Muskeg Lake Cree Nation #102 Source Water Protection Pilot

Transcription

Muskeg Lake Cree Nation #102
Source Water Protection Pilot Project
Background Report
Compiled by Denise Benfield, AAg
First Nations Agricultural Council of Saskatchewan
March 2008
Executive Summary
The purpose of this Background Report is to provide stakeholders in Muskeg
Lake Cree Nation with relevant information to assist in the development of a
Source Water Protection Plan (SWPP) to protect both surface and ground waters
that exist on and around Muskeg Lake Cree Nation Reserve No. 102. This report
provides a wide range of information to help build awareness of the many factors
which affect the First Nation, the North Saskatchewan River Watershed, and
ultimately, water quality and quantity. The First Nation is described in terms of its
physical characteristics, ecology, land use, climate and population
demographics. The major economic activity on the Reserve is agriculture.
Water resources are related in terms of quantity, quality, allocation and use.
Current Reserve and watershed management interests include hydrological
concerns, agricultural impacts, urban impacts, recreational use, groundwater well
decommissioning and water borne pathogens. Different land cover functions are
described for upland, riparian and wetland habitats. Watershed and land
stewardship activities and funding are important for watershed management.
The focus of this Source Water Protection Pilot Project is to protect source
waters with an emphasis on drinking water sources. The people of Muskeg Lake
Cree Nation are dependent on groundwater specifically for their drinking water
sources. Once the Background Report has been brought to the public for review
and approved, the process of developing the SWPP will begin. This plan will
assemble pertinent information, analyze threats and opportunities, and build
commitments to protect water, as well as summarize the committees’ discussions
and technical analysis in a number of recommendations. Finally, key actions will
be formulated as to what recommendations will be implemented.
i
Acknowledgements
The development of the background report would not have been possible without
the hard work and participation of those involved in the SWPPP from Muskeg
Lake Cree Nation, especially the committee members – Pat Lafond, Dan Lafond,
Deanna Greyeyes, Dennis Greyeyes, Vern Horner, Brian Greyeyes and Roy
Bearinhole. A big thank you also to those from SWA, EC, STC, and everyone
else who contributed time and resources to this project. Last, but definitely not
least, thank you to Richard Greyeyes and Ben Weenie, elders who contributed to
the First Nations People and the Environment section.
General information about the North Saskatchewan River Watershed,
ecoregions, soil, water, agricultural practices, riparian areas and wetlands,
stewardship activities, programs and funding, as well as other general
information was derived from the Preliminary Background Report of the North
Saskatchewan River Watershed, provided by the SWA.
ii
Table of Contents
Executive Summary ............................................................................................... i
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................... ii
Table of Contents................................................................................................. iii
List of Figures ...................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables ....................................................................................................... vi
List of Abbreviations............................................................................................ vii
List of Appendices...............................................................................................viii
1.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Purpose of Developing the Source Water Protection Pilot Project .............. 1
1.2 Process of Developing the SWPPP ............................................................. 1
1.3 First Nations People and the Environment .................................................. 2
2.0 Reserve Land Characteristics ......................................................................... 3
2.1 Physical Characteristics .............................................................................. 3
2.2 Ecology ..................................................................................................... 17
2.3 Land Use ................................................................................................... 21
2.4 Climate ...................................................................................................... 23
2.5 Demographics ........................................................................................... 24
3.0 Economic Activities and Opportunities .......................................................... 24
3.1 Agriculture ................................................................................................. 24
3.2 Tourism and Recreation ............................................................................ 27
3.3 Industry ..................................................................................................... 28
4.0 Water Resources .......................................................................................... 29
4.1 Surface Water Resources ......................................................................... 29
4.2 Surface Water Quality ............................................................................... 32
4.3 Surface Water Allocation ........................................................................... 32
4.4 Ground Water Resources .......................................................................... 34
4.5 Ground Water Allocation ........................................................................... 36
5.0 Current Watershed Management Interests ................................................... 40
5.1 Hydrological Concerns .............................................................................. 40
5.2 Oil and Gas Industry .................................................................................. 42
5.3 Agricultural Concerns ................................................................................ 43
5.4 Community Impacts ................................................................................... 50
5.5 Recreational Developments ...................................................................... 55
5.6 Road Maintenance and Road Salts ........................................................... 55
5.7 Ground Water Well Decommissioning ....................................................... 55
5.7 Water Borne Pathogens ............................................................................ 57
6.0 Upland and Wetland Conservation ............................................................... 58
