeopleEnvironment Relationship: Cities
on the Silver (and other) Screens
Friday, May 29, 2015 10:30am-12:00pm
Our vision of the city is not dependent upon “being
there” because media “take us there.” Our preconceptions precede an experiential reality. The photographer
and reporter, the computer and the media take us there.
We have all been there without having been there. The
media/city relationship is central to understanding these
sites as lived communicative environments. The Cinema
is a uniquely significant and powerful medium influence
on perceptions of the city. Cities are frozen in time by
cinematic imagery. How do filmmakers make use of urban spaces? How does the cinema shape our conception
of urban people-environment relationships? How is the
architect and urban planner influenced by the cinematic.
This plenary will explore the diverse intersections between cinema, cities, and environmental design.
Moderator Gary Gumpert
(Ph.D, Wayne State University)
is Emeritus Professor of Communication at Queens College
of the City University of New
York and President of the Urban
Communication Foundation. His
creative career as a television
director and academic career as
a scholar spans over 60 years. In
1960 he directed the Gutenberg Galaxy in which Marshall McLuhan articulated the premise of his forthcoming book. He is series editor of Urban Communication
Series for Peter Lang Publishing. He has authored and
edited books include Talking Tombstones and Other
Tales of the Media Age (Oxford University Press), The
Urban Communication Reader (Hampton Press), Regulating Convergence and Regulating Social Media: Legal
and Ethical Considerations (in press) (Peter Lang). He
is a recipient of the Franklyn S. Haiman Award for distinguished scholarship in freedom of expression (NCA),
the Louis Forsdale Award for Outstanding Educator
in the Field of Media Ecology (MEA), and in 2011 received The Neil Postman Award for Career Achievement
2 in Public Intellectual Activity. His primary research and
theory agenda focuses on the impact of communication
technology upon social and urban space. He has been a
faithful EDRA member since 1990 and co-chair of the
EDRA Communication network.
Vincent Brook teaches media
studies at UCLA, Cal-State LA,
and Pierce College. He has published dozens of journal articles
and anthology essays and is the
author, co-author, editor, or coeditor of six books, most recently
Land of Smoke and Mirrors: A
Cultural History of Los Angeles (Rutgers 2013), Woody on
Rye: Jewishness in the Films and Plays of Woody Allen
(Brandeis 2013, co-editor), and Silver Lake Chronicles:
Exploring an Urban Oasis in Los Angeles (History Press
2014, co-author).
Alex Cutler’s career spans
three decades of media administration, film production,
and teaching. While attending
UCLA’s MFA producer program
and Southwestern Law School,
Cutler began his media career at
Republic Pictures, where he was
responsible for business and legal
matters relating to one of the
industry’s most extensive motion picture and television
libraries including Bonanza, Get Smart, It’s A Wonderful
Life, High Noon and The Quiet Man. After relocating to
Sydney to join his wife, he worked for Australia’s two
largest production companies, where he was closely
involved in many of the country’s best-known film
and television productions such as Sale of the Century,
Neighbours and Prisoner at Grundy Television, and
Colleen McCullough’s An Indecent Obsession, Burke
and Wills and The Coolangatta Gold at Hoyts Theatres.
His own Australian producing career culminated with
the Warner Bros-released THE DELINQUENTS, one of
the highest-profile Australian films of all time, partnered
with David Bowie and starring Kylie Minogue in her
feature film debut. After returning to the U.S. he became
a distinguished schoolteacher, administrator, and charter
school developer. Since arriving in New York in 2009,
Cutler co-produced an award-winning new feature
film, PIG, completed a master in media studies at New
School University, and has consulted to non-profit youth
media pioneer, Educational Video Center, and the Urban
Communication Foundation. He is the executive producer of The Taking of Deborah Logan (2014) and Don
Peyote (2014)
Louis Wasserman graduated
from the University of Illinois
and Harvard’s Graduate School
of Design. Prior to establishing
his own office, Louis Wasserman
gained experience in the offices of Ben Thompson, Cambridge Seven, ADD Inc., Harry
Weese, and the City Architect
of Chicago. Louis also taught in
architectural programs in Massachusetts, California and
Wisconsin. Wasserman & Associates was established by
Louis Wasserman and M. Caren Connolly as a multidisciplinary firm concentrating on architecture, landscape
architecture, award winning research and publication.
Louis Wasserman and Associates is unique in its use
and application of research. While the funding available
for architectural related investigations is limited, their
success is documented in the national recognition that
this inquiry has received. Their examination of Theme
parks/recreational planning is the only research work
ever to have received the Progressive Architecture First
Award. The companion study on Film Design received a
Citation from Progressive Architecture Magazine. Work
on recreational planning has received national recognition from Design Arts Magazine, The Urban Land
Institute and Progressive Architecture Magazine. Louis
and Caren feel it is very important to ask architecturally significant questions, and they are fortunate both
in finding funding to ask those questions, and also in
the opportunity to apply the results to their professional
practice. Their bestselling books for Taunton Press: Updating Classic America: Bungalows, Updating Classic
America: Ranches, Cottage: America’s Favorite Home
are derived from their work and research. Most recently
they were commissioned by the State of Wisconsin
to write and illustrate the award winning Wisconsin’s
Own: 20 Significant Homes. Mr. Wasserman and his coauthor M. Caren Connolly are frequent guest lecturers,
at academic, professional and civic venues and on radio
and television programs nationwide discussing their
books, research and work.
Designing for the Spectrum:
From Neuroscience to Design
Actions
Saturday, May 30, 2015 10:30am-12:00pm
This plenary demonstrates how environment-behavior
research and theory can build upon neuroscience research
to apprise how the physical environment can be designed
and developed to enhance the daily lives and aspirations
of a broad spectrum of individuals – with the focus on
adults with autism living in their homes and residential
communities. With backgrounds in environment-behavior studies, housing, architecture and landscape architecture, presenters Sherry Ahrentzen and Kim Steele faced a
challenge in 2008 when asked to consider the best ways
to design housing for adults on the autism spectrum and
what the evidence showed as most effective strategies for
doing so -- because the research was thin and examples
scarce. Since then they have developed a researchinformed approach that they will share with the audience,
demonstrating how neurobiological/perceptual research
findings of autism often reverberate with fundamental
environment-behavior principles and theories. They will
draw on the work described in their book At Home with
Autism: Designing for the Spectrum, being published by
Policy Press in summer 2015. A number of architects and
housing developers have used their work to design and
construct residences for adults with autism, and examples
of this built and occupied work will be presented. Following the presentation, discussant Eve Edelstein will
comment upon the merits, limitations, and potentialities
of the process from the perspective of neuroscience and
the emerging changes in the design profession; and bring
to the discussion a neuro-architectural process that she
developed and used in practice that applied game-changing neuroscientific and engineering technologies and
long-standing methods from environmental psychology.
The plenary is relevant to a broad spectrum of audience
members, as the primary focus is not autism per se, but
processes of bridging neuroscience, environmental-design research, and application to design and development
of the built landscape.
Sherry Ahrentzen, PhD, is Shimberg Professor of
Housing Studies at the University of Florida. Prior,
she was Associate Director of Research at the Stardust
Center for Affordable Homes, Arizona State University;
and before then, Professor of Architecture at University
of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. Dr. Ahrentzen is a recognized
3
leader in understanding the social
justice dimensions within the built
environment and design education, championing the needs of
underserved and marginalized
populations who are often left
out of the design and planning
process. Her research focusing on
housing and community design
that fosters the physical, social
and economic health of households has been published
extensively in journals and books, and presented at
national and international conferences. She has over 60
published articles, chapters, and reports, and has received
more than 30 research and instructional grants from various agencies. A book she co-authored with Kim Steele on
designing and developing housing for adults with autism
will be published by Policy Press in summer 2015. In
2003 she received the Distinguished Professor Award
from the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture; in 2009 she received the Career Award from the Environmental Design Research Association; and in 2014,
she was the recipient of the ARCC James Haecker Award
for Distinguished Leadership in Architectural Research.
Her doctorate in Social Ecology from the University of
California, Irvine reflects the collaborative and multidisciplinary nature of her research and teaching practices.
Kim Steele is Director of
Urban and Health Initiatives at
The Elemental Group where she
works with communities and
organizations to develop policies
and strategies to increase opportunities for healthy, active living.
Prior to this position she was Associate Professor at Arizona State
University in the Design School
and Assistant Professor at Auburn University in the
School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape Architecture. Ms. Steele received a Master of Architecture and
Master of Landscape Architecture from the University of
Colorado, Denver, as well as a Master of Arts from the
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Her research
and professional work focuses on improving community
health through design across multiple scales, which she is
further advancing in her doctoral research at UCLA. She
has published numerous research reports and routinely
presents her work at national and international conferences. As a parent of a severely autistic child, Ms. Steele
devotes significant time to researching issues related to
disability and the environment. Currently, she is complet-
4 ing a book addressing design and residential options for
adults with autism. The Policy Press will publish it in
summer 2015.
Dr. Eve Edelstein is the first,
and only specialist known,
to have degrees in Neuroscience (Ph.D. University College
London), Architecture (M.Arch.
NewSchool of Architecture &
Design) and Anthropology (B.A.
University California Berkeley).
Dr. Edelstein consulting on the
world’s largest NICU and infant
hearing screening program, and NASA’s noise-induced
hearing loss in space station astronauts. Edelstein’s
scientific research and clinical practice at top academic
medical centers includes the National Hospital Neurology & Neurosurgery UK, the US Naval Medical Center, University California San Diego, and the Harvard/
MIT Hearing Science laboratory. With the Academy of
Neuroscience for Architecture, NewSchool of Architecture, the Salk Institute, and the University of California
San Diego, Edelstein developed and taught courses,
internships and research studies that apply neuroscience to architecture. Dr. Edelstein is a Fellow of the
Berkeley Prize, integrating neuroscience, architecture
and universal design objectives. As Principal Investigator for the AIA College of Fellows Latrobe Prize, she
studied the influence of circadian light on heart-rate and
proposed design recommendations for a broad range of
settings. Innovations with UCSD include synchronous
tracking of vision and brainwaves in immersive virtual
CAVE simulations, and novel real-time immersive digital
modeling and sonic simulations. Dr. Edelstein consults
with Innovative Design Science to inform design decisions (via observation, sensors, acoustic & visual CAVE
simulations) that influence cognition, error, intelligibility, wayfinding, well-being and human outcomes. Her
practice-based ‘neuro-architectural’ process informed
large through small-scale international architectural projects, now built in Canada, China and the US. Edelstein
is faculty at the NewSchool of Architecture & Design,
and as a member of the AIA Design + Health Research
Consortium, leads an innovative translational center for
healthy environments, a collaborative with the University
California San Diego and international leaders in planning and public health.
Mobile
Sessions
5
EDRA45NewOrleans Track Descriptions
6 Mobile Sessions
Mobile Sessions
Mobile Intensive: Share/
Collaborate/Learn/Advance:
Democratic Design Without
Borders
Wednesday, May 27, 8:30am-5:30pm
Session Leader: Jeffrey Hou, Ph.D., M.Arch,
M.L.A., Professor, University of Washington
Democratic design in forms of citizen participation
and community engagement has risen in prominence
in areas around the world. From North America to East
Asia, community design practitioners and advocates
have made significant progress in democratizing environmental design and planning practice in one project
after another. Founded in Berkeley in 1998, the Pacific
Rim Community Design Network has been a forum that
facilitates continued exchange and learning between
community designers in East Asia and North America.
The network has further led to active collaboration
between individuals across the Pacific. The purpose
of this Intensive is to bring the ongoing exchange to
EDRA to engage a broader audience beyond the Pacific
Rim. More specifically, the program is intended to
foreground democratic design as continuously evolving
practice that can be enriched through critical sharing
and exchange of experiences, success stories, and pitfalls. This daylong Intensive will include presentations
by practitioners and scholars, roundtable discussion,
and a field trip to a local site in Los Angeles. Topics will
include broad reflections on democratic design practices
in diverse settings as well as case studies of projects
that address issues ranging from the use of social media
to the participation of elderly and young people. The
daylong session will focus simultaneously on how
democratic design can transcend border and how such
practices operate in particular cultural, geographical,
and institutional contexts. Presenters will come from
Hong Kong, Japan, Russia, South Korea, Taiwan, and
throughout the United States. Participants are invited to
join actively in the discussion.
Jeffrey Hou is Professor and Chair of Landscape
Architecture at the University of Washington in Seattle. His work focuses on community design, design
activism, public space, and transcultural placemaking.
He is the editor of Insurgent Public Space: Guerrilla
Urbanism and the Remaking of Contemporary Cities
(2010) and Transcultural Cities: Border-Crossing and
Placemaking (2013). He is also the co-editor of a new
book Now Urbanism: the Future City is Here (2015).
In a career that spans across the Pacific, he has worked
with indigenous tribes, farmers, and fishers in Taiwan,
neighborhood residents in Japan, villagers in China,
and inner-city immigrant youths and elders in North
American cities, in projects ranging from conservation
of wildlife habitats to design of urban open space. Hou
is a recipient of Places Book Award in 2010 and 2012,
and was the City of Vienna Visiting Professor at the
Vienna University of Technology (TU Wien) in 2013.
He is also a co-founder of the Pacific Rim Community
Design Network.
Mobile Session I: Sustainable
Connections - Aging in
Community in Los Angeles
Saturday, May 30, 1:30pm-5:30pm
Session Leader: Emily Roberts, Ph.D., M.A.,
M.Arch, Assistant Professor, Oklahoma State
University
The impending age wave can be a creative motivator
and Los Angeles has both a creative and aging population who wish to remain in community. While policy in
urban communities like Los Angeles should be accessible, adaptable and healthful for older residents, it also
needs to be sustainable for healthy environments in
terms of energy, water use, and waste. Crafting communities that address all of these issues concurrently is
a special challenge for planners, and designers, creating national and international opportunities for change.
This tour of two Los Angeles landmarks will include
one creatively renovated historic hotel as well as new
construction housing in a vibrant arts community. The
first stop will be the Dunbar Hotel, an adaptive reuse
project which is now senior and family apartments in
Watts. The Dunbar, which opened in 1928, was designated as a city Historic-Cultural Landmark in 1974 and
7
Mobile Sessions
placed on the National Register of Historic Places two
years later. The original Art Deco motif has been preserved through a collaboration between Thomas Safran
& Associates, the nonprofit Coalition for Responsible
Community Development and the city’s Housing
Authority and Community Redevelopment Agency.
Once home to the LA African- American music scene,
the hotel welcomed guests like Cab Calloway, Billie
Holiday and Louis Armstrong. There are 115 units and
the $30-million renovation includes another 42 apartments in two neighboring buildings that have also been
refurbished for low-income family housing. The second
stop will be the North Hollywood (NoHo) Senior Arts
Colony, a new construction senior residence apartment
community for active senior artists. Residents are given
the opportunity to live in housing within an artistic
community with courses and tools to engage in theater,
art, exploration and education. This is a $42 million
community with 126 one and two bedroom units for
renters 62 and older.
As an Environmental Gerontologist, Dr. Emily
Roberts studies the impact of the physical, social and
psychological elements of the environment on older
adults and their families. She is currently an Assistant
Professor in the Department of Design, Housing and
Merchandising, College of Human Sciences at Oklahoma State University. Dr. Roberts has research interests
which include the factors involved in aging in place
and evolving models of long-term care, particularly
for older adults with dementia and their families. She
has a research background in the relationships between
design and gerontology, as well as policy issues which
impact these areas of study. She has conducted research
in Canada, focusing on government funded community
based programs for aging. More recently she worked
with her local Area Agency on Aging as an Aging and
Disability Program Associate in the development of
programming to support older adults and their families
living in community. Dr. Roberts has been chair of the
Environment-Gerontology network of the Environmental Design Research Association since 2009 and
is a founding member of the Culture Change in Aging
Network of Buncombe County, NC, (CCAN-BC), a
coalition of private individuals and policy-makers focused on educating older adults and their families about
alternative housing options and opportunities for living
in community.
8 Mobile Session II: Palos Verdes
Estates: The Romantic Dreams of
a New California City
Session Leader: Christine Edstrom O’Hara,
Associate Professor, California Polytechnic
State University, San Luis Obispo
The evolution of the city of Palos Verdes Estates
extends over 75 years and continues today. The site for
the new city has a storied land-use history: from Native American villages to Spanish ranchos, and home to
Portuguese whalers and Japanese farmers. However, even
with centuries of diverse land occupation, the landscape
was still largely un-developed by the early 1900s. Beginning in 1914, The Palos Verdes Project was designed as
a complete new town, the city developed during a period
of critical regionalism. Its aim was to showcase the native California landscape and a new approach to design
in architecture and planning, specific to the history and
ecology of California. Modeled after Mediterranean city,
architectural and landscape design, Palos Verdes Estates
blended the design concepts of developer Frank Vanderlip, the Olmsted Brothers landscape architecture firm,
city planner Charles Cheney and architect Myron Hunt.
Looking to other regions with the same ecology provided
a design framework to develop a new American typology
uniquely Californian. Together their 1920s visions resulted in Palos Verdes Estates representing the paradigm
of an American expression of Mediterranean design and
an early ecological approach to landscape design in arid
California. And through architectural control, the historic
design has remained intact since the city’s inception.
Christine Edstrom O’Hara holds degrees from Stanford University in English and Art History and from the
University of Washington in Landscape Architecture
and Preservation Planning. Her Masters thesis was on
the regional design by the Olmsted Brothers landscape
architecture firm in Palos Verdes as well as their unbuilt
proposal for Balboa Park in San Diego. She is currently
pursuing her PhD in Landscape Architecture at University of Edinburgh, focusing her research on the Olmsted
Brothers’ work in Los Angeles in the 1920s. On the faculty at Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo, Professor O’Hara has
lectured both nationally and internationally on landscape
preservation as well as its application to sustainable
Mobile Sessions
landscape design and construction. She has published
articles in The Journal for the Society of Architectural
Historians, Pacific Horticulture, Journal of Green
Building, and Pioneers in Landscape Architecture.
She also practices landscape architecture and historic
landscape restoration. Christine is on the advisory board
for the Dana Adobe in Nipomo, CA, on the board of the
California Garden and Landscape History Society, as
well as a trustee for the National Association of Olmsted
Parks.
Paul Platosh is a PhD student and researcher at
Oregon State University in the department of Design
and Human Environment. He focuses his research on
technologically mediated wayfinding, cartography, and
applications of GIS to societal problems. Prior to pursuing his PhD, Paul was as Associate Professor of Communication Design at the Pacific Northwest College
of Art. He works to unite design thinking with spatial
thinking by applying geospatial information technology
and remote sensing to everyday human problems.
Mobile Session III: Google
Glass Navigation - Testing
Parahippocampal Place Area
Involvement*
Mobile Session IV: The Big Wild
Wilderness Parks: Sex, Lies, and
Real Estate
Session Leader: Paul Platosh, PhD Scholar,
Design and Human Environment, Geospatial
Information Systems, Oregon State University
Human wayfinding behavior is a complex interaction of perception, spatial cognition, sense of direction,
and memory systems. We employ different strategies
to navigate in spaces such as survey, landmark, route,
and pointer. Each of these strategies relies on a different
form of cognition and to some extent, activates different
parts of the brain. Because of the complex nature nature
of wayfinding, humans have long relied on technology to mediate between environment and their spatial
recollections. Since GPS and other stimulus-response
wayfinding strategies are less effective at promoting the
accurate creation of cognitive maps, could other technological interventions offer better results? The formfactor and interface of an optical head-mounted display
(OHMD), like Google Glass, is different than that of
hand-held devices, potentially providing more successful cognitive mapping and spatial recall. This session
will allow participants to test Google Glass to experience an alternative way of viewing their environment,
navigating various waypoints in the neighborhood.
*Note: Participants will need to have a 4G smartphone with the ability to download the MyGlass application and activate the Bluetooth capabilities as the
Glass can only receive signal when “tethered” to a 4G
cellular network.
Session Leader: Randy Hester, Director
for the Center for Ecological Discovery,
University of California Berkeley
The Big Wild was developed by the Santa Monica
Mountains Conservancy to provide both wilderness
recreation for adjacent communities and migratory
support for species such as the mountain lion. Separate
community participation processes for each segment
and adjacent community served as a foundation for the
design and development of the string of parks. Complicating the process were wide variations in different
community’s interests, politics, a competing freeway
proposal, and hidden agendas and relationships among
the parties. Randy Hester will be joined by some original members of the design and development team to
describe the process and challenges that had to be overcome for these parks to reach successful completion.
The tours will focus on two very different segments:
LA96C, a former Nike missile site that utilizes some
ruins of the facility in the design and Marvin Braude
Mulholland Gateway Park, a major trailhead with gorgeous city and mountain views.
Randy Hester’s firm worked as environmental planners/landscape architects on Big Wild since 1985.The
resulting greenbelt is one of the most extensive urban
wildernesses in the country serving diverse cultures and
the mountain lion ecosystem.
9
10 Award
Winners
11
12 Award Winners
2015 CAREER AWARD WINNER
The EDRA Career Award is given in recognition of a career of sustained and significant contributions to
environment design research, practice, or teaching. Candidates in the area of design research shall have produced a
body of work that provides significant insights into the relationship between environment and behavior. Candidates
in the area of practice shall have made significant and lasting contributions to the planning and design of the
environment through the application of design research. Candidates in the area of teaching shall have made positive,
stimulating and nurturing influences upon students over an extended period of time and have inspired a generation of
students who have contributed to environmental design research.
Craig Zimring, PhD
Director, SimTigrate Design Lab and Professor of Architecture
and of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology
Craig Zimring has been one of the most important
contributors to the field of Environmental Design
Research for more than three decades, during which time
he has also been an outstanding educator and mentor to
his students, many of whom have now taken their places
among the most respected researchers and professionals
in our field.
Craig co-authored Environmental Design Evaluation
in 1978, one of the first compilations of methods
and practice in the field and followed that, in those
early years, with a series of articles in both scholarly
and professional outlets, including AIA Journal and
Progressive Architecture that helped define the field. He
has contributed outstanding work with rigor, a conceptual
base, and attention to detail, all while providing a focus
on application to practical design issues.
More recently he was one of the first to write about
“evidence-based design” and, again, his publications have
helped to define the term and have played a significant
role in making this a widespread and accepted practice.
Craig has been at the cutting edge of environmental
design research almost since the field began. This is
being demonstrated again in his new SimTegrate Design
Lab, a center devoted to understanding the relationships
between clinical processes, the designed environment and
health-related outcomes. Craig is today one of the field’s
most active and recognized authorities.
As one metric of his level of activity, Craig has
been the recipient, largely as principal or co-principal
investigator, of more than 40 grants, largely in the areas
of health care, active living design and the development
of design evaluation tools. He has published more
than 50 articles, chapters, monographs and books in
those same areas, and serves on numerous editorial and
advisory boards.
Craig’s research, working with colleagues and
students, has
contributed greatly
to the evidence
base that gives
EBD its meaning,
particularly in,
but not limited
to, health care
design and active
living through
design. There is
no individual who
has done more to shape how we approach health care
facility evaluation or, through the work and practice
that comes from such research, done more to make
such facilities safe, efficient, and humane.
The admiration of Craig’s current and former
students is manifest, and is recognized with comments
like “insatiable curiosity and desire to make the
world a better place,” “continues to expand the
reach of environmental psychology through…novel
methodologies to understand the relationship between
space and behavior,” “insane dedication to the
profession.”
The New York City Active Design Guidelines he
helped organize and write was the first document of its
kind and is changing the way buildings are designed in
New York City. He chaired the Health Environments
Research Summit (2006) and the EBD 2.0 Summit
(2008), which, again, are changing the way design
research is done.
For what Craig has done for the field of EDR,
for EDRA, for critical environments in the U.S. and
worldwide, and for his students and colleagues, EDRA
is justifiably proud to recognize him as the recipient of
the 2015 Career Award.
13
Award Winners
2015 SERVICE AWARD WINNER
The EDRA Service Award is given in recognition of a specific contribution of service to the field or the
organization that advances the field of environmental design research. It may be someone outside EDRA who has
advanced EDRA’s cause through publications, or through the support of knowledge produced by EDRA members.
Atiya Mahmood, PhD
Associate Professor, Department of Gerontology,
Simon Fraser University
Atiya Mahmood’s contributions to the EDRA
are numerous and have served to strengthen the
foundation of the organization in myriad ways. In 2005,
Atiya served as a member of the EDRA 36 Program
Committee in Vancouver and artfully organized
the many aspects of which she was in charge. Her
dedication to the complicated task of coordinating
the many events associated with the conference
was admired by many, as she worked every day and
evening, as long as was needed, remaining cheerful
and inspiring. Atiya always showed awareness of
group interaction, and was able to motivate everyone
to pull together and get things done. She is one of those
rare people who can effectively assume a leadership
role, without making other people feel left behind or
irrelevant.
Atiya’s volunteer leadership continued as she served
as secretary of the EDRA Board of Directors in 200910 and chaired EDRA’s communications committee.
In 2012-13 she agreed to serve in the role of ex-officio
board member, extending her term on the board by one
additional year so that another individual could run for
a second term. She took on the various roles of the ex
officio board member including chairing the governance
and awards committees even though she had many
other personal and professional pressing matters.
However, while her assistance as a volunteer and
member of the EDRA Board of Directors has been
considerable, it is Atiya’s work in support of EDRA’s
membership development that is one of her most
significant contributions to the organization. In 20092010 in became clear to the EDRA Board that the
process by which EDRA maintained its membership
was not keeping pace with technology and did not
enable the organization to keep accurate records
of membership and membership renewals. Atiya
chaired a membership task force working with the
EDRA Business Office to identify individuals whose
membership had lapsed and to contact those individuals
to alert them to the lapse, to address their membership
14 concerns as well
as to communicate
more broadly
the benefits of
membership.
The efforts that
she spearheaded
have enabled
EDRA to develop
an accurate
database of
association
members and grow the organization’s membership.
In turn, this has allowed EDRA to better act on the
organization’s goals of promoting and disseminating
scholarship about person-environment relations. While
Atiya’s leadership in addressing EDRA membership is
only one of her many contributions to the organization,
it has proven critical to the progress of the organization
over the past five years, and it is with great respect we
award her the 2015 EDRA Service Award.
Award Winners
MICHAEL BRILL AWARD, Co-Sponsored
by the Urban Communication
Foundation
Seunghae Lee, Associate
Professor, Oregon State
University and Paul Platosh,
PhD, Student, Oregon State
University are the recipients of
the 2015 Michael Brill Grant
in Urban Communication and
Environmental Design.
Named in honor of Michael Brill,
architect and longtime EDRA member, for
his leadership in workplace environments
and communication, this grant is funded
by the Urban Commu¬nication Foundation
and administered in conjunction with the
Environmental Design Research Association. The
goal of this grant program is to encourage innovative
research projects that provide a bridge between the
fields of communication and environmental design.
Wayfinding and Augmented Reality
The ability to imprint and recall spatial information
is known as cognitive mapping. Cognitive maps are
a form of spatial shorthand that is developed when
humans navigate unfamiliar environments, and are
accessed in subsequent visits. It is a function of the part
of the brain called the Parahippocampal Place Area
(PPA), an area whose sole function is spatial cognition,
and coincidentally, is also affected by Alzheimer’s
disease (Maguire, Woollett, & Spiers, 2003).
As technologies advance, location-aware technology
such as GPS has been popularly used for wayfinding
while driving. However, it is debatable whether the
technology can aid or hinder the formation of accurate
cognitive maps. For example, researchers have linked
direction-based navigation with decreased formation
of accurate cognitive maps (Bohbot, Iaria, & Petrides,
2004). Studies about GPS, one of the direction-based
technologies, has shown results that support this link
(Bohbot, Del Balso, Conrad, Konishi, & Leyton,
2013). It has been reported that upon navigating
Lee
Platosh
to an unfamiliar destination using the GPS, users’
recollection of the route they travelled is dim. There is
a tacit understanding that reliance on the device retards
the formation of cognitive maps, and perhaps affects
spatial thinking in general as demonstrated in Bohbot et
al. (2013) in an experimental setting. Additionally, due
to neuro-plasticity in the Hippocampus, overreliance
on GPS can accelerate loss of spatial cognition. This
is especially problematic as older adults are relying on
GPS with increasing numbers.
The recent developments of wayfinding aid
technology with even higher accuracy enabled
wayfinding while walking. The Google Map app is
a GPS system used for wayfinding while walking.
Another wayfinding aid technology useful for
wayfinding is wayfinding aid with Augmented Reality
technology (AR). AR enables wayfinding intervention
overlaid in the visual field of view, making wayfinding
much easier. An exemplary AR wayfinding tool is
the Penguin Navi for an aquarium in Tokyo. Moving
penguins were used instead of arrows on the field of
view to guide users. AR wayfinding technologies can
also superimpose landmarks as well as arrows or other
pointers on the field of view.
As this AR wayfinding technology can incorporate
aids for sound and vision and help more intuitive
wayfinding with pointers and landmarks, it has great
15
potential to help people with limited physical and
cognitive abilities. It also has a potential impact on
people with Alzheimer’s disease due to its connection
to PPA. The PPA is highly relegated to navigational
tasks and binds highly with item location (Albasser,
Dumont, Amin, Holmes, Horne, Pearce, & Aggleton,
2013; Bohbot et al., 2004; Banner, Bhat, Etchamendy,
Joober, & Bohbot, 2011; Baumann & Mattingley,
2014). A positive association of AR use with cognitive
mapping may have implications for non-pharmaceutical
interventions in early dementia, since stimulating
the PPA can help clear Amyloid-β, associated with
Alzheimer’s disease (Adlard, 2005; Konishi & Bohbot,
2013).
This study will test two wayfinding aids in natural
settings; 1) GPS using Google Map and 2) Augmented
Reality (AR) using wayfinding application in Google
Glass. The study will explore and compare the level of
accurate cognitive map developments that stimulates
activity in the PPA. It will also examine wayfinding
performance successes depending on different types of
wayfinding aids.
16 About the Researchers:
Seunghae Lee is an Associate Professor in the School
of Design & Human Environment, College of Business
at Oregon State University. She previously served
as an assistant professor at Purdue University and
California State University in Northridge. She received
her doctorate in 2004 at Michigan State University. Her
research specializes in wayfinding and design for older
adults. She has a strong interest in using technologies
in design and research. Her current research explores
the use of digital aids for wayfinding such as interactive
maps, Google glasses, eyetracking systems.
Paul Platosh is a PhD student and researcher at
Oregon State University in the department of Design
and Human Environment. He focuses his research on
technologically mediated wayfinding, cartography,
and applications of GIS to societal problems. Prior
to pursuing his PhD, Paul was as Associate Professor
of Communication Design at the Pacific Northwest
College of Art. He works to unite design thinking with
spatial thinking by applying geospatial information
technology and remote sensing to everyday human
problems. He lives in Portland with his family and
enjoys geocaching with his boys.
Refereed
Full Papers
17
Refereed Full-Papers
18 Refereed Full-Papers
Neuroaesthetic Studies in
Architecture: Insights From
Neuroscience on Aesthetic
Experience
Troy Brummel (Kent State University),
Ji Young Cho (Kent State University)
Introduction
The field of architecture has a long tradition of aesthetic consideration, dating back to antiquity when Vitruvius wrote the famous architectural treatise The Ten
Books on Architecture (15 BCE/1914). In this treatise,
Vitruvius declared that architecture has three fundamental requirements: firmitas, utilitas, and venustas
(15 BCE/1914). That is structural firmness, usefulness,
and beauty; however, the last 20 years of architectural
thought has avoided formal aesthetic consideration for
the sake of concept development and critical theory,
rendering architecture misunderstood by those not
educated in the field (Gage, 2011; Winters, 2007). Gage
suggests that refocusing on the aesthetics of architecture might recapture architecture’s relevance to public
perception (2011).
At the same time, development within a young field
of neuroscientific research on aesthetics (e.g., CelaConde et al., 2011; Cinza & Vittorio, 2009; Nadal &
Pearce, 2011) has begun to contribute significant understanding to the neural processes associated with the
perception of artistic works and has utilized architectural stimuli that affect aesthetic appraisals (e.g., Aguirre,
Zarahn, & D’Esposito, 1998; Oppenheim et al., 2009;
Vartanian et al., 2013). As this field of neuroaesthetics has shown interest in architecture, it is timely for
a critical review of neuroaesthetic findings relevant to
the field of architecture. Thus, the purpose of this paper
is to investigate those studies in neuroaesthetics that
utilized architecture as stimuli and report the main findings. In addition, this paper aims to suggest potential
areas for future collaborations between neuroscientists
and designers.
Neuroaesthetics
Historically a philosophical study, aesthetics has
recently engaged the field of neuroscience to better
understand the neural basis for aesthetic evaluations.
The term neuroaesthetics, as coined by neurobiologist
Semir Zeki, encompasses all neuroscientific research
dedicated to understanding the neural processes of
evaluation and perception of a work of art or otherwise artistic object (Cinza & Vittorio, 2009). Following the Copenhagen Neuroaesthetics conference in
2009, researchers have chosen to keep the definition of
neuroaesthetics broad and inclusive as the field of study
is still young (Nadal & Pearce, 2011). Stimuli classes,
or various types of artistic objects under investigation,
vary from visual arts to music, sculpture, human beauty,
and also architecture. Researchers generally seek to
better understand both sensory processing and cognitive processing of the aesthetic experience. Sensory
aspects comprise physical stimuli properties, such as
shape, proportion, and color. Cognitive aspects include
thought processes of viewers, such as experience level,
memory, and perceived reward values (Reber, Schwarz,
& Winkielman, 2004).
It may be argued that neuroaesthetics emerged as
early as 1757, from the theorizing of philosopher
Edmund Burke (Nadal & Pearce, 2011). In his treatise
A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of the Sublime
and Beautiful (1757/1998), Burke asserted a two-part
model of the human body that consists of a physical
mechanical body and a controlling ‘animal spirit’ that
are connected by a network of threads. Conceptually,
this model resembles the human nervous system. Since
Burke, many physiological and neurological discoveries
have contributed to understanding the human body.
Two major developments can account for the current state of neuroaesthetic studies (Nadal & Pearce,
2011). First, the finding that aesthetic evaluations are
dependent on various factors succeeded the traditional
notion that aesthetic appraisals were based on merely
objective characteristics, such as ideal proportions
(Nadal & Pearce, 2011). Those various factors include
both objective stimuli characteristics, such as proportion, symmetry, content complexity, and clarity (Reber
et al., 2004), and subjective perceptual processes, such
as embodied empathy, reward value, and emotional
affective responses (Cinza & Vittorio, 2009). This perspective of aesthetic evaluations can be described as an
interactionist aesthetic experience (Reber et al., 2004).
In other words, aesthetic evaluations can be described
as a viewer’s neural processing of an art work’s sensory
characteristics in combination with the viewer’s history
with, and understanding of, the art work.
The second development accounting for current
neuroaesthetic studies was the advent of non-invasive
imaging techniques, such as functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalogram
(EEG) (Nadal & Pearce, 2011). These technologies have
allowed researchers to hypothesize on and test neural responses to aesthetic stimulation, whereas prior research-
19
ers were limited to behavioral observations of subjects
with and without visual processing disorders. Researchers utilize them to observe neural activity elicited by
certain stimuli and determine which parts of the brain
are recruited when making aesthetic evaluations.
To be clear, these technologies each allow
researchers to observe changes in neural activity, but
monitor different aspects of the brain. The fMRI is used
to detect changes in cerebral blood flow associated with
neural activity (Huettel, Song, & McCarthy, 2004).
It allows researchers to identify areas of the brain to
which new oxygen rich blood is distributed. Figure 1
depicts an example of fMRI imagery used to isolate
slices of the cerebral cortex and highlight areas of blood
concentration.
EEG technology, on the other hand, utilizes a series
of sensors, distributed across an observer’s scalp, to
monitor voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current
flows of the neural network (Niedermeyer & da Silva,
2005). EEG recording is especially useful in determining event-related potentials (ERPs), a method of identifying the activation of various parts of a neural network
over time (Sur & Sinha, 2009). ERPs are generally
classified as early- or late-wave events. Early-wave
events are considered sensory in nature and account for
the processing of objective properties, while late-wave
Figure 1: Example of fMRI data identifying concentrations of
blood flow within slices of the brain (image courtesy of Joel
Martìnez-Soto).
Figure 2: (A) EEG recording process. (B) Recording of EEG data. (C) Sections of EEG data
extracted for comparison of subject neurological responses (Luck, 2005, p. 8).
Note. From Steven J. Luck, An Introduction to the Event-Related Potential Technique, published
by The MIT Press. Reprinted with permission of MIT Press.
potentials comprise cognitive processing or subjective
evaluation (Sur & Sinha, 2009). Figure 2 shows the
EEG process and a typical visualization of data.
Neuroaesthetics and Architecture
John P. Eberhard may be considered the grandfather
of cross-pollination between the fields of architecture
and neuroscience. As the inaugural president of the
Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture (ANFA),
Eberhard won the AIA Latrobe fellowship and wrote the
seminal book on neuroscience and architecture Brain
Landscape: The Coexistence of Neuroscience and Architecture in 2008 (Whitelaw, 2013). Eberhard presented
following five areas of study that may provide a framework for studying neuroaesthetics in architecture:
• Sensation and Perception (How do we see, hear,
smell, taste, etc.?)
• Learning and Memory (How do we store and recall
our sensory experiences?)
• Decision making (How do we evaluate the potential consequences of our actions?)
• Emotion and affect (How do we become fearful or
excited?)
• Movement (how do we interact with our environment and navigate through it?) (Eberhard, 2009, p.
755)
Of these five areas of study, the categories of sensation/perception and emotion/affect most closely related
to or categorize neuroaesthetics.
Following is a discussion of major theories in neroaestheitcs that are highly relevant to the field of architecture. Those theories were identified by reviewing
recent findings in neuroscience that used architectural
form and space as stimuli and assimilating concurrent
findings into theoretical interest groups. A summary
table of major empirical studies of the neurological
findings involving architecture is presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Summary table of key neurological studies involved architectural stimuli.
Note: ERP stands for Event-Related Potentials; PET stands for Positron Emission Tomography
21
Table 2 is a summary of extracted thematic areas
from major studies in neurological findings related to
architecture.
Parahippocampus Place Area
Some of the first studies in neuroscience related to
architecture were developed from neuroscientific studies seeking to identify regions of the brain sensitive to
recognition and evaluation of buildings. In 1988, using
fMRI observation, Aguirre, D’Esposito, et al. identified
areas of the brain that is activated when participants
viewed imagery depicting buildings (1998). This study
followed similar studies that identified specific areas of
the brain vital to processing faces (Allison, Zarahn, &
D’Esposito, 1994a; Puce, Allison, Gore, & McCarthy,
1995; Kanwisher et al., 1997; Puce, Allison, Spencer,
Spencer, & McCarthy, 1997) and words (Allison, McCarthy, Nobre, Puce, & Belger, 1994b; Polk & Farah,
1998). Aguirre et al. (1998) hypothesised that regions of
the brain that are sensitive to building information could
be identified in patients suffering from topographical
agnosia, a condition categorised by difficulty in using
topographical landmarks for orientation and way find-
ing due to lesions within the brain. Upon study, Aguirre
et al. identified the posterior hippocampal region as
significant to landmark navigation by noting lesion
locations in patients with landmark agnosia. Aguirre et
al. then observed the posterior hippocampal region using fMRI and found significantly more activation when
stimulated by images of buildings compared to objects
and human faces (1998).
Further research showed that a portion of the hippocampal cortex was responsible for spatial orientation
and landmark processing (Epstein & Kanwisher, 1998).
Epstein and Kanwisher acknowledged that the region
they identified, and subsequently termed the Parahippocampla Place Area (PPA), could arguably be the same
region identified in the study by Aguirre et al. (1998).
Other studies utilizing virtual reality environments
and fMRI found the parahippocampus to be activated
when navigating environments containing textures and
landmarks, but not for the environments comprised of
only different geometric shape rooms (Maguire et al.,
1998). Above studies revealed that architectural form is
encoded within the parahipocampal cortex as a landmark for spatial orientation.
Table 2: Summary of neural-scientific areas of study relevant to architecture.
Contour Bias
Another main finding in neuroscience regarding
architecture is contour bias. The term contour bias first
emerged from the design industry in a book titled Universal Principles of Design (Lidwell, Holden, & Butler,
2010). The contour bias principle suggests that humans
instinctively prefer curved contour objects over similar
non-curvilinear objects. It is based on studies of shape
contour affect on preference. Using geometric objects
and 2D patterns consisting of curved, semi curved, and
non-curvilinear forms, researchers found that strong
positive correlation exists between curved form and
preference (Bar & Neta, 2006). A subsequent study by
Bar and Neta (2007) tested the hypothesis that preference for curved form was associated with avoidance
of sharp objects that could be perceived as threatening.
Their fMRI study showed correlation between sharp
objects and activation of the amygdala, a portion of the
brain associated with the processing of fear, pain, and
anxiety, which supported their initial hypothesis (Bar &
Neta, 2007).
The concept of contour bias has recently been
brought into the field of architecture with a study on the
affect of room shape (contour) on beauty and approachavoidance decisions (Vartanian et al., 2013). Vartanian
et al. (2013) hypothesized that curvilinear spaces would
elicit greater beauty judgements and less approachavoidance than rectilinear spaces based on previous notions of primal aversions to sharpness. The study found
a positive correlation between curvilinear space and
beauty judgements but no correlation associated with
approach-avoidance decisions (Vartanian et al., 2013).
Contrary to their hypothesis, the amygdala (fear/anxiety processing) was not found to activate in relation to
approach-avoidance decisions. The researchers provide
numerous potential explanations for these unexpected
results, including reduced amygdala reaction due to
excess exposure to interior environments, emotional
context, and lengthy response times that allow cognitive
(subjective) processing. Additionally, one could attribute variance to a participant’s preference of stimulus
style, rather than how safe or unsafe the viewer assumed the room to be. Sharp contour in representational
art is known to elicit less amygdala response than sharp
contour in abstract art (Bar & Neta, 2006).
Nanda et al. (2013) further explored the affective
nature of curve bias and made two neuroarchitectural
hypotheses:
1. Formal elements of a designed visual environment
can be rapidly extracted to trigger a response in the
limbic system.
2. Curvature in the form can change the quality of the
above response and affect subsequent emotional experience. (p. 72)
To sum up their argument, Nanda et al. (2013) found
that visual processing of general information imagery,
as opposed to small detail, activates the amygdale more
frequently when stimulated by angular form. This finding supports the hypotheses that danger avoidance is a
basis for human primal aversions to potentially harmful
sharp forms.
Familiarity and a Sense of Place
The issue of familiarity has recently been addressed
in a series of studies regarding ornament and classical
building elevations (Mecklinger et al., 2014; Oppenheim et al., 2009; Oppenheim et al., 2010). In an initial
study, Oppenheim et al. sought to further architectural
understanding as opposed to neurological science. The
research design focused on understanding architectural
familiarity, as Oppenheim et al. (2009) give credit to familiarity with environment for “enhanced quality of life
and functional integrity” (p. 157) and a sense of place.
Using ERPs, Oppenheim et al. found high-ranking
western architectural facades in decorum evoked neural
familiarity, even though the building elevations were
invented for the study and did not represent any actual
building (2009).
Questions raised by Oppenheim et al. spurred subsequent research into the role of the hippocampus, or
PPA, in the evaluation of high and low-ranking facades
in decorum (Oppenheim et al., 2010). This additional
study found the hippocampus to be significantly active
in later-stage ERPs, suggesting that the hippocampus
is involved with cognitive aesthetic processing. Further research sought to address whether the ranking of
architectural ornament used in previous studies was
universally affective or a product of western cultural
expertise (Mecklinger et al., 2014). Mecklinger et al.
presented historically western architectural facades to
both German and Chinese students but found familiarity
to be elicited only in German students.
Implications of Expertise
Psychological models of aesthetic evaluation have
generally held that aesthetic experiences are modulated by a viewer’s experience level with the stimuli.
In a study using fMRI observations, Kirk et al. (2009)
hypothesized architecture imagery would elicit greater
neural activity in the reward processing centers, namely
the Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) and Orbitofrontal
Cortex (OFC), of architecture-related experts compared
to non-expert participants. The study found positive
correlation of aesthetic preference and reward center
23
activation. As hypothesized, expert activation of the
ACC and OFC were significantly greater than that of
non-architecture participants (Kirk et al., 2009).
Further research by Wiesmann and Ishai (2011)
extended the use of architecture and non-architecture
experts to evaluate expertise related phenomena called
repetition suppression, a decrease in neural activation
following numerous encounters with stimuli (2011).
Wiesmann and Ishai (2011) hypothesized that architectural experts would show reduced neural activity and
quicker identification of buildings compared to nonarchitectural experts when asked to identify duplicate
images from a set of architectural images. Wiesmann
and Ishai (2011) found that architectural experts did not
exhibit greater repetition suppression compared to nonexperts; however, interestingly, non-experts required the
use of a greater neural network to perform at the same
speed as experts, similar to neural activity associated
with the aging. The observed use of additional processing areas suggested that non-experts rely on different
subjective processes than experts (Wiesmann & Ishai,
2011). Based on the above studies, it can be assumed
that architectural designers develop neural cognitive
processes different than non-experts in aesthetic evaluations.
Discussion
As the literature review indicates, a large portion of
neural-scientific studies related to architectural cannot truly be considered neuroaesthetic in nature. As
expressed by Chatterjee (2011), there is a distinction
between using art/aesthetics to probe the workings of
the brain and probing the brain to test hypothesises
of aesthetic experiences. It seems clear, by noting the
institutional affiliations of many cited authors, that the
architecture field is not significantly represented in the
current field of neuroaesthetics, including the neuroaesthetic studies involving architectural stimuli. For those
in the architectural research field, Nanda et al.’s study
(2013) might serve as a prototypical model for developing neuroaesthetic design theories. Their study outlined
a successful method of delving into the neuroscience
field and drawing out architecturally useful theory by
providing a comprehensive understanding of an aesthetic element: contour. Reber et al. (2004) presented a
comprehensive understanding of aesthetic components,
including proportion experience. Future studies could
draw from previous psychological models of aesthetics
to suggest collaborations with neuroscience (2004).
The field of neuroscience is a specialized field and
hard to translate for those not trained in the field; however, current studies in neuroaesthetics can offer a great
24 deal of knowledge to the architectural field, provided
that architectural professionals and academics are willing to engage in the neuroscience discourse. Designers
must become literate in the discourse of neuroscience
and provide motivation for further studies specifically
related to testing architectural aesthetic process.
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25
Older People’s Well-being
Affordances at the Local High
Street: A Study of Local Town
Centres in Edinburgh
Luca Brunelli (Heriot-Watt University)
The Public Realm of High Streets
Recent research on the liveability of North American “Main Streets” demonstrated how they no longer
cater just for commercial activities but also as social
hubs (Mehta, 2013). Within the United Kingdom, their
equivalent, the local High Streets, or Town Centres as
they’re called in Edinburgh, are the places where most
informal social interaction was and still is conducted.
Traditionally high streets were a focus of activity in
towns and cities due to their “dual function as ‘links’ in
a movement system that connects places and as destinations, or ‘places’, in their own right” (Jones et al.,
2007, p.xi). It is this “place” function that may offer
opportunities to support the well-being of older adults.
Outlining a mutually supportive scenario in which
High Streets and Older People are at play, “the British
High Street in 2030” (RIBA, 2013) becomes a hub of
social and economic activity where the “place” function
is therefore prevailing. In a recent study on London
local High Streets, Griffiths et al. (2008, p.16) define
them “as the public space through which a significant
proportion of Britain’s sizeable urban population are
able to access a range of consumer, commercial, and
community services”, and particularly those “disadvantaged members of the society” with lower income
and restricted mobility, i.e., the elderly, among others.
The local High Street is considered in this paper as a
spatial frame for older people and well-being, and more
in particular its Public Realm, whose definition, albeit
not unequivocal (Madanipour, 2003), may refer both
to the public space of the street but also to the publicly
accessible facilities and shops. Similar to the famous
1748 Nolli’s plan of Rome (Madanipour, 2003), where
all public accessible outdoor and indoor spaces were
represented as a continuum, Public Realm is where “all
the parts of the urban fabric to which the public have
physical and visual access” and where “the greatest
amount of human contact and interaction takes place”
(Tibbalds, 2012, p.1).
26 Well-being and the Built Environment
Research on well-being is predominantly focused on
the “content” or psychological origins of well-being,
rather than on the “context” (Fave et al., 2011). Developments from positive psychology have contributed
to understanding the psychological mechanisms that
foster well-being through two principal dimensions:
eudaimonic well-being related to the actualization of
one’s potential (Ryff, 1989), and hedonic well-being,
related to the “positive state of mind” or the “pleasantness” of emotional life (Kahneman et al., 1999). Both
eudaimonic and hedonic dimensions of well-being are
linked to everyday life and perceptions of the built
environment, and they give some analytical insight into
how well-being is an outcome of person-environment
interaction. The eudaimonic dimension is, for example,
embedded in everyday activities and “lifestyle” (Steger
et al., 2008), grounded on “eudaimonic behaviours”,
and in social connectedness (Ong & Bergeman, 2010);
the latter is also linked to positive emotions that relate
both to emotional attachment to place (Atkinson et al.,
2012) and to the aesthetic, “sensorial”, experience of
the environment (Cold, 2001) or the experiential and
existential dimensions of residential environments
(Day, 2008) .
A “behavioural approach to space” (Madanipour,
1996) recognizes the relevance of subjective engagement with the built environment that “has emerged
strongly in research planning in contrast to existing
convention of describing and assessing environment
through objective measures” (Atkinson et al., 2012,
p.6). Older people’s well-being is understood in this
paper as being “grounded on the complexities of older
people’s everyday experiences”, so as to cross “the
boundaries between academic disciplines and traditions
and unite the physical, psychological and social realms
of wellbeing and the self” [(Bowling, 2005) cited by
(Ziegler & Schwanen, 2011, p.746)]. Older people’s
perceptions of the “things” that give their lives quality
and their underlying reasons correspond to what Bowling & Gabriel (2007) defined as “lay perceptions” of
well-being, which correspond to themes emerging from
research conducted with older people (Bowling, 2005).
Similarly, in the pilot for the larger study described
here, ground-up research elicited lay perceptions of
well-being.
Well-being and Salutogenesis
Within people-built environment literature, the “salutogenic” concept has been frequently used as an overall
theoretical reference (Vӧlker & Kistemann, 2011), and
in its etymological meaning (Ward Thompson, 2013) in
relation to those environments that “create health”, i.e.,
afford better physical conditions like air quality or the
presence of green spaces. In line with previous studies
on indoor spaces (Golembiewski, 2012; Golembiewski,
2010), this research proposes a translation to the urban
environment of the “salutogenesis” theory, as originally
developed by medical sociologist Aaron Antonovsky
(1979). Central to this theory is the idea that life
contains a number of threats to health and well-being.
“Tension” is immanent in our life, and our ability to
manage it is what situates us on the “ease/dis-ease continuum”. People keep themselves healthy leaning on
resources, defined as “General Resistance Resources”,
(GRRs) (Antonovsky, 1979). GRRs are an open and
inclusive concept, framed by the socio, cultural and
historical context in which life is lived and resources
are available. They can be described as personal assets
like education, financial resources, and lifestyle in general, but also features of the physical environment, such
as housing and workplace quality, and neighborhood
space, as well as resources to be found within the social
environment, e.g., family, friends, and social networks.
Having access to GRRs is nevertheless not enough for
managing tensions and overcoming stressful situations.
Antonovsky acknowledged that what makes possible
the use of resources and to remain healthy is the Sense
of Coeherence (SOC), a “global orientation that expresses the extent to which one has a pervasive, enduring though dynamic feeling of confidence that one’s
internal and external environments are predictable and
that there is a high probability that things will work out
as well as can reasonably be expected” (Antonovsky
1979, p.123).
The SOC is not a personal trait, but is a dispositional orientation to the specific context of culture and
society (Antonovsky, 1987), and while mainly shaped
from childhood to young adulthood, it is also valid for
older people (Antonovsky, 1993) . The SOC is not a
“well-being construct”. However, the human features
it embraces such as the pursuit of goals and the search
for meaning in life events are coherent with an “eudaimonic” approach to well-being (Fave et al., 2011) and
even to more specific constructs such as Ryff (1989)
Psychological Well-being. The “salutogenesis” theory
and the SOC locate the focus of health and well-being
creation less on the individual and more on the societal
context and therefore away from dominant neo-liberal
ageing models (Katz, 2009) that situate health and success within the personal sphere. The link with the public
realm is therefore significant as it is the same social
context framing health creation that determines the material conditions of production and use of the built enviMay 2015 – brainSTORM
ronment. Antonovsky always stressed the relevance of
the impact of society and social conditions on people’s
health and well-being. For him the responsibility in
moving to the health end of the “ease/dis-ease continuum” is not one’s personal choice but one that resides in
the interplay of the individual and society, and as such
is very much a collective endeavour.
SOC is broken down into three main constructs—
comprehensibility, manageability, and meaningfulness
—that resonate with similar concepts in urban design,
as in fact they “reflect the interactions of an individual
with the environment” (Naaldenberg et al., 2012,
p.713). The close link between GRRs and SOC makes it
possible to think of supportive environments whenever
their resources are meaningful, comprehensible, and
manageable and therefore foster the Sense of Coherence (SOC) (Antonovsky, 1996; Eriksson & Lindstrӧm,
2007). In this study, the SOC and its breakdown
constructs help in framing an interpretive approach to
older people’s experience of the environment in order
to assess how the latter may contribute to subjective
well-being. They are adopted as a proxy between the
local High Street and health and well-being as elicited
through people’s behaviours and feelings.
Comprehensibility, Manageability, and
Meaningfulness of the Public Realm
Comprehensibility can be considered as a matter
of spatial cognition which resonates with wayfinding issues and related urban design concepts such as
imageability and legibility. Comprehensibility also
has to do with some of the qualities a successful place
should embody, like being distinctive and easy to move
around (Gehl & Svarr, 2013). Familiarity, distinctiveness, accessibility, comfort, and safety, besides legibility, contribute to make the environment age- and
also dementia-friendly (Burton & Mitchell, 2006). Not
surprisingly therefore, the extent to which one is capable of finding his/her way in the environment, and to
comprehend it, is directly related to his/her well-being
(Lynch, 1960). Antonovsky warned us, however, that
comprehensibility can also have a flipside: “for someone who saw everything as comprehensible, boredom
would become a profound stressor, likely to erode the
sense of meaningfulness” (Antonovsky 1987, p.25).
Daniel Geller (1980) and, more recently, Gabriel Moser
(2012) pointed out how people also have a need for
complexity, novelty, excitement, and exploration within
the urban environment. Rapoport & Kantor (1967) discussed the value attached to complexity and ambiguity
in the built environment and linked them to its aesthetic
appreciation. Later Lynch (1984) also related surprise
27
to ambiguity and mystery in the urban environment.
He pointed out that enjoyment was linked to a sense
of “internal security” resonating with Antonovsky’s
Sense of Coeherence. Pleasurabilty is also linked to
imageability (Mehta, 2014), bringing back the focus on
(older) people’s experience and to the emotional impact
of the environment, connected with the meaningfulness
dimension of the salutogenic model discussed later.
Manageability may translate to the urban environment through three main strands: as related to the
experience of stress and the correspondent capacity to
cope; in terms of availability of resources and the ability to make use of them; and finally as a perception of
one’s own capacity of being influential in shaping the
environment. The experience of the urban environment
as a whole has been often associated with the idea of
environmental stressors, and the negative impact on
mental health of stimuli “overload” (Milgram, 1970),
including overcrowding, traffic noise, and safety concerns in the struggle between anonymity and familiarity.
The “overload” is an inevitable side effect of the modern way of life, leading to adaptive social and moral
behaviours of urban citizens. However, not everybody
is equally affected by the urban environment. On the
contrary, suffering of underload in a too-quiet setting
may be equally stressful as overload (Krupat, 1985).
High Streets are (or should be) lively places, and “going
out and about” in such locales is a matter of personal
choice. What might have been of Antonovsky’s interest, and is central to this research, is in fact exploring
how older people might engage with the environment
outside the comfort zone of the person-environment fit.
Manageability as related to local High Streets also
brings into the discussion the availability of those services and facilities necessary for carrying out everyday
life and therefore may raise issues of land use planning
and management policies. Finding resources “at one’s
disposal” is at the core of Antonovsky’s concept and
is also inextricably linked to the perception of places.
Golant (2014, p.9) refers to this aspect as “residential
mastery zones”, places where people “feel competent
and in control of their life and surroundings” and
where they are able to perform their everyday activities. The instrumental value of the public realm suggests to record the resources available, including places
and people, and the ways in which are used. It should
be mentioned, however, that “usefulness”, as fostering
engagement and increasing frequency of use, translates into space-time routines that inevitably accrue to
familiarity and place attachment (Mehta 2014, p.59)
and therefore address meaningfulness as an important
dimension.
28 Manageability understood as “being in control”
might also shift the focus to those opportunities for
empowering people in making decisions to shape their
environment. At a local level, this can be articulated
through the informal political dimension of community.
The idea of community, however, should not necessarily
be attached as in the past to a socio-spatial unit, as there
are both place-based communities and communities of
interest (Madanipour, 2003). Moreover, social change
may also have an impact on the “models of aging” and
the conception of community. It can be argued that
“impersonal” High Streets, more than the “semi-public
realm” of neighbourhoods, may still contribute in
providing opportunities and spaces, both formal and
informal, for “an exploration of difference and identity”
and for an “examination of the relationship between
particular and general, personal and impersonal”
(Madanipour, 2003, pp.206, 209).
Finally, meaningfulness as related to the built environment echoes intuitively with a burgeoning literature on sense of place and place attachment theories
(Lewicka, 2011). Antonovsky’s construct refers to the
general understanding and self-confidence in the pursuit
of tasks and objectives, as well as to the expectations of
emotional rewards that life experiences may provide.
Rephrasing Antonovsky’s words (Antonovsky 1987,
p.18), being motivated to “go out and about” depends
on how much the demands posed by the environment
are welcome and are seen as challenges worth investing
energy in rather than burdens. This has to do with the
cognitive processes that underpin familiarity (and therefore comprehensibility) and meaning of place as related
to eudaimonic dimensions of well-being (Atkinson et
al., 2012). It is also associated to affect and emotions in
the experience of the urban environment, in particular
with reference to the experience “of the body in movement” (Miaux et al., 2010) as related to aesthetics and
sensorial aspects of well-being.
Place meaning, according to Mehta (2014), depends
both on individual and collective experiences, and it is
usually built “by the bonds and shared values created
through perceptive experience” (Smith et al., 2012).
Attention to the process of place attachment has been
reinforced by the work of James Gibson (1979). Gibson
challenged the traditional dualism between mind and
body and between individual and environment, opening
to revision the person-place dichotomy in the process
of creating meaning and place attachment. As social anthropologist Tim Ingold (2000, p.173) points out, “it is
through being inhabitated […] that the world becomes
a meaningful environment for people” and therefore
people-environment interaction resides on a perception
of the environment that is always given through action
(Ingold, 1992). Indeed, as Lewicka (2011, p.225) points
out, research in cognitive psychology and neuroscience
is demonstrating how sensory-motion is essential for
human perception and that “the meanings that things
have for us are a product of our movements”. But
“things” is too general term as it may refer to physical
features and people as well. We should not forget that
for the salutogenic model meaningfulness “is developed
on the basis of consistently friendly, open and accepting
responses of significant others” (Wiesmann & Hannich,
2010), placing social interaction at the centre of the
meaningful experience of places. Mehta (2014) also
offers a definition of “meaningful place” as being supportive for activity and sociability, which fits into the
salutogenic model. As mentioned previously, according
to Antonovsky a meaningful place is a “useful” place,
i.e., one that is capable of satisfying “basic needs, for
shopping, eating, entertainment, and so on, and special
needs to gather, display, express, discuss, debate, demand, and protest” (Mehta, 2014, p.58). As this author
suggests, not every meaningful place has to be sociable,
however it is the social dimension of public space that
according to the psychosocial salutogenic model may
contribute to personal well-being.
Informal social activity has proved to be linked to
life satisfaction and happiness and the latter to health
and positive feelings. Pleasure, joy, or delight are also
partially achieved by observing other people (Shaftoe,
2008, p.111) and therefore are a function of the opportunities the public realm affords to watch and encounter. Moreover, happiness and the hedonic aspects of
well-being are contingent and as such immersed in
the unfolding experience of the environment (Ahmed,
2008). The latter is achieved mostly through walking
(and other pedestrian-like forms of movement), when
both our body and the environment are perceived. It is
a multisensory and mundane experience that through
habit induces “sensori-value (aesthetic) judgements”
(Wunderlich, 2008, p.128). Difficult to capture, emotions and feelings are, however, topics of contemporary
burgeoning literature rooted in phenomenology, environmental psychology, and in the ecology of perception.
The Well-being Affordances of the Local
High Street
Gibson’s work bridges the historical gap in many
disciplines between human beings seen as “organisms
within systems of ecological relations” and as “persons within systems of social relations” (Ingold, 2000,
p.3). His ontology sustains the recent convergence of
perspective among ecological psychologists, cogniMay 2015 – brainSTORM
tive scientists, philosophers, and neuroscientists on the
“intimacy” of mind, body, and the world (Good, 2007).
Recognizing this “intimacy”, however, does not help in
explaining “the direction of any relationship between
attractive environments (natural or otherwise), physical
activity, mental health, social engagement, and wellbeing” (Ward Thompson, 2013, p.82) A second layer of
analysis should therefore gather the specificities of the
people/environment interactions from which well-being
stems. They can be material and non-material aspects
of the environment, i.e., a pavement, a bench, a shed,
a tree, a sound, a smell, or a particular atmospheric
condition, but also a shop or a facility; or a cashier in
a supermarket, and social events and encounters. But
once the transactional nature of people-environment
is considered, something apparent in a non-reflective
transaction, affordances (Gibson, 1979), as a conceptual tool of analysis, help in focusing on the transaction itself. An affordance has been defined as a relation
between the ability to act of a person (or an animal) and
certain aspects of the environment (Chemero, 2003).
They can be physical but also social, i.e., other people
offering opportunity for interaction or help. They can
also be emotional, i.e., specific locations that may provoke positive feelings, and they are actualized according to socio-cultural norms (“right” or “wrong” doings)
(Kyttä et al., 2010). They are a relational concept of
“possibilities of action” (Withagen et al., 2012; Reed,
1993), pointing “at both ways, to the environment and
to the observer”. Affordances offer a greater analytical
perspective on the complexity of the environment, both
in its material and social dimensions.
Recent research in the field of neuroscience, cognition, and body responsiveness (Rietveld et al., 2013)
discloses how we are constantly switching between different types of affordances, in a so called “landscape of
affordances” which is mainly characterised by the “interrelatedness of the available affordances”. According
to Rietveld & Bruineberg (2014), this “landscape” can
be actually perceived from a phenomenological point
of view, as “a field with some solicitations standing
out” or, from a structural perspective and more in line
with Gibson’s original thought (1979), as a “niche” of
nested affordances.
The latter approach is perhaps more instrumental
in urban design. Hence the High Street can be seen as
a niche of affordances, or “behavior setting” (Mehta,
2013), e.g., a socio-cultural milieu that “pre-structures”
the affordances available and influences their actualization. Accordingly, the public realm of High Streets
could be defined as a structure of “nested behaviour
settings”. For example, Oldenburg’s (1997) “third
29
places”—restaurants, cafés, and to some extent shops—
are “behaviour settings” themselves but also part of
the larger setting represented by the whole High Street.
The same spatial articulation can be related to single or
multidimensional affordances, like social encounters,
possibilities of use, or material and social “emotional
affordances” (Roe & Aspinall, 2011). At greater scale,
the entire High Street as a whole in its sensorial perception (Adams, 2014) could be a “niche”. In recent
phenomenological and sensorial literature about urban
space, this level of cognizance has been referred to as
“atmosphere” (Thomas, 2008; Griffero, 2013) or “ambiance” (Thibaud, 2002).
Methods: Mapping and Walking Interviews
A pilot was conducted to test the theoretical framework discussed above, exploring how the public realm
of Leith Walk, one of the main local High Streets (local
Town Centres as defined by the local plan) in the city
of Edinburgh, is supportive for older people’s wellbeing living in the community. It was conducted with
two women G. And I., aged respectively 70 and 78,
recruited through personal contacts, and interviewed in
two stages. First, in a face-to-face session in a café in
the area, they were asked to fill in an activity diary and
to trace on a map of the area the location of the spots
referred to in the diary. Second, a walking interview
was undertaken with both women along the High Street,
which was recorded and transcribed for thematic analysis. This data has also been enriched by field observation and behavioural mapping in the area [see map of
Leith Walk area at the end of this paper].
During the pilot, the activity diary and mapping
resulted in a constructive activity, both in terms of data
elicited and as useful props as visual-elicitation for the
interviews. The sheets provide quite an accurate view of
weekly and daily visits local High Streets and shopping
centres and of the main modes of transportation. As (I)
says during the walk interview with reference to “going
out and about”, it is a matter of “Just [see] few things
for a wee change”. Both interviewees also agree, commenting on their activity diaries and city wide maps,
that they really enjoy urban life. They couldn’t live in
the country, and they rather enjoy the liveliness of the
urban environment.
The personal mapping carried out with I., who lives
in the Leith Walk area, was focused on locating on the
map the most important spots of weekly activity, like
shopping and personal care (hairdresser, nail bar), GP,
and family (daughter). It also allowed the tracing of the
most frequent itineraries in the area, most of them on
foot but also combined with bus as in the case of the
30 Leith library [see map]. The interviewee was quite surprised at the end of the process to see her daily movement patterns annotated on a map. She also commented,
as it became evident on the map, that she does not have
a preferred path to walk when she needs to get to Leith
Walk.
The walking interview lasted in total one hour. Photographs were taken along the walk to document the
salient features of place commented on by the interview
participant.
Preliminary Findings
Comprehensibility: Walking, wayfinding and
routes [see map for reference to streets and places]. The
interviewee who lives close to the foot of Eastern Road
says that she basically comes up to the Top of the Walk
by bus and that she might walk here only if it is a nice
day. She walks around smoothly, she knows perfectly
well all the places, but even so she can appreciate some
views, like when crossing London Road: “That`s a nice
view..St James is there”. Crossing side streets does not
seem to be a concern for them, although they complain
that “Sometimes it takes ages to change,” referring to
traffic lights and pedestrian crossing. Even so, (I) recognises that she tends to use just one (eastern) side of
the street: “I usually walk on this side of the road. It just
depends..I just come out from this side and walk up”.
Whether this is due to the size and traffic intensity of
the street, to the variety of shops and amenities on each
side, or simply because of habit is not clear but possibly
a combination of all factors. She walks mostly in the
central and northern segment of Leith Walk. Her paths
are embedded in her daily routines. She acknowledges,
in fact, that she usually walks from home to the Leith
Walk picking different, shortest routes according to the
final destination. However, she’s also aware that occasionally she enjoys changing itinerary for its own sake.
Manageability: Functional use. The lady who
does not live in the area said that she only visits Leith
Walk if she has a purpose, like going to a specific shop.
The other participant, who lives in the area, uses the
central segment and the Foot of the Walk quite often
for her errands, albeit she basically does not do any
more shopping in traditional or local shops. Now she
prefers to “go to one place where you buy everything
[...] where you’re sure everything is fresh”. (I) refers
to the shopping center where she goes by car every Sunday with her daughter for the main shopping. Another
superstore in Duke Street which has (G) “no cafe”, is
used by (I.) “Just [for] small shopping...anything I’ve
forgot I pick up.” Other comments about the “manageability” of the area come out during the conversation.
Figure 1: Map of Leith Walk Area
31
(I) said: “Doctor’s across the road there for me there..
nice [because of the flowers] and handy” and “Handy
for the buses here..there are quite bus stops ..all the
buses go in them” [Leith stop, opposite Casselbank
Street]. Urban change may also impact manageability.
For example, when referring to the Water Centre which
is now closed: I.: “It’s a shame because it was good...it
was handy”.
Meaningfulness: Social interaction. Informal interaction in shops seems to be much less frequent now as
compared to the past. Still it is a component of visiting
on a weekly basis the “functional” spots located in the
personal mapping, basically the Hairdresser, the Nails
bar, and the two public libraries. Well-being affordances
in this case were for (I.) the whole area as built in her
“sense of place”, “her home”, and nested in it the places
she visits on a weekly basis, like the Hairdresser and
Nails bar. While visiting her daughter is also a weekly
routine for her, usually on Mondays, no other social
affordances were mentioned, beside casual encounters
that we did not have the opportunity to record.
Asked if they lose informal interaction by not shopping any longer in local stores, the women said that
they usually chat with supermarket cashiers. (I.) said
that she usually bumps into 4 or 5 acquaintances during her walks in the High Street. Unfortunately, during
the interview we did not come across anybody. Once
we reached the end of Leith Walk, (I) remarked quite
surprised: “We came all the way down Leith Walk ..and
I haven’t met anybody yet!.
Meaningfulness: Perception of the environment
and memories of the area. Along the walk, both interviewees seem not to be annoyed by the traffic and the
noise. When prompted about it, they rather say “busy”
than noisy. As they mentioned before walking, they
both enjoy “urban life” and lively places. “I couldn’t
think anything worse than being stuck in the house and
not being able to go out” and “..or taken away the bus
pass!”. Independence and control of one’s own life
outside home emerge here as a strong component of
meaningfulness of life.
(I) overall does not seem to be concerned in excess
by urban change, on the contrary, she dislikes when
buildings or land remain empty. She appreciated the
new Youth Hostel as an improvement in the area
because it occupied an empty building that was an
“eyesore”.
For both women, the southern part of Leith Walk has
always been a place for dining and meeting up, easily accessible by bus. A private home where a former
friend used to live raises “happy memories”. (G): “We
had nice times in that house”, “We did have very happy
32 times in this area”. “On a Monday night we went to the
Lantern restaurant, top of the Leith Walk and then to the
Casino”.
Several “nice” and “lovely” shops were also spotted
along the walk while enjoying “window shopping”. A
group of houses, apparently empty, also attracted their
attention: “You wonder if anybody stays in these houses
right now...used to be the ones who had money”. Overall (I) is aware that she’s been living most of her life
in the area. She does not have strong feelings of place
attachment, “nothing really enjoyable”. As the other
lady, (G) points out during the conversation: “it’s home
for you”. To which (I) replied “So I’m sort of being in
the area all the time”... “feels all right”, although she
also remarked that “I’m never out at night very often so
I don’t know how night life would be”.
Conclusion
The three main categories adopted, comprehensibility, manageability, and meaningfulness, seem to provide
a useful framework for articulating the landscape of
well-being affordances emerging from the interviews
and field observation. Comprehensibility was in this
case largely due to a high degree of familiarity with the
environment, basically due to the fact that the interviewee has spent most of her life in the area. Manageability, too, with regard to functional aspects was also
evident, even if limited to certain activities and less to
shopping. Meaningfulness was largely due to a strong
“sense of place”, again due to the long established patterns of daily life.
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Wayfinding Design as a Tool
for Community Empowerment
and Storytelling: A Case
Study From Central
Appalachia
Emily Carlson (Penn State University),
Mallika Bose (Penn State University)
Introduction
This paper charts a process that began as an exploration of ecotourism as a strategy to foster a more
equitable economic development practice in comparison to resource extraction in Central Appalachia.
We pursued this through a focus group session with
community members of Hinton1 to understand community members’ comprehension of ecotourism and
related concepts. In the focus group, the community
identified wayfinding design as an initial step towards
realizing the possibilities discussed about ecotourism.
To develop the wayfinding plan, a community-based
approach was used to understand the important features
of the place that the community desired to share and
celebrate through ecotourism. An open-ended planning
process was devised that could be used by the community to implement the wayfinding plan.
In this paper, we present this case study with the
objective of showcasing an alternative model of design/
planning that is fluid and adaptive, involves task sharing with community members, and furthers the notion
of design/planning as democratic practice (Dzur, 2004)
that seeks to enhance community resilience.
The Setting
Hinton is a sleepy train town full of historic character, curving along the New River, cradled between
steep green mountains in West Virginia (Summers
County Government, 2009). The town is split in two
by the confluence of the Greenbrier River, making
navigation a bit unwieldy. The building boom between
1895 and 1907 resulted in the historic character of
today’s National Hinton Historic District (Welcome to
Hinton, n.d.). In the late 19th and early 20th century, the
surrounding coalfields kept the trains moving through
Hinton, and its economy strong. The advent and success
of the automobile along with the decline of the coal
industry slowed economic activity in Hinton. In 1907,
the population of Hinton was about 6,000 (Welcome to
Hinton, n.d.), while the 2010 Census reveals a population a little more than 2,600 (U.S. Census Bureau,
2015).
The City of Hinton is the county seat of Summers
County, and is located in close proximity to numerous
recreational areas and cultural attractions. The town
supports a small tourism industry, but is earnestly seeking to attract more visitors. The sinuous length of the
town, combined with little in the way of signage, makes
it difficult for visitors to pleasantly navigate the landscape.
The Study Process
This study consists of two primary components: a focus group session (July 2013) followed by a participatory design workshop (March 2014). IRB clearance was
received from Penn State University prior to beginning
work on the project. Information about the focus group
was posted in the local paper, fliers were distributed in
local community forums/churches, and a local group
(the Blueprint Community Group) helped publicize the
event to the Hinton community. The focus group session consisted of six participants2. It was tape recorded
and transcribed. The transcription was analyzed using
qualitative methods of open coding in which themes
and patterns were identified and classified (Strauss and
Corbin, 1998) to develop an understanding of how
Hinton community members perceive of ecotourism
as an economic development opportunity and come up
with first steps towards revitalizing Hinton. The idea
of developing a wayfinding plan surfaced during the
focus group session. Next steps consisted of review of
planning documents to develop a preliminary wayfinding plan, which was then vetted through a participatory
design workshop.
The workshop was publicized through the local
Hinton was selected based on several criteria, including: (1) its location in the Appalachian Regional Commission’s list of distressed counties; (2) existence of established social and professional contacts; (3) community leaders’ interest in the project; and (4) presence of social
capital crucial for the long-term success of the project.
1
The focus group participants ranged in age from 25 – 64 years, and were equally divided between males and females. Two participants
were familiar with ecotourism and had participated in activities related to ecotourism, while the other four had not. Of the six focus group
participants, one was a community organizer, three were small business owners, one was affiliated with the Blueprint Community group,
and another was affiliated with Pipestem Resort Park.
2
35
paper, radio, and through e-mail to local contacts. It was
attended by 12 people and lasted for about two hours.
Information from notes and annotated drawings generated during the workshop were combined to develop the
final wayfinding design packet submitted to the community
Focus Group
The focus group session probed the following questions: what are the perceived opportunities of and
obstacles to ecotourism, and what are the perceived
benefits and disadvantages of ecotourism development?
The focus group revealed existing conflicts and opportunities3. Sources of conflict included tensions between
locals, transplants, and visitors; lack of funding; and
miscommunication between different groups. The existing opportunities included local businesses, potential
for creative uses of trails, the underutilized marina on
Lake Bluestone, proximity of the New River Gorge
Recreational Area, the Boy Scouts of America High
Adventure Camp, the existing train station, local and
adjacent events and festivals, and the cultural allure of
a quiet southern town with its southern hospitality. The
group also discussed things they would like to see that
could compliment their community such as new trails,
new businesses, and new services such as recreational
and ecological guiding and transportation services.
The focus group participants made clear that the
community, in its journey towards improved economic
development (through ecotourism), wanted to ensure
that Hinton became a better place to visit AND live. As
a first step, the community wanted to capitalize on the
marketing of its existing assets—leading to the selection of a wayfinding plan as its first project. In other
words, wayfinding provided a hook through which
the community could begin to realize their vision of
economic development through ecotourism while
controlling how it presented itself to the world.
Wayfinding
Wayfinding is a “cognitive psychological process for
finding a pathway from an origin to a specified destination” (Xia et al., 2008, p. 447). Getting lost is generally
unpleasant, irritating, and imposes a poor impression of
a destination in which a visitor is attempting to navigate
and explore. This process differs between individuals and their purpose for engaging a destination or the
environmental context in which they find themselves.
As expected, the wayfinding strategies also differ between newcomers and those who are familiar with the
environment (Xia et al., 2008) . Both movement and
decision-making define wayfinding. The attributes of
wayfinding include a route of motion, the direction and
timing of that motion, and the mode of movement (Xia
et al., 2008). Research indicates that if a person has
never been to a place before, they will draw from their
immediate environment to make navigational decisions
(Passini, 1996). A clear wayfinding design would be
able to influence those immediate navigational decisions.
Today, a host of mobile technology allows for possible supplementation of wayfinding schemes. With
a touch of the smartphone, a visitor can know where
they are, what resources and attractions surround them,
and how to get there. Without technology, landmarks
provide spatial reference points that people use to organize cognitive space. Good wayfinding design helps
a person quickly create a cognitive map of an area. A
cognitive map is sketched out to represents a person’s
perception of their physical environment. According to
Lynch (1960), the five basic building blocks to cognitive mapping are landmarks, nodes, paths, edges, and
districts. Wayfinding design anticipates people’s behavior in a stimulus-dense environment and preemptively
designs for their interpretation of spatial characteristics
and their movements through these spaces. For people
with disabilities, if an area lacks wayfinding, navigation can become frustrating and may inhibit movement
altogether (Passini, 1996).
The Participatory Design Process
Getting Ready
After the development of a wayfinding plan had been
identified as the vehicle to achieve the community’s
goal of economic development through ecotourism, we
collected information on circulation, local and regional
points of interest, and current signage. By pulling objectives relevant to wayfinding design out of identified
planning documents and combining them with ideas
that arose from the focus group, we created a matrix of
overlapping design objectives and grouped them according to potential phasing options (see Figure 1).
Phase One, “Connecting existing assets,” consists
of the lowest hanging fruit which could be immediately
addressed with minimal funding. Phase One is categorized into signage, gateways, and connectivity in order
Limitations on paper length do not permit a discussion of the details of the focus group session. Interested readers are referred to
Carlson, 2014.
3
Figure 1: Wayfinding Design Objectives used for Community Workshop
to organize the myriad of design objectives that overlap
yet could be tackled separately. Although signage could
include gateway development, gateways require an additional level of detail and design. Connectivity issues
will be integrated into signage content, but necessitate
a level of systems thinking to decide which spatial relationships to highlight and orient circulation around.
Phase Two, “Build connective infrastructure,”
intends to build the connectivity between existing assets and in turn, making these new connections assets
in and of themselves. These connections include trail
development, additional parking, and accommodating
ADA requirements to facilitate a diversity of movement
through Hinton. Phase Three, “Improve and increase
destinations,” came from the ideas that had sprouted
from the focus group and the planning documents. This
phase would build upon the existing assets and new
connective infrastructure to create complimentary spaces, services, and destinations. This phase would include
restoration and repurposing of the historic architecture
as well as creating new nature-based destinations and
programming.
The next step was to seek community expertise to fill
in the blanks, and determine the relevance of the identified design objectives from the planning documents. A
community workshop was held to help re-define and/
or confirm the original design objectives (illustrated by
Figure 1), fill in the missing gaps, and address points of
conflict in the proposed preliminary wayfinding design.
Wayfinding Design Workshop
On a relatively warm spring day in early March,
twelve residents and leaders of Hinton gathered in the
Summers County Memorial Building to participate in
37
the wayfinding community design workshop. The main
objectives of the workshop were to:
• present, rank, and receive feedback on the design
objectives (identified from planning documents and
focus group) by voting on top priority objectives,
• identify gaps, opportunities, and conflicts on the
location, connective points, and content of the
wayfinding design, and
• work in small groups to discuss and sketch out
improvements.
To begin the process, the following elements of wayfinding analysis and design were presented to the group:
• existing roads, identified trails, railways, and other
circulation infrastructure,
• a map indicating points of interest and destinations
identified through review of planning documents
and internet searches,
• proposed locations for directional signage and
gateways, and
• precedent examples of wayfinding design and signage in other communities.
After introducing the project’s background, analysis,
and proposed design objectives, each participant cast
two votes with sticky notes for the design objectives
which were most important to them (Figure 2). Two
Figure 2: Voting on wayfinding design objectives
by workshop participants
38 concentrations emerged: a cluster of votes around
sign locations, and another cluster around the regional
points of connection that Hinton should draw from and
circulate to. Two working groups were established
corresponding to the two concentrations (Connections
working group and Signage working group), and each
began sketching and discussing issues and possibilities
at the county and city scale. Underutilized river access
points, confusion arising from circulation patterns,
and the existence of distinct neighborhoods were some
of the relevant insights that emerged on trace paper
(Figure 3). After 45 minutes of productive dialogue
and sketching, the workshop came to a close. The main
points emerging from the dialogue and mapping activity
are listed in Table 1 below.
The data from notes, map sketches, and our own observations were used to come up with the final wayfinding design proposal. The final design proposal packet
consisted of the following:
• Identification of neighborhoods and access points/
zones in and around Hinton
• Location of proposed signage (including content)
in and around Hinton
• Detailed location of signage (including content) in
downtown Hinton
Figure 3: Annotations produced by Connections Working
Group
• Jurisdictional map of road network in and around
Hinton to assist with planning for the wayfinding
plan implementation
• Gateway design option at the North-eastern entry
to town, and
• Possible greenway corridor connections with Hinton parkways.
In addition, a phasing plan was developed to help
the community with short, medium, and long-term
goals (Table 2). The prepared maps included in the
design proposal packet plan offer illustrative directions
towards a comprehensive wayfinding plan. The plan
allows for adaptability by providing a phased, multidimensional approach, which can be implemented in
parts or by layers depending on the desire and resources
of the Hinton community.
Conclusion
This flexible and participatory process has not only
reaffirmed that a community holds a great deal of
expertise about itself, but also serves as a reminder that
community members also have good and creative ideas
about how their home can be a better place to live and
visit. By combining participatory methods with the innovation of the design/planning process, the community
was given the opportunity to engage in task sharing and
through it empowered to manifest its own vision for the
future. In this study, the designer/planner was not only
an expert, but was more importantly a facilitator of a
public deliberation process on the economic development path to be followed by the community. In doing
so, an alternative model of practice—that of democratic
professionalism—was followed (Dzur, 2008). In this
model, the professional (in this case, the designer/
planner) seeks to achieve public good with and not for
Table 1: Existing opportunities and impediments to wayfinding in Hinton
Existing Opportunities and Impediments:
From Workshop Discussion Session
From Workshop Mapping Session
1. Ken Allman, a Hinton native and successful
businessman, is interested in the development
and design of Historic Hinton. His emergent
local businesses would greatly benefit from a
quality wayfinding scheme.
2. Two main obstacles impede the development
and implementation of wayfinding signage in
the community:
a.Lack of financial resources
b.Lack of local political support
3. The city of Beckley might be a source of
guidance since they installed wayfinding
signage 5 years ago.
4. Existing park and recreational signage need an
inventory. No shape files have been procured
through the National Park Service or WV DOT.
5. New one-way traffic patterns have improved
circulation.
1. Need specific signs for/to the following:
a. Boat launches
b. Mary Ingalls trail
c. Car Pick-up service from Amtrak station
d. Shopping centers
e. Hospital
f. Existing parks
g. Avis bridge as trainspotting platform
2. More river access sites exist than previously
assumed. Some concern over the lack of river
access from the historic district.
3. Distinct local districts (or neighborhoods) exist
that could help build Hinton’s identity.
4. Bikeways and tours should be developed linking
Sandstone with downtown
5. Interest exists in creating new greenways/ parks
but also improving circulation to existing parks
and river access points.
6. Route 3 arriving from west of Hinton is also
an important entryway into Hinton that needs
signage.
7. Old gas station at Hinton’s northern entrance
would make a great gateway point, but may be
on a contentious piece of private property.
39
the public. This is achieved by having a worldview
that recognizes the legitimacy of lay people’s role in
decision-making on issues that impact their lives, and a
commitment to sharing knowledge and authority with
the public through task sharing (in contrast to task monopoly) (Dzur, 2008).
By choosing wayfinding as a starting point for
economic development, Hinton community members
are asserting their right to control its identity and its
story portrayed to outsiders and each other. In doing
so, Hinton residents are empowering themselves to
influence the change they want to see in the landscape
around them. This was made possible by the adoption
of an open-ended and flexible design/planning process.
It is our belief that the pride that the people of Hinton
feel for their home, alongside the realistic comprehension of the obstacles impeding the change they wish to
see, will help them shape their own future on their own
terms.
This project began with investigating ecotourism as
a strategy for diversifying a resource-extraction based
economy due to the rich biological diversity, impressive mountainous aesthetic, and numerous recreational
assets of the Central Appalachian landscape. The flexibility of the design/planning process followed allowed
the project to evolve into a wayfinding project through
which the community is preparing to inventory valued
places and working to develop the narrative that will be
shared with visitors.
We conclude by putting forward two recommendations:
(1) Adaptability and flexibility are needed when engaging in participatory community design activity.
Table 2: Phasing Plan
Phase 1
• Make an inventory of all existing signs in Summers County
• Using the recommended signage locations and content listed in this document, finalize this proposed plan
with local leaders and stakeholders
• Working with regional planning entities agree on branding scheme
• Plan several community meetings to gather feedback, input, and buy-in from community
• Network with Charleston and Beckley for wayfinding design advice and support.
• Collaborate with state highway departments to gain permission for road signage
• Contract with a graphic designer to design signs with local/regional branding in mind
• Have signs manufactured and installed
• Finalize design and build main gateway/kiosks into Hinton
• Establish a maintenance plan for keeping signage areas clear, tidy, and updated if signage includes calendars
or changing information
• Develop, print, and stock kiosks with brochures and walking tours of Hinton
• Establish and maintain river access sites and include signage in wayfinding plan.
Phase 2
• Create a county-wide trail plan
• Network with regional trail and recreational groups to build connectivity and marketing
• Consider hiring a recreational planner to design and oversee implementation of new trail construction
• Explore parking alternatives and specific visitor parking that could serve as an orientation gateway into town
(perhaps at train station or near Council on Aging Center)
• Repair sidewalks and create ramps in order to accommodate visitors with varying abilities and to be ADA
compliant
Phase 3
• Identify potential natural destinations such as nature walks, rope bridges, canopy tours, botany walks, additional river access points etc. and develop these into destinations with partners within wayfinding design
• Create a marketing scheme and programing for Hinton as a train and trail town. Consider partnering with
Amtrak and surrounding towns on the Cardinal Line
• Begin development of Cultural district, including restoration of the Freight Depot
(2) An open-ended design/planning process centered
upon task sharing enables discipline-based expertise to be combined with community knowledge/
wisdom in the preparation of community development plans, and such plans have a higher likelihood to be carried forward by the community.
References
Carlson, E. N. (2014). Sustainable Tourism
Development As A Strategy for Economic
Diversification in Central Appalachia. Master’s
Capstone Project. University Park, PA.
Dzur, A. W. (2008). Democratic professionalism:
Citizen participation and the reconstruction of
professional ethic, identity, and practice. University
Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press.
Dzur, A. W. (2004). Democratic professionalism:
Sharing authority in civic life. The Good Society, 13
(1), 6-14.
Lynch, Kevin. (1960). The Image of the City.
Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press.
Passini, Romedi. (1996). Wayfinding design: Logic,
application and some thoughts on universality.
Design Studies 17(3), 319–31. doi:10.1016/0142694X(96)00001-4.
Strauss, A., and Corbin, J. M. (1998). Basics of
Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures
for Developing Grounded Theory. Newbury Park,
CA: Sage Publications.
Summers County Government. (2009). Summers
County 2020: A community vision shared. Summers
County Commission, WV.
U.S. Census Bureau. (2015). Hinton City, West Virginia.
Retrieved January 22, 2015, from http://factfinder.
census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/community_facts.
xhtml
Welcome to Hinton, WV. Accessed January 3, 2014.
http://www.hintonwva.com/.
Xia, J., Arrowsmith, C., Jackson, M., Cartwright,
W. (2008). The wayfinding process relationships
between decision-making and landmark utility.”
Tourism Management 29(3), 445–57. doi:10.1016/j.
tourman.2007.05.010.
41
Leveraging Urban Ecosystems
for Comprehensive ClimateAdaptive Design: An
Approach Framework for
Landscape Architects
Joshua F. Cerra (Cornell University)
Introduction
While the science of climate change has been developing strongly, and the anticipated impacts of climate
change on urban infrastructure are becoming clearer, the
design community is just beginning to confront climate
change as a critical influence on design approach and
execution. Climate change impacts are projected to have
broad and far-reaching effects affecting multiple aspects
of public health, safety, and welfare. While addressing
coastal climate change impacts is a critical climate-adaptive response for many cities, climate change actually
presents a broader portfolio of urban design impacts that
landscape architects should be responding to adaptively.
Additionally, many site planning and design methods and
practices already possess climate-adaptive potential, but
they are not yet assembled and calibrated as a comprehensive scope of services for climate adaptation.
Landscape architecture can further enhance its design
impact by leveraging ecological processes in cities
(Pickett and Cadenasso, 2008). Urban ecosystems can
provide important benefits for cities in the form of ecosystem services (Mooney and Brown, 2013), and there
is increasing interest in intentionally incorporating urban
ecosystems and biodiversity into project planning and
design frameworks (see for example, Muller and Werner,
2010; Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2012; Colls et al., 2009). Recognition of the value
of ecological processes and ecosystem services as agents
for climate mitigation and climate adaptation is also
increasing (see for example Douglas, 2011; Secretariat of
the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2012; Secretariat of the Convention on Biodiversity, 2009). Urban
ecological design and green infrastructure techniques
can guide these processes for climate adaptation benefits
(Steiner, 2014; US EPA, 2014).