6.1 Upland Areas............................................................................................. 58
6.2 Riparian Areas........................................................................................... 58
6.3 Wetland Areas ........................................................................................... 59
7.0 Current Watershed Management .................................................................. 61
7.1 Stewardship Activities, Programs and Funding ......................................... 61
8.0 Glossary of Terms......................................................................................... 65
9.0 References.................................................................................................... 71
iii
List of Figures
Figure 1. First Nations located in the Province of Saskatchewan. Muskeg Lake
Cree Nation is the red/black dot on this map. ....................................................... 4
Figure 2. Satellite imagery of Muskeg Lake Cree Nation, including surrounding
area, Reserve boundaries and well locations. ...................................................... 5
Figure 3. Major watersheds and basins of the Prairie Provinces. Muskeg Lake
Cree Nation is located in the North Saskatchewan River Watershed. .................. 7
Figure 4. Rural Municipalities in the North Saskatchewan River Watershed
(Source: Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River
Watershed, SWA 2005). ....................................................................................... 8
Figure 5. First Nations within the North Saskatchewan River Watershed (Source:
Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed,
SWA 2005). .......................................................................................................... 9
Figure 6. Soil textures of the Muskeg Lake IR area, with Reserve boundaries and
water well locations. ............................................................................................ 11
Figure 7. Elevation model of the Muskeg Lake Cree Nation area, with Reserve
boundaries and water well locations. .................................................................. 15
Figure 8. Contour map of the Muskeg Lake Cree Nation area, with Reserve
Figure 9. Endangered and threatened species, as well as species of special
concern located in the Muskeg Lake area. ......................................................... 20
Figure 10. Land cover of the Muskeg Lake IR # 102 area, including Reserve
Figure 11. Monthly precipitation for North Battleford from the Canadian Climate
Normals 1971-2000 (Environment Canada, 2004).............................................. 23
Figure 12. Average monthly temperature for North Battleford from the Canadian
Climate Normals 1971-2000 (Environment Canada, 2004). ............................... 23
Figure 13. Muskeg Lake Band bison herd at their wintering site on NE-28-46-073. ......................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 14. Views from the south end of Mistawasis Lake, at the campground
area..................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 15. The hydrologic cycle (Source: Environment Canada,
http://www.ec.gc.ca/Water/en/nature/prop/e_cycle.htm). .................................... 30
Figure 16. (a) Exterior of the WTP. (b) Chlorine and potassium permanganate
used for water treatment inside the WTP. ........................................................... 37
Figure 17. (a)-(c) Uncapped and improperly sealed wells allow bugs, rodents,
etc., to enter the wells and possibly contaminate the water. (d) Wells should be a
recommended distance from possible sources of contamination such as septic
tanks, abandoned vehicles, waste, livestock, etc. ............................................... 39
Figure 18. Examples of riparian areas and wetlands. (a) Source: Agriculture and
Agri-Food Canada, http://www.agr.gc.ca/pfra/land/riparea.htm. (b) Witchekan
Lake eastern shoreline. ....................................................................................... 45
Figure 19. Muskeg Lake Cree Nation’s sewage lagoon. ..................................... 52
Figure 20. Muskeg Lake Cree Nation Landfill. .................................................... 53
Figure 21. Potential waste disposal sites and sources of contamination in
individual yards. .................................................................................................. 54
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Figure 22. Abandoned wells should be properly decommissioned to avoid
contamination and for public safety. They should not be used for waste disposal.
............................................................................................................................ 57
Figure 23. Procedure for decommissioning a large diameter (bored) well (Source:
SWA). ................................................................................................................. 57
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List of Tables
Table 1. Weed species in the Boreal Transition and Aspen Parkland ecoregions
(Leeson et al., 2005). .......................................................................................... 18
Table 2. Land cover classifications and area covered on Muskeg Lake Cree
Nation. ................................................................................................................ 21
Table 3. Criterion Guidelines for various parameters measured in water quality
testing. ................................................................................................................ 33
Table 4. Nutrient composition of select manures and commercial fertilizer
(Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed,
SWA 2005). ........................................................................................................ 44
Table 5. Manure management for beef, dairy, hog and poultry operations
(Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed,
SWA 2005). ........................................................................................................ 44
Table 6. Canada-Saskatchewan Farm Stewardship Program BMP Categories. 62
vi
List of Abbreviations
AAFC
ADF
AE
AOA
ASL
ATV
BWA
CCME
COWQ
CP
CSFSP
DUC
DFO
DOC
EFP
EC
EMPA
EMS
FNACS
GCDWQ
HC
ILO
INAC
IWM
IR
MC
PFRA
PFSRB
PMRA
PPWB
RM
SA
SE
SNOWS
SSWQO
STC
SWA
SWPP
SWPPP
TLE
WPO
WTP
WQI
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Agricultural Development Fund
Alberta Environment
Agricultural Operations Act
Above Sea Level
All Terrain Vehicle
Boil Water Advisory
Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment
Committee on Water Quality
Certificate of Possession
Canada-Saskatchewan Farm Stewardship Program
Ducks Unlimited Canada
Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada
Dissolved organic carbon
Environmental Farm Plan
Environment Canada
Environmental Management Protection Act
Earthen Manure Storage
First Nations Agricultural Council of Saskatchewan, Inc.
Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality
Health Canada
Intensive Livestock Operation
Indian and Northern Affairs Canada
Integrated Weed Management
Indian Reserve
Manitoba Conservation
Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration
Partners for the Saskatchewan River Basin
Pest Management Regulatory Agency
Prairie Provinces Water Board
Rural Municipality
Saskatchewan Agriculture
Saskatchewan Environment
Saskatchewan Network of Watershed Stewards
Saskatchewan Surface Water Quality Objectives
Saskatoon Tribal Council
Saskatchewan Watershed Authority
Source Water Protection Plan
Source Water Protection Pilot Project
Treaty Land Entitlement
Water Plant Operator
Water Treatment Plant
Water Quality Index
vii
List of Appendices
Appendix 1. Saskatchewan Watershed Authority Factsheets ............................. 73
Appendix 2. Water Well Locations on Muskeg Lake Cree Nation IR #102. ........ 74
Appendix 3. Pictures of Water Wells Located on Muskeg Lake Cree Nation IR
#102. ................................................................................................................... 77
Appendix 4. Water Quality Analysis Results for Muskeg Lake Cree Nation Water
Wells, October 2007 ........................................................................................... 83
Appendix 5. Geology and Groundwater Resources of the Shellbrook Area (73G),
Saskatchewan..................................................................................................... 84
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1.0 Introduction
1.1 Purpose of Developing the Source Water Protection Pilot
Project
In 2004, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) identified water quantity and
quality as major concerns on First Nations in Canada. To deliver this project
(abbreviated SWPPP), INAC contracted Environment Canada (EC), who
contracted the First Nations Agricultural Council of Saskatchewan (FNACS).
Contract agreements were signed in March 2007 between FNACS and EC and
FNACS and the Saskatchewan Watershed Authority (SWA), and provided
funding for FNACS to deliver this SWPPP on three First Nations in
Saskatchewan – Muskeg Lake Cree Nation, Witchekan Lake First Nation and
Sweetgrass First Nation. If successful, EC and INAC would like to look at the
delivery of this type of project to other First Nations in Saskatchewan.
There are many concerns about water quality on First Nations in Saskatchewan.
Water is a very important aspect of First Nations culture, and with changes in the
lifestyles and culture of First Nations individuals since the introduction and
incorporation of Western European culture, views and treatment of water have
subsequently been affected. The purpose of this project is to identify threats and
potential sources of contamination to Muskeg Lake Cree Nation’s water sources,
raise awareness of these issues and provide a plan to minimize and/or eliminate
these threats.
1.2 Process of Developing the SWPPP
Information included in the background report was acquired from many sources.
Information about the Reserve itself was found on the INAC website, from STC,
the Band, field work, and from interviews with community members. Information
about the general area was found from Saskatchewan government websites,
SWA reports, and the Atlas of Saskatchewan (Fung, 1999), etc. This
background report includes information about: First Nations culture, population,
land use activities, climate, physical characteristics, surface and ground water
characteristics, water and wastewater treatment, waste disposal, riparian and
wetland area information and stewardship activities and partners.
The background report is a living document, and is subject to additions and
changes when additional relevant information becomes available. Once the
Source Water Protection Plan (SWPP) is finished, this background report will be
finalized. The information included in it will be current, so that the First Nation
and its partners in the SWPPP will be able to make informed decisions about
protecting the quality and quantity of water on the Muskeg Lake Cree Nation.
1
1.3 First Nations People and the Environment
The environment and everything it includes (water, land, air, animals, etc.) are
key components of First Nations culture and the traditional beliefs of First Nations
people. The worldview and spirituality of the Cree culture are very complicated
to put into a few words, because in doing so, much of the meaning behind
traditions and beliefs may be lost.
Ben Weenie is a cultural elder in the Sweetgrass First Nation community. He
has lived on the Sweetgrass Indian Reserve his whole life, and over the years
has been involved in an advisory capacity when Band members consult him. He
explains the basic world view of the Cree culture as this:
“The basic view that we have is that where we are, Earth is our Mother Earth,
and everything that Mother Earth provides we don’t abuse or kill overabundantly.