Climate change is coming to every city, and many cities, whether subject to coastal climate change impacts or
not, will experience dramatic climate change-associated
extremes in temperature and precipitation with serious
impacts on human and natural systems. Depending on
42 location, these impacts may include extreme precipitation, flooding, heat waves, drought, excessive energy
demands, shifting plant communities, and other effects
that threaten city infrastructure and public health, safety,
and welfare (Melillo et al., 2014). A more comprehensive
approach to climate-adaptive design could provide an expanded scope of services that combines existing capabilities in landscape architecture with emerging capabilities
in urban ecological design as a set of solutions to address
multiple impacts of climate change.
How do we generate a more comprehensive design
response to climate change? This paper presents a comprehensive climate-adaptive design approach framework,
which I developed and then tested in a graduate ‘design
research laboratory’ studio in Spring 2013. While the
test project is in a non-coastal location, the overall approach framework would also be valuable for coastal,
tidally influenced locations. This work has continued to
expand beyond the studio into my own research. As a
practitioner, I see strong potential for using this approach
framework to expand the scope of services for landscape
architects as leaders on climate-adaptive design teams.
Approach
I tested the approach framework in the graduate
“Urban Resilience + Ecosystem Services Design Laboratory” studio I led in Spring 2013. The study location
centered around a park in downtown Ithaca, N.Y., which
was (a) bounded by an urban creek that periodically
flooded downstream; (b) adjacent to a north-south collector street serving multiple bus lines; (c) across the
street from a cluster of commercial and mixed-use buildings, and (d) surrounded by dense urban neighborhoods
composed of single family and multifamily housing. The
framework approach is composed of the following four
steps, detailed below.
Understand Climate Change Effects
National-level and state-level climate change assessments should be used to determine the effects of climate
change on local and regional weather patterns. For the
proposed design project in the studio research case study,
I provided student design teams with documents from the
2011 ClimAid Report for New York State to understand
climate projections and anticipated impacts in our project
site (Rosenweig et al., 2011a; Rosenweig et al., 2011b;
Cornell Cooperative Extension, 2011). I also had the
students consult chapters of the 2013 National Climate
Assessment and Development Advisory Committee’s
Federal Advisory Committee Draft Climate Assessment
Report (NCADAC, 2013). This report was later finalized
in 2014 (Melillo et al., 2014).
Assess Climate Change Impacts
Using the above documents and other documents
specific to a proposed project location, potential climate
change impacts that can be expected at the design location need to be identified. Evaluate potential climate
change impacts based on their primacy and relevance to
the proposed project based on site features, local ecosystems, and contextual infrastructure. Comprehensive
land use plans and related municipal policy documents
should also be reviewed to understand future planning goals for the proposed project site and its vicinity,
and how these goals may also be impacted by climate
change.
Develop Climate-Adaptive Design Options
Develop climate adaptation measures that respond
to key climate change impacts. These can be developed
by selecting design responses from precedent studies or
through new design innovation that can offset climatebased impacts. In the studio case study, we reviewed
New York State ClimAid documents, select journal
articles (e.g., Hunter, 2011), municipal climate action
planning and policy documents and dozens of case
studies (beginning with those in Landscape Institute,
2008; Shaw et al., 2007; Kazmierczak and Carter, 2010)
to develop a database of climate-adaptive responses to
respond to projected climate impacts. We particularly
sought adaptation options that provided compounded,
inter-systemic benefits to both the built and natural
environments.
Conduct Design and Evaluate Proposals
Adaptation measures need to be incorporated into the
project during project design in ways that are compatible with the project program, desired future conditions, and site opportunities and constraints. During
this process, performance metrics should be used to
periodically evaluate the effectiveness of project design
options in meeting climate adaptation objectives. These
metrics provide important opportunities for designers
to “tune” their design project during design development to optimize the benefits of their climate adaptation
proposals.
Results
During the studio research investigation, it was
determined that the projected climate change effects for
the studio project location include (a) increases in average temperature and annual precipitation; (b) overall
increased frequency of intense precipitation events; (c)
Table 1: Example comprehensive climate-adaptive design approach framework showing linkages between
priority climate change effects, impacts, and adaptation responses selected during the 2013 studio project.
An asterisk (*) indicates a condition that is not a climate change effect or impact per se, but a contributor to
severity of climate change effects.
43
greater likelihood of warmer temperatures, increased
precipitation, and decreased snow cover in winter; (d)
decreased precipitation in the summer or fall; and (e)
greater likelihood of drought and summer heat stress
(Rosenweig et al., 2011a; Rosenweig et al., 2011b;
Cornell Cooperative Extension, 2011) . We determined
that the key climate change impacts likely to affect our
project study area would include (a) increased risk of
flooding; (b) increased stormwater runoff; (c) shifting
plant communities and local plant species suitability;
(d) vulnerability and additional stresses on ecosystems
and species; (e) amplified species dispersal and connectivity risks, (f) risk of heat waves and increased urban
heat island effect; and (g) continued dependence on
carbon-based fuels.
We then developed compatible adaptation strategies
that fit into three general framework headings - water
systems support, ecosystem support, and built environment support—of which six core climate adaptive
design strategies emerged. They were (a) floodplain
storage; (b) low impact development; (c) resilient
planting design/ecological resilience (combined); (d)
dispersal support/landscape connectivity; (e) urban heat
island mitigation; and (f) multi-modal mobility. Table
1 illustrates how projected climate change effects and
impacts correlate with the project team’s adaptation
response strategies.
These climate adaptation strategies were incorporated
into the project design and development process. During this process, projects were periodically evaluated
using a series of landscape performance metrics specific
to each strategy. Each of the climate adaptation strategies incorporated into the studio research project case
study are described in further detail below.
Floodplain Storage
High rates of impervious surfaces area and efficient
stormwater conveyance infrastructure in cities already
generate higher runoff volumes and velocities entering
many urban streams (Arnold and Gibbons, 1996). This
can result in higher peak flows within an urbanized
watershed (Paul and Meyer, 2001). With greater likelihood of extreme precipitation events in New York State,
elevated risks of flooding also increase (Rosenweig et
al., 2011b). Increasing the size of the floodplain to store
greater volumes of floodwater can help reduce flood
risks either onsite or downstream of a site.
To understand the nature of flooding at a certain location, watershed flood models (e.g., HEC-RAS) or flood
frequency analyses (where USGS stream gauge data is
available) should be used so that designers can access
design flood elevations. These key elevations (e.g., 25-
44 year design flood, 50-year design flood, etc.) can then
be cross-walked to key site elevation data to determine
opportunities to create floodplain storage adjacent to a
stream channel via excavation within a project. Storage
benefits can be calculated using cut-fill calculations of
flood storage volumes (e.g., cubic yards or acre-feet)
for specific design floods. Depending on the degree of
grading relative to the water table and flood elevations,
different hydrological and soil conditions may also
facilitate creation of favorable plant communities in
the designed floodplain area, including lowland forest,
floodplain wetland communities, and other community
types that may be in short supply in the local region.
Low Impact Development
As described above, climate change will bring
extreme precipitation that contributes to flooding in
susceptible areas. Many storm sewer catch basins drain
to urban streams that may be at risk of flooding in cities.
In addition to providing floodplain storage once high
volumes have reached the stream channel, a complementary strategy for mitigating flood risk is to limit
the volume and/or rate of stormwater actually entering
into the stream channel itself. Low impact development
(LID) techniques can reduce or delay delivery of stormwater to systems during periods of climate-associated
flood risk (US EPA, 2014a).
In July 2014, seven federal agencies launched the
Green Infrastructure Collaborative, acknowledging the
benefits of green infrastructure (another term for LID)
as a valuable tool for managing extreme precipitation
events and flooding, both of which are associated with
climate change (Green Infrastructure Collaborative,
2014). Sites can be retrofitted for stormwater detention
and/or infiltration by mapping stormwater catchments
within the project limits, and identifying and implementing suitable low impact development design solutions. Landscape performance metrics for evaluating the
effectiveness of proposed LID techniques are diverse,
and can be measurable (e.g., areal reduction of impervious area), calculable (e.g., water quality volume treated
by the design), or determined using models or calculators (e.g., the EPA Stormwater Management Model or
EPA National Stormwater Calculator, US EPA, 2014b).
Resilient Planting Design/Ecological Resilience
Climate change will bring significant stresses to plant
communities and specific plant species in the form of
temperature fluctuations, heat waves, drought, heavy
rainfalls, and other environmental factors. In 2011,
Mary Carol Hunter described a method for resilient
planting design that selects a palette of plant species
that taken together possess degrees of plasticity or
tolerance with respect to hardiness, heat tolerance, soil
moisture tolerance, and other environmental factors.
Hunter proposes that by selecting a planting palette that
collectively exhibits functional redundancy and response diversity, designers could improve the likelihood
that project installations will persist in the landscape in
today’s climate as well in future climate change scenarios (Hunter, 2011).
Hunter also highlights the critical importance of
incorporating aspects of ecological resilience when
designing for climate change. A design approach that
intentionally incorporates specific response diversity
(Elmqvist et al., 2003; Hunter, 2011) and functional
redundancy (Hunter, 2011) criteria during planting
design can improve ecological resilience by maintaining ecological function with the onset of environmental
disturbances. For example, a planting design palette that
is composed of multiple plant species that bloom when
pollinators need pollen and nectar resources (functional
redundancy) and is also composed of plant species
with a range of tolerances to possible plant stresses
associated with climate change (response diversity) can
improve the persistence of these pollinator resources in
the landscape, therefore improving ecological resilience
(Hunter, 2011). Performance measures for this strategy
can be derived from the functional redundancy and
response diversity criteria described by Hunter.
Dispersal Support/Landscape Connectivity
Widespread shifts in plant species composition are
expected in New York State landscapes (Rosenweig et
al., 2011b). Accompanying these shifts in plant communities will also come shifts in ranges and distribution of
animal species (Groves, 2012; Groffman et al., 2014).
Habitat fragmentation over time has significantly reduced the permeability of the matrix and connectivity of
the habitats in the landscape (Rosenweig et al., 2011b).
This is particularly true in cities.
Even in the absence of climate change, habitat corridors and stepping stones can support urban ecosystem
networks by improving connectivity and therefore
facilitate species movement and dispersal (Opdam and
Steingrover, 2008). Improving landscape connectivity between patches of habitat has also been identified
as a part of a climate adaptation-oriented conservation
planning strategy (Groves, 2012; Nunez et al., 2013;
Stein, 2013). Within the constraints of site location and
overall planning objectives, when suitable, projects that
improve landscape connectivity have the potential to
support current ecosystems while facilitating shifts in
species distribution and range anticipated with climate
change, thereby improving the resilience of ecosystems
to disturbance brought on by climate change (Groves,
2012). For example, while protecting riparian zones and
movement corridors is a generally practiced conservation planning approach today, these measures may also
facilitate natural adaptation for species in future climate
change scenarios. (Rosenweig et al., 2011b). Models for
species movement and dispersal support can be complex, but some metrics can serve as relatively simple
measures for connectivity including degree of corridor
continuity, distance gaps between stepping stones,
distance between patches along corridor, and corridor
width.
Urban Heat Island Mitigation
Heat waves are predicted for New York State (Rosenweig et al., 2011b). Areas already experiencing the
urban heat island effect, where air and surface temperatures in cities are higher than nearby rural areas, may
experience even higher temperatures during a heat wave
(Nowak, 2010). Urban heat islands already contribute
to higher cooling costs, air pollution, and heat-related
illness (Nowak, 2010).
Climate-adaptive design projects can respond to
intensifying urban heat island effects due to climate
change via strategic planting of trees, other vegetation and green infrastructure features. Vegetation in
the landscape can moderate temperatures by shading
impervious surfaces from solar gain, cooling air through
transpiration, and blocking winds (Nowak, 2010). In addition to the benefits of greater vegetative cover, shade
analyses can direct designers toward strategic planting
locations where canopy cover can shade impervious
surfaces like buildings for reduced solar gain and associated energy costs for cooling in summer, particularly
in locations south and southwest of target surfaces in
the northern hemisphere (Brown, 2010). Use of green
roofs, cool roofs, cool pavements and other hard infrastructure strategies can also offset urban heat island effects (US EPA, 2013a). Evaluation metrics can include
areal changes in vegetative cover, impervious surface
shading, proportion of cool roof/pavement, and impervious surface reduction. Evaluation tools like i-Tree
(www.itreetools.org) and others model can also estimate
reductions in building energy use and costs.
Multi-Modal Mobility
Vehicular transportation contributed 27 percent of all
greenhouse gas emissions in 2011 (US EPA, 2013b).
Design strategies that promote alternative modes of
transportation can facilitate reduction of the number of
vehicle trips and associated emissions. For example,
45
nodal development, which concentrates daily needs of
citizens into a compact, mixed use location, is an urban
design strategy that can reduce vehicle trips, which
contribute greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere
(Smart Growth BC, date unknown; US EPA, 2013).
While not a climate adaptation measure per se (it’s technically a climate mitigation measure, or an effort that
seeks to limit the amount of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere), urban design strategies like nodal development that are oriented toward pedestrian-oriented and
transit-oriented design can be part of a comprehensive
climate-sensitive design approach. Ways to measure
landscape performance benefits could include measuring project proximity to bus or other mass transit stops,
number of connections to bicycle and pedestrian paths,
or changes in “walk score” by third-party evaluators.
Metrics could also be derived from Sites v2 Credit 6.9
Encourage Fuel Efficient and Multi-modal Transportation design criteria, which specify alternative transportation amenities like bike parking, bus shelters, carshare facilities, or reduced numbers of single vehicle
parking spaces (Sustainable Sites Initiative, 2014).
Conclusion
Fundamentally, comprehensive climate-adaptive
design can be viewed as an exercise in scales—understanding a global issue, sizing up its regional impacts,
interpreting the potential for these impacts to affect
local systems, and responding comprehensively to these
impacts via site-based design. A more comprehensive
approach to climate adaptation will become increasingly necessary as landscape architects (and their clients)
prepare for a changing future. New design innovation
that reorients existing practices while seeking new ways
to reinforce urban ecosystems can in turn result in improved project resilience and sustainable outcomes. The
climate-adaptive design approach framework shared
here provides a platform for designers to tune and expand their own project frameworks based on site location and program, anticipated regional climate impacts,
climate science and policy, and design innovation.
Opportunities remain for refining how to best
develop and apply methods for measuring ecosystem
services within design processes to demonstrate project
landscape performance benefits (Steiner, 2014). Quantifiable measures of ecosystem services and landscape
performance are not currently standardized, and can be
calculated both in simple and in complex ways (e.g.,
estimation of SF impervious area reduction v. water
quality volume calculations or models for low impact
development). For a landscape performance or ecosystem service metric to be useful however, the methods
46 for measuring and evaluating it should be clear cut,
credible, and within reach of a designer’s capabilities.
A comprehensive climate-adaptive design services
continue to mature, they offer a compelling value proposition to project clients and society. Executed within the
context of good design practice, climate-adaptive design
can “stack” human and natural systems benefits into
confined urban spaces and balance performance with
project program and aesthetics. This kind of approach is
compatible with many project types. By preparing urban
landscapes for a climate-changed future, designers can
make our urban environments more livable, adaptable,
and enjoyable for generations to come.
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47
A Green Lesson: Measuring
the Impacts of LEED
Certification Credits on
People, Planet, and Profit of
K-12 Schools
Ihab M.K. Elzeyadi (University of Oregon)
Introduction
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
estimates that 40 percent of our nation’s 115,000
schools suffer from poor environmental conditions
that may compromise health, safety, and learning of
our future generations. The substandard indoor and
outdoor environmental quality of many of these facilities is a result of unsustainable building and planning
practices such as lack of safe bike and walking routes,
poor accessibility to neighborhoods, lack of playground
space for schools, low ventilation rates, non-operable
windows, as well as lack of potential for daylight and
views. The combined effects of these factors have been
associated with multiple health symptoms and low academic performance for children in K-12 schools (NRC,
2006).
There is a current knowledge gap in the reliability
of findings linking liveable communities (USDOTLC), SRTS engineering interventions, and LEED-rated
schools in general, and transportation strategies in particular to human performance, health, and well-being of
children. This problem is magnified in school environments as most previous research has resulted in inconclusive evidence leading to speculative relationships
between alternative transportation policies and their
application in schools (Elzeyadi, 2008). This knowledge
gap is due to three main reasons: First, previous studies
that focused on case studies tended to be anecdotal and
lacked external validity beyond the case in question or
the context of the findings (Kats, 2006). Second, studies
that focused on broader strategies studying larger populations—such as transportation policies and education
on commuter behaviour—used a survey approach with
weak internal validity (Heschong et al., 2001; Hardy et
al., 2007). These studies could not confirm a relationship between specific transportation design elements,
such as availability of bike shelters and changing rooms
in schools, and their impact on biking behavior (Boarnet et al., 2005; Cash, 1993).
The third, and perhaps the most important, gap in
48 knowledge is the failure of both approaches to uncover
the meditational effects between transportation-related
physical elements of the environment and human
health. The lack of clear differentiation between the
impacts of programs that target physical environmental
changes in transportation patterns and programs of an
educational nature that address commuter and consumer
awareness complicates the applicability of previous
findings (CPAHTL, 2005; Klesges et al., 1990; Shlossberg et al., 2005). These mediational mechanisms,
might include but not limited to, circadian rhythms,
body-mass index (BMI) hypertension, physiological
effects that help induce alertness, and other mechanisms
that impact occupants performance in buildings (Elzeyadi, 2008).
To overcome limitations in previous studies, this
interdisciplinary/inter-institutional research project targeted this problem through a comparative quasi-experiment study of transportation and neighborhood design
strategies of four pairs of schools in Oregon, four of
which are LEED-rated/green schools well matched with
four non-LEED schools within the same districts and
having the same social, economic, and organizational
variables yet differing in their physical environments.
The study assess the impacts of green school planning
and performance of the physical environment on transportation behavior and perceptions of the students in a
4x4 comparative experimental design measuring their
impacts on transportation behavior and energy expenditures. As some of these settings were targets for more
livability and planning interventions, the study will
evaluate the impacts of these interventions in combined
and aggregated impacts that would result in robust
body of evidence to develop cost and financial benefits
models. Findings and the tools developed from this
study could create a market transformation in the way
we design, cost-estimate, and operate schools and their
transportation programs in green and livable communities that encourage better levels of activity and active
commuting behavior to schools for children and youth
at risk of higher obesity levels.
Schools are responsible for the transportation energy
use of the people getting to and from them (USGBC,
2007). To date, relatively little attention has been paid
to the transportation component of a school’s overall energy footprint, even though this transportation
energy use can be very significant, especially relative
to greenhouse gas emissions. An investigation by the
Environmental Building News (EBN, 2007) suggests
that, averaged nationally, a typical work environment
building—including schools—built to the ASHRAE
90.1-2004 energy code will consume nearly 2.4 times as
much energy per square foot for occupants commuting
to and from the building than the building itself consumes for operation. Should these findings be supported
by more thorough peer reviewed research, there may be
reason to give more weight to location- and transportation-related measures in the planning, siting, and design
of green buildings—and in the priorities represented in
green building rating systems.
A wide range of factors influence the transportation
energy intensity of buildings. These include land-use
density, diversity of building uses and services in the
area, availability of public transit and other alternatives
to private automobile transportation; distance to public
transit, availability and convenience of parking, walkability of the area, suitability for bicycle commuting,
and incentives offered to building occupants for using
lower impact transportation alternatives. In addition to
the energy consumption resulting from the transportation energy intensity of schools, their location and the
transportation options available students and teachers
also affect their productivity (especially time wasted in
traffic), health, commuter and pedestrian safety, infrastructure costs, and ecosystem health (Porter, 2000).
Increasing the awareness of these potential health
and economic gains, combined with other factors, could
help bring about a shift in the way we design, construct, operate, and occupy schools. The current goal of
providing marginally adequate indoor/outdoor environments could be replaced by the goal of providing
environments that maximize the health, satisfaction, and
performance of school children [6, 9].
School Performance Hypotheses
Based on the previous assumptions, this study started
with a general question: Do LEED-rated schools, which
achieved sustainable site credits, improve alternative
transportation commuting over non-LEED schools in
Oregon? This question was further modified during the
field research based on grounded theory epistemology
and resulted in three main research questions:
(1) How do LEED-rated and non-LEED rated comparative schools perform? How do these schools
compare in terms of energy and water consumption
as well as CO2 emissions?
(2) What impact does the physical environment in
terms of street networks, zoning, and walkability
indicators have on this commuting behavior in the
studied schools?
(3) What is the carbon and energy expenditure implications related to actual commuting behavior and
modes of getting to and from the studied schools?
(4) What are the impacts of the indoor environmental
conditions in the classroom on perceived as well as
experienced IEQ parameters?
A Unique Research Setting
As reported in the USGBC’s National Green Building Research Agenda (2007), every day, 50 million students attend schools and classrooms in poorly designed
schools that suffer from a host of environmental and
physical barriers that limit children’s activity levels and
learning. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) estimates that 40 percent of our nation’s 115,000
schools suffer from poor environmental conditions that
may compromise health, safety, and learning of our future generations (Moglia et al., 2006). The substandard
indoor and outdoor environmental quality of many of
these facilities is a result of unsustainable building and
planning practices such as lack of safe bike and walking routes, poor accessibility to neighborhoods, lack
of playground space for schools, low ventilation rates,
non-operable windows, as well as lack of potential for
daylight and views (Davison et al., 2004; Daisey, Angell & Apte, 2003).
The combined effects of these factors have been
associated with lack of activity levels for children both
for outdoor as well as indoor activities that promote an
active living lifestyle and programs (NRC, 2006). The
problem is confounded by a host of health issues in
addition to obesity that includes respiratory illnesses,
asthma, allergies, and sick building syndrome symptoms. Since such problems are compounded by density,
as educational facilities have four times the number
of occupants per square foot than most offices, the
American Society of Civil Engineers reported that current educational buildings are in worse condition than
prisons. Decreasing the prevalence or severity of these
health effects on students could lead to higher academic
achievements, lower health care costs, reduced sick
leave, and shorter periods of illness-impaired performance, resulting in annual economic benefits for the
U.S. in the tens of billions of dollars (USGBC, 2007).
To overcome this problem, a market transformation program led by the U.S. Green Buildings Council
(USGBC) has been influential in setting guidelines and
certification process to promote, build, and renovate
schools into LEED-rated green facilities. The rating
system gives schools credits for implementing alternative transportation strategies, sustainable land use
and open space availability, as well as environmental
quality credits that promote healthy indoor and outdoor
environmental quality (IOEQ) strategies. One of the
goals of the LEED Schools rating program is to reduce
49
obesity rates and improve health and students’ physical
activity in K-12 schools. Due to a lack of evaluation
and assessment of this school certification program,
however, the effects of these guidelines on students’
health and activity levels remain contested. This gap in
knowledge related to green schools design have resulted
in a low market penetration of these strategies in new
school construction, in general, as well as LEED and
green schools in particular (Elzeyadi, 2008).
Conceptualizing School Environments
This project builds on the conceptualization of
school environments from a place-based experience
perspective (Cotton, 2001). This perspective (Figure 2)
relies on the general assumption that green schools are
composed of “students” and “schools” on the macroscale as well as the overall “neighborhood” and systems
of settings on the mega-scale. The framework treats
students and their school environments as interdependent elements of a system. Obesity and activity rates are
viewed as both an outcome variable of this system and
as mediational variables that impact students’ health as
well as physical and academic performance in schools.
In addition to neighborhood physical structure, the
school site itself is an important determinant of commuting behavior. Due to economic and political reasons, the development of new schools in remote areas is
increasing (US EPA, 2003). Zhu and Lee (2009) question whether the Safe Routes to School (SRTS) program
will have measurable impact on commuting behavior
if the school location and development have not been
considered first. Correspondingly, traffic reduction in
volume and speed is identified most often as barrier to
walking and bicycling (Hume, Timperio, & Salmon et
al., 2009; Carver, Timperio, & Crawford, 2008; Kerr et
al., 2006). This is another illustration of how the physical environment directly influences parents’ perception
of safety and thereby their students’ commuting behavior. It is recommended that future studies consider
school buildings and site-related factors when accessing the impacts of the physical environment on school
commuting behavior and not merely the neighborhood
planning and physical setting (McMillan, 2007).
Only 13.4 percent of 424 school districts surveyed
in the U.S. in 2006 had policy to include green design
features when constructing new or renovating existing buildings (Jones, 2006). Furthermore, only 7.6
percent of these districts had policies or programs that
encouraged the use of alternative transportation, such
as walking and biking to school. This statistic offers
an opportunity to address the decline in the number of
school-age children nationwide who commute to school
by walking or bicycling from 42 percent in 1969 to 13
percent in 2001 (USDOT, 2001). The USDOT and U.S.
Figure 1: Research Conceptual Framework
Figure 2: Research Methods
EPA established a number of relevant priority areas and
guidelines for adopting neighborhood levels physical
changes in and around schools that would encourage alternative transportation and enhance livability. Many of
these changes, such as presence of sidewalks and bike
lanes, access to public parks, safer street crossings, and
connectivity, have all been identified in previous studies
as indicators of active living (Cohen, 2007; Kerr et al.,
2006; Fulton, 2005; Lee & Moudon, 2004).
School Settings Metrics and Methods
The study used a comparative survey research design
using school physical assessments, mapping and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) analysis, transportation energy intensity metrics, and cross-sectional
observations in a multi-method research paradigm. The
diverse methods enhanced the research’s external and
internal reliability as well as provided rich data that
could cover the phenomena under study from different perspectives and viewpoints. The implemented
methods aim to exemplify a model and state of the
art for school transportation performance and impact
evaluation. The multi-phase research design facilitated
a grounded theory approach where the results of each
phase informed and focused the direction of investigation and provided action items and design patterns for
the development of the evidence-based design guidelines.
The research setting consisted of four school districts, each of which included a LEED certified school
and a matched pair of a non-LEED certified school in a
4x4 research design model, varying variables between
and within the settings of the sampled sets. Each LEED
school was matched to another school within the same
district with careful attention to maintaining similar
numbers of students, numbers of teachers and staff,
and student socio-economic variables (including free/
reduced lunch recipients) between each member of the
pair. The schools studied were carefully matched to
control for their social, organizational, and economic
environment, yet different in their physical characteristics of the environment between and within LEED and
non-LEED schools (Figure 2).
School Performance and Consumption
Analysis of site performance and resource consumption involved development of transportation energy
intensity metrics and baseline data for the studied
51
districts. Data were gathered regarding the physical,
organizational, and socio-psychological environmental
variables of the study schools. Over 100 variables were
collected from primary and secondary sources in the
following categories: climate, site area, building area,
cost, occupancy, energy, carbon dioxide emissions, water usage, and LEED score. Over 50 additional variables
were measured onsite relating to indoor environmental
quality, assessing visual, acoustic, and thermal comfort
inside the classroom. Findings from this phase established a broad baseline survey across the different variables and school programs under study. It also can serve
as a baseline against which the impact of the proposed
project technology transfer and proposed guidelines can
be quantified in the future.
Analysis of site characteristics involved a SchoolIn-Use assessment of the school settings covering the
performance of buildings and outdoor space use as well
as transportation strategies and programs employed.
A mapping procedure was carried out by overlaying
Google maps and school district zoning maps from
the city and municipality where the school is located.
The environmental variables related to safety, bike and
pedestrian amenities, traffic control, and land use were
geo-located on the map and coded to document their
category. The site context variables were quantified and
spatially located, then cross-tabulated with walking and
biking radii at the 0.5, 1, and 1.5 mile radii all generating from the school. See Appendix C for the full slides
of the maps and the site context analysis for the eight
schools under study (Figure 3). Variables and associated
metrics are enumerated below (Table 1):
Table 1: Site Characteristics Variables Collected
52 School Socio-Spatial Analysis
The intent of the socio-spatial analysis methods was
to document the physical features and limitations of
the school site and routes to school that may influence
students’ mode of transportation beyond those that were
initially assessed during site characteristics analysis.
The socio-spatial methods were conducted using onsite
observation and site audit survey. Surveyors on bikes
toured the entire 0.5 mile area surrounding the schools
Figure 3: Mapping analysis of the street network,
traffic, and amenities (e.g. site # 1)
to document livability facilitators and inhibitors on site
area surrounding the school. The audits were performed
in the early morning and mid-afternoon in the same
time frame as typical children and parents would commute to and from schools. Surveyors used documented
paths on a map similar to the paths typical commuters
would take and recorded the information on an audit
checklist at the same time photographs of the incident
and variables were recorded and geo-coded and numbered on the context map (Figure 3).
School Site Observation and GIS
This analysis used Geographic Information Systems
(GIS) data manipulated using transportation analysis
methods to assess connectivity and walkability as outlined by Schlossberg and Brown (2004). The analysis assessed 11 variables quantifying the pedestrian
network, including minor and major road density, dead
end density, impedance-based intersection density, and
impeded pedestrian catchment area.
As a method for studying people-environment
interactions, site observation provides insightful data
and context documentation. According to Jorgensen
(1989), “...through participation the researcher is able to
observe and experience the meanings and interactions
of people from the role of an insider” (p. 21). The onsite observation helped in providing a good account of
the actual number of students commuting to and from
school on a typical day together with their mode of
transportation and transportation behavior. In doing so,
a number of techniques were employed. These were: (1)
direct or simple observation (behavioral mapping and
tracking and physical observation with the researcher’s
interpretation of the behavior it represents), and (2)
indirect observations through photography and field
notes.
Direct observation included techniques were employed by research surveyors to map the means by
which children got to and from school. Tools included
tally counts, behavioral mapping, tracking, and photography.
A minimum of two surveyors monitored every access
point where children are either dropped off by car or
arrived to school using alternative commuting options
(walking, bicycling, or using public transportation).
Surveyors observed school commuting attitudes for one
hour in the morning drop off time and one hour in the
afternoon pick-up time. The observations took place
30 minutes before school start time in the morning and
lasted for 30 minutes after the time to ensure that any
tardiness or late arrival was captured in the data set. In
the afternoon, observations started 15 minutes before
Figure 4: Site analysis for GIS based street
network and connectivity metrics (e.g. site # 1)
the school release time and started for 45 minutes after
this time to ensure late pick-ups were recorded.
School Findings
The data gathered on the eight schools included in
the data set was comprehensive in scope and included
350 separate variables for each of the eight schools. A
standard data reduction technique was used to summarize and combine the variables into scales that could
be used to describe the eight sites in a more parsimonious manner. In most cases, factor analysis was used
to reduce the data, employing a varimax rotation and
saving the factor scores. In a few cases the inspection
of correlation matrices, reliability coefficients, and summated scales were performed. In all cases we examined
the scores on the variables for each site and compared
the average scores for the LEED and non-LEED sites,
using t-tests and Cohen’s d, a measure of effect size.
After developing the various summary measures, these
were correlated with the results from the transportation
audit using correlation coefficients.
There are at least three notable elements in the quantitative results. First, they illustrate the way in which an
extraordinarily rich data set can be developed regarding
53
Table 2: Demographics of the Study Settings
Note: There were two sets of summary measures
using the site characteristics data. Those labelled
“a” involved measures based on square footage and
volume. Higher scores on factor 1a indicate a larger
footprint and surface area, higher scores on factor 1b
indicate more playground area and more classroom
window and wall area, and higher scores on factor 1c
indicate more skylights and daylit area. The results
for the second analysis of site characteristics used
the data reflecting percentage of area. Higher scores
on 2a represent higher wwr, classroom sfr, daylight
efficiency and classroom daylight factor values; and
higher scores on 2b represent sites with built up and
paved areas as a higher percentage of the total area.
54 the characteristics of buildings and corresponding sites.
Second, they provide important nuances to summary
characterizations of buildings and sites as “LEED”
compatible, for the four “LEED” buildings were far
from identical on the various summary measures. Third,
they show how these quantitative descriptions are associated with actual behavior of users of the site, confirming the results of earlier work regarding the role of the
built environment in an active lifestyle, but expanding
this work to include very detailed site descriptions that
might be especially useful to architects and planners.
The results below are grouped into discussions of
variables regarding the demographic characteristics of
the sites (Table 2), energy use and emissions (Table 3),
and surrounding streets (Tables 4 through 7).
Demographic Characteristics of School Sites. The
eight sites in the study were carefully matched to
ensure that they were similar in socio-demographic and
community characteristics. Table 2 provides summary
information on the demographic characteristics of the
sites. Higher scores on the first factor indicate a site
with higher community incomes and lower rates of free
or reduced lunch at the school. Higher scores on the
second factor indicate a site with a larger percentage of
minority students. The data presented in Table 2 indicate that the pairs of schools are closely matched, with
the two schools in each site having very similar scores
on each factor. Similarly, as would be expected, the average values within the LEED and non-LEED schools
(second panel of Table 2) are very similar. Results in the
third panel, where the LEED school in site 4 is added to
the non-LEED group, alter because of the lower socioeconomic status of the Site 4 schools.
Note also that the sites exhibit variability in demographic characteristics. For instance, Site 3 has higher
incomes than the other three, while Site 4 has lower incomes. Site 1 has substantial representation of minority
groups, while Site 2 has the least representation.
Table 3 reports data on energy use and emissions.
Two summary factors were used to indicate energy
use, with higher scores on Factor 1 indicating higher
consumption and lower performance ratings and high
scores on factor 2, indicating higher utilization intensity
and higher Arch 2030 benchmark EUI. A higher score
on the CO2 measure indicates more emissions. The
results indicate clear patterns for sites 1, 2, and 3, with
the LEED schools having lower scores than the nonLEED schools. In other words, as expected, the LEED
schools at these three sites had lower energy use. Results differed markedly, however, for the schools at site
4, where the LEED school had strikingly higher values
on both factor 1 and the measure of CO2 emissions. It
is for this reason that the second grouping of schools
has been included, with the “LEED” school in site 4 being grouped with the non-LEED schools in the bottom
panel of all tables.
Conclusion: Quanitfying Green School Impacts
This study investigated the relationship between
schools’ physical site and neighborhood conditions in
green LEED and non-LEED schools in Oregon and
their impact on active transportation behavior by school
students. It also places a value on the impact of the
physical environment of school sites and their surrounding neighborhoods by correlating their degree of availTable 3: Energy Consumption of Study Settings
Note: High scores on factor 1, regarding energy
consumption, indicate more consumption and lower
performance rating; high scores on factor 2 indicate
higher energy utilization intensity and higher Arch
2030 benchmark EUI. Higher values on the CO2
measure indicate more emissions.
ability and the number of sustainable site LEED credits
earned to commuting behavior, energy, and carbon
expenditures of school sites. Following a triangulation
of research methods and an extensive data collection
and analysis procedures, the study’s results positively
supported correlations showing that changes in the built
environment strongly influence active travel patterns.
Even though there was no clear pattern of difference in
activity pattern between the groups of LEED and nonLEED schools, there were numerous associations of
activity with other LEED credits earned that are specific
to sustainable sites.
The differences are not trivial, especially with respect
to the school boundary areas, suggesting that smaller
boundary areas of schools within the 0.5 mile radius
are positively correlated with increased active transportation. Similarly, the school’s footprint affected
transportation patterns with smaller footprints, built up
and paved areas showing positive correlation with and
lower levels of CO2 emissions. As would be expected,
most of the measures related to the walkability of surrounding streets were associated with the percentage of
Figure 5: School neighbourhood amenities, LEED
SS credits earned, and relationship to total Carbon
emissions of LEED credits earned across the eight
pairs of schools.
55
travel that was active. Active travel was more common
transportation engineering interventions in the form
of easier to navigate intersections for street widths
between 20’-28’, more medians, roundabouts, islands,
and pinch-points and curb extensions. Dead-end streets
show lower connectivity rates of the neighborhoods
and reduced walkability and bicycling behavior. It was
interesting to note that these sites have earned higher
walkscores and were associated with LEED and green
schools, a finding that could impact the LEED revision and walkscores indicators used to calculate such
scores. Active travel was also more common in sites
that include more amenities and support for pedestrians,
including more marked crosswalks at .5 miles, bike/
pedestrian signals, bike racks, bus shelters, and bus
stops that were all associated with more active travel.
It is interesting to note that the study also confirmed
previous findings regarding correlations between active
transportation and certain land use zoning. Active travel
was less in neighborhoods with low density residential,
light industrial, agricultural, or un-zoned areas. Active
transportation benefited from livability metrics on the
neighborhood scale, such as more planters, attractive
architecture, art and activities, fewer fire and hospital
facilities, more benches for sitting, and more animals.
The better performing school sites in terms of active transportation patterns show strong correlations
with physical indices related to street connectivity
and livability metrics, in addition to LEED SS credits
earned. This could suggest the possibility of additional
inputs to improve the SS credits of the LEED certification. Findings of the study suggest a strong correlation
between green LEED schools site and land use conditions, sustainable site achieved credits, and their impact
on quantifiable transportation behavioral outcomes of
students in the studied schools. This information will be
invaluable to school designers and planning professionals in designing green schools for future generations of
healthy students.
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59
Challenges and Opportunities
in the Formation of Design
Professionals
Margarita Greene (Escuela de Arquitectura,
Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile),
Yves Schoonjans and Kris Scheerlinck (KU
Leuven)
A CHANGING CONTEXT
Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) face a permanent challenge of preparing future professionals in a
changing world. This is especially critical for the ADU
disciplines—Architecture, Design, and Urbanism—
whose emblematic instrument and method has been
the ‘project’ that normally involves a proposition of
intervention in the built environment.
In recent years, new expectations and demands on the
built environment have been imposed by a complex social, economic, and spatial process. European cities are
transforming into a post-industrial landscape with acute
economic and social challenges for designers and planners. Urban conglomerations do not stop at the borders
of their countries, creating large regional entities (i.e.,
the Euroregions) that encompass countries (Antrop,
2004; Mehlbye, 2000). At the same time, many local
and global transformations have taken place (increasing specialization and segregation of urban space, aging
society, migration flows, the rise of the knowledge
economy, and the digital revolution together with new
models of productivity and related mobility), bringing
profound changes in public space and everyday life in
the city. All these phenomena present acute challenges
for architects, designers, and planners who are continuously confronted with the redevelopment, regeneration,
and renewal of the existing urban fabric.
In Latin America, the rapid urbanization process
has changed the environment and the lives of most
inhabitants. The urbanization process was expected
to bring better education, health, and access to culture
and facilities to the population. But in reality, it has
not always been the case. Most Latin American cities have grown inorganically, creating vast areas with
insufficient urban services and equipment, while many
of their central areas have suffered from abandonment
and decay (Rojas, 2010). Technological developments
like intelligent buildings, communication networks, and
sophisticated infrastructure that have arrived to many
of Latin America’s major cities establish isolated areas
60 of prosperity and development. At the same time, the
region has been affected by a string of natural disasters
and instability that have damaged urban areas, forcing
quick responses from the authorities and professionals.
It will take years to improve this footprint of physical,
economic, and social problems and turn it into a proper
and enriching urban fabric.
All together, the increasing specialization, along with
new models of productivity and related mobility, define
the way these environments change in a physical, social,
or cultural way. The transformation of traditional production chains into post-Fordist economies, the increasing importance of the service and leisure industries, and
the demand for rapid consumption—together with an
extreme reliance on Internet and related technologies—
have changed the way space is produced and inhabited.
The changes occur at an increasing speed, and they
certainly change the way architecture is made and
perceived. However, these changing phenomena cannot
be put into one single category: local circumstances,
on one hand, and larger political or social-economic
scenarios, on the other, ask for different strategies, each
time demanding another attitude from the architect or
urban designer (Cowen, 2002; Tewdwr-Jones, 2011;
Crysler, Cairns, and Heynen, 2012).
Professionals realize that the radical change of scale
occurs at an increasing speed, demanding architects
and planners to update their reading and intervention
techniques to respond to multiple scenarios. Indeed,
multiplicity has become a key word to describe the wide
range of phenomena that define the daily environment
on a global scale: many different phenomena appear,
one next to (and on top of) the other, all part of the accelerated, simultaneous processes of producing space.
On one hand, a reconfiguration and often neoliberal
re-branding of more traditional cities is happening that
defines new models of space production and related architecture. Here, the image of a building has become as
important as the structural qualities, innovation strategies, functionality, or permeability of a building or site.
On the other hand, in the last few decades, the world
has seen exponential growth of the non-traditional,
informal city. These two linked or adjacent processes of
space production, possessing formal or informal qualities, define new realities for the architect to work on a
global scale.
The Challenges of the Profession
Because of the nature of the field, the traditional
disciplines involved in the built environment have been
project oriented; that is, their main objective and educational strategy has focused on the solution of a problem,
on the proposition: on the project. Probably due to this
project orientation strategy of education that showed
some effectiveness, this attitude resulted in an encouragement of the schools in architecture, design, and urbanism to carry out their studios and courses about real
and relevant world problems. However, this strategy
does not seem to be able to provide future students with
the methodological and theoretical tools necessary to
intervene in the current built environment in a comprehensive manner. As a result, the ADU disciplines have
lost presence in the professional world and among public bodies, leaving the field with little direction towards
new market forces, political decisions, or emergency
actions. In this complex setting plagued by poverty, inequality, low social sustainability, and emergencies with
a strong technological development at arm’s length,
there is a need to rethink the traditional built environment field on a human base, and understand it as an
expanded field. That is, not only the ADU professionals’
field, but also one where many disciplines converge and
have to interact.
A new generation of ADU professionals is needed
where not only critical thinking, but especially creative
design, sustainable articulation, and trans-disciplinary
communication are essential (Janssens, 2012; Cross, N.,
2007; Benson and Treleven, 2011). The required skills
and competences in the education of architects, designers, and urban planners, which are crucial to be more
responsive to the changing societal and professional
needs, have a specific complexity (Doucet and Janssens,
2011; Spiridonides, C. and Voyatzaki, M., 2010). Unlike
the hard sciences, the ADU disciplines both shape and
reflect the very specific characteristics of the regions in
which they are practiced. Thus the formation of these
professionals needs to include the knowledge of specific
and necessary subject-related skills, but also some common and regional specific competences that will allow
them to respond to society’s changing needs in the built
environment appropriately.
The training of ADU professionals is being currently
questioned within the HEIs, but there is no consensus
about new curriculum directions and the refined particular competences that these new professionals should
have. In an open world, there is a real need for a better
intercultural understanding of global and local parameters. In recent years, important steps have been taken
in this line through previous European Union funded
ALFA Projects: the Tuning Project-LA and ENHSA/
LA–Project.
These projects pinpointed new challenges for the
education of designers in the 21st century: (i) further
defining of competences in relation to regional needs;
(ii) identifying actions to move towards competence
based education; and (iii) developing new performance
competence-based educational techniques and strategies
in relation to the specific global/local context (EAAE,
2008). The European Community funded ALFA project,
ADU 2020, presented in this paper aims to take the
results already achieved into a next phase, expanding
them to a broader area that we have called the expanded
field.
THE ADU 2020 PROJECT
The overall objective of this project is to develop
measures and actions for restructuring the HEIs in ADU
of LA and the EC to the demands of the 21st century,
improving the future employability of their graduates,
and the quality of life of the urban population in a sustainable way, especially the traditionally excluded urban
poor.
This overall objective was summarized in four ADU
questions:
• What are the new professional areas and how will
they affect education?
• What is the role of design thinking and transdisciplinarity?
• Can common and regional specific competences be
defined?
• What new educational strategies are needed to
achieve those goals?
To answer the previous questions, the ADU 2020
project contains a system of six interrelated actions or
activities.
The first action was structural, and it involved the
organization of the partners in six Work Teams, each
responsible of previously defined goals: Team 1: Mapping existing programs; Team 2: New professional
areas; Team 3: Creative-design and trans-disciplinary
thinking; Team 4: Common and regional specific
competences; Team 5: New educational strategies; and
Team 6: Propositions to update and synchronize university curricula in ADU.
The second to fourth actions were operative. The
second involved a set of seven Network Meetings,
where all partners would meet twice a year for managing, assessing, and developing strategies and actions,
with internal discussion about the results of the actions.
The third involved a set of Visits, where the partner
institutions, in groups of six, carried out visits to each
other’s institutions. The fourth activity involved Annual Conferences, where the project results and state
of the art was discussed.
61
The fifth and sixth actions were experimental, laboratory exercises where innovative educational strategies
were tested. The fifth action is a set of Parallel Design
Studios (PDS), where partner institutions work in parallel during a semester (four months) on a common issue
keeping a close virtual link through the web. During
the first year of the ADU 2020 project, 18 PDSs were
carried out on three topics: ‘social housing’, ‘urban
growth’, and ‘sprawl and community buildings’. During the second and third year of the project, 20 PPPs
are being carried out on ‘public space’, ‘heritage and
local identity’, and on ‘emergent systems’. Students are
confronted not only with the different attitude and focus
due to the specific locality, but also by the different
teaching and learning methodology.
The sixth action is a set of nine Workshops carried
out in different partner HEIs with the participation of
the host plus 11 visiting partners. Here the students
are confronted face-to-face with lecturers of different
countries, backgrounds, and teaching methodologies
for a short period (usually ten days). The workshops are
proposed to refine and specify the detected ‘common’,
‘regional specific’, and ‘trans-disciplinary’ competences
in relation to the renewed professional areas; here the
new teaching methods in lieu of the objectives of the
project are being tested.
Examining the First Workshops
A workshop is a familiar action in project oriented
and ADU education. Students and visiting professors of
different countries interact in a design-studio methodology on a precisely defined common issue and urban
site. During 10 days, 11 visiting professors of different
schools in ADU meet in a place to work with an equivalent or greater number of local lecturers and approximately 100 mainly local students as a design studio.
The students are divided in smaller groups with one
to three guiding tutors, usually including one invited
lecturer. Within those small groups, comparative design
research is performed.
The objective of the workshops is to enhance a multicultural design experience, test new teaching methods,
and induce the participation of local governments and
professional bodies of the host country. Thus a variety
of points of views and approaches are shared, while at
the same time the ADU questions are mapped to a common phenomenon.
The ADU 2020 specific objectives, present all
through the Workshop period, can be translated into
the following attitudes: (i) to conceive the educational
process from a competence-based view, focusing not
on certain knowledge to transmit, but on the construc-
62 tion of specific profiles; (ii) to go beyond the traditional
architectural practice and promote a trans-disciplinary
thinking through creative design and design thinking
in the ADU expanded field; (iii) to identify new professional areas in order to expand the occupational field;
and (iv) to share and make explicit the different educational strategies.
The three first workshops took place at the Department of Architecture at the University San Carlos in
Guatemala City, at the School of Architecture, Universidad Central de Venezuela at Caracas, and at Strathclyde
University at Glasgow, UK.
The theme of the Workshop in Guatemala City was
hunger, a chronic problem in some regions of Guatemala. It was part of a bigger design exercise, namely
the project of the “Research Institute for Nutrition and
Food Safety” (NUTRIUSAC) that gathers the whole
of the University of San Carlos in contributing to the
solution and eradication of the national famine. The
exercise lasted a full semester and incorporated the
workshop. The project of the workshop itself was carried out in Finca San Julian, located 135 km to the west
of the university campus, with an area of 7,325.7 ha.
It included a number of human settlements, as well as
productive areas and the remains of a coffee plantation.
The architectural programme contained four functions:
Administration and General Services, Research Centre,
Communication Facilities, and Dormitories.
The workshop in Caracas aimed at two goals: to
solve basic infrastructure needs and to generate new
forms of community life. It recognized the urban void
as a meeting place in the city and as valuable places of
public life, defining three oppositions to be analyzed:
(i) Centrality-Periphery, (ii) Interstice-Mass, and (iii)
Border Fabric. The Workshop proposed to test the
possibility of generating new sources of citizenship on
locations throughout the city of Caracas, new areas of
contact between different frames: border areas, voids
systems in consolidated areas; and to test situations
where a fragment of the city could be activated through
an intervention re-qualifying the sector and restoring its
significance. The final aim was to propose an urbanarchitectural solution of occupation and reinvention
of the void for setting up new public spaces and social
activation of the place. The Workshop was structured in
12 groups with two local teachers, an international visiting lecturer, and between 12 to 20 students from first
to tenth semester. Younger students were distributed
among the 12 workshops, assigned by the organizing
committee to be supervised by advanced students, who
ensured their participation and support. Additionally,
there was a team of six teaching consultants in specific
areas of knowledge to work with all groups.
The theme of the UK Workshop was ‘Experiencing
Architecture’. The Workshop intended to introduce the
participants to the architectural context of Scotland’s
social, urban, and architectural culture within which
Strathclyde teaches architecture. It was a different sort
of Workshop since the invited lecturers did not have
students directly to work with, but were invited to
ongoing activities. The idea was that invited lecturers
with local staff discuss new methods of research-based
teaching, curriculum design, assessment strategy, the
future needs of the profession, and the place of architectural education related to new pedagogical directions.
The Workshop programme contemplated six daily sessions at Strathclyde, two days of site visit and one day
of technical visit. The Workshop sessions were about
assessment philosophy, MSc students work, architectural features, and participation in study sessions of 3rd
and 4th years.
In the three workshops, the underlying emphasis was
the ADU questions that were tested beyond the topic the
students worked on. At the beginning of the workshop,
the host together with the invited lecturers had to agree
and commit to a brief, which was the basis of the final
evaluation done by students and professors through a
questionnaire. In this way, the aim was to see and understand how the ADU questions were approached and
new knowledge was constructed.
The ADU 2020 Workshop Questionnaires
At the end of each Workshop, questionnaires according to selected competences were applied to students
and local and invited teachers. According to the information in the questionnaires, the Guatemala workshop
was more focused on the cultural and social role of
the architect. This is consistent with the competences
selected in the Brief and was accentuated by a certain
interdisciplinarity, which was widely noted by the participants. The Venezuelan workshop also emphasized
these aspects, but with less strength, as it prioritized
technical ADU aspects. This is consistent with the main
competence selected in Caracas, “Capacity to design
buildings and structures that will respond well to the
bioclimatic, landscape, and topographical conditions
of the region in question,” which is a competence that
focuses on a very specific theme, not mingling with
other disciplines.
In the same line, the interdisciplinary aspect in the
Venezuelan workshop was perceived as an aspect that
could have been developed further. Although professionals from other disciplines were included and gave
lectures, the general opinion is that they did not parMay 2015 – brainSTORM
ticipate as much in the workshops, where the creative
process really happened, and where more interaction
with other professions is needed.
Students from Guatemala were not familiar and had
difficulty understanding and responding to the questionnaire, since they did not handle concepts such as
creative thinking, creative design, or nonhierarchical
learning methodology. However, they had a positive
attitude and appreciated the opportunity to have been
involved in the experience, emphasizing the richness of
what had been taught. The Venezuela students demonstrated a high technical knowledge level in these areas,
giving very complete and highly argued responses.
Both teachers and students, especially among the
latter, showed a strong awareness of social problems to
be addressed by architecture, design, and urbanism providing solutions. In this context, there is a real concern
for integrating the research and creative process to other
disciplines such as sociology, economics, anthropology,
and others. This was observed not only in Guatemala
and Venezuela, but also in the UK, where the students explicitly signaled this aspect. Also, the teachers
considered the interaction with other areas as a central
element.
An added concern that appears as central to Guatemala, Venezuela, and the United Kingdom, which again
is more evident at the level of students than teachers,
is the concern for the environment. In the three countries, it was emphasized that architecture, design, and
urban planning today have to be conceived in affordable and sustainable forms. There is a strong awareness
of the environmental catastrophe of the planet, and it
is understood that the ADU disciplines cannot be part
of the problem, but on the contrary, should be part of
the solution. It seems important to emphasize at this
point that the UK shows greater concern in this area. To
Guatemala and Venezuela it is a central theme, but so
are the problems of poverty and underdevelopment of
their countries, areas in which it is considered that ADU
has a role to play.
All three countries showed, although more strongly
in the UK, that students have a convincing concern for
their future careers. They feel that there are too many
professionals being formed in this field (especially
architecture) and that the professional field is increasingly scarce and competitive. Students emphasize the
importance of staying at the forefront of change, both
in technology and trends. Particularly in the UK, they
sense that the recent economic crisis has had negative
effects on their country and that this makes it increasingly unlikely to find and keep a job in the ADU field.
63
Among the teachers, both local and guests, there was
criticism of the organization of the workshops. This
critique was stronger in the case of the UK, because of
the special format with no direct students. One aspect
that was criticized was that little previous information
on the contents, participants, and activities was given
beforehand, making it difficult for teachers to prepare
properly for the experience. The three countries suggested the presence throughout the workshop of professionals from other areas, not only giving seminars, but
also directly involved in workshop groups.
It seems important to note that in the three countries,
both teachers and students made a positive evaluation
of the experience of the workshop. All felt it was hard
work concentrated in a short period of time but believed
it was an enriching experience that stimulated their
creativity and insight.
FINAL REMARKS
During recent months, nine programmed Workshops
and 34 Parallel Design Studios have been finished,
while four Parallel Design Studios are still being carried out. Although the main data in this paper refers to
the first three workshops, all of these activities have
given the insights and provided material for these final
remarks.
The workshops showed interesting processes and
results. Appealing design solutions to the problem
formulated at the workshops were proposed in both the
Guatemala and Caracas workshops, while interesting
discussions on educational strategies in project oriented
disciplines were carried out at the Glasgow workshop.
The presence of professors from different countries
stimulated the students towards innovative design methodology and enriched the exchange of ideas and discussion among professors. Also, important issues were
raised regarding the ADU questions. In a later Network
Meeting, when discussing the results, the ADU coordinating groups believed that the workshops could
increasingly be used to obtain what could be described
as ADU knowledge. The learning environment was seen
as an open studio: a place where you can openly discuss
different approaches or proposals without prejudice or
top-down attitude.
One important agreement reached is to carefully
record the process, analyze the results or performance,
and openly reflect on the outcomes without fear of
failure. Given that in most workshops multiple parallel groups address the same topic, the research agenda
or question that identifies each group’s profile is very
relevant. It was decided to have open methodologies.
Visiting professors and students were encouraged to
64 develop and propose their own methods in order to have
a wider range of approaches and solutions. Together,
professors and students could define and propose the
best methodology to understand the situations found
and to make a deeper analysis considering its specificities and particularities.
In some of the experiments, the traditional master
plan (often understood or used to deliver a series of
design artifacts at different scales) was avoided and
replaced by a more research-oriented way of working. Knowledge produced had a changing hierarchy,
alternating between bottom-up and top-down stages.
Lecturers were also developing the brief of the design
studio—with the students—so there was little possibility to impose, but rather to learn from what students
could map from the reality. By this, the students were
often empowered to lead as much as possible.
More than ever, it became essential that the profession stay in permanent interaction with research, focusing beyond the production of artifacts towards the production of knowledge. The new added layers that have
appeared in the built environment come together with a
growing specialization. It is the main goal of research to
help to bridge that increasing gap and create an extended knowledge through the layers. ADU research should
not only focus on the results of specialized research per
discipline (such as building techniques, zero energy
building, water-engineering, and Gis applications),
but should also concentrate on the interaction between
the different layers within the complex multiple reality, creating and testing academically strategies and
models. In recent years, it became clear that to be more
responsive to changing societal and professional needs,
it is necessary to go beyond object-oriented knowledge
production towards a system-oriented approach and insight, related to the questioning of the already acquired
knowledge.
Here, as part of this system-oriented approach, the
act of creative design becomes especially important
because it holds competences that bring together in a
synthesis way, or perhaps better in a syncretic way, different and very varied aspects, questions, and demands
(Janssens, 2012). In the educational and scientific
world, design is increasingly considered an important
innovative competence to, at the one hand, investigate complex interdisciplinary issues in a non-linear
way and, and at the other, synthesize solutions from
it (Cross, N.; Benson and Treleven, 2011). It is in this
sense that it is possible to understand that the project
and the design process towards it embodies both the
challenges faced by the ADU disciplines and the opportunity to overcome them and respond to the changing,
multivariable, and often contradictory contemporary
world.
In different workshops and parallel pilot projects, a
multi-layered approach of the main subject was addressed. The most interesting results of the studios were
achieved when the multidisciplinary team of teachers
was considered equally important to give input, talk to
students, follow presentations, or evaluate the projects.
The transdisciplinary approach stimulates a new understanding of reality, integrating components beyond
disciplines, generating awareness of complexity, and
openness to absorb other knowledge. Because of the
multiple and crosschecked approaches to the sites and
proposals, students adopted a more critical and creative
attitude towards the design task. The decision to choose
a transdisciplinary approach allowed the students to
tackle the urban, architectural, social, and theoretical issues related to the design proposal and certainly
enriched the overall experience.
Traditionally, architects and designers have a strong
experience in working with other professions. However,
this collaboration often followed a hierarchical structure, where the designer, after comparing all visions and
outcomes, took the final decision. The complexity and
multiplicity of the built environment today as well as
of the professional conditions to work in, has made this
impossible: it forces the ADU professionals to multitask, with the risk of losing efficiency, lacking depth
and a long-term and broad vision of the subjects they
are dealing with. In the new conditions and with the future challenges, a non-hierarchical structure is required.
Here, a new generation of ADU professionals, embedded within intertwined research and practice environments, is needed. Diving into the essence of their own
expertise and discipline in an advanced way, they will
become ‘strong partners among other strong partners’.
In this renewed modus operandi, where critical thinking, but especially creative design, sustainable articulation, and trans-disciplinary communication are essential, more guarantees can be given for coherent, critical,
and sustainable attitudes in the related disciplines and
expertise. In other words, there is an increasing need
to form teams, to share authorship, without imposing
traditional hierarchical structures that do not allow
a project to be coherently conceived or developed.
Thus it is precisely through the project that the current
changing society, hence a changing built environment,
gives both the challenge and the opportunity to rethink
the discipline and practice of architecture, design, and
urbanism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Antrop, M. (2004) Landscape change and the
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Urban Planning, Volume 67, Issues 1–4, 15, Pages
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Benson, C. and Treleven, T. (2011) Designerly Thinking
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Cowen, T. (2002) Creative Destruction – How
Globalisation is changing the World’s Structure,
New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Cross, N. (2001) ‘Designerly Ways of Knowing: Design
Discipline Versus Design Science’ Design Issues
(Summer 2001), Vol. 17, No. 3, Pages 49-55.
Cross, N. (2007) ‘From a Design Science to a Design
Discipline: Understanding Designerly Ways of
Knowing and Thinking’, Board of International
Research in Design Part 2, 41-54.
Crysler, G., Cairns, S. and Heynen, H. (2012) Eds. The
SAGE Handbook of Architectural Theory, Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Doucet, I. and Janssens, N. (2011) Transdiciplinary
Knowledge Production in Architecture and
Urbanism.
Eaae (2008) Reflections on and outlook for higher
education in Latin America, 2008, pp.82-101.
Eldemery, I.M. (2009) Globalisation challenges in
Architecture, Journal of Architectural and Planning
Research, 26 (4).
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practice of meta-urbanism, Götheborg: Chalmers
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Spiridonides, C. and Voyatzaki, M. (2010) Educating
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Tewdwr-Jones, M. (2011) Urban Reflections:
Narratives of Place, Planning, and Change, Bristol:
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65
Generational Differences in
Project Research Approaches
Amy Huber (Florida State University)
The qualities of the built environment, and the behaviors of the occupants therein, are by in large a direct
result of decisions made by the project’s design team.
However, if research findings remain unknown to the
design team, or are not understood, the findings will not
inform their decision making. As the use of evidencebased research within the design process continues to
gain momentum, constructing an understanding of how
design practitioners approach and process research findings is an important task. Armed with this foreknowledge, design researchers may be better equipped to
communicate their findings to those who could directly
apply the information to the designs of the built environment. Complicating this understanding, however, is
the dramatic shift in the workforce. As Baby Boomers
are phasing into retirement, the Millennial generation
is rapidly gaining a foothold in the workplace. While
stereotypes about this generation abound, empirical research has illustrated generational differences between
Millennials and their predecessors relative to learning
styles (Dede, 2005), communication patterns (Howe &
Strauss, 2000), and career aspirations (Gerdes, 2006).
This study explores generational differences in how interior designers’ approach, process, and recall information, and what that might mean for those disseminating
research findings.
Increasing Influence of Design Research
Processes of Design Thinking (Brown, 2009; Dorst,
2011, Lockwood, 2009) and Evidence-Based Design/
EBD (Hamilton & Watkins, 2009; Nussbaumer, 2009)
have been a subject of focus in multiple business sectors. Case studies citing the benefits of these processes
have increased the demand for useable empirical
evidence as an antecedent to design decision making. Relative to interior design, Dickinson, Anthony,
and Marsden’s (2012) survey findings suggested that
younger, more educated interior designers that practiced
commercial design were significantly more likely to
value research. However, the degree to which empirical research manifests within the design process largely
depends on the scale, scope, and needs of a project,
as well as the background and behaviors of the design
team.
66 Literature Review
Literature on the research of design (i.e., researching
how designers generate solutions) is prevalent, however less can be found on research in design (i.e., how
research is used during design). This literature review
creates a summary of information processing preferences, how those preferences may be evident within the
design process, and generational differences in learning
and design processes.
Information Processing
Studies rooted in cognitive science have provided
models illustrating information processing preferences,
including the Heuristic-Systematic Model (Chaiken,
1980, 1987; Chen & Chaiken, 1999) and the Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986; Petty
& Wegener, 1999). These models, commonly referred
to as Dual Processing Models (Stanovich & West,
2000), share the premise that individuals use two modes
or systems for processing information (Kahneman &
Frederick, 2002; Stanovich, 1999). System 1 is gut level
processing and relies on intuitive associations requiring little mental effort (Stanovich, 1999). In contrast,
System 2 cognitive level processing is more systematic, deliberate, and requires the use of central working
memory to allow advanced reasoning (Evans, 2003).
It is suggested that the sufficiency principle guides
individuals in choosing between System 1 and 2 processes. When an individual perceives their desired and
actual levels of knowledge to be at different intensities,
the person feels compelled to learn due to this perceived disequilibrium (Chaiken, Giner-Sorolla, & Chen,
1996). Further, this disequilibrium triggers a process
of transformation from effortful System 2 to effortless
System 1 processing, as the individual develops a level
of expertise for the content knowledge or tasks at hand
(Kahneman & Frederick, 2005, pp 267-291), thus suggesting that as an individual gains experience, they are
more likely to utilize System 1 processes. Decisions
made about which system to use is instantaneous and
situational. What remains to be seen is if these preferences change over time, with age, and to what degree
does experience and expertise alter these preferences.
System 1 information processing. The basic premise of System 1 is that an individual judges information
quickly, maximizing mental output with minimal cognitive load. To do so, quick mental processes requiring
little thinking (e.g., heuristics) are enacted (Chen &
Chaiken, 1999). Heuristics can be efficient, yet also
inaccurate (West et al., 2008). Within the context of
design, heuristics implies the design method provides
‘quick and dirty’ processes familiar to the designer.
These processes lead to acceptable solutions, yet offer
no guarantee of reaching the best solution (Yilmaz &
Seifert, 2011). However, Yilmaz’s et al. (2010) findings
present support for heuristics in increasing creativity
in design solutions. System 1 processes often parallel
what’s commonly referred to as designer’s intuition.
System 2 information processing. System 2
cognitive-level processes are considered to be more
evolutionary recent and arguably exclusive to human
thinking (Evans, 2003). This type of processing is often
slower, more deliberate, and entails analytic treatment of information; thus requiring the use of central
working memory (Evans, 2003). System 2 ‘cognitive’
processes prompt an individual to include as much
information as possible in reaching optimal, rather than
merely satisfactory, results (Kahneman & Klein, 2009;
Pahl, Beitz, Feldhusen, & Grote, 2007). While slower,
System 2 processing is thought to be more fluid, allowing for flexibility in judgment as new information is
uncovered (Kahneman, 2002).
Deliberative processes in design have largely been
studied in the realm of defining a design problem and
its context. Goel and Pirollis’ (1992) observational
studies uncovered System 2 strategies during the design
process when designers were observed accessing information, monitoring their progress, clarifying concepts,
and verifying how their design solutions met the given
objectives. Schӧn (1983) highlighted the usefulness of
deliberation in the design process in terms of framing a
design problem through a process of active reflection.
Processes in Design. Designers call upon System
1 and System 2 processes during their design process.
However, the literature suggests designers are more apt
to use System 1 processes when they:
• have familiarity or a high expertise level with the
associated information;
• have little time to process information and solution
options; or
• are processing multiple tasks simultaneously.
As designers are often juggling multiple projects, it is
surmised that they may often meet these criteria.
Generational Differences in Learning Style
Specific characteristics of generational cohorts are influenced by cultural trends, events, and societal factors
affecting their beliefs, values, and attitudes (Coomes
& DeBard, 2004). Generations typically span about
20 years; however, the oldest Millennials, at 33, may
not have much in common with their younger counMay 2015 – brainSTORM
terparts, now at age 13. Howe & Strauss (2000, 2006)
in coining the term Millennial, created the opportunity
for researchers to identify four generations currently
co-existing in the workplace, with the next generation
of post-millennials as yet unnamed:
• Silent Generation born between 1925–1942
• Baby Boomers born between 1943–1960
• Generation X born between 1961–1981
• Millennial born between 1982-20--
While the Silent Generation has now by in large
exited the workforce, there remains three different generations at work today, and design firm demographics
are rapidly changing.
To understand the impact of these changes, an
examination of learning is necessary. Research is a
learning task; and parallels may be drawn from studies
conducted on generational learning differences. Longitudinal studies have revealed the impacts of fastpaced changing technologies and societal changes on
learning tendencies. One example is the Cooperative
Institutional Research Program (American Freshman:
Forty Years of Trends), where it was found that while
changes in learning paradigms have generally been
incremental, over time, they have become significant.
From 40 years of data collection, their researchers posit
that students are becoming more diverse, self-confident,
achievement orientated, and have a greater orientation
toward technology (Eagan, Lozano, Hurtado, & Case,
2013). Further, with the primacy of computer technology, younger brains may be developing differently than
those of previous generations; however, to what degree
remains to be seen (Junco & Mastrodicasa, 2007). In the
workplace, younger workers are commonly observed to
be multitasking and seeking breadth rather than depth of
information; searching for networks of ideas rather than
traditional linear information gathering (Dede, 2005).
As a result, instructors of these students attempted to
capitalize on these tendencies by encouraging learning
based on seeking and synthesizing multiple information
sources rather than integrating knowledge from a single
source. Young designers taught under these paradigms
may subsequently approach research and information
very differently than their predecessors.
Several studies have outlined innovative strategies
in terms of teaching Millennial students design-based
skills (Ahmed, Wallace, & Blessing, 2003; Lee &
Breitenberg, 2010; D’Souza, Yoon, & Islam, 2011).
Yet, empirical studies have not determined how these
characteristics and situational influences might impact
67
the way in which designers pursue research tasks.
Visualization Versus Content
This study hypothesized that while designers likely
use both System 1 and 2 information processing preferences, despite relative inexperience, many younger
designers might prefer System 1 preferences even while
conducting project-related research. As such, younger
designers may reflect a greater attraction to information
sources that allow quick interpretation by providing
greater breadth, but that offer less depth of information.
Further, they may prefer messages that are succinct and
provide opportunity for the use of heuristic maneuvers.
Thus, visualization and layout of information may be
especially important in both attracting these designers to a resource and assisting them in processing the
information therein.
Approach to the Study
The literature was mined for similarities and empirical studies that might shed light on this inquiry. Using
this information, an electronic survey was devised to
capture practitioner self-perceptions of their research
processes, thus allowing for comparison between generational cohorts.
Online Survey and Sample
An online questionnaire was used to collect data and
was administered using Qualtrics software. This survey
took less than 20 minutes to complete and consisted of
three sections. The first section ascertained demographic information, the second sought information regarding
participants’ current research practices, and the third
asked how respondents they processed the information
uncovered.
Sampling. The target population for the study was
interior designers actively practicing within the United
States. The participants were recruited using the
membership list of the American Society of Interior
Designers (ASID), the older of the two large professional organizations serving interior designers, with the
largest body of membership. Further, this organization
represents residential and commercial designers as well
as related industry members. A recruitment email was
sent to a random sample of 6,849 Associate, Allied, and
Professional members—these membership types generally infer that these members are actively involved in
the design process and are qualified to do so. The email
included a direct link to the survey providing consent,
and two reminders were sent. The only identifier for
each completed questionnaire was an IP address, unless participants offered to share their email addresses
68 to volunteer additional information. The protocol was
approved by the Florida State University Institutional
Review Board on March 26, 2014.
Three hundred and sixty-six ASID members responded to the survey; a response rate of approximately
5.3 percent. Table 1 summarizes the respondent’s
demographic information. Respondents represented a
proportionately large sample of practicing interior designers; however, it is skewed toward older, residential
practitioners in sole proprietorships.
Analysis. Responses were analyzed using descriptive
statistics (e.g., frequencies, percentages) and comparison between groups was conducted using correlational
and Chi Square statistics.
Findings
Responses suggest the generational cohorts exhibit
similar characteristics relative to research methodologies and sources. Yet they differ in what attracts them
to a body of information, the time they allocate to an
information source, and their information processing
preferences.
Similarities
Age relative to types of research conducted. Designers were asked to indicate what types of project related
research they typically conduct (i.e., design business
trends, product research, client research, sustainability,
ethnographic and behavioral queries, interviews, post
occupancy studies, and/or precedent analysis. Generally, responses, across age groups, suggest research being conducted is largely pragmatic in nature, focusing
on the use and not the generation of new knowledge.
Further, the research methods used do not significantly
vary between the representative age groups.
Age relative to information sources. Designers were
asked to specify what types of sources they used for
research. Respondents indicated using similar sources
for information; however, older practitioners were more
apt to use academic journals (Figure 1).
Differences
Distinctions were evident between age groups in
terms of sources of attraction, time allocation, and processing preferences.
Age relative to attraction to information sources. To
understand how designers judged an article and determined its worth, participants were asked what specific
attributes would attract them to sources of information
(Figure 2). Responses indicated that while the topic
is important, many designers also judge information
sources based on the graphic style in which the infor-
mation is presented; this was more prevalent in younger
designers. Conversely, the authors of the article and the
source of the information were of greater importance
for older designers, suggesting validation may be more
important as one gains experience.
Age relative to time allocation. Designers were asked
how much time they would devote to reviewing specific
sources of information. Overall, 57 percent indicated a
time span of less than 10 minutes. Those who respond-
ed their time allocation may vary indicated they would
decide based on perceived topic relevance, article
length, and writing style. Younger designers indicated
they would spend less time on specific information
sources, often less than 10 minutes. Older designers
indicated more time spent, and were somewhat more
likely to indicate their time allocation would depend on
the factors identified in Figure 2.
Age to processing information. When asked how they
Table 1: Summary of Participant Demographics
69
preferred to process complex information, the youngest and the very oldest designers were more likely to
leverage visuals and captions in processing information
(Figure 4). The younger baby boomers and Generation
X designers were the most apt to read an article verbatim.
Age relative to recall. In an effort to understand what
types of information are easiest to recall, survey respondents were asked if they felt more likely to remember
images or words. Generally most respondents did
indicate a preference for image recall; however, this
was more apparent with younger (Millennial) designers
(Figure 5).
Study Limitations
The limitations of this exploratory study include the
use of an experimental survey instrument, limited internal consistency testing, and a relatively high representation of older designers (skewness = .279), who practice
predominantly in the residential market sector (skewness= .561), which may limit generalizability. Further,
these designers might require relatively less empirical
knowledge in their work and may have skewed the
results. Increasing the number of respondents (especially representative of younger designers) may help
to strengthen the study findings. Finally, as with any
survey, situational influences are lacking and respondents may have inaccurately responded to the questions
as compared to their actual practices.
Reliability and Validity
The instrument was reviewed by two distinguished
researchers, a statistical consultant, and ASID’s Director of Market Research, and pilot-tested with three
separate groups of researchers and design practitioners
to confirm content reliability. Chi Square statistics
were calculated to determine strength of relationships
and statistical significance. To be considered a difference among age groups, the following criteria had to
be met: Pearson Chi-Square value of 5 or above and pvalue of .10 or lower, whereas lower p-values indicate
higher statistical significance (Vogt, 2007).
The researcher sought to establish content, predictive, and construct validity (Creswell, 2009, p. 149)
through the development of the questions and series
of pilot tests with revisions. The pilot testing process
included sending the instrument to two groups of expert
researchers (one group familiar with the study, the other
not), one group of practicing professionals, and a final
review by ASID’s Director of Market Research. The
survey was modified based on recommendations. The
pilot responses offered by the practitioners allowed for
establishing predictive validity by examining responses
against previously published research findings, and
where possible, comparing their responses to known
information about their research practices. Following instrument revisions, construct validity was verified through a crosscheck of the instrument with the
research questions. Several items were retested to
determine internal consistency; yet this was balanced
with overall instrument brevity to increase the completion rate.
Discussion and Implications
This study’s findings confirm earlier findings that
interior design practitioners commonly seek pragmatic
research types and sources (Dickinson, Anthony, &
Marsden, 2012); however, the findings suggest new
information regarding how interior design practitioners conduct project research by establishing the types
of information currently accessed, what attracts them
to a piece of information, and how they preferred to
process the information. Following analysis of survey responses, the following assumptions are offered:
younger interior designers are more attracted to visual
sources, spend less time on pieces of information, and
feel somewhat more likely to remember images over
words. Older interior designers are more interested
in validating information and place more emphasis on
the author and the source of the information (where it
was published). Older designers may be more likely
to consider multiple factors when judging information. This outcome contradicts previous findings that
the use of heuristics is more apt to be practiced when
high content knowledge and high experience levels are
in evidence (Lawson & Dorst, 2009). Additionally, the
low time allocation indicated by younger designers may
infer their use of heuristic methods to quickly evaluate
information sources, potentially due to the breadth of
sources they are seeking. What remains to be seen if
these practices will change over time, given added age
and experience.
The decisions of a design team can have profound
consequences (positive or negative) on the built environment and subsequently how a building’s occupants
behave, heal, learn, or live within a space. If a design
team is composed of younger (Millennial) designers,
their research practices will likely differ from those of
older generations. Thus, their design outcomes may
also differ, even if presented with the same information.
With the composition of today’s workforce changing,
along with their respective values and behaviors, design
researchers may want to tailor their communication
methods to balance System 1 & 2 processing. To do so,
visual stimuli could be offered, to first garner attention and allow for the use of heuristics (i.e., System 1
processing), but also to balance these stimuli with rich
contextual description, thus allowing for deeper engagement with the information and subsequent evaluation
of its validity and applicability (System 2 processing). This balance may prove difficult, but if designer
researchers want their findings to be more wholly
incorporated into the decisions made for a space, it is
a necessary task, and could have far reaching implications.
Future Directions
While, the study sought to elaborate on System 1
or System 2 information preferences during a design
research task, more studies need to be conducted to determine specific practices relative to research tasks. Future research should seek to determine which heuristic
maneuvers are commonly used by design practitioners
of all ages when evaluating information sources. These
studies could be conducted using onsite observations
to allow for contextual nuances. This information may
further aid researchers to communicate findings in manners that acknowledge and better support both processing preferences. Further, experimental research may
71
seek to understand what, if any, physical attributes (e.g.,
color, layout, presentation hierarchy) might best garner
the attention of design practitioners and convey the
appropriate meaning of the information (i.e., aiding designers’ information comprehension). While this study
is exploratory in nature and more research is needed, it
does further efforts to cross perceived borders between
practice-based design processes and peer-reviewed
research findings. This may be increasingly important
as knowledge continues to inform design practice, and
decisions made by more informed designers could positively impact building occupants for years to come.
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73
Designing for Diversity:
A Research Informed
Design Study on Universal
Workspaces
Gourab Kar (Cornell University),
Abir Mullick (Navrachana University)
Introduction
By 2030, one-fourth of the working U.S. population will be comprised of older adults over the age of
55 (Mitra, 2002). Globally, labor force participation
rates for older adults have increased and forecasts show
that this trend will continue (ILO, 2006). A rise in the
world’s aging workforce in the years ahead poses the
crucial challenge of retaining this group in the labor
force. Consequently, it is essential to carry out research
on work-related challenges confronting older adults and
people with disabilities, and to identify environmental
barriers to employment. This will ensure that workplaces compatible to the diverse needs of users across a
wide range of ages and abilities can be designed.
This is a research and design development project
that addressed workplace issues confronting a diverse
population, including older people and those with disabilities; research informed the design process, and
design propelled further research and investigation. Human diversity is key to social inclusion, and this project
examined the challenges of behind-the-counter (BhC)
work in context of the working population in the United
States. A range of workplaces, especially for older
people and those with disabilities, were studied to focus
on minimum requirements for diverse users. Research
questions focused on aspects such as: Are there different work related needs for older and younger workers,
and what are the consequences of unmet needs on these
workers? What environmental barriers challenge older
workers and how do these challenges affect their safety,
productivity, and wellbeing? Are the environmental
needs of older workers different from their younger
colleagues and do they have different coping strategies?
Do accessible workspaces improve functional performance of workers and does the level of access have to
be different for younger and older workers? What are
the characteristics of accessible and universal workspaces and are they the same or are they different?
74 Design Research
A human-centred design (HCD) methodology was
adopted for the design and development process (Norman et al., 1986). The methods helped the design team
gather evidence of what is appropriate in user-centric
terms, interpret this evidence as decisions that confront
the design team, and communicate the evidence through
practical design specifications. The broad outlines of the
design research methodology adopted for this project
are:
Literature Review
Background research employed a variety of sources
including articles, journals, books, electronic databases,
and other sources of verifiable data. Five broad themes
emerged:
(i) Work and Occupational Health: There is increasing evidence that sedentary office work and other work
that require constrained sitting or standing postures are
associated with a high incidence of Musculoskeletal
Disorders (MSDs) (Atwood, 1989; Westgaard, 1997).
Risk factors causing MSDs in service work have been
identified as relating to both physical (Aaraas, 1997;
Pustinger, 1987) and psychosocial factors (Hagen,
1998; Smith, 1999).
(ii) Work and Disability: 19.1 million people or 9.9
percent of the civilian non-institutionalised population
aged 16 to 64 have a disability (US Census Bureau,
2009).
(iii) Work and Aging: Estimates suggest that by
2030, one-fourth of the working population in the U.S.
will comprise older adults over age of 55 (Mitra, 2002),
which necessitates developing design research approaches to support physical and cognitive demands of
a job encountered by all workers, including older workers (Harvey, 1994).
(iv) ADA and Workspace Design: The ADA Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG, 2002) specify basic
dimensions and provisions for equivalent facilities for
wheelchair access.
(v) Universal Design in the Workspace: Universal Design is defined as: “The design of products and
environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest
extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design” (Mullick, 1997). The need for social
inclusion is urgent and it requires that products, services, and environments be developed to reflect accurately
the diverse demands of today’s users and include the
needs of an increasingly greying demographic (Clarkson, 2003).
In context of BhC workspaces, a holistic approach
that employs human-centered design principles; devel-
ops solutions that incorporate flexibility, adjustability,
and modularity; simplifies construction; optimizes
production; and improves appearance can create universally designed BhC workspaces for everyone.
Environmental Study
Observing people in their own environment helps understand their relationship with the environment, especially how physical environment supports or interferes
with behaviors taking place within it (Zeisel, 2006).
Environmental study examined the role of physical
environment in BhC workplaces and offered a comprehensive understanding of how environmental design
influences user performance. Five BhC workspaces—library circulation counter, hotel check-in counter, airport
check-in counter, office reception counter, and registration counters—were studied. User consent was obtained
in writing prior to study and confidentiality of research
data respected. Each work environment was observed
for two separate days during a normal workweek. On
each day, observations were made for two hours: (a)
an hour during the peak work period (as reported by
users), and (b) another hour during a lean work period
between peaks. The researcher assumed a marginal
participant vantage point during the study, and informal
user interviews complemented observational research.
Notes related to events, annotated diagrams, and digital
photographs captured people-environment relationships.
The number of subjects studied varied according to
the nature of work and scale of the facility. The following came within the purview of the observational study:
Four employees worked at the library counter at peak
hours and two employees during non-peak periods;
two employees worked at the hotel reception counter
at both peak / non-peak periods; at the airport checkin, two check-in counters managed by a single staff
member each was studied; for the office reception area,
two separate reception counters within administrative
offices of a university, each with a single receptionist,
were studied; and at the registration desk used for conference registrations, there were four members at peak
hours, and two during non-peak hours.
Airport Counter: An Example from the
Environmental Study
Airport check-in counters were observed at the Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport in Atlanta. Observations were made at a check-in airline counter, and in a
typical check-in scenario, staff stands behind counter
and checks passengers’ identities, provides boarding
passes, collects and tags luggage, and loads them on the
conveyor belt. The work is a combination of cognitive tasks (identity card check, processing ticket data,
printing ticket and luggage tag) as well as physical tasks
(attach tag, load the luggage onto a conveyor belt) and
has a high incidence of work-related musculoskeletal
disorders. Figure 1 shows one such check-in counter at
the Delta Terminal.
Key findings of the environmental study included:
(1) Environmental Audit: The environmental audit
is an assessment to identify environmental barriers and outline corrective actions. The observational
study resulted in an environmental audit of each work
environment and tabulated data on horizontal surfaces,
vertical planes, storage areas, type of seating arrangements, and technologies used at work. Annotated
illustrations of BhC workspaces were created to reveal
75
environmental design characteristics that hinder or aid
work performance. The environmental audit identified
elements comprising the BhC workspace—horizontal
planes, vertical surfaces, storage, seating, and structure.
(a) Airport counters, hotels, and registration counters
had split-level countertops; library and office receptions
featured countertops on a single level. (b) All counters
featured fixed height surfaces with independent seating
for counter staff (except at the hotel reception area and
airport check-in). (c) Storage zones were located below
the countertop for all BhC workspaces; office receptions and library counters had additional stand-alone
storage units.
(2) Movement Patterns: Study of movement patterns on both sides of the counter captured the dynamic
nature of work behind the counter (BhC). (a) The range
of user activities in BhC workspaces is spread over and
beyond the counter with frequent movements to adjoining spaces for storage and retrieval tasks. (b) Airport
and hotel counter staff work in standing postures and
make frequent movements from the counter area to the
conveyor belt/storage zones. (c) Library and registration
counter staff work in sit-and-stand positions. (d) Office
reception work is mostly sedentary, with occasional
movements to adjoining storage zones.
(3) User Insights: Users shared their preferences and
dislikes pertaining to physical characteristics of their
workspaces. (a) Staff at the airport counter complained
of pain in the lower back and arms. (b) Library staff
described problems while scanning bar codes and ‘desensitising’ books. (c) Hotel reception staff spoke about
occupational health injuries of the lower limbs.
(4) Environmental Factors: The effect of environmental factors such as ambient noise levels, HVAC
(heating, ventilation, and air conditioning), glare,
task-lighting, and visual privacy on BhC work featured
prominently in discussions with users. (a) Airport staff
reported high levels of ambient noise and on-screen
glare. (b) Hotel and library staff talked about problems
with indoor air quality and lack of task lighting. (c)
Office reception staff mentioned lack of visual privacy,
on-screen glare, and inability to regulate HVAC systems
(localised temperature regulation) to suit their needs.
(5) Technology Audit: The audit revealed permeation
of information technology across all BhC workspaces.
(a) Monitors, keyboards, mouse; CPU, and printers are
ubiquitous across workspaces. (b) Devices such as barcode scanner, credit-card reader, and book demagnetiser
were used in high transaction workspaces (airport,
library, and hotel receptions). (c) Common patterns of
mismatch between technology and its integration into
physical workflow was evident through cluttered lay-
76 outs, unhappy customers, and disgruntled employees.
Usability Study
The usability study focussed on effects of workspace
designs on user workflow. The study elicited information about how people use workspaces, their likes
and dislikes about current workspaces, and possible
improvements through redesign. Five specific work
areas—library counter, hotel check-in counters, airport
check-in, office reception, and registration counters
were studied. Analyses involved simultaneous examination of work videos and informal interviews. Usability
audits of work environments highlighted positive and
negative features associated with each workspace. Inferences generated from the observations helped outline
specifications for design and development of a new
range of BhC workspaces.
Airport Counter: An Example from the Usability
Study
The usability study for the airport counter is presented visually through the following images. Each image
has annotated observations at the bottom, inferences on
the right top section, and corresponding design specifications below (See Figure 2).
Key findings of the usability study are:
(1) Identifying usability issues: Naturalistic observation techniques, combined with video analysis of BhC
workplaces, offered a visceral feel of usability conflicts
in real time. (a) Airport check-in counters showed usability conflicts. Fixed counter heights, lack of adjustability in positioning devices, and the need to lift and
transfer luggage were primary usability concerns. (b)
Library counters revealed usability issues related to
positioning of the book demagnetiser below the counter,
and monitor and keyboard positions coming in the way
of book transactions. (c) Fixed counter heights, lack of
useable countertop space, and conflicts between device
placement and workflow emerged as usability issues in
hotel and office reception counters.
(2) Translating observations into inferences:
Findings from usability research were translated into
inferences that informed design directions. (a) Observations at airport check-in counters revealed the need to
provide inclusive access to weighing scales, space to
keep carry-on luggage during transactions, grab bars at
both staff and passenger sides for luggage weighing and
transfer, and optimized counter layout and device placement to augment workflow. (b) Library counters outlined the need to integrate bar code scanners and book
demagnetisers on the counter top, as well as provision
for body support devices in place of chairs. (c) Hotel
reception areas revealed need for inclusive access, storage, and retrieval within the optimal reach envelope of
users, as well as integration of transactional devices into
work surfaces. (d) Office receptions suggested adoption
of flexibility and adjustability in the location of devices
and opportunities for customisation.
(3) Translating user responses into inferences: User
responses complimented research findings, provided
insights about BhC workplaces, and informed future
design directions. For instance, hotel receptionists
complained of pain in lower limbs due to counter work
for long hours while standing. Airport employees talked
about occupational injuries due to the repetitive nature
of lifting and placing luggage on conveyor belts.
(4) Synthesising inferences into design specifications: Inferences from observations and user responses
were synthesized into preliminary design specifications.
Video analysis revealed postural shifts to relieve pressure on legs by partially resting hands on the counter
and frequently shifting body weight from one leg to
another. The idea to reduce stress on lower limbs was
the inference, and the body support was the design
specification.
Design Thinking
Environmental and usability studies informed fundamental thinking about designing a new range of BhC
workstations. Inferences and insights from research are
categorized under four broad headings—Access, Flexibility, Integration, and Environment.
(1) Access: The accessibility issues of primary concern include: (a) wheelchair access on both sides of the
counter, (b) storage zones within the optimum reach envelope of users, and (c) ease of use in material exchange
(documents, books, and luggage) across counter space.
(2) Flexibility: Flexibility issues of primary concern
were: (a) variability in working heights—sit and stand
counters, (b) adjustable split level surfaces to allow for
independent use on both sides, (c) flexibility in device
and storage locations, and (d) customisable aesthetics.
(3) Integration: Work technologies integrated within
the work surface will allow for a more efficient workflow. Primary issues in the technology-environment
domain are: (a) positioning devices based on frequency
of use, (b) integrating cable management in counter
designs, (c) consolidating devices into the planes and
surfaces for efficient workflow, and (d) combining devices to aid workflow.
77
(4) Environment: Literature on environmental design
indicates that environmental parameters such as degree
of enclosure and layout of workspaces have significant
impact on work performance (Brill et al., 1984). Specific environmental features of the design that aid performance at work are (a) provision of privacy screens
and (b) design superstructure to integrate environmental
systems such as lighting, HVAC, and security cameras,
among others.
Design Development
Commonalities in BhC workspaces across range of
work environments were mapped to develop a systems approach to the design scheme (Table 1). The
base module served requirements for library, registration, and hotel reception counters. Additional storage
spaces for office counters and weighing scale for airport
counters can be integrated with the module. Common
78 design specifications for the range of BhC workspaces
offered a quick transition to design development stage.
Concepts were sketched and prototyped iteratively to
refine transition of ideas from two-dimensional sketches
to three-dimensional models. Prototyping simulated
assembly sequence and understanding of materiality
and structure. Designs explored concepts for inclusive
access, variable work heights, technology integration,
modularity, and flexibility (Figure 3).
Designs were digitally modelled and photorealistic
visualizations were developed in a software package, enabling a quick and highly accurate method for
visualising the concepts. The basic modules for hotel,
library, and registration counters included variable
work heights, work in seated and standing postures, and
wheelchair access on both sides of the counter. Critical dimensions for work surface height, counter width,
clearance, and reach were determined from published
anthropometric data (Diffreint et al., 1974; Panero et
al., 1979) and ADAAG guidelines (ADAAG, 2002).
Common features included storage below counter level,
monitor on floating arms, and a ridge at counter edge
that serves as a service raceway. The counter surface
has provisions to integrate work technologies such as
book demagnetiser and bar code scanner, among others.
Modular design allows for parts to be easily arranged,
swapped, and reconfigured, thus offering a wide range
of layout possibilities by permutation and combination
of parts.
User Feedback
Evaluation of design simulations by actual users
provides an opportunity to examine how the particular
solution influences the actual context of use (McClelland & Suri, 2005). Computer generated renderings
of BhC workspace designs were used to elicit user
responses. A handout comprising renderings of newly
designed workspaces along with explanations of design
features and modes of operation was circulated among
users from the five specific workspaces. After perusing
the handout, participants answered three open-ended
questions:
(a) What do you think are the strengths of the design?
(b) What do you think are the weaknesses of the
design?
(c) Any suggestions for improving the design?
Analysis of feedback provided a qualitative understanding of user response to the new designs. (a)
Variable counter heights for working in sitting and
standing positions, wheelchair access on both sides, and
customisation of the workspace were appreciated by
all potential users. (b) There were suggestions regarding the manner of integration of work technologies into
surfaces. For example, library staff pointed out that they
needed a handheld barcode scanner in addition to the
counter integrated version. (c) The countertop ridge for
device integration was perceived as a barrier for book
transactions. (d) Some users raised questions about
location of controls for the variable height mechanism
and time required for changing counter height. Suggestions from users ranged from broad overarching ideas to
specific design changes. Users wanted wider workspace
counters and more storage space. Popular suggestions
include counters with wheels for easy movement, variations in surface materials and finishes, and separate
monitors for customers. These changes can be easily
integrated into the current design.