Whatever we do, we always give thanks and give tobacco for even just taking
medicine, and that the water’s the source of life that the Creator gave us. That’s
how we respect, that’s how we play a role in our Creation, that’s the world of the
Cree culture. There’s a lot of ways to explain it, but that’s basically what I can
say.”
Richard Greyeyes is a member of the Muskeg Lake Cree Nation, and has lived
on the Reserve for about 78 years – since he was born. Richard is an elder in
the community, and although he not a councilor, he often sits with Chief and
Council. He says that water is so important to First Nations people, and all
people, because it concerns health. “We use it in everything – to cook, wash
clothes, shower, water animals – everything. You don’t want any chemicals in the
water you shower with.” He says that some of the Reserve has good water, and
some of it has bad – it depends on where you live. Richard believes that they
have a lot better water now than when he was a child, because of the existence
of the water treatment plant. A lot of people used to have good water when he
was a child, but then the animals started to hang around the wells, and
everything that came from them went down into the ground, and made the water
bad. Therefore, while some water wells may be okay to drink, others may be
polluted and may be harmful to a person’s health. People on the Reserve
actually used to haul water from sloughs to use for cooking, washing clothes and
bathing, if they did not have a well. “Using that water never used to hurt them. It
was nice clean water, no chemicals or anything in it. Now there are too many
chemicals in the fields that can get into the water.”
It hasn’t just been the water that has changed – the rest of the environment has
changed over the years as well. According to Richard, moose never used to be
seen on the Reserve, but recently he has seen several, as have other Muskeg
Lake residents. Elk have also started showing up in the area, which is much
farther south than their previous territory. People do not necessarily hunt as
much as they previously did either, although some does still take place. One
type of animal that Muskeg Lake residents used to hunt was rabbits; now this
does not happen as much, because there are not as many around.
2
While in some places older generations of First Nations people feel that younger
generations have a different, possibly negative attitude toward their spirituality
and nature than their ancestors, Richard believes that when he was younger very
few people followed “Indian culture;” now he says there is a lot more done to
build a stronger culture in First Nations youth. However, he says that there has
always been a close connection between First Nations people and nature.
How does Richard see the people of Muskeg Lake Cree Nation fitting into a plan
to protect water into the future? “The only way you can do it is to move forward
and try to help the people organizing the water plan. Communication is the key
for everything.” One thing that Richard believes strongly in is that all Reserves,
and all people, should have water treatment plants. With properly functioning
water treatment facilities, “they’d get good water and be healthier.”
The development of this SWPP is one of the first steps in preserving some of the
traditional ways of First Nations people, and preserving nature for future
generations. If future generations of First Nations people are to have somewhere
to live and raise their children, today’s youth must start, or continue to, learn
about their history and spirituality. As Richard says, “Water is important for
people, for their health.”
2.0 Reserve Land Characteristics
2.1 Physical Characteristics
2.1.1 Location
The core area of Muskeg Lake Cree Nation is located just east of Highway #12,
approximately 12 km north of Blaine Lake, Saskatchewan. The Muskeg Lake
Cree Nation encompasses roughly 10,104.5 hectares (24,964.8 acres, 101 km2)
of Reserve and Treaty Land Entitlement (TLE) lands, including the following
Reserves:
 Asimakaniseekan Askiy Indian Reserve (IR) No. 102A (within Saskatoon
city limits) – 14.3 hectares (35.5 acres)
 Lake Pitihkākēw IR No. 102B (including Mistawasis Lake) – 8,753
hectares (21,628 acres)
 Muskeg Lake IR No. 102C – 313 hectares (774 acres)
 Muskeg Lake IR No. 102D – 131 hectares (324 acres)
 Muskeg Lake IR No. 102E – 162 hectares (400 acres)
 Muskeg Lake IR No. 102F – 14.7 hectares (36.3 acres)
 Muskeg Lake IR No. 102G – 129 hectares (318 acres)
 Muskeg Lake IR No. 102H – 194 hectares (478 acres)
 Muskeg Lake IR No. 102J – 129 hectares (318 acres)
 Muskeg Lake IR No. 102K – 6.48 hectares (16.0 acres)
 Muskeg Lake IR No. 102L – 258 hectares (637 acres)
3
These lands are not all located in the same parcel of land – Muskeg Lake Cree
Nation lands are located in within the City of Saskatoon, in Rural Municipality
(RM) # 464 Leask, RM #466 Meeting Lake and RM #434 Blaine Lake. For the
purpose of this project, the lands within the City of Saskatoon were excluded.
Figures 1 and 2 show where Muskeg Lake Cree Nation is located in
Saskatchewan, and a satellite image of the immediate area.
Figure 1. First Nations located in the Province of Saskatchewan. Muskeg Lake Cree Nation is
the red/black dot on this map.
4
Figure 2. Satellite imagery of Muskeg Lake Cree Nation, including surrounding area, Reserve boundaries and well
locations.
5
2.1.2 Physical Setting
Muskeg Lake Cree Nation is located in the North Saskatchewan River
Watershed (Figure 3), within the Saskatchewan Rivers Plain. The Saskatchewan
Rivers Plain, according to the Background Report of the North Saskatchewan
River Watershed, “demonstrates some topographic variety with ground moraine,
lake plains, river valleys, spillways and other minor landforms. They primarily
exhibit an undulating to gently rolling landscape.”
2.1.3 Geography of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed
The North Saskatchewan River begins in the Columbia Icefields in the Rocky
Mountains of Alberta. Approximately 80,000km2 of land contributes runoff to the
North Saskatchewan and Battle Rivers before these rivers flow into
Saskatchewan. Alberta contributes over 7 million m 3 of the water flow from
Alberta into Saskatchewan. Once it enters Saskatchewan, the North
Saskatchewan River proceeds in a south easterly direction, turning north east
near Langham. Along this journey, it is joined by the Battle River at the
Battlefords. The Battle River is the largest tributary to the North Saskatchewan
River in Saskatchewan but contributes less than 5% of the total flow.
The North and South Saskatchewan Rivers join at “The Forks” located east of
Prince Albert. From there the Saskatchewan River flows into the Nelson River
system in Manitoba and ultimately empties into Hudson Bay.
In Saskatchewan, the North Saskatchewan River Watershed covers a total of
41,000 km2 and includes the Battle River, Eagle Creek, and the Goose Lake
internal drainage basin northeast of Rosetown. The Battle River, since it is the
largest tributary, has been included in the North Saskatchewan River Watershed
planning process. Conversely, the internal drainage basin and Eagle Creek,
which contribute less than 1% of the flow, have not been included in the current
planning process due to the lack of resources for a fifth planning area within the
three year window for completion of the watershed management plan.
The North Saskatchewan River Watershed, for planning purposes, includes 51
RMs, 29 First Nations with lands and 17 Reserves, 100 towns and villages and
the Cities of Lloydminster, North Battleford, and Prince Albert (Figures 4 and 5).
It also includes a portion of the Prince Albert National Park.
6
Figure 3. Major watersheds and basins of the Prairie Provinces. Muskeg Lake Cree Nation is located in the North Saskatchewan River Watershed.
7
Figure 4. Rural Municipalities in the North Saskatchewan River Watershed (Source: Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River
Watershed, SWA 2005).
8
Figure 5. First Nations within the North Saskatchewan River Watershed (Source: Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River
Watershed, SWA 2005).
9
2.1.4 Soils
On the Reserve, the surface textures of most soils are classified as loam (L) or
organic (O) (Figure 6). Loam soils are of medium texture, with approximately
equal proportions of sand, silt and clay-sized particles. Organic soils are found
around the lakes, wetlands, and low-lying areas, where surface water collects
and slows down the decomposition of organic materials (leaves, roots, stems,
soil microbes, etc.). These soils are inadequate for agricultural uses, and are
generally too saturated to be highly productive. There are small areas of sandy
loams (SL), loamy sands (LS) and silty loams (SIL) around the core area of the
Reserve.
Soils perform many functions for life. Soils are the growth medium for plants,
they filter water and are an important part of the nutrient cycle. Microorganisms
and soil fauna are the driving forces behind these functions. Soil organic matter
consists of living and dead plant and animal materials at various stages of
decomposition. Soil organic matter plays a major role in keeping the soil well
aggregated, aerated and porous, making soils easier to cultivate and improving
water infiltration. It also plays important roles in the retention of moisture and
nutrients for crop growth.
Soil mineral particles range in size from sub-microscopic clay particles, through
silts, to sands up to 2 mm in diameter. Stones and gravel, while present in soils,
have little influence in soil properties. The relative proportion of sand, silt and
clay-sized particles in a soil is called the soil texture. Soil texture greatly
influences many soil properties such as the fertility and moisture holding capacity
of the soil which together largely determine the soil’s suitability for growing crops.
Soils with a large proportion of sand-sized particles are usually well drained, wellaerated and easy to cultivate. However, on the Prairies, sandy soils may not
retain enough moisture to sustain crops between precipitation events, making
them less suitable for annual cropping. Soils with high clay content can absorb
and retain more water making them good for annual crops in semi-arid climates.