Design Outcomes
Universal Design Principles provide a well-accepted
framework for evaluating usability of new designs
of BhC workspaces. (a) Primary goals of Universal
Design such as equitable use and flexibility in use
were addressed by providing increased accessibility by
accommodating users working in standing and sitting
positions (including wheelchair users). (b) Task demands and occupational injuries associated with current
counter workspaces were analyzed, and key contributing factors were identified to provide efficient solutions
eliminating or reducing bending down or over-extension during work. (c) Integrating technologies into the
physical infrastructure enable efficient usage of space
and enhances across the counter communication. (d)
Eliminating multiplicity of devices and providing locations for devices based on workflow speed up work.
The finalized design was evaluated in terms of the
principles of Universal Design (Story, 1998) to get an
objective idea of inclusiveness of the solution. This
project provides a case study for understanding challenges of adopting a universal design approach in a specific workspace context, and the successes and potential
barriers thereof. It is also a point of reference for future
work in this domain. Given the global demographic
projections for the coming decades, relevance of such
designs that cater to basic and extended needs of people
with a diverse range of abilities is going to be increasingly relevant.
Conclusion
This project shows that Universal Design philosophy
in combination with human-centered research methodology can create equitable, accessible, and empowering
solutions that benefit society and foster employment.
User feedback loops throughout the design process
led to iterative refinements in the design and helped
communicate ideas with end-users. With the projected
greying of the workforce in coming decades, relevance
of inclusive designs that cater to the basic and extended
needs of people with a diverse range of abilities is becoming socially imperative. Future work should include
a broader range of service environments for comprehensive understanding of the commonalities in BhC
workspaces across professions. Studies should involve
building full-scale simulations of the BhC workspaces
and testing them with intended user groups. While the
research data used to develop the designs and guidelines
was obtained through extensive user-centered research,
the final design need to be validated by testing them
in real work environments. Achieving this objective
79
requires conducting extensive study of new designs
involving intended users and developing BhC standards
that will increase safety, convenience, and productivity
for everyone.
Acknowledgements
The National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR), U.S. Department of Education (Grant H133E070026) supported this project. The
opinions contained in this publication are those of the
grantee and do not necessarily reflect those of the U.S.
Department of Education.
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Work organization, job stress, and work-related
musculoskeletal disorders. Human Factors, 41(4),
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Designing for people of all ages and abilities.
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intervention research for improved musculoskeletal
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Behaviour/Neuroscience in Architecture, Interiors,
Landscape and Planning (pp.191-201). New York:
W.W. Norton & Co.
Inclusive Educational Spaces
for Children with Autism;
Development of Ethically
Appropriate Research Tools
Rachna Khare (School of Planning and
Architecture, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh),
Abir Mullick (School of Planning and
Architecture, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh)
Introduction
Autism is a developmental disorder that leads to
a different and characteristic pattern of perceiving,
thinking, and learning. ‘Autism is a developmental
disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally
evident before age three that adversely affects a child’s
educational performance. Other characteristics often
associated with autism are engagement in repetitive
activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to
environmental change or change in daily routines, and
unusual responses to sensory experiences’ (Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act-IDEA, USA). Several
authors have described autism and have grouped its
features and behavior in their own way, but the present research takes widely accepted DSM-IV (DSM-IV,
2000) as the defining tool for autism that is based on a
‘triad’ of deficits (Wing, 1988). Every child with autism
is impacted differently; as a result, some people who
are highly functioning individuals are taught in classrooms with able-bodied children, whereas others with
more unique needs get their education in specialized
schools. But for all of them, the environment serves as
an important teaching tool; their education is enhanced
by well-designed environments and negatively affected
by ill conceived spaces (Jordan, 1997; Seigel, 1998).
Because of its complex nature, autism has remained
underrepresented in the building standards and design
guidelines. Even with its overwhelming prevalence,
architects and designers have overlooked it as a condition that influences building design (Khare & Mullick,
2009). Most environmental research projects have
excluded participants with autism, as their involvement
is restricted by the Institutional Review Board (IRB).
Consequently, users with autism have been not studied
and their needs are not considered in the design of built
environment. With escalating incidence of autism and
emphasis on inclusive education, it has become vital to
explore the scope of inclusive environments for everyone, including users with autism. There is an urgent
need to develop investigative tools that identify the
needs children with autism and conduct environmental
research that complies with the IRB statute (Khare &
Mullick, 2009; Fitch, 2005).
The current research study outlines enabling environments for children with autism in educational spaces
and measures the environment’s impact on their performance. Though the study employs multiple methods
in multiple sequential stages, the current paper only
reports the use of newly developed, ethically appropriate research tools during the study.
Methodology and Research Tools
The process began with identification of environmental issues of importance for children with autism
based on an extensive literature survey and study of
environmental traces in the classrooms for children
with autism. This resulted in identification of 18 design
parameters. Then a set of evaluating tools was developed to validate these 18 design parameters in existing
educational settings. The parameters were tested in
different types of educational settings, ranging from
inclusive to specialized institutions, using developed
multiple tools. The overall study is conducted in five
sequential phases: (1) Establishing the relation between
environment and the needs of children with autism; (2)
Developing environmental design considerations to
address these needs; (3) Deriving Design Parameters
to present tangible and testable ideas; (4) Conducting
evaluations to validate identified Design Parameters;
and (5) Preparing autism friendly Design Guidelines
based on these evaluated Design Parameters.
No children, with autism or able bodied, were involved in the study; only teachers who work very closely with children were involved and the environment was
examined. Finally, the high performance and high-rated
design issues laid the foundation to develop design
guidelines for autism-friendly educational settings.
All children with autism have some degree of communication impairment, regardless of their functioning
level and age. The lack of ‘theory of mind’ and perception make it difficult for them to learn and implement
language for the purpose of communication (Siegel,
1998, p 59). With this deficit of autism, the most challenging part of the research design was to get informed
consent from the subjects and collect data involving
them without bias. ‘Using multiple research techniques
to study a problem increases reliability and decreases
the chances of falsely constant results. Collecting different kinds of data from the same phenomenon with
81
several techniques counterbalances bias inherent in any
one technique with the biases of others’ (Zeisel, 2006,
p.122). Thus, this multi-stage research study employed
multiple research tools in an orderly way to achieve the
research objectives. The following sections describe
the ‘Trace Study’, ‘Environment-Performance Tools’,
and ‘Environment Rating Tool’ developed in the current
research for collecting and validating data; these tools
comply with statute for ethical practices in research.
Observing Physical Traces
In the preliminary diagnostic exploration, a field
study was taken up together with an extensive literature
survey to understand the educational needs of children
with autism. Environmental adaptations by teachers and
therapists to assist pupils with autism were observed
in different types of educational spaces in Germany,
the United Kingdom, the United States, and India. This
helped to spot the similarities and differences in the enabling aspects of environment between those mentioned
in literature (Siegel, 1998; Jordan, 1997; Schopler,
1995) and those provided by the teachers in existing
educational spaces. Case studies in different countries
helped to identify relevant environmental aspects without any socio-cultural prejudices.
The technique adopted for this qualitative field study
was ‘observing physical traces’ (Zeisel, 2006); the
physical surroundings were observed to find reflections of the activities that were not produced in order to
be measured by the researcher. This is an unobtrusive
method and did not influence the behavior that caused
the valuable traces in the educational setting. Drawings, annotated diagrams, and photographs were used to
observe the traces in the classrooms with children with
autism (on walls, ceilings, furniture layout, and floor,
please refer to Figure 1). Different types of schools
were observed during field visits, including an early
childhood program, autism school, inclusive school,
vocational unit, and a school with residential facility.
The environmental interventions by the teachers in
existing classrooms with children with autism reflected
the teaching methods adopted to combat autism conditions. Structured teaching, behavioral modification, and
one-to-one teaching, were the most visible amongst
all. They were supported by visual cues for improving
communication, through visual schedules and visual
instructions, for daily and individual activities. Curriculum modifications were done to accommodate the needs
of children; varied activities were included in their
curriculum, including self-help training or vocational
training. Other characteristics observed in these educational spaces atypical to the regular school environment
were different sized teaching areas, withdrawal spaces,
calm environments, and sensory rooms. An extra effort
for safety and supervision reflected in almost all settings. These features were observed irrespective of the
type of setting (special education in Germany and India,
inclusive education in the U.S.) and the resources for
Figure 1: Observation of Physical Traces in an Autism Classroom in Special Schools
special education in different countries (UK, Germany,
India, and the U.S.). When findings of this ‘preliminary
diagnostic study’ were analyzed and summarized, it
provided a set of qualitative open-ended ‘eighteen environmental design parameters’ to conceive an enabling
environment for children with autism.
Environment-Performance Tools
To make a strong argument, it was necessary to further validate these design parameters quantitatively for
their relevance in improving the quality of the physical
environment for children with autism. The quantitative
data not only contributed precision to the knowledge
but also made research convincing to others. The present section discusses the development of the multiple
evaluation tools to test these identified environmental
design parameters in the preliminary diagnostic study.
Since the major concepts to be tested in the present
research were well defined, standard questionnaires
were developed based on design parameters. These
questionnaires helped to discover regularities of opinion
amongst different groups of people working for children with autism such as teachers, therapists, or experts.
The research developed two interdependent testing tools
to evaluate the design parameters; these tools were the
environmental assessment and performance measure for
children with autism.
Environmental assessment (EA) and performance
measure for pupils with autism (PMPA) validated the
environment and performance inter-relationship for
children with autism. Both tools were based on rehabilitation studies (Steinfeld & Danford, 1999) and post
occupancy evaluation studies in architecture, where
existing buildings were evaluated for their functional
performance and the resulting body of knowledge is
used to design similar buildings in future (Zeisel, 2006;
Preiser, 2001; Zimering et al., 1978). The environmental assessment (EA) was a checklist of parameters
derived from the 18 environmental design parameters
for autism, and their presence was expected to improve
educational performance. The performance measure
for pupils with autism (PMPA) was derived to test the
performance of children in presence of the parameters.
The major factors that guided the development of evaluation tools were:
(1) The tools were designed to be tested in the existing educational environment, as it was difficult to
construct new designs for evaluation.
(2) As it was difficult to get accurate responses from
low-functioning children with autism due to
their limitation in communication, the tools were
designed to collect data from the people who work
very closely with them.
(3) Since the research dealt with vulnerable human
subjects, the tools and survey procedure were
designed keeping the ethical and privacy issues in
mind.
Environmental Assessment (EA): The 18 design parameters formed the basis of the environmental assessment checklist. These 18 items on the checklist were
intended to prompt inspection so that their extent of
presence in the environment can be recorded on a fivepoint scale from exceptionally high to unusually low
level (Table 1). The researcher surveying a facility was
supposed to check the building features that matched
the checklist of design parameters in the environment,
and the assessment criteria depended upon the degree of
their presence in the environment. The environment was
assessed on a five-point scale (points in parentheses).
For exceptionally high level, ‘design parameters’ had to
be strongly present in all areas (5); for high level, they
had to be strongly present in the classroom and related
spaces (4); for moderate level, they had to be moderately present in classroom (3); for low level, they had
to be present in at least a few activities in the classroom
(2); and absence of design parameters in the environment marked unusually low level (1). There was also a
possibility to include any other features noticed in the
environment as comments.
Performance Measure for Pupils with Autism
(PMPA): Performance Measure for Pupils with Autism
was a sequential evaluation by teachers and therapists
that measured performance of the pupils in an existing
educational environment that had already undergone
environmental assessment. This was expected to help
in understanding the interrelation between environment
and performance of children. The questions to assess
the performance were derived from the earlier developed 18 design parameters. Teachers were asked to respond to a questionnaire (Table 2) about the educational
performance of children in the existing environment.
Their responses were supposed to be based on the broad
performance of children with autism in the present
environment, and not on any specific child. The answers
were pre-coded (points in parentheses) in mutually
exclusive categories; if more than two thirds of the total
low-functioning pupils with autism perform the activity,
then the response was ‘Yes’ (2); if less than one-third
do, then the response was ‘Some’ (1); and if no child
was able to do the activity, then the answer was ‘None’
(0). Although there were no open-ended questions, in
all answers there was a possibility for the respondents
83
Table 1: Tool for Environment Assessment (EA)
to write individual opinions, which were not covered in
the given categories of answers.
Environment Rating Scale (DPRS)
Environment serves as an important teaching instrument for all children with and without autism. To
address this, teachers were asked to review the 18
environmental design parameters and rate them for
their importance in education and development (Please
refer to the Design Parameter Rating Scale-DPRS in
Table 3) according to their past experiences and future
expectations. The rating was done on a five-point scale
and answers are pre-coded (points in parentheses) as
highly recommended, when they strongly recommend
it for whole school building (5); recommended, when
they strongly recommend it for classrooms and related
spaces (4); recommended with reservations, when they
recommend it for classrooms with certain reservations
(3); not sure, when they are not confident about the
design parameters (2); and not recommended, when
they reject the environmental design parameters (1). Us-
84 ing this scale, the 18 design parameters were rated for
kids with autism by autism experts and for able-bodied
kids by regular education experts. All experts rating the
parameters were thoroughly informed about the formulated ‘environmental designed parameters’ as conceived
by the researcher.
Survey Design
After preparation, the evaluation tools were pretested with a few autism teachers to understand the
unintended side effects during survey. The comments
were received and tools were revised incorporating the
feedback from the participants. After pretesting, the
survey was carried out in the existing educational setups
in a naturalized environment that was familiar and
comfortable for children. The standardized questionnaires were repeated in the same way by the interviewer
to avoid differences in understanding. The survey was
done in two stages; in the first stage, data is collected
from educational settings in the U.S. to validate the
formulated environmental design parameters, and in the
Table 2: Tool for Performance Measure for Pupils with Autism (PMPA)
85
second stage, data was collected from various educational settings in India to ascertain cross-cultural validity. Data from autism experts in India help to understand the cross-cultural dimension of design parameters.
The representative samples in the survey were comprised of (1) Low-functioning children with autism with
high autistic features, as the children with autism vary
widely in abilities, intelligence, and behaviors. This was
done with a belief that if the environment is supportive
for complex conditions in low-functioning children, it
will also be supportive for high functioning and mildly
effected children. (2) All age pupils between 5-18 years,
to understand the usefulness of an enabling environment for different age groups in educational spaces. (3)
Different types of educational settings based on their restrictiveness, from inclusive to specialized. The samples
were selected randomly, but represent different types of
educational settings, including public schools with autism classes, public schools with special needs classes,
public schools with fulltime inclusion in inclusive
settings, and special schools, special schools for autism,
and specialized therapy centers in specialized settings.
Evaluation tool preparation and most of the field survey
in the present research was done in the United States,
during a Fulbright Doctoral and Professional Research
Fellowship at the College of Architecture of the Georgia
Institute of Technology, Atlanta, U.S. Thus the present research abides by the federal rules of conducting
research in human subjects. All tools and questionnaires
in the present research were reviewed by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Georgia Institute of Technology prior to the field survey.
Results
Research results show the new tools were very effective in collecting environmental information. The trace
study identified ‘Environmental Design Parameters’
that were important for children, and the environmentperformance tools validated the ‘Environmental
Design Parameters’ at several testing levels (primary/
middle/high schools and inclusive/special schools), and
contexts (U.S. and India). All this was done without
involving children, just the environment and people caring for children with autism. To establish the relationship between environment and autism, the environment
(EA) and performance of children with autism (PMPA)
were assessed for the same educational environment.
The data was then compared and analyzed. The environment was assessed in 16 educational spaces at the
primary, middle, and high school level, of which eight
were inclusive and eight were specialized settings. The
empirical data that was collected using the above two
tools show strong correlation between an identified
enabling environment and educational performance of
children with autism (Figure 2). The objective of this
analysis was to understand how the quality of environment in educational spaces affects the performance of
children with autism. It attempted to analyze EA and
PMPA data for all 16 schools and compared average
data for different age groups. The schools those had
high environmental assessment (EA) values also had
high performance measure (PMPA) values for identified design parameters. Environment and performance
of children with autism were interdependent at all age
levels. Some variations in the graph profile, between
Figure 2: Environment Assessment (EA) and Performance Measure (PMPA) Relationship in Schools
Comments
Not
Recommended
Not Sure
Recommended
with Reservation
Recommended
Highly
Recommended
Table 3: Tool for Environmental Rating-Design Parameter Rating Scale (DPRS)
87
Figure 3: Design Parameter Rating Scale (DPRS) Mean Rating
environment (EA) and performance (PMPA), depicted
that the performance was not exclusively dependent
on the environment. There were many other factors
affecting performance, ranging from educational to
social. The data was also collected using the environment rating scale (DPRS) from 18 experts working with
low-functioning children with autism and also from 14
regular education experts. 95.3 percent of autism experts and 86.3 percent of the regular education experts
rated the design parameters as highly recommended
on a five-point scale. This confirms that the identified
design parameters were not only favorable for kids with
autism but were also beneficial for all school children.
The universal consequence of the design parameters to
the educational environments was furthermore defined
by the mean values of DPRS, Figure 3 illustrates this
mean value as a universally beneficial, inclusive, autism
friendly, recommended value for design for all.
Conclusion
To understand the needs of children with autism in
the physical environment, it is necessary to develop
research tools that help explore interconnection of their
behavior and environment. These tools should not only
be effective but also comply with the ethical considerations involved in researching vulnerable populations.
This paper presents the preliminary diagnostic exploration, supported by literature on autism and trace-study.
The trace study was done in Europe, the U.S., and India
to observe environmental interventions/adaptations
done by autism teachers and therapists. The paper also
attempts to present validation tools to evaluate identi-
88 fied environmental parameters and their implications in
designing educational spaces.
Although school environments can be confusing,
overwhelming, and fearful for children with autism,
these common evidence-based environmental design
parameters may be applied to achieve enabling environments which improve their responses to teaching and
therapies. The newly developed research tools address
the impossibility of involving children with autism in
environmental research. The tools have been successfully tested and the results offer important information
that have the potential to influence building design,
revise building codes, offer new design guidelines, and
develop inclusive built environments for children with
autism and able-bodied children.
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89
The Artifact Model of
Architecture: Integrating
Buildings and Social
Environments
Lubomir Popov (Bowling Green State
University)
Introduction
A key to understanding the social fallacies of the
contemporary built environment may be the way different participants in the facility development process
conceptualize architecture. There is a large body of
literature on the failures of modern architecture spanning several decades. Starting in the 1960s, Jane Jacobs
(1961), James Bailey (1965), Ada Louise Huxtable
(1970), and Brent Brolin (1976) have demonstrated that
the major problem with the inadequate social functioning of contemporary buildings comes from adhering to
dominant architectural conceptualizations, beliefs, and
values. A second generation of architectural researchers
and critics goes even further, revealing the patronizing
and patriarchal arrogance of architects, dissecting their
attitudes and looking for evident disregard of users’
actual needs and values (Franck & Lepori, 2007).
When the dominant views and mindsets seem to be
ineffective in producing well-functioning architecture,
the simple strategy is to search for a new conceptual
apparatus. One possible methodological procedure for
developing new conceptualizations is to employ a wider
interpretation of the object of study. Such an approach
presupposes expanding the conceptual boundaries of
the architectural object in order to create a new way
of looking at it, interpreting it, and conceptualizing it
(Balint & Shelton, 1996; Gelatt, 1989; Roth, 1999).
The purpose of this paper is to suggest a new way of
thinking about environmental design and design projects
that will allow design agents to view their roles and
the product of their work in a new light. The goal is to
develop a broader model of the architectural object for
analyzing its social functioning and for examining a
number of theoretical issues in this respect. Here, the
notion of model is interpreted as a conceptualization of
the object of study at a very high level of abstraction,
relevant to philosophical and theoretical pursuits.
The methodology of developing the new model is
grounded in ideas about the artificial (Simon, 1969,
1996), ideas from new product design and development
(Florman, 1994; Morris, 2009; Norman, 2002), and
90 systems thinking (Hubka, 1988; Nadler, 1981; Stengers,
1997). Simon’s philosophy of the artificial is reinterpreted from a systems point of view and codified as a
conceptual model intended for methodological application. This way of thinking produces a “social” view
of built environment, an “external” model of architecture—a macro model—which expands the boundaries
of the architectural object to include its functional environment (Simon, 1969, 1996). From this perspective,
the building by itself cannot comprise the artifact. The
artifact consists of the building plus its social functional
environment.
Different disciplines and different purposes have
resulted in a number of other views about the artifact
(Krippendorff, 1989, 2006). However, the model proposed here is not intended for a discourse on topics like
poetics of space, meaning, and architectural composition. All these alternative or complimentary concerns
remain beyond the scope of the current discussion.
The paper is organized in two main parts which are
related methodologically and functionally. The first part
offers a methodological instrument for discussing the
issues expanded upon in the second part. The author
presents a systems model of the artifact, followed by its
adaptation to the architectural realm. The second part
shows the application of this new model for developing
alternative ways of conceptualizing a number of problems and suggesting ideas for resolving them.
The Artifact Model of the Architectural Object
From a systems perspective, the artifact can be
viewed not only as an object, but also as a system (Simon, 1996). This assumption provides the foundation
for developing a systems model of the artifact for the
specific purpose of the present study—to create a broader model of the architectural object, an instrument for
analyzing the social functioning of the spatial-material
morphology. Next, the systems model is “filled” with
architectural content and will become the artifact model
of the architectural object.
The systems model selected for the current project
describes an artifact system composed of two subsystems—one is the morphology (material) and the other
is the functional environment of the morphology. These
two subsystems interact with each other in constant
processes. In these processes, multiple relationships between the subsystems emerge. The categories constituting the systems model of the artifact are outlined below:
(a) morphology of the artifact, which also can be
viewed as the spatial-material subsystem of the
artifact system;
(b) functional environment of the morphology, which
also can be interpreted as the functional environment subsystem;
(c) processes of interaction between the morphology
and its functional environment, or sociospatial
interactions;
(d) relationships that emerge through these interactions;
(e) laws that regulate the interactions and relationships;
(f) outcomes of the interactions, or effects of the
spatial-material morphology on the social functional environments;
(g) the system—the systems model of the artifact, or
the morphology and its functional environment as
an entity;
(h) the system’s environment, denoting a context
broader than the immediate functional environment
of the morphology.
Morphology of the architectural artifact. Following the model presented above, the artifact is a system
comprised of two main subsystems: morphology and its
functional environment. “Morphology” is the material
organized in a particular way. From the point of view
of human perception and architectural theory, morphology can be described in terms such as shape, form,
solids, and voids, mass and space, and, more technically, layout of space and building structures. The goal
of architectural design is to organize the spatial-material
morphology. However, the morphology has no importance or meaning by itself and for itself. It acquires
importance and meaning only in relation to its social
functional environment.
Functional environment of the morphology. Environment is the medium in which morphology is functioning. The functional environment influences the constitution of the morphology. Nowadays, it is a common
truism in the domain of evolutionary biology that the
aquatic environment has shaped marine creatures (Rose,
1998). The shape of the fuselage of aircraft is a function the properties of the atmosphere regarding different
speeds of flight. In mechanical engineering, the shape
and the material of the drill heads are calculated on the
grounds of the resistance of the materials to be drilled.
In all these fields, scientists and engineers conduct methodical studies of the functional environment in order
to calculate the shape and structure of morphology.
Therefore, the functional environment is not one
monolithic component. It is composed of several difMay 2015 – brainSTORM
ferent domains: geographical, social, and economic, as
well as other potential domains depending on the goals
of the specific study. In this paper, the social domain of
the functional environment will be referred to as social
functional environment. It can be understood in two
ways. First, it can be viewed in a “social science” mode,
describing users and their cultural characteristics, needs,
and activities, as well as their organizations and modes
of operation. For example, such terminology is used in
functional programming. Second, the social functional
environment can be described in a design mode, which
consists of design requirements and related statements.
For example, this is the type of terminology typically
used in space programming.
Processes of interactions between the morphology
and its social functional environment. The process aspect of any state of being or existence can be described
in terms of interactions and natural laws that regulate
these interactions. Processes and interactions constitute
the mode of existence of social agents and their organizations. The processes of interactions can be viewed
as a medium in which the morphology and its social
functional environment interface and relate to each
other. These interactions generate the relationships that
sustain the morphology and its functional environment
as a single entity; they also create bonds and regulate
the relationships between all components of the system/
artifact.
The interactions between the morphology and its
social functional environment comprise the process
aspect of the architectural artifact. These interactions
are of major interest to the environmental design community because they involve not only the components
of building morphology, but also the social functional
environment comprised of individuals, groups, and organizations which take place in various formats within
the framework of human activity. The interactive aspect
is materialized in everyday action, routine operations,
rituals, and so forth. This domain has a distinctive
social nature. In terms of disciplinary expertise, it is the
realms of sociology, culture studies, theory of action,
organizational theory, and operations management.
It is important to note that any type of interaction
involving social agents possesses a distinctive social
essence. Therefore, the interactions of material objects
and social agents should be categorized as social phenomena. This type of socialness engenders in the architectural artifact a social nature. As a consequence, anyone who studies or engineers the architectural artifact
system assumes the responsibility of being competent
regarding the social functional environment. The social
essence of the interaction between building morphology
91
and its social functional environment provides one more
argument in favor of construing architecture as a social
entity.
Relationships that emerge in the interaction.
Relationships emerge in the process of interaction. In
philosophy, relationships are often viewed as properties
or qualities of the objects, and conversely, properties
are produced by relationships that emerge in the process
of interaction. In systems theory, relationships constitute the structure of the system. In the social sciences,
relationships emerge in social action and when institutionalized, comprise the structures of society (Giddens,
1984). The relationships between morphology and its
social environment emerge in the processes of human
activities and reveal the qualities of the social agents regarding their environment and vice versa. Accordingly,
environmental relations should be interpreted as social
relationships. Every time we have relationships between
social agents and other objects, these relationships are
social by nature. The implication is that they need to be
studied with the apparatus of the social sciences.
Laws that regulate the interactions and relationships. In the realm of sociospatial interactions, the
“laws” regulating the functioning/interaction and the
subsequent relationships can be conceptualized as basic
regularities exhibited in the process of appropriation
of space. Such regularities appear in common behavior
patterns, patterns of use of space, likes and dislikes,
preferences, attitudes, and so forth. They display
persistent associations with social groups, cultures, or
situations. These regularities are important predictors
of sociospatial interactions and their possible outcomes.
The “laws” that “regulate” sociospatial interactions are
social by nature. Therefore, the study and understanding
of the underlying behavioral regularities is in the realm
of the social sciences.
Outcomes of the interaction. The outcomes of
interaction are effects or impacts of the spatial-material
morphology on its social functional environment. Morphology (the building) influences human behavior and
the organization of people. Buildings have effects on
people and influence their activities both in positive and
negative ways, providing support for human activities
or producing unintended side effects and consequences.
Buildings have major impact on user operations, wellbeing, and mood. Thus the outcomes of the sociospatial
interactions may be expressed in terms of impeding and
even blocking particular behaviors, which can produce
stress, frustration, and so forth. Alternatively, people
may feel comfortable and satisfied, and thereby may
become more productive. Hence, if architects wish to
92 deliver buildings that function successfully, the study
of the sociospatial structures of social reality should
become a major concern and professional domain in
architecture.
The system—the artifact model of the architectural
object. The interacting spatial-material morphology and
its social functional environment work together as a
system that can be interpreted as the model of the architectural object. This model broadens the boundaries of
the current object of architecture. From this perspective,
we can talk interchangeably about a broader model of
the architectural object, an artifact model of architecture
developed from a system’s perspective, as well as a sociospatial system or artifact. The social implications of
the spatial-material morphology and the social nature of
its functional environment provide the grounds to treat
the architectural object as a sociospatial artifact and a
system that belong to the class of social phenomena.
Without a social environment, the morphology will
be only a mechanical structure devoid of purpose, human meaning, and utilitarian benefits. Caverns deep
in the earth’s crust are not architecture; underground
engineering structures that have no contact with people
are categorized in a different realm and treated predominantly as objects of mechanics and statics. What
makes human-made structures real architecture is the
appropriation by people in the process of human action.
Hence, architectural objects can be viewed as sociospatial systems and artifacts with all the ensuing complexities and considerations.
The system’s environment—mega-environment.
In the present paper, the term “mega-environment”
denotes a context that is broader than the social functional environment of the morphology. It also includes
the natural environment, the societal system, and any
other artifacts. Competing or cooperating social institutions and organizations are taken into account. Accordingly, we can speak about interaction between the
artificial system and its broader environment or megaenvironment. For example, the city structure and the
local community constitute the mega-environment of
a community center. It is important to consider the demographics and economics of the serviced district, the
transportation and accessibility options, and the existing
recreational facilities, businesses, and schools. Hence,
we can envision a new nested system of systems—the
city and community mega-environment and the architectural artifacts nested in it.
Using the Artifact Model as Analytical Lens
The model of the architectural object as an artifact,
presented above, facilitates the development of alternative ways of conceptualizing a number of problems
in the domains of environmental design, architectural
theory, and environment and behavior studies. The
initial intent of the model makes it most productive in
the area of sociocultural dimensions and the problems
of built environment. Selected theoretical implications
and possible practical applications are discussed below:
expanding the boundaries of the architectural object; relational representations of the architectural morphology
and its social functional environment; social design in
architecture; strengthening the case for design programming; the programmatic and evaluative moments in the
design process; facility development as new product
development; research utilization; and evidence-based
design.
Expanding the boundaries of the architectural
object. The artifact model may prove highly instrumental in a debate about the boundaries of the object of
architecture. Traditionally, mainstream environmental
designers are concerned predominantly with the spatialmaterial object by itself and for itself. For all practical
purposes, they narrow the object of their engagement
to the spatial-material subsystem of the artifact. Their
major preoccupation is with materiality and its organization according to the laws of nature and art. The
social functional environment is ignored or at least,
the attention to the social dimensions of the artifact is
insignificant.
From the position of the artifact model, the object
of interest of architecture can be viewed as a complex
sociospatial phenomenon, and not just the building or
the material shell. This position may serve as an argument that architectural studies should look beyond the
spatial (or building) morphology and into the social
functional environment. Architects should explore selected aspects of the social environment or they should
develop sophisticated mechanisms for interdisciplinary
collaboration and exchange with the social sciences.
The implications are that architectural design should not
be viewed only in terms of art or civil engineering, but
as social design as well.
Relational representations of the architectural
morphology and its social functional environment. In
this paper, relational representations are conceptualized
as descriptions of one subsystem from the standpoint of
another subsystem. Systems theory provides a general
framework to present the morphology in terms of its
social functional environment. Therefore, architectural
morphology can be described in relational terms, charMay 2015 – brainSTORM
acterizing the social effects that spatial-material structures create in the functional environment. Conversely,
the social functional environment of the building (the
users and their activities) can be described both in social
science terminology (users, activities, needs, values,
preferences, etc.) and as a list of design requirements
derived from these social science descriptions (spaces,
adjacencies, environmental quality, finishes, etc.). These
relational representations are particularly important for
formulating research problems in the programmatic
phases of the project delivery process.
From this perspective, morphology should be organized on the grounds of information about the social
components of the architectural artifact—the social
functional environment, the laws of functioning/interaction, and the desired effects that the morphology should
create in the functional environment. Since the organization of morphology is predicated on the properties
of the social functional environment, the study of the
social realm becomes a crucial prerequisite for good
architectural programming and design.
Social design in architecture. The artifact model presented here increases visibility of the social functioning
of architectural objects. When the object of design is
viewed as a spatial-material morphology functioning
in a social environment, then designers’ sensitivity to
sociocultural issues might grow rapidly. This can bring
new positive effects into the project delivery and facility development processes. The artifact model increases
the awareness of architectural designers regarding the
social nature of spatial-material morphology functions and the consideration of the social aspects in the
organization of the spatial morphology. Designers will
develop a better comprehension of the architectural
artifact as a sociospatial system.
This perspective can be extended one step further to
prepare architects for more active social design involvement. The conceptualization of the architectural object
as an artifact allows for the formulation of design problems, as well as their solutions, in a predictable way,
similar to current engineering practices. If the social
functional environment of the spatial-material morphology is codified in research findings, then the structure
of morphology can be “calculated” on the basis of
such findings. This leads us again to the idea of social
design and engineering in the sense of using theory
and research for predicting the social functioning of
the artifact’s spatial-material morphology. Such a view
emphasizes the possibility of developing user-friendly
architectural designs by considering the social environment and the patterns of interaction between users and
the building.
93
Strengthening the case for design programming.
The model of built environment as an artifact presents architectural design as the process of shaping the
morphology in relation to its functional environment.
In this process, the designer should obtain a description
of the functional environment, the laws of functioning
(interaction), and the desired functions (effects that are
to be achieved). The job of the designer is to organize,
to “shape” the spatial morphology according to these
requirements.
The assumption that the functioning of the morphology depends on the characteristics of its environment
leads to the idea that these characteristics should be
made explicit in advance and taken into consideration
throughout the design process. The understanding that
the organization of the morphology should correspond
to the functional environment advocates the necessity
for facilities programming at the front end of design.
From such a perspective, programming becomes an
important phase that delivers the functional description
of the spatial morphology. It assists design decision
makers in producing a well-functioning building. This
can be used to highlight the importance of programming, developing it more extensively, and investing
more resources in it.
The programmatic and evaluative moments in the
design process. The artifact concept also introduces
a substantive dimension to the “analysis-synthesisevaluation” model of the design process. In this case,
the analysis stage is predominantly about researching
the social functional environment. The research process leads to developing a list of requirements, and
thereby formulating the system of problems that needs
to be resolved. In other words, this is programming. In
addition, in each design act, there might be instances
of reconsidering user requirements and reformulating the specific design problem. The synthesis stage is
the solution-generating part of the design process, the
production of tentative design options, or the organization of the spatial-material morphology. The evaluation
stage is about testing the fit, the congruence between
the spatial/material morphology (the design solution
of the problem) and its social functional environment.
Such a viewpoint makes a new type of argument for
the importance of both programmatic and evaluation
thinking within the framework of a single design act. It
also implies that decision-making in the design process should be viewed not only in terms of organizing
space, structures, and materials, but also with respect to
instances of programmatic analysis that alternate with
instances of organization of materiality and solution
evaluation.
94 Facility development as new product development:
Consumer research as an analog for user research
in architecture. In general, models with a wider scope
enable researchers to see their area in a different light,
to formulate new problems, and to generate unconventional solutions to existing problems. The artifact
model directs environmental researchers to other fields
where they can find analogous problems and study their
solutions. One such field is new product development
with its tradition of using consumer research. Consumer
research has well developed procedures for interacting with design and a long record of contributions to
improving the usability of artifacts. It is defined as a
field, institutionalized, and recognized as a profession in
several industries.
Hence, the artifact model suggests the institutionalization of user research in architecture as a well-defined
specialty contributing to the facility development process. This presupposes the organization of a new allied
profession with its distinctive educational programs and
degrees. On a parallel note regarding facilities programming, by referring to such analogs and precedents in
other industries, the artifact model suggests a similar
approach and actions to programming. From this perspective, programming is conceptualized as an allied
profession in the facility development process that has
very close and continuous interaction with the participants in the core design phases.
The artifact model and research utilization: Learning from new product development. The artifact model
facilitates the reformulation of the problem of environment and behavior research utilization in new ways.
First, it directs researchers to investigate the solutions
of this problem in an analogous domain—research
utilization in new product development. Industries that
are more advanced regarding research utilization might
offer precedents for productive utilization practices.
We can study the way these fields have formulated and
resolved the “utilization” problem. Second, the artifact
model leads to the reformulation of the research utilization problem. It suggests moving beyond the objective
to make knowledge usable and delving into the problem
of coordinating research and design activities within the
framework of artifact development. The idea is that design decision makers initiate the process of knowledge
production. They will outline their information needs
and submit them as a research brief. This approach will
provide better chances for producing knowledge that
can be utilized in architectural design decision-making.
Evidence-based design. The artifact model has a
number of important implications for evidence-based
design (EBD). First, the model provides philosophical
foundations for strengthening the argument in favor
of EBD and encourages more design firms to use that
approach. The artifact model also provides grounds for
making a complimentary argument for evidence-based
design, inscribing it into the broader model of architecture. This model will also stimulate and motivate
designers to learn more about and better understand
the social functioning of the spatial-material morphology. In this way, they will be able to more productively
communicate their needs for user information to environmental researchers. Second, the artifact model can
provide a broader platform for conceptualizing and organizing a research agenda for EBD. The major categories of the model can guide the definition of important
content areas of a forthcoming EBD research program.
Third, the model will better relate the concepts of
research utilization and evidence-based design. Fourth,
by fostering the notion of social design in architecture,
the artifact model will contribute to the development of
a social engineering attitude in the profession, which
will lead to expanding and augmenting the scope and
depth of the EBD movement.
Concluding Remarks
This paper introduces the artifact model of the architectural object developed from a systems perspective.
It offers a broader view on architecture and a productive conceptual instrument for integrating buildings and
social environment as well as for introducing a social
science perspective to the architectural realm. The notion of a spatial-material morphology functioning in a
social environment changes the traditional views about
the architectural object. It empowers researchers and
designers to interpret many facilities development problems in a new way, which in turn helps in finding more
efficient and productive facilities planning and design
solutions. This new way of thinking allows for sharing
experience, practices, and achievements from a number
of academic disciplines and practice domains that usually do not communicate with each other.
The issues and solutions outlined in this paper will
be developed further in more detail in a series of future
projects. There are many other issues that are still in
a process of exploration and reformulation facilitated
by this model, for example, the issue of environmental
congruence; the conceptualization of user needs regarding architectural design; research-based processes of developing design requirements; the issue about the body
of knowledge of the architectural profession; teaching
environment and behavior research in the architectural
curriculum; etc.
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95
Social Interaction in Student
Residence Halls Through an
Architectural Lens: A Method
for Categorizing Student
Residence Halls
Sohrab Rahimi (Penn State University),
Alexandra Staub (Penn State University)
During the past decade, there has been a considerable increase in student enrollment in post-secondary
institutions nationwide. These increases have encouraged universities to plan new student housing at the
same time that family and student expectations have led
to a reconsideration of residence halls and their amenities. Many universities have sought to keep students,
especially upperclassmen, in on-campus housing to
increase their income from residence halls as well as to
create a sense of affiliation to the university community
and minimize the dropout rate.
Facilitating social interaction among students has
been one of the salient objectives in the new trend
of on-campus housing developments. Social interaction aids student retention, helps students to integrate
themselves into broader student communities, increases
learning opportunities and helps students adjust to the
university’s educational goals, integrates minority students into the university’s social system, and cultivates
long term relationships among students.
While university administrators try to promote
formal interactions in residence halls by organizing
programs such as meal plans and social events or by
manipulating the number and diversity of inhabitants
(e.g., separating or mixing underclassmen and upperclassmen), less attention is often paid to physical design
factors. It is these physical factors, however, which are
essential for stimulating environmental conditions that
help students to interact. Despite an increased interest
in residence halls in the last decade, no recent study has
presented a coherent compendium of physical design
factors as they relate to the residence halls’ sociability
from an architectural design standpoint.
This paper has two objectives: first, to summarize the
physical factors that exert an influence on social interactions in student residence halls through an analysis of
existing literature, and second, to provide a method for
categorizing dormitory buildings based on their sociospatial attributes that we extract from the first step.
96 Three major criteria for residential halls were extracted
based on a meta-analysis: average number of bedrooms
per auxiliary common space (ACS), average number of
bedrooms per service space (SS), and corridor traffic
flow. Using these criteria, 148 residence halls from four
universities were analyzed and five different typologies
developed. The overview that we provide in this study
provides a basis for architects and sociologists in both
the design and assessment of the sociability level in
various types of residence halls.
The Advantages of On-Campus Housing
According to the National Center for Education
Statistics, the number of college students in the United
States has significantly increased during the past few
decades and was 21.6 million in 2011—a 40 percent
increase in slightly more than a decade (National Center
for Education Statistics, 2012). This has affected the
demand for student housing, which is directly related
to the number of students enrolled in postsecondary
institutions (Ong, 2013). Eighty percent of universities
in the United States are expected to have at least 15
percent growth in student enrollment, and not all will be
capable of providing housing for their growing student
body (Ong, 2013).
While off-campus housing fulfills part of the need for
student housing, there are many reasons that on-campus
living is a better option. Pike (2002) argues that students who live on campus are more open to diversity.
Multiple studies have shown that schools that manage
to provide students with sufficient on-campus housing have higher retention rates (Fidler & Moore, 1996;
Wisely and Jorgensen, 2000; Stephens, 2000; Kuh,
2001; Ong, 2013). Gebhardt (2000) shows that a lack
of regulations in off-campus housing leads to excessive use of alcohol among students (Gebhardt, 2000).
On-campus life also reduces the need for cars and
consequently the need for parking spaces on campus
(Stephens, 2000). Ong et al. assert that on-campus
housing is often more affordable for students, especially
in large cities, and overall this issue is an important factor for students in deciding their college options (Ong,
2013). Because of these reasons as well as the fact that
on-campus housing is an important financial resource
for universities (Hill, 2004), postsecondary institutions
are attempting to increase the number of students living
on-campus.
Despite the growing demand for student housing, the
past three decades have seen relatively little research
on the quality of residence halls. This issue might be
in part due to the temporary nature of student housing,
where quality is not seen as essential as compared to
regular housing (Thomsen, 2008). Another reason might
be the moderate financial status of students (Meyer,
2002; Devlin et al., 2008). Nevertheless, changes in
family expectations as well as the financial and educational advantages that are associated with on-campus
housing have encouraged university administrators to
promote the quality of life within residence halls (Tibbitts, 2005; Hill, 2004; Devlin, 2008).
One of the salient objectives that college administrators have tried to pursue in their recent policies is to
engender an outgoing atmosphere in residence halls by
encouraging social interaction among students (Biliczky, 2005; Miller, 2005). There are many advantages
associated with social interaction. Social interaction
increases retention rates (Tinto, 1988; Wisely and
Jorgensen, 2000; Deci et al., 1991; Osterman, 2000;
Hoffman et al., 2002/2003), improves educational performance (Palmer et al, 2008), helps students align with
college values (Berger, 1997; Wisely and Jorgensen,
2000; Kuh, 2001; Hill, 2004), helps integrate minorities
(Bowen and Bok 1998; Bowen and Levin 2003; Epstein
2002; Marmaros & Sacerdone, 2006; Richards, 2002),
and helps generate a friendly and favorable campus
atmosphere (Pretty & Ward, 2001; Marmaros & Sacerdone, 2006).
The Question of Spatial Typology
There are two types of social interaction: passive and
active. Passive interaction consists of “unintentional
encounters” such as greetings, making eye contact,
or shaking hands. This form of communication can
increase social support and the feeling of security and
wellbeing in a group. Active interaction, on the other
hand, includes intentional encounters such as meeting someone for coffee or a study date (Abu-Ghazzeh,
1999). Since passive interactions are the first step towards active ones, physical environments in dormitories
become important for the way they provide this type of
encounter. Researchers have found several architectural
design factors that affect passive interaction in general,
with most literature suggesting that proximity is a key
factor (Abu-Ghazzeh, 1999; McPherson et al., 2001;
Butts, 2002; Williams, 2005; Marmaros & Sacerdone,
2006; Tsai, 2006; Wineman et al., 2009; Sailer & McCulloh, 2012; Preciado et al., 2012). It is important to
note that both physical distance and functional distance
are inherent to the concept of proximity. While physical distance simply refers to the measurable distance
between two points, functional distance has to do with
many design factors, such as site design and the geometry of corridors (Abu-Ghazzeh, 1999; Sailer, K., &
McCulloh, I., 2012).
While the importance of proximity in creating passive interaction is clear, there are studies that assert that
too much density (crowdedness) in residence halls has
destructive psychological consequences and lowers
social interaction and a sense of belonging to the community (Valins and Baum, 1973; Coleman, 1990; Evans
et al., 1996). Studies looking at space arrangements in
residence halls have investigated the effects of crowdedness, usually by comparing suite-style dormitories
with traditional corridor styles. Most of these studies
assert that suite-style dorms provide a better social
climate, since this type of dorm divides the students into
smaller groups and thus helps them develop a sense of
community (Harpin and Valins ,1975; Baum and Valins,
1979; Rodger and Johnson, 2006). Yet some studies
have shown the opposite—that the students living in
suite-style dormitories are affected by a greater depth of
space (the number of steps one needs to take to get from
one space to another), and in comparison to students in
traditional corridor-style dorms are less likely to interact
with other students (Morris and Whalen, 1989; Hill et
al., 1999; Devlin et al., 2008).
The conflicting results indicate that the spatial
typology that these studies have used does not take all
pertinent spatial factors into consideration. This study
seeks to fill this gap: first, by providing a compendium
of environmental factors that may influence social interaction in residence halls through a meta-analysis of the
literature, and second, in providing a more sophisticated
typology model based on the contributing spatial factors
that result from the analysis performed in the first step.
Environmental Predictors of Social Interaction in
Student Residence Halls
While college policy-makers try to promote formal
interactions in residence halls by organizing various
programs such as meal plans and social events or by
manipulating the number and diversity of inhabitants
(e.g., separating or mixing underclassmen and upperclassmen or increasing the diversity of residents),
environmental factors play an important role in creating appropriate spaces for students to interact. In this
section, we will try to distill the predictors of social
interaction in residence halls by analyzing the existing
literature in this area.
(1) Spatial scale and group size: The literature
suggests that the size of a community is an influential
factor in the creation of social interaction and friendship ties (Baum & Valins, 1977; Fischer et al., 1977;
Birchall, 1988; Coleman, 1990; Fromm, 1991). Williams (2005) suggests that social ties in larger communities are weaker because residents are less likely to
97
know one another. Brown and Devlin (2003) suggest
that because large dorms are more exposed to vandalism, this indicates less sense of belonging in large
communities. On the other hand, extremely small communities are prone to having trouble with privacy issues
(Williams, 2005).
It is important to notice that the size of community is
not necessarily related to the size of the building. A residence hall can be divided into a number of self-sufficient “spatial packages” according to the way the shared
activity sites are distributed throughout the building.
These spatial packages might have their own vertical
and horizontal access points and common areas that
would leave no reason for one to move from one area to
another, or interact with other students from other parts.
(2) Organization of common and private spaces:
Typically residence halls have three major types of
spaces: common spaces, rooms, and corridors. The
ability of residents to observe others using common
spaces highly influences the chance to meet and interact
(Williams, 2005; Fromm, 1991; McCammant & Durrett, 1994; Abu-Gazzeh, 1999). In the literature on the
arrangement of common and private spaces, some studies assert that common spaces should thus be central
and easily accessible, located on shared pathways where
residents are more likely to interact (Fromm, 1991; McCammant & Durret, 1994; Abughazzeh, 1999; Durrett
, 2009). Helmaa (2013) suggests that common spaces
can be either centralized or decentralized. According
to Helmaa, decentralized common spaces can serve a
range of common activities, provided that the common
spaces are large or numerous. Common spaces can also
be used as buffer zones between public areas (outdoor
spaces in the case of student housing) and private
spaces (Helmaa, 2013).
The organization of spaces can also affect the privacy
and quietness of residence halls. Some studies show that
residence halls that are organized into smaller groups
of bedrooms provide quieter, more private spaces than
dorms which do not follow this pattern, which in turn
increases the students’ control over their environment
and makes such dorms more suitable for activities such
as studying (Devlin et al., 2008).
One important factor that affects the relationship between outdoor and indoor spaces is the number of stories in residence halls. Some studies assert that indoor
spaces can provide an intimate atmosphere since as they
are not affected by inclement weather (Helmaa, 2013).
Other studies suggest that low-rise buildings function
better in terms of social interaction due to their stronger
connectivity with the surrounding outdoor spaces (Williams, 2005; Abu-Ghazzeh, 1999).
98 (3) Geometry and quality of shared pathways
(corridors): A great deal of the literature suggests that
shared pathways can play a significant role in increasing the opportunities for interaction (Cooper, Marcus, &
Sarkissian, 1986; Gehl, 1987; Fromm, 1991; McCammant & Durrett, 1994; Abu-Gazzeh, 1999). Overall, the
literature suggests that physical distance is extremely
influential in the formation of networks. “Natural
movement” is the term used by Hillier et al. (1973)
to indicate the relation between interaction and the
movement flow in the built environment. In the case of
residence halls, corridors are the spaces through which
such natural movement is most likely to occur. Natural
movement has been recognized as an important factor
in fostering social interaction (Heilweil, 1973) as well
as the perceived crowdedness of corridors, although
here again, the studies do not agree. Some show that
long double-loaded corridors in residence halls increase
the perceived crowdedness of space (Baum & Davis,
1980; Heilweil, 1973), while Hill et al. demonstrate
that such corridors do not account for higher degree of
perceived crowdedness (Hill et al., 1999). More recent
studies assert that the angular attributes of corridors,
the axial and segment steps, and the metric distance are
contributing environmental factors in creating social
networks (Sailer & MaCulloh, 2012).
(4) The ratio of common spaces to private spaces:
It seems logical that more common spaces in residence
halls lead to more social interaction among students.
The literature suggests that in general, limiting private spaces in housing increases residents’ chances to
interact (Fromm, 1991; Marcus & Dovey, 1991; McCammant & Durrett, 1994). Studies on residence halls
also emphasize the inevitable role of adequate common
spaces on the way students interact (Fondacaro et al.,
1984).
Implications of the Typological Study
In this section, we will explain the criteria from the
first part to develop a refined categorization of residence
hall typologies. This categorization allows us to better
define and examine elements that contribute to student
satisfaction and success in the residential environment.
First, however, we define several terms used in describing elements used in student housing.
Dormitory buildings consist of a set of bedrooms
(individual or shared) and service spaces that are connected by means of corridors. Service spaces are those
spaces that provide the basic housing needs for students
beyond their bedrooms, such as bathrooms, laundry,
kitchen, and vertical access. These spaces are used by
almost all students and can be either private or shared
by a number of students. Some residence halls also
provide auxiliary common spaces such as study rooms,
lounges, game rooms, or lobbies. These rooms are not
as essential as the service spaces and students may or
may not use them. Sometimes these spaces are designed
to increase social interaction among students, as in the
case of lobbies and lounges. The distribution of these
spaces is important in determining who meets whom
and how frequently, since organization of these spaces
can divide each floor plan into self-sufficient spatial
packages that leave no reason for a student to move
from one self-contained area to another. In this system,
each area has its own common and service spaces as
well as an independent vertical access point. Harris
Hall at Pennsylvania State University, for instance, is
composed of three self-sufficient spatial packages as a
result of certain relationships between component parts:
bedrooms, service spaces, corridors, and auxiliary common spaces as illustrated bellow (Figure 1).
Through an analysis of 148 residence halls from four
educational institutions (Penn State University, Ohio
University, Boston University, and University of Massachusetts Amherst), this study has developed three major
criteria that distinguish residence hall types according
to their socio-spatial attributes: average number of students per space for auxiliary common spaces, average
number of students per space for service spaces, and
corridor traffic flow.
(1) Average number of bedrooms per Service
Spaces (SS): This number indicates the average number
of bedrooms that share service spaces (bathroom, laundry, kitchen, and vertical access). For simplification, we
have not considered frequency of use. The value has
been calculated for each self-sufficient spatial package
in a typical floor plan and the final value is the average
between all self-sufficient packages in the floor plan
(Figure 2).
(2) Average number of bedrooms per Auxiliary
Common Spaces (ACS): This indicator refers to the
number of bedrooms that share a common space such as
a lounge or study area. To simplify this calculation, all
common spaces (e.g., study rooms, game rooms, living
rooms) are considered as equivalent common spaces.
The method used is exactly the same as the calculation
for the service spaces. Figure 2 indicates the distribution
pattern of auxiliary common spaces in one of the spatial
packages in Harris Hall.
Since in the case of Harris Hall all three spatial
packages have the exact same spatial arrangement, the
values for the whole floor plan remains constant. Accordingly:
Average number of bedrooms per service spaces
in Harris Hall: 3.94
Average number of bedrooms per auxiliary common spaces in Harris Hall: 15
Figure 1: Harris Hall consists of three independent districts (Left), spatial Organization in Spatial
Package 3 (right).
99
(3) Corridor traffic flow: Corridors play an important role in determining who meets whom as well as the
frequency of encounters. In order to calculate the traffic
flow in each corridor, the first stage is to detect visually independent corridors in each spatial package. The
Isovist Analysis conducted by Depthmap 4 software
determines the visual domain of each corridor. As seen
in figure 3, Corridors A, B, and C are visually independent, meaning that a person who is passing through any
one corridor will not be able to see people in the other
two corridors.
In a second stage, we determined the paths that students take to move between their bedrooms and shared
activity sites. If we consider all these paths, it becomes
obvious that corridors A and B are likely to be used by
only the residents of the adjacent rooms, while corridor C is probably used by all 15 rooms because of its
adjacency to service spaces. Accordingly, the average
traffic flow for this spatial package will be: (4+6+15)
÷3= 8.33
After analyzing 148 dorms, it became clear that in
some buildings the self-sufficient spatial packages’ do-
Figure 2: Distribution pattern of service spaces in one of the spatial packages in Harris Hall, Penn State
University (top), Distribution pattern of auxiliary common spaces in the same spatial package (bottom).
Figure 3: Isovist Analysis for three points in the middle of each corridor indicates that there are three
visually independent corridors in this spatial package (left) and three major paths that connect groups
of rooms to shared spaces (middle) after considering the paths that students take to get from their
bedrooms to shared activity sites the traffic flow for each corridor can be calculated.
main is limited to each floor. In other words, students do
not need to use vertical access points in order to fulfill
their basic needs (except for entering the building and
exiting from it). Most of these buildings have typical
floor plans that are independent from other floors. This
type can be further categorized according to the characteristics of their typical floor plans by assessing the
criteria that we discussed in the previous section.
By contrast, some buildings require the students to
use staircases and move vertically within the building in
order to fulfill their basic needs. All of the cases that fall
into this category were between 1 to 3 stories high with
relatively small occupied areas. These buildings usually have their kitchens, living rooms, and other major
common spaces on the ground floor so students will
have to move between floors to fulfill their basic needs.
Thus, the vertical domain of self-sufficient spatial packages should be also considered to empirically capture
how the spatial configuration affects the way students
encounter one another.
While the literature suggests that the number of
stories is directly related to the linkage of interior and
outdoor spaces (Williams, 2005; Abu-Ghazzeh, 1999),
surrounding outdoor spaces as places where students
can get together and interact would considerably lose
functionality if one considers the harsh climate in many
areas of the country that do not allow outdoor activities for the major part of the period that students live in
residence halls. All case studies considered are located
in northern areas where outdoor spaces are not as frequently used by students for a large portion of the year.
Therefore this study assumes that the number of stories
is not a determining factor in the way students interact.
Results
Of all the 148 dorms that we analyzed in this study,
43 buildings had no auxiliary common spaces in their
self-sufficient spatial packages. Therefore the only
chance for students to encounter each other was in the
corridors and service areas. Our analysis shows that the
majority of these buildings (more than 80 percent of the
total number) have a traffic flow from 10 to 25 (High)
and the average number of bedrooms per service space
falls in the 9 to 16 (High) domain. We have categorized
this type as “type 5”. About one-fourth of the 148 case
studies fall into this category.
Of the studied buildings, 106 had at least one common space in their self-sufficient spatial packages.
These spatial packages were categorized according to
the three criteria discussed earlier (average number
of bedrooms per service spaces, average number of
bedrooms per auxiliary common spaces, and corridor
traffic flow). Figure 4 illustrates the way these buildings
are distributed according to these criteria. Four overall
types have been identified in these buildings.
101
Figure 4: 106 buildings of 148 case studies have at least one auxiliary common space in their
self-sufficient spatial package; this diagram shows the 3d scattered chart for these buildings
produced by Matlab 2012a.
Here we will briefly explain the overall characteristics of the four categories of those residence halls that
have at least one auxiliary common space in their selfsufficient spatial packages:
Type 1: In these residence halls, service spaces are
shared between 1 to 5 bedrooms on average (low number of bedrooms per service space). 1 to 20 bedrooms
share each common auxiliary space (low number of
bedrooms per auxiliary common space), and fewer than
15 bedrooms share the corridors (low corridor traffic
flow). Twenty-six percent of the dorms examined fall in
this category.
Type 2: Service spaces in these buildings are shared
between 5 to 20 bedrooms on average (high number of
bedrooms per service space). Fewer than 20 bedrooms
share common auxiliary spaces on average (low number
of bedrooms per auxiliary common space), and corridors are shared between 5 to 10 bedrooms (low corridor
102 traffic flow). Twenty-two percent of the analyzed dorms
fall in this category.
Type 3: Service spaces in these buildings are shared
between 5 to 15 bedrooms on average (high number of
bedrooms per service space). Common auxiliary spaces
are shared between 10 to 16 bedrooms (low number of
bedrooms per auxiliary common space), and corridors
are shared between 10 to 20 bedrooms (high corridor
traffic flow). Eleven percent of the studied residence
halls fall into this category.
Type 4: In type 4, the auxiliary common spaces are
shared between more than 20 bedrooms (high number
of bedrooms per auxiliary common space).
Other categories: Seven percent of dormitory buildings that were analyzed in this study did not fall into
any of above mentioned categories.
The overall result of this typology can be seen in
Chart 1, below:
Chart 1: Final typology of 148 dorms; 93% of dorms fall into this typology.
Conclusion
Through a meta-analysis, this study reviewed and
categorized the environmental factors that have a
certain impact on the way students interact in student
residence halls. We concluded that there are three major
criteria that affect the level of interaction in dormitory
buildings: the average number of bedrooms per service
space, average number of bedrooms per auxiliary common space, and corridor traffic flow. Based on these
criteria, we categorized 148 dormitory buildings from
four universities and identified five final spatial types.
In a next step, we will use environment-behavior
analysis in the form of direct observation and surveys in
order to determine the degree of social interaction in the
five dormitory types found.
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Image References
Floor plans of Harris Hall, courtesy of the Office of the
Physical Plant, Penn State University.
Floor plans of Bigler Hall, courtesy of the Office of the
Floor plans of Chace Hall, courtesy of the Office of the
Floor plans of Watts Hall, courtesy of the Office of the
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105
Scholastic Restorative
Environments: Architectural
Settings: Their Effects On Our
Perceptions, Spearheading
New Cognitive And Neural
Restoration Methods
Peter Floyd Smith (University of Illinois)
Many students today are surrounded by electrical technologies, such as computers and cell phones.
Research indicates that intense use of these devices
produces chronic stress and fatigue, with an inability
of our strained cognition to re-focus adequately, and to
restore what was lost (Emoto, 2007). Through restoration of depleted neural attention, the ability to maintain
centered consciousness for longer periods of time is
possible (Kaplan, 2013). A positive change (physiological) activity that takes place within 4-40 minutes is
called ‘restoration’, and the environments that produce
these changes are called ‘restorative environments.’
(Hinds and Sparks, 2009). ‘Attention’ here is defined as
‘being in the present moment’ (mindfulness). (Kaplan,
S., 2001).
In “Pattern of the Past,” Underwood, G. (1973) suggests that certain individual features of sacred environments are marked with their own particular restorative
characteristics. This leads to the question: Can neural
feedback (EEG) join meditation and Kaplan’s Attention Restoration Theory (ART) to be an effective
tool to quantitatively and qualitatively together better
measure the restorative qualities of interior and exterior
sacred architectural environments? After the qualitative (surveys) and quantitative data from an electroencephalograph (EEG) brainwaves from sacred spaces
are collected and analyzed, a list of sacred restorative
environmental properties will be provided. These ‘characters’ hold the potential to provide attention restoration
quotients derived from the five sacred places studied, restore fatigued minds back to a rested state, and
promote better cognition and perception for academic
pursuits.
The results from the first pilot study (Chapel) were
successful, as they showed a substantial difference
between outside and inside ‘sits’.
The next phase of this project is to conduct pilot
study 2, an outside cathedral sit, inside transept sit, and
inside next to the altar sit. This is the first time measure-
106 able electronic brainwaves have been used to possibly
accompany ART (Kaplan, S., 1995) in its definitions
and research of restorative environments. Extending
Kaplan’s research methods can greatly help both the
fields of psychology and architecture in a pursuit of
restful and restorative interior and exterior sacred environments.
Research question: Can neural-feedback (EEG) join
meditation and Kaplan’s ART to be an effective tool to
better measure the quantitative and qualitative restorative qualities of interior and exterior sacred architectural environments?
My hypothesis is using a mixed-method research
platform with new EEG technology (based partially
on the analysis of electro-encephalograph (EEG) brain
waves), correlated by meditation wavelengths, to quantitatively and qualitatively better measure the restorative
qualities of interior and exterior place.
Rationale: Kaplan’s research is ordered around external restorative visual environments. This paper’s research adds new sacred architectural characters (Smith,
P., 2015) that better evaluate sacred restorative environments. This is the first time measurable electronic
brainwaves have been used to possibly accompany ART
in its definitions of restorative environments. Continuing Kaplan’s research can greatly help both the fields
of psychology and architecture in pursuit of restful and
restorative sacred interior and exterior environments.
Methodology: (1) Evans, J.R., (1999) Quantitative
EEG and neuro-feedback, Handbook of Neurofeedback,
same author. For the survey, Zeisel, J., Inquiry by Design, and Kaplan, (2001) Nature: A Psychological Approach, and the Restorative Benefits of Nature: Toward
an Integrative Framework (1995).
Description of EEG Neuro-feedback: Neurofeedback
is also called EEG biofeedback because it is based on
electrical brain activity (measured by electroencephalogram, or EEG). Brainwave change is indicative of states
of consciousness in four general types: Delta (below 4
Hz.), Theta (-4-7 Hz.), Alpha (8-13 Hz.), and Beta (1438 Hz.), and are associated with higher mental activity
and consolidation of information. Alpha waves are very
important in these four types and are discussed later in
this research study.
(2) Pilot Study 2: Using IRB allowances, this study
will employ eight University of Illinois undergraduate
and/or graduate architecture students (including myself)
as study participants. Through the use of EEG, survey,
B&W photographic representations w/1-5 measuring scale, Franciscan Prayer/meditation (eyes open in
surveys/photographic choices), and EEG testing (eyes
closed), 20 minutes outside, then the same twice inside
of the Roman Catholic cathedral setting. The three
‘characters’ which represent successive restorative environments are (1) Outside Cathedral, (2) Inside Cathedral at Transept, and (3) Inside Cathedral at Altar. I first
measured inside and outside characters in Spring 2014,
at the Chapel at St. John’s Catholic Newman Center,
University of Illinois campus, in Champaign, Illinois.
This was successful Study 1. With IRB, I will recruit
eight volunteer architecture students (including myself)
from the University of Illinois Champaign campus as
study participants during spring semester 2015.
Analysis: After all quantitative and qualitative data is
collected; I will analyze the results and provide a list of
sacred restorative environment properties, or resulting
‘characters’. These data hold the potential to provide
attention restoration quotients from the three sacred
characters proposed, to better restore fatigued minds
back to a rested state, and to promote better cognition
and perception in their academic pursuits.
Historical research plan and proposed methods:
Mixed – method research approach: Qualitative and
Quantitative following a case study of Carmelite nuns
(Beauregard, M. & Paquette, V., 2008). EEG studies
(Beauregard & Paquette, 2008) suggest EEG activity
in Carmelite nuns during a mystical experience quantitatively measure brainwaves digitally. These electroencephalograph (EEG) studies will be reviewed, along
with peer reviewed journal articles by Stephen Kaplan
(2005) on monasteries (Kaplan, 2001), meditation,
restoration, and management of mental fatigue (Kaplan,
1995). Kaplan’s ‘The Restorative Benefits of Nature:
Toward An Integrative Framework’ (1995). Kaplan’s
attention restoration theory (ART) will also be included
in this review.
Below is Character One & Two, Pilot Study 1 at St.
John’s Catholic Newman Center, University of Illinois,
Champaign-Urbana. This initial research was completed
on May 30, 2014, by myself, alone. Descriptive exterior and interior photographs and EEG data are shown
below. Data was recorded on the Quantum Infinity
software, placed on a spreadsheet, and EEG brainwave
numbers recorded inside the chapel subtracted from
outside chapel numbers. The difference was substantial.
(Smith 2014) Outside & Inside Chapel
107
Results of the EEG data:
Chart One (Smith, 2014)
Research Safeguards: Student volunteers will
complete an informed consent document, with no risk,
and provisions included that they can leave at any time
during the research if they so choose. Volunteer architecture students will also view three B&W “Kaplan”
photographs of the inside/outside and altar of the chapel
108 and be asked to rate them for restorative potentials with
a graphic rating scale, on a 1 to 5 scale (dislike to like).
A 12-question survey will also be completed by the
volunteers. (Please see survey questions below).
Pilot Study 2: The representational photographs of
the Roman Catholic Cathedral in Peoria, Illinois:
Some thought here about how I arrived at the sequence in a traditional cathedral, which reveals why
they unfold as one proceeds intuitively. When one
stops, and closes one’s eyes, there is a 30 percent higher
Alpha brain wave jump, which adds to the experience
of restoration (Squire, I., 2013). It is said that our brain
waves have a frequency component that matches that
of the 7.83 Hz earth base resonance. (Schumann; The
Sedona Effect; Miller, I., 2003). This frequency (8.73
Hz.) is strongest when most individuals meditate and,
interestingly, pray. (Alpha brain waves: 8.7-12.7 Hz.)
These ‘character steps’ shown in the picture were
included in my personal Anglican Catholic seminary
experience. Entrance: “en-trance” (1) Narthex (prelude). Leads to (2) “nave” or in Latin, “navis” and
means boat or ship, transports you to (3) “alter” and this
word becomes altar: the focal point of worship, which
is where your consciousness and awareness is “altere”.
Over you at this point is (4) transept, where there are
traditionally ‘choirs” to the left and right perpendicularly off the “nave” axis, and then culminating in (5)
“apse”, and (6)“Chevet”.
For this research, Outside Cathedral, Inside Cathedral, and Inside at Altar and Transept were used to designate three primary points of restorative measurement.
Questionnaire: (survey) Question 1 will ensure no
health issues exist before the meditation prayer/EEG
experiments begin.
Question 2 asks for the individual’s mood for the
experiment using a one to five gradient.
Question 3 asks for permission and affirmation of
the experimenter’s bias towards the experiment. Male
and female gender is addressed.
Question 4. Each experimenter will meditate/pray
at Compline (evening prayer at 9 pm) at the Roman
Catholic Cathedral in Peoria, where the 12-question
survey will be given. Immediately following this, the
individual will proceed to the outside entrance to the
Cathedral, and sit quietly in meditation or prayer for 20
minutes, and his EEG will be taken. Next the individual
will find a pew inside, and meditate/pray for another 20
minutes, and be recorded by the EEG process. When
this is finished, the student will move and sit next to the
altar for a third repeat of what has been done before.
During all three of these sits, eyes will be closed. I will
monitor and record the volunteer’s brainwaves with
Bluetooth provision through all three sittings.
Question 5 will ask the individual’s mental state following finishing the three tasks.
Question 6 will ask demographics.
Question 7 will ask the participant’s faith.
Question 8 asks the participant’s comfort level.
Question 9 queries if the individual would like to
participate in another research
session.
Question 10 asks if the individual has experienced
similar prayer sits before in this or another chapel setting. To evaluate a possible bias while participating in
this research’s evaluation of the Peoria, Illinois, Roman
Catholic cathedral sacred restoration capacity, individuals were asked survey questions 11 and 12.
Question 11: spiritual/secular preferences inquiry.
Question 12: spiritual/preferential bias inquiry.
Identifying pilot study and tactics: Digital data
obtained from an electroencephalograph is currently
industry standard, proven in many experimental settings
(Evans, 1999). Using quantitative and qualitative data
also follows appropriate and strong scholarly research
in its methodology and procedure. IRB certificates
enforce ethics, which will be secured before Tactic 2
testing is begun during spring semester 2015. Siedman
(2013) states: “Be respectful of boundaries, Explore,
Don’t Probe” (Groat & Wang, 2013). This research
work procedure was politely mimicked from the research done by Mario Beauregard and Vincent Paquette,
“EEG Activity in Carmelite nuns during a mystical experience” (2008). Neuroscience Letters, journal homepage: www. Elsevier.com/locate/neulet
Research timeline: Pilot study 1 completed. Higher
amplitude on Alpha, Beta, Theta brainwaves shown (see
Chart one, page 7). Pilot study 2 begins January 30th,
2015, and will be completed and presented at EDRA64,
summer 2015 in Los Angeles, California.
Responsible Project Investigator, and researcher
info: Professor William Sullivan, LA, U. of Illinois,
Champaign Urbana, RPI
Researcher: Peter F Smith is actively enrolled as a
graduate architecture student at the University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana. He has completed research
methods and passed the IRB exam. The eight graduate
and undergraduate University of Illinois ChampaignUrbana architecture students (including myself) that
will participate in research tactic 2 are uniquely qualified for the research. They will become aware, and use
the research tactics comprising the combination of Kaplan’s ART, mediation and centered prayer, survey, and
EEG study. This will evidence improved concentration
and categorization of three restorative environments on
the University of Illinois campus (including Peoria),
in a sacred restoration environment within the Roman
Catholic Cathedral in Peoria, Illinois.
109
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Walking With Your Head
in the Clouds: The Influence
of Pathway Design on
Mindfulness, Recall, and
Affective State
William J. Whitfeld (University of Surrey)
Introduction
How we experience our environments is under constant manipulation from psychological constructs and
environmental inputs. As we occupy an environment,
either stationary or moving, the external environment
produces a constant flow of information regardless of
whether we are able to process it or not.
The influence of spatial design on our everyday
activities extends beyond the architecture of the buildings we occupy and into our journeys between destinations, through both urban and natural environments.
However, research often tends to neglect the fact we
experience our environments in both static and dynamic
states. Few studies focus on the experiential quality of
path or route design, the physical movement through
an environment, or how the type of movement through
space influences the assessment and appreciation of that
environment.
This study examines the effect pathway design has
on experience, particularly differences in directional
changes instigated by pathway route selection, and
proposes that increased cognitive engagement whilst
walking will positively increase recall of the environment and positively effect mood.
Walking and Environmental Perception
The body is constantly adapting to cope with external stimuli and prevent overload from external inputs
(Milgram, 1970), such as temperature (Rotton, Shats,
& Standers, 1990) and noise (Franěk, 2013), that have
been found to subliminally affect our walking pace.
Attention, as a state of directed awareness towards
accessible sensory information, encompasses both the
selection and capacity limitation of ambient information
(Pashler, 1998). This forms part of the connection between environmental input and psychological changes.
Brown et al. (2007) described awareness as a precursor
to attention, providing a fundamental connection with
reality allowing an active engagement and recognition
of objects through attention. Attention may therefore
be altered to cope when external inputs exceed or fail
to fulfil the required level of stimulation by augmenting input mechanisms. Research into the walking
experience does not distinguish between pathway route
designs. Therefore, this study treats pathway design
as key factor, and differentiates between path types of
straight and meandering. Unlike the lack of research
on pathway design, mindfulness has become the focus
recent studies.
Mindfulness
Early studies explored the mind’s ability to ebb and
flow between conscious states of participatory thought
and removed passive states (James, 1892). Mindfulness
is the conscious state of awareness with implicit awareness of contextual information, alternatively mindlessness occurs oblivious to novel or alternative features
of a situation (Langer, 1992). This study uses the terms
mind-wandering and mindlessness interchangeably
(Mrazek et al., 2012) describing the opposing end
of the mindfulness spectrum (Smallwood, Fishman,
& Schooler, 2007). It is necessary here to clarify the
conceptual nature of mindfulness. While some research
regards mindfulness as a dispositional tendency (Brown
et al., 2007), others regard mindfulness as a multifaceted construct characterised by curiosity, openness,
and acceptance (Baer, 2006; Bishop et al., 2004). The
current study regards mindfulness as a mechanism of
cognitive control (Kane & McVay, 2012), specifically as
an interaction mechanism between external and internal
processes.
The fluid construct of mindfulness exists along a
spectrum of attentional focus, creating a reciprocal
relationship between mindfulness and mindlessness
identified not categorically but as a psychological state
of cognitive processing (Schad, Nuthmann, & Engbert,
2012). Early research into mindfulness developed an
understanding of the constructs’ fluidity, whilst contemporary studies have begun to examine the positive and
negative effects of mindfulness (Smallwood, Fishman,
et al., 2007).
Mindfulness and Recall
Demonstrating the link between information processing and enjoyment, Kang & Gretzel (2012) found
participants walking through a national park listening
to a narration of their surroundings reported increased
mindfulness, increasing learning and the enjoyment
experience. The assessment of an environment is linked
to an ability to process and recall incoming information.
Smallwood, Fishman, et al., (2007) demonstrated the
111
frequency and depth of mindlessness to inhibit recall
by reducing the ability to encode external information.
Encoding is therefore a necessary process that improves
the experience of an information rich environment.
Mindfulness and Affective State
Philosophical, spiritual, and psychological fields are
amongst many which conceptualize mindfulness as
a characteristic of consciousness, supporting its ability to promote well-being (Kabat-Zinn, 1996). Clinical studies have shown that the awareness and higher
level cognitive processing created by mindfulness
improves well-being by reducing stress, mood changes,
and anxiety (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Carmody & Baer,
2008). The ability to remain present enables a cognitive
engagement with momentary events, offering a receptive appreciation and attention to current emotional
states (Mishra, 2004 as cited in Brown et. al., 2007).
There is a lack of research into this relationship and
environmental experience, despite the widely established positive effects of natural environments on mood.
Identifying how physical movement through an environment may alter our mood, Kinnafick & ThøgersenNtoumani (2014) found walking in natural and urban
environments increased positive affect, whilst viewing
the same environment seated decreased positive affect.
An earlier study by Pennebaker and Lightner (1980)
with an exercise focus suggested the presentation of
environmental information may cause overloading
and decrease external attention reducing mindfulness.
The findings support clinical studies where variables
encouraging attention towards the external surroundings
depleted awareness of internal processes (Smallwood et
al., 2004).
Methodological Issues
While these studies offer insight into the process of
mindfulness and its effects on cognitive processing, research is met with the methodological paradox of breaking a cognitive state to assess its presence (Schooler &
Schreiber, 2004). Currently, two response measures of
mind-wandering are widely used; self-caught—participants report when they notice their mind has wandered;
and probe-caught—participants are prompted to report
their current state of mind (Smallwood, Fishman, et al.,
2007). There is also an inherent difficulty in discerning
the level, or depth, of mind-wandering. When not on
task – attention devoted to external stimuli – during an
episode of attentional decoupling two levels of mindlessness may be experienced: tuned out—mind-wandering with awareness—and, zoned out—mind-wandering
without awareness (Smallwood, Beach, Schooler &
112 Handy, 2008). Research has supported the use of autonomic arousal measures to increase accuracy.
Autonomous Arousal of Mindfulness
There is growing evidence supporting the use of
autonomic responses as indices for mindfulness. Laumann, Gärling, & Stormark (2003) found exposure to
natural stimuli both reduced autonomic arousal (heart
rate) and produced less spatially selective attention
than urban stimuli. To increase accuracy, measures
of response time (Kane & McVay, 2012), heart rate
variance (Smallwood et al., 2004, 2004), and galvanic
skin response (GSR) (Smallwood, O’Connor, & Heim,
2005) are used.
The Present Study
It is believed this research will provide a platform
for the further analysis of mindfulness and its role in
experiencing and perceiving environments. As such,
environmental factors may be found to exist along a
spectrum of influence based upon a certain level of
mindfulness or mindlessness. Additionally, by identifying differences between path and route design, the
findings may enable designers to create experiential
qualities of route journeys and inform how designed
spaces may be perceived based on how users move
within the space.
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses are informed by the existing literature. Respondents who view a walk through
an environment along a straight path will report increased mind-wandering, lower heart rate, and lower
GSR readings than those who view a walk through the
same environment along a meandering path. Pace being
an independent variable, it is expected that respondents
who view a walk through an environment at slower paces will have an increased frequency of mind-wandering,
lower heart rate, and lower GSR than through the same
environment at a faster pace. The established contrast
between natural and urban environments on psychological and autonomic responses expects respondents will
report more events of mind-wandering, lower heart
rate, and lower GSR during natural environments than
urban. It is expected that respondents who report more
events of mind-wandering will recall less than those
who report fewer events of mind-wandering. Additionally, participants who report increased mind-wandering
are expected to report increased levels of boredom and
stress while reporting less relaxation and excitement
than those who report fewer events of mind-wandering.
Finally, the type of mind-wandering experienced—on
task, tuned out, and zoned out—will influence the respondent’s reaction time to thought probes.
Methodology
Design
The 2x3 Factorial ANOVA design used path types
straight—a linear section of path where the final destination can be seen in a single direction from the point
of origin—and meandering—a curvilinear path where
the destination cannot be seen from the point of origin
and involved multiple changes in absolute direction
both left and right—and pace—fast (10min/km pace),
medium (12min/km pace), and slow (15min/km pace).
Dependent variables—mind-wandering, memory recall,
heart rate, and affective appraisal—were recorded for
each condition except for affective state, which was
recorded pre and post all conditions.
A single condition was comprised of two (natural
and urban) three-minute videos. To reduce confounding
effects such as familiarity and fatigue, an incomplete
block design was used where participants were only
shown a randomised three of the possible six conditions. The natural environment was located along a
well-defined path through woodlands. The same trail
provided suitable environments for meandering and
straight path types. The urban environment was filmed
on two separate residential roads while street typologies
were kept as consistent as possible. The definitions of
the two levels of mindlessness, tuned out and zoned out,
were presented to participants verbally by the researcher
prior to beginning, and via text during the experiment.
Measures
Affective state was measured using the 20-item
self-report measure Positive and Negative Affect Scale
(PANAS) (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). Participants rated each item according to the time frame
of how “you feel this way right now, that is, at the
present moment” on a five-point scale with 1 (very
slightly or not at all) to 5 (extremely). Affective appraisal was recorded after each condition; four items
were presented to represent each quadrant of Russell’s
Circumplex of Affect (Russell, 1980; Russell & Lanius,
1984)—arousing, not arousing, pleasant, and not pleasant. Participants reported how much they were, relaxed,
stressed, bored, and excited on a similar five-point scale
to affective state. Mindfulness was measured using
thought probes; participants were asked to report their
state of mind immediately prior to the prompt. A score
for mind-wandering was created by combing both tuned
out and zoned out scores producing negative coefficient
with on task (mindfulness). Response times to thought
probes were categorised by the subsequent response of
on task, tuned out, or zoned out. Recall was measured
firstly, by asking respondents one question recalling
how many of certain object they had seen (e.g., cars)
and secondly, two questions about whether they had
seen certain things in the environment (e.g., a dog). The
frequency of correct responses was added to create an
overall score for recall for each condition. Physiological
measures recorded participants’ skin conductivity and
heart rate for the duration of the experiment. Post-task
qualitative questions asked participants what they were
thinking about when their mind was wandering, if they
thought any other factors might have affected their
experience, and if they adopted any strategies to stay on
task or remember information.
Procedure
A total of 36 university students (16 males and 20 females, 20-34yo (M = 24.16, SD = 3.27)) were recruited
via the university online research participation system.
Upon arrival to the lab, participants were informed that
they would be prompted to report their state of mind
and the GSR and pulse plethysmograph (heart rate)
transducers were then secured to their non-dominant
hand. Participants completed the first PANAS questionnaire followed by an example image and thought probe
before beginning the experiment. Participants were then
shown one film. After a minute and thirty seconds, the
film was stopped and a thought probe was displayed,
participants reported their state of mind before the video
resumed. After another minute and thirty seconds, the
film ended and a second thought probe was displayed.
After the second probe, three recall questions were
presented and responded to, followed by four mood
scale items. This video procedure was repeated a second
time, which then completed one type of path type at one
pace for both urban and natural settings, which made up
one condition. Each participant was shown three conditions. Upon completion of three conditions (six films),
participants were then asked to complete a second
PANAS scale. The researcher then asked the participant
the post-task questions about their experience.
Results
Validity Measures
To test the reliability of each measure, all dependant
variables were correlated to observe expected correlations from previous research and any unexpected
correlations. The bivariate correlations, shown in Table
1, largely support previous studies as all significant correlations were as expected, except bored and excited.
113
Table 1: Bivariate Correlation Coefficients of Dependant Variables
Hypotheses Testing
Statistical testing and analysis included descriptive
statistics. Due to the small sample size and non-normal
distributions of data, non-parametric ANOVA equivalent tests were used, where effect size is analysed over
significance (Cohen, 1992; Field, 2009). Testing path
types’ influence on mindfulness, recall, and mood
found small effect sizes between path types and recall
and relaxed. Small to medium effect sizes were found
with levels of stress, boredom, zoning out, and GSR
and a medium effect size verging on significant with
excited; see Table 2 for results. Pace’s influence on the
dependant variables compared fast and medium, and
medium and slow walking paces, finding small effect
sizes between pace and reported boredom, and GSR
levels. Small to medium effect size were found between
pace and recall, tuned out, and mind-wandering. Heart
rate, as parametric data, produced no significant results,
however the direction of means support the above findings on autonomous response. Environment setting was
to have a found small effect size between environment
types on tuned out, a significant small effect towards on
task and a medium effect size and a significant influence
on recall. A Kruskall-Wallis one-way ANOVA on reaction times to respond to the thought probes found the
type of mind-wandering experienced had a significant
effect upon reaction times (p< .001). A Mann-WhitneyU test revealed results indicating that the median reaction time of on task was significantly higher than tuned
out (p = .002) and zoned out (p = .002), but not be-
114 tween tuned out and zoned out. A paired samples t-test
compared PANAS scales before and after the experiment showing a significant reduction in positive affect
between before (M = 27.92, SD = 6.88) and after (M =
22.17, SD = 7.13) the experiment (p < .001). However
there was no significant difference between the negative
affect before (M = 13.25, SD = 3.14) and after (M =
12.86, SD = 7.13) the experiment.
Qualitative Responses
Qualitative response noted a strong presence of prospective thought. Respondents also noted straight paths
to be more boring and slow, and urban settings being
“happier” than “dull” urban settings, while the fast
pace was “more interesting”.
Discussion
To review, this laboratory study was proposed for
two reasons: firstly, to explore the effect of directional
changes created by pathway design, pace, and environmental settings and their influence on mindfulness and
autonomic arousal, and the relationship of mindfulness
and experience as measured by recall and affective
state. Secondly, the study sought to provide evidence
for the concept of mindfulness as a meaningful variable
and its measures as a new methodological approach in
the research of environmental stimuli in environmental
psychology.
The expected effects of a straight path were partially
supported, as reported zoning out increased on straight
Table 2. Dependant Variable Mean Ranks with Independent Variables
paths while an unexpected higher GSR recording
was found on the same path type. As an independent
variable, pace produced unexpected findings, with
mind-wandering and GSR increasing as pace deviated
from normal (medium) in both directions instead of the
expected positive linear relationship between pace and
mind-wandering. Mind-wandering also produced the
expected significant negative relationship with recall.
Despite this finding and those of previous studies, the
frequency of mind-wandering was not found to associate with any of the four items of affective state. Results
of environmental setting were as expected, with mindwandering events reported more during natural than
urban environments; however, no difference was found
for heart rate or GSR. As expected, results indicated
a significant difference between on task, tuned out,
and zoned out and reaction times to probes as mindwandering—tuned out and zoned out—produced slower
reaction times than on task. Additionally, the depth of
mind-wandering experienced shows being zoned out—
not being aware of one’s mind-wandering —to further
reduce reaction times than being tuned out.
As the findings suggest, the directional changes created by meandering paths influence the ability to attend
to environmental information. The increased reports of
mind-wandering, in particular the deeper level of zoned
out on straight paths, suggests that the lower levels of
stimuli created by a seemingly unchanging environment
induces episodes of mind-wandering. As the findings on
pace suggest, there is an optimal level of environmental
information intensity.
The role of pace in the presentation of stimuli suggests that a medium walking pace—12min/km—is
optimal for experiencing an environment, producing
lower frequencies of mind-wandering and increased
recall. This optimal pace suggests that faster paces may
lead to overload, and slower paces to under-stimulation.
Therefore, changes in the presentation of the stimuli,
as altered by walking, may influence cognitive mechanisms to enact or prevent episodes of mind-wandering
based on said stimuli. Qualitative responses also
support the notion that pace and setting influenced the
respondents’ experience.
Comparing of the direction of results between environmental settings shows respondents were able to
better recall natural environments than urban, despite
higher reports of off task. This may be explained by
Kaplan and Kaplan’s (1989) concept of natural settings
and fascination, which may induce mind-wandering
events, or that urban environments are more complex
with a wider range of objects and events than natural
settings which act as confounding factors during dynamic movement.
The secondary analysis of data, conducted via correlations between dependent variables, largely supports
previous studies (Risko et al., 2012) of recall’s negative relationship with mindfulness, confirming that the
cognitive processing of external information is inhibited
by episodes of mindlessness. Affective appraisal produced conflicting results, although negatively correlated
with relaxed and stressed, the positive relationship with
bored and excited conflicted previous studies, poten-
115
tially due to the use of only one item for affective appraisal. Additionally, the reported reduction in positive
affect may be due to negative thought content during
mind wandering (Smallwood, Nind, & O’Connor, 2009)
or being seated whilst watching walking film (Kinnafick
& Thøgersen-Ntoumani, 2014).
The findings support the suggested relationship
between autonomous arousal measures of heart rate and
GSR and the mind-wandering experience (Smallwood
et al., 2004, 2004, 2005). However, they contrast findings that mind-wandering is associated with a higher
heart rate than on task thoughts (Smallwood, O’Connor,
Sudbery, & Obonsawin, 2007). The current study’s
lower rate of inputs from the participant with longer
intervals and reduced physical engagement (increasing
the reliance on cognitive attention) could explain the
comparatively lower autonomic arousal responses.
Limitations
Results may have been strengthened through the use
of both thought probes and self-reported measures, and
a larger sample size.
Post-task qualitative responses found respondents
created strategies which may have weakened the frequency and duration of mind-wandering episodes; the
devotion of cognitive resources to be on task in order
to reduce recall errors by participants was also noted by
Smallwood et al. (2004).
Conclusion
The results of the present study suggest that path
type, pace, and environments do influence how environmental information is received, influencing mindfulness, recall, and mood. As the findings suggest,
pace influences the occurrence of mind-wandering and
subsequent information encoding. Pace and mindfulness
appear to have an important role in altering the cognitive processing of environmental information. Whilst
the effect sizes were small, the expected trends in mean
directions are encouraging for future studies of a larger
sample size to find statistical significance. This study
has presented relevant findings and a new methodological approach for future research and practical application for urban designers and landscape architects in
route design and spatial experience. Future Research and Implications for
Professional Practice
The use of mindfulness in design research and spatial
experience remains limited. Future studies should aim
to strengthen the findings of this study in indoor and
outdoor environments, static and dynamic states, and
116 examining the role of path types on pace as a dependant variable. The findings of this study have practical
application in urban and health-care landscape architecture, enabling designers to improve user well-being and
increase positive user experiences.
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117
Empowering Young Children:
Multi-Method Exploration of
Young Children’s Preference
for Natural or Manufactured
Elements in Outdoor
Preschool Settings
Zahra Zamani (Ball State University)
Introduction
Outdoor environments set the stage for children’s
learning, exploration, construction, and problem invention and solving (Fjortoft, 2004). Inadequate attention is
given to the learning capacity within childcare centers’
outdoor physical environment and how these environments contribute to children’s education and health
(Titman, 1994). Design policies for everyday urban
spaces, such as preschools, can enhance the quality of
the built environments through concentrating on a ‘biophilia design’ that provides daily contact with natural
spaces (Louv, 2005). Natural outdoor environments in
preschools enhance children’s educational and cognitive
characteristics by offering a variety of learning opportunities (Fjortoft & Sageie 2000; Fjortoft, 2004; Moore &
Cosco, 2007; Moore & Wong, 1997; Wechsler, Devereaux, Davis, & Collins, 2003).
Children’s cognitive development contributes to
their selection of meaningful inputs from their environment and transforms or represents these inputs based
on their cognitive structures (Flavell, 1992). Cognition
is a complex concept usually referring to knowledge of
the physical surrounding or particular skills (Fischer,
1980; Flavell, 1992). It is essential for research on children’s place experience to regard children as individuals within a community with a right to express their
opinion (Cele, 2006; Clark, 2005; Wesson & Salmon,
2001). Research is needed to understand the design
features young children enjoy for their cognitive play
behaviors in their outdoor preschool. However, limited
data is available on the views of young children, specifically those younger than school age (Clark, McQuail,
& Moss, 2003). Malguzzi’s concept of “the hundred
languages of children” proposes a broader concept
for listening to young children (Edwards, Gandini, &
Forman, 1998). The mosaic approach of listening to
young children unmasks their perspectives by bringing
together visual and verbal tools, which supports “the
hundred languages of children” (Clark, 2005; Clark &
118 Moss, 2001).
Employing the mosaic approach, this research intends to explore the preferences of young children for
their cognitive play behaviors in an outdoor preschool
environment. The following paragraphs describe the
concepts of cognitive play behaviors and elements that
were employed.
Cognitive Play Behaviors
For the purpose of this study, cognitive play behaviors are classified as: (1) Functional play behavior: incorporates muscles and brain performance that develops
fine and motor abilities; (2) Constructive play behavior:
the child links previous information from functional
play to manipulate or to create objects toward a direct
goal; (3) Exploratory play behavior: not specifically
related to manipulative objects, the child explores an
object or the environment and thinks about what can be
achieved; (4) Dramatic play behavior: correlates with
detached meaning from immediate representation of objects, people, and circumstances that isolate play from
its context; and (5) Games with rules: represent the final
stage of development in which specific rules with associated meanings involve play behavior (Rubin, 2001).
Elements
Based on Cosco’s (2006) classification, this research
classifies the elements into natural loose, natural fixed,
manufactured loose, and manufactured fixed groups: (1)
Natural loose: natural features are flexible, manipulative, and portable, such as flowers, sand, dirt, or leaves;
(2) Natural fixed: natural components are permanently
located in space, such as shrubs, trees, or large rocks;
(3) Manufactured loose: artificial elements are transportable, and sometimes manipulative, such as dolls,
balls, tricycle, or shovels; and (4) Manufactured fixed:
fabricated physical features are steady, enduring, and
rigid, such as benches, play structures, or swings. In
the instance of No element, children engaged in play
without any particular elements involved.
Site Selection
Given the purpose of the study, the researcher sought
an outdoor learning environment with a rich natural
landscape and various elements. The researcher selected
an early learning center that includes three manufactured, mixed, and natural playgrounds incorporating
many elements (Figure 1), and that was developed by
experts on natural outdoor learning playgrounds. The
accessible outdoor learning environment for four- to
five-year-old children sits on approximately 0.99 acres.
Figure 1: The aerial view of the FEELC with configured zones.
Data Gathering
The combination of methods in the study relies on
qualitative methods to describe and understand the
complex interaction between the environment and
young children. Before conducting the research, the
Institutional Review Board (IRB) reviewed the research
methodologies and consent forms. Parental consent and
data collection permissions informed the sampling procedure for each child. In addition to the photo preference, drawing, and interviews, the researcher visited the
site and observed children during outdoor play.
Method 1: Photo Preference
This study employed the photo preference method to
sharpen children’s memory and communication skills
(Einarsdottir, 2005). Photos were captured from settings
or elements in the outdoor preschool. The researcher
printed 22 pictures of the outdoor learning environment and cut each photo to a 5-inch by 6-inch size.
Each child was asked, “These are the pictures of your
outdoor play areas. Can you select three of your favorite
pictures?” Next, the researcher asked, “Can you explain
to me why you have chosen this place as your favorite outdoor play area?” If the child had not mentioned
the particular favorite play engaged in that setting, the
researcher asked, “What do you usually play in this setting?” To add insight about the elements children interacted with in the particular setting, the researcher asked
the child, “What do you usually play with when you are
over there?” After the child finished his or her explanation, the researcher expressed gratitude and asked if the
child wanted to draw his or her favorite places within
the outdoor preschool environment.
Method 2: Drawings from Children
This research recognizes the effectiveness of incorporating interviews with drawings in understanding
young children’s thoughts (Wesson & Salmon, 2001).
Combining drawings with interviews seeks to improve
children’s communication about their play memories
within outdoor learning environments. While the teachers were present in the class, each child selected his or
her favorite photos. The researcher asked, “Can you
draw me your favorite places and what you usually play
in the preschool’s outdoor environment? You can recall
these spaces by looking at the photos on the table.”
Children were then asked about their drawing, while the
researcher coded for elements based on their response.
Method 3: Interviews with Children
The researcher conducted the interviews during the
preschool’s regular hours in the school building. The
interviews followed the photo preference and drawing
sessions, using these sessions as starting points. The
researcher and child looked at the selected photos or
completed drawings and talked about them. Children
were asked about the reasons they sketched or selected
certain behavior settings or elements with such questions as, “Can you explain to me why you drew this?”
To provide deeper insight, the researcher sometimes
asked, “Which areas of the outdoors do you mostly
like? Which area of the outdoors you dislike? Why?”
119
Meanwhile, the researcher recorded each child’s response with a digital audio recorder.
Results
Through observation and qualitative data collection methods, rich and descriptive data were gathered.
The data contributed to the interpretation of children’s
cognitive play behaviors afforded by various elements
within outdoor preschool environments. The following
describes the results of the photo preference, drawings,
and interviews.
The Photo Preference and Linked Interviews
Children were energetic and engaged when asked
to choose the photos of their favorite play spaces. This
qualitative method was ideal for children who did not
want to draw. Data analysis involved coding their choices based on cognitive play behaviors and elements.
The crosstab analysis explored associations between
the categories of elements and preferred cognitive play
behaviors. Overall, 24 children participated in the photo
selection. The findings suggest that children enjoyed the
green tube, swings, play structure, and sand elements.
Overall, children mostly favored manufactured fixed
elements (%50, N=76) and functional and dramatic play
behaviors (%41, N=75).
The correlational results suggest that children preferred manufactured fixed elements for their functional
(% 47.4, N=38) and dramatic play (%42.1, N=38).
Manufactured loose elements were also favored for
their functional (% 47.4, N=21) and dramatic play
opportunities (%42.9, N=21). Children mainly appreciated natural fixed elements for their exploratory
play opportunities (%66.7, N=3). In addition, children
preferred natural loose elements for their dramatic
play stimulation (%55.6, N=9). All three categories of
elements were effective in providing ample game with
rules activities.
Drawings and Linked Interviews
Twenty-two children took part in the drawing portion
of the research. Some drawings represented children’s
cognitive maps (Figure 2). Children mostly depicted
manufactured fixed (%35, N=149) and natural loose
(%33, N=149) elements as their favorite play elements.
4.3 Interviews
The drawings and photos served as starting points
for interviews. After each child had finished his or
her drawing, the child was asked about the drawing’s
content and the play in which the child usually engaged.
Children’s explanations for preferred elements and
cognitive plays behaviors were coded. Crosstab analysis further explored the connection between favored
categories of elements, behavior settings, and cognitive
play behaviors.
Children preferred natural loose (%28, N=144) and
manufactured loose elements (%20, N=144). They
mainly mentioned their preference for dramatic (%34,
N=144) and functional play (%33, N=144). The cross-
Figure 2: Examples of children’s drawings.
tab analysis showed children appreciated manufactured
fixed elements (%46.4, N=28) and manufactured loose
elements (%41.4, N=29) for their functional play.
Natural fixed elements were favored for their games
with rules opportunities (%30, N=20) and dramatic
play (%30, N=20). Natural loose elements were mainly
preferred for their dramatic play chances (%45, N=40).
Comparing elements, manufactured fixed elements were
mainly favored for functional play (%27.7), manufactured loose elements for constructive play (%35.3),
natural loose elements for exploratory play (%55.6) and
dramatic play (%36.7), and natural fixed elements for
games with rules (%27.3).
Discussion
The following paragraphs explain how children perceived what manufactured fixed, manufactured loose,
natural fixed, and natural loose elements offer to their
cognitive play behaviors.
Manufactured Fixed Elements and Cognitive Play
Behavior Preferences
Previous studies suggest that manufactured fixed elements are one-dimensional and mostly afford functional
play behaviors (Moore & Wong, 1997). The following
paragraphs evaluate children’s preference for manufactured fixed elements.
(1) Play Structure: Sliding is attractive for children
as it offers movement, change of speed, and experience
of gravity (Moore & Wong, 1997). Children illustrated
or mentioned the slide attached to the play structure
many times as their favorite element. For instance, one
girl explained, “I climb it up sometime, and I slide back
down!” Children enjoyed standing on the stairs or the
top of structure to watch others; the researcher coded
this activity as exploratory play. One child explained,
“I like going up the structure and looking around.” This
lookout opportunity also allowed dramatic play opportunities for children.
Dramatic play links children’s imagination with outside reality, enabling children to learn and manage new
experiences (Golinkoff, Hirsh-Pasek, & Singer, 2006).
One of the children explained how the play structure
provided this opportunity for her: “We play ‘people’ on
the top, and princess over.” Another child stated, “I like
hiding in the structure and pretend to be fighters.” In addition, the hiding and climbing opportunities of the play
structure intrigued children’s sense of imagination.
(2) Green Tube: Tai, Haque, McLellan, and Knight
(2006) theorize children’s need for private spaces to
relax and escape. The green tube in the natural zone
supported dramatic play behaviors by offering a sense
of enclosure and privacy, and children desired going
inside the tube. “I try to go inside and run away so
they wouldn’t get me. I play ‘princess’ and ‘mommy’
there,” one child said of her play preferences. Children
mentioned many pretend themes they play in the tube,
such “sharks,” “dinosaurs,” “mommy,” or “Star Wars.”
Hart (1979) explains that hiding and lookout places are
two environmental qualities that children value. The
qualitative results confirmed the role the tube’s hiding
and climbing affordances played in inspiring children’s
games.
(3) Swing: The swinging structures granted many
challenging experiences that inspired children to
recognize it as one of their favorite elements. Children
described the stimulating and exciting encounters the
swings afforded, such as a sense of “flying.” A child
described, “I like swinging because I like swinging back
and forth and getting higher.”
(4) Climbing structure: The play structure incorporated the hiding and lookout qualities that children
sought (Cele, 2006; Kytta, 2002). The void area created
by the arched structure of the climbing structure formed
a tunnel, inviting children to hide, gather, and fantasize. As one child described her hiding experience, “I
hide in the sand structure and we play ‘snowy wolves’
where we hide.” Indeed, children enjoyed the climbing
challenge provided by the structure; one child noted,
“I climb on the little sculpture thing, and it is so fun
getting down.” Consistent with previous research (Cele,
2006; Kytta, 2003; Tai et al., 2006), the climbable
structures offered challenging experiences that appealed
to children.
(5) Rockers: Woolley and Lowe (2012) classify the
existence of rocking equipment as a sign of a challenging outdoor environment. Similar to swings, children
enjoyed the swinging and rocking movement: “I like
playing there because we get to rock.” The observational results suggested about 36 percent of children’s
interaction with rockers included dramatic play, such as
riding a “horse” or “super heroes.” During interviews,
one girl explained, “I like to play ‘sick fairy’ [at the
rockers]. Someone has to be the good fairy and the
other one gets sick.”
Manufactured Loose Elements and Cognitive Play
Nicholson (1971) developed the theory of loose
parts, which asserts that loose parts in the environment
offer many play chances and stimulate creativity that is
unlikely found in settings with fixed elements. The following paragraphs explain the cognitive play value of
manufactured loose elements.
121
(1) Tire: Previous studies show the popularity of
elements such as tires (Weinstein & Pinciotti, 1988).
Children mentioned their preference for tires and their
dramatic play affordances. Children imagined playing “ducks,” “Transformers,” “unicorns,” “shooting,”
“house,” “pool,” “animals,” “princess,” or “jail” in the
tire. One of the respondents explained, “I go inside it,
pretend to be the ‘kitties’ in the tire, and the tire is our
home, and we move in the playground.” Children also
appreciated how they could climb and jump from the
tire, pretending to be “sky landers.” They also enjoyed
how they could hide in a child-scaled element, collect
loose elements, and pretend to have a spatial boundary.
Based on the children’s descriptions, the tire provided
hiding opportunities that inspired children’s games. One
girl described how she enjoyed the hiding affordance
provided by the tire: “I love the tire. I get in it and I hide
under it.”
(2) Rope: Swinging ropes are elements for inciting
adventurous play, and when tied to tree branches, they
provide swinging behaviors. Based on observations,
children sought the challenging experience of climbing
and balancing on the buckets or tree logs, holding to the
ropes, and swinging. “You stand on the bucket and you
swing. I like that because it’s so fun on it and I like to
dance on it!” one child stated. The challenging movements provided by the ropes inspired children’s minds.
Children imagined themselves as swinging monkeys,
jumping off a pretended volcano, or flying through the
air as “hungry birds.” Children also employed the nonattached ropes as loose materials in dramatic play.
(3) Bikes: Kytta (2003) considers cycling a challenging and motivating activity that excites children.
Children explained how they enjoy “driving” the bikes
or scooters because “they go super fast!” One child explained how biking associates with her physical skills:
“I just play with bikes, because sometimes I get to go
fast, even though if someone is on the bike with me. I
can go really fast, because I have really strong legs.”
(4) Tools or toys: Toys and play props are recognized
for their dramatic play value (Moore & Wong, 1997).
In addition, children employed toys in their constructive
and exploratory play when digging or creating music.
The results imply the value of manufactured loose elements such as toys for promoting different cognitive
play behavior types.
Natural Fixed Elements and Cognitive Play
Natural fixed elements have a moderately strong
positive correlation with children’s play (NLI, 2007).
The following paragraphs evaluate the cognitive play of
122 natural fixed elements.
(1) Trees: Fjortoft and Sageie (2000) indicate that
natural features such as trees have a positive correlation with children’s gross motor activities. The trees
in the natural zone offered many dramatic play activities, where children imagined being in a forest, chasing
animals, or playing “Star Wars.” The trees afforded
games with rules activities such as hide-and-seek. The
tree bark also stimulated children’s curiosity and sense
of wonder, affording exploratory play behaviors. The
study showed young children’s interest in climbing
low height trees. One child explained, “I like to play
‘climb it,’ and then you have to climb a tree.” Similarly,
in Cele’s (2006) study, children also enjoyed climbing
shorter trees. Cele further explains climbing’s importance as a both a mentally and physically challenging
activity.
(2) Rocks and boulders: The rocks, soil, and water
supported the existence of many creatures such as
worms. Children moved the rocks to “see what is underneath.” One child offered, “I like playing in the rock
area when there is water. We find worms.” These worms
inspired children’s curiosity, suggesting the high potential of rocks for exploratory play. Children enjoyed
dramatic play when exploring under the rocks, such
as seeking “dinosaur bones” or “finding the worm’s
mommy.” Children enjoyed the climbing, jumping, and
balancing challenge of rocks because of their irregular size. One child explained, “I like to walk on the
rocks because I can balance on them.” The rocks in the
stone-lined swale area, however, inspired many games
with rules. One girl explained how she plays hopscotch,
while another girl described, “I jump on the rocks. It is
called ‘jumping house.’
(3) Tree trunk: Based on the observations, tree
trunks inspired children’s curiosity to find bugs or creatures in the trunk. One of the children explained about
his sense of curiosity: “I like to feel [touch] the trees.
The bugs fell down, and we pretended they spread.”
Children combined the tree trunks to build their pretend
“houses” in the natural zone. Challenging children to
jump, balance, or crawl over them, some tree trunks
along the trail offered functional play opportunities.
Natural Loose Elements and Cognitive Play
Natural loose elements encourage children to manipulate their surroundings and develop their creative,
dramatic, and constructive abilities (Fjortoft & Sageie,
2000; Moore & Wong, 1997; Tai et al., 2006). The following paragraphs evaluate children’s cognitive play
preferences associated with natural loose elements.
(1) Creatures: The combination of water, dirt, rocks,
and creatures enticed children’s exploratory play. Consistent with Moore and Wong’s (1997) findings, children expressed a sense of surprise and curiosity toward
the natural environment. One boy explained: “I like
playing in the rock area when there is water. We find
worms and we put them in the water and that means
that dig and die or live. If they let them be there for a
long time, they would die.”
(2) Sand: Because of its manipulative quality,
children transferred sand with their hands or containers to create pretend play materials such as a “castle,”
“poison,” or “soup.” Children manipulated sand while
playing pretend: “We play ‘forts’ or ‘mermaids.’”
Children enjoyed the diverse opportunities sand offered
for shaping and creating representative objects. Many
children indicated how sand promoted their imaginary
play. Children noted that they pretend to make “fire,”
“poison,” “volcanoes,” “sand castles,” “ships,” or
“food” with the sand. These findings indicate the value
of manipulative, soft, and accessible elements such as
sand for inspiring children’s imagination.
(3) Sticks: Cele (2006) explains how children can
create special or secret places with manipulative elements such as sticks, promoting a sense of attachment.
Children collected sticks to create or spread pretend fire
in the camping areas. Children used sticks for dramatic
or game play as “guns” or “swords.” As one child
explained, “We chase each other with sticks and pretend
they are swords.” Children also used sticks to dig holes
in the tree trunks or the soil to find ants or bugs. They
also expressed pleasure toward collecting sticks to build
the stick-pile during their constructive play.
(4) Dirt: Natural loose elements such as dirt develop
children’s building and dramatic skills (Tai et al., 2006).
The softness and manipulative quality of the dirt in this
study enabled children to explore it for creatures. The
natural ecosystem fascinated children and their sense
of curiosity. In fact, about half of children’s interaction
with dirt included exploratory play behavior. Another
quarter of children’s interaction with dirt involved
dramatic play opportunities, as they pretended dirt to be
“poison,” “food,” or “powder.” A girl explained, “When
we mix the dirt, we pretend to make food.” These
results highlight the value of natural loose elements for
motivating children’s cognitive play.
Conclusion
The drawings, photo selection, and interviews from
young children facilitated communication and listening
to children with different abilities. Overall, the combined qualitative methods suggest children’s preference
for manufactured fixed and natural loose elements.
Children preferred manufactured fixed elements that offer hiding and climbing opportunities. Including natural
fixed elements supports the existence of small creatures
such as worms or bugs that inspire many exploratory
play behaviors. Subsequently, natural loose elements
inspire young children’s constructive, exploratory, and
game with rules play. Manufactured loose elements
appear to be supportive for functional, constructive, and
game with rules behavior. In conclusion, the study accentuates how outdoor play environments with diverse
elements supports diverse cognitive play behaviors,
improving children’s learning and enjoyment of outdoor
play.
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Pre-Conference Intensives
Abstracts
125
126 Action Research – Abstracts
ACTION RESEARCH
Video That Says a Thousand
Words: The Capacity of
Video in Community-Based
Research and Teaching
Laura Lawson, [email protected],
(Rutgers); Shenglin Chang, shenglinchang@
gmail.com, (National Taiwan Universsity);
William Atwater, [email protected]
For the engaged scholar/ designer, the experience of
getting to know a place deeply—becoming imbedded in
a community and appreciating the complex economic,
environmental, and social context experienced by local
residents—inevitably sheds preconceptions, nuances
facts, and leads to richly complex understandings of
needs and opportunities. What does this mean in the
context of communities facing significant environmental or economic challenges impacting their ability
to stay in place yet having limited power to improve
conditions? In such contexts, the design process becomes a venue for sharing perspectives and envisioning mutually beneficial outcomes. Video as part of this
process allows a larger audience to share in the dialogue
and potentially invest in the longer term solutions
required. Video captures the stories as they are told and
is a record for the future. This presentation focuses on
long-term engagement with communities facing difficult challenges yet inspiring new solutions that draw
designers into storytelling. Conducted in the context of
community-engaged studios and research, the challenge
is to evoke an empathetic response from students and
others so that they share the deeper meaning of place
and broaden their capacity for engagement beyond design. Likewise, community residents see benefit that are
not limited to physical space but engage in economic
development, education, and cultural heritage preservation. This presentation includes two scholars who have
spent over 20 years working with various communities
in place-based design and a videographer who brings a
documentarian perspective to the process. Case studies from Taiwan and St. Croix provide the context for
discussion of community stories. Both scholars have
shifted to video as a forum for communication to students and the larger public. The videographer will discuss the opportunities and technical challenges faced in
documenting community stories and the design process.
Presentation #1: When an Ugly Story Inspires
New Opportunities: The Provision Ground in St.
Croix
Although interest in urban and local agriculture is on
the rise, some people with personal or family experience in the more negative aspects of agriculture may
have ambivalent feelings about becoming involved.
While some people see local food production as a form
of self-reliance and resilience, others see it as a legacy
of poverty, inequality, and enslavement. This ambivalence is often quietly discussed in many community
gardens and urban agriculture endeavors in communities of color but tends to be muted in larger policy and
planning efforts. This presentation focuses on a story
unfolding in St. Croix, as activists and historians seek
to re-introduce the provision ground as precursor and
potential inspiration for local food production. The island has a long history of enslavement to support sugar
plantations. During much of this period, the enslaved
were required to not only work in the sugar fields but
also grow their own food for consumption on plots of
land—provision grounds—that were often located on
less fertile lands. Currently, St. Croix, a U.S. territory,
is experiencing a significant economic downturn due to
the closure of an oil refinery. Around the island, there
is a marked increase in gardening, and several prominent cultural heritage centers have explored the idea
of promoting gardening through the reinterpretation
of provision grounds. This presentation will describe a
current research project underway to explore the historical and contemporary meaning of provision grounds,
using documentary as the medium for discussion. The
presenter, who has studied urban agriculture for over 20
years, will discuss her rationale for video as a scholarly
media. She will discuss the participation by experts and
residents in the video, the power of landscape imagery, and the challenges faced in working with the new
medium.
Presentation #2: Blue Magpie Tea Experiment
in Taiwan: Video to Convey the Tea Cultural
Landscape
This presentation will discuss the importance of
storytelling as a foundational step in promoting an
economic development and education program working
with tea farmers in the Pinglin area of Taiwan. Starting in 2011, students and faculty from the Graduate
Institute of Building and Planning at National Taiwan
University began working with residents of a poor,
rural area. The project started as a planning and design
proposal but shifted toward economic development and
education as the group became more embedded in the
127
Abstracts – Action Research
community and realized these were greater needs for
the residents. The effort has resulted in Blue Magpie
TEAgriculture in collaboration between the Chinese
Wild Bird Federation and the local farmers. Pinglin
satoyama refers to how people manage foothill ecosystems around their home villages. The team has used
video to document and share their work with the larger
Taipei community. The video explains the ecological approach to tea farming while also conveying a
cultural landscape that is part of the heritage of many
Taiwanese. The presenter will discuss the overall goals
of the project as well as the challenges in broadening
the designers’ skills toward economic development,
marketing, and education. The role of video to share the
story has proven to be an essential step in the process,
but one that requires prioritization in the process as well
as special technical considerations.
Presentation #3: Capturing the Momentum: The
Capacity of Video in the Studio and Place-Based
Research
This presentation will focus on the perspective of a
videographer and documentarian who has experience
working with place-based design and communityengaged studios. His career as a documentarian began
while working for a non-profit organization to help
establish a community garden in a low-income Durham
neighborhood. Finding himself pulled toward recording
the stories he heard from residents as they weeded and
gardened together, he has since forged a career in storytelling through journalism and film. In recent years, he
has worked closely with the Department of Landscape
Architecture at Rutgers to highlight activities of various
community-engaged studios. He is currently documenting work being done in St. Croix to provide design
interpretation of archaeology sites related to the slave
trade, as well as a research project on the history of provision grounds and its current resurgence as a cultural
form of urban agriculture. His talk will focus on aspects
of the partnership between film-maker and design faculty as well as technical and procedural considerations
in starting such an endeavor.
128 Active Neighborhoods – Abstracts
ACTIVE NEIGHBORHOODS
Walking, Obesity, and
Urban Design in Chinese
Neighborhoods
Mariela Alfonzo, [email protected],
(New York University); Zhan Guo, zg11@
nyu.edu, (New York University); Kristen Day,
[email protected], (New York University)
We examined the connections (1) between the design
of the built environment and walking, (2) between the
design of the built environment and obesity, and (3)
between walking and obesity and income in urban settings in China. Six neighborhoods with different built
environment characteristics, located in the Chinese
cities of Shanghai and Hangzhou, were studied. Data on
walking and other physical activity and obesity levels
from 1,070 residents were collected through a street
intercept survey conducted in 2013. Built environment
features of 527 street segments were documented using
the Irvine-Minnesota Inventory-China (IMI-C) environmental audit. Data were analyzed using the State of
Place™ Index. Walking rates, household income, and
Body Mass Index (BMI) were related; neighborhoods
with a higher State of Place™ Index were associated with higher rates of walking. This study began to
establish an evidence base for the association of built
environment features with walking in the context of
Chinese urban design. Findings confirmed that the associations between “walkable” built environment features
and walking established in existing research in other
countries also held true in the case of Chinese neighborhoods.
Children’s Travel Related Physical
Activity in Conventional and New
Urbanist Neighborhoods
Jong Seon Lee, [email protected], (NCSU)
Children’s physical activity (PA) has declined
substantially during the last decades. Travel could be a
major potential source of physical activity, since school
children regularly spend their time in school travel with
walking and biking. This article investigates the association between neighborhood design and children’s
PA. This study targets identifying influences of BE on
children’s behaviors as well as tests new measures using
accelerometers and GPS (global positioning system)
concurrently to look at their behavior more objectively.
Two types of data collection methods were used: survey
and accelerometers/GPS units. A group-administered
survey was conducted with 367 4th and 5th grade
children in four neighborhood elementary schools in
Chapel Hill, NC. Two schools are located in conventional suburban neighborhoods and the other two are in
new urbanist neighborhoods. The questionnaire items,
including frequency and types, were developed from
the PAQ-C survey. Built environment variables such as
distance to school, children’s population density, mixed
land use, road density, intersection and sidewalk density, and PA locations around home were measured within
a quarter-mile buffer of each participant’s home in ArcGIS. Among 367 children, 60 wore accelerometers and
GPS units for seven complete days continuously except
when sleeping, bathing, or swimming. Both devices
were attached to a belt and worn just above the hip
bone. From survey results, participants’ mean PA score
ranged from 1 to 5, and participants were divided into
two groups, low (1-2) and high (3-5). T-test indicated
that neighborhood type, diversity, and connectivity variables such as street length, the number of intersections,
and sidewalk density are significantly different between
high/ low PA groups. Finally, I used binominal logistic
regression, which estimates the odds probability of the
DV occurring as the values of the IVs change. The 2.34
odds ratio for neighborhood type indicates that odds
of PA in new urbanist neighborhoods are 2.34 times of
the odds for conventional neighborhoods. Using data
from devices, I mapped participants’ travel-related PA
intensity to qualitatively describe where they were active or not. Color-coded dots indicate the intensity of
moderate to very vigorous PA. In both neighborhood
types, sidewalks and greenway trails support partici-
129
Abstracts – Active Neighborhoods
pants’ travel-related PA. Especially in new urbanist
neighborhoods, children were active in open space near
shops, woods, and ponds when they were returning
home from school, when they tended to have more time
to walk and wander around. In conclusion, there are
significant differences in neighborhood form and PA
levels between neighborhood types. Neighborhood type
was the strongest predictor of PA level compared to BE
variables since it may be a composite of sub-factors of
distance, density, diversity, and design.
The Power of Perception: The
Perceived Quality of the Streets
and Reported Walking in Three
Different Socioeconomic Status
Neighborhoods
Zeynep Toker, [email protected], (California
State University Northridge)
Socio-economic status is one of the main determinants of public health, especially in the case of obesity,
as it is connected to physical activity. Research suggests
that improving physical environment characteristics, in
particular perceived pedestrian environment characteristics, might be the key to increasing walking behavior—one type of physical activity. The purpose of this
study is to examine the relationship between perceived
pedestrian environment characteristics and reported
walking behavior in three different socio-economic
status neighborhoods. Ultimately, this line of research
aims to inform short-term interventions in the built environment which might increase the amount of walking
and help improve public health. A questionnaire for assessing the perceived quality of pedestrian environment
and reported walking was developed. The questionnaire
was designed to ask open ended questions identifying
two best and two worst characteristics of sidewalks
and streets in an area. It also included questions about
respondents’ frequency of walking in those neighborhoods. A total of 1,490 questionnaires were administered in three sites with different socio-economic status
in and around the City of Los Angeles. The first neighborhood, which accommodates the lowest racial and
ethnic diversity among these three sites, has the highest
percentage (91.2%) of the population with high school
education or higher, the lowest percentage (11.4%) be-
130 low the poverty level, and the highest median household
income ($72,625). The second neighborhood, which accommodates some racial and ethnic diversity, has 84.3
percent of the population with high school education or
higher, 15.5 percent below poverty level, and a median
household income of $62,958. The third neighborhood,
which has the highest racial and ethnic diversity, has the
lowest percentage (53.8%) of the population with high
school education or higher, highest percentage (18.6%)
below poverty level, and the lowest median household
income ($53,742). The perception responses were
coded after conducting a content analysis and a factor
analysis was used to identify the most influential characteristics of the streets on reported walking in different levels of socioeconomic status neighborhoods. The
results show that perceived cleanliness and perceived
quality of landscaping are the strongest elements. Moreover, lack of perceived cleanliness was identified as
the worst characteristic in the first neighborhood by 27
percent, in the second neighborhood by 21 percent, and
in the third neighborhood by 20 percent. Similarly, perceived quality of landscaping was identified as the best
characteristic in the first neighborhood by 16 percent,
in the second neighborhood by 11 percent, and in the
third neighborhood by 12 percent. Although different
socio-economic status neighborhoods might have different physical environment characteristics, ultimately
it is the perception of residents in a neighborhood that
establishes how walkable the environment is for them.
Therefore, the commonalities across socio-economic
status are crucial intervention points for urban planners
and policy makers.
Autism and Environment – Abstracts
AUTISM AND ENVIRONMENT
Evidence-Based Design
Guidelines and Future Research
Considerations for Autism-Friendly
Physical Environments
Jin Gyu “Phillip” Park, [email protected],
(University of North Texas)
The purpose of this presentation is to provide
evidence-based design guidelines and future research
considerations regarding autism-friendly physical
environments. People with Autism Spectrum Disorder
(ASD) have sensory sensitivity and hardly make sense
of the world. It is important to understand the difficulties
that they face, how they are affected by their environment, and what kinds of physical environment can help
them be less confused or to cope with stress (Whitehurst,
2006). The ASD population is increasing so the investigation of design features that is uniquely beneficial to
them is timely, but more research is needed to reach solid
conclusions about autism-friendly environments (Brand,
2010). This presentation addresses the above issues by
synthesizing existing literature regarding design features
and sensory aspects beneficial for people with ASD. In
addition, future research suggestions were developed. A
critical literature review was conducted by using various
combinations of key search terms, including but not limited to “autism spectrum disorder, autism-friendly design,
Asperger syndrome, built environment, physical environment”, within several academic databases. Each chosen
study was reviewed in terms of its significance, appropriateness of the research methods utilized, strengths and
limitations of the study, and suitability of the conclusions. Evidence-based design considerations regarding
acoustics, color, lighting, room layout, and wayfinding
were developed to facilitate designers better understand
autism-friendly environments. Good acoustical and lessreflective surface materials help achieve a calm environment, and natural lighting and glare control on windows
can be achieved by applying integral blinds between the
double glazing (Irlen, 1991). For children who fear large
spaces, smaller social spaces allow them to build up their
comfort level (Whitehurst, 2006). One of the most effective ways of helping an individual with ASD to cope with
their stress is to create a well-structured and supportive
physical environment (Beaver, 2011). In addition, future
research considerations were developed.
Designing for Autism: A Case
Study Garden Design for a
Residential Group Home for
Severely Autistic Adults
Christine Reed, christine.ellen.reed@gmail.
com, (Office of Cheryl Barton)
This case study demonstrates that an appropriately
designed residential garden will encourage daily, habitual interaction with nature and provide measurable
therapeutic benefit for individuals with autism. The
study identifies common aspects of autism that influence design; develops design strategies to accommodate
special needs, provide sensory integration opportunities, relieve stress and reduce isolation; and assesses the
impact of a designed garden on behavior patterns and
stress level of the residents. Close partnership with staff
and therapists of Pacific Autism Center for Education
(PACE) and observation of their elementary school facility provide a rich set of design considerations, physical criteria, goals, and objectives to guide design. The
garden incorporates strategic site planning principles,
such as spatial organization for intuitive way-finding
and physical transitions between spaces and activities with particular design features, such as a lighted
‘Meditation Path’, ‘Cradle Deck’, ‘Calm Room’,
‘Privacy Screens’, and a large shaded dining arbor for
group gatherings. The pre-design space included many
of the same elements as the post-design, such as swings,
trampoline, and basketball hoop, but lacked any spatial
organization. Pre-development interviews, questionnaires and use pattern diagrams, and post-occupancy
evaluation were used to determine the effectiveness of
the design to modify behavior patterns and reduce stress
in the residents. Upon completion, caretakers noted
more frequency and longer duration of use, and less
frenetic movement patterns than with pre-design use.
Residents’ engagement with new design features was
strong. PACE was impressed with the results, has since
installed another garden at one of its other group homes,
and intends to build more.
131
Abstracts – Autism and Environment
Healthy Environments For Autism
Jaques Black, [email protected],
(daSILVA Architects); Catherine Lord,
[email protected], (NewYorkPresbyterian Hospital/Weill Cornell Medical
College)
This presentation will explore the dynamic between
the built environment—with its attributes of acoustics,
visual character, spatial quality, color, texture, geometry, etc.—and the behavior of individuals with autism
spectrum disorders (ASD). Autism is a developmental
disorder characterized by delayed communication skills,
challenged social interaction, and repetitive behavior.
By understanding the mechanisms of this disorder and
consequent needs of the autistic user, this environment may be designed favorably to alter the sensory
input and create a predictable environment conducive
of skill development and learning. A case study of the
Center for Autism and the Developing Brain (CADB)
at NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital will highlight the
specific issues related to the design of environments for
persons on the Autism spectrum. CADB provides comprehensive care in a single setting for individuals living
with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and other developmental disorders of the brain. It is a collaborative
program between NewYork-Presbyterian, Weill Cornell
Medical College, and Columbia University College of
Physicians and Surgeons, in partnership with New York
Collaborates for Autism.
132 Building Performance – Abstracts
BUILDING PERFORMANCE
Modeling Occupant Behavior in
Buildings
Clinton Andrews, [email protected], (Rutgers
University); Tianzhen Hong, [email protected],
(Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory);
Bing Dong, [email protected], (University
of Texas San Antonio); Khee Lam, kplam@
cmu.edu, (Carnegie Mellon University)
Building information modeling (BIM) is becoming a
more central tool for designers and operators of buildings, and a key benefit is that it enables simulation of
the likely performance of the building under alternative
design and operation scenarios. A thorough exploration
of the “what-ifs” contributes to the realization of more
comfortable, efficient, and robust buildings. Many in
the EDRA community conduct research on occupant
behavior with the intent to influence design practice. Yet
there have been relatively few sessions at our previous
conferences that focus on how to translate those insights
for use within BIM frameworks. This lack is partly disciplinary, because building performance simulation modeling is largely a practice domain of engineers, and that
group has not regularly attended EDRA. The engineers,
meanwhile, are hungry for data to feed their models, data
that members of the EDRA community regularly collect.
This symposium brings a leading group of experts in
modeling occupant behavior in buildings to EDRA for
the purpose of sparking greater cooperation between the
building modeling and behavioral research communities.
The premise of this symposium is that technologies alone
do not necessarily guarantee high-performing buildings.
Occupant behavior plays an essential role in the design
and operation of buildings, but it is quite often oversimplified. Occupant behavior refers to an occupant’s movement and responses to discomfort, when his/her comfort
needs are not met. Occupant behavior varies with time,
space, the individual, and is influenced by social context.
It is stochastic, complex, and multidisciplinary. Having a
better understanding and modeling of occupant behavior
in buildings can improve the accuracy of building simulations and guide the design and operation of buildings.
The focus of this symposium is on modeling behavioral
factors that influence building energy performance. It
also introduces a framework for future cooperation between modelers and behavioral researchers.
Presentation #1: Approaches to Modeling
Occupant Behavior
Accepted practice absolves building energy modelers
of responsibility for capturing many of the effects of occupant behavior by assuming fixed comfort targets and
ignoring “unregulated” loads. Previous research shows
that occupants influence building performance by their
choice of setpoints, schedules, and adaptive behaviors.
Temperature setpoints outweigh internal loads, especially in small buildings, and low-mass high-glazing buildings are dominated by external climate. Schedules drive
the need for HVAC, lighting, and plug loads. Adaptive
behaviors are heterogeneous, often habitual, and sometimes maladaptive. This presentation asks what we can
learn by incorporating more detailed information about
occupant behavior into models. It compares results of
three approaches: conventional practice, an augmentation incorporating detailed occupancy patterns, and
an augmentation incorporating detailed behavioral
responses of occupants to evolving comfort conditions.
We apply these models to a highly-instrumented commercial building in Philadelphia, PA, using EnergyPlus
and extensions based in Markov chain modeling and
agent-based modeling. We extend previous work on
Markovian and agent-based approaches.
Presentation #2: Integrating Behavioral Models
With Building Performance Simulation Models
It is clear that energy-related occupant behavior
often plays a significant role in buildings, but how
should models incorporate behavior? Building energy
performance models are sophisticated tools that have
undergone continuous refinement in order to represent
accurately the physical phenomena that occupants experience as indoor comfort and associated utility bills.
Bringing building occupants “inside the loop” so that
their adaptive behaviors can be modeled as interacting
with the building’s technological systems is an emerging challenge for the modeling community. This presentation reports on recent efforts at LBL and elsewhere to
meet this challenge in a way that encourages continued
advances in the conceptual frameworks for modeling
occupant behavior. The model integration challenge will
be illustrated using one technical framework that is being developed to standardize the description and modeling of occupant behavior in buildings. The framework
has four components: (1) the Drivers behind occupant
behavior; (2) the Needs of occupants; (3) the Actions
that occupants perform when their needs are not fulfilled; and (4) the Systems with which an occupant can
interact to satisfy their needs. Examples and use cases
of the framework will be introduced, including its use
133
Abstracts – Building Performance
to improve simulation results and as part of the research
under the IEA EBC Annex on occupant behavior.
Presentation #3: Modeling Occupant Presence
and Movement
An occupant’s presence in the building is a fundamental determinant of their ability to influence the
building’s performance. Modeling and predictions
of “presence” (anywhere in a building) and “location” (within a specific zone) are amenable to simple,
schedule-based approaches, as well as more sophisticated, activity-based modeling approaches. This presentation will review the range of approaches that have been
used and then illustrate the associated data collection
and modeling challenges in a case study of a university
building with occupancy presence and movement. It
develops a new spatial-temporal algorithm to estimate
occupancy movement patterns, and presents group-level
behaviors of various types of occupants such as professors and students.
Presentation #4: Standards for Defining and
Modeling Occupant Behavior
Energy-conscious human behavior has been demonstrated to be a significant positive factor for improving
the indoor environment while reducing the energy use
of buildings. The Energy in Buildings and Communities
(EBC) group working under the umbrella of the International Energy Agency (IEA) supports international
efforts to advance the state of the art in energy-related
research and practice. The IEA EBC Annex 66, Definition and Simulation of Occupant Behavior in Buildings,
aims to: (1) Identify a uniform way for quantitative
description and classification of occupant behavior; (2)
Develop effective calculation methodologies of occupant behavior; (3) Implement occupant behavior models
with building energy simulation tools; and (4) Demonstrate the occupant behavior models in design, evaluation and operation by case studies. One main outcome
will be a guideline to improve building design and
operation by taking into account the occupant behavior
in the building life cycle. The history and progress of
the Annex will be summarized.
134 Children’s Environments – Abstracts
CHILDREN’S ENVIRONMENTS
Design and Analysis of a
Pathway to Maximize Behavioral
Affordances for Children and
Families
Adina Cox, [email protected], (North
Carolina State University)
Play is important for a child’s healthy social, emotional, physical, and cognitive development. Play can
also help build healthy bonds between parent and child.
Outdoor play can lead to increased physical activity
and opportunities to build connections between children and nature. The association between humans and
nature has implications for improving physical and
mental health and increasing longevity. In today’s hectic
society, opportunities for outdoor play may be more
limited for many children and families. In this project,
a pathway set in a regional urban park in Springfield,
Missouri was chosen for this study based on location to
residential areas, proximity to schools, and opportunities for exposure to nature. This pathway was enhanced
with ‘play pockets’ to support play opportunities for
children. Parents were surveyed at this site and at three
similar sites to better understand their perceptions.
Behavior mapping was conducted to learn what play
affordances were provided by the pathway and the play
pockets. Activities were open coded for later analysis
on a tablet using GIS software. Opportunity for ‘family
fun’ was the most cited benefit of pathway use. Families
believed that the addition of the play pockets increased
the amount of time they spent at the park. A wide variety of activities were observed with behavior mapping.
Play pocket activities tended to be physical with a high
rate of social interaction between child-adult as well
as child-child. Children also were attracted to areas
that had been designed as resting and viewing areas for
adults. These areas, which included benches, plantings,
and bridges enticed children to linger and play. Wildlife
interactions were popular and engaged children across
the pathway use. Including play pockets, resting areas,
and plantings for wildlife along pathways may lead to
a wider variety of affordances for children and families
and may encourage more frequent use and increased
duration of visits.
Housing and Neighborhood
Physical Quality: Children’s
Mental Health and Chronic
Physiological Stress
Gary Evans, [email protected], (Cornell
University); Nancy Wells, nmw2@cornell.
edu, (Cornell University); Kimberly Rollings,
[email protected], (Notre Dame University);
Yizhao Yang, [email protected],
(University of Oregon); Amanda Bednarz,
[email protected], (University of
Oregon)
The purpose of this project is to examine the relations
between the physical quality of housing, neighborhood,
and their interactive effect on rural children’s development from elementary school through young adulthood.
Standardized instruments are used to assess housing
quality (walk through by trained observers) and neighborhood quality. The housing scale consists of subscales
for structural quality, clutter and cleanliness, indoor
climate, hazards, and privacy. Neighborhood physical
quality assessment is based primarily on observer ratings and other indicators available from archival sources
(e.g., census) plus minimal self-reported data. Dimensions of neighborhood quality defined by a two mile
buffer zone (distance along streets) include proximity
to nature; street connectivity; density (housing units
and distance to closest neighbor); proximate building
conditions; sidewalk conditions; neighborhood stability
(housing tenure); proximity to elementary schools, playgrounds, open space, community services, recreation,
entertainment, and agriculture; and land use mix. Traffic
volume, air pollution, and noise levels did not load as
contributing factors due to insufficient variance within
the rural settings used and thus were not included. We
focus on two critical components of child development,
psychological health and chronic stress. Growth curve
modeling reveals lower quality housing leads to greater
psychological distress (internalizing and externalizing
symptoms), as well as more helplessness on a behavioral task over a period of 15 years, from 9 to 24 years
of age. Housing quality is unrelated to chronic physiological stress measured by allostatic load, a multivariate composite of blood pressure, epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol, and body mass index. All analyses
135
Abstracts – Children’s Environments
statistically control for income levels. Neither physical
neighborhood quality nor its interaction with physical
housing quality affect psychological distress, helplessness, or chronic physiological stress. Possible reasons
for the null neighborhood quality effects are discussed.
Classroom Environment and
Students’ Emotional States—
Bringing in Mobile EEG in
Environmental Psychology Study
Dongying Li, [email protected], (University
of Illinois); Rose Schmillen, rose.schmillen@
gmail.com, (University of Illinois); William
Sullivan, [email protected], (University of
Illinois)
Exposure to green space is associated with reduced
symptoms of stress and mental fatigue. Strong evidence
(Matsuoka, 2010) shows that high schools with natural
window views exhibit better academic performance
than schools without natural views. However, limited
evidence has been presented regarding the relationship
between views to green spaces and students’ emotions.
Are students with greener views in a better emotional
state for learning? Without this knowledge, we are not
able to provide educators and designers another opportunity to create better learning environments for
children. This study examines students’ emotional states
as they engage in class activities in three types of environments: a classroom with a green view, a classroom
with a barren view, and a classroom with no view at all.
Students were randomly assigned to these conditions,
and we used the Emotiv EPOC neuroheadset to obtain
continuous recordings of 14 EEG channels during the
experiment. The device also recorded five channels of
emotional states from the raw data, including excitement, arousal, engagement, frustration, and meditation.
The emotional states were analyzed using principal
component analysis and repeated measures of ANOVA.
Results suggest that students may experience higher
levels of meditation when they have green views from
the classroom. The effect of green views on meditation
was marginally significant. During classroom academic
activities and immediately after the activities, students
in each of the conditions experience slightly higher lev-
136 els of excitement and arousal. The findings suggest that
views to green space may have mood-enhancing effects
for students in educational settings. This pilot study also
suggests considerable potential for using EEG recording
to understand children’s emotional states in a variety of
environmental contexts.
Cross-Cultural Issues – Abstracts
CROSS-CULTURAL ISSUES
Cultural Practices, Events, and
Transformation of Culture Space
Sanjoy Mazumdar, [email protected],
(University of California); Nisha A. Fernando,
Wisconsin-Stevens Point); Maria Montero,
[email protected], (National University
of Mexico-UNAM); Hirofumi Minami,
[email protected], (Kyushu
University); Tasoulla Hadjiyanni, thadjiya@
umn.edu, (University of Minnesota); Karen
Franck, [email protected], (New
Jersey Institute of Technology); Shampa
Mazumdar, [email protected], (University
of California); Vibhavari Jani, vibhavarijani@
yahoo.com, (Kansas State University);
Shunsuke Itoh, [email protected],
(Tokyo Denki University)
times in grand ways, albeit briefly. Therefore, this topic
seems important for EDRA, and this workshop hopes to
provide an initial foray. International participants will
provide ideas from their research experiences. This will
be supplemented with research and practitioner offerings and stories by attendees. These will be recorded
through notes. Analysis of these will provide ideas, new
directions, foci, conclusions, and motivation for further
discussions at future EDRAs and for writings.
How do periodic and unusual cultural events and
practices transform existing spaces in cities, neighborhoods, and homes? How should environment-behavior
researchers study such matters? How do design and
planning practitioners accommodate such considerations? These questions are of interest. Many studies
have described the relationships between culture and
the designs of built spaces—homes especially (e.g.,
Rapoport, 1969), but also neighborhoods (Fernando,
2007) and streets (Edensor, 1998), among others.
These provide understandings of culture-environment
relationships, cultural views of space, cultural rules,
preferences, etc. However, few environment-behavior
studies have researched the more unusual, but perhaps
periodic, cultural events and practices surrounding them
and how these transform usual settings, mostly overlooked by social scientists, planners, and designers in
programming and in their designs. Examples are Rath
Yatra and Diwali, India; Hakata Gion Yamakasa, Japan
(Minami, 2008); Esala Perahera, Sri Lanka; Vietnamese Tet celebrations, Little Saigon, CA; Chinese New
Year; and Mexican Dia de Muertos and death rituals.
These events transform conceptions of space, some-
137
Abstracts – Cross-Cultural Issues
Share/Collaborate/Learn/
Advance: Democratic Design
Without Borders
Jeffrey Hou, [email protected], (University of
Washington); Randy Hester, rthester@frontier.
com, (University of California, Berkeley);
Henry Sanoff, [email protected], (North
Carolina State University); Evrim Demir
Mishchenko, [email protected],
(Mersin University); Rachel Berney, berney@
usc.edu, (University of Southern California);
Kathleen Dorgan, [email protected],
(Dorgan Architecture & Planning); Masato
Dohi, [email protected], (Tokyo
Institute of Technology); Keiro Hattori,
[email protected], (Meijigakuin
University); Yun-Geum Kim, geumii@
empas.com, (Wul Landscape Architecture
Office); Patsy Owens, peowens@ucdavis.
edu, (University of California, Davis); David
de la Pena, [email protected],
(University of California, Davis); Sheryl-Ann
Simpson, [email protected], (University
of California, Davis); Todd Simmons,
California, Davis); Deni Ruggeri, deni.
[email protected], (Norwegian University of
Life Sciences); Ching-Fen Yang, ychingfen@
ntu.edu.tw, (Institute for Physical Planning
and Information); Mingjie Zhu, penny_
[email protected], (Hong Kong Polytechnic
University); Kin Wai Siu, [email protected].
hk, (Hong Kong Polytechnic University);
Yongqi Lou, [email protected], (Tongji
University); Tianxin Zhang, [email protected],
(Peking University); Kofi Boone, kmboone@
ncsu.edu, (North Carolina State University);
Tasoulla Hadjiyanni, [email protected],
(University of Minnesota); Kumi Tashiro,
138 [email protected], (University of Hong
Kong); Paula Horrigan, phh3@cornell.
edu, (Cornell University); Celen Pasalar,
[email protected], (North Carolina
State University); Nadezda Snigireva,
[email protected], (Project Group 8)
Democratic design in forms of citizen participation
and community engagement has risen in prominence
in areas around the world. From North America to East
Asia, community design practitioners and advocates
have made significant progress in democratizing environmental design and planning practice in one project
after another. Founded in Berkeley in 1998, the Pacific
Rim Community Design Network has been a forum that
facilitates continued exchange and learning between
community designers in East Asia and North America.
The network has further led to active collaboration
between individuals across the Pacific. The purpose
of this Intensive is to bring the ongoing exchange to
EDRA to engage a broader audience beyond the Pacific
Rim. More specifically, the program is intended to
foreground democratic design as continuously evolving
practice that can be enriched through critical sharing
and exchange of experiences, success stories, and pitfalls. This daylong Intensive will include presentations
by practitioners and scholars, roundtable discussion,
and a field trip to a local site in Los Angeles. Topics will
include broad reflections on democratic design practices
in diverse settings as well as case studies of projects
that address issues ranging from the use of social media
to the participation of elderly and young people. The
daylong session will focus simultaneously on how
democratic design can transcend borders and how such
practices operate in particular cultural, geographical,
and institutional contexts. Presenters will come from
Hong Kong, Japan, Russia, South Korea, Taiwan, and
throughout the United States. Participants are invited to
join actively in the discussion.
Presentation #1: Multiple Languages of
Community Involvement
The past several decades has witnessed a variety of
descriptors of community involvement, from the social
activism of the 1970s to service learning and public
interest today. The implication of each is significant for
all forms of design education. Activists are interveners
who ameliorate problems, while civic engagement or
service learning sustains ongoing community activities.
Although these ideas may be referred to interchange-
ably, the educational implications, teaching methods,
and participation strategies will vary. Today, community involvement activities are widely implemented in
planning and design studios. Different names are being
used for these studios such as service learning, civic
engagement, or public interest, among others, however,
there is considerable variety in their focus. The goal of
this study is to understand the abovementioned variety
and portray the current state of engagement activities
in planning and design education in the United States,
with a special focus on studio courses. To this end, a
survey research study was conducted with educators
from planning and design fields who teach such studios
to respond to their studio experiences. The aim was to
identify the keywords used to define their studio, their
objectives, methods, participants, project location, benefits, and challenges.
Presentation #2: Learning from the Community
God
At the second conference of the democratic designers
in the Pacific Rim, John Liu brought the hosts a wooden
statue of a community god, representative of his culture,
our kinship, and what we were learning from each
other. This gesture remains an iconic expression of this
group: an open collective critique among colleagues all
committed to fully participatory, justice-seeking design
of everyday places through processes that engage not
just the powerful but also the marginal voices. This
paper describes the central lessons learned, the creative
insights, and the deeply troubling questions that have
been raised from a quarter-century of work with colleagues in Berkeley, Taiwan, Japan, China, and Korea.
The main lessons include: (1) working in a distinctly
different culture provides unique insights about design
in one’s own culture; (2) community design follows
money and resources; (3) each culture offers extraordinary exceptions to this design-follows-money rule; (4)
democratic designers who engage in a foreign culture
change the dynamic; (5) participatory techniques are
shaped by culture, be they tradition grounded or science based, brain or senses oriented, orderly or rambunctious; (6) these techniques have been traded and
recycled through the Democratic Design Conferences;
(7) the capacity to work successfully across cultures
requires openness but not exotic worship, sensitivity but
not inauthenticity, a genuine interest in everyday life
patterns but not blinding awe, and respect for the other
but not diminishment of self; and (8) the vitality of
new democracies raises questions about the Life-cycle
Stages of participation, the rights and responsibilities
of designers, the roles of the grassroots and states, the
effective scale of participatory design, and the conflict
between local knowledge and science.
Presentation #3: Minding the Gap: Lessons in
Public Process from the Los Angeles 30-Year
Transportation Plan
Beginning in 2008, Los Angeles embarked on a 30year plan to reinvent public transportation within the
region by doubling the number of stations and miles
of track in the public transit rail system. This nascent
system, with light and heavy-rail lines radiating from
a downtown node, is planned to serve the entire region
by the end of those three decades. The Los Angeles
County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (LA
Metro) takes responsibility for planning and construction, but design suffers from a GAP—a lack of design
oversight by Metro at the crucial middle section of the
project, where design and participation fall to many
different entities at the municipal level. This presentation problematizes the different participation requirements and strategies layered into this process to answer
the following: What are the participatory requirements
in this vast undertaking? Are there major differences
in strategies and tactics between cities, and/or between
different local interest groups? How is the presence/absence of requirements catalyzing design advocacy and
citizen groups? What does a comparison of county and/
or municipal strategies versus grassroots participatory
efforts teach us? Through this presentation, designers,
activists, and planners will gain a crucial understanding of current participation strategies and successes and
failures in a contemporary metropolis. The GAP creates
a unique window for exploring and evaluating a range
of responses across a shared landscape of investment.
Presentation #4: Building Community in
Woonsocket, RI
Woonsocket is a weak market industrial community
in Rhode Island. Poverty, underperforming schools,
and unemployment challenge the city and its neighborhoods. A variety of participatory methods were utilized
to build active resident engagement in the Our Neighborhoods in Woonsocket, RI, resulting in a Choice
Neighborhoods Transformation Plan that includes
developing housing and facilities in the neighborhood,
the Veterans Memorial Public Housing Development,
and in surrounding high performing school districts.
The voice of individual households was identified
through extensive surveys of preferences and community assets. Open houses, community events, visual
preference surveys, and real scale modeling assisted
in identifying community priorities. All engagement
139
included opportunities for multilingual participation.
Activities included games, mapping, and conversations.
Tours of regional developments and meetings with resident associations were particularly important in setting
goals and building working relationships. The plan has
already resulted in new transportation routes, increased
program participation, way finding, and redevelopment
strategies. All activities were reported out to constituents. Residents were active participants in selecting a
development partner and structuring the development
proposal, graphs, maps, and photographs describe the
community, process, and plan.
Presentation #5: Four Days of Community Design
and Ecological Democracy in Oasa, Hokkaido,
Japan
A large number of old suburban housing estates in
Japan are suffering from aging populations and building
deterioration. Meanwhile, most of the resident associations and other organizations for community developments are rigid and inactive. The main site of the workshop, the Oasa housing estate developed in the 1960s,
is no exception. To overcome the situation, a project
was carried out to explore the integration of community
design and the principles of Ecological Democracy as
proposed by Randy Hester. The workshop is composed
of these steps: (1) advanced preparation: collection of
70 ideas from case studies, survey of the circulatory
system of water and energy, and research on history
and natural environment, (2) walking with the people
in the neighborhood in Oasa to find out the treasures,
resources, and issues; (3) strolling by oneself to feel the
sense of place; (4) exploring at a regional scale from a
reservoir, a water filtration plant, and the Ishikari River
to a garbage disposal site; and (5) presentation and
discussion on findings and interventions combining the
70 ideas and the fieldwork. At the end of the workshop,
two key things were revealed: first, the limitation of
short and intensive intervention of community design at
the neighborhood scale; secondly, the new methodology
of community design as reflected in the principles of
Ecological Democracy might introduce a new approach
that compensate for the lack of deliberation of the development plan in the 1960s.
Presentation #6: Making Community Icons to
Enhance Commercial Community Solidarity and
Marketing Capability: Case Studies of Local Idol,
Yurudoru, and Local Character, Gyoranyan
In Japan, community has been fragmented for several
decades. Rural depopulation mainly due to out-migration results in the loss of social stability. Urban com-
140 munities lack social solidarity since they are relatively
new and people living in these communities do not
associate themselves like in rural areas. Communities
in both rural areas and city areas need to enhance their
identity in order to strengthen their social stability and
solidarity. However, it is not so easy to enhance community identity, especially when there is not a strong
identity to begin with, especially in urban areas. One
recent attempt to enhance identity is through making local characters, often called Yuru-Character. The author,
with help from his students, has created a local character for the Gyoran Commercial District. This local
character was created through a neighborhood competition, and several related goods like stationaries and
stickers have been created. The commercial district also
sponsored making of flags and fans (uchiwa). Local
papers that include cartoons of this character have been
distributed to local schools, and the character is gradually becoming popular among students. The author has
also organized a local idol group in order to support
local communities. The author would like to discuss the
quantitative effects as well as qualitative effects of these
social experiments.
Presentation #7: Looking Back on the
Development of Community Participation Design
in Korea
Community participation design in Korea has its
origin from the community building movement that
emerged in the mid-1990s. The civic movement in Korea, which was mainly focused on democratization and
workers’ rights, began to make a great transformation
in 1987, the watershed year for the democratization of
Korean society. It evolved to embrace diverse needs of
Korean citizens, namely consumer rights, community,
and environmental protection movements. The community building movement was one of such movements,
which began as a grassroots effort aimed at taking back
‘small rights’ and restoring a sense of community, such
as pedestrian rights, community building at apartment
complexes, and car-free streets. As such, community
design in Korea was also led by civil society, i.e., the
Break Down the Walls Project and the Hanpyeong Park
Project, although the administrative organizations have
noticed its potentiality and in recent years are making
great efforts towards incorporating the concept in their
operations. This study takes a closer look at the development of community participation design in Korea, as
well as the political and social factors that influenced
its development, to highlight the features of community
participation design in Korea and forecast its future in
the country.
Presentation #8: Engaged and Committed:
Strategies for Meaningful Participatory Design
Faculty members in design programs have offered
real-world scenarios for learning to their students for
many years. These lessons range from short-term once
and done projects to projects managed through university-based and professionally run design centers. My
personal experience, both as student and instructor, has
run the gamut of these experiences. While each type of
community-based engagement might hold both learning
success for the students and improved physical environments for the communities, this case study provides
evidence that a long-term commitment and relationshipbuilding strategy leads to a rich and responsive, or more
meaningful, participatory design practice for those in
academic settings. The presentation focuses on the
Grant High School collaboration, a partnership with
the Grant High Environmental Academy that began in
2008. The original objectives were straightforward, to
engage high school and university students in co-creating a high school campus master plan, but the results
have been a longer-term and constantly evolving engagement and implementation alliance. Four outcomes
of the Grant High School case study—participant
empowerment, dynamic and responsive design, sustainable co-creator network, and implementation champions—are indictors of a meaningful design approach and
results. These lessons suggest the positive implications
and importance of entering into longer-term commitments with community partners in comparison to
frequent, independent, and short-term design activities.
Presentation #9: Participation and Academia:
Comparing Models of Engaged Scholarship
How do we train students to use participatory
methods? Over the past 50 years, scholars in the design
and planning disciplines have experimented with approaches for engaged scholarship. These have had
various motivations and aims—pedagogical, scholarly,
opportunistic, charitable—and have been supported to
various extents by faculty, students, administrators, and
clients. Current discourses regarding “engaged scholarship” are circulating at all levels of academia. Students
take initiative to organize their own service groups,
while university leaders propose integrated approaches
with demonstrable outcomes. This presentation surveys past and present models of engaged scholarship.
It categorizes approaches both by their organizational
logics (student/faculty-driven, department based, center
based, or comprehensive) and their classroom structures
(studio based, design-build, seminar-based, sequential).
Within each of these organizational structures, different
skill sets are imparted to students and different relationships between students, faculty, administrations, and
the community are created. For what roles are students
being prepared? What techniques are being taught? And
what attitudes are being instilled by each of these models? This presentation aims to identify the potentials
and limitations of each with an aim to match the best
approaches, structures, and techniques with the desired
learning, scholarly, and community outcomes.
Presentation #10: Community Design and the
New Facebook Age: A View from the Computer
Screen
This presentation will discuss the potential of using
digital technology and social media in community
participation. Despite the drastic changes brought about
by the information age, community design has yet to
make full use of technologies in its processes. Literature
does exist on the use of digital modeling and web-based
GIS as aids in environmental design research, but it
tends to be celebratory of the opportunities, rather than
critical of the drawbacks. Within the projects described
in the literature, the focus also tends to be on achieving
consensus on design solutions, rather than on community-building and social capital construction. The purpose
of this presentation is to illustrate through case studies
creative ways in which information technologies have
been used in the context of a PAR project in Zingonia,
Italy and community design efforts in Medford, Oregon
and to compare and contrast the goals, outcomes, and
learning that resulted from both efforts. The purpose is
to establish a list of guiding principles for those community designers seeking to critically and ethically
engage communities in planning and design toward the
ultimate goal of achieving full/true participation.
Presentation #11: Community Participation in
Policy Making: An Example from Minnesota
Demographic projections show that by 2040, 40 percent of Minnesota’s population will be people of color,
many of them international immigrants. These upcoming changes pose challenges to designers, planners,
policy makers, housing developers, and others working
to position the state for a successful and vibrant future.
Part of the puzzle revolves around community engagement. Questions abound: how can planning decisions
for 2040 be grounded in diverse perspectives? What
kind of structures must be put in place to nurture the
next generation of planning leaders? And in what ways
can community participation be leveraged to break
down stereotypes and barriers for healthy and thriving
communities? This paper shares lessons learned from
141
the process of crafting the Metropolitan Council’s 2040
Housing Policy Plan. Concerns ranged from who were
involved in the decision-making process to the vocabulary used to describe the overall policy position and
neighborhoods. In a region that includes long-standing
minorities such as Native Americans and African
Americans as well as new Americans, such as Hmong,
Somalis, and Latinos, collaboration attains further
complexity. Opportunities to unravel how community
engagement is defined in a cross-cultural setting, ways
to sustain partnerships across the metro area and all
stakeholders, as well as types of information and data
needed for constructive and meaningful collaborations
were identified.
Presentation #12: The Elderly’s Participation
in the Design of Community Environment in
Shanghai and Hong Kong
Both Shanghai and Hong Kong have stepped into the
stage of aging populations that bring challenges but also
opportunities to the public design field. One concern is
how community environment can enhance the quality of older persons’ daily life and boost their mental
well being. The project Sweet House: Small Changes,
Big Impact is a collaborative design process between
designers and older persons in the communities of
Shanghai and Hong Kong. The aim of the project is to
explore how older persons use color and textiles in their
daily lives, and how color and textiles act as an intervening tool to build up community identity. In addition,
the project aims to compare how participatory methods
are implemented in the communities with different cultural backgrounds. The methods discussed in this paper
include observation, interview, photovoice, and participatory workshop. Through observations and interviews,
we discover older persons’ attitudes of community life
and community participation. Photovoice as a participatory research method shows different living conditions
and habits of older persons in the two communities.
During the participatory workshops, older persons had
more roles to play than just research objectives. They
were active participants who contributed to better living
environments. Through the experience of the project, this paper argues that community design plays an
important role in building community identification and
sense of belonging by making people share their skills
and life experiences.
142 Food Connections as TransCultural Landscape Dialogues:
Community Networking From
Burma to Taiwan’s Golden
Triangle Longgang, Taoyuan
Shenglin Chang, [email protected],
(National Taiwan University)
The project investigates how exotic cuisines became the mechanism that glues different ethnic groups
together and enhanced the quality of community life
in the so-called Golden Triangle in the Longgang area
of Taoyuan, Taiwan. The Golden Triangle Longgang
has been famous for its cultural diversities, especially
the numbers of exotic restaurants, including Burma
cuisines, Hakka cuisines, Taiwanese cuisines, Chinese Mainlanders’ cuisines, Islamic cuisines, and so
on. In this paper, the research particularly investigates
the relationships between the Burma cuisines and the
quality of community life within the Burma-Chinese
ethnic groups. For research methods, my team applies
historical document analysis, in-depth interviews, and
community-based participatory observations. The paper
consists of three sections. First, the paper introduces
how the last group of Chinese soldiers migrated from
the old Golden Triangle in Burma and the Yunnan region of China to the new Golden Triangle area in Longgang, Taiwan in the mid-1950s. How has this group of
veterans settled down by operating small food stands,
restaurants, and shops? Secondly, the paper addresses
the history of how the urban redevelopment projects
that took place in the mid-1980s had demolished most
old communities and neighborhoods in the Longgang
Golden Triangle area. All Burma-Chinese residents had
been relocated in different cities and towns in Taiwan.
Some of them even moved to the south of Taiwan. At
meantime, due to the foreign labor policy, many Islamic
newcomers moved to the area and brought their food
culture here. Finally, the paper analyzes how the diverse
ethnic groups sustain their inner and external community relationships via cuisines, weekly activities, and
food festivals, and how the Burma-Chinese veterans,
the Islamic newcomers, the Mainlanders, and residents
(Hakka and Taiwanese) have blended via food connections in the Longgang.
Nacirema Revisited: Expanding
the Cultural Terrain of Interior
Environments
Marsha Cuddeback, [email protected],
(Louisiana State University); T.L. Ritchie, tlr@
lsu.edu, (Louisiana State University)
This paper explores a process for learning that employs a qualitative approach to research, grounded in
social constructionism, to help prepare interior design
students for successful practice in a culturally diverse
and evolving global environment through taking “a
critical stance toward our taken-for-granted ways of
understanding the world” (Burr, 2003 p. 2). Expanding awareness of the production of culture encourages
students to reflect on their personal beliefs, develop a
regard for diversity, understand the limitations of ethnocentrism, and develop strategies for creating design
solutions that are culturally responsive. This process
choreographs three sequential activities where learning
is active and contextualized: an off-campus archaeological field study, an investigation of human rituals in
the interior environment, and a comparative analysis
of traditional building types in multi-cultural settings.
Each activity strengthens reflective, observational,
descriptive, and analytical skills development, and
provides opportunities to examine assumptions about
culture and design. The activities were prefaced with
reading Horace Minor’s satirical essay, Body Ritual
among the Nacirema to engage students in a thought
experiment, encourage critical thinking about American
culture from the point of view of distant observer, and
begin to reflect on the condition of ethnocentrism. This
preface formed an atypical segue to encourage students
to question how and why culture is manifest in interior
environments. Utilizing systematic observation, shared
experiences, and data collection, the students worked
collaboratively to conduct research, document, and
analyze the behavioral manifestations (human, social,
and cultural influences) and the physical characteristics of the interior environment as cultural artifact.
Through examining how culture evolves and is manifest
in the design and adaptation of interior environments,
the students developed an appreciation of the interior
environment as a mode of cultural production, began to
“navigate an interconnected global reality” (Hadjiyanni,
2013 p. vii) and developed a personal design methodology responsive to diversity.
The Amis Urban Tribal Landscape
as the Cultural Design: The
Danshui River Ecosystem in
Metropolitan Taipei
Jin-Yung Wu, [email protected],
(National Taiwan University); Shenglin
Chang, [email protected],
(National Taiwan University)
The first learning objective in this essay is to clarify
the mechanism of formation about the Amis cultural
landscape. The second objective is to evaluate the
dual-cultural ecosystem service within an urban context. The third objective is to create sustainable urban
waterfront recreational facilities. The fourth objective
is to conduct a waterfront cultural design. Based on Dr.
Constazan’s research in 1997 and the United Nations’
definition of cultural ecosystem services in 2004, this
essay investigated how the mechanisms of the cultural
landscape service within the Danshui River ecosystem
have been supporting riverfront communities along the
Danshui River watershed. The research area was the
Xizhou Amis community located by the riverbank of
the Xindian River. The Amis people were one of the
sixteen indigenous people in Taiwan. Located at the
Xindian District, New Taipei City, the Xizhou tribe was
built by Amis people who migrated to Taipei County
area 35 years ago. According to Amis cultural traditions, they believed that the water came along with the
spirits of ancestors. Therefore, they always consciously
chose the tribe site and living environments near the
waterfront area. All the living activities, rituals, and
ceremonies were also deeply related to the water body,
river, or ocean. This essay consists of four parts. Firstly,
it introduces the background of metropolitan Taipei and
the Danshui River. Secondly, it analyzes the cross-cultural waterfront migrations and community. It compares
the Taiwanese Han culture waterfront habitat patterns
with the Amis tribal aqua-cultural landscape patterns.
Thirdly, it addresses the mainstream waterfront design
fashions in Taiwan. Finally, it suggests the community
participatory mechanisms for revision of the Danshui
River ecosystems. The river ecosystem could support a
cross-cultural lifestyle for the Amis tribe if government
officials and design and planning professions could
change their approach of waterfront planning, design,
and governance.
143
Bridging the Gap: The Role of
Community Engaged Design
Advocacy in the High Himalaya
Carey Clouse, [email protected],
(UMass Amherst)
During the course of the past decade, villages across
the Ladakh and Zanskar region of the Indian Himalaya
have begun to experience increased water scarcity from
diminishing snow pack. In this arid, mountainous region, subsistence farmers are almost wholly dependent
on spring and summer meltwater to irrigate crops of
barley, wheat, and vegetables. As climate change erodes
the glaciers in this part of the world, once self-sufficient
villages are suddenly finding themselves forced to
re-examine centuries-old patterns of living. The tiny
village of Kumik provides a striking story of resilience
and adaptation from an outpost on the front lines of climate change. After suffering from a pervasive and inescapable drought, Kumik’s 250 residents have formally
decided to abandon their ancient mountain location. In
an extraordinarily visionary and collaborative effort,
this entire community is moving to a new site, where
they are building new canals, fields for farming, and
homes on what is now dry, open land. During a series of
design charettes last summer, the Kumipas participated
in the wholesale rethinking of their village layout, envisioning life in a new sustainable location that would
also preserve the strong communal relationships and
cultural identity from their shared past. The prospect of
moving an entire community from one mountainside
location to the completely new landscape of a river
delta threatens to erode the traditions, daily lifestyle,
and sophisticated social fabric that these villagers
have cultivated over centuries. At risk is the loss of the
deep-rooted cultural identity of these residents, which is
inextricably linked to the physical buildings and spaces
of Old Kumik. As this community begins to consider
the physical change ahead, new construction also
presents exciting opportunities for improving health,
energy-efficiency, and economic opportunities for Kumipas. From an architecture, planning, and community
design perspective, this transition could capitalize on
144 new technologies, ideas, and resources that would boost
long-term resilience and sustainability indicators. For
instance, this region has abundant solar energy and a
strong owner-builder construction tradition, and many
homeowners and local NGOs have successfully experimented with passive solar designs that perform well
in the cold, harsh conditions of Zanskar’s winter. As
Kumipas prepare to make this move, the design of new
public spaces and the development of a masterplan that
the entire community supports could help to ease this
transition. These planning and design solutions must
conserve scarce water, harness the region’s abundant
solar energy, incorporate local materials and building
wisdom, and generate much-needed income in this
rural community. Moreover, the solutions developed for
this village must integrate local wisdom with outside
expertise. This paper addresses the inherent challenges
of design advocacy in a foreign location, and considers
appropriate methods for useful, intentional, and evenhanded community-engaged design assistance.
Design Education– Abstracts
DESIGN EDUCATION
Pedagogical Approaches to
Teaching Students How to do
Environmental Design Research:
Part One (morning)
Karen Keddy, [email protected], (Ball
State University); Nisha A. Fernando,
Wisconsin - Stevens Point); Caitlin DeClercq,
California - Berkeley); Galen Cranz, galen@
berkeley.edu, (University of California Berkeley); Jesse Voss, jesse.l.voss@gmail.
com, (Consultant); Azizi Arrington-Bey, Azizi.
[email protected], (Indiana State
University); Daisy-O’lice Williams, daisyoli@
uoregon.edu, (University of Oregon); Sanjoy
Mazumdar, [email protected], (University
of California - Berkeley); Eleftherios Pavlides,
[email protected], (Roger Williams
University); Kimberly Rollings, krolling@
nd.edu, (University of Notre Dame);
Giyoung Park, [email protected], (Cornell
University)
Pedagogical Approaches to Teaching Students
How to do Environmental Design Research: Part
One (morning) In this intensive, our mission is to build
upon the discussions we had during our Environmental
Design Research Education knowledge network meeting at EDRA45, and showcase the assignments that we
have designed to teach students how to conduct environmental design research. These assignments come
from both undergraduate and graduate courses in multiple disciplines, and include all scales of assignments,
from in-class exercises to semester-long assignments as
well as partnerships with the community and practitioners. We will start the session with a brief introduction
to the full-day intensive. Presentations are grouped into
five clusters and each cluster will be followed by discussion. Each cluster has three presentations except for
Cluster 4, which has two presentations. Each presenter
will share his or her pedagogical approaches in the context of traditional architecture school pedagogy and will
address all or some of the following topics: learning objectives, teaching strategies, delivery methods, learning
outcomes, methods of assessment, and limitations. The
second part of the intensive will be a working session
that explores the possibility of forming a consortium
of universities to apply for funding to develop courses
that engage architects in environmental design research
assignments. As architects are helping educate students,
they are also receiving continuing education in utilizing
the social sciences for architectural design. Clusters 1,
2, and 3 will be in the morning and in the afternoon we
will have Cluster 4 and 5 as well as the working session. Cluster #1: Building Blocks: Introducing students
to environment-behavior research methods Cluster
#2: Familiar/Unfamiliar: Ways of prioritizing cultural
contexts and user experiences Cluster #3: Establishing
Partnerships: Bridging the gap between research and
practice through teaching Cluster #4: Preserving Place:
Finding meaning in place and special places of value
Cluster #5: Living Laboratories: Evaluating buildings
and behavior with multiple methods Working Session:
Seeking funding for developing courses that engage
architects in environmental design research
Presentation #1: Cluster 1: Building a
Foundation: Introducing Basic Research Tools for
Socio-Spatial Analysis
The focus of this presentation is to discuss several
assignments that I have designed as building blocks
for understanding the usefulness of some very basic
research tools in a cultural and social issues course
for students in their first year of the architecture program. Students work in teams of four and are assigned
a building on our campus to use for each assignment.
The first assignment is a set of trace measures photo
panels: accretion, erosion, leftovers, and missing traces.
I encourage the students to make assumptions about the
way people use a space based on what they see. The
second assignment is hypothesis testing and behavioral
mapping of human behavior in their building, and the
students seek to confirm or deny their hypothesis by
doing time samples and analysis of their findings. For
the next assignment, the students go beyond making
assumptions and relying on observations alone and now
learn how to conduct interviews with people who use
the space. Additionally, they conduct a comprehensive
safety and security audit of the same building site,
produce a set of environmental factors photo panels
and recommendations, and write individual reflection
papers which include an analysis of several readings,
145
Abstracts – Design Education
the lectures and discussions, the audit findings, and the
interview responses related to issues such as gender
differences and perception of fear from a social justice perspective and design. I consider the sequence
of methods to provide students with tools to do a
socio-spatial analysis having learned the importance of
qualitative research for understanding how people use
space and what people prefer so that informed design
decisions can be made. Not only do these assignments
increase students’ visual literacy in regards to human
behavior in physical settings, but they also reinforce the
importance of visually communicating one’s research
and final results.
Presentation #2: Cluster 1: Developing an
Environment-Behavior Mindset in Students: EyeOpening or Confusing?
This presentation focuses on designing course activities based on learning outcomes heavily steeped in
environment-behavior research in an interior architecture undergraduate program. It will include examples of
course assignments and projects in both lecture-format
courses and studio-based courses. Introducing environmental design research at the first year level itself has
proven to be challenging, but the challenges point to a
positive direction. When an EB foundation is laid out,
students are potentially able to apply that knowledge
and enduring understanding of the significance of EBbased research in the other course sequences. Based
on this conviction, specific assignments in a lectureformat first year course were designed. Additionally, EB
research takes a center stage in a senior-level capstone
studio where students conduct field research and apply
the findings in design solutions. The specific assignments and project formats will be discussed in this presentation. EB research and utilization approaches, however, have other dimensions of concerns. EB research
cannot be taught in a ‘bubble’ without the presence of a
support structure in an undergraduate curriculum. The
presentation will address these outer dimensions of the
pedagogical approaches and bring examples of such
‘road blocks’ that may occur in any design program.
Specific EB-based course work may not succeed on its
own, especially in the absence of a holistic approach to
curricular design in a program. Possibilities to alleviate
these confusions among students will be discussed.
Presentation #3: Cluster 1: Engaging Students in
Environment-Behavior Research and Education:
Course Pedagogy and Student Outcomes
Social and Cultural Processes in Architecture and
Urban Design is an undergraduate survey course that
146 employs a learning-centered pedagogy to engage 125150 undergraduate students in conducting their own
environment-behavior research. Research shows that
learning improves when students construct knowledge
and actively engage with course content (Bransford
et al., 2000). Consequently, we first introduce major
concepts in small, 25-person sections and then discuss
them in forum (the traditional ‘lecture’ time). Discussion sections are also home to group-based participatory
design activities, such as redesigning People’s Park
or a local high school based on stakeholder perspectives. “Lectures” in this course are forums for students
to discuss ideas and share their work with the entire
class, while the professor is a resource who gives some
traditional but interactive lectures. Students conduct
two original research projects. In an ethnographic
research project, students develop a culturally sensitive program for design. Each part of the assignment
showcases a different research technique: observation,
semantic ethnographic interviewing, literature review.
Ultimately, students redesign a site that supports and
celebrates the microculture they have studied. (Cranz et
al., 2014). Second, the class works in teams to conduct
a Post-Occupancy Evaluation (POE) of a local building. The teaching team meets with building managers in
order to identify 5-6 important research questions; each
discussion section is assigned one of these questions.
Students form groups of 4-5 to pursue one data collection technique: observation, interview, questionnaire,
archival/precedent research, or photo elicitation. These
teams analyze the data and present findings in writing.
The result is a robust POE with each research question
addressed through five different techniques. (DeClercq
& Cranz, 2014).
Presentation #4: Cluster 2: Merging Theory,
Phenomenology, and Empirical Research in a
Design Theory Course
In this presentation, I will explain how I designed an
interdisciplinary graduate design theory course in the
faculty of architecture, arts, and design program at the
Notre Dame University in Lebanon. I connected complex systems theory with normative design theory in
order to allow culture neutral implementation of initial
design theory instruction. The pedagogical goal was to
provide graduate design students with critical thinking
skills and core competencies in design theory throughout their careers that were both specific to their discipline and in a more general sense. A “grounded theory”
phenomenological research approach was merged with
empirical research approaches so that students would
gain sufficient understanding of how to make design
Design Education – Abstracts
choices when confronted with culturally specific normative design theory works. I began with the utilization
of grounded theory research protocols and through
the semester moved towards an even greater reliance
on empirical inquiry to guide the refinement of openended research questions that were focused on issues of
deep sustainability from the artist’s, architect’s, graphic
designer’s, fashion designer’s, or urban designer’s
perspective, or in general—from the perspective of
graduate students of design in all disciplines. The unit
of analysis for design theory was focused upon material
culture in a general sense, but enabling cross/interdisciplinary action/thought on an unprecedented scale for
the students. Students would initially primarily work
in the mediums and knowledge base of their design
specialization when investigating their research questions. Then the students would code and embed their
work with meanings and research reference annotations.
The final research works that were produced in the class
were reflective of the life world of designers in their
various disciplines.
Presentation #5: Cluster 2: Written and Visual
Narrative as Design Tools
There has been much discussion about the need for
more empathetic approaches to design. This can prove
challenging in studio teaching, where actual clients
and users may be inaccessible. Engaging students in
narrative methods presents itself as a useful vehicle for
prioritizing user-experience throughout the design process. This presentation focuses and explores the use of
written and visual narrative as a tool through programming, ideation, and implementation phases of a project.
Narrative exercises allow student to design through the
familiar tool of storytelling. Narrative emphasizes the
importance and acknowledgment that as designers they
are creating important elements of individual’s script.
Several simple studio exercises and their techniques are
introduced. The goal of these assignments are to help
students develop a nuanced understanding of user-experience and how it can be shaped in closer accordance
to their own design intentions. Some of the techniques
discussed include: short writing exercises, diagramming, role-playing, storyboarding, and mapping.
Presentation #6: Cluster 2: Learning About
Cultural Ecology Through a Family Study Using
Naturalist Field Research
Designing in culturally cognizant and appropriate
ways requires students to know about the culture of the
persons the design is for. Among the myriad of relationships between cultures and their physical settings—their
cultural ecology—are conceptions of space and buildings, relationships among occupants, and social aspects
such as religion that provide guidance about lifestyle
and about choice of space and its geometry, their view
of functional relations among spaces, symbolic aspects
of spaces, directions, and things that affect design,
meanings of space and of artifacts, among others. These
and other topics are covered through lectures and in
assigned readings. Students are also taught about the
method and its focus and given tips about observing
and interviewing. Assignments require the students to
select a family of an unfamiliar culture and do Naturalistic Field Research of the family. This requires them to
observe and learn about the current house and through
observations and interviews to learn about the occupants’ culture, its ideals, and the relationships noted
above. They are required to analyze this data and write
a paper describing the current house and the culture. A
second part of the assignment requires them to design
a house for that family, providing annotations of what
cultural ideas guided their design. Students are encouraged to make a model of the house, or part of it, or a
board depicting their ideas. The advantages and disadvantages of such an approach, of the method, and of the
learnings thus obtained are discussed.
Presentation #7: Cluster 3: Environmental
Design Research Semester Assignment Engaging
Architects
Environmental Design Research (EDR) is a required
graduate architecture course that engages practicing
architects in a semester-long research project from inhabitants’ point of view of buildings designed by them.
The research combines photo-elicitation interviews inviting inhabitants to use their own criteria in evaluating
what works well and what can be improved in spaces
shown in photographs, with reviews of the relevant
environment behavior and architectural literatures. The
course is organized with four-member teams, with each
teammate leading in one area: - Architectural documentation and evaluation using architectural criteria;
- Social science informal and structured field research
of users and usage; - Environment behavior literature
review related to the building type; - Architectural precedent analysis. Architects walk through their buildings
explaining design intentions and meet with students in
their offices and on campus reviewing the development
of the research instrument. Architects provide context
in interpreting interview comments by explaining the
constellation of design parameters such as client objectives, code constraints, budget limitations, conflicting
user needs, structural and mechanical requirements, and
147
other factors influencing design. Architects help separate actionable information for improving design from
irrelevant complaints. For example, comments about
difficult way-finding in a NICU facility designed to prevent unauthorized access demonstrated design success
in preventing entrance bypassing security rather than
a design flaw. Field findings are supported with references from the environment behavior literature and with
precedents addressing identified issues where possible.
Architects and administrators responsible for the building benefit from the information assembled by students
and evaluate its usefulness for possible interventions
in existing buildings or for improving future designs.
Architecture students emerge with appreciation for the
interaction of complex constraints during the design
process, gain enhanced insight into the architects’ societal responsibilities, and learn to access the environment
behavior literature that in general remains underutilized
in architectural practice.
Presentation #8: Cluster 3: Teaching MultiDisciplinary Classes How to Conduct
Environmental Design Research
We discuss two approaches to teaching students from
multiple fields (e.g., design, architecture, social and
environmental sciences, economics) how to conduct
environmental design research: (1) using a series
of mini-assignments, and (2) using a semester-long
project. Mini-assignments assess and document environment-behavior relations and include field observations, environmental analysis reports, and final poster/
oral report presentations. The semester-long project
includes field observations/interviews, application of
theory, literature review, and completion and presentation of an evidence-based final product (e.g., design
guidelines, poster) in partnership with a community
organization aiming to bridge gaps between research
and practice. The two approaches engage students with
the community and real- world contexts, satisfy elective or accreditation requirements (e.g., NAAB), offer
instructors and students flexibility with content, and
provide opportunities for students to work individually or in groups. Limitations for instructors include
grading time and the need for teaching assistants with
larger class sizes. Assignment learning objectives/outcomes: Verbal and written communication; demonstrate
understanding and documentation of human-environment interactions; assess quality of environments from
multiple perspectives; critical thinking and application
of research results to real-world contexts (e.g., design
guidelines). Methods: Lecture, discussion, and mini- or
semester-long assignments (systematic observation,
148 data collection, literature review, evidence-based design
guidelines, application to real-world settings via community organization partnership). Teaching strategies:
Team-based learning, discussion (in class and online),
lecture, field trips/site visits; community organization
partnerships. Delivery methods: Application of theory,
field observation notes, literature review, bridging gaps
between research and practice through community organization partnership; environmental analysis reports,
presentations, and, discussion. Methods of assessment:
Peer feedback, community/professional feedback via
class presentations, instructor grading.
Pedagogical Approaches to
Teaching Students How to do
Environmental Design Research:
Part Two (afternoon)
Georgia Lindsay, georgia.lindsay@gmail.
com, (University of Colorado Boulder);
Jeremy Wells, [email protected], (Roger
Williams); Arezou Sadoughi, asadoughi@
ufl.edu, (University of Florida); Julia
Robinson, [email protected], (University
of Minnesota); James Wheeler, whee0113@
umn.edu, (University of Minnesota); Kapila
Silva, [email protected], (University of
Kansas); Gowri Gulwadi, betrabetgulwadi@
gmail.com, (University of Northern
Iowa); LaDan Omidvar, ladan10@gmail.
com, (consultant); Eleftherios Pavlides,
[email protected], (Roger Williams);
Bradley Nobbe, [email protected],
(Roger Williams); Karen Keddy, drkeddy@
gmail.com, (Ball State University); Andrew
Mirabito, [email protected], (Roger
Williams)
This is Part Two (afternoon). Please see Part One
(morning) for the abstract that summaries the entire
day’s activities and lists all of the Cluster titles (themes)
and the working session title.
Presentation #1: Cluster 3: Teaching Using the
Real World: Gathering Social Data to Inform
Housing Policies
Students enrolled in the Environmental Design
planning track are required to take a Housing Policies seminar in their senior year. In this class, students
learn about how policy in the United States shapes
housing, from settlement patterns to individual houses.
In addition to learning about the effects of U.S. housing policies, students are also supposed to learn about
how to research housing policy. The best way to learn
about how to conduct research is to actually conduct
research, so students work in groups towards answering a real-world research question. The project was
conceived as a post-occupancy evaluation, but in the
spring of 2014, students gathered use data from existing
graduate student housing to help inform the imminent
redevelopment of the housing. The university plans to
increase density by 200 percent and wanted our help
creating policy and plans to mitigate the potential negative impacts to residents of its neighbors. An overview
of the site is presented on the first day of class, and students work in groups all semester to answer the client’s
research questions. At the end of the semester, students
present their findings to the community partner and then
turn in a final report, written in standard journal format,
instead of having a final exam. Throughout the semester, though, the research project is broken into smaller,
manageable projects, a technique that I learned from a
professor when I was a graduate student instructor, such
that a piece of the project is due every week. Grading is
split between those weekly assignments, the presentation and paper, and a peer grade. In this presentation,
I will address the process, learning objectives, and
outcomes of the project. Some of the student work is
nearly professional quality, and the community partner
found the insights helpful.
Presentation #2: Cluster 4: Developing an EDBR
Proposal for Historic Environment Research
Environmental design and behavior research (EDBR)
is most often associated with new or recent construction, but its principles are equally as applicable to
the management of the older, existing built environment. Historic preservation, in particular, is concerned
with the identification of special places of value (i.e.,
“historic” places) and the appropriate ways that these
places should be treated to conserve their historical
authenticity. These activities are increasingly guided
by a planning process that emphasizes social, cultural,
and experiential values over traditional art/historical values. In the graduate course I teach on historic
environment research methods, I expose my students to
EDBR principles and require them to prepare a research
proposal as a capstone assignment for the course; about
half of the students use this research proposal to guide
their subsequent thesis work the following semester.
The primary learning objectives for this assignment are
to address the nature of empirical research and describe
qualitative and quantitative paradigms and how research
proposals are created. Specific learning outcomes for
this assignment are to identify a research topic and a
research question based on a comprehensive literature
review; select and defend a research methodology and
method based on the research question; demonstrate
how data is collected and analyzed; and create and
defend a research proposal. During the semester, I use
in-class exercises to give students an opportunity to
understand various research methods (e.g., interviews,
photo elicitation, surveys). I also use a group assignment in which students have to develop research questions that could produce empirical evidence to substantiate or refute anecdotal claims made in news articles.
These assignments help students explore the nature of
research and how it can provide useful data to help address real-world problems.
Presentation #3: Cluster 4: An Example of an
Action Sense of Pedagogy in Environmental
Behavior Teaching: How Students’ Lived
Experiences Can Influence Their Understanding
of Place Meaning
This paper addresses a method to teach graduate
students how to understand the meaning of a place and
the importance of lived-experience in environmental
behavior research. This method originated in a qualitative paradigm of research and is derived from the study
of live-experience of Van-Manen, “an Action Sense of
Pedagogy”. We used this method to explore a qualitative perspective of theoretical training. We applied
the method in a class entitled “review of reflections
on architecture”. We aimed to involve students with
understanding of some non-physical aspects of architecture: emotional experience and how that shapes the
meaning of place. A semester-long assignment was
designed including a field-study, writing assignment,
and individual class presentations. First, groups of students were assigned a place to experience. Second, the
class traveled to the City of Dezful and stayed there for
three days to experience an underground space called
Shavadan within the courtyard houses. Third, students
were interviewed about how and what they experienced
in the place. Students in the field played a role of users
rather than visitors or architects. Back in the class, they
149
reported their own experiences coupled with spatial
characteristics of Shavadan. We chose this particular
space because (1) the course was part of the residential
design graduate program in which the students studied
the houses of Dezful, (2) the importance of this space in
the tradition of underground life in Iran, (3) the values
of the passive design of this particular underground
space, and (4) the high pace of destructions of Shavadan
and the diminishing opportunities of being able to experience such spaces in the future. After experiencing the
Shavadan, students demonstrated an understanding of
how human lived-experience could convey the meaning
to place. They also displayed increased skills for questioning users’ environmental interaction and knowledge
of existing theories of environmental behavior design.
Presentation #4: Cluster 5: Studying Public
Places: Research in an Environment-Behavior
Class
For years, students in the E-B course, Arch 3711:
Environmental Design and the Sociocultural Context
have done a comparative analytical project. Previously, the project involved studying places described
in journals and books. Recently, students have studied
local, interior, public places. The purpose of the project
is to discover the relation of E-B research to design.
While previous projects provided insights into potentials and limitations of examining published work, the
current method has the advantage of exposing students
to the challenges of research in a living setting. This
team-based project is presented as exploratory research
in the sense that students are asked to find similarities
and differences between the settings. Each year we
identify sites and pairings with the idea of having two
environments similar enough to be comparable, but
different enough to raise provoking questions. Data is
analyzed visually, and a variety of diagramming techniques are taught, including space syntax gamma and
beta analysis. Students are asked to observe and map
behavior in the two settings, and to analyze the physical
environment and its context so they may interpret why
the behavior they are observing may be taking place.
Studying two different settings reveals their findings to
be relative to a particular place. They learn that the design of the environment affects what takes place there,
but also that other non-design forces also have effects.