However, clay soils with low organic matter levels may be sticky when wet and
when dry may become hard and difficult to cultivate. Clay particles can attract
and attach nutrients and contaminants such as pesticides and bacteria from
human sewage or manure (Hillel, 1982).
10
Figure 6. Soil textures of the Muskeg Lake IR area, with Reserve boundaries and water well locations.
11
Erosion
Erosion is the loss of soil from a particular location due to the action of wind,
water and gravity. Soil productivity is reduced after erosion due to loss of soil
organic matter, loss of fine soil particles, and degradation of soil structure. In
most cases the maintenance of a vegetative cover on the soil surface is the
critical factor in controlling soil erosion. Vegetation absorbs the energy of wind
and water; also, plant roots bind soil particles together making them more
resistant to erosion.
Three types of erosion may significantly impact water quality in the North
Saskatchewan River, water erosion, wind erosion and stream bank erosion.
Plant nutrients, microorganisms, and agricultural chemicals may be attached to
soil particles or dissolved in water; consequently, erosion and runoff can
transport these substances to surface waters. The eventual fate of eroded soil
and any potential contaminants depends on the intensity of the erosion event.
Water Erosion
Water erosion begins with rain drops hitting the soil surface causing soil
aggregates to break into smaller pieces. If the amount of rain exceeds the
capacity of the soil to absorb it, water starts to flow downhill across the soil
surface transporting loose soil, finding low spots and eventually cutting channels
into the soil.
The severity of water erosion depends on the (a) the amount and velocity of
runoff which is determined by the intensity of rainfall or the rapidity of snowmelt,
the steepness and length of slopes, and the area of the upstream watershed, (b)
soil properties (such as texture, organic matter content and density) affecting the
rate of infiltration of precipitation and the susceptibility of the soil to erosion, and
(c) the amount of protection provided by growing crops or residues from previous
crops.
Vegetation intercepts raindrops and reduces the amount of erosion caused by
rainfall and runoff. On fields with little or no vegetation to absorb the impact
rainwater will hit the bare soil loosening soil particles. Vegetation also slows
down runoff and acts as a filter by trapping sediment and any adsorbed
contaminants.
Note that not all fields will erode the same amount. According to the Preliminary
Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed, some areas in
the watershed could erode at rates between 5-12 T/ha/yr. Areas with steep
slopes in annual crop production and with very fine sandy or silty soils are the
most prone to erosion.
Wind erosion
Wind erosion may result in sediments being deposited directly in water bodies, or
in drainage ditches and runs where sediments will be susceptible to water
12
erosion. Wind erosion results when strong winds come into contact with loose
dry soils. Fine soil material becomes suspended in the air and may travel many
thousands of kilometers before being deposited. Fine sand-sized particles and
aggregates are mobilized by the wind and skip along the surface of the eroding
area. This process greatly increases the intensity of wind erosion. Eventually
these particles are trapped by vegetation or behind stones, usually within a few
hundred meters from their starting point. Larger sand-sized particles and
aggregates, which are too heavy to be picked up by the wind, are rolled along the
soil surface and seldom moved far. Persistent wind erosion over several years
may remove tens of centimeters of soil from susceptible areas causing the
formation of sand dunes. The removal of fine particles by wind erosion
significantly impacts soil fertility and may transport pesticides, nutrients, and
pathogens attached to the soil.
The factors affecting wind erosion are surface soil moisture, wind speed and
turbulence, soil texture, soil aggregation, the presence of surface crusts, surface
roughness, unsheltered field width, and the amount, orientation and type of
surface vegetation. Sandy soils are the most erodible, but clays may be
extremely erodible if exposed to freeze-thaw which results in fine sand sized
aggregates which are very susceptible to erosive winds. Vegetation absorbs the
energy of the wind, protects the soils surface and traps eroding particles.
Therefore, crop residue management and permanent forage are the most
effective practices to control wind erosion.
The North Saskatchewan River Watershed has areas of moderate, high and very
high risk of wind erosion. Some of these areas are directly adjacent to the North
Saskatchewan River around North Battleford, Borden, Langham and Prince
Albert, and around the mouth of Eagle Creek. Other areas are not directly
adjacent to water, but sediments could still be blown into water bodies or be
deposited where it will be susceptible to water erosion.
Stream Bank Erosion and In-stream Sedimentation
The erosive force of high water flow in creeks and rivers may undercut the banks
causing them to slump into the water - this is called stream bank erosion. The
greater the water flow velocity, the greater will be the erosion on stream banks.
Water velocity also determines how much sediment can be carried - the faster
the stream velocity, the more sediment load can be carried. As stream velocity
slows, this sediment is then deposited either within the stream where stream
gradients decrease or when river water enters a lake (deltas).
Vegetative cover is important in controlling stream bank erosion. Its
effectiveness depends on the type, location, and amount of plant material.
Vegetation in the stream will slow water flow resulting in less erosion of stream
banks and greater in-stream sedimentation of entrained material. The roots of
riparian (shoreline) vegetation bind the soil together and help to stabilize the
banks; they also function as a filter to stop sediment, nutrients and contaminants
13
from entering a stream. Riparian vegetation is water tolerant and usually
consists of thick dense brush, trees, or grasses.
2.1.5 Topography
Slope classifications across the North Saskatchewan River Watershed vary
significantly. Steep slope areas exist along the entire Battle River, on the North
Saskatchewan River near Albert, and Jackfish Lake to Big Shell Lake. There are
also several pockets of steep slopes located in uplands areas. Figure 7, an
elevation model, shows the high and low elevations across the Muskeg Lake
Cree Nation. As can be seen from this figure, the northwest side of the Reserve
is slightly rolling, while the center and south end of the Reserve are fairly level,
which can be confirmed when in the field and by Figure 8, a contour map of the
area.
14
Figure 7. Elevation model of the Muskeg Lake Cree Nation area, with Reserve boundaries and water well
locations.
15
Figure 8. Contour map of the Muskeg Lake Cree Nation area, with Reserve boundaries and water well locations.
16
2.2 Ecology
Ecology is defined as the study of the mutual relationships between organisms,
both plant and animal, and their environment (Parker, 2005). Although there is a
lot that can be discussed under the scope of ecology, this section will only
examine information which was readily available.
2.2.1 Ecoregions
The geography of Saskatchewan has been described and classified into
ecozones and subsequent ecoregions on the basis of landform (i.e. soils,
topography, hydrology and geology) and the resulting dominant vegetation
communities (Acton et al., 1996). Within the various ecozones are found
wetlands, lakes, rivers and landforms with high wetland densities (e.g. the
Thickwood Hills) that are important to migrating and breeding waterfowl and
other water birds.
The North Saskatchewan River Basin traverses four ecoregions: Aspen
Parkland, Moist Mixed Grassland, Boreal Transition and Mid Boreal Uplands.
The Muskeg Lake Cree Nation falls on the border between the Boreal Transition
Ecoregion and the Aspen Parkland Ecoregion. The descriptions below are taken
from the Atlas of Saskatchewan (Fung, 1999).
Prairie - Aspen Parkland
“In its native state, this ecoregion is characterized by a mosaic of aspen groves
and fescue grasslands. Along its southern boundary, aspen groves dot a
predominantly grassland landscape, while the northern parts exhibit a more
continuous cover of aspen. Locally, grasslands occupy the drier upper and
south-facing slopes, while aspen is found on the moist lower, mid- and northfacing slopes. This is in contrast to the southern grassland ecoregions where
aspen is found only around sloughs, or in valleys and sandhill areas. Bur oak is
found sporadically along the Qu’Appelle River valley and its tributaries. Glacial
till landscapes characterized by short, steep slopes and numerous, undrained
depressions or sloughs are prevalent, and provide an ideal habitat for ducks and
other waterfowl. White-tailed deer is the most prominent wildlife species.
Coyote, hare, fox and Richardson’s ground squirrel are also prevalent. Typical
birds include house wren, least flycatcher, western kingbird and yellow warbler.
Due to the favorable climate and fertile, loamy, black soils, most of the land is
cultivated, producing a diversity of crops including cereals and oilseeds as well
as forages and several specialty crops.”
Boreal Plain - Boreal Transition
“This ecoregion is characterized by a mix of forest and farmland, marking both
southern advance of the boreal forest and the northern limit of arable agriculture.
Gray soils supporting tall stands of aspen are characteristic of the hilly upland
areas. White spruce and jack pine occur throughout the area but are less
common than in the more northern ecoregions. Peatlands are also less
17
common. Except for the areas of jack pine on sandy soils along the North
Saskatchewan River valley, the lowlands or plains are mostly cultivated. In fact,
the black and dark gray soils are some of the most fertile and productive in the
province, producing a wide range of forage crops, feed grains, cereals and
oilseeds. Wildlife populations are diverse with white-tailed deer, moose, elk and
black bear being the most prominent. Other mammals include the beaver,
northern flying squirrel and the short-tailed shrew. The gray jay, boreal
chickadee, black and white warbler, and great-crested fly-catcher are typical
birds.”