This allows them to identify important considerations
in design. This presentation will assess the pedagogical
approach taken in this student project. What are the advantages and disadvantages of having students observe
in public places? What do they learn about design and
how does this project engage in this knowledge and un-
150 derstanding? What difficulties are inherent in teaching
this project? What do students find engaging or difficult? How has the project changed over time and why?
Presentation #5: Cluster 5: Linking Research With
Design: Revising a Research Methods Course for
Effective Student Learning
This presentation describes the revision of a research
methods course over several semesters to help students
understand the use of research in architectural design.
Using problem-based learning as an educational strategy and adopting the design studio as a pedagogical
model, students were asked to solve a series of design
problems, employing specific research methods for each
task. The tasks were directly related to their design studios and were devised with their studio instructors’ help.
Students selected a research topic—building envelope
(skin) or public space—and an existing building from
the Kansas City metro area to investigate the topic. The
project was divided into several assignments: initial
observation, in which students outlined their observations of the design effectiveness of the building studied,
with their own hypotheses on the design intentions of
the building envelope or public space; interviews with
the building users to find out their evaluation of that
design aspect (skin or public space), and to test some of
the students’ assumptions of it; deriving design principles for the design of a skin or public space, based on
the interviews, observations, and published literature on
such design; stating design hypotheses behind the design aspect in their own design project, using the design
principles derived; evaluation of the design aspect, in
which students performed computer-based simulation
research (for skin design) or surveys (for public space
design) to assess its performance. Based on the findings,
students suggested what changes they would make to
their designs. Students conducted the first three steps
in teams of three and the last two steps individually.
At each step, they received guidance on the research
methods applicable to the task. Student performance
surpassed the initial expectations, and their work indicated that they have become more reflective on the ways
research could be applicable in design.
Presentation #6: Cluster 5: A Green Campus
Building as a Living Laboratory for Teaching LEED
A green building on a university campus can serve as
a living laboratory to promote a culture shift in environmental leadership and offers design students with
authentic first-hand experiences of sustainable features
and their impacts. While learning about Leadership
in Energy and Environmental Education (LEED)—a
green building rating system—students need a holistic
understanding of how LEED credits manifest as daily
experiences in a sustainable building. LEED deals with
“education and training” and provides a “roadmap” for
engaging all stakeholders early (building occupants,
students, administrators, and facilities staff including operations and maintenance personnel) so that the
building reflects the realities and needs of the entire
community while furthering the institutional mission.
We will present the design process and evaluation of a
recently renovated LEED-Gold campus building in the
Midwestern United States. The architect on the building
design team introduces the Integrated Project Delivery
(IPD) process that engaged the campus community with
charettes at the project’s onset, developed creative design solutions, and led to the final stages of implementation and post occupancy evaluation (POE). Students
were an integral part of the charrettes and contributed
their understanding of LEED principles in the discussion. The interior design studio instructor discusses the
student-led POE in which undergraduate design students learned about research ethics and designed, tested,
and conducted data gathering techniques such as survey
questionnaires, behavioral maps, and photo-interviews
to evaluate three functional criteria in the building. After collecting data from faculty and students, the student
investigators prepared their analysis summaries and
findings for a presentation to university personnel. By
reflecting on their observations, they were better able to
identify gaps and correlations between design intent and
building experience. Student involvement in the IPD
Process and the POE proved to be a useful and multifaceted pedagogical tool for understanding LEED.
Presentation #7: Working Session: Seeking
Funding for Developing Courses That Engage
Architects in Environmental Design Research
The second part of the intensive will be a workshop
to explore the possibility of forming a consortium of
several universities to apply for funding to develop
courses that engage architects in environmental design
research assignments. We will examine how architects,
as they are helping educate students, are also receiving
continuing education in utilizing the social sciences for
architectural design. We will review examples of how
teaching environmental design research with the help
of architects produced material useful for architectural
practice. Such research includes fieldwork of buildings
designed by the architects as well as review of social
science literature related to these buildings. Based on
these experiences, we will propose criteria that appear
to be essential for making collaborations between the
architectural profession and universities productive
and invite audience participation. We will also review
various funding agencies such as NACRB that support collaborations with architects and universities, as
well as the National Foundation program that supports
Advancing Informal STEM Learning (AISL). “The
AISL program seeks to advance new approaches to and
evidence-based understanding of the design and development of STEM learning in informal environments;
provide multiple pathways for broadening access to and
engagement in STEM learning experiences; advance innovative research on and assessment of STEM learning
in informal environments; and develop understandings
of deeper learning by participants.” We will review
the various projects that AISL funds, how participants
may apply to this initiative, and criteria for developing
budgets for each type of AISL project that includes: (1)
Pathways, (2) Research in Service to Practice, (3) Innovations in Development, (4) Broad Implementation,
and (5) Conferences and Symposia.
Developing Neuroscientific and
Psychological Approaches to
Teaching Drawing and Design
Fernando Magallanes, f_magallanes@ncsu.
edu, (NC State University)
New discoveries in brain function and development
are taking place, bringing a depth of understanding to
professors and students of drawing and design. Reconsidering drawing and design education as an interactive
activity of brain and hand aids in restructuring how
students develop their drawing and design skills during
their education and beyond the studio. This paper summarizes the new areas of research literature in neuroscience and psychology. It offers the author’s reflection
and insight on its relevance to drawing, design, and applicable practice in studios. The last two decades have
seen much research being done on the brain and advancements in dismissing previous myths and misconceptions of how it functions. The fields of neuroscience
and psychology are advancing their research through
the help of fMRI technology and current brain scanning studies capturing the brain in action. The captured
images belonging to the brains of conflicted individuals
ranging from Alzheimer’s to anxiety display charged
neurons and patterns that are informing scientists about
151
the relationship between body, brain, and learning. In
1971, the psychologist Betty Edwards wrote Drawing
on the Right Side of the Brain. It became a best-selling
book, selling more than 2.5 million books, and introduced students to draw using a brain-based method for
acquiring drawing skills. Edwards’ success teaching a
fine art skill the brain and psychology left us wondering
if there is new information that might lead us to once
again advance the teaching of drawing and design. Can
new strategies be developed and explored to modify
existing paradigms for teaching representation and design? Recent research by scientists like Maryanne Wolf,
Ph.D., Dr. Daniel G. Amen, and investigative journalists
are publishing information about discoveries offering
evidence and speculation about the management of
the brain’s inner functions to get certain results. This
literature is invaluable in acknowledging how the brain
functions in learning and offering vital knowledge and
options for the education of designers.
Designing With the Metaphor of
Brain in Mind
Brian Schermer, [email protected],
(University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee); Amin
Mojtahedi, [email protected], (University
of Wisconsin-Milwaukee)
Neuroscience affords us the opportunity to learn a
great deal about how the brain operates in response to
stimuli in the physical environment. While the advances
in this area of research are promising, there should be
at least some concern about the way that a strict focus
on the brain as the object of study might overshadow
how we might use the brain as a metaphor to stimulate design thinking and create innovative settings.
This presentation reviews literature about the ways in
which the brain metaphor has been used to conceptualize and design social organizations. It then discusses
the implications for these ideas to inform the design of
physical settings. Designed settings, like brains, should
facilitate information processing and decision making.
They should enable designed settings to learn. And they
should enable designed settings to self-organize. These
implications are illustrated and analyzed through the
example of an architecture studio classroom that was
designed with the metaphor of brain in mind.
152 Learning Regions as Visionary
and Strategic Tools for the
Planning Course “Possible Cities”
Helena Teräväinen, helena.teravainen@aalto.
fi, (Aalto University)
This is a study about how Masters students in a planning course named Possible Cities were using vision
thinking and brainstorming to develop a new kind of
strategic plan for two city-regions suffering the loss of
jobs and economic depression. There were 25 students
from different cultures and backgrounds working in
groups of five to seven. Some were Finnish, but most
were foreign students without any background in Finland. The goal of the course was to understand the complexity of strategic planning and particularly the meaning of Learning Region. The course takes two periods in
Autumn and is for 10 credits. Globalization presents a
number of changes in cities and city-regions of Europe
during the last decades. The growth of knowledge-intensive industries and the resulting economic modalities
shape the trend of strategic planning, which is to define
the potentials, to recover the weaknesses, and avoid the
threats in a region. We have now an economy powered
by human creativity. The future competiveness between
service providers and entrepreneurs won’t be individual, but will be oriented to compare between the networks to which they belong and interact with. Networking and clustering formation will be reflected by the
healthy growth of the city-region and its ability to face
the regional competitiveness. The innovative capacity
and the regional ‘learning’ ability associated with it is
directly related to the density and quality of networking
within the regional productive environment. Inter-firm
and public-private co-operation and the institutional
framework within which these relationships take place
are the key sources of regional innovation. The aim of
this study is to compare the learning outcomes of the
students from different cultures by using the visions and
strategic plans they make for these regions—the Oulu
Region in Northern Finland and the Salo-Turku Region
in Southern Finland.
Students’ Use of EnvironmentBehavior Research Findings in
Their Design Process and Their
Attitudes Towards Evidence-Based
Design
Sibel Dazkir, [email protected],
(Georgia Southern University)
Integrating research into interior design education allows students to implement evidence-based design solutions (Guerin & Thompson, 2004), improving students’
critical thinking skills (Gibson, 1994). Accordingly, it is
important for the students to learn the value of research
and base their design decisions on research findings.
Dazkir et al. (2013) found that most beginning-level interior design students have poor literary research skills
and do not appreciate research in their design process.
The purpose of this study was to explore the interior design students’ attitudes towards research and their use of
knowledge gained from environment-behavior literature
in their design process. The data were collected from
19 students in a senior level interior design studio via
questionnaires and observations of student presentations
and design projects. The students worked in groups on
a large-scale commercial office project throughout the
semester. They were required to write a paper synthesizing findings from peer-reviewed journal articles and
other credible sources. After they turned in their papers
in mid-semester, the students were asked to complete a
questionnaire with Likert-scale and open-ended questions. The students answered questions about their experience with and attitude towards literary search in the
design process, and how they would apply the knowledge they gained from their literature search on their
projects. Another questionnaire was administered after
the students submitted their design projects at the end
of the semester. The participants were asked whether or
not and how they specifically applied what they learned
from previous studies onto their design projects. The
responses collected from the students were coded, and
descriptive statistics were used to examine the sample
and the responses from the Likert scales. The findings indicate that the students appreciate the value of
research in their design process. It was reported that
research allows them to understand the project and client needs better, guide their design process, and provide
design solutions. One student explained, “Without
research, we are merely selecting pretty options.” The
students applied the knowledge they gained from their
literature search of topics such as well-being, sustainability, lighting, color, space planning, etc. on their
design projects. For example, students learned from the
previous studies that contact with plants and access to
window views may influence inhabitants’ well-being
and attention restoration. One student explained that she
arranged the workstations towards the windows, and
another one reported using glass curtain walls throughout the space to allow access to more daylighting and
outdoor views. The student projects and their design
decisions were discussed to illustrate the benefits of
evidence-based design.
How Do We Revitalize the
Hyphen in “Environment-Behavior
Research”?
David Seamon, [email protected], (Kansas
State University); Karen Franck, kafranck@
earthlink.net, (New Jersey Institute of
Technology); Galen Cranz, galen@
berkeley.edu, (University of California);
Hirofumi Minami, [email protected].
ac.jp, (Kyushu University); Julio Bermudez,
[email protected], (Catholic University of
America)
This symposium reconsiders the hyphen in “environment-behavior research.” Discussants highlight
conceptual and practical possibilities whereby the
complex, intermeshed relationship between people and
environment might be understood and designed for in
a more comprehensive, engaged way. The first discussant examines place types as a means to hold people
and environment together. She argues that a typological
approach allows researchers to unpack not only relationships between environment and behavior but also
interconnections and mutual interdependencies among
a wide range of phenomena, including formal, spatial, and behavioral dimensions of design. The second
discussant asks how pedagogically students might be
made more aware of the lived connectedness between
people and environments. She presents an exercise
that uses images of stick figures removed from their
surroundings as a heuristic means to get students to
153
realize how human actions and situations are almost
always environmentally contextual. The third discussant overviews a “psychoanalysis of cities,” a perspective using psychoanalytic psychology to understand
environmental experiences and events. He argues that
the psychoanalytic concept of the “analytic third” (an
ongoing intersubjective relationship between analyst
and analysand) offers one model for understanding
psycho-dynamic transactions between people and their
environments. The fourth discussant brings attention to
the “in-between” as it represents human-experience-inworld. He considers philosopher Ken Wilber’s integral
theory as a means to think about the hyphen in new
ways that illuminate its taken-for-granted opacity and
permit new theoretical and practical understandings.
The last discussant highlights the phenomenological
concept of lived emplacement—the existential fact that
place is not a material or geographical environment
separate from people associated with it but, rather, the
indivisible, normally unnoticed phenomenon of personor-people-experiencing-place. He examines the potential
conceptual and practical implications of environmental
emplacement for environmental-design research. To
provide ample time for discussion, participants’ comments will be limited to seven minutes each.
Presentation #1: Beyond Hyphens: A Typological
Approach to Environmental-Design Research
The hyphen in “environment-behavior” joins two
items. The hyphen represents a relationship, ostensibly a close one, between two kinds of phenomena, but
the now connected entities remain intact, distinct, and
separate. “Environment” and “behavior” continue be
independent: each can exist without the other. Over the
years, theorists have developed concepts that achieve
more of an integration—for example, Roger Barker’s
“behavior settings” and Christopher Alexander’s “pattern languages.” More recently, environment-behavior
thinking has turned to theories from other fields. One
example is Kim Dovey’s use of Deleuze and Guattari’s
idea of assemblage to capture the interconnectivity and
the dynamism between parts that are not separate but
overlapping and changing. Starting with my research
on alternative housing and becoming more focused
though projects involving professional collaboration,
the approach I have adopted is typological: to view and
study environment-behavior phenomena through the
lens of place types. The approach derives from two key
premises: first, that the environment is composed of
distinct but overlapping kinds of places that are material, conceptual, and imaginal; and, second, that the
creation, regulation, and perception of place types shape
154 people’s activities in the environment and that activities
also make types. In using place type as a lens, we can
unpack not only relationships between environment and
behavior but also interconnections and mutual interdependencies among a wide range of phenomena that
the concept of type captures: formal, spatial, linguistic,
linguistic, ideological, behavioral, and operational. This
presentation discusses the advantages of a typological
approach as well as its drawbacks.
Presentation #2: Wrestling With the Hyphen in
Person-Environment Studies
In the field of person-environment research, the relevant unit of analysis should be “person-environment”
rather than “person” or “environment” separately. Much
of environmental-design research, however, emphasizes one component or the other, focusing on either
environmental qualities or human characteristics. For
environmental designers, the important question is how,
in an integrated way, we operationalize and measure the
person-environment relationship, which is synergistic,
and continually shifting. In the first part of this presentation, the author briefly highlights some conceptual
perspectives for understanding the person-environment
relationship in a holistic, comprehensive way. The
second part of the presentation considers implications
for research, pedagogy, and design. The author presents
a teaching exercise that progressively reveals how the
person-environment relationship is a necessary focus of
study for environmental designers. The author begins
this exercise with slides of human stick figures and asks
students to identify the particular activities and situations in which the stick figures are involved. Most students can’t. In a second set of slides, the author presents
the stick figures in fuller outline form. In this mode of
presentation, students infer some information on the activity or situation but still typically aren’t certain what it
is. The author then presents a third set of slides in which
the environmental context is included. Immediately and
easily, students recognize the situation—for example, a
couple walking down a city street; a woman sitting on a
lawn; a man leaning on a street lamp. At the same time,
the students realize that, without human encounter, the
street, lawn, and street lamp have only potential value.
Both environments without people and people without
environments make no sense behaviorally and experientially. It is only the lived togetherness of the two as one
lived structure that allows us to understand environmental experiences, actions, and events.
Presentation #3: The Depth Dimension in PersonEnvironment Relations and Transactions
In this presentation, I examine ways in which the
relationship between person and environment can be
understood as mutual. A related concern is whether the
intersubjective encountering between persons has a
counterpart in person-environment relations. An interest
in the person-environment relationship arises from my
research on the “psychoanalysis of cities,” which draws
on psychoanalytic and depth psychology to understand
urban experiences, especially traumatic events such as
the destruction of Hiroshima and the World Trade Center—two “ground zeros.” In conducting this research,
I draw on philosopher and social critic Walter Benjamin’s flaneur, a concept that refers to free, associative
strolling in city streets and serendipitously encountering
things, scenes, events, and other transitory situations in
the urban environment. In clarifying this mode of urban
transactions, I draw on psychoanalytic concepts such as
transference, resistance, and the unconscious. I argue
that the flaneur mode of urban experience expands the
depth of environmental experiences as exemplified
in the physiognomic, expressive, and mythical-poetic
dimensions of the sensory field. I draw on the psychoanalytic perspective to interpret these experiences as
primary-process-oriented. I argue that the psychoanalytic concept of the “analytic third” (an ongoing intersubjective relationship between analyst and analysand) is a
powerful candidate for understanding psychodynamic
transactions between city strollers and their urban
encounters.
Presentation #4: Making Interactions and
Contexts Visible: The View of Philosopher Ken
Wilber’s Integral Theory
The objectivist view of architecture as an external
construct separate from human users greatly limits our
understanding because it denies the fundamental nature
of how humans encounter the world and their lives.
The opposite view—that the built environment exists
only if there is an ‘I’ experiencing it—is also problematic. A better alternative is to consider human reality
as unfolding neither via the subject nor the object but
via the usually unnoticed “in-between” relationship
of subject and object—what is usually identified as
experiences, phenomena, situations, or “human-beingin-the-world.” In short, we lose sight of the hyphen in
the environment-behavior equation when we consider
environmental-design problems from an objectivist or
subjectivist perspective. This presentation attempts to
renew an emphasis on the “in-between” as it represents
human-experience-in-world. Drawing on the integral
theory of philosopher Ken Wilber, this presentation lays
out possibilities for thinking about the hyphen in new
ways that illuminate its taken-for-granted opacity and
permit new theoretical and practical operations.
Presentation #5: Circumventing the Hyphen via
a Phenomenological Perspective: The PersonEnvironment Relationship as Environmental
Emplacement
A phenomenological perspective on the peopleenvironment relationship recognizes that people and
their worlds are not separate and two but indivisible and
one. Human beings are always already enmeshed in and
intertwined with their world. This human-immersion-inenvironment means that conventional conceptual binaries—for example, people-environment, subject-object,
body-mind, individual-society, nature-culture—must
be called into question and understood in new ways. To
illustrate one conceptual means for refocusing attention
on the hyphen in environment-behavior research, this
presentation draws on recent phenomenological developments in what has come to be called “environmental
emplacement.” This perspective argues that place is not
a material or geographical environment separate from
the people associated with it but, rather, the indivisible, normally unnoticed phenomenon of person-orpeople-experiencing-place. This presentation examines
the potential conceptual and practical implications of
environmental emplacement for environmental-design
research.
Neuroscience and Environmental
Design: Implications for Education
Meredith Banasiak, banasiak@colorado.
edu, (University of Colorado); Margaret
Tarampi, [email protected], (University
of California Santa Barbara); Eve Edelstein,
[email protected], (NewSchool
of Architecture & Design); Claire Gallagher,
[email protected], (Georgian Court
University)
Architecture is a human-centered enterprise—an
idea captured by Vitruvius’ three tenets of good design:
firmness, commodity, and delight, and in the broadest
sense by its modern day counterpart: health, safety, and
155
welfare. As researchers and clients acknowledge and
prioritize the environment as a major variable affecting
health and welfare, the design profession’s response is
to support a new culture of participation in the formation of knowledge. To enable large scale institutional
transformation, we seek to enhance, not replace, our
work force by preparing future designers to utilize
emerging knowledge, to engage in cross-disciplinary research which elevates health and well-being through design, and to synthesize theory, research and practice. An
integrated top-down/bottom-up approach is proposed
by educating faculty, administrators and students in
neuro-architecture and the scientific method, changing
attitudes about the value of codified knowledge sought
by informed clients and communities, and describing
a model for how and where it might be implemented
in courses. Edwards will demonstrate the necessity for
human centered design criteria in design education being issued as a call for action from clients and practice.
Tarampi will describe a theoretical framework to situate scientific evidence in the practice of architecture.
Banasiak will propose pedagogical strategies, which
align with the call from practice and the standards of
rigor coming from the neuroscience fields. Synthesis
and discussion will address: What steps can be taken
to advance human-centered design in education? What
possibilities are there for locating these programs within
a university context: can they make the most impact
within the existing curricula, or are stand-alone programs a more optimal approach? How can the end-users
of the products of such programs become part of the
advocacy for the inclusion of human-centered design in
the planning and design of their buildings? What systemic change indicators might be useful in tracking the
success of integration of neuro-architecture in design
education? A call will be issued for continued participation in fostering a critical dialogue to further the initiative for integrating neuroscience in design education.
Presentation #1: Trans-Disciplinary
Transformations: Crossing Boundaries and
Merging Disciplines to Add Value to Student
Experiences and Professional Practice
The need for human-centered research and socially
responsible design has long been recognized by EDRA,
ANFA, and others. Now, international institutions including the World Health Organization, the Urban Land
Institute, and the AIA/ACSA Design + Health Research
Consortium call for policy changes that will drive
changes in practice. Similarly, clients and communities
now call for the design of built environments that better
serve human outcomes at all scales. The interpretation
156 and translation of clinical research offers the means to
incorporate rigorous human-based evidence in pedagogy and practice. A decade of curriculum development
linking neuroscience and architecture will be described
linking clinical, medical, and scientific literature that
increasingly reveals the impact of design on measurable
human outcomes. The incorporation of scientific methods and innovative technologies enable neuroscience
and architecture to take on topics of direct relevance to
accredited architectural and design programs. Further, a
neuro-architectural practice-based model that includes
universal design outcomes and a translational design
approach demonstrates how such information has be
applied in built examples from schools, campuses and
hospitals in China, Canada, and the United States.
Presentation #2: Explorations Through
Neuroscience and Architecture: Scientific Literacy
for Design Students
There are three main variables that are the focus of
significant research in architecture—the architect, the
user, and the building, as well as the resulting interactions between the variables. While there is a widely
regarded body of research on building characteristics
such as building technology, materials, and acoustics,
research focused on the architect and the user has been
largely overlooked. Over the past decade, a new body
of research has been growing regarding the user experience in the built environment, readjusting our attention
back on relevant human-centered research. Design students should minimally be scientific literate in order to
take advantage of this new knowledge. However, examining neuroscience from the perspective of architecture
(or architecture from the perspective of neuroscience)
risks being too reductionist, simplified, fragmented, finite, and/or abstract, because either perspective does not
encourage a thoughtful dialogue where both disciplines
can mutually inform and challenge one another. A
well-grounded interdisciplinary approach should value
contributions and criticisms from both disciplines.
Presentation #3: Strategic Curriculum
Development: Mapping Neuroscience Informed
Learning Outcomes to Existing and Emergent
Models of Design Education
With the launch of large scale federally funded research initiatives to boost our understanding of the human mind, the sheer amount of information available to
designers and researchers surrounding the complexities
of the body, brain, and environment relationship will
soon escalate exponentially. Rather than eliminating
opportunities for human behavior learning in response
to revised accreditation standards, visionary design programs can proactively facilitate a new culture of participation in the formation of neuro-architecture knowledge
so that design professions will enhance, not replace,
their work force, and moreover will ethically embrace
design standards which promote human health and welfare by making use of emerging neuroscience evidence.
Strategies for integrating neuroscience learning into undergraduate and graduate curricula will be discussed in
terms of both core and elective opportunities, horizontal
pairings through studio and seminars, and vertical scaffolding for skill and knowledge development.
Emerging Directions of
Environmental Design Research
Daniel Stokols, [email protected], (University
of California, Irvine); Shalini Misra, shalini@
vt.edu, (Virginia Tech); Richard Wener,
[email protected], (New York University);
Susan Saegert, [email protected],
(Graduate Center, City University of New
York); Allan Wicker, allan.wicker@verizon.
net, (Claremont Graduate University)
This symposium examines emerging directions for
environmental design research and practice. Fundamentally new topics of EDR scholarship and practice have
emerged from the confluence of societal and global
trends currently refashioning people’s transactions with
their everyday environments. Examples of these macrolevel trends include: (1) the infusion of technology into
people’s everyday lives and the design of so-called
“smart” cities; (2) decrements in population health
linked to sedentary lifestyles, non-walkable neighborhoods, urban sprawl, pollution, and poorly regulated
macrobiomes within indoor environments; (3) demographic and sociopolitical trends such as population aging, globalization, poverty, and economic inequality that
pose challenges for neighborhood planning and urban
design; (4) rapid rates of geophysical change driven by
planetary warming, sea rise, extreme weather patterns,
and the impacts of these events on psychological wellbeing, environmental design, and societal resilience;
(5) the increasing urbanization of the planet and the
challenges of effectively integrating built and natural
environments into the design of contemporary cities
(e.g., increasing interest in vertical farming and cultivaMay 2015 – brainSTORM
tion of urban nature); and (6) growing tensions between
expert-driven, top-down planning and design processes,
on the one hand, and grassroots, indigenous, and “insurgent” place-making movements, on the other. Each of
these trends has prompted new questions and directions
for environment-behavior research and design practice
during the early 21st Century. For instance, the growing
reliance on digital and mobile communication technologies among individuals and throughout society as a
whole raises questions about humans’ capacity to process increasing volumes of information, their susceptibility to chronic distraction and stress, and the impact
of smart-city technologies (e.g., social media, digital
navigation devices) on neurophysiological well-being,
spatial cognition, social integration, and collaboration.
Similarly, the geophysical and adaptive constraints
imposed by rapid climate change have yielded novel
challenges for the design of buildings and communities
resistant to sea rise and flooding; and the development
of communication strategies and design technologies to
enhance people’s capacity to cope effectively with imminent environmental hazards. Symposium participants
include leading environment-behavior scholars who
have contributed to the EDR field as transdisciplinary
action researchers over the past three to four decades.
Each participant will identify new research questions
and priorities for design research and practice related
to one or more of the societal and global trends mentioned above. Specifically, Shalini Misra will discuss
the impacts of the Internet and mobile communication
technologies on behavior, health, and environmental
design. Richard Wener will focus on new research at the
interface of environmental design, personal and public
health, highlighting the important interrelations between
individuals’ personal microbiomes and the macrobiomes of their day-to-day environments. Susan Saegert
will discuss the value of Philosophical Pragmatism as
an action-research orientation for dealing with complex
societal crises including income inequaltiy, environmental degradation, and the lack of affordable housing
among impoverished populations. Allan Wicker will
offer commentary on the preceding papers from the perspective of Barkerian ecological psychology and from
a wider humanitarian perspective. During the concluding portion of the symposium, audience members will
be invited to comment on the points covered by each
presenter and to identify additional directions of EDR
research beyond those addressed by our speakers and
discussant.
157
Presentation #1: Introduction to the Symposium:
A Social Ecological Perspective on Environmental
Design Research in the 21st Century
Dan Stokols, chair and moderator, will introduce the
themes and objectives of the symposium and outline
an ecological perspective on environment, behavior,
and design. Social ecology offers a broad conceptual framework for understanding the challenges and
directions of environmental design research addressed
by our speakers and discussant. A core tenet of social
ecology is that the multiple facets of human environments and the interrelations among them (e.g., their
built and natural features; spatial and sociocultural
attributes; material and symbolic qualities; and placebased and virtual dimensions) must be explicitly considered when attempting to understand the complexity
of people’s transactions with their surroundings. The
multidimensionality of environments and the dynamic
interdependencies among their diverse components are
emphasized in Shalini Misra’s presentation concerning
the impacts of technological change on people-environment relations. She introduces a global, cross-cultural
perspective on the paradoxical tensions that arise
(e.g., between empowerment and disempowerment) as
people navigate and strive to reconcile their virtual and
place-based worlds. As a case in point, she contrasts the
techno-optimism surrounding “smart cities”, big data,
and the social media revolution with the distractions
and superficialities often encountered in our Internetinfused lives. Another core principle of social ecology
is the importance of analyzing people-environment
transactions from a multi-level systems perspective—
especially as a basis for understanding how nested
layers of environmental influence jointly affect our
behavior and well-being in a rapidly changing world.
Richard Wener’s presentation exemplifies this multilevel systems perspective as he examines the complex
iinterplay between individuals’ personal microbiomes,
on the one hand, and the bacterial communities (or
macrobiomes) within their proximal environments and
broader exposome (i.e., the cumulative environmental exposures that impinge on individuals throughout
their different life stages, from conception onward),
on the other hand. Wener discusses the implications
for environmental design research of using very large
data sets to map the relationships between individuals’ genome, microbiome, proximate macrobiomes,
and more encompassing exposomes. He also highights
cross-cultural variations in the diversity of microbiota
observed in Western and non-Western cultures. A
third principle of social ecology (also shared by EDR,
environment-behavior studies, many other domains of
158 contemporary iinquiry) is that scientific theories and
findings should be translated to the extent possible into
improved design strategies and public policies aimed
at resolving (or at least ameliorating) the major environmental and social challenges of our Antrhopocene
Era—especially global climate change, environmental
pollution, poverty, violence, and health disparities.
Susan Saegert’s discussion of Philosophical Pragmatism as an action-oriented approach to resolving societal
crises integrates the aforementioned ecological principles of environmental multidimensionality, cross-level
systems analysis, and community-based research aimed
at reducing contemporary crises (e.g., global financial
turbulence, economic inequality, and inadequate access
to decent affordable housing among the more than one
billion people in the world living in abject poverty).
Saegert outlines a Pragmatist approach for confronting
the affordable housing crisis, widespread inequality, and
environmental degradation, and for creating the kinds of
design and policy initiatives that are needed to counter
these threats to societal sustainability. The symposium
concludes with discussant Allan Wicker’s comments
on each of the preceding presentations and his own assessment of critical directions for environmental design
research and practice in the coming decades. Following
his presentation, audience members are invited to comment on the symposium presentations and to identify
other high-priority directions for research and practice
beyond those discussed by Stokols, Misra, Wener, Saegert, and Wicker.
Presentation #2: Impacts of Technological
Change on People-Environment Relations: A
Global Perspective
The World Wide Web is now a global phenomenon.
Today, the large majority of Internet users are from the
developing world; there are nearly 6.8 billion mobile
subscriptions, and 74 percent of the global online
population accesses the Internet from a mobile device.
Yet beyond questions concerning the “digital divide”,
much of the discourse on the implications of networked
technologies on socio-spatial, cultural, and psychological life has focused on the experiences of the Western
world. Further, most accounts of technological change
swing between utopian possibilities and dystopian
consequences—from the techno-optimism surrounding smart cities, big data, social media revolutions,
and individual empowerment to the hopelessness of a
transhuman world with a society bereft of purpose in an
infantile quest for pleasure and distraction. This paper
conceptualizes the relationship between technological
change and the human mind through a dialectical ap-
proach that sees this question as complex, dynamic, and
contradictory. Specifically, it explores the psychological
dimensions of everyday life in a digitally embedded
society replete with paradoxes. What does it mean for
the human psyche to be suspended between possibilities
of empowerment and disempowerment in the Digital
Age? For example, Google anticipates a crowd-sourced,
commons-based public Internet which will purportedly
create new potentials for human cooperation. However,
the services it provides are enabled by online surveillance and user commodification that threatens privacy
and results in the economic exploitation of users. We
explore empowerment and disempowerment by examining the asymmetrical power relations embedded in
technological developments such as smart cities, social
media, and crowd sourced apps and the social psychological consequences of networked individualism.
Presentation #3: Environment and Behavior at
the (Really) Micro Level
Research on the nature of the human microbiome has
made it clear that microbes are not simply the enemy of
human health, as had been previously represented for
many years. Rather, a developing field of microbiology has demonstrated that, after eons of co-evolution,
bacteria (as well as funghi and viruses, most likely) are
a significant part of who we are. The microbiome—the
human complement of trillions of microbes—serves
critical functions in keeping us alive, functioning, and
well. Our microbiomes are not static. While we are
born with a one, compliments of our birth mother, it
can change quickly and significantly in response to,
among other things, our diet, medical care (particularly
use of antibiotics), our social contacts, and contact with
our surroundings. It is clear that there are implications
here for Environment-Behavior Research, even though
the precise direction these new findings may take EBR
is not at all certain. The microbiome is affected by the
design of our living and working spaces, including
materials and surfaces, windows and ventilation, and
spatial organization. It is also affected by the way we
interact with each other, these spaces, and the living,
natural environment around us. Among the impacts that
have been documented, those of us who live in westernized, technologically sophisticated urban settings appear
to be losing microbiome diversity, possibly at the risk
of our long term health. This presentation will describe
these issues and some current findings comparing
microbiomes in western and non-western cultures, and
discuss implications for E&B approaches, practice, and
research methods.
Presentation #4: What is the Situation: Social
Inquiry in Uncertain Times
Susan Saegert’s presentation addresses theoretical
challenges and directions for environmental psychology as we face multiple sources of instability in the
relationships of people with the environment. She will
present an argument for the continuing importance of
Philosophical Pragmatism as a way to begin to confront
the multiple scales and inherent uncertainty facing human habitats. Pragmatism understands knowing as a set
of relationships that changes as we investigate and act
upon unclear or problematic situations. William James
(1907) asserted “Truth happens to an idea. It becomes
true, is made true by events.” Applying this idea to person-environment relationships has many consequences
for research and theory. Saegert will use as examples
two different problematic situations in person-environment relations: environmental degradation and ongoing
affordable housing and economic problems. First, she
will review recent scholarship in which geographers
draw on Philosophical Pragmatism in an effort to understand and respond to climate change and environmental
degradation. Lessons from their work will be extended
to the development of a Pragmatist approach to the
housing affordability crisis and economic inequality. Recent research on the foreclosure/financial crises
of 2008-2009 offers a particularly apt starting point.
It reveals the multiple actors, locations, institutions,
knowledge claims, etc. that contributed to instability
and eventually crisis. Yet explanations and remedies
most often focus on one specific arena of risk ignoring
its embeddedness and contingencies in other sites of
financial and housing provision and use. The understanding of the multiple geographic scales and actors
that resulted from this research has prompted inquiries
into alternative housing finance and property ownership
models. This research aims to discover better management of short- and long-term risk for households and
communities within the context of the global housing
finance sector and particular political economies. Following Dewey’s work on social inquiry, methods for
confronting uncertainty and building functional and
democratic ways of living under conditions of inherent
uncertainty at many scales will be explored.
Presentation #5: Reflections on Symposium
Presentations
Allan Wicker, discussant, will offer dual perspectives
on the emerging directions of environmental design
research addressed by the presenters: from the view of
Barkerian ecological psychology and from a broader
humanistic perspective.
159
Abstracts – Environmental Perception
ENVIRONMENTAL PERCEPTION
Design to Enhance Cognition: A
Neuro Considerate Approach
Angela Bourne, [email protected],
(Fanshawe College)
For people with Neuro Diversities (ND), such as
those with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD), the
environments they encounter frequently cause them
distress. Most of the challenges they face are because
they are much more sensory sensitive to their physical
surroundings than Neuro Typical (NT) people. Environmental psychologists and neuroscientists recognize
that the built environment has an effect on how well
a person relates to their environment (Gaines, 2008;
Shabha, 2006; Lackney, 2003) and have made design
recommendations, but there are still limited resources
available to designers to help them create appropriate
design spaces for this fast growing population. This
research provides insights into the differentiated person
/environment interactions people with ASD experience
and makes recommendations for the design of physical spaces to help them understand, cope, and be the
best they can be given their limitations. This qualitative
investigation used a grounded theory approach based
on ethical pracitices. The research method included a
literature review and several research tools including
an environmental assessment of five group living/work
settings, competency and sensory/cognitive processing
behavior mapping with 58 people, and interviews with
support workers. The study was constructed within a
socially sustainable perspective and acknowledged the
psychological, physiological, and cultural diversities of
the population. The results of the research tools used
were synthesized and analyzed into a best design practices design model: Neuro Considerate Design (NCD),
Bourne 2013. The model suggests design interventions
to enhance the cognitive development and ameliorate
the sensory sensitivities people with ASD experience.
Based on research documenting the growing need for
accommodating this group’s needs and this study, three
significant findings emerged. They included evidence of
the differentiated perceptions people with ASD experience and the need for spaces to be considerate of their
differentiated spatial orientation (proxemics) and sight
(lighting) and hearing levels (acoustic) needs to enhance their ability to learn.
160 Dynamic Experience of the Built
Environment: Path Selection as a
Measure of Preference
Vedran Dzebic, vdzebic@uwaterloo.
ca, (University of Waterloo); Colin Ellard,
Waterloo)
As moving observers, we experience the built environment dynamically. Our environmental preferences
may manifest themselves as patterns of movements,
route choices, and the locations where we choose to
pause and dwell as we traverse the urban fabric. Much
of the research on environmental preference is conducted using methods based on the evaluation of pictures,
where participants are required to take an evaluative
stance, expressing preferences from a standpoint considerably removed from the dynamic and immersive
situation in which we normally inhabit environments.
Findings from such picture-based approaches may
not always mirror the manner in which we experience
real environments. We report a series of experiments
in which we examined the relationship between visual
complexity and environmental preference, using an
ecologically valid experimental design. In accordance
with Berlyne’s arousal theory, we predicted that such
complexity would influence a range of navigation
variables related to interest, attention, and preference.
Participants were immersed in virtual reality environments containing a series of corridors that varied in visual complexity, as quantified with an entropy measure
based on information theoretic approaches. Their route,
pattern of gaze, movement speed, and pauses were
quantified using an optical tracking network. We also
monitored a series of physiological variables including heart rate variability and electrodermal responses
in order to obtain an indirect measure of sympathetic
nervous system activity. In our presentation, we will
describe the fit between Berlyne’s optimal arousal
theory and findings using both traditional picture-based
methods and our own methods based on immersive
simulations and psychophysiological recording. The
scope and limits of experimental approaches based on
experimental virtual reality to assess environmental
preference will be discussed.
Environmental Perception – Abstracts
Cross-Cultural Environmental
Aesthetics Using Neuroimaging
and Psychophysiology Measures:
Eastern and Western Women’s
Appraisal of Hotel Guest Room
Interiors
So-Yeon Yoon, [email protected], (Cornell
University); R. Nathan Spreng, rns74@
cornell.edu, (Cornell University); Sun Woo
Kim, [email protected], (Seoul National
University)
This study proposes to investigate cultural differences between Eastern and Western women in their
aesthetic appraisal of the interior environments of
hotel guestrooms. An interdisciplinary research team
will use complementary data collection and analysis
methodologies: strategic self-report, and neuroimaging
measures. According to previous studies in psychology
and product design, familiar and novel characteristics of
the product are known to influence aesthetic preference
(Blijlevens et al., 2012; Blijlevens et al., 2013; Hekkert et al., 2003; Reber et al., 2004). Familiar design
characteristics could facilitate immediate cognitive
process and cause fluent aesthetic experience and mild
aesthetic pleasure, whereas novel design characteristics
could induce powerful aesthetic experience and exhilarating aesthetic pleasure through complex cognitive
systems (Armstring & Detweiler-Bedell, 2008). Other
studies (e.g., Masuda et al., 2008) claim that degrees
of preference activated by each design attribute vary
according to cultural contexts. As an exploratory study,
we examined the effects of two design factors, novelty
and familiarity, in the aesthetic appraisal of a designed
environment. Our participants were 24 female graduate
students, 12 American and 12 Chinese. Using a 2X2X2
(novel vs. familiar, Western vs. Eastern, attractive vs.
unattractive) between-subjects design, hypotheses were
formulated that this causality would be affected by
cultural dimensions such as individualism/collectivism, promotion/prevention focus of the self-regulatory
system, and introjection/projection of social comparison methods. Participants’ subjective responses were
recorded immediately after viewing the stimuli, which
included interior photos representing novel and familiar
design conditions. Twenty-four stimulus photos of hotel
guestrooms representing four categories (novel/attractive, novel/unattractive, familiar/attractive, and familiar/
unattractive) were carefully selected by a focus group
consisting of four professional designers. The experiments were performed in two laboratory locations at
Cornell University (Lab of Brain and Cognition). Data
was collected using a Tesla GE750 MRI scanner. Photos
were displayed on 24” LED monitors and self-report
data was collected using a questionnaire. ANOVA and
regressions were used to test the hypotheses. Findings
of the study will be able to offer evidence-based information for design researchers and decision makers in
the increasingly globalized and competitive service and
hospitality industries.
The Value of Park Facilities: From
the Visitors’ Perspective
Hungju Chien, [email protected], (National
Chiayi University); Grace Chang, kaowen@
mail.ncyu.edu.tw, (National Chiayi
University)
State park systems in the United States carry multiple
missions such as conservation, education, recreation,
and economic benefit. Knowing visitors’ preferences
towards the facilities in the state parks can help policy
makers to properly allocate the limited resources and set
management plans. This study utilized Discrete Choice
Analysis (DCA) to analyze park visitors’ preferences
and willingness-to-pay (WTP) based on the decisions
they made among different hypothetical scenarios. DCA
provides a systematic way of understanding individuals’
preferences for decision alternatives through identifying the implicit relative weights among the attributes
through the revealed choice information. The results
from this study allow the realization and prediction
of product positioning, pricing strategies, and market performance of a new or an existing park service
with precision. This study received 103 completed
surveys from respondents in 35 state parks. We found
that nature centers and beaches are significant factors
of increasing visitors’ willingness to visit state parks.
However, boat ramps are not the significant factor to
attract the general public to visit a state park. Besides,
visitors are willing to pay a maximum of $9.26 to go
to a nature center and a maximum of $9.33 to enjoy a
161
Abstracts – Environmental Perception
beach. In addition, together, visitors are willing to pay
a maximum of $20.62 to go to a state park with “Boat
Ramp”, “Nature Center”, and “Beach”. The results from
this study indicated that setting up a “Nature Center”
and keeping a good and clean “Beach” deserved more
resources than building a “Boat Ramp” in a state park
from the value perspective based on the willingness to
pay of the visitors.
(CSR), kernel estimation, and K-function tests will be
employed to examine the impact of clustered values and
to gain a better representation of the entire point source
dataset (Fotheringham, Brundson, & Charlton, 2000).
While this study serves as an exploratory validation
method to address the methodological shortcomings of
visual preference surveys, it ultimately aims to serve
as a tool that can better understand users’ perceptions
of complex environments present within the built and
natural environment.
Visual Preference Surveys: A
Methodological Recommendation
Applying Point Pattern Analysis
Smartphones, Urban Youth, and
the Spaces of Everyday Life
Melanie Duffey, [email protected],
(Auburn University); Mickey Lauria, mlauria@
clemson.edu, (Clemson University)
Shalini Misra, [email protected], (Virginia
Tech); Chitvan Trivedi, [email protected],
(Gettysburg College)
The purpose of a visual preference survey is to identify commonalities of users’ preferences based on users’
responses to images. By understanding users’ preferences, Kaplan and Kaplan (1989) found that common
preferences could be identified and categorized into
groups from two-dimensional photographs that simulate
similar responses to the physical environment. Additionally, by using a visual preference survey, the researcher can maintain some control of what the respondent views and eliminate some of the outside “noise”
or distractions occurring in a physical space (Kaplan &
Kaplan, 1989). However, one common criticism of visual preference surveys is the issue of misinterpretation
of the reason behind a respondent’s rating. In the past,
scholars have relied on their own interpretation of ranking scores in order to suggest variables that may have
led to that particular score. In order to partly address
this issue, the use of a follow-up question that utilizes
Qualtrics’ heat map feature will be introduced. The
follow-up question asks respondents to click on an area
of the photo that most influenced their rating (Likert
scale); the click generates a heat map based on respondents’ individual clicks. During the pretest of the heat
map (N=71), a total of six out of 24 images were found
to have a high level of consensus in influencing the
preference mean score. However, this consensus should
be tested for statistical significance through spatial statistics. For the purpose of experimental validation, these
six images will be tested with a sample of (N=999) in
order to identify common patterns of responses through
point pattern analysis. Complete spatial randomness
Youth in rapidly globalizing and urbanizing nations
like India have increasingly become critical consumers and creative contributors of digital content. As
the smartphone penetrates Indian society, so do questions concerning its psychological, social, and cultural
impacts. This research seeks to understand how urban
Indian “digital youth” embed smartphones into their
everyday lives and discern the interpersonal, social, and
cultural implications of different patterns and forms
of mobile communication technology use. This study
focuses specifically on Internet-enabled mobile communication technologies (such as smartphones and tablets)
in the urban Indian context. In this research, we draw
on news articles, advertisements, TV commercials, and
online videos from 2009 onward (3G enabled mobile
and data services first became available in major cities
in early 2009) to analyze cultural discourse surrounding networked mobile technologies in Indian society.
We supplement this data with field interviews of urban
Indian youth and other demographic groups concerning their experiences of networked technologies. Our
discourse analysis and field work highlights: (1) the
transformation of the meanings and uses of the spaces
of everyday life owing to the proliferation of smart technologies; (2) the multiple and oftentimes contradictory
narratives relating to the integration of smartphones
into the landscapes of everyday life; (3) the values surrounding these conflicting narratives and their relationship to “Indian-ness” and “Indian identity”, specifically the values of family, community, and ideas of the
other; and finally (4) the way in which these cultural
162 Environmental Perception – Abstracts
narratives align or conflict with self-understandings or
individual cognitive frames of these technologies and
how and why certain understandings emerge and evolve
over time. By understanding the cultural narratives
surrounding smartphones and their relationship cultural
values, and to the lived experience of these technologies, we scrutinize the relatively neglected linkage between the individual, spatial, and socio-cultural contexts
of digital technologies among urban Indian youth.
163
Abstracts – Everyday Environments
EVERYDAY ENVIRONMENTS
Human Activity in Everyday Built
Environments
Molly Cannon, [email protected],
(Utah State University); Douglas Amedeo,
Nebraska)
Built environments are designed to facilitate engaging in human activity. How well their design enables
just that is often the criterion employed to evaluate their
ultimate effectiveness. But adequacy to facilitate may
also be judged by how their structural-conceptual conditions conform to what users, themselves, might expect
is needed for engaging in the respective activities. Since
built environments are, in effect, never more than designer coded forms of real circumstances, our curiosity
in this symposium is with how users of everyday built
environments actually manage to comprehend the logic
of such renditions in order to engage in the activity-behavior they are meant to facilitate. We deliberately ask
about everyday settings because their prominence as a
built environment in a social system is quite high; they
usually constitute a major part of most users’ activityregimen, and users’ purpose for engaging in them are
likely to be noticeably distinctive. We will contemplate
whether characteristics like these justify describing
the core reasoning or essence of this everyday type of
environment as commonsensical. In this 90-minute session, there will be approximately 60 minutes of presentation by Doug Amedeo and Molly Boeka Cannon. The
remaining time will be spent engaging the audience in
a discussion over the topics raised in the presentations.
We will provide a list of questions at the beginning of
our presentation that will guide participant discussions
following our lecture. Online access to the written
materials will be available at http://works.bepress.com/
molly_cannon/ and printed copies at the meeting in
order to generate a more meaningful discussion.
Presentation #1: Human Activity in Everyday
Built Environments
We will argue that the fundamental role of spatial
conditions in the process of designing an everyday
built environment is to function as if they were a metric
system for converting basic levels of social content
(e.g., as reflected in norms, traditions, expectations,
164 values, relations, interactions, and the like) to reflect
the essence or core logic of everyday built settings.
Our claim is that the integration of spatial conditions
with social content is, in fact, an encoding itself that
reflects the built environment’s type and that, given how
such environments are actually used, it is likely to be
interpreted by users as the commonsense logic of the
respective environment. From a user’s perspective, the
prospect of engaging in a particular kind of activity in a
built setting is likely to involve contending with many
information forms and inferences about the consequences they may have on any decisions that might be made
about activity. Information, for example, may result
from physically transacting with the built setting itself;
from cognitive processing involved when integrating
and illuminating the actual content of an environment
in question; and from additional reasoning employed in
an attempt to rationalize the immediate built environment’s overall organization. We view an everyday built
environment as a mapping resulting from an adaptive
conversion of some base-society’s social-definitional information where all necessary social artifacts, processes, settings, or institutions would get defined. It is that
level of information that, in effect, is used in a guided
design form to generate built environments appropriate to that given social system. Hence, in all societies,
social-cultural information and its implications, then, is
typically mapped (i.e., encoded) into forms or configurations through the use of spatial conditions to manifest
the everyday surroundings in a society.
Gerontology – Abstracts
GERONTOLOGY
Sustainable Connections-Aging in
Community in Los Angeles
Emily Roberts, [email protected],
(University of North Carolina-Charlotte)
The impending age wave can be a creative motivator
and Los Angeles has both a creative and aging population who wish to remain in community. While policy in
urban communities like Los Angeles should be accessible, adaptable and healthful for older residents, it also
needs to be sustainable for healthy environments in
terms of energy, water use, and waste. Crafting communities that address all of these issues concurrently is
a special challenge for planners, and designers, creating national and international opportunities for change.
This tour of two Los Angeles landmarks will include
one creatively renovated historic hotel as well as new
construction housing in a vibrant arts community. The
first stop will be the Dunbar Hotel, an adaptive reuse
project which is now senior and family apartments in
Watts. The Dunbar, which opened in 1928, was designated as a city Historic-Cultural Landmark in 1974
and placed on the National Register of Historic Places
two years later. The original Art Deco motif has been
preserved through a collaboration between Thomas Safran & Associates, the nonprofit Coalition for Responsible Community Development and the city’s Housing
Authority and Community Redevelopment Agency.
Once home to the LA African- American music scene,
the hotel welcomed guests like Cab Calloway, Billie
Holiday and Louis Armstrong. There are 115 units and
the $30-million renovation includes another 42 apartments in two neighboring buildings that have also been
refurbished for low-income family housing. The second
stop will be the North Hollywood (NoHo) Senior Arts
Colony, a new construction senior residence apartment
community for active senior artists. Residents are given
the opportunity to live in housing within an artistic
community with courses and tools to engage in theater,
art, exploration and education. This is a $42 million
community with 126 one and two bedroom units for
renters 62 and older.
“Homelike” as a Physical
Setting: Creating a Therapeutic
Environment for the Elderly With
Dementia
Tetsuya Akagi, [email protected],
(Kogakuin University); Kei Adachi, kei@sys.
wakayama-u.ac.jp, (Wakayama University)
The purpose of the study is to research the relationship between psychological and physical factors in the
perception of the quality “homelike”, and to establish
specific guidelines on how to create homelike environments in the activity spaces of nursing homes for the
elderly with dementia. Three main surveys, psychological, physical, and observational, were conducted. The
nature and degree of “homelike” in the activity spaces
were analyzed by the semantic differential method. The
number, kind, and locations of the physical elements
were recorded, and the person-environment transaction
in the spaces was analyzed by measuring the verbal
behaviors of all residents and staff. We present the three
psychological factors, “Familiar feeling, Personal life
feeling, and Human scale feeling”, which this research
demonstrated as creating the feeling of homelike. The
structure of the psychological factors contributing to the
creation of homelike is clarified by showing the degree
of influence of “Human scale feeling < Personal life
feeling < Familiar feeling” among them. While showing
the physical factors by which the psychological factors
are recalled as an important cue of concrete environmental design, the importance of the following objects,
Single furniture < Working kitchen < Set of furniture <
Increase of daily necessaries < Increase of decorative
objects < Decrease of unbecoming objects < Human
scale area, was established. The seven factors were thus
shown to be the fundamental ones which uniformly
exist in activity spaces. The environmental design
procedure was developed as a tool so that it can be fully
utilized in a wide range of care environments not only
by specialists in planning and design, but also by onsite care staff. The findings are limited as a case study
of one nursing home in Japan. However, the findings
may have the possibility of being useful in different
countries and in different socio-cultural backgrounds.
165
Abstracts – Gerontology
An Exploratory Study of Long
Term Care Concerns in the LGBT
Community in Western New York
Molly Ranahan, [email protected],
(University at Buffalo)
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT)
older adults face unique challenges in later life. LGBT
older adults fear moving into a senior housing facility,
and put off seeking or do not utilize residential care due
to past experiences of social stigma and/or current anticipation of discrimination despite their need for care.
Despite these fears, many LGBT older adults ultimately
must depend upon nursing homes or other institutions
to obtain long term care due to an absence of the typical
traditional support structures (e.g., spouses, children, or
biological family members). A recent wave of research
on aging issues in the LGBT community has confirmed
that housing and long term care are two critical areas
of concern to address when meeting the needs of this
population. However, there have been a limited number
of studies exploring the experiences of LGBT older
adults in long term care settings, leaving health care and
service professions largely underprepared to respond to
their needs. The primary purpose of the current study
was to explore substantive issues and methodology to
use for future research about the long term care experiences of LGBT older adults. The study engaged adults
in the LGBT community ages 50 to 64 in semi-structured, individual interviews to learn about their specific
concerns about long term care and residential environments. This presentation will detail methodological
strategies chosen and preliminary conceptual issues that
will be further explored in future phases of the research.
166 Health and Active Living – Abstracts
HEALTH AND ACTIVE LIVING
The Impact of Walkable
Environment on Improved Health
Outcomes Among Saudi Adults:
A Conjoint Research Study of
Physicians and Architects in
Alfaisal University, Saudi Arabia
Aliaa Elabd, [email protected], (Alfaisal
University); Baraa Alghalyini, balghalyini@
alfaisal.edu, (Alfaisal University)
A sedentary lifestyle might increase the risk of
chronic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and osteoporosis. It is believed that obesityrelated diseases might be linked to lack of access to
healthy and walkable environments. Many research
studies have addressed how the design of the built
environment, especially the adequacy and existence of
sidewalks, in addition to the variety and proximity of
land uses, may facilitate casual physical activity. Such
research was primarily addressed in the Western world,
but has not yet been conducted in a Saudi context. This
research study is investigating the relationship between
the design characteristics of the built environment in the
city of Riyadh—in terms of street design, adjacent land
uses, and walkability—and the vulnerability to developing obesity among Saudi adults. The study was done in
two phases. The first was concerned with investigating
the perception of the residents of four different neighborhoods in Riyadh, regarding their neighborhood design and walkability level using a survey questionnaire.
In addition, certain demographic and medical information including weight status and BMI were collected.
The second phase was more focused on examining
the perception of the physical and design quality of a
designated walkable area, which is ‘Al-mamsha’ or ‘the
walkway’, in Riyadh. Participants were asked through
a survey questionnaire about the obstacles that hinder
them from walking in their neighborhoods, and the
potentials they see in ‘Al-mamsha’ that promote walkability. The results of such study is expected to have
valuable policy implications for the creation of healthy
built environments in the city of Riyadh.
Connecting Research and Design:
The Development of an EvidenceBased Tool for Designing and
Evaluating Hospital Inpatient
Rooms
Xiaobo Quan, [email protected],
(Center for Heatlh Design); Anjali Joseph,
[email protected], (Clemson
University)
Hospital inpatient rooms are a unique type of healthcare environment that greatly impacts patient outcomes
and healthcare efficiency and therefore attract much
attention from designers and researchers. A growing body
of research evidence is available to support design decision-making and design evaluation. However, research is
often difficult to access and too technical for design practitioners to understand, interpret, and apply in their projects. To effectively address this gap between research and
practice, a three-year research project was conducted to
create an evidence-based tool for three types of inpatient
rooms (medical-surgical, intensive care, and maternity
care) by collating existing design research and translating
it into an actionable format to facilitate pre-construction
design decision-making and post-occupancy evaluation.
Based on extensive literature reviews and valuable inputs
from a multi-disciplinary expert panel, the design checklist and evaluation tool include design considerations and
features organized around 23 design goals in four key
topic areas. The validity and reliability of the tool were
tested at multiple design firms and hospitals using both
qualitative and quantitative methods, including questionnaire survey, focus group discussion, and statistical tests.
The lessons learned from pilot testing were incorporated
into the subsequent rounds of tool development. The
pilot testing results confirmed the validity and reliability
of the tool but also provided valuable lessons for further
improvement. The final product is an evidence-based
tool with a series of features to increase usability (e.g.,
interactive Excel format with built-in hyperlinks addressing trade-offs and potential conflicts between design
elements, customization to make the tool more pertinent
and reduce the overall length, provision of research references related to design elements linked to online research
databases). By facilitating the use of research evidence,
the tools may contribute to a better process of designing
and evaluating healthcare facilities.
167
Abstracts – Health and Active Living
Addressing the Needs of
Older Adults in Public Rightsof-Way: An Opportunity to
Promote Independence, Social
Participation, and Active Living
Molly Ranahan, [email protected],
Older adults, and particularly those with disabilities,
are vulnerable to poorly designed environments. The
built environment can potentially support or discourage this growing cohort to engage in outdoor activities.
Municipalities can uniquely promote physical activity
for this targeted population through their planning and
design processes. For older adults with disabilities,
thoughtfully designed and maintained community environments can promote regular walking, preserve functional independence, and enhance community participation. The Complete Streets (CS) movement affords a
logical opportunity for communities to achieve societal
inclusion goals for aging populations that also promote
improved health due to increases in walking and bicycling, and improved access to daily services, especially
important to those with disabilities. The number of municipalities with CS policies has rapidly increased over
the past several years due to growing public interest and
municipal goals related to active living and walkability.
The Center for Inclusive Design and Environmental
Access (IDeA) recently completed research on Complete Streets initiatives in the United States. One goal
of this research was to explore the extent to which CS
projects addressed the needs of older adults and people
with disabilities. Semi-structured phone interviews
were conducted with officials from 13 municipalities
to discuss their experiences implementing Complete
Streets projects, and a web-based national survey was
then launched to interface with staff in geographically
dispersed municipalities that were implementing Complete Streets. Data analysis from interviews and surveys
indicated that municipalities gave cursory consideration
of older adults and people with disabilities during CS
implementation. As municipalities continue to invest
limited funds on CS, and the population continues to
age with disabilities, these findings suggest the need for
increased focus on aging and disability issues related to
Complete Streets in policy, design and health education,
professional practice, and future research.
168 The Built Environment’s Role
in Aging Actively at Home:
A Systematic Review of the
Research Literature
Sherry Ahrentzen, [email protected],
(University of Florida); Elif Tural, elif.tural@
oregonstate.edu, (Oregon State University)
Older adults are the most sedentary of any adult
age group. Health problems associated with sedentary
behavior are not offset by dedicated exercise. One
approach to reducing sedentary behavior is fostering
“active living” (AL), whereby movement and activity
are integrated into daily routines and supportive physical environments. To date, most research on AL of older
adults focuses on community-scale factors. Yet because
older adults spend 80 to 90 percent of their time at
home, the residential setting is key in advancing AL
opportunities. The existing research on building- and
interior-scale environmental factors that foster or deter
AL among older adults is scattered among different
journals and disciplines. This presentation describes the
protocol and findings of a comprehensive, systematic
review of the research literature that examines the role
of building- and interior-scale factors of homes and
residential developments (e.g., retirement communities)
in promoting or inhibiting sedentary behavior, activities
of daily living, and other forms of AL (e.g., gardening,
walking pets) in the home environment. The protocol
included a search through six electronic databases and
of grey literature for relevant peer-reviewed journal
articles published since 1994. Of the 156 that were
identified, a two-step inclusion process further verified
which articles empirically examined AL of older adults
in relation to some type of residential environment measure. Quality assessment of quantitative and qualitative
articles followed a procedure conducted by Annear et
al. (2014). As a result of this protocol, 37 articles were
used as the basis for the synthesized findings. Findings
are presented that (1) summarize general methodological characteristics of the studies as a whole (e.g., sample
characteristics, activity measurements); and (2) profile
five key building-related factors that play a role in AL:
barriers; hazards and features that “fit”; spatial organization and layout; clarity and familiarity; ambient
qualities; and gardens and outdoor space. In addition
to identifying additional building factors of relevance
to AL (particularly, aspects of spatial organization and
Health and Active Living – Abstracts
layout, environmental cues, and to some extent, lighting and garden), the review also highlights the missed
opportunities in the current body of literature to clearly
operationalize and measure built environmental factors,
including pathways and destinations, setting characteristics, size and interior configurations of homes, ambient qualities, and assistive technologies. The presentation concludes with suggestions for multidisciplinary
research directions to include the currently absent or
underutilized residential factors in AL research.
‘Seniors Walkability Audit in
Neighbourhoods’(SWAN):
Development of a User-Led
Observation Tool to Evaluate
Urban Design Features That
Foster Mobility and Age-Friendly
Design in Urban Neighbourhoods
Atiya Mahmood, [email protected],
(Simon Fraser University); Habib Chaudhury,
[email protected], (Simon Fraser University);
Frank Oswald, [email protected].
de, (Goethe University); Nadine Konopik,
[email protected], (Goethe University)
The environment of urban neighbourhoods has a
crucial role in fostering, supporting, and maintaining
mobility and well-being in older adults to age-in-place.
Research indicates that engaging in regular physical activity such as walking has a positive impact on
cardiovascular health, well-being, and other health
variables for older adults. Older adults tend to walk
mostly in and around their neighbourhoods for both
recreational and utilitarian purposes. Documentation
of barriers and facilitators in their neighbourhood built
environment by older adults themselves can enable
them to vocalize and advocate their needs for appropriate neighbourhood design to support mobility. In this
study, we developed an easy-to-use user-led neighbourhood environmental audit tool, “Seniors Walkability
Audit in Neighbourhoods” (SWAN), to collect built
environmental data in five domains: functionality,
safety, destinations, aesthetics, and social aspects. This
is a micro-level neighbourhood built environment audit
tool appropriate for use by non-academic end-users or
knowledge users (e.g., older adults, seniors’ service
providers, stakeholders in communities) as a method to
systematically evaluate the walkability of neighbourhoods to become informed partners in neighbourhood
physical planning and decision-making processes.
Germany has one of the most rapidly growing older
adult population [27% (2011)] in the European Union.
Lessons learnt about neighbourhood design and aging
in place in Germany has relevance for use of this tool in
the North American context. The SWAN tool was pilot
tested with 24 older adults in three neighbourhoods in
Frankfurt, Germany. Inter-rater reliability among the
paired participants showed good agreement across 90
percent of the items on the tool. Data from the pilot
project on micro-environmental features (e.g., sidewalk
quality, street lighting) demonstrated that each neighbourhood had a combination of supportive or deterrent
environmental features for physical activity in older
adults. This participatory process engages older adults
to improve their communities to support aging in place
and improve health outcomes. Relevance of the findings
of this pilot study for the North American context is
highlighted through linkage to literature, comparison to
existing audit tools, and discussion of the tool development process.
Factors Influencing Walking
Behavior in Older Adults:
The Impact of Environmental
Perceptions, Personal
Characteristics, and
Neighborhood Type
Jordana Maisel, [email protected],
(IDeA Center/University at Buffalo); Molly
Ranahan, [email protected], (IDeA
Center/University at Buffalo)
Designing to promote physical activity among older
adults is limited by the lack of information currently
available to designers and policy makers. The knowledge gap exists on three levels. First, there is a lack
of knowledge about how older adults perceive their
neighborhood environment. Second, there is a lack of
understanding about how other moderating factors, such
169
Abstracts – Health and Active Living
as age and income, influence these varying perceptions.
Third, scant research explores how varying environmental perceptions ultimately impact older adults’
participation in physical activity. This research explored
these topics using data from 121 older adults. First, an
evaluation of environmental perceptions took place
with older adults from different neighborhood types
(i.e., rural, suburban, and urban) using the previously
validated Neighborhood Environment Walkability Scale
(NEWS). The mediating effects of intrapersonal characteristics were also explored. This was followed by an
evaluation of the relationship between perceptions and
self-reported walking behavior using questions from the
International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ).
Dependent measures included variables associated with
job, transportation, and recreation walking activity. The
analyses included descriptive statistics of all potential dependent variables and Spearman rank correlation analyses. Due to a non-normal distribution of the
response variables, differences among groups were then
evaluated using the Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of
variance test. Follow-up tests were conducted to evaluate pairwise differences among the groups. Logistic
regression analysis was used to evaluate the effects of
combinations of variables on the likelihood of walking
vs. non-walking behavior. The results confirmed that
perceptions vary across participants. Older adults from
rural, suburban, and urban communities reported significantly different perceptions, with participants from
urban and suburban neighborhoods often perceiving
more favorable walking environments. Perceptions also
vary by socio-demographic characteristics, with length
of residency mediating perceptions across neighborhoods and gender and household income mediating
perceptions within specific neighborhood types. While
walking activity did not significantly differ across
neighborhood types, specific environmental perceptions
(e.g., street connectivity, crime safety) were associated
with some walking behaviors. These relationships also
varied by neighborhood type and were mediated by
gender, age, and household income. The logistic regression results confirm the presence of some environmental predictors of walking behavior in older adults such
as perceived street connectivity across neighborhoods,
as well as perceived crime safety in rural neighborhoods. Qualitative data analysis of semi-structured
interviews with ten older women revealed four types of
barriers and motivators associated with their walking
behavior decision-making: (1) the presence or absence
of physical features; (2) personal preferences and
constraints; (3) social relationships; and (4) temporal
factors. This research provides a better understanding
170 of the interaction between personal factors and environmental perceptions on walking behavior among older
adults in order to support improved policies, design
interventions, and more efficient spending on programs
that encourage physical activity in this growing cohort.
Healthcare Environments – Abstracts
HEALTHCARE ENVIRONMENTS
The Impact of Nursing Unit
Typologies on Nurses’ Distribution
and Communication: An
Explorative Case Study on Two
Old and Two New Chinese
Nursing Units
Hui Cai, [email protected], (The University of
Kansas)
Growing evidence has demonstrated the link between physical environment and human movement and
communication in healthcare settings. However, few
studies have been conducted in Chinese hospitals. This
study aims to investigate the impacts of nursing unit
typologies on caregivers’ distribution and communication. Moreover, it attempts to examine how the sociocultural preferences of organizational communication
may influence the preferred spatial characteristics.
To explore how different nursing unit configurations
influence caregivers’ social behavior, two large urban
general hospitals in Shanghai were selected as subjects,
with each containing one old and one newly constructed
nursing unit. Both old units were single-corridor layout,
and both new units were mutated double-corridor layout
with a clearly defined staff backstage. The data was
obtained using both qualitative and quantitative methods. The data collection started with a deep-dive field
observation and semi-structured interviews with the unit
head nurse and one nurse representative from each unit.
The quantitative methods include behavior mapping and
tracking. A total of 108 sets of behavior mappings were
collected, using pre-defined codes to document identity
(doctor, nurse, technician, social worker, or patient), activities (sitting, standing, walking, talking, using screen,
or using surface) and map the corresponding locations
on the floor plans. The data was input into ArcView
GIS for further analysis. In addition, a total of 24 sets of
nurse behavior trackings were conducted on each unit,
which gave a detailed description of 480 mins’ nurses’
behavior in these inpatient units, including their routes
and types and duration of communication. The results
demonstrated that the mutated double-corridor nursing
unit was a more culturally adapted layout that supported
more frequent nurse-nurse communication. It indicated
that future Chinese nursing unit design should take into
consideration such Chinese national schema as collectism and high power distance (Hofstede & Peterson,
2000) and follow Confucian principles of hierarchy,
social networking, and face. Both the results and the
theoretical framework of this study can contribute to a
more culturally conscious evidence-based design in the
future.
Measuring the Impacts of Hospital
Nursing Floor and Patient Room
Layouts on Patients’ Experience
With Care in a Major Teaching
Hospital
Lorissa MacAllister, information@enviah.
com, (Georgia Institute of Technology); Craig
Zimring, [email protected] ,
(Georgia Institute of Technology)
While a growing body of literature suggests that the
layout of inpatient hospitals impacts a range of outcomes such as noise, falls, and mortality, the research
has not yet addressed how layout impacts patient
experience of care. Experience of care is of growing
importance to hospitals because of their commitment to
patients and because it is increasingly linked to payment and is reported publicly. This study bridges this
gap by exploring the relationship between layout of the
inpatient room and patient satisfaction scores. The study
examines 21 units over 2 to 5 years at a large teaching
hospital. This study uses space syntax and other spatial
measures to analyze layouts and explores the association with standard patient satisfaction measures, including both HCAHPS and Press-Ganey surveys. The study
investigates how layout can be measured and especially
how layout might impact the engagements of caregivers
as they enter the patient room. Preliminary results show
that room layouts which allow care givers to maintain
eye contact substantially improve the patient perception
of care with their care from the caregiver.
171
Abstracts – Healthcare Environments
Analytical and Empirical Methods
For People-Centered Healthcare
Facility Design: A Case Study on
Spatial Cognition-Driven Design
at the New Parkland Hospital
Mehul Bhatt, [email protected].
de, (Spatial Cognition Center, University
of Bremen); Gena English, gena.english@
phhs.org, (Parkland Hospital Replacement
Program); Lori McGilberry, lori.mcgilberry@
corgan.com, (Corgan Associates); Robert
Agosta, [email protected], (Mitchell
Associates); Carl Schultz, cschultz@
informatik.uni-bremen.de, (Spatial Cognition
Center, University of Bremen)
This group presentation will demonstrate the impact of analytical and evidence-based empirical design
methods pertaining to human visual perception and
spatial cognition on the planning of the internal navigation and signage system at the New Parkland Hospital.
In the backdrop of an ongoing “Design by Research”
collaborative project amongst presenting members,
namely from the DesignSpace Group (Germany) and
the New Parkland Hospital project (United States), we
will specifically showcase most recent results pertaining to: - Cognitive technologies for people-centered
design analysis - Next generation methods for evidencebased wayfinding analysis - Integration of analytical
and empirical methods for visuo-locomotive study of
people behavior in the built environment We especially
focus on the manner in which analytical knowledge and
evidence from “the field” may be translated to formal
specifications that can be applied for a wide range of
design situations beyond the domain of healthcare
design (e.g., in areas such as airport and museum
design). We will report on the manner in which our
“Design by Research” initiative and ensuing collaborations between design academics and architectural
practitioners has spurred the development of assistive
technology specifically customized for people-centered
design analysis, and also conducting large-scale people
experiments for understanding user behavior (e.g., from
the viewpoint of wayfinding) in the built environment.
More broadly, we will also present an overarching view
172 of recent community initiatives (e.g., also at edra44 and
edra45), and other scientific deliverables (e.g., systems,
case-studies, experiments) focusing on aspects of architectural cognition, cognitive design computing, and
evidence-based analyses with respect to processes of
assistive design tools and frameworks, and their impact
on real-world Professional Design Practice, and Design
Learning and Education. The underlying theme is that
of universal access and usability, individual well-being,
and “structure, function & behaviour” for the peoplecentered design of the built environment.
Presentation #1: Spatial Cognition and the Built
Environment
Contemporary architecture design tools regard
eventual design products as isolated “frozen moments
of perfection”. Even within state-of-the-art design tools,
aspects such as common sense, semantics, structure,
function, behavior, and people-centered design concepts
that are implicitly known to designers are yet to come
to the fore. In our ongoing research activities in the field
of spatial cognition for architecture design, we are developing the cognitively driven foundational spatial informatics for user-centered architecture design systems.
The talk will demonstrate a human-centered model of
abstraction, modeling, and computing for function-driven architecture design (assistance) systems. The aim is
to identify how interdisciplinary application of knowledge may provide real benefit for the theory and professional practice of architecture design, and eventually,
tangible benefit for the quality of everyday personal life
and work.
Presentation #2: Patient-Centered Design for the
Largest Public Hospital Construction Project in
the United States
The Parkland Hospital Replacement Project is located on 64 acres in Dallas, Texas. It is currently the largest healthcare construction project in the United States.
The nearly 2 million-square-foot Parkland hospital
will replace the existing 55-year-old facility, and, when
complete, will be the largest public hospital building
in the nation built in one phase. The entire hospital is
conceived with the patient in mind; the patient-centered
approach creates a robust healing environment with the
use of single patient rooms, natural light, and windows
as well as more space for family and visitors. This talk
will present the Parkland Hospital Replacement Project
to the audience, its fundamental design premises and
objectives, the design process, and the impact that it is
expected to have on the lives of the citizens of Dallas
County.
Presentation #3: Informed Decision Making For
The Parkland Hospital Replacement Project
In early 2009, Parkland Health & Hospital System
selected HDR+Corgan for the design and master plan
of the new 862-bed Parkland Hospital, and design work
began in the second quarter of 2009. The project broke
ground in late 2010 and is estimated for completion in
2014. The design of the 2.1 million-square-foot hospital showcases many of the best practices supported by
evidence-based design. Interventions including single
patient rooms, access to nature, and zoned circulation have been implemented in the new hospital. The
presenter has been part of the project since 2009 and
continues to participate in EBD research associated
with the project. Her presentation will include discussion of the evidence-based design elements of the New
Parkland Hospital, anticipated outcomes, and the inside
story behind incorporating these features into the hospital.
Presentation #4: Development of Visual
Wayfinding Solutions for Complex Environments
Design and implementation of graphic wayfinding
systems in large complex environments are often developed through observational surveys, anecdotal evidence
from user groups, best practices for design, and past
experiences from similar project types. Current models
for improved patient-centered healing environments in
healthcare design demand more empirical evidencebased knowledge of successful design solutions through
the use of new tools and processes for data collection
and qualitative analysis. The discussion will touch on
practical adoption of these new technologies for professional practice.
Presentation #5: Deriving Formal Knowledge
from Evidence-Based User Behavior Data
People-centered, evidence-based analysis of the interaction between people and the built environment has
been a crucial concern for many focus groups and endeavors within the scope of the research areas covered
by EDRA. Cross-domain studies led by environmental
psychologists on user experience and behavior abound.
However, general-purpose tools for user behavior and
experience data collection, sharing, qualitative analysis,
and communication of analytical results are missing
in the community. We report on the ongoing development of prototypical systems specifically for conducting
large-scale people experiments for understanding user
wayfinding behavior in the built environment. We will
especially focus on demonstrating the utility of such
tools for making people-centered design decisions in
the planning of internal navigation and signage placement in the context of hospital design (in particular, the
New Parkland Hospital).
Promoting Activity Among Patients
With Dementia in Acute Care
Hospital Environments
Kathrin Büter, kathrin.bueter@tu-dresden.
de, (Technische Universität Dresden); Gesine
Marquardt, gesine.marquardt@tu-dresden.
de, (Technische Universität Dresden)
For people with dementia, a hospital stay can turn
into a dramatic experience affecting their future lives
tremendously. Staying active during a hospital stay
is crucial for them to preserve their functionality and
maintain independence. However, highly standardized care processes in hospitals offer little room for
the individual needs of these patients. Hospital staff
states that their options to mobilize patients and engage
them in meaningful activities are limited. The enforced
passivity can lead to a deterioration of their functional
performance and cognitive status. Consequently, many
patients with dementia cannot be discharged back
home, but need to move to a nursing home instead. The
aim of this study is to identify physical features in the
hospital environment which promote or hinder activity
in patients with dementia. A pre-post evaluation will
be conducted in a unit for internal medicine exhibiting
a high prevalence of dementia patients in a German
general acute care hospital. Baseline data was recently
collected through a total of 100 hours of patient observations in the common areas of the unit over a period of
five weeks. Behavioral Mapping was the method used
because it allows researchers to systematically observe
and record people`s behavior in relation to their physical environment. Outcomes were frequency and duration of space usage, and type of activity occurring in a
certain space. Changes in the built environment will be
made, such as creating an activity zone in the hallway
close to the nursing station and providing environmental
cues. After remodeling the built environment, follow-up
data will be collected and compared to baseline data.
Interviews with hospital staff will enrich observational
data and enhance analysis. Expected findings will show
whether the location of a common room or the visual
173
Abstracts – Healthcare Environments
and spatial connectivity to the nursing station will result
in more active behavior and interaction among patients
with dementia in acute care hospitals. Photographs of
the remodeling will be used to illustrate the findings.
Environmental Needs of
Adolescent Surgical Patients
in Hospital Settings: Promoting
Psychological Well-Being
Eun-Young Kim, [email protected],
(University of Kentucky); Hyunsoo Lee,
[email protected], (Yonsei University)
Health status can affect an individual’s quality of
life significantly due to the impacts of medical conditions on physical functionality, emotional states, value
systems, social activities, and decision-making abilities.
Physical environments in healthcare can contribute to
positive patient satisfaction and healthcare outcomes.
Hospital environments compatible with patients’
distinctive physical and psychological needs promote
patients’ healing processes and psychological well-being, especially where patients may be under stress due
to hospitalization. In order to provide optimal healing
environments, designers must understand how patients
might react to environmental stimuli in hospital settings depending on health conditions, previous hospital
experiences, and demographic characteristics such as
gender, age, and nationality. Although the effect of environmental stimuli in hospitals on adolescent patients
may differ from those of young children, adults, and the
elderly, little empirical research on the effects of physical environmental interventions on adolescent patients’
healing processes has been conducted. The purpose of
the study was to investigate age-appropriate healing
design attributes and understand the significance of
comprehensive assessment of environmental needs for
American adolescent patients. By adopting the concept
of health-related quality of life, adolescents’ environmental needs in hospital settings were assessed in four
domains, which were self-reported emotional states
survey, environmental preference value survey, environmental preference examiniation of patient room, and
environmental choices. Forty-seven adolescent surgical patients, aged 14 to 18, participated in the study.
The findings suggested that the participants’ emotional
appraisals are significantly related with environmental
174 value, preference, and environmental choices. “Comfort” and “stress” were the most influential emotional
appraisals that were associated with adolescents’
environmental values and preferences on patient room
design. “Privacy control” and “outside view” were
highly desired environmental values in hospital rooms.
The correlations analysis demonstrated significant associations among environmental preferences and design
components in hospital rooms. The result of factor analysis indicated “restorative”, “energetic’, and “linked” as
the main design attributes for adolescent patient rooms
for psychological well-being. In conclusion, the study
characterized some aspects of adolescents’ preferences
of window view types and significant needs of social
supports in hospital design.
The Importance of Creating
Sustainable Places of Respite in
Saudi Arabia Hospitals
Fatma Jobran, [email protected], (Texas
Tech University); Kristi Gaines, kristi.gaines@
ttu.edu, (Texas Tech University); Cherif Amor,
[email protected], (Virginia Commonwealth
University)
Research has shown that the design and structure of
the built and natural environment influences the psychological, emotional, and social well-being of the people
within it. In the healthcare setting, places of respite
offer patients, visitors, and healthcare providers an
area to disengage from the confines of the hospital and
connect with the natural environment for the purposes
of releasing stress and promoting healing. However,
preferences with regards to the design of places of
respite often differ among different groups of people;
thus, the effectiveness of such places in promoting healing and stress relief would depend on the compatibility
of the design and the environmental preferences of its
intended audience. In Saudi Arabia, the design and architecture of most structures, homes, and buildings are
characteristic of the region’s climate, environment, and
the people’s culture and religion. This is most evident in
the use of symbolic elements closely linked to Islamic
teaching, such as the courtyard, dome, arch, and other
symbolic artifacts. Following this custom, it is posited
that the use of symbols and elements characteristic of
Saudi Arabian culture and religion would be expected in
the design of places of respite in Saudi Arabian hospitals; that without such elements, places of respite would
not be as effective in promoting healing and reducing
stress. The purpose of this study is to collect the perceptions of Saudi Arabian doctors and nurses on places
of respite using focus group discussions and a survey.
Specifically, data will be gathered on the participants’
perceptions on the effectiveness of places of respite in
promoting healing and reducing work-related stress.
Additionally, the respondents’ design preferences will
also be determined, including perceptions on the influence of factors such as culture, religion, social values,
and sustainability. Finally, differences in perceptions
between nurses and doctors, and between Muslims and
non-Muslims, will be identified. Data will be analyzed
using thematic analysis for the focus groups and using
t-tests and MANOVA for the quantitative data.
Family-Centered Care (FCC) is considered essential to
child care. As a result, the paper’s conclusions are that
(1) in a number of PICUs, the medical staff is forced to
work in a very small area; it is recommended that sufficient floor area should be provided as in the advanced
cases; and (2) that a more comfortable environment for
patients and visitors is created.
Emerging Trends in the Planning
and Design of PICUs (Pediatric
Intensive Care Units) in Japanese
Children’s Hospitals
Akikazu Kato, [email protected], (Mie
University); Shiho Mori, [email protected].
ac.jp, (Mie University); Masayuki Kato,
[email protected], (Naito
Architects)
Japan enjoys the longest life expectancy in the world.
However, if we focus on the ages 1 to 4 group, the
situation is not so good. A number of experts believe
the lack of pediatric intensive care units (PICUs) is
the major cause. The purpose of this study is to clarify
the essential issues in the architectural planning and
design of the PICU, which is a relatively new concept
in Japan. There is no suitable development model for
PICUs in the Japanese context. Thus, the paper shows
the survey results and important recommendations on
the issue. A survey was carried out by posting questionnaire survey sheets to 27 children’s hospitals. Twenty
institutes replied, among which 13 reported having
independent PICUs. Behavioural mapping was also carried out in four PICUs to gather information regarding
the space usage in terms of activities of staff and tools
used. In the approach, Evidence Based Design (EBD)
is the leading concept. When compared to adult care,
175
Abstracts – Healthy Environments
HEALTHY ENVIRONMENTS
Microbial Environment-Design
Research: How Home and
Community Design Affect the
Human Microbiome and Health
Richard Wener, [email protected],
(Polytechnic School of Engineering of NYU)
This symposium seeks to present work in progress
that addresses an important area that is new to environment-behavior research, with the goal of initiating a
discussion of how interior, building, and urban design,
at large and small scales, influence the composition and
function of the bacteria, fungi, and viruses that form
the human microbiome. The microbiome is important
in organ functions, from immunity to angiogenesis,
endocrine physiology, food digestion, vitamin production, and colonization resistance to pathogens. Over the
last 100 years, humans have moved indoors to become
a species that lives predominantly indoors in the built
environment, increasingly separated from natural settings. These environments, for good reason, have been
made as hostile to microbial life as possible, while also
cutting us off from diverse sources of microbes through
mechanical air filtration. However, recent evidence suggests that this significant reduction in microbial exposure may actually be harmful, leading to a myriad of
diseases, including allergies and asthma, among others.
Changes in building design as a result of urbanization
result in greater separation between indoor and outdoor
environments, and the way occupants use and interact
with their settings. Among the many changes are tighter
buildings with HVAC systems and less external ventilation, increased household densities, and changes in
personal and home cleaning habits, all of which affects
the amount and kind of bacteria encountered and lead
to urban household environments that are isolated from
outdoor environments and in which human microorganisms may dominate. We don’t fully understand how
the environment shapes the respective biomes of the
building and the occupants, and the occupants’ behaviors affect microbial transmission between humans and
indoor surfaces. The research reported here has studied
associations between modernization in households and
the impact it has on the microbial communities of houses and their occupants. Microbial samples and related
176 environmental data on buildings and their occupants
have been collected for several levels of urbanization,
ranging from dwellings in an extremely isolated village
in the Amazon rain forest to a major metropolitan area
along the same latitude. Preliminary results show that
changes in the use of home space and architecture lead
to altered environmental parameters, ventilation rates,
and building materials. Initial analyses of the human
microbiome show differences across the gradient of
transculturation.
Presentation #1: The Human Microbiome: Its
History, Co-Evolution, and Changes Across
Cultures
Professor Dominguez-Bello’s presentation will
outline the history and nature of the symbiotic relationship between humans and bacteria since the earliest
points of human evolution. She will describe ways in
which bacteria in and on the human body—the human
microbiome, which is far more complex than the human
genome—are necessary for health and, indeed, for life
itself. Changes in the human microbiome, in the number
and diversity of species of microbes, has accompanied
urbanization, westernization, and the technologies used
to control indoor environments. These changes may be
associated with increases in diseases including obesity,
asthma, and diabetes, among others. With these issues
in mind, Professor Dominguez-Bello led a team collecting human and environmental microbe samples in
settlements ranging from ones that small rural villages
with little western contact and without the technologies
that change indoor environments, through modern western cities—all, though occupying the same latitude in
Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil. Her presentation will focus
on the purpose, methods, and goals of this study.
Presentation #2: Architectural Features in Homes
Across Cultures That Affect the Microbiome
Humberto Cavallin will present his analysis of the
design of settlements and individual habitats within the
settings that were studied, describing the reasoning and
the methods for the microbial data collection. Architectural design, density, design features that provide for
privacy and segmentation within houses, materials, air
flow, humidity, and occupant behavior within the setting
all affect the microbial presence. The findings, including the ways in which various bacteria were distributed
within the settings, have important implications for
human health and environmental design.
Healthy Environments – Abstracts
Presentation #3: Microbial Communities at the
Confluence of Indoor and Outdoor Environments
Professor Jack Gilbert will present a series of studies that have uncovered novel microbial interactions
between humans and the built environment. Programs
of research, including the Home Microbiome, Restroom
Microbiome, and Hospital Microbiome projects, have
started to map the complex co-associations between the
building microbiome and the human microbiome. These
studies are helping to lay the foundation for research
on how indoor systems can be redesigned to promote a
microbiome that may improve human health and wellbeing. Through extensive collaborations with Skidmore
Owings and Merrill, we have started to redefine the
tool kit of data that architects and urban planners have
at their disposal to create built spaces. The microbiome
provides a dynamic metric for redefining environmental
quality.
Presentation #4: The Human Microbiome as an
Environment-Behavior Phenomenon
Richard Wener will provide a conceptual framework
for this work with environment-behavior studies. What
are the implications from this early research for understanding how human behavior within the home affects
the ecology of the microbes themselves, and the way in
which we come into contact with them? What kinds of
E&B research methods can be applied (or developed)
to further study these issues? How do these findings fit
into broader concerns about the nature of the physical
environment and human health?
177
Abstracts – Lighting in Environments
LIGHTING IN ENVIRONMENTS
Objective and Subjective
Evaluation of Acoustics and
Lighting in Canadian Green
Buildings
Craig Brown, craig.brown@ryerson.
ca, (Ryerson University); Leila Scannell,
[email protected], (The University
of British Columbia); Shauna Mallory-Hill,
Manitoba); Karen Bartlett, karen.bartlett@
ubc.ca, (The University of British Columbia);
Murray Hodgson, [email protected],
(The University of British Columbia); AnneMareike Chu, [email protected],
(The University of British Columbia); Mark
Gorgolewski, [email protected], (Ryerson
University)
Green buildings should aim to provide habitable
environments for the occupants who use them, but
face different challenges than conventional buildings.
Previous literature has identified lighting and acoustics
as two features central to occupants’ satisfaction in
such buildings, but few studies have examined which
components of these features most strongly relate to
occupant satisfaction. Data were collected as part of a
larger performance evaluation of nine green buildings
across Canada. A survey captured occupants’ (N = 243)
satisfaction with lighting and acoustics. Physical measures of acoustics (NC(B) at different frequencies) and
lighting (lux levels at various positions) were assessed
in predetermined zones, allowing subjective data to be
linked to objective data by location. Compared to reference standards, lighting levels were frequently above
and below the recommended range of 300 to 750 lux.
Despite this, preliminary results revealed that occupants
were satisfied with lighting levels; average ratings were
4.90 (SD = 1.37) on a 1-7 scale. Satisfaction with lighting was significantly correlated with lux levels on desks
and the percentage of windows in the workspace (r =
.26 and .22, respectively). These results demonstrate the
importance of natural lighting in occupant satisfaction,
but question the appropriateness of existing reference
178 standards to green buildings. A consistent trend across
all of the studied buildings was that occupants were
more dissatisfied with speech noise than any other
aspect of the indoor environment. NC(B) values generally did not comply with standard recommendations. An
exploratory regression analysis will determine which
frequencies best predict satisfaction with acoustics.
Those frequencies most relevant to the human speech
range are expected to be most predictive of subjective
ratings. Results will inform the development of strategies for improving existing green buildings as well as
rating systems and future design.
The Role of Daylighting in Skilled
Nursing Short-Term Rehabilitation
Facilities
Arsalan Gharaveis, [email protected],
(Texas A&M University); Mardelle Shepley,
[email protected] , (Texas A&M
University); Kristi Gaines, kristi.gaines@
ttu.edu, (Texas Tech University); Gilbert
Carrasco, [email protected],
(Texas Tech University)
The aim of this study is to investigate the best placement of windows in terms of daylighting and views
to the outside in short-term rehabilitation facilities by
exploring the impact of windows on resident perception of mood, stress, and satisfaction. The physiological
and psychological benefits of daylighting have made
it an increasingly important topic in multi-disciplinary
research. Although large numbers of studies have been
written about the visual aspects of lighting, few investigations have been made into the non-visual effects
related to resident mood, satisfaction, and well-being.
A combination of qualitative and quantitative methodologies were used to address the research questions.
Thirty-four participants who were living temporarily
in inpatient rehabilitation units of two skilled nursing
facilities were subjects in a semi-structured interview
and some 5-scale survey questions. The importance of
daylighting and views outside a resident’s room are emphasized by the findings of this study. While residents
expressed the need to have direct visual access to the
outside, they indicated that daylight was of even higher
benefit. Additionally, they noted that size and location
Lighting In Environments – Abstracts
of windows impacted their activities, stress levels, and
moods. More than half of facility residents changed
their postures either for better outdoor views or less
light disturbance while sleeping (54/2%). Approximately half of the subjects preferred additional sources of
lighting in their rooms (55/2%). Lastly, most residents
prefer to keep direct sunlight off their beds rather than
on their beds (85%).
179
Abstracts – Natural Settings
NATURAL SETTINGS
Landscapes and Human Health
Chun-Yen Chang, [email protected],
(National Taiwan University); William
Sullivan, [email protected], (University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign)
Although we know that people prefer and benefit
from greener landscapes, we understand little about the
impact of ecologically healthy landscapes on human
health and well-being. Biologically diverse, native landscapes contribute a great deal to the overall ecological
integrity and resilience of a setting, but to what extent do
these aspects of healthy landscapes also promote human
health and wellbeing? What are the human health implications of being exposed to landscapes that support ecological health? This pre-conference intensive examines
the extent to which landscapes that vary in ecological
health impact human health and wellbeing. The landscapes in question range from intensely urban settings
to rural farms and forests and encompass a range of
ecologically healthy places. We explore these issues via
two pathways through which landscapes impact human
functioning—by restoring attentional capacity and by
reducing stress. The health outcomes we address are
measured using a range of traditional and emerging tools
in environment-behavior research: participant observation, questionnaires, functional Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (fMRI), and electroencephalogram (EEG). Two
of the studies we present allow us to compare results
across cultures. In addition to reporting on this recent
work, our discussion will identify a number of opportunities for future research. The session will end with an
open discussion. The discussion will invite considerable
audience participation and will explore the direction and
impact of research designed to investigate links between
healthy landscapes and healthy people. The first paper
describes fascinating new research involving the use
of an fMRI and demonstrating that different areas of
the human brain are activated when people view urban
landscapes as compared to nature dominated landscapes
such as forests, mountains, or water bodies. This work
has implications for Attention Restoration Theory and
raises a number of new research possibilities. The second paper reports on an experiment involving 94 high
school students. It examines the relationship between
views from classroom windows (no windows, views
to a built space, views to a green space) and student’s
180 emotional states as measured by a mobile EEG. The
third paper reports on a field experiment examining the
Western concept of Flow and the Eastern concept of Qi
and involves practitioners of Qigong—the practice of
aligning breath, movement and awareness—in various
urban landscapes. Results show that the presence of
water, feelings of restoration, and landscape preference
predict the experience of both Flow and Qi. The fourth
paper examines the extent to which expectations for how
much a landscape might help a person feel restored varies among Eastern and Western individuals and results
in suggested changes for the Perceived Restorativeness
Scale for use in Eastern settings. The next paper reports
on exciting new findings from a field experiment examining high school students’ everyday exposure to green
spaces and their stress levels and attentional functioning.
This study involved attaching GPS devices to students
for 13 hours per day over four days in order to measure
their exposure to varying densities of tree cover, and
varying frequencies and durations of exposure to green
spaces. The final paper describes the results of a field
experiment in which individuals were randomly assigned to natural and urban landscapes and then asked
to complete tasks that demanded creativity and imagination. During the experiment, participant’s physiological
responses were continuously measured.
Presentation #1: Using fMRI to Measure
Reactions to Landscapes that Differ in Ecological
Health
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
detects brain oxygen concentrations and can generate
images showing regions of the brain that are activated
by particular stimuli. fMRI provides a way to examine
how people respond to landscapes that vary in terms
of ecological health. We conducted an experiment in
which 31 individuals saw a subset of images that vary
in terms of their ecological heath and in their capacity
to support attention restoration. Findings reveal significant differences in the location of brain activity and the
intensity of brain activity as individuals are exposed to
different landscapes. The impact of aquatic settings was
particularly interesting, with results suggesting that the
restorative effects of such settings vary considerably.
We discuss implications of this work for environmentbehavior research and for Attention Restoration Theory.
Presentation #2: Classroom Views and Students’
Emotional States: Using a Mobile EEG in
Environmental-Behavior Research
Exposure to green space is associated with reduced
symptoms of stress and mental fatigue. Strong evidence
Natural Settings – Abstracts
(Matsuoka, 2010) shows that high schools with natural
window views exhibit better academic performance
than schools without natural views. However, limited
evidence has been presented regarding the relationship
between views to green spaces and students’ emotions.
Are students with greener views in a better emotional
state for learning? Without this knowledge, we are not
able to provide educators and designers another opportunity to create better learning environments for
children. This study examines students’ emotional
states as they engage in class activities in three types of
environments: classroom with a green view, classroom
with a barren view, and classroom with no view at all.
Students were randomly assigned to these conditions
and we used an electroencephalogram (EEG) to record
14 EEG channels of brain electrical activity during the
experiment. The EEG also recorded five channels of
emotional states from the raw data, including excitement, arousal, engagement, frustration and meditation.
The emotional states were analyzed using principal
component analysis and repeated measures of ANOVA.
Results suggest that students may experience higher
levels of meditation when they have green views from
the classroom. The effect of green views on meditation
was marginally significant. During classroom academic
activities and immediately after the activities, students
in each of the conditions experience slightly higher levels of excitement and arousal. The findings suggest that
views to green space may have mood-enhancing effects
for students in educational settings. This pilot study also
suggests considerable potential for using EEG recording
to understand children’s emotional states in a variety of
environmental contexts.
Presentation #3: The Effect of Landscape Types
on the Experience of Flow and Qi
In Western psychology, Flow is the psychological
state in which a person is fully immersed and focused
on an activity or task with which they have a good deal
of facility. In Chinese culture, Qi refers to the natural
energy or the “life force” that transcends an activity.
Qigong is the practice of promoting Qi through movement, awareness, or meditation. When a person practices Qigong and thus calms down, relaxes, and moves
their body in particular ways, they may feel Qi flowing
through their body and have an enjoyable experience
knows as the “Qi experience.” To what extent are the
experiences of Flow and Qi similar? To what extent can
various landscape settings induce Flow or Qi? What
is the relationship between landscape preference and
these experiences? To address these and other questions, we conducted a within-subjects field experiment
with 58 adults and a small group of Qigong masters
from National Taiwan University (NTU). The Qigong
masters rated a variety of places on the NTU campus
for the amount of Environmental Qi they experienced
in the various places. Then, study participants practiced
Qigong in these areas and filled out questionnaires that
asked about their experience while practicing. Results
indicate a high correlation between Flow experience
and Qi experience. We also found that the intensity of
feelings of Flow and Qi were stronger in grassy landscapes than on a paved square and that landscapes with
water predicted levels of environmental Qi, feelings
of restoration, and landscape preference. In regression
analyses, we found that our measures of environmental
Qi, the presence of water, feelings of restoration, and
landscape preference predict the experience of both
Flow and Qi. These findings have implications for the
design of urban landscapes that might support healthy
practices such as Qigong.
Presentation #4: The Restorative Components of
the Agro-Tourism Experience in Taiwan
Attention Restoration Theory, which was developed
from a Western perspective, has been widely applied
and practiced in Asian countries. Some scholars, however, suggest there might differences between Western
and Eastern experiences in restorative experiences
associated with landscapes that vary in their ecological health. One special concern relates to the use of the
Perceived Restorativeness Scale or Restorativeness
Component Scale in eastern societies. To address this
concern, we interviewed 16 individuals at one of Taiwan’s many Leisure Farms. Participants—including visitors and stakeholders—described their understanding
of, and experiences in, various agro-tourism locations
in Taiwan. These descriptions were then qualitatively
analyzed with grounded theory and were coded into 15
different categories. We examine these categories in
light of the Western work on the Perceived Restorativeness Scale and make comparisons between Eastern
experiences and Attention Restoration Theory.
Presentation #5: How Much Green? Measuring
Exposure to Green Spaces and Students’
Psychological Wellbeing
More than a quarter of high school students report
they experience considerable stress in their daily lives
(Kaiser Family Foundation, 2005). In teenagers, chronic
stress often leads to emotional distress, declines in
physical health, behavioral problems, and poor academic achievement. Fortunately, there is evidence that direct
or indirect exposure to trees and other forms of vegeta-
181
tion help reduce stress and mental fatigue. Although it
is clear that exposure to nature has calming effects, the
shape of the dose-response curve is unclear, especially
with respect to teenagers. We do not know, for instance,
the impact of varying durations of exposure, or varying
frequencies of exposure, or even the impact of varying concentrations of green space. We examined the
relationship between high school students’ everyday
exposure to greenness and their stress levels and attentional functioning. We explored the extent to which
varying densities of tree cover, and varying frequency
and duration of visits to green spaces had on student’s
daily stress and attentional capacity. One-hundred and
twenty high school students from urban areas in central
Illinois participated in this study. Participants wore a
Garmin Foretrex 301 GPS device for four days and kept
an activity diary that recorded their major activities
throughout the day. They also took an online version of
the Stress Visual Analogue Scale Questionnaire (VAS),
the Profile of Mood States 2nd Edition (POMS-S), and
the Attentional Functioning Index (AFI) to measure
their stress and attention. Each student’s exposure to
green space was calculated by taking into account the
density of tree canopy cover in each green parcel and
the duration and frequency of exposure to green space.
We are now calculating the relationship between these
measures of exposure to green spaces and levels of
stress and attentional functioning using ordinary regression models and hierarchical linear models. The results
of this study will reveal the extent to which density of
green space and frequency and duration of visit influence students’ psychological well-being and the magnitude of the effect. These findings will have implications
for educators and parents, as well as planners and policy
makers who work to create healthier environments for
young people.
Presentation #6: Influences of Natural and
Urban Landscapes on Human Imagination and
Physiology
Green landscapes can help individuals recover from
mental fatigue (Kaplan, 1995), and the mechanism
underlying this recovery is likely associated with executive functioning (Kaplan & Berman, 2010). Is it also
possible that green settings can help individuals function with more imagination and creativity? This paper
employs a field experiment to examine this question.
One-hundred and twenty participants were randomly
assigned to one of two conditions: a more natural
landscape in Taipei and a more urban feeling landscape in Taipei. After spending some time at the site,
participants’ imagination and physiological responses
182 were tested. We used the Abbreviated Torrance Test
for Adults (ATTA) to assess imagination and the ProComp 5 clinical-grade physiological assessment tool to
measure skin conductance, skin temperature, heart rate
variability, and blood pulse volume. We will present
the findings and discuss the implications for efforts to
stimulate more creativity and imagination.
Nearby Nature and Mental
Wellbeing: The Mediating Role of
Neighborhood Satisfaction and
Use Pattern
Sara Hadavi, [email protected],
(University of Michigan)
Research in environmental psychology and public
health has yielded valuable findings demonstrating that
urban nature settings promote mental wellbeing and
life satisfaction. However, the mere presence of nature
seems to be insufficient. Learning more about people’s
perception of the physical aspects of the environment
and their possible direct and indirect effects on mental
wellbeing will help planning and design professionals
to make a difference in this respect. This study focuses
on four physical aspects of the environment relevant
to planning and design, including perceived proximity
of green/social spaces to home, proximity to a specific
type of landscape structure defined as open lawn with
trees, proximity to building-dominated spaces as opposed to green spaces, and perceived barriers to use
of outdoor spaces. Even if green spaces are in close
proximity to residents’ homes, they may not have the
expected impact on life satisfaction and wellbeing if
residents do not use them, or have low satisfaction with
their neighborhood. Therefore, the associations between
these physical factors and mental wellbeing have been
investigated considering the mediating role of neighborhood satisfaction and frequency of use of outdoor
spaces. This study was conducted in a residential area
in Chicago covering portions of four community areas.
A random sample of 434 residents participated in a
survey, in which they were asked questions based on
a five-point rating scale about perceived proximity,
quality of nearby green spaces, general neighborhood
satisfaction, frequency of use of outdoor spaces, the
type of activities done in such spaces, barriers to use
of neighborhood outdoor spaces and sense of mental
wellbeing. The results of linear regression modeling and
mediation analyses support the hypothesis that satisfaction with quality of public space and frequency of use
of green/social spaces have significant mediating role in
the relationship between the physical aspects of the environment and mental wellbeing. Exploring the effects
of perceived proximity of nature to people’s homes,
landscape structure, and barriers to use of neighborhood outdoor spaces on both neighborhood satisfaction
and neighborhood use patterns and mental wellbeing
provided insights into useful place-based planning and
design recommendations. This approach can be considered as a step towards translational design of public
spaces, which is highly significant in landscape architecture and related fields.
Letting the Landscape Speak:
Lessons for Landscape
Architecture and Design
Joni Palmer, [email protected],
(University of Colorado at Boulder)
The field of sound studies is in the midst of dramatic
changes, and though it has always been interdisciplinary, landscape architects do not seem to be engaged in
this conversation. This paper advocates for a critical listening to landscape, and suggests that this work is both
an ontological and an epistemological project with the
potential to have a significant impact on how we think
about, learn from, and design landscapes. In this paper,
I will provide a brief overview of the soundscape literature as it relates to landscape architecture. I will then
present some initial findings—from interviews with
surfers, ecologists, and park rangers—about the sociocultural-sensual insights that can be had by listening to
the landscape. This paper’s focus is on the immediate
and the imaginary, the functional and symbolic, the
psychological and the physiological, and the environment and behavioral aspects of sound and landscape.
The larger scope of this research is to develop teaching
tools that will help landscape/architecture students better understand the role of sound in the design process;
that is, how do the designs we propose change, disrupt,
change, improve, etc. soundscapes (both human and
non-human) of the spaces in which we are intervening?
Also, how do these new soundscapes change behavior
(again, human and non-human) in said landscapes?
Recording and Assessing
Environmental Quality in
Woodlands: An Environmental
Audit Tool
Eva Silveirinha de Oliveira, [email protected].
uk, (University of Edinburgh); Catharine
Ward Thompson, [email protected].
uk, (University of Edinburgh); Simon Bell,
[email protected], (University of Edinburgh);
Peter Aspinall, [email protected],
(Heriot Watt University); Jenny Roe, jenny.
[email protected], (Stockholm Environment
Institute Search, University of York)
Various studies suggest that exposure to green spaces, including woodlands, can be beneficial to people in
terms of their mental health as well as promote social
contact and physical activity. The use of green spaces
is believed to be dependent not only on accessibility
to green space but also on its quality. However, few
studies have addressed the development of tools to assess the quality of green spaces, especially woodlands.
This paper presents the development, implementation,
and reliability of testing of an environmental audit tool
for woodlands and green space assessment. The first
part of the audit tool consists of a rating exercise (on
a 5-point scale) of 25 items aggregated into seven domains: neighbourhood characteristics, access/signage,
quality, facilities, use, maintenance/management, and
security/safety. In addition to this exercise, the tool is
complemented by a mapping tool entitled ‘view from
the path’, which aims to record the dynamic experience
of the landscape. Using a series of mapping symbols, it
allows the creation of a sketch/draw of the experience.
Eighteen audits were conducted by two trained auditors,
across woodlands and green spaces in Scotland. The
auditors visited the sites and, independently, completed
the rating at the end of each visit. Interrater reliability
(IRR) tests using the intraclass correlation coefficient
(ICC) were performed to check the tool’s reliability.
The results showed good levels of reliability and agreement between the rates for most of the items, and only
three items had a low agreement (ICC<0.50). Together,
the auditors drew the ‘view from the path’ experience of
each site. This audit tool has a generally high reliability,
and the ‘view from the path’, offers an opportunity to
183
map the structure of the landscape, complementing the
assessment of the audit tool. By linking the environment-behaviour relationships and the dynamic experience of the landscape, this tool can be used by researchers and practitioners.
Developing Design Guidelines
for Urban Spaces in Support
of Mental Wellbeing Using
Theoretical Frameworks From
Environmental Psychology and
Aesthetics
MaryCarol Hunter, [email protected],
It is well-established that experience of the natural
world supports human wellbeing. Less is known about
which attributes of green space produce this effect.
Environmental psychology and aesthetics theories offer
rationales for the restorative benefits and preference
responses to landscape forms (like hills) and generic
landscape components like vegetation and water. However, the level of specificity is insufficient to guide the
design of restorative greenspace in urban areas. Where
landscape design has been inspired by theory, there has
been little empirical testing to know if preference or
wellbeing improves as theory predicts. This research
addresses both issues by identifying a suite of specific
physical attributes that subscribe to theoretical principles and are likely to bring positive responses. Forty
attributes emerged from a theoretical framework based
on concepts about biophilia, prospect-refuge, savanna
preference, stress recovery, environmental information processing, attention restoration, aesthetics, formal
design principles, and others. Methods for quantifying the content or configuration of each attribute were
developed, tested for repeatability during scoring, and
applied to images provided by participants in a field
study about the restoration capacity of nature experiences. Fifty participants used a smartphone app designed to record self-reported mental wellbeing data in
summer 2014. Each survey included a question which
was answered by taking a photo of a scene that elicited
a positive reaction. These preferred images were evaluated in terms of content and configuration attributes and
184 interpreted in light of theory predictions. The practical
products of this research include (a) an approach for
developing design guidelines for restorative spaces that
ameliorate the arbitrary outcomes of emulating natural
scene aesthetics and (b) recommendations on how to
select or modify images for psychological tests about
preference and the restorative capacity of urban nature.
How Much Green? Measuring
Exposure to Green Spaces and
Students’ Psychological WellBeing
Dongying Li, [email protected], (University
of Illinois); William Sullivan, wcsulliv@illinois.
edu, (University of Illinois)
More than a quarter of high school students report
they experience considerable stress in their daily lives
(Kaiser Family Foundation, 2005). In teenagers, chronic
stress often leads to emotional distress, declines in
physical health, behavioral problems, and poor academic achievement. Fortunately, there is evidence that direct
or indirect exposure to trees and other forms of vegetation help reduce stress and mental fatigue. Although it
is clear that exposure to nature has calming effects, the
shape of the dose-response curve is unclear, especially
with respect to teenagers. We do not know, for instance
the impact of varying durations of exposure, or varying
frequencies of exposure, or even the impact of varying concentrations of green space. We examined the
relationship between high school students’ everyday
exposure to greenness and their stress levels and attentional functioning. We explored the extent to which
varying densities of tree cover and varying frequency
and duration of visits to green spaces had on student’s
daily stress and attentional capacity. One-hundred fifty
high school students from urban areas in central Illinois
participated in this study. Participants wore a Garmin
Foretrex 301 GPS device for four days and kept an activity diary that recorded their major activities throughout the day. They also took an online version of the
Stress Visual Analogue Scale Questionnaire (VAS), the
Profile of Mood States 2nd Edition (POMS-S), and the
Attentional Functioning Index (AFI) to measure their
stress and attention. Each student’s exposure to green
space was calculated by taking into account the density
of tree canopy cover in each green parcel, the duration
and frequency of exposure to green space. We are now
calculating the relationship between these measures of
exposure to green spaces and levels of stress and attentional functioning using ordinary regression models
and hierarchical linear models. The result of this study
will reveal the extent to which density of green space
and frequency and duration of visit influence students’
psychological well-being, and the magnitude of the effect. These findings will have implications for educators
and parents, as well as planners and policy makers who
work to create healthier environments for young people.
Research on Landscape Plant
Species Selection Based on
Environmental Psychology
Huiwen Zhang, la_zhanghuiwen@163.
com, (Tongji University); Deshun Zhang,
[email protected], (Tongji University);
Zhen Wang, [email protected], (Tongji
University)
This research conducted a landscape plant species
selection model, with which landscape designers could
select specific plants to create prospective psychological feelings in landscape places. This model was constructed based on environmental psychology and plants’
external characteristics. In environmental psychology,
there is a stimulus-perception reaction mechanism
existing between people and the surrounding environment. It revealed that in the process of environmental
information reception, people will use past experiences
to process the information that came from perceptual
systems. In this circumstance, the color, shape, smell,
and sound in the environment can arouse corresponding psychological feelings which had been triggered in
similar conditions. As most of these past psychological
experiences came from human evolution, there is strong
consistency in the experiences of different people. As
a consequence, people’s psychological feelings and
response to specific environmental elements could be
anticipated. Accordingly, designers could guide people’s feeling by setting specific environment elements
in place, contributing to create prospective place spirit.
Plants are the capital landscape element. Because of
its comprehensive external characteristics, landscape
plants can deliver information through all five sense
perceptions (sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch).
Hence, landscape plants played a very important role
in place spirit’s construction. The target of this research
is to explore a method to select proper plant species in
constructing different psychological feelings in place,
e.g., happiness in children’s playgrounds or sadness in
memorial spaces. To fulfill this target, research in two
aspects were conducted. First, by concluding almost
all the possible psychological feelings appearing in a
landscape space, a coordinate system was constructed to
systematize and classify these feelings. In this system,
feelings were classified by its degree of boisterousness
(x-axis) and degree of pleasure (y-axis). The coordinate
system, which relatively fully summarized the psychological feelings, laid a basal layer for the subsequent
research. Second, this research analyzed the relationship
between people’s psychological feelings and plants’
external characteristics from four aspects, including
plants’ color, shape, smell, and sound. In each aspect,
the relationship between plants’ external characteristics
and feelings was analyzed based on the environmental
and psychological, and a plant list visually classified by
the corresponding feelings would be conducted. Finally,
the four plant lists would be overlaid onto the above
coordinate system, to form the integrated plant selection
model. By using this model, designers can firstly locate
the prospective feelings on the coordinate system and
then retrieve proper plants by the plant lists overlaid on
this location. This model would make landscape plants’
selection in terms of psychological experience much
more clear, convenient, and theory-based. In addition to
this, the multi-layer model could also be used to derive
a certain plant species’ feeling attribute, by analyzing
the plants’ locations on the coordinate system in each
plant list layer. By this method, every plant species appearing in the lists could get a radar chart demonstrating
its feeling attribute in the four aspects. So the model is
also a tool to research plant species’ effect on people’s
psychological feelings.
185
Abstracts – Neighborhoods
NEIGHBORHOODS
The Influence of Spatial
Environment on Sense of
Neighborhood: Does Layout
of Housing Influence Sense of
Neighborhood?
Atieh Ameri, [email protected], (North
Carolina State University); Niusha
Esmaeilpoor, [email protected],
(University of Tehran)
Sense of neighborhood is one of many concepts
scholars have used to evaluate people’s perception of
the place. The purpose of this study was to investigate
whether the form and layout of housing blocks has an
influence on what people feel about their neighborhood.
To this end, we chose the Narmak neighborhood because its unique design allowed us to compare sense of
neighborhood among residents of two distinctive forms:
squares and alleys, with reducing intervening factors
as much as possible. Four main domains of sense of
neighborhood, each consisting of four or five sub-items,
were used to evaluate it through surveys and interviews.
The results show that residents of squares have higher
levels of sense of neighborhood than those who live
in alleys and streets, though not all four domains were
correlated with neighborhood design. According to our
findings, residents who live around the squares express
more attachment to their neighborhood, and their level
of social interaction is higher. On the other hand, the
result shows that feeling of identity and satisfaction are
more related to the overall image people are holding in
their mind about their neighborhood than the layout of
their blocks.
186 Gentrification and Community
Development Groups: Boston
Area
Aqsa Butt, [email protected], (University
of Massachusetts)
Lower-income families often have to endure challenging economic situations in Massachusetts. Today,
relative economic status is based on gender, race,
ethnicity, age, and education. As an ethic minority and
an aspiring young professional-to-be in Boston, I am
concerned about settling in an urban environment that
offers vibrant culture, ethnic and racial diversity, affordable housing, as well as the opportunity to address
community challenges. Gentrification plays a significant
role in the Boston area. Its influx of affluent residents
benefits property owners. There is considerable increase
in housing costs and in property value for locals that
may contribute to their housing insecurity. Community
Development groups assist lower income residents
that may lack guidance, social, economic, and political
power to address issues that arise with subsidized housing. My background is comparable to the lives of these
locals: minorities, middle class, and bi-cultural families.
My research will focus on the gentrification process and
how it affects minorities in lower-income households.
How do community development groups contribute to
assisting ethnic minorities, elderly, and the poor in finding affordable housing options? Literature review will
cover the definition of gentrification. Research will be
expanded into a case study: defining research questions
and data gathering through the City of Boston’s Department of Neighborhood Development. Data will be
further analyzed through non-structured interviews with
community development programs: Somerville Community Corporation, and Tri-City Community Action
Program. Interviews will take a ‘storytelling’ approach
for integrating comprehensive information. The final
results will be analyzed, identifying key themes regarding the social problems of gentrification.
Neighborhoods – Abstracts
Exploring the Association
Between Built Environment
Characteristics and Place Identity
Within TOD Neighborhoods
Ozlem Demir, [email protected], (North
A lack of understanding of urban places through
the individual’s perspective is driven for this study.
According to this study, the individual should be the
primary dynamic for the decision-making process and
neighborhood design in different contexts. The purpose of this study is to explore the association between
physical characteristics of transit-oriented development neighborhoods and people’s perception of place
identity and attitude toward the physical attributes of
built environment. Physical attributes in this study are
defined as streetscape, building style, building type,
density, diversity, and proximity. Transit-oriented
developments are a new trend in the North American
cities, and are also a rapidly growing movement that
needs to be addressed in human scale. In other words,
this study tries to investigate the key physical characteristics of TOD neighborhoods that are important for
people. Kaplan and Recoquillon (2014) highlight that
“built environment, the landscape of buildings, streets,
signs, and physical features through which a place is
easily recognized and which can transmit considerable
meaning to both insiders and outsiders.” Previous studies show that there is correlation between a person and
his/her physical environment, however, place has not
been broken into what specific characteristic or characteristics of built environment make contributions to
people’s feelings toward their environment. Two major
research methods are identified in this study, which are
photo sorting and online survey. Photo sorting helps to
categorize and eliminate the images from different urban locations that are selected from Google Maps street
view. Selected images are used for the visual questionnaire part of the online survey. Since the survey questionnaire is created based on common sense—instead
of targeting a specific neighborhood location—perhaps
online surveys should be distributed primarily through
North Carolina State University Graduate Students via
email, and then through three different neighborhoods.
In this case, a mixed methods strategy that is both multiple case studies and quantitative research method is
the proposed research design strategy for this study. The
survey questionnaire is made up of four main sections:
environmental Inventory questions, characteristics of
built environment questionnaire, visual questionnaire,
and demographic questions. The strength of this study
is that visual questions support the built environment
questionnaire as follow-up questions. Providing visual
images for participants is crucial and the main theme
for this study. The anticipated outcomes of this study
promote awareness of importance of specific built environment characteristics. Future study should embrace
validity and reliability tests to provide generalization
and consistency of the online survey. This study aims to
guide future place identity studies through the transitoriented development context for different neighborhoods across nations (cities and towns).
187
Abstracts – Neuroscience Related to Environment-Behavior
NEUROSCIENCE RELATED TO
ENVIRONMENT-BEHAVIOR
Digitized Videotape Analysis:
A Tool to Assess the Impact of
University Learning Spaces on
Student Classroom Behavior
Mary Anne Akers, maryanne.akers@morgan.
edu, (Morgan State University); Christine
Hohmann, [email protected],
(Morgan State University); Jim Determan,
[email protected], (Hord, Coplan,
Macht)
The neuroscience literature shows that spatially
“enriched” environments improve brain complexity
and learning in model organisms, and some suggest the
same applies to humans (Mohammed, A.H. et al., 2002;
Kempermann, Gerd, H. Georg Kuhn & Fred H. Gage,
1997; Van Praag, H., G. Kempermann & F.H. Gage,
2000). We hypothesize, therefore, that an “enriched”
classroom correlates with increased student social interaction, engagement and activity, and improved learning outcomes. Student centered teaching in enriched
classrooms impacts student self-efficacy and academic
performance (Painter, Susan et al., 2013). However, the
influence of the physical space, rather than the teaching,
has not been separated from other variables. This study
attempts to isolate these constructs by analyzing videotape files of student behavior in two different learning
spaces. Ethnically diverse students were compared in
a traditional classroom (instructor-centered) and an
enriched classroom with round tables and state-of-theart technology (learner-centered) (Alberts, B., 2005).
Learning outcomes included grades, instructor’s assessment, and student feedback. Quantitative analysis
revealed that students in the enriched classroom showed
increased physical movement and nearly twice as much
interaction during group activities. The study shows that
the video tool can add insights to research on the built
environment and student success.
188 Autism, Lighting, and
Neuroscience: Impact of Neural
Data on the Future of Architecture
and Design
Cherif Amor, [email protected], (VCU
Qatar); Gerard Moeller, M.D., fgmoeller@
vcu.edu, (Virginia Commonwealth University)
Behavioral evidences indicate that fluorescent lighting is among the indoor environmental variables (i.e.,
noise, ambient temperature, and air quality) that play a
critical role in facilitating or hindering daily activities
for the neuro-typical population (Rashid & Zimiring,
2008). Neuro-diverse populations, particularly autistic
subjects, become more distracted under fluorescent
lighting, which generates agitation, hyperactivity,
stress, and weaker cognitive skills, hence contributing
to negative health and performance effects. For autistic
subjects, functional neuroimaging suggests decreased
activity in areas normally associated with higher
cognitive processing (Baron-Cohen, S. 2004; Howard,
1999). These findings remain controversial and debatable (Dawson, G. & Watling, R., 2000; O’Neil, Meena
& Robert Jones, 2007), particularly that the impact of
environmental stimulus (light, color, sound, etc.) were
not included. The purpose of this research is to (1)
explore and compare behavioral and neural responses
of 20 autistic subjects when exposed to three types of
fluorescent lighting Correlated Color Temperatures, and
(2) explore the impact of different color temperatures
on the activation of the prefrontal and parietal areas,
brain regions associated with cognition that experience
minimal neural activity for people with autism. An
experimental design will be used for the study where
20 autistic subjects will be exposed to three types of
correlated color temperatures in three applications—
healthcare, academia, and commercial—while their
neural and behavioral responses will be recorded. The
participants undergo (1) an anatomical scan and (2) a
functional scan, using Functional Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (fMRI) technology. Behavioral data will be analyzed using t-test factor analysis and one-way analysis
of variance, while the neural data maps will be analyzed
using FSL Neuroimaging Software. This research aims
at providing behavioral and neural benchmark data for
designers, architects, planners, and industry professionals relative to lighting color temperature that facilitate
or inhibit the cognitive skills of autistic subjects.
Neuroscience Related to Environment-Behavior – Abstracts
The Work of Gilbert Gottlieb: A
Framework for the Integration of
Neuroscience Into Design
Sarah Little, [email protected], (University
of Oklahoma)
Viewing the physical environment through a neuroscience perspective may seem dubious, but the work of
Gilbert Gottlieb, Probabilistic Epigenesis (PE), provides
the theoretical framework to make the connection. In
Greek, the prefix epi- means around or over; therefore
epigenetics, means around genetics. In other words,
genes do not solely determine behavior; other factors
matter. According to PE, individual development is a
product of the bidirectional relationships among genetic
and neural activity, behavior, and the environment, specifically the physical, social, and cultural aspects of an
environment (Gottlieb, 2007). According to PE, development is not predetermined; humans are not prisoners
of their genetic inheritance. Behavior is not a question
of nature (genetics) OR nurture (environment), but nature AND nurture (Brendtro & Mitchell, 2010). While
humans have a genetic inheritance which influences
behavior, the environment (physical, social, and cultural) also influences behavior. In fact, research shows
that experience within the environment, particularly
social interactions, trigger genetic activity (Brendtro &
Mitchell, 2010). “The genes one inherits do not remain
static. Throughout life, they are turned on or off by
chemical tags that react to signals from the environment” (Brendtro & Mitchell, 2010, p. 8). While Gottlieb
distinguishes among the physical, social, and cultural
environments as influencing development, designers are
most concerned with creating the physical environment
which supports the social and cultural environments. By
viewing the physical environment in this way, designers have the ability to not only influence what a person
DOES, but who a person BECOMES.
Effects of Short-Term In-Situ
Exposure to Man-Made Nature
on EEG and Perceived Affective
State: A Pilot Experiment
Zheng Chen, [email protected].
cn, (Tongji University); Xueqian Zhai,
[email protected], (Tongji University);
Yingqian Zhang, [email protected],
(Tongji University)
Quite a few studies offered evidence for the potential
health benefits of exposure to green spaces (e.g., Aspinall et al., 2013; Bowler et al., 2010; J. Roe & Aspinall,
2011; J. J. Roe et al., 2013; Taylor & Kuo, 2009; Ulrich,
1981, 2002; Velarde et al., 2007; Ward Thompson et
al., 2012). Exposure to nature, even short-term, is expected to result in complex affective responses at least
in the three dimensions known to psychology (Mauss
& Robinson, 2009): valence is driven from negative
to positive; excessive arousal is mitigated; behavior
intention is driven from avoidance to approach (Ulrich et al., 1991). Studies began to establish evidenced
connections between exposure to nature and stress
reduction using arousal. While the impact of nature on
arousal dimension is well investigated using measures
such as salivary cortisol and skin conductance (Jiang et
al., 2014), blood pressure, and electrocardiogram (Qin
et al., 2013), the other two affective dimensions were
less examined. Sixteen right-handed participants were
recruited from college students and were randomly assigned into two in-situ treatment groups: one 20-minute
exposure to a man-made nature and another to an urbanized environment. Their self-reported affective states,
attention, and EEG were measured before and after
the treatments. Demographic and personality information was collected for control purposes. Self-reported
affective states were measured using Profile of Mood
State (POMS) Scale and Perceived Restorativeness
Scale (PRS) controlled for neurotic personality using
Neuroticism Extraversion Openness (NEO) Personality
Inventory. Attention was measured using Necker Cube
Pattern Control Task (CPCT). Behavior intention was
measured by three pre-frontal paired electrodes F3-F4,
AF3-AF4, and F7-F8 using Emotiv EPOC headsets.
EEG data was prepared and analyzed via Matlab and
EEGLAB with artifacts removed. All other data were
analyzed in SPSS. Participants exposed to man-made
189
nature showed a higher restorative effect than those
exposed to urbanized environment in enhanced vigor
(mean difference= 5.03, p=.013) and mitigated tension (-4.63, p=.018), fatigue (-4.75, p=.039) , depression (-4., p=.027) and total mood disturbance(-22.03,
p=.009), while no significant differences were found in
the pre-test. Participants exposed to man-made nature
also reported a significant higher perception in restorativeness in almost all PRS indicators (mean difference
= 3.88~2.13, p=0.000~0.031) except Item 8 and 9. No
significant results were found in the CPCT attention
test. Mean alpha power analysis confirmed the restorative effect revealed by psychological scales. Exposure
to nature reduced brain activities similar to eye-closing
state (mean difference in db = -.65, T=.159), while
exposure to urban environment significantly increased
brain activities compared at eye closing state (-.5.79,
.007). Although the small sample sizes did not yield statistically significant differences of frontal lateralization,
consistent patterns of increasing approaching intention
were observed via alpha asymmetry at F3-F4 (mean difference in db = -1.25, T=.506) and AF3-AF4 (-.72, .825)
after exposure to nature as expected, while smaller or
opposite changes were observed after exposure to urban
environment (mean difference between F3 and F4 in db
= -.24, T= .266; between AF3 and AF4 =.15, T=.153).
Urban Economic Geography
and Environmental Psychology:
Theoretical View and
Comparative Perspective
David Stea, [email protected], (Center
for Global Justice)
Environmental psychology has been heavily concerned with the relation of architecture to psychology;
indeed, its birth in the 1960s was as “architectural
psychology”. But the scale of environment with which
the field is concerned is now much larger than the
architectural realm, as is the realm of social science
with which it is concerned. However, research on spatial
behavior has largely ignored an important variable in
human behavior: economics. Eighty years ago, geographers in Germany, in particular, began study the relation
of economic behavior to geographic space, formulated
as Central Place Theory, stressing retail location. About
the same time, what was later known as the “Chicago
190 School” of sociology became concerned with the
distribution of various socioiecomic groups within the
urban fabric, stressing residential location. Relating
of social and economic characteristics and behavior to
macrospaces thus preceded the 1960s development of
environmental psychology. As a result of related experiences, the study of urban cognitive maps diverged: as
cognitive maps of the residents of various places in Los
Angeles revealed vast differences between the maps
of the wealthy, which might cover hundreds of square
miles, and those of the poor: the maps of the wealthy
were punctate, with little detail, while those of the ghettoized poor covered just their neighborhoods, but in copious detail. As recent neurophysiological studies show
that cognitive maps are indeed real, a multidisciplinary
overview also reveals a remarkable shift in urban
economic geography and in associated cognitive maps
of urbanites in industrialized and developing countries
over the past half-century, in relationship between society and place, between the spatial cognition of individuals and the location of consumer goods.
Use of Neuroscience Concepts
and Measurements in
Environment Behavior Research:
Challenges and Opportunities
Newton D’souza, [email protected],
(University of Missouri); Asha Kutty, kuttya@
missouri.edu, (University of Missouri); Upali
Nanda, [email protected], (HKS);
Bimal Balakrishnan, balakrishnanb@missouri.
edu, (University of Missouri); Karen Dobkins,
[email protected], (UCSD)
In the past half century, researchers in EnvironmentBehavior (EB) and Design have attempted to conceptualize, measure, and apply attributes related to the
interaction of environment and behavior. These concepts have been traditionally borrowed from a variety
of disciplines, including environmental psychology,
sociology, anthropology, and human geography to a
name a few. The advent of neuroscience as a discipline
and the interest it has created presents both opportunities and challenges to EB research. These opportunities
and challenges range from epistemological issues to
measurement and synthesis of multi-scale concepts. Our
symposium panelists will explore these difficult issues
and discuss them from varied perspectives. Newton
D’Souza, associate professor of architecture at the University of Missouri, will outline the challenges in neuroscientific measures in capturing affective and cognitive
dimensions of place attributes at interior and architectural scales. Asha Kutty, adjunct professor of architecture at the University of Missouri, will critically analyze
whether and where neuroscientific measurement might
be useful in analyzing urban environments. Upali
Nanda, vice-president and director of research at HKS,
will address the role of senses and sensory experience
as it relates to the environment and opportunities of
neuroscientific research. Bimal Balakrishnan, associate
professor of architecture at the University of Missouri,
will discuss the measurement and conceptualization
of psychophysiological measures and environmental
simulation. Karen Dobkins, professor of psychology at
UC San Diego, will discuss design environments from
a neuroscientific perspective, specifically as it relates
to visual stimuli. Presentations from Upali Nanda and
Karen Dobkins will allude to material that was partly
submitted at the Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture (ANFA) conferences and seeks to introduce
themes in the new area of neuroscience for architecture
that have been the focus of ANFA.
Presentation #1: The Challenges and
Opportunities of Using Neuroscientific Measures
to Capture Place Attributes
For this presentation, the challenges and opportunities of neuroscientific measures for EB research will be
discussed under four categories: Conceptualization of
Place Attributes, Unit of Analysis and Data Integration,
Tracking and Mobile Tools, and Cognitive/affective
measures: (i) Conceptualization of Place Attributes:
Neuroscientific measures are currently focused on emotional responses such as arousal, fear, valence, attention, meditation, low-level navigability, and so on. The
question for EB researchers is how can these measures
complement or detract from traditional EB concepts
such as stimulation, crowding, sociality, legibility,
meaning, imageability, privacy, personal space, environmental stress, thermal comfort, and so on. (ii) Unit
of analysis and data integration: Neuroscience captures
quantitative micro scale data coming from a tradition of
positive science. How can this data be integrated with
macro-scale data emerging from studies such as cultural
response ethnographic research and environmental
preference studies? Moreover, how does one manage
differing temporal data of long-term studies of ethMay 2015 – brainSTORM
nography and short-term perceptual studies emerging
from neuroscience? Besides, how does real-time data
tracking from neuroscience provide us any new insights as compared to post analysis of data that EB has
traditionally conducted? (iii) Tracking and mobile tools:
The advent of neuroscience has brought about mobile
tools that can capture fine-grain cognitive data. In this
context, the “world itself has become a laboratory.”
However, to conduct systematic neuroscientific study,
one needs to have experimental control for several independent variables and research ‘noise.’ One question
to be asked is what balance should be sought between
capturing a naturalized environment vs. an experimental
abstracted environment? (iv) Cognitive and Affective
measures: Neuroscience could be used for measuring
finer nuances of affective and cognitive dimensions
which were difficult to measure in the past, especially
for feasibility studies of existing architectural hypotheses. By presenting a proof-of-concept study of ‘wow’
factor in design, all the above-mentioned challenges and
opportunities will be highlighted.
Presentation #2: A Critical Look at
Neuroscientific Measures in Urban Environments
and Public Spaces
Environment-behavior and urban design research
have been using manual methods of recording human
behavioral interactions with various urban places for
decades. Starting with the seminal works of William
Whyte and Jan Gehl, onsite observations of behaviors
such as the way we sit, stand, converse, and walk within
designed environments have been recorded through
behavior maps, photography, videography, and dairy
keeping. These studies have contributed to recommendations for design practice, pointing to what seems to
have worked or not, and what appears to be appreciated
or not, by the users of existing places. The studies have
had a good amount of success, proven by the longevity
of their methodological applications (around 40 years)
for scholarly research and their popularity in urban
design practice. While these traditional studies have
recorded behavioral dimensions within urban public
spaces, significant components that the studies lack are
cognitive and experiential recordings. Advances in digital technology such as the Brain-Computer Interfaces
(BCI) claim to eventually help us move towards filling
in this gap. The presentation will take a critical look at
the way in which technologies such as BCI intervene
in the study of human interaction with public spaces.
Some of the key themes that will be addressed include:
What are the differences between the data sets obtained
from evidence-based research of emotional responses
191
using BCI to more qualitative traditions of interviewing, and to more intuitive traditions of observation?
Could the data sets from BCI lead to more informed
design making decisions for the public sphere? Are
there certain scales/types of public spaces that require
evidenced-based research of emotions for design decisions, more so than others? How are personal/cultural
backgrounds of subjects addressed while using technologies such as BCI? Could pressing 21st century
concerns with public space use such as bikability, walkability, and other attributes of active living be addressed
more accurately with technologies such as the BCI?
Presentation #3: Role of Senses and Sensory
Experience as it Relates to Environment and
Opportunities for Neuroscientific Research
The traditional approach to senses has been static
and passive, treating each sense modality as independent, and treating auditory, tactile, haptic, gustatory,
and olfactory senses as secondary to the visual. In this
presentation, we will compare the traditional approach
of “sensory orders” (supported by anthropology) to the
more current notion of neural “plasticity”—a constant
dialogue between the senses that crafts our perceptions and shapes our experiences. The phenomena of
“synesthesia”—neural crosswiring where stimuli in one
modality trigger responses in others—will be discussed
in terms of the physiological and philosophical significance to architecture and design. The presentation
derives some of its work from foundational work done
in ecological physics by JJ Gibson. A case study that
explores cross-sensory connection via color perception and association will be shared. Examples from
built environments will be set alongside insights from
neuroscience to create an agenda for neuro-architecture
research that is based on a strong environment-behavior
foundation.
Presentation #4: Potential of Virtual Reality and
Psychophysiology for Environment-Behavior
Research
This presentation discusses the potential offered by
virtual reality as a viable tool for environment research
and the advantages of psychophysiological and eyetracking measures for tracking continuous experience.
Virtual reality (VR) simulations are neither functionally nor representationally isomorphic with real-world
environments. Despite this limitation, the improved
experiential congruence offered by current virtual reality technology and their increasing accessibility for lay
users provides scholars with a powerful research tool.
This presentation will start by discussing key character-
192 istics of VR technology needed for environment-behavior research and development of the immersive visualization lab (iLab) at the University of Missouri. This
will include discussion of various technology attributes
of VR systems and our research into understanding
their relative contributions to achieving an immersive
experience and a sense of presence. Next, conceptualization, operationalization, and technical implementation of environmental concepts will be illustrated using
examples from ongoing research at iLab. Issues that
threaten ecological validity of experiment designs using VR will also be discussed. The second half of the
presentation will discuss issues related to measurement
of environmental experience. Psychophysiological tools
when used with other traditional measures provide an
opportunity for continuous evaluation of experience. By
accurately capturing these physiological changes when
subjects are exposed to virtual simulations, one can
begin to develop an understanding of the psychological
impact of an environment in real-time as the experience unfolds. The approach proposed here could create
a foundation that would help us empirically understand
multiple dimensions of architectural experience and
capture its nuances.
Presentation #5: Designing Environments From
a Neuroscientific Perspective Specifically as it
Relates to Visual Stimuli
The last thirty years have seen a surge of interest in
the effects of the environment on physical and mental health. In recent years, this interest has broadened
from a focus on the external environment to include
the internal environment of personal living spaces. In
a unique applied project, we were commissioned by
a Japanese condominium developer to create a set of
designs for infant and children’s living spaces and a
system to match and tailor them to the individual. We
grounded our scheme in neuroscientific and behavioral
data regarding responses to visual stimuli. For infants
(ages birth to 3 years), our designs were based on a
large body of work (including our own) showing that
the brains of young infants respond best to faces and to
certain patterns that include large high contrast dark/
light stimuli and highly saturated colors. Accordingly,
infant living spaces were created with these features to
promote visual development. For children (ages 3-17
years), our designs were based on a large body of work
documenting which types of overhead lighting, colors,
and visual patterns promote different psychological
moods, such as “arousal” versus “tranquility”, as well
as which colors/patterns are preferred in American
cultures. Temperament (which is thought to be fairly
stable after age 3) was determined by asking parents 10
questions about their child, based on a standard temperament questionnaire known as the EAS (Emotionality, Activity, Sociability) Survey. These questionnaires
score children along three dimensions: (1) High vs.
Low Activity, (2) High vs. Low Inhibition, and (3) High
vs. Low Negativity. The first two question sets (activity
and inhibition) were used to assess the child’s arousal,
with both high activity and high inhibition indicating
high levels of arousal. The third set measures the tendency toward negativity. Based on these assessments,
living space recommendations were made for each child
to complement his or her individual temperament. In
addition to promoting optimal visual development and
psychological well-being, our tailored visual environments and their implementation in Japan raise cultural
awareness regarding the impacts of the environment,
including personal living spaces.
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder:
Infusing Person-Environment
Questions in Studies of Mental
Health
Tasoulla Hadjiyanni, [email protected],
(University of Minnesota); Julia Robinson,
Minnesota); Austin Young, youn1425@
umn.edu, (University of Minnesota); Gail
Bernstein, [email protected], (University of
Minnesota)
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a debilitating anxiety disorder experienced by 1 to 3 percent
of the population. Many of the compulsions, such as
repeating and ordering rituals and excessive hand washing, involve environmental factors that include door
openings, light switches, sinks, and toilets. Infusing a
person-environment approach to questions around OCD
can inform and expand the development of tools for diagnostics and therapeutics. As up to 80 percent of OCD
cases begin during childhood, such knowledge can
have life-transforming outcomes. This paper presents
the findings of a study funded by the National Science
Foundation that supports a three-college collaboration:
the College of Design (authors), the Medical School’s
Department of Psychiatry, and the College of Science
and Engineering. As a pilot project that explored the
environmental factors associated with OCD behaviors,
the study used experiments with 40 subjects, 20 children and adolescents with OCD and 20 matched healthy
controls to: (a) test the impact of pattern on clutter organization, and (b) observe everyday activities such as
hand washing and interactions with bathroom fixtures.
Activities were videotaped to enable observations and
analysis using computer vision tools of behaviors that
are too difficult to observe in real time. Variables to be
measured include total time spent doing each task, number of times an object is moved during a task, whether
the arrangement made by the participant is similar or
dissimilar to the sample card given to the participants
at the beginning of the task, and repetitious behaviors
during the tasks. The goal is to develop algorithms
that perform the measurements automatically so more
patients can be evaluated over time. This research could
potentially expand to the investigation of mental health
disorders, such as autism and schizophrenia; the assessment of environmental factors, such as lighting, color,
and spatial layout/views; and settings, from the home to
school and work environments.
[Creatively] Perceiving-in-Action:
Extending Gibson’s Affordance
Theory With Neuroscience to
Understand Person-Environment
Relationships During Creativity
Laura Malinin, [email protected],
(Colorado State University); Alison Williams,
[email protected],
(Ravensbourne College); Katharine Leigh,
[email protected], (Colorado
State University)
Creative people often describe how the spaces they
inhabit are instrumental to their creativity. Jonas Salk
credited his polio vaccine breakthrough to time spent in
an Italian monastery, and tasked Louis Kahn to capture
its inspiring qualities when designing the Salk Institute. Although Kahn’s masterpiece demonstrates their
combined implicit understanding of how spaces support
creativity, even they did not anticipate the spaces’ later
193
use and adaptation. Furthermore, replication of Kahn’s
design strategies has yielded unpredictable results
elsewhere—sometimes negatively impacting creativity.
Understanding the person-environment relationships
instrumental to creative processes is key to effective
design for creativity (adopting Meyer’s (1999) definition: novelty and usefulness, and MacKinnon’s (1962):
situated in reality and extended over time). This paper
examines how Gibson’s (1977) affordance theory,
extended by neuroscience, can shed light on these
person-environment relationships, thus enhancing environmental design practice and research and overcoming
the limitations of affordance theory that have restricted
its adoption. Affordance theory describes how people
perceive their environments in terms of functional relevance; perceiving and acting are intertwined processes
suggesting that person and environment should be
empirically examined together. New knowledge from
neuroscience (for example, the role of the posterior
parietal lobe in visuospatial processing, and in integrating multi-sensory information about the environment)
not only lends biological support for the underlying
principles in affordance theory but also helps to address
its limitations. Using data from studies of historical
and everyday creativity, we illustrate how knowledge
from neuroscience can inform and extend affordance
theory to improve understanding of person-environment
relationships during creativity. We explain how this
deepened understanding can help inform environmental
design practices when planning places specifically to
support creativity; and how the extended theory bridges
the present gap between neuroscience and environmental design research approaches.
The Brain and the Virtual
Environment: Applying
a Scientific Approach to
Visualization
Ruth Westervelt, [email protected], (Design
Consulting)
As we move about the physical world from one environment to another, our experience of what we see is
considerably different from that of a scene in a picture.
Theories that compare physical space to pictorial space
have been debated and revised for centuries, and will
continue to do so as long as pictures maintain their
194 cultural pervasiveness. Amidst the vastness of views
on picture theory, which has impacted fields ranging
from advertising to video game design, there is one area
slow to change—architectural visualization. As a genre
of visual communication, the products of 3D rendering technology have advanced toward virtuosity in the
pursuit of photorealism, becoming a common mode of
depicting design intent to stakeholders, however it is
under-scrutinized for its improbable stylized imagery
and unlikely sociality (or lack thereof). Surprisingly,
the practice of visualization art has been relatively
unmoved by advancements in environment-behavior
research and, instead, preoccupied with technological novelty. This presentation attempts to address this
neglected spot by demonstrating the potential for a new
approach to spatial presentation that draws from studies
in perceptual psychology, evolutionary biology, and the
neurological mechanisms that underpin art: neuroaesthetics, which suggest that the popular realism of 3D
model rendering is not necessarily a requirement for,
and may even impede, effective visual comprehension.
This presentation diagrams research from a constellation of fields related to an inherently multidisciplinary
area of study and interprets the findings through a series
of graphic examples. Research contributions to, and
developments regarding, theories of neuroscience of
art, perception, and behavioral studies are identified.
We then define our concept of a novel methodological
approach to presenting space that is evidence-based
and imparts meaningful communication to stakeholders
about how a proposed environment is designed to fulfill
their physical and emotional needs, and out of which a
fundamental set of action-based principles emerge. In
conclusion, the dissemination of this research serves
to intentionally disrupt the status quo—one that relies
on representational tropes and dependence on software
outcomes, and calls for an alignment instead with the
values of contemporary environmental design research.
POE/Programming – Abstracts
POE/PROGRAMMING
IBPE Symposium: Building
Performance Evaluation Research
Projects and Case Studies From
Around the World
Ulrich Schramm, ulrich.schramm@
fh-bielefeld.de, (Bielefeld University of
Applied Sciences); Shauna Mallory-Hill,
[email protected], (University
of Manitoba); Mohamed Ouf, oufm@
myumanitoba.ca, (University of Manitoba);
Leila Scannell, leilascannell@gmail.
com, (Center for Interactive Research on
Sustainability, University of British Columbia);
Anne-Mareike Chu, anne.chu@alumni.
ubc.ca, (Center for Interactive Research
on Sustainability, University of British
Columbia); Karen Bartlett, karen.bartlett@
ubc.ca, (School of Population and Public
Health, University of British Columbia);
Murray Hodgson, murray.hodgson@ubc.
ca, (Center for Interactive Research on
Sustainability, University of British Columbia);
Craig Brown, [email protected],
(Ryerson University); Mark Gorgolewski,
[email protected], (Ryerson University);
Adrian Turcato, adrianturcato@gmail.
com, (Ryerson University); Martin Hodulak,
[email protected], (rheform);
Akikazu Kato, [email protected], (Mie
University); Shiho Mori, [email protected].
ac.jp, (Mie University); Rotraut Walden,
Koblenz); Carlotta Fontana, carlotta.
[email protected], (Politecnico die Milano)
Building Performance Evaluation (BPE) is a systematic approach to planning, design, construction,
and occupancy of buildings. It is based on feedback
and evaluation at every phase of a building’s lifecycle
including: strategic planning, programming, design,
construction, occupancy, and recycling. A key feature
of BPE is that it includes examination of the functional
and technical performance of buildings against human
performance criteria. Formed over 18 years ago, the
International Building Performance Evaluation (IBPE)
consortium is a group of researchers from around the
world who undertake performance-based building
evaluation research. The work of the IBPE consortium
has been published in two books: Assessing Building
Performance (Elsevier, 2005) and more recently in
Enhancing Building Performance (Wiley-Blackwell,
2012). At EDRA 46, the IBPE Symposium will provide
attendees with an excellent opportunity for learning
about and discussing current issues in participatory
programming, performance-based design, occupancy
research, and practice. The IBPE Symposium contains
six presentations—research projects and case studies—concerning the application of BPE to education,
workplace, healthcare, and community settings around
the world. The first presentation discusses the growing
use of building automation systems and the effort to
understand occupant acceptance and engagement with
such systems in Germany. The second provides insights
on an interdisciplinary BPE process that can be used for
evaluating sustainable buildings in-use in Canada. The
third presentation describes the challenges when merging traditional values and expectations of mid-sized
companies in Germany with mainstream workplace
concepts. The fourth explains the merits of Building
Information Modeling (BIM) tools during the lifecycle
of healthcare facilities in Japan. The fifth presentation
provides the results of a case study of a new children’s
hospital in Germany. Finally, the sixth presentation explores the empowerment of local communities through
participatory BPE in Italy. At the end of the symposium,
the audience is invited to participate in an interactive
round-table panel discussion featuring all of the IBPE
presenters of the symposium.
Presentation #1: Acceptance of Intelligent
Building Technologies in Germany: Does the User
Get What He Wants?
At EDRA 45 in New Orleans, the author presented
the framework of his multi-disciplinary research project
‘Well-being and Acceptance in the Intelligent Building’,
funded through the State Ministry of Innovation, Science and Research, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.
The research project is based on several studies that indicate an increasing use of building automation systems
in new houses currently and in the near future as well,
while other sources—at the same time—list a couple
195
Abstracts – POE/Programming
of factors that continue to limit the acceptance of smart
home technology by occupants. Therefore the focus of
this study is on the building user, his needs, worries, and
concerns throughout the lifecycle of the building. Important questions are: (1) Which technologies decrease
well-being? (2) What are the barriers for acceptance?
(3) What is the role of occupants’ general technological
affinity? (4) What is the impact of participatory planning
processes? (5) Which measures will increase wellbeing and acceptance? In order to find answers to those
questions, a team of professors, assistants, and master
students from the disciplines of architecture, psychology, and informatics started to implement the research
project. The presentation shares first insights from the
following steps: - Review of related research activities
in Germany - Post-Occupancy Evaluation (POE) of a
new intelligent research building (Cognitive Interaction
Technology Center of Excellence, CITEC), Bielefeld
Campus - Analysis of the building delivery process
for the demonstration and research facility ‘Intelligent
Building Technologies’, Minden Campus - Related
longitudinal surveys (panel data) and cross-sectional
studies with students (expectations, attitudes, need to
participate) - Behavioral studies on intelligent building
technologies with students in the Psychological Laboratory, Bielefeld Campus - Prototype testing of microcurricula applications via smart phones.
Presentation #2: Integrative Research Process:
Opportunities, Challenges, and Good Practices in
Green Building Performance Evaluation
In 2013, the International Initiative for Sustainable
Built Environment (iiSBE) Canada, along with a design
industry partner, initiated a research project involving three major Canadian universities to undertake a
Building Performance Evaluation (BPE) of nine of the
leading green buildings in Canada. Since the 2000s, an
increasing number of green buildings are being built
in Canada. While green building rating systems like
LEED traditionally focus on the predicted or modeled
performance of a building, interest is growing to find
out how these buildings actually perform after they
are in operation and occupied. The aim of the project,
therefore, was to compare the actual performance of
these buildings to their predicted performance, as well
to reference standards for conventional buildings and
to report lessons learned back to the building owners,
design teams, and design industry. Extensive coordination and collaboration was required to undertake the rigorous qualitative and quantitative building performance
evaluation of 128,164 m2 of high performance green
buildings, including academic, office, and community
196 buildings, home to well over 5,000 occupants, in five
different bio-regions across Canada separated by over
3,300 km (2,000 miles), against at least 25 key performance criteria. This presentation reports on the opportunities, challenges, and good practices that resulted from
a multidisciplinary “integrative research process” that
informed the data collection, analysis, and reporting in
this project. This includes integration of goals, variability of criteria and indicators, management and leadership, communication, transparency, team effectiveness,
and impact. The presentation will provide research
teams with important insights on the creation of a viable
framework for an interdisciplinary BPE process that can
be used for benchmarking and evaluating sustainable
buildings in-use.
Presentation #3: Merging Tradition and
Innovation: Workplace Programming and POE
for German Mid-Size Companies
New open space office concepts are gaining popularity among larger national and international corporations
in Germany. Within smaller companies of the German “Mittelstand”, however, the traditional cell office
concepts prevail. The German mid-size companies, key
to the country’s economic success, are often highly innovative in terms of their products and services. At the
same time, they are deeply rooted in traditions concerning their staff expectations, workplace environments,
and the company’s culture. Successful implementation
of new workplace concepts is challenging, as traditional
expectations of management, staff, and clients are predominant and need to be considered and carefully balanced. The Regensburg based “Brauerei Bischofshof”
is a traditional mid-size Bavarian brewery, established
in 1649, owned by the church, and represented by the
bishop of Regensburg. After the renewal of production
facilities in 2006, the management decided to renovate
the administration buildings and spaces as well. To
ensure functionality, efficiency, and furthermost the
acceptance of owner, staff, and clients, the author was
commissioned to conduct a programming in 2008. In
further steps, he was involved in the development and
implementation of new office concepts in 2011 and
2012 and conducted a post-occupancy evaluation of the
new workplaces in 2014. In this paper, the author describes the challenges—and provides some solutions—
when merging traditional values and expectations
of mid-sized companies with mainstream workplace
concepts. The focus of this paper is on the programming methodology involved, which was used to define
the needs and requirements, but also served to initiate
a change process. The author outlines the project goals
POE/Programming – Abstracts
and major requirements and he further compares the
traditional offices to the new workspaces and their usability. He finally summarizes a post-occupancy evaluation interview on the new work situation, on achieving
the project goals, and on the impact of the programming
methodology.
Presentation #4: Significance of BIM in Planning,
Design, Management, and Assessment of
Healthcare Facilities in Japan
The challenge of using BIM (Building Information
Modeling) System is becoming an important issue in
the building industry in Japan. BIM will enable a frontloading of decision-making in the planning and design
phase, increase productivity in the construction phase,
support efficiency in the Facility Management phase,
and benefit in the building performance assessment
phase. The presentation will explain these merits using
case studies in a redevelopment project of a children’s
hospital and a renewal project of a municipal hospital in
Japan. The first case study is about a 200-bed hospital for children patients that is presently undergoing
construction of an additional building consisting of a
tertiary emergency department, a new operating department, PICU (Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, and support
facilities. Because there is the existing main building,
a full level BIM is not used. However, Autodesk Revit
Architecture software is used to develop 3D drawings
of main function rooms and FM system development
project is carried out using BIM data. The second case
study is about the renewal project of a 300-bed general
hospital, where the design phase has just started this fall
using Revit Architecture as well to develop a full BIM.
Presentation #5: Performance Evaluation of a
Children’s Clinic in Germany
The design of buildings and interior rooms measurably influences people’s well-being. It can make people
ill, or conversely even facilitate recovery processes.
For this reason, architectural psychology plays an ever
greater role in the planning and implementation of
public buildings. A recent study yielded some interesting findings for the newly designed children’s clinic
of the Marienhaus Clinic St. Elizabeth in Neuwied.
A hefty investment of nearly 21 million Euros had
gone into the hospital’s new bed area. To evaluate the
performance of the renovation, the planners consulted
with the Bonn-based “Little Patients” association. The
study was conducted in Summer 2011, which focused
primarily on the period before the construction of the
new areas and the renovation of the existing children’s
and adolescent’s clinic that was originally constructed
between 1960 and 1964. A second study, conducted in
Winter 2012, examined the results of the newly constructed facilities. Through both studies, the researchers
are able to determine what the improvements were, and
what stayed the same or even had gotten worse. Results
were ascertained through survey questions. The surveys
were completed by a total of 84 students over two semesters. In addition, 76 employees and 67 patients were
surveyed. The surveys scrutinized various areas of the
children’s and adolescent’s clinic, such as, for example,
the new outpatient clinic. The findings revealed that
the new waiting rooms, which were negatively evaluated prior to the redesign, were now overwhelmingly
viewed as positive. Despite the good evaluation overall,
there were some points of criticism, such as the rather
long distances between areas, the signage in the clinic,
and the layout of play equipment. Other clinics can use
these results as a tool in their planning.
Presentation #6: Understanding Our Own
Place: Performance-Based Assessment and the
Empowerment of Local Communities
The process of defining “neighbourhood attachment”
can be, in its own right, a potent tool to empower local
communities in the difficult task of preserving heritage
and landscape assets against “improper” development.
Projects aimed at short-time money are sometimes
favoured by local authorities because of their political
undertones and are supported by communities because
of their apparent economic appeal. However, such
projects also pose serious threats to both historical and
environmental qualities. Exploring the perception of
place-value, as recognised and expressed by the communities that inhabit the places, has proved to be a very
helpful way to enhance awareness and the notion of the
common good. In this presentation, the author describes
work involving a community in the South-East of the
Piedmont region of Northern Italy. The goal of the
study was to further develop and deploy a participatory
performance-based evaluation technique for community
environments that requires the deep involvement of the
inhabitants. The instruments also address spatial issues,
thus representing actual neighbourhood design tools. In
this case, the assessed shared values developed by the
participants have been further investigated and defined
in spatial terms, to be described in terms of guidelines
to support self-promoted and self-applied neighbourhood design practices. Building on previous research
stages, whose findings will be reported here, the present
project shows how the instruments supported local
citizen associations in counteracting dangerous development projects.
197
Abstracts – Preservation of Heritage
PRESERVATION OF HERITAGE
Towards a Holistic Understanding
of ‘Authenticity’ of Cultural
Heritage: An Analysis of World
Heritage Site Designations in the
Asian Context
Kapila Silva, [email protected], (University of
Kansas); Julie Lawless, [email protected],
(Western Illinois University)
In cultural heritage conservation worldwide, and
particularly in the World Heritage Sites (WHS) designation under UNESCO, it is required to define the Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) and the conditions that
‘authenticate’ the value of heritage sites. This search
for the ‘originality’ of cultural heritage properties had
led to defining the notion of authenticity as an objective and measurable attribute inherent in the material
fabric of historic environments. Accordingly, the initial
criteria used in the World Heritage designation in its
first three decades to test for authenticity included
the physical dimensions of the cultural property, i.e.,
design, materiality, workmanship, and setting, which
had been understood as universally applicable. World
Heritage nomination dossiers submitted to UNESCO
predominantly used these four criteria to represent the
authenticity of those sites. Such representations were
inclined to frame the sites as original, static, and timeless, overlooking the processes of change in them over
time. Critiques of this materialist perspective argue that
authenticity of a place is culturally constructed, contextually variable, and observer dependent. At an extreme
stance, this cultural constructivist perspective could
be unproductive as well; it negates the importance of
the possible exceptionality of the design, history, and
materiality of heritage places, and disregards the experiential value of authenticity in people’s social lives. In
order to facilitate a holistic understanding of authenticity of heritage sites, especially for WHS, UNESCO’s
Operational Guidelines for managing WHS since 2005
include a set of attributes that considers both tangible
and intangible aspects of heritage places together. They
are: form and design; materials and substance; use and
function; traditions, techniques, and management systems; location and setting; language, and other forms of
intangible heritage; spirit and feeling; and other inter-
198 nal and external factors. In order to find out the extent
to which this holistic understanding of authenticity of
heritage sites are currently applied in the WHS designations, we analysed 31 WHS from the Asian context that
were designated as World Heritage Sites after 2005.
Sites from Asia were selected for the fact that heritage
experts from Asia played a significant role in bringing about this broader understanding of the notion of
authenticity; it is generally considered that, in an Asian
context, cultural heritage is perceived both in terms of
its material and symbolic attributes. Qualitative textual
analysis of nomination dossiers was focused primarily
on the way the sites’ OUV has been defined, the type of
authenticity criteria employed, how the complexity and
dynamic nature of sites’ histories are taken into account,
and how the intangible attributes that contribute to sites’
cultural significance are articulated. Findings point toward the continuing need to apply systematic, holistic,
and integrative perspectives of authenticity standards
to heritage sites. We argue that rather than being simply
embedded in the materiality of heritage places or in socially constructed norms, the meanings of authenticity
emerge through how it is experienced and negotiated in
the interactions among people, places, and artifacts.
Heritage Conservation Through
the Lenses of EnvironmentBehavior Research and
Conservation Social Science
Jeremy Wells, [email protected], (Roger
Williams University)
The idea of using the social sciences to influence
human change to the built environment originated with
the environmental design movement of the late 1960s
and early 1970s. The basic premise is that if the human modified environment should benefit people, then
design should be, in part, driven by social science data.
In the past four decades, environment-behavior research
(EBR) has resulted in a robust array of methodologies
and methods to answer questions about how design and
human behavior are related, with the goal of designing new places that are better for people. While EBR is
mostly concerned with the new built environment and
conservation social science focuses on the “natural”
environment, their aims are similar as both focus on
socially and culturally “acceptable” ways that environ-
Preservation of Heritage – Abstracts
ments can and should change. Curiously, while the
professional practice of heritage conservation (a.k.a.
historic preservation) also addresses the built environment, its professionals do not typically use EBR (or any
social science) techniques to address the fundamental
tasks of identifying existing places that have historical
value and ways that the historical authenticity of these
places can be conserved. Orthodox approaches to new
design and environmental conservation place experts
in the sole position of making decisions that affect the
environment; this situation is not significantly different
in contemporary heritage conservation practice where
heritage experts base recommendations on objective
art/historical facts and largely exclude the sociocultural
values of most stakeholders. This presentation will
therefore focus on how methods used in conservation
social science, such as participant observation, qualitative interviews, focus groups, questionnaires, community workshops, and participatory mapping, can be
used to influence how the existing built environment is
conserved. Conservation social science case studies will
be analyzed for useful techniques that can be applied
to heritage conservation practice. The presentation will
conclude with recommendations for how conservation
social science can help bridge EBR and heritage conservation/historic preservation research and practice.
Use of a Mixed Methodology in
Historic Preservation: Perception
of Visual and Physical Features in
Preserving Urban Historic Districts
historic districts?” Two historic residential neighborhoods in Grand Rapids, Michigan, Heritage Hill and
Wealthy Heights, were studied because of their distinctively different architectural traits. A web survey was
developed to quantify participants’ perceptual degrees
on importance of their neighborhood features in consultation with the neighborhood organizations. The survey
presented the preservation features in photographs and
asked the organization members to rate the importance
of each feature regarding preservation of their historic
districts. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests and a
series of Chronbach’s alphas were used to analyze
the data and a two-sample t-test was used to compare
the results. Then, a follow-up qualitative study (e.g.,
focus group meeting) was conducted to understand the
reasons for the interesting survey results. According to
the findings from the quantitative part of the research,
almost all the visual and physical features of Wealthy
Heights, a historic district preserved for its footprint
rather than individual buildings, were perceived as less
important than those of Heritage Hill, the district with
individual building distinctions. In addition, the results
of the qualitative study demonstrate that participants’
vision for their well-being as well as existing visual
strength and quality of the features affected their perceptions. Consequently, this study supports the use of a
mixed methodology in understanding the phenomenon
in an urban historic neighborhood and integration of
neighborhood people’s perception with its preservation
procedure.
Valuing Heritage of the Margins
You-Kyong Ahn, [email protected], (Calvin
College); Traci Montgomery, traci.mont@
gmail.com, (Calvin College)
Elisa Laurini, [email protected], (University
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign); Lynne
Dearborn, [email protected], (University
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign)
In an urban historic district, historic value is regarded
as intangible and thus defined mainly in a qualitative way. Upon definition of this value, preservation
professionals strive to preserve important visual and
physical features listed in the historic district preservation guidelines. However, the spectrum of urban
historic districts runs wide—from districts focused on
individual building distinctions to districts focused on
preserving the historical footprint of the district—as a
city reflects on cultures of diverse demographic groups.
This study asks, “How should the important degrees of
the features be considered in preserving different urban
Selective use of the past as a resource for the present and future defines heritage. Questions of power and
politics are implicit in identifying and applying heritage
for economic and cultural development. This study uses
Rockford, Illinois, specifically the Ellis Heights Neighborhood, to understand the dynamics of heritage and its
relation to power and identity in a declining small U.S.
industrial city. Armed with a more complete knowledge
of the geography of heritage in Rockford, residents of
underserved neighborhoods can speak with authority on
how their collective heritage can be deployed to assist
199
Abstracts – Preservation of Heritage
in reanimating the city through focused development.
To spur an understanding of appropriated heritage in
marginal communities, participant-driven photo-elicitation, interviews, and interacting mapping are interwoven as a means to a more community-driven research
strategy. Photo-elicitation as a data collection method,
elucidating attachment to place, poses an interesting
solution for spurring public engagement through active
participation. In addition to fostering active involvement, photo-elicitation provides stimuli for interviews,
often producing more meaningful insights than traditional interview methods. Furthermore, and most
importantly, photo-elicitation begins to break down the
power disparity between participant and researcher.
In this study, 20 participants from Ellis Heights were
each given a disposable camera and asked to document
their community through a number of categories such
as “places or objects that are important to you” and
“places or objects that are important to your community.” Following photo-elicitation, a series of follow-up
interviews were conducted in which each participant
was asked why he/she took each photograph. An integrated mapping exercise offered additional stimuli in
the interview, providing another tool for participants’
communication of perceptions of heritage within their
community. Once compete, all participant maps were
superimposed to create a comprehensive and collective
identification of heritage and also the neighborhood’s
cultural boundary. Outcomes have been utilized to understand the intimate connections between heritage and
place, and deployment of heritage as a plausible tool for
inclusive reanimation of small industrial cities.
200 Publishing – Abstracts
PUBLISHING
Rewriting the Field
Mark Childs, [email protected], (University
of New Mexico); Vikas Mehta, mehtava@
ucmail.uc.edu, (University of Cincinnati);
Jeffrey Hou, [email protected],
(University of Washington)
Writing and publishing has long been a major aspect
of scholarly activity for environmental design researchers. In the history of environmental design research,
many books and articles have introduced influential
findings and discourses that have a strong influence
in the field in terms of shaping our understanding of
the built environment and design and the practice of
the profession. With growing complexity in the built
environment and changing contours of environmental
design practice, however, how can writing and publishing in environmental research respond to such complexity and changes? What are some of the recent efforts
and trends for new directions in environmental design
publishing? How can writing and publishing continue
to relevant to the practice of environmental design in
an age of advanced communication? Featuring recent
EDRA Great Places book award winners, this panel
will discuss (a) the expanded field of “composing” the
built environment, and (b) the future of publications in
shaping the field. Each of three authors will make 5-7
minute presentations, followed by a panel discussion.
Mark C. Childs will moderate the panel, asking questions of the other authors and taking questions from the
audience.
Presentation #1: The Field of Urban Composition
Mark C. Childs will present a discussion of the field
of urban composition developed from his book by the
same name. Just as the field of medicine encompasses
a set of disciplines and professions that use multiple
tools to pursue the goal of human health, Urban Composition, Childs suggests, is the field that encompasses
disciplines that aim to produce sustainable, convivial,
vibrant settlements. Rather than organizing a field of
design that includes disciplines using design to address
various goals, the field should be organized around the
goal of creating robust places through design, planning,
civil engineering, development, preservation, community organizing, and other disciplines. Writing aimed at
aiding the development of built form propositions might
be considered a component of this field, and, as such,
Childs has recently focused on examining the role of
science fiction writing in shaping concepts of and built
propositions for the city.
Presentation #2: Personalized, Rich, and
Rewarding: The Full Potential of Empirical
Research
Empirical research has been a cornerstone of Environment Behavior research. The well-known work of
Lynch, Appleyard, Whyte, Gehl, and numerous others
has demonstrated the elegance and power of empirical
work not only to explain human behavior, but also to
successfully change perceptions and policy. Yet much
of the work has stayed within the more traditional realm
of “urban design” and has not fully taken advantage of
this very personal and rich methodology of research.
Using the example of his book, The Street: a quintessential social public space, Vikas Mehta will share
his experiences to show how empirical field research,
which provides the unique opportunity to experience
the environment first-hand, can be an enriching research
methodology that simultaneously offers possibilities to
rethink premises, assumptions, questions, and even the
boundaries of what we commonly consider the realm of
design, and about current practice and teaching. Such
an open-ended, enriching, and educative approach also
justifies the high investment of time required for most
empirical work. Besides, such an approach provides a
deep connection and knowledge of space and phenomena providing a rewarding experience to the researcher
and enabling the work to reach a much broader audience. Mehta will share his experiences of broadening
his own perspectives and network through his empirical
field research that combines a generous array of qualitative and quantitative methods resulting in much rich
knowledge that is exploratory and inductive, as well
as confirmatory and deductive—one that is attractive
and accessible to planners and managers of space and
the more visually inclined architect and urban designer,
but also to the geographer, sociologist, anthropologist,
political scientist, and many more. He will also discuss
the challenging task of organizing, making sense and
presenting such a broad and diverse range of methods,
outcomes, and knowledge in a book.
Presentation #3: Designing and Writing With
Multiple Voices
Single authorship has been the traditional mode
of production in both the practice and scholarship of
environmental design. While involvement of multiple
stakeholders and perspectives through participatory
201
Abstracts – Publishing
processes has become part of the normative design and
planning process in recent decades, the production of
scholarship in environmental design has lagged behind.
Despite growing attention to interdisciplinary collaboration, single authorship is still the modus operandi in
the field. With growing cultural diversity and translocal connections in urban settings, how can production
of scholarship involve and represent multiple voices
and perspectives? In this presentation, Jeffrey Hou will
share his experience in collaborative research and writing projects involving co-authorship and production of
edited volumes with contributors from diverse disciplinary backgrounds. Using his recent project as examples,
including Greening Cities, Growing Communities
(2009), Insurgent Public Space: Guerrilla Urbanism
and the Remaking of Contemporary Cities (2010), and
Transcultural Cities: Border-crossing and Placemaking
(2013), he will discuss the practical challenges as well
as intellectual rewards and pitfalls in engaging multiple
individuals, perspectives, and voices in examining the
increasingly complex and intersecting issues in environment design. In particular, he will discuss how to balance between a clear agenda and multiple voices in the
production of a book; secondly he will discuss publication and scholarly production in the context of broader
intellectual discussion, networking, and discourse building that requires agency of multiple actors.
Meet the Editors
Barbara Brown, [email protected].
edu, (University of Utah); Jack Nasar,
[email protected], (Ohio State); Andrew
Seidel, [email protected], (U Northern
British Columbia)
In this workshop, you will have a chance to meet
journal editors for peer-reviewed journals in the environmental design research field. Hear their perspectives
on their journals and advice they have for prospective
authors, reviewers, and editorial board members. We
also want to listen to feedback and ideas you have for
these journals. The goals of the workshop are to become
acquainted with publishing opportunities in the field,
to pick up advice on how to submit strong manuscripts
and avoid common barriers to publication, and to provide editors with your ideas.
202 Presentation #1: Publishing in Environment &
Behavior
Barbara Brown, editor of Environment & Behavior,
will describe this journal published by Sage and affiliated with EDRA. E&B, published since 1969, is highly
ranked within the environmental studies and multidisciplinary psychology fields. It invites rigorous experimental and theoretical work focusing on mutual influences
between the physical environment and human behavior
at the individual, group, and institutional levels. Submission statistics (rejection rates, review time) will be
summarized and tips and ideas for publishing will be
provided. Daniel Sawney, publishing editor for E&B
from Sage, may be able to join us to talk about future
trends in publishing.
Presentation #2: Publishing in the Journal of
Planning Literature
Jack L. Nasar (PhD, FAICP), editor of the Journal of
Planning Literature, is a Professor of City & Regional
Planning at the Ohio State University. JPL is highly
ranked with the fields of urban studies and planning and
development. The quarterly journal publishes review
articles and abstracts of recent literature in city and
regional planning and design. Nasar will also share
information about his journal and provide publication
tips.
Presentation #3: Publishing in the Journal of
Architectural and Planning Research
Andrew Seidel, Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, will describe JAPR,
published by Locke Scientific Publishing. JAPR has
now been publishing for 28 years. It is the first scholarly, double blind refereed journal in architecture and
addresses a range of original, rigorous research topics
related to urban and community planning, architecture,
and other built and natural environment issues. See
www.lockescience.com. Seidel’s talk will discuss the
submission, review, and publication process, as well as
the relevant measured parameters.
Reflective Environments – Abstracts
REFLECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
The Benefits of Viewing Sacred
Landscapes
Don Burger, [email protected],
(South Dakota State University)
The human brain has a finite capacity to pay attention, especially to uninteresting things in the presence
of distractions. The continual effort of paying attention
to non-fascinating subjects results in a condition known
as mental fatigue. Beyond losing the capacity to focus,
individuals suffering from mental fatigue often experience irritation, stress, abnormal diet, and impaired
performance. Researchers continue to examine how
the built and natural environments contribute to and
alleviate stress and mental fatigue. There is a strong
positive correlation between highly preferred environments and mental restoration. Preferred environments
tend to have balanced levels of four factors: coherence,
legibility, complexity, and mystery. Further research is
being conducted to elucidate exactly which environments are best suited to fostering mental restoration
and stress relief. One avenue not frequently explored
is the sacred landscape. These landscapes are typified
by a sense of vastness and perspective, which give the
individual a better understanding of the greater context
within which the person exists. These landscapes also
tend to be rated as only moderately preferred (average 6.5-7 on a 10-point scale). A study examined the
effects of viewing sacred and preferred landscapes on
numerous college students. Participants evaluated their
relative stress levels at three periods during the study,
including a baseline measure. After being subjected to a
stressor and reevaluating their stress levels, participants
were shown one of two slide sets of landscapes. One set
was rated highly for preference; the other for sacredness. While it was hypothesized that the sacred slide
set would be less restorative than the preferred slides,
both slide sets demonstrated an equal capacity for stress
relief. A content analysis was conducted on the sacred
slides to determine to what extent the preference factors
were present and suggest the degree to which individual
factors impact restoration.
The Oklahoma City National
Memorial and Museum:
Reenactment, Embodiment, and
Civic Performance as Transitional
Phenomena
Martin Holland, [email protected],
(Clemson University)
There has been significant research examining the
role that the Vietnam Veterans Memorial (VVM) has
played as “a catalyst and conduit for recovery from
traumatic memories” on behalf of Vietnam War veterans
(Watkins, 2007). Indeed memorial and commemorative
spaces are “public objects” that “help entire communities mourn a loss by offering settings for ceremonies
and rituals” (Wasserman, 2002). As we approach the
20th anniversary of the bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Building in Oklahoma City, this paper builds upon
the research regarding the mitigation of Post Traumatic
Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms at the VVM in
Washington, D.C. and describes how the commemorative social practices witnessed by the author at the 15th
anniversary of the bombing assist in the communal
sharing of loss and grief. Attendees to this presentation
will discover the highly influential role that the VVM
played in the formation of the design guidelines of the
1997 Oklahoma City Memorial Competition; experience the individual spatial components of the Oklahoma
City Memorial; and witness the social performances
(including the use of material culture) to represent and
reconnect with the physical absence of loved ones. Also
explored within this presentation is how the memorial
museum uses bodily reenactment as an expression of
collective trauma for those unfamiliar with the deadly
event of April 19, 1995.
203
Abstracts – Research Practice
RESEARCH PRACTICE
Research Basics 101
Ann Devlin, [email protected],
(Connecticut College); Jack Nasar,
[email protected], (The Ohio State University)
Over many EDRAs, we have talked about the needs
of design students to better understand research design
and statistics. This half-day intensive is primarily designed for practitioners but may also provide a refresher
for researchers. The focus is to teach practitioners the
basics of research design and statistics. We don’t expect
practitioners to become highly trained researchers (nor
do we expect those of us who are researchers to become designers), but it helps to know the fundamentals
and vocabulary used by research collaborators. This
kind of knowledge would also help practitioners to
be more astute readers of the literature. Topics to be
covered include: Correlation vs. causation and what
makes a true experiment (and why that matters); How
different research questions require different kinds of
methodological and statistical approaches; The different scale types (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio) and the
analyses associated with each; Strengths and weaknesses of particular approaches: the difference between
parametric (e.g., correlation, regression, t-test, anova,
manova, factor analysis) and non-parametric statistics
(e.g., chi-square, rank order); Probability values and
confidence intervals; The concept of power; Advice
regarding outcome measures and what makes a good
scale (internal consistency, social desirability, length,
cost); Where to find scales; Qualitative x quantitative
data (and how qualitative can become quantitative); Use
of online survey software (Survey Monkey and Qualtrics) and online recruitment of participants (Amazon
Mechanical Turk); Running stats on a basic package
(e.g., SPSS) and reading printouts The intensive will be
participatory; handouts and exercises will help attendees better understand the concepts presented. Attendees
will leave the intensive with handouts for future reference. The research examples used in the session will
come from publications in the domain of environment
and behavior, urban planning, and, given the conference
theme, neuroarchitecture.
Presentation #1: Scale Types, Appropriate
Analyses, and the Research Questions You Can
Answer
The first presentation will cover the concepts of scale
types (nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio), their properties, their uses, and associated analyses. Examples of
surveys and questionnaires that use the different scale
types will be provided. We will discuss how to find such
surveys and identify their strengths and weaknesses,
including internal consistency, social desirability, cost,
and length. Creating surveys on Qualtrics will be demonstrated, as well as use of Amazon Mechanical Turk.
Presentation #2: Running Analyses and Reading
Outputs
This session will take the concepts from the first presentation and demonstrate their use in practice through
frequently used statistics including SPSS, Excel, and
free online software (e.g., for Chi Square and content
analysis). The session will demonstrate descriptive
statistics (mean, median, standard deviation, frequency
counts, factor analysis, inter-item reliability) and inferential statistics (Chi Square, correlation, regression, ttests, analysis of variance, and multiple regression) one
can use in design research. We will explain what to look
for and how to make sense of the statistical output. In
addition, handouts will show how the statistics should
be presented in APA style (i.e., what should be reported
and its formatting).
Two Monologues Do Not Make
a Dialogue: Communication
Between Researchers and
Designers
Emily Chmielewski, e.chmielewski@
perkinseastman.com, (Perkins Eastman);
Amy Huber, [email protected],
(Florida State University); Nicholas Watkins,
[email protected], (BBH Design);
Lori McGilberry, lori.mcgilberry@corgan.
com, (Corgan Associates, Inc.)
One of EDRA’s founding goals was (and continues
to be) connecting academic researchers to designers,
and vice versa. Now, over 40 years later, there is much
204 Research Practice – Abstracts
greater industry recognition—within both sectors—of
the impact and importance of design research. To this
day, however, the word-driven language of academics
is often at odds with the visually driven language of designers. In an era when the convergence of research and
design is on a rise, it is essential for these two groups
to communicate effectively in order to learn from each
other. In this Professional Development Tutorial, four
presenters (each experienced in design and research)
will share their expertise on design-research communications. First, an academic researcher will present
preliminary findings of an investigation into designers’
attraction to a source of information and their comprehension of the message as influenced by variations
in document layout and word-to-image ratios. With
this foundational understanding of how designers are
receptive to and absorb knowledge, a panel of practicebased researchers will then share real-world examples
of successful communication techniques, formats, and
considerations for sharing design research findings.
These practical applications of designer-researcher
communication devices will shed light on the need for:
different approaches for different phases of design,
understanding the needs and expectations of varying
practice area audiences (e.g., Healthcare versus Workplace versus Education), simplifying complex ideas into
carefully planned graphics, storytelling and defining
intent, targeted dissemination, plus many more tips…
all to create a visually compelling and coherent report
that enriches the message and inspires the audience.
Presentation #1: What Attracts and Informs
Designers? Findings From Empirical Studies
While architects and designers want to make the best
decisions on behalf of their clients, concerns over billable hours and project stressors may truncate research
efforts. Understanding how architects and designers
approach and examine information may assist researchers in the creation of effective formats to share research
findings. Studies have suggested that individuals use
one of two thought processes (e.g., Systems) when processing information (Chaiken & Trope, 1999). System
1 is “economy minded” (West, Toplak, & Stanovich,
2008), where an individual who is relatively experienced or pressed for time processes information quickly
using minimal input to achieve maximum mental output. Conversely, in System 2, an individual judges all
possible options before coming to a conclusion. Earlier
research conducted by the presenter explored interior
design practitioners’ processes for conducting project
research by establishing what types of information they
access, what attracts them to an information source, and
how they process information. While designers undoubtedly use both Systems, survey results and followup interviews indicated that System 1 processes are frequently used to judge information relevance, meaning
that the decision to use an information source can often
be instantaneous. As such, information layout can be
very important for attracting designers to a source, and
processing the information therein. Further, 85 percent
of survey respondents indicated they felt more likely
to remember images over words, and in subsequent
open-ended responses, increased use of visuals and
changes to document layout were frequently cited. For
this panel, the presenter will share preliminary findings
from an experimental study of designers’ attention to
and comprehension of complex information. During the
study, the researcher created multiple iterations communicating the same body of information by changing
the word to image ratio and document layout. Data from
study participants’ pre- and post-tests as well as follow
up interviews will be shared during the presentation.
Presentation #2: Read Me! Practice-Based Tips
for Communicating Research Findings
The business of making place is changing. Terms like
“evidence-based design” and “design research” not only
mean something to designers but also to their clients.
Thought-leaders are not just looking for innovative concepts—they want results and a return on their investment. The designed environment not only needs to look
good, it has to function better than it ever has before.
Research-driven design has proven to be an effective
way to improve the physical environment, cut costs,
enhance flow and efficiencies, and enrich the lives of
building occupants. But how do designers get their
hands on research findings… and when they finally do,
why don’t they read them? Based on over a decade of
experience communicating research findings to designers, the presenter will share tricks of the trade that have
been shown to improve viewership, comprehension,
dissemination, and application of research findings. The
techniques presented can apply to any field of design research, for any researcher who has the flexibility to create a concise, visually compelling, and coherent report
or presentation that appeals to the practicing designer.
Presentation #3: So, a Medical Doctor, Call
Center Agent, and a College Student Walk
Into an Architecture Office…: Communicating
Research Across and Within Markets During
Project Delivery
With the upsurge of design research as a differentiator in design practice, researchers in practice are faced
205
with fundamental questions on when best during a
project’s delivery to use certain research methods. Complicating matters, economic pressures in the design and
construction industries are forcing speedier, cheaper,
and more innovative project delivery approaches, one
being the incorporation of design research. Because of
these dual pressures of rigor and speed, it is essential
that design researchers share their findings so they are
immediately understood by all parties to be a valueadd to project delivery decision making. But what is of
value to one client is not to another, especially when
comparing the different markets. This presentation
will discuss case studies of design research delivered
at varying stages of project delivery and how findings
were effectively communicated for rapid design decision making at these stages. In doing so, opportunities
for the different markets to learn from the other will be
shared.
Presentation #4: Seeing Is Believing:
Infographics and the Power of Visual Data to
Inspire
Presented by a practicing interior designer who also
generates and presents research material and results,
this discussion will be built around layering of information using design thinking so that complex ideas
become simplified into a carefully planned infographic.
The session will also break down how infographics help
to elevate our presentations and inspire our audiences.
As we explore the ideas of balancing complexity, clarity, simplicity, and persuasiveness, the presentation will
focus on three general topic areas. Sample infographics will be analyzed throughout the presentation. The
first topic area will be about design in general. This
discussion will be formatted so that it is appropriate for
a mixed audience of designers and researchers using
example infographics as opposed to abstract concepts
of the elements and principles of design. We will break
down the elements of design (line, shape, direction,
size, texture, color, value) and principles of design
(balance, gradation, repetition, contrast, harmony,
dominance, unity). The second topic area will be a brief
review of graphic design literature related to learning styles, an overview of the graphic design process
(organizing information), emerging trends in graphic
design, and maximizing graphic legibility. Lastly, the
main body of the discussion will focus on the power
of communication and persuasion using infographics.
Using an example of research results recently presented
at an EDRA event, we will look at how many research
hours are represented in one result graphic. We will also
examine what researchers have at stake when we put
206 this information into the world for our peers to digest.
What do we want to achieve, and what action do we
want them to take? Using widely varied examples,
the presenter will compare and contrast stronger and
weaker infographics.
Practitioner Profiles: Civic Lives,
Motivations, and Habits of
Practice
Paula Horrigan, [email protected], (Cornell
University); Mallika Bose, [email protected],
(Pennsylvania State University)
This paper asks what we can learn from the practitioner profiles of community-engaged design educators in
higher education regarding their motivations and habits
of practice. Further, what do these educators have to say
about design/planning education and how it should best
prepare students for lives of socially and communityengaged practice? Socially relevant praxis and working collaboratively with community partners to create
innovative solutions to societal problems lies at the
core of much of the education and research agenda of
community-engaged design/planning educators and
scholars. They aspire to effect meaningful change in
places and communities as well as in their students
being prepared for lives in practice. Their lexicon of
community design, placemaking, public interest design,
and social activist design describes their approach
and professional identities. Service-learning and civic
engagement defines their pedagogy and participatory
action research, placemaking, and community-based
research their methodologies (Angotti et al., 2011; Bose
et al., 2014). They often seek work in places where
environmental injustices, inequities, and challenges proliferate and where design knowledge is needed but often
beyond reach. They can be found in the post-industrial
landscapes of Detroit and Cleveland, the disenfranchised neighborhoods of East St. Louis and Camden,
and the post-disaster landscapes of New Orleans, Haiti,
and New York City. Collectively, community-engaged
educators, practitioners, and researchers are helping to
emerge change in the professional roles, methods, and
habits of practice of architects, landscape architects, and
planners. Their praxis resonates with civic and democratic professionalism, environmental justice and social
change, and is contributing tangibly to visible change in
Research Practice – Abstracts
communities as well as to theory making around design/
planning and design/planning education’s public value
and purposes. This paper presents the first phase of an
ongoing qualitative research project using narrative
inquiry to generate practitioner profiles of communityengaged designers/planners and academics (Ciandinin,
2007; Peters, 2010). Each profile is an edited transcript
of a narrative interview or oral history illuminating the
practitioner’s/educator’s values, practices, experiences,
challenges, and roles. Collectively these profiles are
meant to provoke and engender dialogue, analysis, and
interpretation, as well as inspire others endeavoring on
this type of work. In this paper, we focus on community
engaged design and planning educators and share some
of our initial findings comparing and contrasting the
profiles of landscape architects, architects, and planners. The profiles reveal differences and commonalities
regarding such things as the normative positions these
educators are assuming and the degree to which they
reflect educational and practice traditions in both higher
education as well as in the design/planning professions.
The profiles and insights they convey have particular
value to educators formulating community-engaged
curricula and learning outcomes.
A Multidisciplinary Survey of
Home Modification Professionals:
A Snapshot on the State of
Practice
James Lenker, [email protected], (University
at Buffalo); Danise Levine, drlevine@buffalo.
edu, (University at Buffalo); Karen Kim,
[email protected], (University at Buffalo);
Sue Weidemann, [email protected],
As the population ages, there is a growing need for
more accessible, safe, and usable housing to support
people with disabilities and older adults desiring to age
in place. Home modifications provide a way to improve
housing in existing neighborhoods and strengthen
social sustainability by adapting physical features of
homes to meet a wide range of independent living
and quality of life goals. Despite this potential, home
modification practices are largely unregulated. There
is little information available on effective practices for
service delivery, causing uneven quality of modifications and slow adoption of improvement strategies.
The purpose of this study was to assess the state of key
service delivery elements, including continuing education, advanced certifications, caseload, assessment tools,
follow-up, and needed improvements. An online survey
was conducted of home modification professionals,
including contractors, architects, contractors, therapists, service coordinators, and program supervisors.
Participants were recruited through home modification
listservs managed by the University at Buffalo and the
American Occupational Therapy Association (AOTA),
social networking sites including Facebook, LinkedIn,
and Twitter, email and telephone. Survey items were
designed to provide quantitative data summaries and
qualitative explanatory insights. The survey attracted
192 usable responses from home modification professionals living in disparate U.S. regions. Many participant groups reflected a high prevalence of continuing
education experiences in home modification. Many had
acquired advanced certifications in home modification,
with the Certified Aging in Place Specialist (CAPS) and
Executive Certificate in Home Modification (ECHM)
being most frequently reported among these. Due to the
multiplicity of funding options, there is often confusion
about the services and interventions that will and will
not be funded. Most practitioners do not use a standardized assessment tool, choosing instead to create their
own. Practitioners do not routinely collect follow-up
data on the impact of their home modification services.
Results indicate that changes in systems, practices, and
techniques are needed to improve the quality of home
modification services, including practice guidelines that
support service providers and measurement tools that
support cost-effectiveness research. In addition, a concise outcomes measurement tool is needed to support
regular capture of impact data.
Global Architects Meet the Place:
Information and Communication
Technology as a Strategy for
Co-Design
Yael Perez, [email protected], (UC Berkeley)
Understanding of the socio-cultural context of the
communities upon which architects apply their expertise is an imperative of place-sensitive design practice.
207
Predicated on this assumption, this research uses an
international design competition as a test-bed for evaluating Information and Communication Technologies
(ICTs) as a tool for bridging between the local community, holding knowledge of their place and needs,
and the architects, holding professional qualifications.
Multifold research studies have evaluated technology
as a tool for collaboration between the different professionals around the design table. Not equal attention to
date, however, has been devoted to an arguably even
more important technology related focus: technology
as a co-design tool, enhancing communication between
local users and the global designers. This study engages
this focus (1) by identifying which ICTs can improve
the designers’ understanding of place, local culture, and
people, and (2) by evaluating whether this improvement can result in more place-sensitive design projects.
The analysis of professional literature and interviews
with practicing architects has revealed that while local
characteristics, both natural and human-related, are emphasized as important parts of sustainable design, best
strategies to comprehend and express these characteristics are still vague in practice. Moreover, in the global
design context, in which design is often done by nonlocal firms, there is a growing need to identify tools that
will establish, maintain, and strengthen the connection
between the designers situated internationally and the
local users. In our test-bed research, we organized with
the Pinoleville Pomo Nation, a Native American tribe in
Northern California, an international design competition
for the Nation’s ‘Living Culture Center’. The competition attracted 38 architecture firms from 14 countries
and allowed for a comparison between designers who
could visit the place and those who had to rely solely on
mediated experiences through Information and Communication Technologies. The results show that when
using ICTs to represent local conceptions of place, no
significant advantage was found for designers who were
able to visit the site and meet the people versus those
who could not be physically present. The paper discerns
the ways different ICTs afforded their users means to
develop place sensitive proposals. As such this study
offers useful guidelines for incorporating ICTs in the
design process to enhance co-design.
208 Residential Environments – Abstracts
RESIDENTIAL ENVIRONMENTS
Re-Planning, Redesigning:
Residential Renovations for MultiGenerational Inhabitation and
Aging-in-Place
Manasvinee Pramod, manasvineepramod@
gmail.com, (University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign); Susan Thering, sathering@wisc.
edu, (University of Wisconsin); Elisa Laurini,
[email protected], (University of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign); Sara Bartumeus,
[email protected], (University of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign); Robert Habiger,
[email protected], (Dekker/Perich/
Sabatini Architecture & Planning); Lynne
Dearborn, [email protected], (University
One of the most urgent and persistent topics of our
time, aging is now a global phenomenon with critical implications for planning, design, re-planning and
redesigning of physical environments around the world.
Within this context, this intensive will focus specifically on ways that contemporary demographics are
intersecting with (re)planning, (re)designing, and (re)
inhabiting of residential environments in the United
States and globally. The first half of this session (morning) will begin with a short overview of demographic
and housing trends in the U.S. and internationally. The
next presentation will offer a typology of multi-generational housing that facilitates aging-in-place/aging-incommunity. These broader views will be followed by a
series of four case studies and a concluding discussion
highlighting similarities and differences in the cases,
seeking to expand the typology presented to provide
a more internationally inclusive classification system.
The afternoon portion of this intensive will be used
to brainstorm and outline a means to systematically
present a broader array of cases that would be more
inclusive of contemporary issues related to intergenerational aging-in-place/aging-in-community and housing
around the globe. The ultimate goal of the afternoon
portion of this session will be to develop a framework
for identifying, researching, analyzing, and presenting
appropriate international case studies as chapters of a
publication. In addition, we will seek to outline a theoretical framework that can serve to bring a broad array
of international cases together. This intensive welcomes
other housing researchers and practitioners to join with
presenters in this all-day session and to contribute to
discussions about residential intergenerational aging-inplace/aging-in-community around the globe.
Presentation #1: Global Demographic and
Housing Trends
Around the world, populations of those over 65 are
growing exponentially. While there are implications for
many dimensions of society, how these populations are
housed and how housing contributes to the wellbeing of
older citizens are becoming critical concerns in many
countries, as lifestyle and cultural changes move away
from traditional intergenerational solutions in some
places and away from institutional solutions in other
places. This introductory presentation will provide an
overview of global demographic and housing trends
to set the stage for internationalizing the discussion of
residential intergenerational aging-in-place/aging-incommunity around the globe. It will seek to provide a
foundation for considering unconventional and inspiring solutions for residential environments supportive of
aging-in-place and increased wellbeing of older populations.
Presentation #2: A Typology of MultiGenerational Housing
This presentation will offer a brief synopsis of recent
demographic data evincing the need for multi-generational housing that facilitates aging-in-place/aging-incommunity in the United States. Next it will provide
an overview and presentation of five types of multigenerational housing that the author has assisted with
developing in conjunction with her community-based,
action-research partnerships: (1) The multi-generational
duplex (2) The multi-generational house (3) The Lifecycle Townhouse (4) Multi-generational Senior-Friendly
Cohousing (5) Accessory Dwelling Units This presentation will provide an initial framework within which the
four case studies in this session can be compared and
contrasted.
Presentation #3: Dutch Verticality: The
Traditional Row House
The Dutch row house dates back to its earliest constructed forms found in Amsterdam in the 15th Century
as a response to maximizing the number of residents
209
Abstracts – Residential Environments
with canal access. The narrow size of the row house
enabled more citizens to live in proximity to the canals,
which acted as the economic backbone in Amsterdam.
Known as a “citizen’s architecture,” these row houses
encouraged both economic and social stability. However, as these citizens (occupants) have aged, both in
the past and in the present, their mobility becomes
paradoxically much more difficult. These often three
to four-story dwellings contain very narrow staircases
as the only vertical path of circulation throughout the
house, limiting movement of aging citizens (occupants) within the structure. As a solution for the lack
of comfort the traditional row house provides for its
aging residents, the city of Wassenaar, located just north
of The Hague, boasts a number of elderly community
housing options. Due to the large number of residents
that move out of their vertically organized row houses,
the city has had to increase the number of housing communities within the city. After rehabilitating the grounds
of a large historic milk factory near the edge of town
by turning it into a large elderly community complex,
the city now has a wider selection of housing option for
its aging population—both near the city center and out
near the periphery of town. The city of Wassenaar is
thus an example of how a large number of elderly housing communities is a necessary solution to the problems
associated with the structural difficulties of the traditional Dutch house.
Presentation #4: Residential Opportunities and
Challenges of Aging-in-Place in Barcelona, Spain
Barcelona, the capital of Catalonia, has more than 1.6
million inhabitants and is at the heart of a metropolitan
area of almost 5 million. With more than 20 percent of
the its residents currently over 65 and a life expectancy
of nearly 83 years, the city’s elderly population is expected to continue to increase in the foreseeable future.
This presentation will examine the housing choices of
aging individuals in Barcelona, a city that is at the heart
of the twelfth largest metropolitan agglomeration in the
world. It will look specifically at the experiences within
social housing for elderly in Barcelona, with a particular focus on the relationship between housing and outdoor spaces, and between housing and public facilities
for the community and the elderly. This presentation
will highlight new, as well as renovated, examples of
social housing in the city and will look at the ways that
social housing for the elderly has been integrated with
other housing types.
210 Presentation #5: Multi-Generational Living: A
Personal Experience
Multi-generational housing is becoming more
prevalent. It is estimated that in the United States, over
30 percent of young adults ages 21-30 are living with
their parents and 8 percent of elderly parents are living
with their children. Increasingly, grandparents are raising their grandchildren. Our home is a microcosm of
these trends. Our story is not only about the interactions
across and between generations, but also about how to
live as sustainably as possible. We have seven people
living on the same property; my wife’s mother, two of
our children, one boyfriend, one granddaughter, and my
wife and I as the de-facto leaders of the household. We
believe our situation is not unique. Rather, it represents
a new model that will increasingly become American
society’s norm. We live on a city lot, not in a rural
environment. My wife is using her background in horticulture to create a permaculture food forest, and my
background in architecture is being used to transform a
post-WWII tract home into a sustainable ecosystem. For
this intensive, I will share not only personal experiences
but also examine concepts for multi-generation living
that are applicable across a wide variety of situations.
Presentation #6: Multiple Modes of Habitation:
New Ways of Aging in Suburbia
A suburban tri-level home in a small Midwestern
City provides the backdrop for this case study that
examines the policy implications and design possibilities for existing suburban residential environments.
Following the history of this mid-century structure from
initial occupancy in 1963 to its present configuration as
a multi-generational residential environment suggests
new ways of thinking about how various existing suburban contexts might be reimagined to facilitate agingin-place and improved wellbeing of older individuals.
This case study will also consider the social dimensions
of such reimagined ways of living, examining both
conventional and unconventional lifestyles. It will also
suggest important and inspiring modifications to standard planning ordinances to facilitate a greater diversity
of modes of habitation.
Residential Environments – Abstracts
No Vacancy: Uncovering the
Architectural Contributions
to the Social and Economic
Sustainability of Housing
Christina Bollo, [email protected],
(University of Oregon)
Every day that a subsidized apartment sits vacant
is a double loss. For people in need of homes, empty
apartments are a social loss: they reduce the amount of
available housing. For building owners, empty apartments are an economic loss: they reduce already scarce
opportunities to increase profit. This study reveals and
quantifies architectural contributions to vacancy so
that subsidized housing, a public good, can be allocated more efficiently. In this mixed methods study,
interviews and focus groups are used to uncover the
variables that may predict vacancy and quantitative
analysis tests the potential variables. Vacancy is broken
into its core components: turnover frequency (how
often people move) and turnover duration (including
both length of time to get the unit ready and length of
time to re-lease the apartment). The analysis is at the
apartment scale, investigating the vacancy data of 13
properties in detail, dwelling by dwelling. During the
qualitative phase of the project, architectural attributes
of the apartments were collected, and asset managers,
maintenance staff, property managers, and transfer
tenants (residents who moved from one unit in a given
building to another) were interviewed to determine key
architectural and non-architectural predictor variables.
During the succeeding quantitative phase, multiple
regression analysis determined the effect of these
predictors on turnover frequency and turnover duration. The results show that floor level, solar aspect, and
position relative to roads, elevators, and trash chutes
have a relatively large effect on turnover frequency.
Though the study presents theories related to turnover
duration from the qualitative phase, turnover duration is
affected by too many variables outside the design of the
apartment or building to draw significant conclusions. A
future study that separates duration into components of
“rent-ready” and “lease-up” time may help quantify the
role of architectural predictors such as cleanliness and
building age. Data-driven research that helps architects
understand the impact of design on occupancy can help
reduce vacancy. Often, program and site constraints
lead architects to design a few troublesome units. While
this may be inevitable, this study shows the importance
of making troublesome units better. For example, a
north-facing, top floor unit with no elevator that is far
from its assigned parking space has three strikes against
it. If the architect, predicting this occupancy hazard,
designs in positive attributes, such as laundry convenience, bay window, and a balcony, he or she may be
able to mitigate the high turnover frequency. The scope
of this study is assisted housing, but the results have the
potential to translate to housing generally. Revealing
and quantifying relationships between housing design
and the social and economic health of housing communities will enable architects to make informed design
decisions.
Understanding Homeowners’
Willingness to Adopt LowImpact Development Practices for
Outdoor Water Conservation
Johanna Stacy, [email protected],
(University of Massachusetts); Robert Ryan,
Massachusetts)
Low-impact development (LID) practices such as
rain barrels and rain gardens have the potential to reduce outdoor water use and improve groundwater infiltration. In suburban Boston, where mandatory seasonal
outdoor water use restrictions have become annual occurrences, widespread residential adoption of LID strategies may ease these restrictions and improve flows in a
local river—the area’s main water source. The Ipswich
River provides drinking water to over 330,000 people,
yet low-flow events continue to challenge towns’ ability
to provide adequate water supplies to residents. Despite
state and federal initiatives to build LID installations
on public property throughout the watershed, examples
of residential adoption are sparse. Town policies and
participation in water-conserving initiatives promotes
the implementation of water-conserving landscapes in
several towns. Our research poses several questions: (1)
what barriers exist to residential adoption (economic
feasibility, social norms, or lack of understanding); (2)
do these barriers vary by status as a member of the general public or as member of a conservation organization;
and (3) how do adoption rates vary by town, and does
211
this reflect town policies and initiatives? We examined
these questions through a survey sent to 1,000 homeowners in the watershed—both homeowners chosen at
random (control) and those who belong to a watershed
association. Initial results suggest that homeowners are
both aware of water shortages and of the potential for
low-impact development strategies to conserve water.
Furthermore, information and awareness of the benefits
of ecological landscaping appear to positively influence
acceptance of LID, yet they are still hesitant to implement these practices. This presentation will examine
the trends in our results and will propose policies and
recommendations that apply Kaplan and Kaplan’s Reasonable Person Model (2009) to encourage residentialscale low-impact retrofits and incorporate low-impact
development strategies into new housing developments.
Attachment to Contemporary
Planned Environments: Emotion,
Meaning, Objects, and Processes
Yurika Yokoyama, [email protected].
ac.jp, (The University of Tokyo); Kaiho
Nakamura, [email protected], (The
University of Tokyo); Hiroko Mizumura,
[email protected], (Toyo University); Katsuki
Yokoyama, [email protected].
jp, (Joshibi University of Arts and Design);
Shunsuke Itoh, [email protected].
ac.jp, (Tokyo Denki University); Toshie Koga,
[email protected], (Kanto Gakuin
University); Sanjoy Mazumdar, mazumdar@
uci.edu, (University of California); Natsuko
Nagasawa, [email protected],
(Waseda University); Kuniko Hashimoto,
[email protected], (Chiba
Institute of Technology)
The experiences of places often evoke emotions in
our brains, and we retrieve the memories of the places
in our brains with these emotions. The term ‘place attachment’ was introduced to indicate the ties between
places and emotions (Altman, I & Low, S., 1992), and
there have been several studies on strong emotional
ties to old, historical, and traditional environments. In
212 contrast, this symposium deals with various aspects of
place attachment related to contemporary and planned
environments with relatively short histories. It may offer new modes of learning about attachment, and practitioners may utilize the findings in figuring out whether
their planning is likely to lead to greater attachment in
some aspects or not. We look forward to and anticipate
good discussion from the presenters and participation and discussion from the audience. To facilitate
these, we have Dr. Sanjoy Mazumdar as the discussant.
Presenters will carefully collect and analyze residents’
comments on their residences/ towns/communities
spoken during structured interviews, and show where,
and how, they are attached to the new places around
contemporary Tokyo. First, we will have presentations
of a widespread idea of housing planning in Japan and
of a pediatric hospital, and examine children’s attachment to the rooms where they live their daily lives at
home and at a ward. The next presenters deal with two
planned towns in a suburb of Tokyo; one is a new town
developed in the period of post-war economic growth,
and the other is a recently developed town with unique
planning and design features. The last presentation will
show an inner town of Tokyo with a long history and
categorize residents’ utterance on places. We expect this
symposium to also provide glimpses of suburban culture in Japan and enable comparison with the American
situation by way of contrast.
Presentation #1: Which Part Do You Like in Your
Home? Analysis of the Housing Planning From
the Viewpoint of Place Attachment of Children
and Ideal Space for Parenting
Recently, there has been discussion of whether parents should provide private rooms for children in Japan.
Some researchers pointed out that the living room is
effective for small children to make a habit of learning at home. Based on this knowledge, some parents
pursue the multifunctional living room as a study room
and play room for children and communication place,
and some of them think that private rooms for children
is not useful. From the viewpoint of psychological
development, owning a private room, namely to own
private territory, is effective for children to achieve adequate development. In this stage, place attachment also
functions effectively for them. I would like to consider
whether private rooms for children should be provided
or not and what are the important factors for children to
obtain the feeling of place attachment to their homes.
Based on a questionnaire survey of both children and
parents, I would like to discuss the theory of housing
planning from the viewpoint of ideal parenting and
Residential Environments – Abstracts
place attachment of children at home. In this survey, I
asked approximately 20 children living in Asaka city,
which is located within commuting distance of Tokyo,
to draw their own houses (most of them live in either
detached houses or multi-family dwellings), and to
point out the places where they could feel some kind
of attachment and so on. I also asked their parents to
show the ideal housing situation and their real condition
of parenting. Referring to the results of those surveys,
I would like to analyze important aspects of housing
planning for the environment of raising children.
Presentation #2: Study of Children’s Anchor
Points in Health-Care Environment
The places to which children first become attached
are dispersed anchor points, which are gradually knit
together to form a broader spatial map of the environment. Anchor points provide individually significant
key locations in the process of spatial cognition,
enabling people to tie together the various parts of the
environment and are especially significant in child development. It seems quite probable that a child’s social
development is closely integrated with this process of
spatial expansion. In this study, we asked the children
six questions to visualize specific places and compared
the percentage of 1st graders vs. 2nd and 3rd graders
who responded “don’t know” to the questions, analyzed
the anchor points of 1st to 3rd grade patients in a pediatric hospital setting and found no significant differences
in anchor point formation compared to their 1st to 3rd
grade peers in elementary school. Providing the young
patients with an orientation leaflet of the hospital and
retesting the children six months later, we found that
they had developed significantly more anchor points.
Finally, we discuss the importance of design consideration for promoting social development of children in
health-care environments.
Presentation #3: Place Attachment in a Suburban
Planned Community: First Generation, New
Town Raised, and Newcomer Residents
The present study investigated place attachment of
residents of a suburban planned community to understand how residents develop attachment to a place
where they do not have roots and where the place itself
had been newly developed. Residents in Chiba New
Town, one of the largest planned communities in postwar Japan, were interviewed. They were categorized
in three groups: First generation residents who moved
to the New Town when it was originally developed in
the 1980s, new town raised residents currently in their
20s who have been brought up in the New Town, and
newcomers who moved to the New Town recently. All
three groups displayed high levels of attachment, but
newcomers had lower levels of place identity compared
with the others. Interestingly, places outside the New
Town in the rural community were frequently mentioned as being emotionally significant. In contrast,
though the residential environment within the New
Town was evaluated positively, places besides their
houses were seldom considered emotionally important.
Social interaction with neighbors was limited. Many
intentionally shopped in neighborhood shops instead
of large supermarkets and malls because they wanted
neighborhood facilities maintained. When interpreted
within the frame of existing theories, there were several
indications of “ideological” rootedness, in Hummon’s
(1992) typologies, relating to place as a conscious
choice rather than viewing place as taken-for-granted.
Newcomers displayed ambivalent feelings that they
liked the place but they “try not to become attached
to” it, corresponding to “place relativity” in the typologies. Length of residence and personal experiences had
contributed in the development of place attachment.
In this sense, one does develop attachment in planned
communities in a similar way with traditional places.
However, the physical environment of the planned community had little connection to attachment, at least on a
conscious level.
Presentation #4: Place Attachment of Children
Growing up in a Unique Designed Environment:
A Study of What Children Want to Talk About
Places in a Contemporary Planned Town in
Japan
In the history of architectural and urban planning
in Japan, Makuhari Bay-town is said to be a unique
example of realizing perimeter blocks and the continuous residential buildings surrounding ‘patios’, the rear
courts for the buildings. The architectural design for
each building is novel to Japanese people as well, and
the architects even include an American architect, Steven Holl. This study investigated place attachment of
the children living in the newest area developed in the
2000s in this unusually designed town. A survey with
questionnaires revealed that the patios and continuously
designed commercial streets are not one of the most
attached places, but their elementary school is the most
and even slightly more than their own residences. We
also conducted interviews leading them to spontaneously talk about the places they see on 25 photographs
taken in the town. All 17 children enthusiastically
talked about what they recalled from 25 scenes in the
town and the text analysis was conducted on their pro-
213
tocols. From the results, it is suggested that they tend to
recall each open space as a playground with individual
character in association with each other, making a
profound recognition of the linear linkage of different
open spaces in a town, which, originally, the town planners created as the result of leaving spaces for ventilation, ‘the way of the wind’. Another linear organization
designed by the planners, the commercial promenades,
tends not to be mentioned much and not as such even
when it is mentioned. Characteristic places on the far
side of town are mentioned associated with memories of
enjoyable school activities and here also it is suggested
that the elementary school plays an important role in
arousing emotional ties to the places.
Presentation #5: ‘Knowledge Addresses’
and ‘Reminiscence Talks’ of Elderly People:
Categorization of What They Want to Talk About
Their Local Environments
In this study, the authors introduce the methods of
reminiscence review in order to deal with the meaning
for the elderly of talking about their own experiences in
and knowledge of their familiar local environment. In
typical reminiscence review sessions with photographs,
photographs either from ethnological records or of typical life events in the past have been broadly used. On
the other hand, it is said in the literature of reminiscence
research that the places most appearing in the reminiscence talk in general tend to be those the subject uses in
his/her everyday life (see Kovach, 1991b). In this paper,
we actually show the elderly subjects the most recent
photographs of places in their local environment where
they have long been familiar with in their everyday
lives, and analyze the amount and contents of their
verbalization triggered by the photographs. As a consequence, we suggest: first, the photographs of places of
their everyday local environment, even taken recently,
could trigger much verbalization as well. Second, however, it is true only when the subject could identify the
place shown in the photographs. Third, the verbalization
in this case includes not only reminiscence talk but also
address of his/her knowledge about the places. Fourth,
the places chosen by the subjects for the reminiscence
talk seem to be different from those for the knowledge
address, and the difference could be shown in their
geographical distribution.
214 Restorative Environments – Abstracts
RESTORATIVE ENVIRONMENTS
The Influence of Exposure to
Restorative Environments in the
Brain Resting State Networks
Joel Martínez-Soto, masjmx@yahoo.
com.mx, (Universidad de Guanajuato);
Leopoldo Gonzales Santos, lgs@unam.
mx, (Universidad Nacional Autonoma de
México); Fernando Barrios, fbarrios@unam.
mx, (Universidad Nacional Autonoma de
México)
Building design has the potential to cause stress and
eventually affect human health (Evans and McCoy,
1998). Contrary to this is the concept of restorative environment, which is the one that can provide cognitive
and affective resources necessary for adequate human
functioning. Resting state brain networks (RSNs) are
spatially distributed large-scale networks, evidenced
by resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI) studies. Importantly, RSNs are implicated in
several relevant brain functions and present abnormal
functional patterns in many neuropsychiatric disorders
(Soares et al., 2013). Resting activity might be keeping
the brain’s connections running when they are not in
use, or it may help to maintain relationships between
areas that often work together to perform tasks. It may
even consolidate memories or information absorbed
during normal activity. More importantly, it could be
helping to prime the brain to respond to future stimuli
(Smith, 2012). Prolonged stress exposure impairs spatial working memory, perceptual attention, behavioral
flexibility, and decision making both in rodents and in
humans (Soares et al., 2012; Yuen et al., 2012), which
has been associated with structural and functional
changes of several brain regions (van Marle, 2010).
Some of these maladaptive and functional responses
could be reversible (Bian et al., 2012; Soares et al.,
2012), and while the evidence showing that as trait
positive affect may potentiate recovery and adaptive
response (Papousek et al., 2010), the role of the environment in the restoration and adjustment toward these
maladaptative responses is crucial too (Martinez-Soto,
2010). In spite on this, little is known about the early
influences in the brain of the stimulation with restorative environments and its psychological effects. In
this presentation, we will show the results from a RSNs
derived from the exposure to restorative environments
in a sample of 24 male participants before and after
the exposure to high and low restorative environments.
The restorative influence of these scenarios was tested
before and following a period of acute psychological
stress induced by means of aversive movie watching
with a self-report stress scale. Characterization of the
post-restorative brain state may provide initial insight
into the early phases of how the restorative environments can predispone our brain to a better psychological functioning and allow the exploration of how the
phenomenon of psychological restoration works in the
brain.
Attention Restoration Theory
at 20
William Sullivan, [email protected],
(University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign)
In 1995, Steven Kaplan’s landmark paper describing Attention Restoration Theory was published in the
Journal of Environmental Psychology (JEP). This paper
has become the most cited work in JEP and one of the
most cited papers in all of environmental psychology.
What is it about this paper and Attention Restoration
Theory that has stimulated so much interest? What
kinds of people, settings, and outcomes have scholars assessed through the lens of ART? To what extent
have the ideas regarding ART been verified? Have any
components of ART been overturned? Where does
ART stand today, and what are the pressing questions
that grow from it? This paper begins to address these
questions. To address these questions, we review each
of the more than 465 papers that cite Kaplan’s ART
paper as indexed in the Web of Science. We classify
these papers, initially, into three categories: (1) those
that directly test propositions associated with ART, (2)
those that build their argument around ART but that do
not test at least one of its propositions, and (3) those
that mention ART only in passing. Then, taking a more
detailed look at the papers from the first category, we
set out to systematically address the questions above.
Attention Restoration Theory has broad implications for
the design of places, processes, and education. In this
paper, we shed light on the progress scholars have made
over the past 20 years of research into ART and identify
a set of questions that beg to be addressed next.
215
Abstracts – School & Educational Evironments
SCHOOL & EDUCATIONAL EVIRONMENTS
Architecture for Learning
and Knowing in a Changing
Landscape
Amin Mojtahedi, [email protected],
(University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee)
The shifting landscape of learning and knowing calls
for revisiting the knowledge economy’s ‘new sites
of production’. Universities, science and technology
parks, research establishments, and workplaces, like
most organizations today, are facing complex knowledge challenges due to the changing social, economic,
and technological trends: the emphasis on knowledge,
creativity, and innovation as the essential elements of
thriving societies, the collapsing business model of
many traditional colleges and universities in light of
disruptive innovation, emergence of new knowledge
and learning ecologies forecasting a new culture of
learning, characteristics and traits of the Millennial
generation and their need to acquire new knowledge
and skills on an almost continuous basis, and organizations’ greater reliance on the intellectual capabilities
of a skilled labor force of managers and professionals
are among the many factors involved in the knowledge
dilemma of our time. What should we expect from the
‘new sites of production’ in the new economy then?
What does account for the value and the role of space
and place within a system of consumption and production based on intellectual capital? And more fundamentally, what do these new places look like? In this study,
I investigate the architectural aspect of a knowledge
strategy and social learning perspective known as the
community of practice. The premise of this work is to
argue for the community of practice as a model that
provides a relevant social insight for the architectural
pre-design, design, and evaluation of the new sites of
production in the knowledge economy. Following this,
the study explores several cases including research
establishments, university buildings, schools, and
workplaces that suggest alternative physical, spatial,
and programmatic solutions in response to challenges
in the changing landscape. Finally, the study draws on
the writings of Étienne Wenger about aspects of shared
practice to identify and explain architectural patterns
that can provide a basis for cultivating communities of
practice even as spatially distributed entities.
216 Green Schools as a Platform for
Students’ Health and Teaching
Environmental Stewardship:
Cross-Case Analysis of LEED and
Non-LEED Elementary Schools in
the Midwest
Jung-hye Shin, [email protected], (University
of Wisconsin-Madison); Joy Huntington,
Wisconsin-Madison)
We compare four LEED-certified and three nonLEED certified elementary school buildings in the
Midwest to examine their degree of success in the
implementation of green building projects. We chose
the schools based on their availability, racial composition, and economic status—measured by the ratio of
students who are in either free or reduced fee lunch—in
an effort to match the two groups. Additional statistical control measures were taken during the analysis
process. Research questions include: (1) What are
the levels of satisfaction, comfort, mental health, and
pro-environmental attitudes of students in LEED and
non-LEED buildings? and (2) How do items measured
in research question (1) differ between LEED buildings
and non-LEED buildings? We employed Humphrey’s
(2005) notion that indoor environmental qualities (IEQ)
and related human comfort are highly negotiable sociocultural constructs and further synthesized that notion
with Praiser’s (2005) proposition that building performance should be measured against performance criteria
that are informed by the original project goals. We delineated the original project goals as follows: minimizing environmental impact, the health and well-being of
students, and teaching environmental stewardship. Our
study examined the latter two goals with the following
hypothesis: children in LEED schools are more satisfied
with IEQ, feel more comfortable, have higher levels
of mental health, and have more pro-environmental
attitudes. Methodologically, we measured the physical conditions of the classrooms: lighting, acoustics,
thermal comfort, and window configurations. We also
administered questionnaires directed toward the 5th
graders of the participating schools that inquired about
their demographic data, satisfaction with IEQ, overall
comfort level, mental health, and pro-environmental at-
School & Educational Evironments – Abstracts
titudes. All of the measurements were done twice: once
in the summer, and once the following winter. A total
280 students participated. We employed descriptive
statistical analysis for our first research question and
hierarchical regression analysis for the second research
question to control the effects of individual students’ social support levels, which tend to closely correlate with
parental attention and socio-economic status. The results indicate that students in LEED buildings reported
higher levels of comfort at a school level, satisfaction
with connection to nature, pro-environmental attitude,
and mental health during the summer season. While
the differences were statistically significant, practical
significance remained low. During the winter season, all
of the aforementioned differences disappeared. Instead,
students in LEED buildings reported higher levels of
thermal and acoustical comfort. Study limitations and
policy and design implications are further discussed.
Increasing School Garden
Participation Through Design
Patsy Owens, [email protected],
(University of California); Erica Van Steenis,
of Colorado)
Why do some school gardens inspire teachers to
rethink their lesson plans, invite parents to volunteer,
and entice students to stay after school while others do
not? Research on school gardens has identified their
potential health benefits, but little is understand about
the participation in these gardens. This paper evaluates
how design characteristics and setting influence garden
participation in six school gardens located in Northern
California. Along with site visits and mapping, the
research draws upon interviews with school garden
managers, parent volunteers, and other garden employees. The garden’s physical elements were documented
through photographs and site plans. Drawing upon
school garden handbooks and other literature, criteria
were developed for assessing physical design elements
(e.g., visibility, ease of entry, and location). Interviews
revealed other criteria, such as the level of financial investment, which influenced participation. These six case
studies indicate that visibility—that is, the ability to see
the garden from other areas of the school or neighborhood—likely influences participation. For example,
some gardens that have high visibility also have high
levels of participation from parents and neighbors. In
some cases where visibility was limited because of the
garden’s location, participation was high because accessibility was high. In these cases, the school grounds
were open and the gardens could be visited on weekends and in the evenings. Visibility also played a role
in student participation. One garden coordinator noted
that “they see it as they change classes, they pass by it
on their way out of school, and so their interest becomes much more organic and natural as they witness
all the changes that occur on a weekly basis.” Fencing
and signage also played a role in either encouraging or
discouraging involvement in the garden. These design
features influenced whether or not someone felt invited
into the garden.
“Red Leaf, Green Leaf - Go, Go,
Go!”: Examining the Impacts of a
School Ground Greening Project
on Children’s Environmental
Behaviours and Perceptions
Eli Paddle, [email protected], (University
of Western Ontario); Janet Loebach,
Prince Edward Island)
A burgeoning body of evidence suggests school
ground ‘greening’ projects can support restorative
experiences among children, improve cognitive functioning, and advance children’s understanding of nature
and natural processes. Fortunately, we are beginning
to see a growing number of such ‘greening’ projects,
often driven by or involving the local school community. Greening efforts typically involve the introduction
of natural elements, commonly in the form of young
native deciduous trees and other plant material. In addition to the benefits of exposing students to the processes
of school yard redesign, planting, and maintenance,
these renovation projects also present researchers with a
natural experiment, a prime opportunity to examine the
impact of increased greening or differing contact with
nature on student behaviours and perceptions. Previous
work suggests that exposure to natural green elements
such as trees can aid the attention restoration of young
learners, however the effects of seasonal changes, such
217
Abstracts – School & Educational Evironments
as change in leaf colour or the loss of tree leaves all together, on children’s restorative experience or environmental preferences are unclear. Similarly, we know little
about whether such renovations can change or improve
a child’s sense of connectedness to, use of, or interest
in natural environments. This paper centers around a
school ground greening project in London, Canada,
which saw the replacement of a substantial section of
asphalt with a large interactive learning garden. Several
pre-post tests, including an innovative visual preference
survey, were issued to students (grades 5 to 8) prior to
and subsequently one year after the renovation. Results will highlight the impacts of seasonal changes in
green spaces on children’s environmental preferences
and restoration, as well as their sense of connectedness to nature. Discussion will include the efficacy of
such natural experiments, and the tools themselves, for
examining the impacts of school yard greening projects
on student’s behaviour and perceptions.
Systematic Observation for
Design Implementation: Exploring
Children’s Cognitive Play
Behavior Interaction in Natural,
Mixed, or Manufactured Behavior
Settings
Zahra Zamani, [email protected], (BSU)
Many disciplines are currently exploring how physical environment attributes associate with children’s
developmental behaviors. However, there is a lack of
evidence-based design guidelines to amplify the play
value of outdoor preschool settings. This study compared three types of behavior settings (natural, mixed,
and manufactured) for their cognitive play behavior
opportunities (functional, constructive, exploratory,
dramatic, and games with rules). Behavior settings are
the unit of analysis for dividing each part of the playgrounds (zones) into its functional parts. Employing
Cosco’s (2006) approach, this study assigns behavior
settings to the three zones: (1) Natural settings: These
settings primarily contain vegetation, trees, gardens,
and play spaces defined by plants. (2) Mixed settings:
These settings encompass a balanced proportion of
natural and manufactured environments (pathway, sandclimber, etc.). (3) Manufactured settings: These settings
218 mostly include fixed and human-built elements (play
equipment, shade structures, etc.). In 12 observation
sessions with 45-minute durations, 36 children aged
between 4-to-5 years old were coded for cognitive play
behaviors in particular behavior settings. Observation
reveals the many dimensions and vibrant qualities of the
environment, while the individual can intrude on the environment’s effects. The researcher watched each child
for 10 seconds and recorded for 20 seconds. Sixteen
rounds of observation were conducted in each zone,
resulting in 6,801 data points. The analysis explored the
descriptive and correlational statistics between cognitive play behaviors and behavior settings. The results
suggest swings, the looped pathway, and rocking equipment settings offered the most functional play opportunities. The stick-pile and music wall provided the most
constructive play, while the music wall and the stonelined swale afforded the most exploratory play opportunities. Children enjoyed the green tube, playhouse,
gazebo, and tables for their dramatic play affordances.
The hill and stone-lined swale were the most supportive
behavior settings for games with rules. Overall, manufactured settings mostly offered functional and dramatic
play. Natural settings granted constructive, exploratory,
dramatic, and games with rules play. Mixed settings
offered many dramatic and games with rules opportunities. The findings suggest that natural and mixed natural
and manufactured settings are potent in stimulating
various cognitive play opportunities through their diversity, complexity, and unpredictability.
From Theory to Application:
How Educational Movements
Influenced School Design
Ece Altinbasak, ece.altinbasak@gmail.
com, (North Carolina State University);
Henry Sanoff, [email protected], (North
The fundamental elements that form the construction
of each child’s identity are built on the relationships,
communications, and interactions that are retained and
developed in the educational approach. Schools, on
the other hand, have complex ecological systems and
are multi-sensory environments. Therefore, creating an
environment which allows children to engage with different materials and textures is an important feature of
School & Educational Evironments – Abstracts
physical environments. In order to enhance the learning
process, providing places for wonder, curiosity, and the
expression of ideas are also found to be powerful. The
purpose of this paper is to outline the key findings of an
intense literature review on how innovative movements
in education provide powerful alternatives to traditional
education, and how school and classroom designs were
used to support pedagogy. Therefore, the paper discusses the educational philosophies of Reggio Emilia (Diana School), Montessori, and Waldorf (Steiner) schools
as they relate to shaping the classroom and school
environment and highlight the importance of physical
space. Based on the literature review, this paper reveals
the design principles of the three educational philosophies through discussing the main aspects. The application of the theories reveals how some certain physical
aspects and architectural design principles were used to
enhance interaction, collaboration, and aesthetic inspiration in Reggio; self-directed and co-operative learning activities in Montessori; and multiple intelligences
in Waldorf schools. In summary, these philosophies
perceived the physical environment as a pedagogical
tool as it affords didactic messages about the philosophy behind curriculum and attitude toward education.
The identified design principles and their associations
with educational approaches discussed in this paper will
inform both designers and educators who are interested
in creating innovative classroom environments.
school environments and children’s sense of place identity and place attachment. The aim of this study is to
explore how middle school children, ages 12 to 14 years
old, perceive the physical attributes of the urban environment around their schools and how these attributes
provide experiences that contribute to the development
of place attachment and place identity. Thirty students
of Exploris Middle School were given journals to note
spaces they experienced either by walking to or from
school or passing by in a vehicle on the way to or from
school. Students were asked to record the characteristics
of these spaces, as well as their own feelings, memories,
and thoughts prompted by these spaces. Students were
asked to document their responses and observations via
written descriptions, drawings, and photographs. During
open-ended interviews, students were asked to discuss
and elaborate on the documentations they made in their
journals. Additionally, students were asked about their
feelings and experiences of their school grounds and its
surrounding context. The results of this study can contribute to the development of guidelines for developing
urban school environments and their contexts in order
to provide better experiences that will contribute to the
development of stronger sense of place attachment and
place identity in children.
Developing Sense of Place
Attachment and Place Identity in
Urban School Environments
Manpreet Kaur, [email protected], (North
School is the center of community, not only in terms
of education and social manners but also in terms of its
physical characteristics as a site, as well as its context.
Urban school environments have a capacity different
from those of suburban school environments, most noticeably in terms of space and facilities. As a result, urban and suburban environments afford varying levels of
engagement of children. A small portion of the existing
research investigates the role of place attachment and
place identity within children’s environments. However,
most previous studies lacked a focus on the relationship
between the formal and spatial environment of urban
219
Abstracts – Socio-Politics of Environments
SOCIO-POLITICS OF ENVIRONMENTS
Placemaking and Citizen
Participation
Lubomir Popov, [email protected], (Bowling
Green State University); Franklin Goza,
[email protected], (University of WisconsinWhitewater)
One of the challenges of successful placemaking is
the technocratic approach to design, as this approach
often does not take into consideration how users make
sense of their environment, their interpretation of
meaning, and their appropriation of space. One major
problem in Modernist design is the disconnectedness of
projecting meanings from the processes of interpreting
meanings. More specifically, what designers intend is
often different from what users interpret and appropriate. There is a vast body of literature on both participatory design and the making of meaning. However, there
are no publications that explore citizen participation
as a tool for meaning-making and placemaking. The
purpose of this paper is to make a case for citizen participation in design as an instrument for supporting the
subjective processes of placemaking. This theoretical
project uses a social constructionist approach, selected
for its methodological power regarding the production
of meaning by social agents. The project also employs
procedures from discourse analysis and the study of
everyday life phenomena. Our vantage point is that
place is a subjective phenomenon in the mind of the
beholder. Users appropriate built space and structures,
enliven them, and endow them with meaning. From
this perspective, we discuss how to engage users with
special participatory techniques that lead to negotiating
shared meanings. We explore directions for developing,
testing, and disseminating methods for unveiling values
and meanings, and for negotiating and integrating them.
Such techniques increase the opportunities to learn
more about users’ everyday lives, as well as the way
users make sense of their environments. This process
allows for preparing the built environment for easier
appropriation and “emplacement” in users’ existential
world. This paper contributes to the body of knowledge
on approaches to placemaking through user participation.
220 Environmental Design and
Societal Institutions: The
Architectures of Capitalism and
Fascism
David Stea, [email protected], (Center
for Global Justice)
This theoretical essay, a product of historical research, suggests, using examples primarily from the
nineteenth and twenty-first centuries, incorporating
megatrends in sociopolitical contexts to illuminate some
relationships between the designed environment and
social forces. Specifically, research into the history of
the influence of expanding capitalism and associated
technological innovations upon the genesis of the office
building in the West reveals how societal forces and
architecture are interwoven and how social forces have
had a significant influence on the shapes of environments in which human beings must work. The verticality of architectural expansion in the West and elsewhere
in the world under capitalism contrasts with the horizontality representative of imperial and dictatorial forces under fascism, particularly in the 1922-1945 period.
Thus, the formal aspects of architecture pose a research
context not only for identifying relations between interior built form and behavior, the traditional realm of environmental psychology, but also for understanding the
interaction between sociopolitical influences on human
behavior and the vertical and horizontal dimensions of
designed environments. In 1871, only four decades after
the birth of Chicago, a large portion of the city’s area of
over 10 square kilometers was completely destroyed by
an intense fire, one of the worst disasters of the nineteenth century occurring in the United States. The availability of a very massive area of total devastation posed
a new opportunity, the first factor in the development
of a new architectural form that could not exist before
the availability of new technological developments and
materials. The vertical office building was the result.
In contrast, for example, the work of Hitler’s architect,
Albert Speer, at Nuremberg undoubtedly poses the
best examples of the importance of horizontality as an
architectural symbol of fascism. Thus, the verticality
of organization represented by an organization chart
is reflected in the verticality of the office building as
representation of capitalism; the removal of the individual by emphasizing horizontality can be taken as one
of the most important symbols of fascism, represent-
Socio-Politics of Environments – Abstracts
ing a mass of people, completely identical, as a human
carpet. Albert Speer designed a single ceremonial space
more than five square miles in area, with neither towers
nor skyscrapers, constituting very simply the world’s
largest horizontal designed space. It has been proposed
that enormous horizontal spaces are the quintessential
physical expressions of totalitarianism.
221
Abstracts – Sustainable Design
SUSTAINABLE DESIGN
Processes for People: The
Practice of Strategic Creativity in
Innovation
Diana Nicholas, [email protected], (Drexel
University); Shivanthi Anandan, anandans@
drexel.edu, (Drexel University)
This abstract proposes the examination of multidisciplinary research in smart urban living projects
and practices, based around innovation and design of
technologies and strategies for sustainable urban living.
The proposed presentation will examine and draw out
a new process that can be used to engender strategic innovation around creativity. The Interdisciplinary Smart
Initiatives (INSI) Minor and Smart Interdisciplinary Research Program allow students from across the university to plan and complete multidisciplinary projects that
use technology and research to solve problems related
to urban communities. The programs are predicated on
giving students the opportunity to create the basis for
entrepreneurial projects that will tackle the “wicked
problems” of sustainability and technology within the
urban environment. The re-structuring of research and
practice around such topics-based problems has led to
the creation of these programs. The presentation will
discuss the work of two projects in which interdisciplinary student teams are examining these problems and
laying out new processes for innovation through an
evolving strategic creativity process and Human Centered Design principles and methods.
Effects of ‘Good Urban Design’
On Social Sustainability:
A Survey Study In Uk
Neighborhoods
Derya Oktay, [email protected],
(Ondokuz Mayis University)
Studies showed that the intensity of social interaction
and the frequency of social contacts were significantly
affected by social demographic and cultural variations.
222 However, there is little research interrogating the affect
of urban design qualities of housing settlements on
social interaction and community development in these
places. This paper therefore aims to investigate whether
`good urban design’ features of the new development
schemes lead to social sustainability and if they do
not, to explain why not. The research questions the
hypothesis that the situational, formal/morphological,
spatial and functional qualities of the housing environment may influence social interaction and community
development, and tries to find out how and to what
extent the attributes can be influential on social quality.
The study was pursued during the Visiting Scholarship
of the author at Oxford Brookes University, Oxford
Institute for Sustainable Development, Cities Unit, and
funded by the European Commission differences in the
two periods in 2009. In the first period, literature survey
was carried out and interviews were held with academics and professionals in the field. In the second period,
drawing on the results of the research in the first phase,
a comparative case study methodology was used. In
order to understand whether certain principles of `good`
urban design lead to social quality, the social behavior
and attitudes of occupants living in two incongruous
schemes were to be assessed and compared. The assessments in Greater Leys (Oxford), the hypothetically
negative case, and Angell Town (Brixton - London), the
hypothetically positive case, included three steps: (i)
Analysing urban design features in two selected developments; (ii) Measuring community participation, involvement and communication of occupants in the same
developments through a user survey, and (iii) Analysis
of the data collected. The urban design features considered were accessibility, character and legibility,
development mix, continuity and enclosure, robustness,
open spaces, design for change, height-to-width ratio,
facade treatments, miscellaneous structures, and these
were the major titles in the urban design checklist. The
results of the on-site analysis based on this checklist
made an objective data where Angell Town appeared as
a neighbourhood with a higher rank of 8.6/10 whereas
Greater Leys was ranked 3.7/10. In the user survey, the
measures of community participation, involvement and
communication were “level of communication among
residents”, “Meeting with neighbours to discuss a problem in the neighbourhood”, “Use of nearby public space
to meet others”, “Sense of community”, and “Perception of neighbourhood as home”. In this context, a probability sample of 85 households in Greater Leys and 75
households in Angell Town were interviewed using a
standardized questionnaire based on `drop and collect`
method. The results of the analysis indicated signifi-
Sustainable Design – Abstracts
cant differences between the two cases that should be
considered in the planning and design of future housing
environments. In Angell Town, an urban neighbourhood
re-developed according to a comprehensive urban design strategy, the social behavior and interactions, sense
of belonging to and the general satisfaction with the
neighbourhood were significantly higher than those in
Greater Leys, a low-density peri-urban neighbourhood
developed without following an urban design strategy.
for future partner communities. In the project’s second
year, we are developing designs for catalyst projects as
starting points for comprehensive local food infrastructures. Based on the first year’s results, we have developed application materials for three new community
partners. We are also holding training workshops for
local foods and community development professionals,
creating a webinar, and tracking impacts from the first
project phase.
The Agricultural Urbanism Toolkit:
Using Health and Wellness to
Create New Urban Infrastructures
Examining Demographic and
Environmental Factors Associated
With Changes in Sustainability
Culture: Findings From a
Longitudinal Study of Students at
the University of Michigan
Nadia Anderson, [email protected],
(Iowa State University); Courtney Long,
[email protected], (Iowa State University)
Poverty, obesity, and vacant land are characteristics
of neighborhoods lacking adequate access to healthy,
affordable food, frequently referred to as “food deserts”
or “food swamps” (USDA, 2013). While small-scale
local food efforts such as community gardens are often
present in these areas, they are often isolated and not
connected to systems including production, processing,
and distribution. The Agricultural Urbanism Toolkit
links these aspects of agricultural systems with underutilized spatial assets and local food efforts to create
more comprehensive healthy food systems. This paper
presents results from the first year of the Toolkit. Working with three partner communities, the Toolkit team
first identified the food needs and assets of each partner,
documenting common characteristics and unique situations. We then mapped existing food programs and potential spatial assets such as underutilized institutional
land, vacant lots, and commercial opportunities. We also
partnered with an associated project to identify policy
barriers and opportunities for local foods systems. The
most significant finding from the project’s first year
was that while communities with a collective local food
“culture” still needed more time than expected to set
priorities, where this culture was absent competition
between individual organizations became a significant
barrier to participation and decision-making. The community with the largest number of well-established food
systems organizations was expected to act most quickly
but in fact struggled the most, requiring modifications
to the role of the research team as well as the schedule
Robert Marans, [email protected],
(University of Michigan); Noah Webster,
[email protected], (University of Michigan);
John Callewaert, [email protected],
Universities around the world are playing a leading
role in addressing the important yet challenging task of
bringing about a societal shift from a culture of consumerism toward a culture of sustainability. A culture of
sustainability is defined as “a culture in which individuals are aware of major environmental (and social/
economic) challenges, are behaving in sustainable
ways, and are committed to a sustainable lifestyle for
both the present and future” (Marans et al., 2010). This
cultural transformation must accompany technological
innovations if we are to address the threats to our planet
brought about by climate change and resource depletion. While efforts are being made at universities in the
U.S., Europe, and Latin America to introduce sustainability into education programs and promote a culture
of sustainability through campus operations, little is
being done to assess or evaluate the success of these
initiatives. This paper briefly reviews efforts to change
the culture of sustainability at the University of Michigan (U-M) and discusses an approach to measuring,
monitoring, and mapping change from 2012 to 2017.
The Sustainability Cultural Indicators Program (SCIP)
is intended to inform U-M officials and others respon-
223
sible for day-to-day university operations including its
academic programs, and provide a model demonstrating
how environment-behavioral research can be used to
address critical environmental issues within universities
and other settings. Following a review of SCIP and its
research design, selected findings from the first three
years are summarized as cultural indicators. Findings
cover indicator changes for cross sections of students
as well as for a panel of undergraduate students as they
progress from their freshmen year to their senior year.
Environmental and demographic factors such as place
and type of residence and respondent’s age that potentially affect change are also examined. The implication
of findings for university operations and environmentbehavior research are then discussed.
be shown to more fully realize the potential of green
infrastructures to restructure the relationship between
the built, the human, and the biological. These systems
approaches weave together the once-tangled mess of
discrete components into a functioning web that successfully and more transparently operates within human,
physical, and biological systems.
Achieving the Potential of Green
Infrastructure Through Systems
Thinking
Joowon Im, [email protected], (Virginia Tech);
Dean Bork, [email protected], (Virginia Tech);
Patrick Miller, [email protected], (Virginia Tech)
Tobiah Horton, [email protected],
(Rutgers University)
Analytical strategies of problem definition, isolation, and targeted solutions have led to the tangle of
one-dimensional infrastructures that often operate in
conflict and even competition with one another. Socially
and aesthetically, infrastructure is rarely seen as part of
the intellectual, artistic, or cultural fabric of American
society. The current condition of physical, social, and
environmental isolation of infrastructural systems may
be unwittingly carried forward into the realm of green
technologies and infrastructures if a comprehensive
and holistic systems approach is not integrated. Many
current inducements to adoption of green technologies
still suffer from typical technocratic methods in which
individual, discrete solutions are applied without understanding and developing a comprehensive, complex, or
networked synthesis. Ongoing work with communityinvolved green infrastructure projects will be used as
case studies to investigate strategies for integrating
water management with diverse site programs. These
projects are a research and design practice within the
Rutgers Cooperative Extension developing methods
of layering and linking new technologies and practices
with existing sites, communities, aesthetics, and systems. The integration of rain gardens with site, client,
and community sourced additional programming will
224 Green Street Oriented Planning
and Design Process: Promoting
Multiple Benefits for Community
Sustainability
Green Streets can provide stormwater management
that closely mimics natural processes in urbanized
watersheds. They are often more environmentally and
economically effective than conventional storm or
combined sewer systems. Consequently, many cities are
adopting Green Streets as part of their green infrastructure plans. Some Green Street projects are successful in
providing additional benefits for users and the community. According to classic definitions, that includes
environmental, economic, and social dimensions, and
Green Streets can be considered more sustainable than
those projects providing only stormwater management.
If a community intends its green infrastructure plan to
be sustainable in this sense, then Green Streets that provide multiple benefits are arguably preferable over those
that do not. However, comparatively, few Green Street
projects completed to date include an evident array of
user and community benefits. Then what interventions
are necessary to broaden the scope of benefits provided
by Green Streets constructed in the future? This study
sheds light on this question by examining the intended
and actual outcomes of exemplary Green Street projects
and comparing these to the design and delivery processes used to bring them about. In preliminary interviews, experts nominated the most successful projects
constructed so far in their communities. Four similar
Green Street projects that appear to offer multiple
benefits were chosen from this list for in-depth investigation. Each case study incorporates multiple research
methods and includes the researcher’s analysis of design
characteristics of completed projects, a review of public
documents recording the development and delivery of
the project, interviews with experts responsible for its
production, and a survey of awareness and satisfaction
of users. The case studies elucidate the challenges of
producing projects that serve a broader range of intended outcomes and suggest best practices for ensuring
more comprehensive and sustainable outcomes in future
Green Street projects.
Redefining the Building-Behavior
Interface Through the Lens of
Green Citizenship
Erin Hamilton, [email protected],
(University of Michigan); Meaghan Guckian,
[email protected], (University of Michigan)
Current strategies to address building occupants’
role in energy consumption either bypass the occupant
entirely or over-rely on education. While these features invite occupants to reduce energy consumption
in one building, the aggregate of such behaviors across
multiple contexts has a greater potential to reduce environmental impact. In this, we must acknowledge the as
yet unrealized opportunity for the built environment to
impact behavior beyond the confines of a single building. Broadening the role of individuals from building
occupants to citizens—“green” citizens—captures the
breadth of environmental behaviors that people negotiate daily as they move from space to space. Discussion
of green citizenship has been rooted in a politically
bounded landscape that lacks empirical research exploring participant-driven understandings of green citizenship and how it can be cultivated. This study explores
green citizenship through a Conceptual Content Cognitive Mapping Exercise (3CM), a card-sorting task that
assists people in visually representing their understanding of complex domains. Green citizenship, as understood and lived by our participants, transcends multiple
levels of involvement that extend beyond political
engagement. Green citizens embrace their individual
agency to affect change, while recognizing the socially
embedded nature of their actions. Beyond the support of
community networks, green citizens also identify higher
institutional structures as both conduits and barriers to
change. Finally, we discuss design implications that
might foster green citizenship by re-examining traditional approaches toward changing occupant behavior.
We suggest more hopeful alternatives that support the
range of motivations and behaviors identified within
green citizenship, such as designing spaces that facilitate social interaction and allow the modeling of environmentally responsible behavior by others. In pursuit
of a more sustainable world, reducing energy demand
will not be accomplished within a single building, but
rather in the minds and actions of citizens who move
between buildings and contexts.
Our Changing Climate: Resilience
Networks at the Community Scale
N. Claire Napawan, ncnapawan@ucdavis.
edu, (UC Davis); Sheryl-Ann Simpson,
[email protected], (UC Davis)
The impacts of climate change are well known to the
academics who study them. To the average individual,
however, predicted environmental change can be difficult to grasp. There is a need to better understand the
sometimes subtle, local, and everyday ways in which
people are experiencing and responding to climate
change. This paper reports on preliminary results of an
ongoing research project that aims to make the impacts
of climate change more comprehensible at the neighborhood scale. Our Changing Climate addresses the
need for local perspectives by leveraging social network
and digital media tools to establish a digital community
network to (1) provide community members with the
ability to better visualize the direct impacts of climate
change within their immediate surroundings; (2) create
opportunities to contribute images and narratives to
community-generated neighborhood resilience mapping; and (3) encourage communities to participate in
ongoing local conversations about climate change resilience. In partnership with a local community organization, the research team worked with youth in Oakland,
California to develop a digital community network
where youth and other community members can share
narratives and images of local climate change impacts
(such as flood events, stressed vegetation, and/or excessive heat). This data will be combined with existing
data on regional climate change (such as anticipated sea
level rise, temperature, and/or air quality change), and
neighborhood-scaled detailed landscape and architectural maps, illustrations, and renderings of anticipated
impacts as a further platform for community discussion.
One important goal of the project is that over time, and
225
by combining these various sources of data, the collection can create a compelling testimony for the need for
local action on resilient adaptation planning and policy.
Encouraging Pro-Environmental
Behavior: People + Energy +
Place
Julie Kriegh, [email protected],
(University of Washington); Lynne Manzo,
Washington); Linda Steg, [email protected],
(University of Groningen); Joel Loveland,
[email protected], (University of Washington)
Do high-performance “green” buildings and neighborhoods really work? Research demonstrates that
human behavior has a profound impact on outcomes.
Learn the latest integrated research and design methods
in the Netherlands and Pacific Northwest for motivating pro-environmental behavior. Human behavior has a
profound impact on environmental and human wellbeing. Environmental researchers recognize that this
relationship is bidirectional and interdependent. Hence,
understanding human behavior and motivation in the
context of place is crucial to sustainability, necessitating a stronger commitment by architects and planners to
foster pro-environmental behavior (PEB) in their work.
Exploratory research in energy conservation demonstrates that essential predictors—values, goals, and
situational factors—underpin PEB and are reproducible and enduring, proving to be effective across time
and place. But how can architects and planners use this
information to design with the intention of encouraging PEB? What are the most effective strategies and
critical design factors necessary to foster PEB? What is
the role of place attachment in the PEB process? How
can an integrated approach linking theoretical research
to applied practice be used by designers in pursuit of
reliable performance outcomes in the built environment? To address these questions, researchers from the
University of Groningen (Netherlands) and the University of Washington (Seattle) have come together to form
an interdisciplinary team to investigate an integrated
framework based on a deep understanding of pro-environmental human behavioral factors coupled with high
performance energy efficient technologies in the built
226 environment to promote higher performance outcomes
for energy conservation, environmental sustainability,
and human well-being. Results of surveys from studies
conducted in the Netherlands and findings from a case
study in the Pacific Northwest of the United States will
be reported. The case study uses mixed methods including: collection of energy use records for a sample of
households and resident surveys that include established
tested measures of pro-environmental behaviors, place
attachment, and values.
Presentation #1: Context: Setting the Context
for Occupant Behavior and Energy Use in High
Performance Residential Buildings
Design professionals have developed methodologies
to predict and analyze post-occupancy energy performance in project-specific high performance design
environments. A commonly used building energy metric
is the Energy Use Index (EUI). Practitioners know a
great deal about how to plan, design, and build sustainably. They also recognize that occupant behavior and
tenant engagement have profound effects on actual
measured performance outcomes on energy consumption. Academics recognize that behavior change and
the motivational factors of tenant engagement that are
required in order to yield high building performance
outcomes are not fully understood but are critical if to
understand if local and national energy use index targets
are to be met.
Presentation #2: Framework: Values, Goals, and
Situational Factors Influencing Energy Saving
Behaviour
The world is facing serious environmental problems
related to, amongst others, global warming, urban air
pollution, and scarcity of safe drinking water. These
problems are, at least partly, rooted in human behaviour
(DuNann, Winter, & Koger, 2004; Gardner & Stern,
2002; Vlek & Steg, 2007), and can thus be managed
by changing the relevant behaviours so as to promote
environmental quality. But how can we encourage individuals to engage in pro-environmental actions? Which
motivational factors can best be targeted to promote durable behavioural changes? And what role do situational
factors play in this process? There is much research on
factors influencing behaviour and on effective ways to
change behaviour. However, this research is not tied together in a comprehensive theoretical framework. Moreover, there seem to be conflicting views on what is the
most effective strategy for behaviour change. This paper
presents a theoretical framework, the Integrated Framework for Encouraging Pro-Environmental Behaviour
(IFEP) that allows a more comprehensive and detailed
study of the variables and processes that play a role in
effective pro-environmental behaviour change.
Presentation #3: Influencing Factors: Place
Attachment and Identity
This session will explore the significance of place
meanings and attachments in influencing pro-environmental behavior. The paper takes as its starting point
that pro-environmental behavior is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon driven by a constellation of beliefs, attitudes, experiences, affect, and meaning. However, place meaning, attachment, and identity have only
recently been studied in relation to pro-environmental
behavior. This research suggests that place attachment
has a behavioral component (Scanell & Gifford, 2010)
and is connected to place protective behaviors (Carrus
et al., 2014). However, the links between attachment
and other specific types of pro-environmental behavior
are less well understood. This paper draws connections
between these two areas of study to shed light on how
attachments and identity can specifically influence energy consumption in a community of high performance
buildings.
Presentation #4: Case Study: Issaquah Family
Village
In the context for residential energy use in the Pacific
Northwest, we will look at current research findings
from the Netherlands on an integrated framework for
encouraging pro-environmental behavior and the role
of values, situational factors, and goals; preliminary results of an ongoing case study in the Pacific Northwest
of the United States will be provided. The case study
will be used to explore the viability of this framework
and to drill down on lessons learned, useful tools, and
best practices used in a multi-family, high-performance
building and neighborhood project in Issaquah, WA.
This session will highlight the project as originally
designed and then present a summary of subsequent ongoing research investigations and preliminary analysis
from a 2015 pilot research study.
Filling the Gap: A Review
of Alternate Strategies for
Addressing Blind Spots in Green
Building Ratings Systems
Meredith Sattler, [email protected], (Cal
Poly San Luis Obispo)
Today, few sustainability assessment frameworks
(SAFs) adequately link damaging impacts of the built
environment to the health of the biosphere, a major
symptom of global climate change. SAFs, such as
LEED, typically suffer from a number of limitations
that prevent them from taking a systems-based approach
to impact evaluation, making them especially prone to
overlooking environmental impacts at certain critical
scales. This research analyzed a variety of tools which
may supplement, or replace, standardized SAFs in order
to increase the effectiveness of addressing multi-scalar,
systems-based environmental issues through building
sustainability. The study analyzed several regional/local
planning mechanisms, including environmental impact
assessments, city scale green building codes, code plus
frameworks, land use plans, regional scale sustainable development guidelines, and re-tooled versions
of scoring systems like LEED. By employing contemporary ecological theories of scalar relationships,
which are utilized in the 2005 Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment (MEA) to frame an ecosystem services approach for understanding human interaction within the
context of ecological systems, systemic effects of the
built environment can be more effectively linked to the
performance of multi-scalar ecosystem services. This
facilitates a more complete and sophisticated understanding of the specific built environment mechanisms
that impact these multi-scalar and layered services.
Through the identification and ultimate integration of
these linkages into the design process, the most critical
and impactful issues are revealed for those striving to
design and “build green” performative sustainable architectures. The ultimate goal of the research is to bring
awareness to the commonly overlooked gaps in scalar
linkages that contribute dramatically to the incomplete
sustainable performance of our built environment. By
identifying strategies through which these gaps may be
more completely addressed through the re-tooling of
largely existing SAFs and other mechanisms, their increased integration into the planning and design process
is facilitated.
227
Which Kinds of Stormwater
Green Infrastructure Do People
Prefer?
Pongsakorn Suppakitpaisarn, psuppak@
gmail.com, (University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign); William Sullivan, wcsulliv@
illinois.edu, (University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign)
Stormwater green infrastructure (GI) is a series of
connected green spaces that help manage rain water.
Currently, we know that stormwater GI is beneficial to
the environment; however, we don’t know what types
and features of stormwater GI are most attractive to
people. This lack of knowledge costs civic design professions such as architects, landscape architects, civil
engineers, and urban planners the opportunity to design
spaces which are both attractive to people and ecologically functional. We ask three questions: (1) How do
ordinary people categorize the most common kinds of
stormwater GI? (2) What are people’s preferences for
these categories? (3) Within each category, are there
design characteristics that people prefer more or less?
To answer these questions, we asked people in fields
outside of landscape architecture or urban planning to
categorize approaches to stormwater GI. To discover
people’s preference for these categories, we conducted a
survey questionnaire using 48 images of different landscape approaches that cities are using to manage stormwater. We included a few images of urban landscapes
with no stormwater management. We asked the participants to rate the extent they prefer such landscapes.
We use factor analysis to see if people preferred certain
categories or individual landscape characteristics. We
expect the results to show that people categorize stormwater GI by visual elements. Preliminary results from
the questionnaire show that people prefer street trees the
most. The rain gardens and bioswales with clear edge
and geometric boundaries came second, and the rain
gardens and bioswale with loose edge and organic form
came third. The urban scenes without GI were preferred
the least. This suggests that trees and clean geometric
designs are important in designing GI. Results from this
study will help urban planners and landscape designers
incorporate people’s preferences in their decisions about
which stormwater GI designs to choose. Future studies
could explore the reasons of the preference, whether it
is purely aesthetic or also performance-based.
228 Theory Development – Abstracts
THEORY DEVELOPMENT
Confluence of Approaches
to Environmental Messages:
Communication Theory,
Representation, and Social
Construction
Gary Gumpert, gary.gumpert@urbancomm.
org, (Urban Communication Foundation);
Susan Drucker, [email protected], (Urban
Communication Foundation); Peter Hecht,
[email protected], (Temple University);
Peter Haratonik, haratonik@urbancomm.
org, (Urban Communication Foundation);
Matthew Matsaganis, mmatsaganis@gmail.
com, (SUNY Albany)
Environment and behavior studies are approaching
50 years of work as a coordinated field, yet there are
many aspects of this interdisciplinary field that remain
a tangle of specialized approaches that barely recognize
that one another exist. One glaring area is that revolving around messages imbedded in or evolving from
the physical setting. There has always been plenty of
discussion in architectural circles about intentional
messages and representation. That appears to typically revolve around the acts of the designer as prime
mover. Other fields, such as communication, look more
to issues of modality impacts, barriers, connection,
and technological influences on messages and messaging, unintentional as well as intended. The social
sciences, from another perspective, look at the interpretation and influence of communication on behavior
and the normative and social control aspects. Getting
all of these perspectives in the same room to delve into
environment-behavior transactions is critical to moving
the discussion from limited, uni-dimensional prose to a
three-dimensional, nuanced understanding of communicative outcomes of design and its lived use.
Presentation #1: Communication as a Unifying
Element, or Defining the Elephant
With increasing urbanization, the need to change,
alter, and develop a cohesive and unifying philosophy
of development becomes critical. But the intricacies
of architecture, planning, environmental design, and
regulation often become mute without collaboration and
interaction of diverse philosophies. This presentation
proposes “communication” as the unifying perspective necessary for progressive planning: from design to
regulation, from administration to infrastructure. This
polemic will begin with the cornerstone of planning—
community.
Presentation #2: Communication Researchers’
Contributions to Environment Behavior Study
Communication studies offer valuable perspectives
and methodologies for the examination of urban and
suburban life, conceptualizing the city as a combinative environment of interpersonal interaction and a
media landscape of spaces, places, and communication
texts. The importance of communications functions and
networks in the spatial development and sustenance of
places have increasingly received attention among communication researchers. Joshua Meyrowitz’s No Sense
of Place (1985) focuses on the scene of communication.
This can certainly be extended to include more recent
approaches to the hybrid and multiple spaces of the
contemporary media environment. Some locative media
function as not only positioning devices but also affect
the situated experiences of actors. Communication
studies and research into the role of signs in the built
environment as part of social life have been explored.
From semiotics and rhetorical theory to interpersonal
and media research, diverse communication research
approaches are relevant and valuable to the study of
people environment studies.
Presentation #3: Neuroscience, Culture,
Communication, and the Designed Environment
Recent work on cognition and neuroscience, language, and cognition are leading to new questions to old
issues of environmental experience. Work by researchers such as Chua, Borland & Nisbett (2005), Boroditsky
et al. (2011), and Carbon & Deininger (2013) provide
significant impetus to revisiting issues of experience
of and representation in architecture. Findings identify
cultural impacts on behavior below the level of consciousness as well as alternate pathways for sense and
perceptual data directly impacting spatial experience.
This presentation seeks to take these lines of research as
they inform how we experience our physical world and
weave them into a new set of research questions about
how and what we receive from our built and natural settings and the dimensions of variability in experiences of
the same physical locale.
229
Abstracts – Universal Design
UNIVERSAL DESIGN
Moving Together: Choreographic
Mappings of Children with
Diverse Dis/abilities and Their
Neurological Responses to a
Dance-Play Event
Coralee McLaren, cmclaren@
hollandbloorview.ca, (Bloorview Research
Institute); Cheryl Missiuna, missiuna@
mcmaster.ca, (McMaster University);
Geoffrey Edwards, gedwoods2002@yahoo.
it, (Laval University); Tom Chau, tom.chau@
utoronto.ca, (Bloorview Research Institute);
Sheila Bennett, [email protected],
(Brock University); Barbara Gibson, barbara.
[email protected], (Bloorview Research
Institute)
The study presented builds on recent research that
has established clear linkages between movement and
children’s learning, radically calling into question
traditional models of classroom teaching and design.
Although significant advances have been made in understanding links between the brain, movement, and the
environment, these have been largely based on research
with children moving alone in controlled environments.
Very little is known about the effects of children moving together in naturalistic settings. Conceptualizations
inherent in traditional ‘Western’ scientific research,
which construct bodies, movement, and environments
as discreet entities, have limited the possibilities for
discovery and innovation. In this paper, we present our
current, CIHR funded study that combines postmodern theoretical insights and a novel, artistic-scientific
methodology to examine how children move, learn, and
play in relation to one another and their environments.
Building on McLaren’s recently completed PhD work
that examined disabled and non-disabled children’s
interactions with classroom objects and features, this
study will provide new knowledge about the relationships between movement, neurological processes, and
children’s socio-physical environments. This knowledge could be used to optimize the design of integrated
classrooms and movement interventions that enhance
230 children’s physical, social, and cognitive development
in these and other play spaces. The primary output of
this research will be a set of body-space principles to
inform the design of integrated classrooms towards
optimizing all children’s interactions and learning. The
study aims are to: (a) observe and describe how children
with diverse physical dis/abilities move-together with
the social/physical aspects of their environments; (b)
investigate their neuro-cognitive responses to such interactions, and (c) theorize thematic relationships between
the two data sets.
Primary Factors Inhibiting Visual
Accessibility in Interior Spaces
Erin Schambureck, erin.schambureck@ttu.
edu, (Texas Tech University)
There is very little discussion of the visually impaired
in wayfinding and universal design research (Passini,
1992; ADA, 2010). However, 6.9 percent of the U.S.
population over age 65 has a vision disability (United
States Census, 2010). Census data predicts that by 2030,
those over age 65 will outnumber those under age 17.
This aging population is seeking to stay in the workforce and remain active while adapting to higher prevalence of age-related vision loss and other comorbidities.
Universal design should expand its scope to accommodate these users (Story, 1998). This research explores
the design factors inhibiting low vision accessibility to
determine how perception of the interior environment,
and therefore wayfinding, could be improved for visually impaired users. Written accounts were collected
from low vision users describing the difficulties they
face navigating public spaces. Coding analysis was
applied to these statements to identify the major design factors impacting visual perception. To verify that
these factors exist in the interior environment, a postoccupancy evaluation method was developed to look for
low vision design problems in an existing medical clinic
offering optometric and geriatric services. This evaluation paired photographic, luminance-mapping methods
with coding analysis of user statements to evaluate the
suitability of the space for its low vision users. Fourteen
design typologies were identified as negatively impacting visual space perception by low vision users. These
design “problems” were grouped under four primary
factors: luminance contrast, value contrast, object placement, and luminance placement. Analysis of the clinic
Universal Design – Abstracts
spaces identified similar design typologies negatively
impacting its visually impaired users. Design problems
related to poor value contrast were found to be most
pervasive in both data sets, suggesting more research on
value contrast preferences is warranted. By defining the
primary factors inhibiting low vision accessibility, the
design typologies and evaluation method identified in
this study may improve a designer’s ability to address
not only low vision design needs, but improve wayfinding features for all population segments.
Effectiveness of Design Standards
in Improving Residence Hall
Usability and Satisfaction
Jonathan White, [email protected],
(University at Buffalo); Sue Weidemann,
[email protected], (University at
Buffalo); Elyse Skerker, eskerker@buffalo.
edu, (University at Buffalo)
“Universal design is a process that enables and empowers a diverse population by improving human performance, health and wellness, and social participation”
(Steinfeld and Maisel). This ongoing process involves
the use of evidence-based designs to achieve certain
design goals, the evaluation of completed designs,
and the use of lessons learned to improve the evidence
base. Design standards are one way in which designers
can make use of this evidence base. Designers utilized
a draft set of universal design standards during the
design of a university residence hall. The Rehabilitation
Engineering Research Center on Universal Design and
the Built Environment (RERC-UD) conducted a postoccupancy evaluation of the residence hall to determine
the effectiveness of the draft standards and add to the
evidence base that will drive further standard development. Researchers used three methods of inquiry in
this post-occupancy evaluation: (1) Guided Tours: A
trained researcher escorted participants through the
new residence hall and a comparison hall while participants rated usability of specific building features. This
provided a controlled environment for a quantitative
response format while providing open-ended response
opportunities prompted by the real world immersion.
(2) Online Survey: Residents of both buildings answered comparable questions about usability of specific
building features and general satisfaction. (3) Archival
Records: A trained researcher systematically examined work orders created by residents and staff about
problems they were experiencing with the building. The
use of multiple methods of inquiry, though challenging,
leads to increased confidence in the results. While each
method yields unique information, the complimentary
information found in the overlapping content areas
provides a better understanding of the complex issues
involved. The results provided insight into how well the
two buildings suit occupants’ needs, identified which
features were most closely related to resident satisfaction, and helped evaluate the effectiveness of specific
universal design standards, as well as the value of utilizing such standards in practice. The findings show that
the new residence hall was easier to use and provided
a more satisfactory environment than the comparison
hall. This workshop will discuss the findings in detail
and encourage participants to discuss the methodology
and suggest new directions.
Presentation #1: Effectiveness of Design
Standards in Improving Residence Hall Usability
and Satisfaction: Guided Tours
A guided tour was one of three methods of inquiry
used in a post-occupancy evaluation of a new residence
hall. The purpose of the evaluation was twofold: (1) to
determine the effectiveness draft universal design standards to help inform further refinement of the standards,
and (2) to evaluate the usability of the new hall, relative
to a residence hall that was not universally designed.
A trained researcher escorted participants through the
new residence hall, built with specific universal design
features, as well as through a comparison hall. The
researcher asked participants to perform various tasks
using the building’s features throughout the tour and
rate the difficulty of such tasks. The response format
provided both quantitative and qualitative data, as the
real world immersion prompted commentary from the
participants. Participants consisted of paid volunteers
who had a variety of physical and cognitive abilities
and backgrounds, including able-bodied people and
people with mobility, cognitive, and/or visual impairments. The diversity of the participant group ensured
that the universally design building was designed to
create maximum usability for people of all abilities, in
keeping with the Steinfeld and Maisel definition of universal design. The results of the guided tour identified
specific design features that aid in usability, as well as
those that need improvement. Additionally, the results
identified specific items in the draft standards requiring
revision to better support the goals of universal design.
231
Abstracts – Universal Design
and Satisfaction: Online Survey
An online survey was one of three methods of
inquiry used in a post-occupancy evaluation of a new
residence hall. The purpose of the evaluation was
twofold: (1) to determine the effectiveness of draft
universal design standards to help inform further refinement of the standards, and (2) to evaluate the usability
of the new hall, relative to a residence hall that was not
universally designed. Researchers developed an online
survey that they made available to all residents of both
residence halls. The survey used questions similar to
those used by the guided tour methodology in order to
allow a comparison between the techniques. The guided
tour questions focused primarily on the ease of use of
completing tasks using the building’s features, while the
online survey asked residents to evaluate specific residence hall features in terms of their adequacy, safety,
and user comfort. Areas examined included private
areas within the halls (e.g., residents’ private rooms or
suites), shared private areas (e.g., lounges, bathrooms,
laundry areas), and public spaces (e.g., first floor lounges, eating areas, etc.). The survey also included a set of
more general evaluations of the residence halls, such as
overall maintenance, safety, comfort, and satisfaction.
The results included a comparison of both residence
halls. Regression analyses determined the impact of
features within specific residence hall areas upon the
comfort level in that area. Multivariate analyses were
used to determine which residence hall features had the
greatest impact on overall resident comfort and satisfaction. The findings indicate that the residents of the
universally designed residence hall were generally more
satisfied than residents of the comparison building.
and Satisfaction: Archival Records
An analysis of archival records was one of three
methods of inquiry used in a post-occupancy evaluation
of a new residence hall. The purpose of the evaluation
was twofold: (1) to determine the effectiveness draft
universal design standards to help inform further refinement of the standards, and (2) to evaluate the usability
of the new hall, relative to a residence hall that was not
universally designed. Trained researchers systematically
analyzed building work orders for both the universally
designed residence hall and the comparison hall. The
purpose of the analysis was to determine if there were
any usability issues with the buildings not identified by
the guided tours or online surveys. The building work
232 orders consisted of written complaints about various
problems and issues, which residents and staff communicated to building management. This analogous view
of the issues or concerns raised by the guided tours and
the online survey provided researchers with the opportunity to explore new issues and to investigate known
issues further. For example, the qualitative portion of
the survey identified a problem wherein electrical outlet
circuit breakers were tripping, but researchers did not
realize the extent of the problem until the work orders
analysis revealed that 37 percent of all complaints were
related to this issue. The work order results also gave
insight into typical problems facing a new building
versus an established building, which will aid in the
refinement of the universal design standards for facilities management. Additionally, the work order results
give unique insight into problems and communications
experienced by building, office, and maintenance staff.
This unique insight into how the staff operates, and into
the typical problems that the staff faces, will aid in the
development of universal design standards with specific
goals aimed at staff needs.
Urban Greening – Abstracts
URBAN GREENING
Understanding Urban Greening
and Tree Canopy as Part of an
“Ideal Neighborhood”
Jane Buxton, [email protected],
(University of Massachusetts Amherst); Robert
Ryan, [email protected], (University of
Massachusetts Amherst)
The presence of tree canopy and other forms of
greening can provide environmental and health-related
benefits for urban residents. Yet efforts to garner support for urban greening are not always successful. We
are interested in exploring how people value greening in an imagined ideal residential setting in order to
understand the opportunities and hindrances to urban
greening efforts and policies. This study was conducted
in conjunction with the development of the City Science
exhibit at the EcoTarium Science Museum in Worcester, MA. The City Science exhibit is part of a project to
develop a nationally replicable model for integrating the
newly emerging science of urban systems into exhibits
in urban science museums. The study explored visual
preferences for urban greening and how these preferences were influenced by receiving information on the
topic. Study participants included EcoTarium Museum
visitors, students, and focus group members from the
community. Participants were shown images with a
variety of housing densities and types of urban greening
and asked to indicate their preferences for inclusion in
an “ideal neighborhood”. Some participants received
information about the benefits of urban greening prior
to indicating their preferences. Data was analyzed for
differences between urban and suburban residents and
between those who had and had not been informed
about urban greening benefits. Preliminary study results
point to preference patterns in urban tree density in
the residential settings shown to participants. In addition, motivations and barriers to urban greening were
explored in focus groups. Emerging themes showed
concerns related to safety and visibility (e.g., crime and
hazard trees), maintenance, and environmental benefits
(e.g., clean air and wildlife habitat). While the use of
photos to indicate preference does not replicate the in
situ visual and spatial experience, insights from the
study can help inform urban tree planting programs and
neighborhood design projects.
Do Preferred Landscapes Reduce
Stress?
Bin Jiang, [email protected], (University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign); Pongsakorn
Suppakitpaisarn, [email protected],
(University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign);
William Sullivan, [email protected],
(University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign)
Humans may prefer landscapes that promote health
(Kaplan, 1998). We know that humans feel less stressful in green environments (Jiang, 2014; Hartig et al.,
2014; Hartig, 2003; Simons, 1991). We also know that
humans like green environment (Nassauer, 1995; Lovell
& Sullivan, 2006; Gobster, Nassauer, Daniel, & Fry,
2007), but the connection between landscape preference and stress reduction has not been fully established.
If such a link were established, landscape architects,
planners, and land managers would have a useful, fast
tool for understanding the impact of urban designs on
a city’s inhabitants. In this study, we explore the extent
to which preference for a landscape predicts the capacity of people to recover from a stressful experience.
The study involves a preference questionnaire and a lab
experiment. First, participants completed a preference
questionnaire showing neighborhood street scenes in the
U.S. Midwest. Then the same participants experienced a
stressful event and then watched one of ten 3-D videos
of neighborhood street scenes with varying levels of
tree cover. We measured changes in participants’ stress
levels through three response pathways: Hormonal
(salivary cortisol), physiological (skin conductance) and
psychological (self-reported stress). The study has been
conducted with consent, and there is no lasting psychological effect to the participants. We examined the
extent to which preference predicted stress reduction in
160 participants through linear regressions. When both
genders were analyzed together, there were associations
between preference and stress reduction including average stress recovery [F(1,158)=5.419, R2= .03, p< .05
] and psychological pathway (VAS) [F(1, 158)=6.559,
R2= .04, p< .05]. Separate analysis for men and women
showed a clear gender difference. For men, we found
a significant positive association between preference
and physical response [F (1, 78) = 4.833, R2= .10, p<
.05] but no association for hormonal or psychological
responses. For women, we found a significant positive association between preference and psychological
233
Abstracts – Urban Greening
responses [F (1, 78) = 4.823, R2= .05, p< .05] but no
association for physiological or hormonal responses.
These findings are consistent with other results showing
that men and women recover from stressful events in
different ways and along different timelines. They also
suggest that more highly preferred settings are associated with greater recoveries from stress, but through
different pathways for men and women.
Expanding the Role and Value of
Historic Urban Parks in Diverse
Urban Settings
Maren King, [email protected], (SUNY
Environmental Science and Forestry); Sarah
Krisch, [email protected], (SUNY
Environmental Science and Forestry)
Historic parks in struggling urban neighborhoods are
being tapped as catalysts for neighborhood revitalization, economic development, and ecosystem services,
expanding on already important roles. These expectations require a rethinking of the top-down decisionmaking of Parks and Public Works departments to be
inclusive of community members, other city agencies,
partner organizations, and potential funders, stakeholders needed to transform and sustain the initial planning
and capital investments. This presentation highlights
a participatory action research project that is exploring the future of a system of three historic parks and
connecting parkway, surrounded by city neighborhoods
with diverse racial and socio-economic characteristics.
Challenging status quo decision-making, the city parks
planner partnered with our academic community design
center to facilitate an engagement process to determine
with residents, partner organizations, and other agencies
the parks’ future and how they can best serve the needs
of diverse residents in a time of declining resources and
increasing demands on open space. The initial stage,
presented at EDRA 2014, focused on the formation of a
working group of residents and organization representatives. The next stage of results illustrate that working
group members were essential in developing outreach
and participatory methods that allowed access to groups
that would not have been possible without their local
knowledge and connections. Community members confirmed much of what has been described as the value of
urban parks and provided insights into how the parks
234 can provide better support and expanded opportunities.
The project partners continue to work together to ensure
that the findings are guiding maintenance decisions,
community dialogue and educational programs, and
draft recommendations for long-term priorities, management, and partnerships. The understanding of the
parks’ conditions, potential, and community preferences
has been presented and discussed in communitywide
forums. The results represent a new way of working and
interacting for the parks department, its partners, and
the community.
Envisioning a New Downtown
Park: Enabling CommunityDirected Urban Placemaking
in Urbana, Illinois Through
University-Community Action
Research
Keith Miller, [email protected], (University
In 2006, the City Council of Urbana, Illinois approved a plan to redevelop the downtown stretch of
Boneyard Creek, the main waterway that runs through
the city. Listed among the city’s goals was an attempt
to collect input from the community at large via online
forums and public meetings. These efforts led to suggestions that would be incorporated into the project’s
program. However, such input from the community
at large was from a self-selected population, yielding a limited snapshot of public opinion. In October
2013, local advocacy group Friends of the Boneyard
(FOB) approached Action Research Illinois (ARI), the
community-service branch of the College of Fine and
Applied Arts at the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign, to administer a community-input survey.
Situated within a one-week service-learning course, 80
undergraduate students disseminated a one-page questionnaire door-to-door to over 2,000 Urbana residents
on two consecutive Saturdays, resulting in 614 returns.
The goal of this survey was to gather a more representative set of opinions to offer the City of Urbana for use
in future phases of their redevelopment plan. Through
a set of subsequent ARI seminar courses, the results of
the survey have been compiled for consideration by the
Urban Greening – Abstracts
City of Urbana, on behalf of FOB. Detailed public input
is being provided by means of follow-up focus group
interviews that continue each semester. Additionally,
students are being trained in methods of observation
and perceptual analysis in a repeatable effort to audit
Downtown Urbana for mobility, sustainability, accommodation, and potential for urban place-making. Since
ARI courses draw students from all campus departments, a wide range of analytical approaches inevitably
emerge. As a pedagogical norm, students in the related
ARI courses are actively involved in each step of this
continual research process—the specifics and methods
of which form the bulk of this report.
Urban Wilds: Vacant Land,
Nature, and the Unraveling City
Susan Dieterlen, [email protected], (SUNYESF); Catalina Freixas, [email protected].
edu, (Washington University); Sarah Cowles,
[email protected], (Ohio State University);
Angela Loder, angela.loder@fulbrightmail.
org, (University of Denver)
The increase of underused land reclaimed by nature in urban areas has become a subject of scholarly
discourse in recent years, ranging from assessments of
“shrinking cities” to impacts on property values and
ecological function. Recent economic upheaval and
population shifts have resulted in persistently lower
levels of public and private investment in urban landscapes, adding to the impact of older trends such as urban deindustrialization and suburbanization. This panel
will explore current thought about urban wilds from an
interdisciplinary perspective, including urban planning,
architecture, and landscape architecture. Panelists will
present current work involving a case study of implementation of eco-urbanism strategies for repurposing
vacant land, aesthetic qualities of ruderal vegetation,
and a survey of city plans seeking examples of planning for “the wild” in a variety of contexts. Moderated
discussion will span economic, ecological, and social
implications, and center around whether wild land
is ultimately beneficial or harmful to cities and their
residents. These presentations will enhance understanding of the different definitions and investigations of
wild urban land in current research across the environmental design professions. Participation in discussion
by attendees will extend this dialogue into a broader
interdisciplinary context. This understanding intends
to help shape work in progress and spark new project
ideas, as well as enhance networking opportunities with
those with an interest in urban wilds. Increased work
in this area will be of use to those planning, designing,
and studying postindustrial urban areas, and in informing wise management and development strategies for
shrinking cities.
Presentation #1: Redefining Development in
Post-Industrial Cities
Old North St. Louis (ONSL) has experienced decades of depopulation that has left disconnected empty
lots and a decaying building stock. Its post-industrial
landscape is one of eroding density and obsolete infrastructures. Now, the absent natural terrain has reasserted
itself in voids dotting the urban fabric. Untouched,
these voids return to their dormant ecologies and offer
tremendous opportunities for community regeneration and sustainable urbanism. ONSL has started to
see the results of a revitalization master plan led by the
ONSL Restoration Group where community gardens
and other similar efforts were encouraged. One such
effort is HUB, a project by our firm. HUB currently
consists of: (i) a pollinator nectaring garden, (ii) a play
area, (iii) a multi-use paved area, (iv) an on-site bus
stop bench, and future plans include a nature discovery
play area. Based on our experience with HUB, as well
as research done on ONSL and St. Louis City, our team
seeks to understand the role of eco-urbanism strategies
within a shrinking city. Eco-urbanism stresses a shift of
planning goals from population and economic growth
to improved quality of life via environmental sustainability. Currently, there is little quantitative research
evaluating the effectiveness of its implementation. Our
research questions are: (i) How effective are current
eco-urbanism strategies? (ii) What factors affect their
effectiveness? Is it possible to make a predictive model
of effectiveness? (iii) In particular, will synergistic
relationships between strategies, or a top-down vs.
bottom-up approach, influence effectiveness? Implementation of eco-urbanism in St. Louis has the potential
to transform it from a shrinking city to a metamorphic
city: one that is defined by its new goals of environmental sustainability and high quality of life. We aim to
establish a replicable model for other neighborhoods in
St. Louis as well as other shrinking cities in the United
States.
235
Abstracts – Urban Greening
Presentation #3: Critical Disturbance: Towards a
Nonequilibrium Aesthetic
The dominant aesthetics of the ecological restoration
industry privilege the visual language of the “after”:
the stable, mature landscape, where the “before” of
disturbance and artifices necessary for naturalization are
camouflaged. The climax state endures as an orthodox
visual paradigm, a proxy for environmental restoration,
health, and stability. Yet the current non-equilibrium
paradigm of ecology embraces instability, chance,
disturbance, and instrumentality of ruderal (disturbance-adapted) species. In the new paradigm, there are
multiple “befores” and multiple “afters”: the mature,
or climax state, is no longer the end-goal. Rather than
work to restore landscapes to a simulacrum of a mature state before disturbance, ecologists and landscape
architects such as Peter Del Tredici and Michel Desvigne are “against restoration”, promoting and designing
resilient landscape systems that absorb and actively
respond to disturbances. A stance against restoration
allows the emergence and engagement of new aesthetic
dimensions in site projects. In contrast to the pastoral,
stable “after” image, the aesthetics of the new paradigm
makes legible the artifices of resilience: erosion control
blankets, cables, geotubes, stabilizing rootwads, live
shrub stakes. This presentation includes research I am
conducting for an illustrated publication interpreting
historic, contemporary, and speculative site projects that
resonate with the nonequilibrium paradigm in ecology;
projects which expose artifice, make legible the spatial
and material effects of disturbance, and aestheticize
the instrumentality of ruderal (disturbance-adapted)
species. This publication will interpret these projects
within landscape architectural history and landscape art,
and contextualizes them within current discourses on
ecological restoration and resilient systems design. This
presentation will feature in-depth interpretation of several built and speculative works, including Herzog and
DeMeuron’s Laban Dance Center, a ruderal “cut and
paste” of a brownfield for endangered birds, the temporary, ruderal landscape of Ile De Seguin by Michel
Desvigne Paysagistes, Alexander Robinson’s scripted
landforms for dust mitigation in the Owens River
Lakebed, Natur-Park Schöneberger Südgelände, by
Öko ¬Con/Planland and art collective ODIOUS, where
artifice and disturbance are in constant dialog.
236 Urban Planning – Abstracts
URBAN PLANNING
A Diachronic and Synchronic
Study of the Urban Morphology
of Baghdad Using Transects
Dhirgham Alobaydi, [email protected],
(The University of Kansas); Mahbub Rashid,
[email protected], (The University of Kansas)
Most Middle Eastern cities have evolved over centuries in a spontaneous manner with a high degree of
complexity. Subsequently, many were expanded using
modern planning concepts and models in the 19th and
20th centuries. The purpose of this study is to identify
the morphological differences between different phases
of a typical Middle Eastern city at the level of street
systems, plot, building forms, and land use. We select
Baghdad, Iraq as our case study not only because it is
one of oldest cities in the region, but also because it has
observed phenomenal growth and change during the
last one hundred years or so. Since the city is huge, we
divide the city into historically meaningful segments,
called transects. We study the changing morphological
patterns within one of these transects both diachronically and synchronically. Diachronically, we study the
evolution of urban morphology within the segment that
spans a period of 1,500 years. Synchronically, we study
the morphological variations within various areas of
the segment in the current phase of Baghdad. For the
study purposes, we overlay several historical maps in
GIS using geo-referencing based on important landmarks and streets that did not change or changed very
little from one historical phase to another. We then use
the measuring tools available within the GIS platform
to measure various morphological properties of street
systems, plots, building forms, and land use. Our study
shows significant relationships between various morphological properties of street systems, plots, building
forms, and land use patterns, both synchronically and
diachronically. One significant limitation of this study,
however, is that we do not study street network, which
is an important aspect of urban morphology and which
has shown to affect land use patterns in many previous
studies. Therefore, we wish to include this in our study
framework in future studies of Middle Eastern cities.
Environmental Perception of
Teenagers Regarding the Public
Open Spaces
Fatemeh Saeidi-Rizi, [email protected],
(Virginia Tech)
People in the outdoor environment have physical
and psychological needs. The needs and preferences of
various age groups differ. A public open space that effectively satisfies these needs is a space that, in addition
to responding to the physical needs of users, responds to
psychological needs as well. The purpose of this study
is to examine the environmental perceptions of teenagers regarding public open spaces. The study has developed findings that can influence the design of those
spaces, with the goal of providing social and physical
benefits of neighborhood parks for teenagers. The
research was conducted through two phases. During
the first phase, interviews were held with professionals
who had experience in working with teenagers about
the most important elements in public open spaces. Key
themes were developed as a result of the interviews.
Then, during the second phase, experimental models of
the different combinations of the identified key categories of design elements were created, and students from
a Youth Center in Roanoke, Virginia were interviewed
about their preferences of the design combinations.
It was found that teenagers prefer spaces more in the
front of the public open spaces and by the edges, close
to the entrance, or close to the parking lot. In addition,
they would be more willing to be in spaces that allow
them to see (view) as well as be seen. Based on the
suggested relationships among the design attributes of
neighborhood parks and teenagers’ use of space, this
research suggests that providing public spaces is linked
with increased opportunities for the social development of teenagers. The findings of this research suggest
that where there are no designated areas for teenagers,
there is still potential to improve existing public spaces
through design that takes into account teenager’s preferences. The primary implications of the findings of this
research could help inform landscape architects and
urban planners in their designs of future public open
spaces that address the needs of teenagers.
237
Abstracts – Urban Planning
Communication, Public
Advertising, and Income Disparity
David Boeck, [email protected], (University of
Oklahoma); Gary Gumpert, listra@optonline.
net, (Urban Communications Foundation);
Matthew Matsaganis, mmatsaganis@gmail.
com, (University of Albany); Peter Haratonik,
[email protected], (The New School);
Susan Drucker, [email protected], (Hofstra);
Bryce Lowery, [email protected],
(University of Oklahoma)
Billboards, from low tech to those equipped with
ever more technologically sophisticated digital images and tracking, fill the spaces and skies of cities and
roads. Critics decry the visual pollution and potential
negative consequences of such advertising. Billboards
have been seen as unnatural intrusions in neighborhoods capable of detracting from the beauty and
character of place. The control of outdoor advertising
has been associated with the visual quality of communities. Advocates call for regulation over visual pollution
or blight. The systematic targeting of poor and vulnerable communities by outdoor advertising, especially
for unhealthy products, has been supported by diverse
research studies. In this symposium, we have put together a multidisciplinary team of architects, planners,
communications experts, and social scientists to discuss
the reasoning behind advertising specific businesses and
products in specific economically connected neighborhoods. We will look at the history of this activity
and how it has transitioned to where it is today. One
presenter will focus on Los Angeles and looking at the
difference in regulatory structure and types of products
advertised in various economically diverse neighborhoods. One will focus on the history of advertising and
its influence over time in various cities and countries.
One will focus on advertising in an African nation and
how it influences the communities there.
Presentation #1: Poverty and Advertising: How
Marketing Companies Focus Their Advertising by
Economic Strata in Lusaka, Zambia
In traveling to Lusaka, Zambia this last year, one of
the issues that stood out was the plethora of corporate
advertising situated in all sectors of the urban area of
Lusaka. Lusaka is the capitol of Zambia, developed by
238 the British in the 1930s as the center of the mining operations that were the focus of Britain’s interests in that
part of Africa. The city was designed in the model of
British urban development, allowing only for the governmental administrators who were all white. This was
expanded to allow native service employees to come
to town to work but not to live. It wasn’t until later that
the natives started moving into the urban areas, overwhelming the infrastructure that that was developed for
a small sized urban area. This led to the development of
the areas called compounds, now housing 70 percent of
the native population in the city. Public advertising—
mainly billboards and computerized signage—have
been installed mainly along main roads and thoroughfares. The interesting aspect of this advertising is the
fact that this is in the areas that would be considered
middle class and upper middle class areas. It is, however, also on the roads around the compounds or informal
neighborhoods. In addition to this signage, there is also
the building applied advertising sited on commercial
buildings as well as shacks in the informal market areas
of the compounds and on the walls surrounding every
commercial business and residential neighborhood. This
presentation will look at the types of products advertised in these areas and evaluate the types of products
and services and see if there is a connection of economic levels of the area the signage is located in and
the products advertised.
Presentation #2: Selling to the Poor: Regulating
Outdoor Advertising
Billboards, from low tech to those equipped with
ever more technologically sophisticated digital images and tracking, fill the spaces and skies of cities and
roads. Critics decry the visual pollution and potential
negative consequences of such advertising. Billboards
have been seen as unnatural intrusions in neighborhoods capable of detracting from the beauty and
character of place. The control of outdoor advertising
has been associated with the visual quality of communities. Advocates call for regulation over visual pollution
or blight. The systematic targeting of poor and vulnerable communities by outdoor advertising, especially
for unhealthy products, has been supported by diverse
research studies. Studies have found Latino neighborhoods disproportionately contained advertisements for
tobacco and alcohol products. Other research findings
reveal that neighborhoods with lower socioeconomic
status also had more tobacco advertisements than more
affluent neighborhoods. Reacting to this pattern, many
urban communities have passed local ordinances limiting and even banning outdoor ads. Some have prohibit-
Urban Planning – Abstracts
ed advertisements for unhealthy products ranging from
tobacco and alcohol to fast food. Some limit advertisements within 1,000 feet of places where children could
be present. However, in 2001, in Lorillard Tobacco
Co. v. Reilly, the U.S. Supreme Court found bans on
outdoor ads to be an unconstitutional infringement on
commercial speech. The court found regulations can
not infringe on the speaker’s ability to propose a business sale and the adult listener’s opportunity to obtain
information about the product. Outside the United
States (unhindered by Constitutional limitations), cities
have gone so far as to ban such advertising. São Paulo
became a modern metropolis with no outdoor advertising: no billboards, no flashing neon signs, no electronic
panels with messages crawling along the bottom. This
paper will explore the regulatory landscape of outdoor
advertising of unhealthy products in vulnerable communities.
Presentation #3: Mapping and Reconstructing
“Fields of Health Action” in Disadvantaged
Urban Communities: Implications for Health,
Design, and Policy Interventions
Based on analyses of multiple sources of data gathered as part of two larger, multiyear and multi-method
research projects to address health disparities in two
U.S. cities—a small urban community in the Northeast
of the country and a larger urban center in the Southeast—this paper advances understanding of particular
challenges that health interventions face in urban environments with different configurations. Findings suggest that factors in residents’ material environment and
their social construction of that environment (through
everyday communication among residents, and between
residents and local organizational actors) interact to
produce a ‘field of health action,’ within which healthcare and health information-seeking behavior is enabled
and constrained. Four factors emerged as salient: actual
availability of and perceptions of access to health resources, transportation options, communication resources (including interpersonal, media, and organizational)
that aid health information and healthcare seeking, and
privacy concerns around healthcare-seeking. In discussing these factors, we highlight differences across the
two urban communities studied. Overall, our findings
show how a city’s built and social environment, as well
as policies that shape everyday life at the local level,
impact residents’ health and offer recommendations as
to how to improve the design of public health strategies,
health communication campaigns, and policy interventions in the future.
Presentation #4: Modernization,
Industrialization, and the Commercialization
of Urban Spaces: The 19th Century Roots of
Outdoor Advertising
Outdoor advertising and commercial signage has a
history spanning back to ancient times, but it was with
the growth of industrialization and the modern consumer culture that public displays of commercial messages
took a new turn. This paper looks into the 19th century
roots of modern outdoor advertising and commercial
signage. It focuses on three cities: New York, Chicago,
and Paris. Similarities and differences in each locale
are examined, with particular attention paid to the role
of public policy in 19th century urban planning as it
contrasts with more laissez-faire approaches.
Presentation #5: Documenting the Visual
Impact of Outdoor Advertising: Opportunities
and Challenges Using Geographic Information
Systems
Visual assessment of the landscape is an important
part of understanding the interplay between humans and
the environment. Emerging technologies in the fields
of mobile communication and geographic information
systems enhance our ability to document and investigate how specific physical qualities of a neighborhood
contribute to a localized sense of place and influence
community health. Exploring how residents differentially experience the proliferation of outdoor advertising
can be facilitated by these advancements—enabling a
richer understanding of how both the quantity and quality of outdoor advertising influences individual wellbeing. Using a spatially coded photographic database
of outdoor advertising in Los Angeles, I will discuss
the use of these technologies as a tool for assessing the
visual impact of outdoor advertising. Photographs were
taken over the course of six months in set of diverse
communities across the city to investigate the relationship between factors of the built environment and
socio-economic characteristics of the local community.
Outdoor advertising was coded to reflect both harmful content (addictive behaviors, violence, unhealthy
eating, misogyny, and other adult themes), as well as
positive or benign content such as public service announcements, community events, and other advertising
for entertainment, clothing, material goods, tourism, or
other businesses. Building upon past work that suggests
the need for collaboration between researchers and local
residents, I will discuss the potential for participatory
geographic information systems to bolster our understanding of community perception of the built environ-
239
Abstracts – Urban Planning
ment. Ultimately, these methods offer an opportunity to
empower communities to engage the physical environment and document both positive and negative aspects
of the visual landscape. Such empowerment has the
potential to better inform public policies that regulate
the built environment.
240 Urban Public Spaces – Abstracts
URBAN PUBLIC SPACES
Typology as Methodology: Types
of Spatial Configuration and
Publicness Profiles in College
Towns
Anirban Adhya, [email protected], (Lawrence
Technological University)
College towns have been studied as types of places
known for their campus planning, place quality, economic vitality, social movements, and public action
(Pierre Filion et al., 2004; Gumprecht, 2008; Places,
Winter 2005). However, the relationship between the
university and the town has been hardly documented
and has been less carefully examined. Specifically,
the university-town spatial configuration typology, the
subject of inquiry in this paper, can be a critical dimension for understanding different types of college towns.
With this premise, a typological study of college towns
is undertaken through an empirical case study of four
college towns: Ann Arbor (University of Michigan),
Athens (University of Georgia), Lansing-East Lansing
(Michigan State University), and Tallahassee (Florida
State University). The methodology involves three
integrated components. First, criteria and process for
defining a college town and determining the four types
of college town are described. In the process, various comparative features such as multiple criteria of
demographics, socio-economic statistics, geographic
variations, historic evolution, and regional dynamics are
identified; defining the type of a college town in small
metropolitan regions. Second, strengths and limitations of using a typological approach and using the four
specific types of towns are discussed. Implications of
including and excluding specific types of college towns
are also reviewed. This examines the utility of type as
an analytical tool in the case study through multilayered
comparative analyses with possible literal and theoretical replications (Yin, 1994). Third, the university-town
spatial configuration types (integrated, connected,
separate, and distant) in each town are examined (using
Space Syntax tool) in relation to people’s perception
of publicness (high, moderate, restricted) and people’s
environmental role (university, town, university and
town) in the town (using interviews and Multiple Sorting Tasks). This mixed-modal research design has two
important implications. First, this study of types highMay 2015 – brainSTORM
lights spatial configuration as a critical dimension in
research of places. Second, as a future direction to this
research, the role of spatial configuration (physical environment) in influencing people’s perceptions (meanings) in relation to their environmental role (actions) is
analyzed. The framework of types has been established
as category of places reflecting organization of human
thinking, communication, and action (Franck, 1994).
This typological study of four college towns extends the
paradigm of type as a research tool, validating the role
of physical environment and spatial design in experience and use of places.
Impressions of Plaza Lighting
After Dark
Jack Nasar, [email protected], (The Ohio
State University); Saleheh Bokharaei,
[email protected], (Shahid Beheshti
University)
Lighting may affect impressions of plazas after dark.
Following research on interior lighting, two studies
manipulated three key modes of lighting—non-uniform/
uniform, peripheral/overhead, dim/bright—in three
plazas. Impressions of lighting for plazas, tertiary territories with less control and more certainty than offices,
might differ from that for office interiors. Prospectrefuge (P_R) theory predicts that people would prefer
uniform, bright overhead lighting offering (i.e., clear
unobstructed views ahead). In Study 1, 32 students (15
men, 17 women) rated the spaciousness and privacy
of each of the 24 plazas, and 30 students (16 men, 14
women) rated the appeal, excitement, and safety from
crime of each plaza. Appeal, excitement, and safety
had high inter-item reliability and were combined into
one preference scale. As with office interiors, perceived
spaciousness increased with uniform and bright lighting, and privacy increased with non-uniform, dim,
peripheral lighting, but unlike the office interiors and in
agreement with P-R theory, preference increased with
uniform, overhead, or bright lighting. Study 2 sought to
discover whether the results would hold if participants
received a safety prompt to reduce their uncertainty.
Thirty-eight students (12 men, 26 women) rated each
plaza for spaciousness and privacy; 39 students (15
men, 23 women, 1 no response) rated each plaza for
excitement and safety, and 37 students (14 men, 23
women) rated each plaza for appeal. Appeal, excite-
241
Abstracts – Urban Public Spaces
ment, and safety had high inter-item reliability and
were combined. Perceived spaciousness increased only
with bright lighting; privacy increased with dim or
non-uniform lighting; and in agreement with the Study
1 findings and P_R theory, preference increased with
uniform, overhead, bright lighting. Additional research
could conduct on-site tests after changes in real plazas.
Exploring Aesthetic Design
Principles on Linear Infiltration
Systems Along Urban Streets
Frank Sleegers, [email protected],
(University of Massachusetts)
Numerous infiltration systems along urban streets
have been implemented with the goal of reducing the
impact of runoff on urban watersheds. A recent study by
the author of this paper evaluated three case studies of
linear infiltration systems along urban residential streets
in Hannover (GER) and Seattle (WA) in an expertbased method for assessing the visual quality of four
general design principles—coherence, variety, legibility, and spaciousness. The findings demonstrate that the
designed systems have unrealized potential to engage
aesthetic values, including the legibility of infiltration’s
enhanced visibility. They have largely been functionally designed with little regard to design aesthetics even
though aesthetic value is important to public acceptance and increased use. The method of this project is
a research by design study that explores traditional,
formal parameters of design that have been investigated
in the previous study: repetition and rhythm, variation,
diversity, focality, continuity, enclosure, and depth.
Here these parameters are applied on two existing
urban streetscapes from the previous study. Landscape
media such as street trees and understory vegetation
will be manipulated with photo montage techniques
onto a single street view to investigate these parameters
as potential design typologies. In a later stage, these
typologies will be used to conduct a survey via a photoquestionnaire among three groups: residents, landscape
architecture students, and professional design experts in
landscape architecture. The preferences will be ranked
on a five-scale bar and clarify how the traditional design
parameters are valued by the three groups in relationship to infiltration landscapes. A pilot survey will be
conducted at the EDRA conference to discover poten-
242 tial flaws of the photo-questionnaire. The findings will
provide guidance for designers and decision makers to
enhance the visual quality of infiltration along urban
streets, which will contribute to their propagation and
the enhancement of urban ecologies.
Walkability – Abstracts
WALKABILITY
The Role of Configuration on
Residential Location Choices
and Walkability to Work: Space
Syntax Exploration of Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania
Girmay Berhie, [email protected],
(Texas Tech University); Saif Haq, saif.haq@
ttu.edu, (Texas Tech University)
The theory of ‘natural movement’ postulates that
configuration of the urban grid is an important generator of aggregate patterns of movement in urban areas.
Retail and commercial land use locate themselves at the
configurationally hotspot locations to take advantage of
the economic opportunities created by movement, i.e.,
passing customers (Hillier, 1993). Thus, these ‘attractors’ create a multiplier effect to the movement that
is initially generated by its configurational hierarchy.
Retail and commercial areas are also work places for a
good number of people. Since the accessibility relations between home and work locations and mode of
transportation is an important factor in the choice of
residential locations, (Liu, 2012; Bhiromkaew, 2006),
we hypothesize that the sites of retail areas as understood by their configurational index will also affect
the choice of residential locations of groups accessing
different transportation modes. We test this hypothesis
in the city of Pittsburgh with configurational data from
Space Syntax analysis and those collected online from
the American Community Survey and the U.S. Census
Bureau. Space Syntax analysis was carried out using
street centerlines that was extracted from the Pittsburgh
city GIS map. Data collected online include tenure,
family income, property values, race, car ownership,
travel time, population density, and commercial or retail
land use classification. Statistical analyses including
multiple regressions were performed to investigate the
effect of these variables on the percentage of people
who walk to their work places. The spatial unit of analysis was census block-group polygons. ArcGIS spatial
analysis tools were used to combine various data types
and to aggregate average configurational values (integration) for each study unit. Results indicate that choice
of transportation is significantly explained by multiple
variables including configuration, race, travel time, car
ownership, residential location, property values, and
commercial land use concentrations. Significance of
this study, its implications for sustainable urban design,
and opportunities for future extensions of this work,
including the possibility of comparing with onsite data,
will also be discussed.
Barriers to Walks in the
Neighboring Green Area: A
Case Study in Norway
Helena Nordh, [email protected],
(Norwegian University of Life Sciences); Kine
Halvorsen Thorén, [email protected],
(Norwegian University of Life Sciences)
Over the past 10-15 years, there has been an increased interest in preventing people’s lifestyle diseases.
The World Health Organization as well as the government of our country, Norway, emphasizes physical activity and arrangements to enhance everyday activity as
a particularly important prevention measure. The goal is
that adults should reach the recommendations of at least
150 minutes of moderate physical activity per week and
60 minutes every day for children and young people.
At present, we are unfortunately far from achieving
these goals. Studies have shown that walking in nature
and green surroundings in the neighborhood is the most
important everyday physical activity for the majority of
the adult population. Local initiatives such as walking
groups have popped up at several places, and walking is an activity with deep cultural roots in Norway.
In this study, we set out to study motives and barriers
to walking in the neighborhood and to which extent
the urban landscape hinders or facilitates walking. The
target group is adults, both walkers and non-walkers.
The research project is multidisciplinary, with use of
several methods such as mapping of activity using
GIS-analysis, infrared counters, in-depth interviews and
telephone interviews, document and literature studies,
and studies of the urban landscapes. The project group
is put together with people from different research disciplines, such as landscape architecture, human geography, social science, and environmental psychology. In
this abstract, we present some preliminary results from
the telephone interviews. Seven hundred adults took
part in the interview, of which 52 percent were women,
43 percent lived in apartments, and 37 percent lived
243
Abstracts – Walkability
in single houses/villas. Other demographics such as
income, level of education, and work will be presented
at the conference. Aesthetics and road management
during wintertime were the attributes most important
for the walkers. Surprisingly, social aspects such as lack
of someone to walk with and seasonal changes such
as darkness and winter were bigger barriers than, for
example, lack of time or lack of motivation. Additional
results will be presented at the conference.
Evaluating Post-Development
of the Hudson River Waterfront
Walkway Using Geographic
Information System (GIS)
Ha Pham, [email protected], (New Jersey
Since adopting the Public Trust Doctrine in its
Coastal Management Programs in 1980, the State of
New Jersey requires developers and property owners
to build, maintain, and open to the public the Hudson
River Waterfront Walkway at the water’s edge within
their properties, a condition for waterfront redevelopment permits. When all segments are completed, the
walkway would stretch 18.5 miles from the George
Washington Bridge to Bayonne Bridge and connect
nine municipalities including Fort Lee, Edgewater,
North Bergen, Gutenberg, West New York, Weehawken,
Hoboken, Jersey City, and Bayonne. In 1984, the New
Jersey Department of Environmental Protection published the Hudson River Waterfront Walkway: Planning
and Design Guidelines, a set of specific design standards to assure that separate segments built by different developers at different times would be ultimately
connected as one continuous path. Up to 2014, except
for Bayonne where the waterfront still remains largely
for industrial activities, most of the waterfront properties subjected to the mandate have been redeveloped
from industrial to commercial and residential uses.
Although being reviewed and approved by the state, the
design and planning of walkway segments vary due to
several factors such as ownership, type and scale of the
projects, and local zoning and land-use policies. This
research employed GIS (ESRI’s ArcMap) to coordinate
the survey data of the walkway’s condition including
design features, levels of accessibility, adjacent landuse, and proximity to nearby public transportation and
244 open space. By comparing with the original walkway
proposal by the State of New Jersey, this research
shows where the walkway meets and exceeds or fails
the design standard. Further quantitative analyses that
included Census data also revealed correlations between
design quality, walkway accessibility, type and scale of
developments, demographics, local zoning and land-use
policies, and proximity to public transportation.
Perception and Participation:
Comparing the Community
Design Process Between Matured
Neighborhoods in Developed
and Developing Countries
Keng Hua Chong, chongkenghua@sutd.
edu.sg, (Singapore University of Technology
and Design); Kien To, [email protected],
(Singapore University of Technology and
Design); Zheng Jia, [email protected],
(Singapore University of Technology and
Design)
Participatory design refers to a set of methods and
techniques to actively involve all stakeholders of a
problem, such as a social challenge, in the design process. Community empowerment motivates the adoption of such approach in urban design, in which many
methods and strategies have been detailed by designers
and scholars who are working towards some forms of
“participatory design toolkit”. Participatory community
design has also been adopted in many urban projects
around the world, especially while working with less
privileged communities. However, due to geopolitical
and cultural differences, it is important for designers to
consider how participatory methods should be adapted
based on systemic studies of contexts and agents,
perceptions and processes. Despite different motivations in developed and developing counties, whether
it is for decentralization of power in the former, or
lack of local support in the latter, many communities
in Southeast Asia are now participating more actively
in decision-making processes in hope of improving
their living environment. It is noticed that the roles of
policy makers and designers have also begun to shift
from “design for community” to “design with commu-
Walkability – Abstracts
nity”, while addressing challenges and issues specific
to particular local contexts. Through comparative case
studies, this paper seeks to evaluate the community
engagement processes and share lessons learnt from
several participatory community design projects aiming
to improve lives in matured neighborhoods in several
Southeast Asian countries including Vietnam and Singapore. While strong economic development in Vietnam
does not spare its towns from urbanization issues such
as redevelopment of old neighborhoods and disaster
resilience, matured neighborhoods with growing elderly
and urban poor in economically successful Singapore
also face challenges in senior housing, walkability, and
eldercare provisions. The primary goal of this paper is
thus to uncover how local urban histories, which resulted in different socio-political values and perceptions
of these matured neighborhoods, could have influenced
the participatory approaches adopted in these neighborhoods. This will be followed by discussion on catalysts
of change and future projection of participatory planning in this region.
Walking Behaviors and
Preferences Related to Park
Characteristics: A Multi-Method
Approach
Robby Layton, [email protected], (North Carolina
State University); Ece Altinbasak, ece.
[email protected], (North Carolina State
University)
Walking has been found to be associated with health
outcomes. Neighborhood parks offer the potential to
motivate people to walk. However, there has been
limited study related to walking and parks. This study
investigated relationships between walking and the
physical characteristics of public parks. A multi-method
approach was used, including archival research of a
previous study. A correlational intercept survey was
then employed to obtain user perceptions and preferences related to walking in parks. A qualitative mental
mapping exercise was conducted simultaneously to gain
insight into specific walking behaviors and perceptions
of individuals in selected parks. The correlational study
showed that the three things rated as high in importance
to walking in parks were restrooms, “other things to
do”, and availability of drinking water. Places to sit
were rated Very Important by more than half of the
respondents. References to crime and safety appeared
frequently in the open-ended survey responses, indicating that these considerations are important to park visitors. The mental mapping research showed that walking
routes tend to follow established walkways, indicating
that providing these is important in encouraging people
to walk in parks. One of the most significant findings
was that connecting parks to greenways plays a role in
people’s decision to take a walk. The findings of this
study indicate that encouraging more use of neighborhood parks could increase walking as an activity.
Aspects of neighborhood parks that may be important in
motivating people to walk include the provision of restrooms and drinking fountains and a choice of activities
for all members of the family to engage in. Providing
safe and pleasant walking routes both to the park and
within it also plays a role in increasing people’s motivation to walk to a park.
Walkable Street: The Effect
of Perceived Attributes of
Environment on Willingness to
Walk
Hao-Ting Lien, [email protected], (The Ohio
State University)
The world is suffering from an obesity epidemic.
Walking, as the easiest type of physical activity for
most people, could improve health if performed on
regular basis (Haskell et al., 2007). Although personal
factors affect walking, many studies show that walking
also relates to the character of the actual and perceived
physical environment (Hoehner et al., 2005). Much
research on the effects of physical environment on
walking has relied on physical measures, such as land
use and amount of sidewalk infrastructure. Studies
show major effects of aesthetics on walkability (Humpel et al., 2004), but for policy those findings leave
open the question of what properties of an environment
make it aesthetically pleasing and desirable for walking. The present study sought to fill the gap. Research
on environmental preferences (aesthetics) has identified
salient perceived attributes of the environment such as
enclosure, order, complexity, naturalness, and upkeep
and found them related to aesthetic response (Nasar,
245
Abstracts – Walkability
1998). To guide plans for walkable environments in
terms of aesthetics, we need to know: (1) the cases in
which the physical and perceived measures of the attributes overlap and (2) whether the aesthetic response
to them translates into the willingness to walk. Because
much of the research on walkability is correlational and
in real world settings, it leaves many variables uncontrolled and cannot establish cause. To overcome these
problems, the present research first selected a pool of
perceived attributes salient in environmental perception that also relate to aesthetic response and that might
affect the willingness to walk. Then, the researcher conducted a survey to test the main effect of each attribute
on willingness to walk by having participants view and
respond to computer-generated color images showing
different levels of each attribute. Some participants
rated the images for the physically manipulated attribute and others rated the images for walkability. For the
physical attributes that related to the perceived attributes and had the largest effect size on walkability, the
researcher conducted a second study to test their main
and interactive effects on the willingness to walk. The
findings indicated that as expected walkability related to
certain perceived “aesthetically pleasing” attributes and
that in some cases there were interaction effects accentuating the positive effect. The results provide insights
into what physical and perceived attributes overlap and
affect people’s willingness to walk, and their relative
importance. Future research could test the effects of manipulations of those attributes in real environments in
different places and for different populations to see how
well the lab findings generalize to real world conditions.
246 Wayfinding – Abstracts
WAYFINDING
Spatial Cognition of the Blind
During the Wayfinding Process
Didem Kan Kilic, [email protected].
tr, (Izmir University of Economics); Fehmi
Dogan, [email protected], (Izmir
Blind people perceive space with their heightened
sense of hearing, smell, and touch focusing exclusively on non-visual constituents of space. Everybody
perceives space multidimensionally, however, blind
people are more conscious of the non-visual constituents of space. Although there is an extensive amount of
research on the mobility, perception, and wayfinding
of blind people (Gaunet and Briffault, 2005; Saerberg,
2010; Passini and Proulx, 1988; Leonard and Newman,
1967; Dodds et al., 1982, Herman et al., 1983), there
has been no work to show which specific aspects of the
built environment they focus on and use as cues in the
way they relate to their spatial environment. The study
highlights the holistic and multidimensional perception
of space by asking blind people to mark those places
that they find particularly important in a complex urban
fabric, namely Kemeralti, and in an urban park, namely
İzmir Fair District, by verbally describing the features
in the environment they attend to. Their verbal reports
are recorded during the wayfinding process. Decoding
is made according to egocentric (memory) and environment based (sensory) inputs of the environment that
they mention. The study was conducted with seven
blind participants, of whom three are congenitally blind.
The Kemeralti District provides rich sensory information for blind people in the form of non-visual sensory
inputs. İzmir Fair District is a different urban texture
and provides different sensory information than Kemeralti for the blind. It is found that the holistic perception of the urban environment has great significance for
blind people and multidimensional sensory inputs help
them in their wayfinding strategies in large-scale urban
environments.
An Assistance Tool for Signage
Placement and Wayfinding
Analysis
Carl Schultz, [email protected].
de, (University of Bremen); Mehul Bhatt,
of Bremen)
The placement of signage and landmarks plays a
critical role in the navigability of indoor environments.
Despite considerable advances in an understanding
of indoor wayfinding behaviours based on decades
of research in psychology and architectural design,
cutting-edge research results are generally inaccessible
to practitioners in the field and remain under-utilised in
industry; this can be attributed to factors such as limited
time, pressure to reduce costs, and no support in the
integration of research findings into standard industry
workflows. This is a particular concern given the growing impetus towards evidence-based people-centred design. We present a signage assistance tool that enables
practitioners with both work-in-progress and existing
industry scale designs to (a) analyse building models
with respect to visibility and wayfinding based on the
latest results from the research community, (b) identify
potentially problematic locations in the building with
respect to wayfinding, and (c) suggest the placement of
signage and landmarks to improve building navigability. We also present an evaluation of our tool through
two case studies in the domain of healthcare facilities:
(a) both the New Parkland Hospital and the existing
Parkland Hospital facilities in Dallas, United States,
and (b) the Trabajador trauma hospital in Santiago,
Chile. We compare collected user data with the analysis
provided by our tool, and show that our tool identifies
well-known critical wayfinding locations along important routes and gives feasible suggestions for improving
signage and landmark placement. The signage assistance tool that we present is part of a broader agenda of
making spatial cognition driven assistive technologies
accessible to practitioners, academics, and students in
the architecture design community.
247
Abstracts – Wayfinding
Flying Solo: Improving Airport
Wayfinding for Older Adults and
Travelers with Disabilities
Examining Eye Fixations During
Wayfinding in Unfamiliar
Environments
Sheila Bosch, [email protected],
(Gresham, Smith and Partners); Arsalan
Gharaveis, [email protected], (Texas
A&M)
Hessam Ghamari, [email protected],
(Appalachian State University); Debajyoti
Pati, [email protected], (Texas Tech University)
The “gray tsunami” is affecting the aviation industry in numerous ways, and we cannot underestimate
the importance of addressing the needs of older adults
in order to improve their travel experiences. Older
travelers are prone to conditions such as Alzheimer’s
disease, obesity, cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, and diabetes that can adversely affect a person’s
navigational abilities. Research on older travelers and
how best to meet their needs is a relatively new field of
investigation. In addition to older adults, a large number
of travelers from all over the world with sensory, cognitive, or mobility disabilities, as well as travelers who do
not have disabilities, will benefit from concerted efforts
to improve wayfinding in airports. Nearly one in five
Americans reports having from some form of disability,
with half of those reporting that their disability(ies) is
severe. Design strategies and technological interventions aimed at improving airport wayfinding can also
enhance wayfinding for older adults and persons with
disabilities in other complex environments, such as
hospitals and assisted living facilities. Presenters will
provide an overview of the literature reviewed as part of
a larger project funded by the Transportation Research
Board, Airport Cooperative Research Program.
248 This study focuses on eye fixations during wayfinding in unfamiliar environments. Literature shows that
disorientation due to wayfinding errors and navigation
problems in unfamiliar environments produce frustration, irritation, anxiety, and stress. Spatial disorientation due to weak wayfinding is a major source of
stress when the design of the built environment fails
to provide adequate wayfinding cues. The aim of this
study was to identify elements of the designed environment that attract eye fixation during wayfinding by
objectively tracking eye movements and fixation as
healthy subjects navigate through a complex unfamiliar
setting. EyeGuide®—Mobile Tracking Technology
was used to capture data on gaze-fixation. The research
setting of this study was a college building of a large
research university. Eighteen adult subjects in different age groups (young, middle age, and elderly) and
different genders were asked to navigate five different
routes. Data analyses were conducted by using different
descriptive and inferential statistical tools such as T-test,
ANOVA, and Friedman test. The results of this study
show that signs attracted the largest proportion as well
as time of gaze fixation. In total, signs are the major
environmental information source among all classes of
environmental cues, covering 47 percent of the times
when subjects sought information to help in navigation.
The results of the study also showed that architectural
features (14.2%) and maps (8.4%) were the two other
major environmental attributes that attracted gaze fixation. Other design elements (7.9%), interior elements
pairing (5.3%), functional clusters (3.4%), and furniture
(2.6%) covered the remaining eye fixations. This study
conducted analysis of data on age and gender differences. The results showed that there is a significant
difference between males and females on the time of
navigation. Males were faster than females during navigations. The results also showed that young age group
(20-29) had the fastest navigation performance among
the age groups.
Women’s Healthcare Environments – Abstracts
WOMEN’S HEALTHCARE ENVIRONMENTS
The Influence of Australian
Hospital Birth Unit Design on
Women’s Birth Supporters
J. Davis Harte, j.davisharte@gmail.
com, (University of Technology Sydney);
Susan Stewart, [email protected],
(University of Technology Sydney); Athena
Sheehan, [email protected],
(University of Technology Sydney); Maralyn
Foureur, [email protected],
(University of Technology Sydney)
It is well known that the physical environment of
healthcare influences the perceptions and experiences
of patients and staff. Little attention, however, has been
paid to the impact of physical design on the experiences
of a woman’s chosen childbirth supporter. Research
was conducted exploring how the birth unit design
influences the communication between and experiences of women, their supporters, and midwives during
childbirth. Women seek to be accompanied by one or
more supporters, with evidence revealing that cooperative supporters are beneficial to labouring women. This
presentation describes how the physical environment
influences the behaviour of women’s birth supporters.
The aim of the study is to gain an understanding of
how the design of the birth environment accommodates women’s supporters and facilitates their support
roles. Ethics approval was obtained for a video reflexive ethnographic study where six consenting women
and their 11 supporters were filmed during labour at
two different Australian hospitals (February/March
2012). Video footage plus open-ended video-reflexive
interviews with all participants and observational field
notes provided data for analysis. Three-phase thematic
analysis cycle included: descriptive, interpretive, and
selective coding (after Saldaña). The physical environments of typical birth units do not appropriately meet
the needs of supporters, who may feel unsure of their
role, behaviour, or positioning, thus limiting the potential benefits of their support role. Major themes are:
“Unbelonging Paradox”, “Supporting the Supporter”,
and “Role Navigation”. Findings are supported by illustrative video footage stills. Knowing how the design of
birth units can best accommodate the needs of women’s
supporters may facilitate optimal birth experiences for
women and increase opportunities for safe, satisfying
birth. Designers and healthcare managers may benefit
from understanding the birth environment’s influence
on supporter’s behaviours.
Evidence-Based Design for
Childbirth Environments: The
Impacts of Daylight Exposure
on Analgesia Usage of PostCesarean Section Women
Chia-Hui Wang, chcatherinewang@gmail.
com, (Hwa-Hsia University of Technology);
Kathryn Anthony, [email protected],
(University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign);
Nai-Wen Kuo, [email protected], (Taipei
Medical University)
This research aims to explore the effects of built environments, specifically in terms of daylight exposure,
on the recovery of patients. Prior studies showed that
physical environments have significant impacts on human health. However, the impact of daylight exposure
on dosage of analgesic medication used is still inconclusive, making this study more valuable. Hospital caesarean rates in the U.S. have soared to a record high of
over 30 percent in 2007, making the Cesarean Section
a significant issue of women’s health. Therefore, the
researcher focused on exploring the impact of daylight
exposure on patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) usage
of women who have undergone Cesarean Sections. The
researcher recruited a total of 296 women undergoing
Cesarean Sections and using PCA for pain control after
their Cesarean Sections from three tertiary hospitals in
Taiwan for this research with assistance from 19 physicians and 68 nurses. Data collection methods include
self-administered questionnaire surveys, reviews of
medical charts, and observations. PCA usage and length
of stay were extracted from charts. Some confounding
variables such as socioeconomic data were collected
from self-administered questionnaires. Daylight exposure of each patient was measured by Konica Minolta
Illuminance Meter T-10 twice a day according to a
predetermined guideline. The research nurses measured
daylight intensity (lux) at 2 points in all participants’
249
Abstracts – Women’s Healthcare Environments
rooms twice daily in the morning (between 8:00-10:00
am) and afternoon (between 3:00-4:00 pm) by using
light meters starting from the first postoperative day
and continuing throughout their hospitalization. The
two measurement points of daylight intensity are the
point next to the patient’s head and the footboard of
the patient bed in each ward. The resulting AM lux
measurement and PM lux measurement will then be
multiplied by the number of AM (sunrise to noon) and
PM (noon to sunset) exposure hours occurring on each
day, respectively. The resulting two numbers are then
summed to determine the cumulative daily sunlight
exposure in lux-hours. Results of regression analysis
showed that amount of daylight exposure has a negative
and statistically significant association with analgesia
usage (morphine equivalent) when controlling for the
confounding variables such as demography and socioeconomic status of patients, as well as patient characteristics. Therefore, increasing daylight exposures could
decrease the usage of analgesia. Results also showed
that patient room configurations have a significant
impact on daylight exposure received in patient rooms.
Patient rooms with outboard toilet design receive significantly less daylight exposure compared with those
patient rooms with inboard toilet design. Therefore,
design and configurations of patient room may have a
significant impact on patients’ outcomes and should be
paid more attention.
250 Work Environments – Abstracts
WORK ENVIRONMENTS
Helping Creativity Happen:
Designing Spaces to Support
Creative/Innovative Thinking
Sally Augustin, sallyaugustin@
designwithscience.com, (Design With
Science); Melissa Marsh, melissa@plastarc.
com, (PLASTARC); Claire Rowell, Claire@
plastarc.com, (PLASTARC); Martin Hodulak,
[email protected], (Rheform);
Christine Kohlert, [email protected],
(rbsgroup); Ardis Hanson, [email protected],
(University of South Florida); Sheila GobesRyan, [email protected], (University of
South Florida)
The shelves at real and virtual bookstores are stuffed
with books on encouraging creativity. Psychologists,
sociologists, anthropologists, and other-ologists have
penned texts presenting a range of creativity building exercises and programs, without giving more than
fleeting attention to the places where people will be
creating or innovating. Even those passing references
don’t present the rigorous research that links particular
forms of the physical environment and creative thought.
This set of sessions does that; attendees will leave with
an evidence-based toolkit for designing spaces that support creative/innovative thinking. It reports on sensory
experiences linked to creative/innovative thought by
researchers and science-informed practitioners, as well
as place-related psychosocial factors with the same
implications for creative/innovative thinking. This session explores spaces that facilitate creative/innovative
thinking by workers who are mobile and those that are
not and by people who work in organizations of various
sizes. It reviews how both physical and virtual design
can make creative/innovative thought more likely.
Spaces used by commercial and academic organizations are explored, and case studies reflect research and
design experience from across the planet. People who
attend this session will leave with a thorough understanding of the design of spaces that support creative/
innovative thought and, because of their exposure to the
research tools profiled in the case studies presented, the
ability to conduct their own related research.
Presentation #1: The Art and Science of Fostering
Creative Thinking
Cognitive scientists have learned a lot about how
design influences mood and how mood and creative
thinking are related. Practitioners who have synthesized
and applied what these researchers have learned have
had positive results; people (individually and in groups)
do seem to think more creatively in the spaces researchers would expect them to do so. So where are people
more likely to think creatively? What’s the design of
those places like? This session will comprehensively
address that question. It will review, for example, the
sensory and place-related psychosocial conditions
that research and practice have found support creative
thinking. Topics such as surface colors and light colors,
material choices, and architectural elements will be
addressed. So will issues such as biophilic design and
the links between creative/innovative thought and
fundamental concepts of environmental psychology,
such as control over experiences in the physical world.
Research findings will be synthesized into actionable
design programs.
Presentation #2: Workplace Mapping for
Creativity and Performance
The toolkit for mobile workers is strengthened by
an ever-growing set of technologies for communication and information access. However, the continued
challenges of transitioning to mobile working rhythms
may speak to the need for further research and awareness of how mobile workers map their productivity,
creativity, energy levels, and performance around a
variety of spaces. Within this research, we explored
how mobile knowledge workers maximize productivity and innovation by creatively seeking out a diversity
of spaces through cognitive mapping, or “a series of
psychological transformations by which an individual
acquires, codes, stores, recalls, and decides information
about the relative locations and attributes of phenomena
in his everyday spatial environment” (Davis and Stea,
1974). For workers whose daily structure covers diverse
space types and geographies, interactions, productivity,
and tools, the mapping of activities around time and
place necessitates the individual “aggregate information to form a comprehensive representation of [each]
environment” and “answer two basic questions quickly
and efficiently: (1) Where certain valued things are; and
(2) How to get to where they are from where [s]he is”
(Davis and Stea, 1974). For mobile workers who have a
diverse spatial portfolio for a variety of different tasks,
the concept of physical space should be extended to
“encompass not only its structural, geometrical essence,
251
Abstracts – Work Environments
but also the dimension of its experience by one or
more human actors” (Tuan, 1977). The diverse spaces
mapped out for creative versus productive activities, individual versus social actions, are selected both for their
geographical and practical location in relationship to
the next task or meeting, but also because they present
“unique features, resources, and possibilities for action:
e.g., an office presents very different features from a
library... or a train compartment, but one person is very
likely to conduct work within all of these possible locations” (Ciofi, Bartolucci, and Murphy, 2005).
Presentation #3: Work Environments for
Creativity and Innovation in German Mid-Size
Companies
The number of innovative products and a company’s
innovation level in general are among the key success factors for German companies, and in particular
among those of the German “Mittelstand”. As a rule,
these mid-size companies are highly specialized, agile,
creative, and quite often world leaders in their field of
expertise. When these companies plan for new locations, new workplaces, and new offices, high levels of
employee creativity and innovation are among their
top priorities for each new work environment. Unlike
large corporations, mid-size companies of up to 500
employees lack the capacities for conducting their own
research on workplace design. So new workplace concepts often follow best practice examples from similar
industries. These can be easily benchmarked in terms of
cost and space efficiency. However, direct assessment
of their impact on creativity and innovation is difficult.
Assessing work-styles and processes in older and newer
environments is more useful. This paper focuses on the
description and analysis of workplace environments in
mid-size companies where workplaces were designed to
enhance creativity and innovation. The analysis is based
on a case study, with references to similar projects from
the author’s practice as well as published studies. The
author describes the program development, summarizes the requirements, and depicts the scope of derived
workplace options. He provides an analysis of recurring
workplace elements and solutions and their relevance in
regard to the project goals.
Presentation #4: Creativity-Supporting Learning
Spaces at Universities
The world of learning is changing. Education is
evolving from a teacher-led monologue to a more participatory process. Learning styles are being rethought.
Learning groups are getting smaller, and teachers and
students are working together. They are jointly devel-
252 oping learning objectives and designing content and
output collaboratively. Educational spaces must be
interactive, inspiring, and supportive. As educational
systems evolve, universities need spaces for blended
learning and for self-learning, as well as learning in
groups. Seminar rooms are changing dramatically;
they are becoming innovation spaces. They are nodes
of highly interactive learning and teaching and need to
support collaboration and flexibility. In this context, it
is no longer sufficient to provide single classrooms but
to holistically create a coherent learning environment.
University space must mirror university culture—inside and outside. Different shared spaces for everyone,
selectable according to the activities, allow mobility
and the development of creative, innovative ideas. The
performance and efficiency of a university depends on
how well team spirit and interaction work—between
students, teachers, and both together. Inspired planned
learning spaces are able to enhance performance, to
make study time a real experience, and boost innovation. Holistic planning uses space as a strategic resource
and considers the dynamic interdependency between
people, process, and place. These new spaces allow
undreamed possibilities and a wide diversity of use and
offer an environment for communication, as well as
concentration and for the creation of new innovative
ideas for the future. This presentation will feature case
studies of new innovation rooms at German universities
that support interactive learning and brainstorming.
Presentation #5: Creativity in Virtual
Environments: A Language and Social Interaction
Perspective
In this presentation, we conduct a targeted environmental scan of the literature on creativity in the virtual
work environment, identifying threats, opportunities,
strengths, and weaknesses. We then offer a model of
creativity in virtual environments in which the basic
requirement is to creatively generate a product or deliverable. When we examine creativity within virtual work
environments, the research often centers on technology.
However, the ability to do creative work in virtual environments is influenced not only by technology; but also
by individuals, groups, and organizations; the work;
social interaction; knowledge (tacit and explicit); and
ways of working and communicating. To integrate these
elements, we suggest using DeLanda’s frame of Assemblage Theory and Social Complexity as a different way
of viewing creativity in the virtual work environment.
The advantage of this approach is that assemblages are
capable of taking into account not only the production
of objects, but also subjectivities and larger-scale social
Work Environments – Abstracts
systems. We argue that assemblage theory can provide
a better understanding of how creativity emerges in
the virtual work process. We see how assemblages of
complex configurations come about through the virtual
work environment, but those assemblages, in turn, play
roles in other, more extended configurations. Using
assemblage theory allows us to move away from the notion of discrete things and into the concept of a mosaic
comprised of heterogeneity, fluidity, and transitory configurations, depending upon the nature of the work and
creative processes necessary to produce a final product
or deliverable.
Cross-Cultural Study on Space
Use and Behavioral Patterns in
Workspace
Lisa Lim, [email protected], (Georgia
Institute of Technology); Craig Zimring, craig.
[email protected], (Georgia Institute
of Technology)
Considering “nation” as the unit of culture, this study
postulates that spatial configuration which determines
the physical relationships among employees would
generate distinct behavioral patterns in different nations. Interpersonal visual relationship and connectivity
to others are expected to influence distinct communication and interaction patterns and range of behaviors in
comparable nations. This paper presents a conceptual
framework and preliminary results from a study where
participants from the United States and from Korea
are asked to place themselves for certain behaviors in
workplaces that have different spatial characteristics
defined by degree of Visual Access and Exposure (as
defined by Archea and further developed for this study)
and of targeted visibility as defined by Lu and others as
a case study of the framework. This study uses categories of cultural types from environmental psychology,
anthropology, organizational development, and other
disciplines. For example, according to Geert Hofstede’s
four-dimensional model of national culture, people in
collective culture put more emphasis on the relationship with the group compared to people in individual
culture; and people in high power distance often have
strong hierarchical relationships. Also, the degree of
“strength of social norms and tolerance of deviance”
is different in “tight/loose” nations, as Gelfand, et al.
(2011) illustrated. This study has important implications
for understanding how culture needs to be reflected in
workplace design and how design might foster organizational outcomes such as creativity. Spatial configuration of workspace is an important contextual characteristic of the organization that influences employees’
creativity. Space regulates who or what employees can
see or encounter, influencing their spatial use or behaviors in such space, which in turn affect their creativity.
The framework and results of this research are expected
to enhance the understanding of design implications for
cultural differences, which may support organizational
outcomes with tailored physical environments to local
contexts.
Desk Personalization: A
Heightened Communicator of Self
in the Open Workplace
Melissa Marsh, [email protected],
(PLASTARC); Ingrid Erickson, ierick@gmail.
com, (Rutgers University); Claire Rowell,
[email protected], (PLASTARC); Scott
Leinweber, [email protected], (Digital
Toolbox)
With workplace environments increasingly built for
a mobile population, the office is no longer the singular space for conducting work. This research seeks to
understand the desk as a stage for more meaningful
and symbolic presentations of self amidst the changing
nature of where we work. Understanding desk personalization as a primary mode of self-representation, data
collection, and analysis of personal and professional
artifacts may illuminate changing relationships between
employees and their colleagues, business life, and
environment, a reconciling of traditional social signals
in a changing environment. In an evolving industry of
workplace design, as “organizations continue to move
toward more multi-purpose, non-territorial workspaces,” building data-driven corollaries between Erving
Goffman’s mid-century work and today’s workplace
presents an industry-informative opportunity (Laurence,
Fried, and Slowik, 2013). The increasingly open office
offers greater visual presence of desk and self-expression, but may present new challenges and stressors to
inhabitants. This research approach aims to use per-
253
sonalization typologies and desk use data to build upon
an existing workplace data set, collected to understand
employee occupancy across space types. By supporting
individual desk personalization research with occupancy and location data, there is a possibility to understand
relationships between how people compose their desk
and larger organizational factors, informing future design, workplace service, and human resource initiatives.
Desk personalization, especially in times of disruption
or change, can become a space for making sense of
individuals, the organization, and one’s surroundings in
replacement of other indices. Disorderly environments
have been shown to “promote stereotyping [of other
people] and discrimination in real-world situations”
(Stapel and Lindenberg, 2011). Thus, the desk can
become a contested space for calculated self-representation and a visual tool for sensemaking of the individual,
especially when other social indicators are not present,
an important consideration for more open workplaces.
Our case set, composed of organizations with 800-1,000
work seats, represent a range of industries and interior
designs. We seek to compare desk styling data to both
occupancy and desk satisfaction data where possible.
This research aims to support and inform Real Estate, Design, and Workplace Services professionals in
analyzing current workplace proclivity and managing
transitions to new environments.
Forecasting Performance of
Collaborative Workplaces: Case
Studies to Explore Social Sensing
Technology
So-Yeon Yoon, [email protected], (Cornell
University); Alan Hedge, [email protected],
(Cornell University); Sheila Danko, sheila.
[email protected], (Cornell University);
Ying Hua, [email protected], (Cornell
University); Lauren Bigalow, lcb83@cornell.
edu, (Cornell University)
The continuing acknowledgement that physical
settings have business impacts, the growing base of
literature on organizational creativity and collaboration, and the emergence of social sensing technologies present an opportunity to conduct multi-faceted
254 research that has direct applicability to workplace
design. The goal of this study is twofold: to explore
how the emerging social sensing technologies can be
used to capture collaboration and creative processes,
and to examine their links to interior design attributes
for future design guidelines. Despite the increasing
significance of the physical environment in shaping
organizational performance, empirical studies elucidating this relationship are scarce. Most research studying
environmental influences on creativity and innovation
has focused on the social environment (Hunter, Bedell,
& Mumford, 2007). While our understanding of what
factors in environmental design will accelerate creative
innovation is still forming, it has been established that
various types of interactions and collaborations serve
as catalysts for creativity and innovation in knowledge workplaces. Today’s advanced mobile and social
sensing technologies offer new design research opportunities for capturing photo/voice/video data directly
from participants, resulting in greater reliability for
post-occupancy evaluations. In this study, Sociometric
Solutions’ social sensing devices are used to measure
connectedness and collaboration via recorded network
(face-to-face interaction, speech quality, turn-taking
and centrality etc.), spatial location and movement data
(accelerometer), and location information of participants. Creativity and innovation were operationalized
as performance perceived by supervisors. Based on this
research, we identify key interior attributes that stimulate collaboration and creativity and propose practical
guidelines. This research addresses a critical element of
contemporary business through a novel and integrative
approach to design research and makes a timely contribution to the fields of organizational behavior, environmental psychology, interior design, user experience, and
human-computer interaction.
Work Environments – Abstracts
EDRAShorts
Presentations
255
256 EDRAShorts – Abstracts
Accessible Evacuation: Improving
Fire Safety and Building
Evacuation for People with
Disabilities
Olivia Asuncion, [email protected],
(University of Oregon)
Many of our cognitive functions, especially our
abilities to make critical decisions about how we move
through space, are dramatically affected by the fear and
confusion brought on by an emergency. The burden
is further intensified as architectural barriers often
pose problems with building evacuation, especially
for people with disabilities. Through interviews with
people with varying abilities, ranging from people with
mobility issues and visual impairments, to people who
do not identify themselves as a person with a disability,
a disconnect becomes apparent. It becomes clearer that
current building safety and evacuation standards cause
feelings of dependency, invisibility and, hopelessness,
for those who cannot easily navigate and exit a building during an emergency. To identify the architectural
problems that lead to inaccessible evacuation, I have
analyzed and evaluated different educational and institutional buildings, and looked at the following building
safety provisions for each building: the effectiveness
and accuracy of evacuation maps, the legibility of
wayfinding strategies, the existence of areas of refuge,
and the options for vertical circulation and egress. After
this study, we can conclude that the way most buildings
are designed today, the following major problems arise:
1. The illegibility of buildings due to the inadequacy of
wayfinding strategies 2. Lack of feasible accessible vertical egress for people with mobility impairments 3. The
invisibility of areas of refuge. But by recognizing these
problems, we can start forming strategies to seamlessly
intertwine accessibility and building safety strategies
into our designs. First, we must look at potential improvements in environmental graphics and wayfinding
strategies to make it easier for people with disabilities to
identify egress, which would create a clearer circulation
for all users of the building. Second, we must investigate architectural solutions to allow for evacuation ease
and independence, as well as, to increase the visibility
and comfort of designated areas of refuge, providing an
opportunity for creating meaningful and usable spaces
in fire stairwells. Third, we must explore outside of
architecture and apply lessons learned from various
technological advancements into our designs, which can
benefit those with and without a disability. By keeping
in mind the aforementioned principles when designing
the environment, we can create places that are inclusive,
seamless, beautiful, and SAFE, not just for people with
disabilities, but for everybody who inhabits the space.
The Workplace as Laboratory: An
In Situ Interdisciplinary Design for
Studying Restorative Workplace
Distractions
Meredith Banasiak, banasiak@colorado.
edu, (University of Colorado); Casey
Lindberg, [email protected], (University
of Colorado); Brian Green, brian_green@
hermanmiller.com, (Herman Miller, Inc.);
Marc Berman, [email protected],
(University of Chicago)
This slide presentation will describe an innovative
experimental design collaboration between industry
research and academic research in the field of environmental design in an effort to promote critical dialogue
for interdisciplinary collaboration. Disciplines of
psychology and neuroscience experimentation were applied to an operational office environment. The goal of
the study was to measure how restorative visual stimuli
presented in the immediate spatial workspace during
task performance might act as a receptive distraction (our term) linked with increased productivity and
protective health benefits. Analyses of varying distraction conditions were conducted across behavioral and
physiological measures. Psychometric task performance
assessments, abstract reasoning and directed attention
measures, ratings of emotion and personality, heart rate
variability, skin conductance, visual attention ratings,
and image salience ratings were assessed. Finding suggest that if a restorative distraction can be identified
which does not impact task performance, but improves
mood and emotional regulation, such distractions would
be a beneficial development for workplace furniture design. Emphasis will be placed on the ecological validity
of the experimental design and interdisciplinary measures. The presenters will also discuss how results from
this study will inform future studies in neuroscience as
well as suggest workplace design implications.
257
Abstracts – EDRAShorts
Obon and Environmental
Perception in Japantown
AnnaMarie Bliss, [email protected],
(University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign)
In the United States, only three Japantowns, or physical areas of Japanese-owned and operated businesses
and cultural centers, exist despite the Japanese cultural
fascination and widespread Japanese-American population. All three exist in California—San Francisco, San
Jose, and Los Angeles. Each summer many Buddhist
temples housed in these areas and also outside of the
Japantowns host Obon, or the Japanese day to honor ancestors and celebrate family. This EDRAShort seeks to
preview research on visitor and participant environmental perception of the of the Obon festival in Japantowns
as compared to festivals not housed in these areas. The
food, entertainment, social gatherings, and traditional
rights that visitors participate in and consume are surrounded by the culture and to some extent Japanese
architecture. This project seeks to uncover how those
participating in the festival or located in the vicinity
perceive the Obon experience within an architectural
environment. To what extent does the Japantown architecture enhance the overall visitor and participant experience? Japantown shop owners, community members,
festival organizers and participants each draw unique
conclusions. Videos, images, interviews, and artifacts
all comprise the evidence to be presented in this short
presentation.
A Vision for the Future of an
Historic District in Boston,
Massachusetts — Retrofitting the
Back Bay Neighborhood with
Green Infrastructure
Yiwei Huang, [email protected],
(University of Michigan, Ann Arbor)
Back Bay Neighborhood, having the Commonwealth
Avenue Mall coming across in the middle, is one the
most desirable neighborhoods in the country. It was
planned by the architect Arthur Gilmann, who was inspired by French architecture and planning when he was
258 traveling to Paris, to become a fashionable residential
district in 1856. With stylish shops, trendy restaurants
lining along Newbury Street, unique and vintage homes
sitting on both sides of the Commonwealth Avenue,
Back Bay is absolutely an extremely fashionable destination for both Boston residents and visitors. However,
over the past eighty years, the city of Boston faced a
slow motion disaster caused by the decrease of groundwater-- the wood pilings of the old buildings in Boston
city has decayed and may eventually collapse when
exposed to the air. Government and States were trying
to ignore the problem at first until in the year of 2004,
they finally put this issue on the political agendas. From
then on, the Boston Groundwater Trust, MBTA, Boston
Water and Sewer Commission, and Massachusetts Turnpike Authority are actively involved in this issue and
infiltrate systems with pumping storm water into the
underground. This project is aiming at recharging the
Back Bay neighborhood with a new system of groundwater management. Instead of just using traditional
engineer method, the proposal encourages a natural way
of retrofitting the Back Bay Neighborhood with green
infrastructure combined with the engineer sewage system to keep storm water in the area of Back Bay. The
proposal also considers the important characteristics
remained on site during the historic times. How to make
Back Bay a more sustainable community by solving the
groundwater problem and keeping significant historic
characters is the question this project will discuss.
Research Objectives and Questions: The goals of this
project are to make evaluations of the neighborhood, to
search for the history of city form development, and to
develop a master plan and a green infrastructure retrofitting plan for Back Bay Neighborhood based on the
future proposals by the government. The historic preservation includes restoring the historic characteristics
on site, reconnecting the Back Bay neighborhood to the
Back Bay Fens and Public Garden; the best future vision includes creating an adaptive ecological habitat, a
reasonable space arrangement and a comfortable living
space that satisfies both the residents’ needs and social
requirements. By achieving these objectives, the research needs: -To understand the historic patterns of the
site and the unique languages and historic features this
site has, and conclude what should be preserved and
what should be changed; -To use case studies compared
with the future policies to conclude the suitable suggestions and future trends of the Back Bay Neighborhood;
-To use the concept of green infrastructure to solve
problems of retaining ground water, heat island effect
and future hazard of flooding potentials; The research
questions are: -What are the architectural and spatial
EDRAShorts – Abstracts
features that are worth keeping during the transformation process of Back Bay Neighborhood? -How can we
retrofit green infrastructures to help relieve the existing
problems of water management and build resilience to
future climate changes?
Interaction with the Environment
to Reduce Study-Related Stress:
A Study on Places of Respite in
Graduate Student Class Room
Fatma Jobran, [email protected],
(Texas Tech University)
Research has shown that the design and structure
of the built and natural environment influences the
psychological, emotional, and social well-being of the
people within it. In the educational setting for graduate student classroom, places of respite offer for the
graduate students an area to disengage from the confines of the university and classes and connect with the
natural environment for the purposes of releasing stress
and promoting healing. However, preferences with
regards to the design of places of respite often differ
among different groups of graduate students; thus, the
effectiveness of such places in promoting healing and
stress-relief would depend on the compatibility of the
design and the environmental preferences of its intended audience. In the United State and other countries,
the design and architecture of most graduate student’s
classroom, graduate libraries, and graduate centers are
characteristic of the region’s climate and non-natural
environment effects on learning, memory and health
outcomes. This is most evident in the use of nature,
healing and therapeutic environment closely linked to
level of stress, such as anxiety, depression, and other
stress artifacts. Following this custom, it is posited that
the use of natural and healing environment elements
characteristic of graduate student’s classroom, graduate
libraries, and graduate centers and similar environment
would be expected in the design of places of respite in
United State universities; that without such elements,
places of respite would not be as effective in promoting
healing and reducing stress. The purpose of this study is
to collect the perceptions of graduate students on places
of respite using focus group discussions and a survey.
Specifically, data will be gathered on the graduate
students’ perceptions on the effectiveness of places of
respite in promoting healing and reducing study-related
stress. Additionally, the respondents’ design preferences will also be determined, including perceptions
on the influence of factors such as anxiety and depression along with level of learning, memory, and health
outcomes. Finally, differences in perceptions between
master student and doctoral student, and between healing and non-healing environment, will be identified.
Data will be analyzed using thematic analysis for the
focus groups and using t-tests and MANOVA for the
quantitative data.
Hawaiian Paradise or Mid-West
Missouri Vernacular: People’s
Psychophysiological Responses to
the Urban Forest
Andy Kaufman, [email protected],
(University of Hawaii); Beverly Bass, bjbass@
calpoly.edu, (Cal Poly San Luis Obispo);
Paul Bolls, [email protected], (University
of Missouri); Aarthi Padmanabhan, aarthi.
Hawaii)
The objective of this study was to assist urban and
community urban forestry managers and policy makers
of the effect the urban forest have on people’s physiological states. Specifically, assess people’s preference
and physiological responses to vegetation, and lack of
vegetation in urban environments. By identifying and
understanding people’s psychophysiological responses
to trees and vegetation, lack of vegetation in urban areas
within two distinct environmental and demographic
urban regions of the U.S., development of specific
recommendations of the importance of trees and vegetation within urban environments can be implemented
throughout the country. Data was collected in Hawaii
and Missouri urban environments of landscapes without
significant vegetative landscaping. Respondents viewed
exiting urban environments lacking vegetation and
then the same environment with significant vegetative
landscaping. While viewing images, respondent’s psychophysiological responses including heart rate (EKG),
galvanic skin conductance response (GSR), and facial
muscle activity (EMG) and (EEG) electroencephalo-
259
graph were measured in real time. Data revealed that
respondent’s physiological measurements varied when
viewing urban environments with landscape vegetation
and those without landscape vegetation. Additionally,
emotional and preference data that was collected from
respondent; revealing interesting comparisons between
the two viewed landscape vegetation images at both
locations. Study results will assist policy makers, green
industry representatives, and educators in providing
specific information to help create green and sustainable
urban forest structure. Project objectives should provide
a valuable tool in in developing new knowledge about,
and communicate understanding of the human dimension benefits of urban and community forest ecosystems.
Translating Health into Design:
Lessons from a Health Impact
Assessment (HIA) for a Public
Housing Redevelopment.
Debarati “Mimi” Majumdar Narayan,
[email protected],
(Catalyze Research and Consulting LLC)
Where we live matters. Recent studies show that our
zip codes are better predictors of health than our genetic
code. In exploring the physical, environmental and
socio-political context of places, the past two decades
have shown that these social determinants of health
have the most significant impact on public health.
Environmental design has long explored people-place
relations, including the impacts of physical conditions
of homes and neighborhoods on physical and mental
health. Today neuroscience provides further evidence
with brain scans that the design of the built environment affects the way we feel and behave. While all this
provides a guide for designing environments to improve
health, how do we translate existing poor health conditions and their impacts into design strategies that can
mitigate and improve health outcomes? This presentation addresses this very question using a public housing redevelopment health impact assessment (HIA) as
an example. The community’s health at the CoffeltLamoreaux public housing is already vulnerable due to
the geographic location and age of the site. The plan to
redevelop 296 units and their surroundings, put forth by
the county housing authority, had additional potential to
260 directly or indirectly (positively or negatively) impact
health outcomes in a significant manner. An HIA was
proposed to identify health impacts of existing conditions and those resulting from the redevelopment process. Recommendations were generated to mitigate and
improve community health though the redevelopment.
While the HIA referenced some programmatic strategies, a majority of the recommendations were based in
the physical design of the built environment to directly
address the redevelopment plan. Health impacts, their
implication for the built environment and the translation
of these into concrete design strategies to address improved health will be discussed during this presentation.
The Mobility of Methods in
Environmental Neuroscience
Kelton Minor, [email protected],
(Cornell University)
One outstanding limitation of current neuroscience
research is the lack of high resolution mobile brain
imaging methods that allow neural activity measurements to be continuously collected during dynamic
human environment interactions situated in ecologically
valid behavioral settings (Huettel et al., 2009). In this
exploratory EDRA short, I will lead the audience on
a visual journey that takes us from the lab to the field
while mapping out the limitations and opportunities of
current functional neuroimaging (FMRI, PET, SPECT,
MSI) and mobile brain imaging (NIRS, EEG) methods.
I will also highlight current and prospective research
efforts around the globe that are developing inventive
brain imaging tools with improved temporal, spatial
and environmental resolution to examine the interrelationships between neural activity and environmental
encounters in more naturalistic settings. Finally, I will
draw upon these incipient tools and future prospects to
briefly pursue methodological and ethical questions at
the crossroads between environmental psychology and
neuroscience.
Mobility, Mood and Place:
Understanding the Role of the
Environment on Brain Activity
Chris Neale, [email protected],
(SEI, University of York); Peter Aspinall,
[email protected], (Heriot Watt
University); Jenny Roe, [email protected],
(SEI, University of York); Sara Tilley, sara.
[email protected], (University of Edinburgh);
Panos Mavros, [email protected],
(University College London); Richard Coyne,
Edinburgh); Neil Thin, [email protected],
(University of Edinburgh); Catharine Ward
Thompson, [email protected],
(University of Edinburgh)
Different urban environments are said to have different effects on mood; for example, restorative theory
posits that intrinsically fascinating environments promote recovery from cognitive fatigue, in turn improving mood and lowering demands on directed attention
(Kaplan and Kaplan 1989). This interplay between
environments and mood is the subject of the Mobility, Mood and Place (MMP) project which aims to use
mobile electroencephalography (EEG) to measure the
brain activity associated with walking in different urban
environments. Previous mobile EEG research (Aspinall
et al, 2013), utilising an Emotiv EPOC headset and
associated Affectiv Suite software, has shown that a
transition from a quiet, built-up urban environment into
green space leads to increased levels of brain activity
labeled by Emotiv as ‘meditation’ and decreased levels
of ‘long term excitement’, ‘engagement’ and ‘frustration’. Furthermore, the transition between green space
and a busy urban environment was shown to increase
levels of ‘engagement’. A pilot study was undertaken
on 20 healthy participants aged over 60 (mean age 73
years) where participants were assigned to one of six
possible walking routes transitioning between two areas
including busy urban, quiet urban and green space
environments in Leith, a suburb of Edinburgh, Scotland.
Participants undertook their assigned walk wearing
the Emotiv EEG headset, recording EEG data. Mood
measures were also obtained using the UWIST Mood
Adjective Check List (UWIST MACL) 10 minutes pre
and post and immediately pre and post walk. A high
dimensional correlated component regression was used
to assess differences between walking environments.
Results show EEG Emotiv parameters can are discriminate between walking in different settings; ‘frustration’
is the most consistent predictor of the second walk
irrespective of the setting. It increases consistently in
5 out of 6 second walks. The UWIST MACL results
showed increased levels of hedonic tone (p = .016) from
assessments immediately pre and post walk while levels
of stress decreased (p = .035) between the post walk
and 10 minutes post walk assessments. These results
will be discussed in light of the earlier Aspinall et al.,
2013 study together with additional analysis (in hand)
on the raw EEG data output. This will provide the basis
for a larger study to commence in April 2015. The main
study will include 120 participants with EEG recording,
to give more adequate power for analysis, and a range
of self-report measures including personality measures
as well as acute mood measures. The challenges of such
a large study and the implications for future research
and policy will also be discussed.
Scholastic Restorative
Environments Mobile
Electroencephalograh Tool:
Measure Restorative Environments
Through Brainwaves
Peter Floyd Smith, [email protected],
(University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois)
ABSTRACT Neural restorative architecture benefits
enormously from bringing measurement of electromagnetic human energy fields (brain waves, in specific
alpha waves) into restoration of attention environmental research. EEG (electroencephalographs) measure
4 types of brainwaves: Delta (below 4 Hz.), theta (4-7
Hz.), alpha (8-13 Hz.), and beta (14-38 Hz). Alpha
waves measure restoration in 6 ways: 1) they are the
bridge between conscious (beta) and unconscious
(theta) brainwaves. With only low levels of alpha
brainwaves, there is no bridge. (Karim, 2003) 2) A 2001
study published in the Brain Research Bulletin confirms
that meditation increases alpha wave activity. To bring
balance to left and right hemispheres lies at the heart of
attention restoration process. 3) Research from Rachael
261
Kaplan (2006) shows meditation a superior method of
restoring direct attention. 4) Neurological research supports Kaplan’s idea that direct attention can be restored
by alternating it with periods of indirect attention. (Harvard, 2012) 5) Evidence of a positive change activity
that takes place within 4 - 40 minutes is called ‘restoration’ and environments that produce these changes
are called ‘restorative environments.’ (Hinds & Sparls,
2009) 6) Lastly, the ability to maintain centered consciousness for longer periods of time. (Kaplan, 2013)
EEG provides new information about environments
with eyes closed as we restore. When our eyes are
closed, we experience a 30% increase in alpha waves,
and increased perception. (Lagopoulos, 2009) Existing
foundational research comes from Kaplan (ART,1995)
and Ulrich (1991), with eyes open visual approaches
to restoration. New mobile electroencephalographs
measure an individual’s brainwave amplitude, progress,
or diminishment quantitatively with software programming & recordings digitally on screen. Headsets worn
like a baseball cap. EEG software is available online
as app for Apple iPad and iPhones: Quantum Infinity.
com app: $1,146.00, headset $185.00 for investigators
interested in adopting this research tool.
showed that in younger adults, activation was equivalent to that of FAB 3 in almost all areas during the five
tasks, and some areas such as the frontal pole and the
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in the left hemisphere
showed significantly greater activation than that of
FAB 3 during thinning, weeding, and watering. In older
adults, significantly greater activation was observed
in the frontal pole in the left hemisphere during watering, and in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in the left
hemisphere during seeding, than during FAB 3. This
study demonstrated that gardening is effective activities
to activate the prefrontal cortex in both younger and
older adults. Above all, watering as a daily gardening
work can be effective for dementia prevention of older
adults from the perspective of activating the prefrontal
area of the brain.
The Effects of Gardening
Activities on the Prefrontal Area
of the Brain
Clarissa Albrecht Silveira, cxf350@
psu.edu, (Federal University of Vicosa);
Maristela Siolari, [email protected], (Federal
University of Vicosa); Geraldo Ribeiro
Filho, [email protected], (Federal
University of Vicosa)
Masahiro Toyoda, masahiro_toyoda@
awaji.ac.jp, (The University of Hyogo); Yuko
Yokota, [email protected], (The
University of Hyogo)
Dementia prevention is a major global concern
today, and environment-behavior approaches may have
substantial value. The objective of this study was to
explore the effects of gardening activities on activation
of the prefrontal area of the brain. We measured the
oxy-hemoglobin concentration relative value of the prefrontal area during typical five gardening tasks (seeding,
thinning, planting, weeding and watering) in 77 healthy
adults by means of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS).
We divided the subjects into two groups: 54 younger
adults aged 20-59 years and 23 older adults aged 60-88
years. In addition, the subjects were assigned a few
tasks. A control task was Frontal Assessment Battery (FAB) 3, a motor programming task. The results
262 Urban Education: Building
Citizenship and Sociability in
Elementary Public Schools in
Brazil
Urban Education is a project that has the objective
of fostering in students of the first grades of elementary
public schools the interest in urban issues, preparing
them to be citizens that know and understand the role of
public spaces behaving as collective and emancipated
social agents, fully exercising their citizenship. The
Brazilian town where the project is developed is called
Viçosa and it is located in Minas Gerais State, Southeast
of Brazil. This work is the result of the union of knowledge of Architects, Urban Planners and Educators. The
methodological approach is participatory action research. It is a reflective inquiry among researchers and
participants in order to understand and improve upon
practices and situations of their own lives. Through
this method, action is activated and participants are
empowered. The data and information is collected from
the context of its participants. Therefore, it is based on
the idea of knowing the existing reality and condition
to thus formulate actions consistent with that in order
to transform it. In this sense, extension activities are
developed pari passu with the research. The scenario
of the project is the city considering that it synthesizes
the high degree of complexity of the human capacity to
interfere in nature and change it. Cities, as well as the
society that constructs it, are fragmented, exclusionary, unfair. The contradictions presented by cities are
in the spotlight of this project. About 250 students are
the target audience of the project per year since 2009.
These students meet the researchers once a week for
one hour during their school period. Among the themes
worked with them are poverty, violence, transit, accessibility, historical heritage, sustainability, pollution,
democracy, politics, human rights and others. These
themes are worked starting at the house scale going to
the street, neighborhood, city, region, state, country and
planet scale. The research is developed with the students through workshop techniques and ludic activities.
It is intended that the proposed actions will help to form
citizens who, as the city’s inhabitants, help to make it
more human, sociable, less unequal and with a better
quality of life.
Factors Related to Commuting
Stress Among Inland Empire
Commuters
Juliana Fuqua, [email protected],
(California State Polytechnic University,
Pomona); Kaitlin Schellack, kemschellack@
yahoo.com, (California State Polytechnic
University, Pomona); Bernadette Martinez,
[email protected], (California
State Polytechnic University, Pomona);
Alexis Randles, [email protected],
(California State Polytechnic University,
Pomona); Carina Anderson, clanderson@
pacbell.net, (California State Polytechnic
University, Pomona)
Approximately 4 million people in the Los Angeles
County area endure the sedentary act of commuting in
their car, often with congestion as part of their daily
routine, and for many, commuting is a chronic stressor.
Research has been published on the possible effects of
commuting stress. However, more research is needed
to identify the specific environmental and psychological variables that are associated with commuting stress.
The purpose of this “short” presentation is to describe
the results of a series of studies. Our samples included
small convenience samples of university students and
samples of approximately 500 random digit dialed
adult commuters in the Inland Empire, a region that is
part of Los Angeles County and Riverside County. We
found that commuting stress was positively related to
commute duration, congestion, unpredictability, and uncontrollability. Gender was related to commuting stress
in some samples. Commuting stress was not found to
be related to aspects of the car (e.g., how much a person
likes their car, likes what they are listening to, the type
of car, the type of program listened to). Certain aspects
of the methodology of this study will be discussed (e.g.,
predictability questionnaire items provided contrary
results), along with implications of these findings for
urban planning, software development, and mental and
physical health. Perhaps effective in-car and out-of car
coping strategies can be developed and disseminated to
aid individuals affected by commuting stress, especially
those facing lengthy, unpredictable, and highly congested commutes on a consistent basis.
The Impact of Outdoor Learning
Environment on Children and
Teachers: A Pilot Study
Matluba Khan, [email protected],
(The University of Edinburgh)
Children are found to have done better results in their
tests when learning is integrated with the surrounding environment, i.e. school ground or green spaces in
neighbourhood. This also has an impact at the affective domain of their learning such as engagement and
attitude towards learning. A pilot study in Scotland
has investigated the impact of learning in the school
ground on children’s learning of curriculum content,
motivation, social relation, perceived bodily activity
and exploration of the natural environment. This has
been done as part of a PhD study on how to design the
school ground for children’s learning. Thus the study
explored how different settings in the school ground
are used in order to teach different curriculum content.
It also looked into the impact of the outdoor setting on
263
teachers- their attitude and feeling about teaching in
the school ground, barriers and opportunities regarding teaching in the outdoors and how the barriers can
be overcome. It also investigated children’s and teachers’ views about how the present school ground can be
developed in order to facilitate learning and play. The
study approach includes focus groups with children,
observation of children in the school ground and behaviour mapping, in-depth interview with teachers and a
questionnaire survey. The findings indicate that outdoor
environment has a more positive impact on behavioural
domain of children’s motivation, perceived bodily
activity and peer relation. Children are more engaged
in the outdoor when learning different contents from
archaeology, biology, safety and security, maths and
geometry. There is a positive change in teachers’ attitude too as they feel more relaxed while teaching in the
outdoors. Keywords: affective domain, school ground,
children, motivation, curriculum content
Coming Down From 30,000ft:
Immersive Community
Engagement to uncover the lived
experience.
Debarati “Mimi” Majumdar Narayan,
[email protected],
(Catalyze Research and Consulting LLC); C.
Eisenbarth Hager, [email protected], (St.
Luke’s Health Initiative)
How we perceive our environment is a function
of the information we receive from it and the meaning we imbue to it. How we perceive our environment
influences our emotions, behavior, and health itself. In
recent years neuroscience has opened up the possibility of measuring how the brain, body, and environment
interact. The fact that information about the environment alone cannot determine how that environment is
perceived is the basic underpinning of neuroscience.
Rather, the interaction of humans with that environment and the experience created informs the behaviors
resultant in that setting. This presentation will shed light
on the story missed when we look at the built environment from 30,000ft above the ground using high level
analytical data such as walkshed analysis, like walkscore, and food access analysis, like LSAs and food
264 deserts. While these data sets are useful, they tell an
incomplete story and can even be misleading at times.
An immersive community engagement process, where
perceptions and interpretations about the environment
come to light, can better and more comprehensively
explain the community’s environment and behaviors.
An immersive engagement process was used in the
health impact assessments completed for the Reinvent
PHX project, a HUD Sustainable Communities Planning Grant. One of the districts from this project will be
explored to demonstrate the gap in understanding that
can arise from viewing the community purely from an
analytic lens. The presentation will emphasize the need
for immersive engagement to shed light on the lived
experience, particular to understanding a community’s
behaviors related to health.
Choreographing ‘Non-place’ for
Human Wellbeing
Claire McAndrew, c.mcandrew@ucl.
ac.uk, (University College London); Anna
Mavrogianni, [email protected],
(University College London); Sonali Wayal,
[email protected], (University College
London)
Neither here nor there, ‘non-places’ exist in-between
(Augé, 1995). Train stations, shopping malls, plazas,
airports and motorways are all examples. Designed with
functionality in mind, they are spaces of transition and
consumption that provide no cues for interaction. Contrast this with ‘place’ conceived as space that provides
the fabric within which to form social connections, and
non-place can be conceived as a problem since the idea
of connecting to flourish is embedded in discussions of
wellbeing, its positive psychological and physiological
effects. While place contributes to human wellbeing,
non-place detracts. Social (Re)Connection: Choreographing architectural gestures in urban spaces is an experimental project using design intervention to explore
the potential of restructuring daily experience of passing through non-place. Our objective to ‘connect people
through space’, both to the architectural fabric and
one-another, was informed by theorising the ‘invitation’
of spaces (Gehl, 1971/2011), the way ‘architectural gestures’ bind behavior and interaction (Hertzberger, 2005)
and ‘triangulation’ through designed objects (Whyte,
1971). Euston Square Gardens London UK, embodies
many of the transient qualities of non-place and forms
our case study. This presentation catalogues the effect
of an installation designed to augment the architectural
fabric with sensory invitations to connect. Inspired by
the act of a hand brushing long grass, it translates the
gesture of human touch into an interactive performance.
Traces of light, movement and ambient sound enliven
the installation, enticing others to join thus forging the
most basic human need of social connection. Ethnographic insights, interaction data as a proxy for connections and survey data (incl. social inclusion of self in
others scale (Aron, Aron & Smollan, 1992) and three
wellbeing measures - life satisfaction, worthwhileness
and anxiety - from the Subjective Wellbeing APS (ONS,
2012)), illustrate the opportunities and challenges of
(re)choreographing non-places for positive social effect.
Although interaction data signaled the ability to craft
connections to non-place (1,735-2,507 ‘touches’ over 7
days), ethnographic enquiry suggested the design installation spoke most sincerely to the lonely and vulnerable
in society. Limited representation of this population in
survey data, might account for non-significant findings,
despite increased mean scores over time. This project
will be presented using PechaKucha format: 20imagesx20seconds. Awarded UCL Grand Challenge of Human
Wellbeing: Behaviour Change Research Prize 2013 the
project brought together nine UCL academics / postgraduates from architecture, psychology, anthropology,
epidemiology and public policy: http://bit.ly/1BavDf9
References Aron, A., Aron, E.N. and Smollan, D. 1992.
Inclusion of other in the self scale and the structure
of interpersonal closeness. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 63(4): 596-612. Augé, M. 1995.
Non-places: An Introduction to Supermodernity. (Verso,
London). Gehl, J. 1971/2011. Life Between Buildings:
Using Public Space. (London, Island Press). Hertzberger, H. 2005. Lessons for Students of Architecture.
(010 Publishers, Rotterdam). ONS 2012. Analysis of
Experimental Subjective Well-being Data from the Annual Population Survey, April to September 2011. http://
bit.ly/1Cs4aDq (Accessed 16 April 2014). Whyte, W.H.
1971. The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces. (Anchor
Books, New York).
The Naturerfahrungsraum and the
Construction of Urban Wilderness
Experiences: Designing Space for
Cognitive Development
Marcus Owens, [email protected], (UC
Berkeley)
In this short presentation I will look at the phenomenon of the Naturerfahrungsraum (NER) or “Nature
Experience Space” as developed by environmental planner and consultant Hans-Joachim Schemel and deployed
in new urban park spaces such as the new Gleisdreieck
park in Berlin. The stated purpose of the NER is to
provide an experience of “wildness” that goes beyond
“nature” or naturalistic landscaping that is thought
enhance the emotional development and cognitive
potential of child users. This is achieved through a set of
prescribed principles which demand a sizable lots with
adequate viewsheds and forbids gadgets or play equipment, signage, and preferably, parents. A first portion
of this presentation will be a design history of the NER
and the wilderness history more broadly. I will trace it’s
cultural lineage from 19th century Romantic Ausflügler
and völkische cultural traditions the emerged in reaction
to industrialization and were used to construct German
national identity, as well as developments in environmental psychology and urban ecology in the 20th century that constructed empirical arguments and mobilized
political advocacy for the construction of urban “wild”
spaces for ecological, social and cultural purposes. After
contextualizing this trajectory with other wilderness
concepts, I will compare the NER with other contemporary design frameworks, philosophies and research
that address the so called “Nature Deficit Disorder”. I
will argue that while the NER has emerged from a clear
cultural tradition that place value in the redemptive
qualities of nature experiences, the linking of quantitative cognitive research represents an unprecedented instrumentalization of spatial practice. I will examine the
value claims NER proponents make regarding improving creativity and cognitive development in children
against a wider socio-economic repositioning where
Germany jockeys to transform itself into the “land of
ideas”. In situating the NER within broader discussions
of cognitive labor, ecology and the immaterial flows and
contours of control that drive 21st century urbanism, I
will conclude by suggesting the NER represents a new
typology of urban landscape, the “incubator”.
265
Emotions Follow Form: Examining
the Connection Between
Architectural Space and Emotions
Avishag Shemesh, shugi.shemesh@
gmail.com, (Technion); Yasha Grobman,
[email protected], (Technion)
Over periods of history, architecture has undergone
waves of streams and fashions spawning different
shapes of architectural creations we experience in our
surroundings. While considering cultural, climatic and
budgetary aspects of planning, architects are continuously trying to create spaces that positively affect users.
Although advances in computerization technologies
have increased designers’ ability to manipulate and
analyze the built form, there is still a large gap in
understanding the connection between architectural
geometry and human emotions necessary for achieving a custom-made environment for the potential user.
Recent developments in simulation of virtual spaces
along with advancement in neuroscience may enable us
to conduct empirical research on the way we perceive
space and the way space affects us emotionally. For example, recent research in the field of neuroscience has
indicated a connection between round circles and the
feeling of pleasure. We explore this connection in the
context of space, as we examine the emotional reaction
of designers and non-designers to various spatial geometries in an immersive 3D virtual environment inside a
visualization laboratory. Among the interesting results
discovered is that non-designers are significantly more
fascinated by curvy asymmetric spaces than designers,
who show a tendency to prefer sharp angled asymmetric
spaces. The research also showed a difference between
these two groups in terms of their ideas on possible
uses of the various types of spaces. We also present and
discuss the methodology for the second stage of the research in which the preliminary experiment is repeated
while participants wear an Electroencephalography
(EEG) device together with a wireless eye tracker and
emotional engagement measurements (EEM) system.
This allows us to investigate whether possible differences in voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current flows within brain neurons may indicate a correlation between user feelings and brain response. We shall
compare the outcome to eye tracking data and changes
in emotional engagement readings. Increasing the body
of knowledge on the connection between human emo-
266 tions and geometry of space may open up new broad
horizons for research in performance-based design in
architecture. The possible collection of neurological
and physiological data and its incorporation into the
architectural design process represents a major step
towards the creation of spaces that positively affect
users’ emotions.
Panoramas of Environment
Research … Communicating User
Experiences in Three Dimensions
Kate Tregloan, [email protected],
(Monash University); Libby Callaway, libby.
[email protected], (Monash University)
The Transport Accident Commission (TAC), a road
accident compensation scheme in Australia, established
Residential Independence Pty Ltd (RIPL) in 2011.
RIPL is a property trust delivering home-like living
environments for people with severe road-accident related neurotrauma. An interdisciplinary research team,
bringing together architectural and occupational therapy expertise and supported by other specialisations,
were engaged to evaluate the success of RIPL’s first
built project. Project findings have been delivered as
an interactive PDF report, integrating easily navigable
virtual panoramas of built spaces. These linked forms
of communication make enriched precedents available
to a wide range of audiences, and also offer environment researchers a new model for the dissemination of
findings. RIPL Project One consists of four apartments
and an office for disability support workers within a
medium density residential apartment development in
Melbourne. Twenty-four hour outreach disability support is coupled with comprehensive home automation
and tenant-staff communication systems. The research
team developed a tailored Environment-Experience
Evaluation Framework (E-EEF) for an interdisciplinary
post-occupancy evaluation of RIPL Project One. The
E-EEF established criteria on the basis of the project
ambitions identified through stakeholder interviews and
construction documentation. Both published measures
and customized methods were applied to investigate
tenants’ experiences in terms of these identified criteria, and highlighted issues relating to both design and
inhabitation. The innovative approach to communication has allowed re-integration of analysis and findings
with spatial experiences. It presents these as augmented
three-dimensional representations of the physical
environment, simultaneously demonstrating the spatial
implications of support delivery. This EDRA Short will
present a live tour of the communication innovations
that have been developed for the E-EEF. It will include
an overview of the interactive PDF report and its content, with a focus on the navigable panoramas and the
opportunities they offer for communication of research
findings to a diverse range of audiences.
267
268 Pre-Conference Intensives
Display Poster
Presentations
269
Posters
270 Posters
Display Poster Presentations
(alphabetical by presenter’s last name)
Cognitive Processing Mechanism Of Auditory
Information In Sonic Environment From The View
Point Of Auditory Event Related Potentials In
Brain Waves
Authors/Institutions: T. Akita, Tokyo Denki University,
Adachi-ku, Tokyo, Japan
Presenter: Takeshi Akita
Presenter email: [email protected]
Behavior-Space Correlations In Special Care
Units For Individuals With Dementia: Examining
The Role Of The Physical Environment
Authors/Institutio

Proceedings - Environmental Design Research Association

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