2.2.2 Weeds
A weed survey on cropland in Saskatchewan was completed in 2003, and a
summary of the results of all Prairie Provinces was completed in 2005. The size
and extent of some of the more common weeds from the Boreal Transition and
Aspen Parkland ecoregions can be found in Table 1.
Table 1. Weed species in the Boreal Transition and Aspen Parkland ecoregions (Leeson et al.,
2005).
Weed Species
Relative Abundance*
Weed Species
Relative Abundance
in Boreal Transition
in Aspen Parkland
Wild oats
35.3
Green foxtail
54.6
Wild buckwheat
35.0
Wild oats
39.6
Chickweed
23.2
Wild buckwheat
32.0
Green foxtail
19.6
Canada thistle
20.1
Canada thistle
19.4
Chickweed
16.2
Lamb’s quarters
18.4
Lamb’s quarters
12.8
Field horsetail
11.9
Stinkweed
8.5
Cleavers
11.4
Wheat
8.1
Hemp-nettle
10.6
Cleavers
7.7
Stinkweed
10.6
Spiny annual sow6.8
thistle
Dandelion
10.1
Quack grass
9.2
Pale smartweed
6.6
Wheat
8.8
Perennial sow-thistle
6.4
Canola/rapeseed
8.5
Shepherd’s-purse
6.3
Pale smartweed
7.9
Redroot pigweed
6.2
Redroot pigweed
7.9
Canola/rapeseed
5.7
Shepherd’s-purse
6.6
Dandelion
5.6
Narrow-leaved hawk’s6.2
Quack grass
4.9
beard
Perennial sow-thistle
5.8
* Relative abundance: A combination of the frequency, field uniformity and field density values for
each species.
Invasive Species/Noxious Weeds
Invasive species are non-native organisms that can invade and disturb natural
ecosystems resulting in the displacement of the native species. Often these
plants are more competitive and offset the natural vegetation. This results in a
loss of biodiversity.
18
Noxious weeds are undesirable plants that can cause physical or economic
damage. Noxious weeds pose a real threat to reduce the biodiversity of plants
and animals in the watershed. The presence of noxious weeds in riparian areas
can destabilize the natural buffer zones resulting in increased erosion and the
decreased ability of the vegetation to filter any contaminants. Control of noxious
weeds can be difficult, especially around waterbodies. Furthermore, The
Environmental Management Protection Act (EMPA) restricts the use of control
substances such as chemical weed controls within 25 meters, or 50 meters for
aerial applications, of a water body including intermittent waterways and drainage
ditches without a permit. This poses a problem as noxious weeds will readily
grow in riparian areas and can be easily transported by water flows. Some
examples of noxious weeds include downy brome, scentless chamomile, green
foxtail and leafy spurge. A complete list of noxious weeds can be found online at
http://www.qp.gov.sk.ca/documents/English/Regulations/Regulations/N91R2.pdf.
2.2.3 Waterfowl
The Province of Saskatchewan has been identified as an area of continental
significance to breeding waterfowl populations, producing over 50% of the
waterfowl in Canada, and approximately 30% of the population of in North
America. The North Saskatchewan River Watershed itself contributes a
significant number of birds to the continental duck population because each year
thousands of waterfowl are attracted to the numerous productive wetlands found
within its boundaries. According to local people, whooping cranes, an
endangered species, use land in the Reserve area as a resting spot during
migration.
2.2.4 Fish
The North Saskatchewan River supports a wide diversity of fish species.
Twenty-seven species of native fish occur in the North Saskatchewan River and
its tributaries. Species of interest to anglers include pike, walleye, sauger and
perch.
Five different sucker species live in the river, including the quillback, which can
be identified by its sail-like fin on its back. Also, a variety of small forage fish
provides a plentiful food supply for larger fish species.
Fish Habitat
Fish habitat means "all areas that fish depend on directly or indirectly throughout
their life stages. It includes spawning grounds and nursery, rearing, food supply
and migration areas." This means that fish habitat not only includes areas where
fish are actually found during one or more phases of their life cycle but also those
areas that supply the food items necessary to support those fish species.
Fish habitat can be easily damaged and lost due to human activities that occur
in, near or with water. These often result in both large and small changes to fish
habitat in ways that are both obvious and subtle. These changes often have
19
profound effects on the economic, social, cultural and environmental benefits that
marine and freshwater fish provide to Canadians. In many cases these effects
are not seen or noticed for years after the initial impacts have occurred.
There is not habitat suitable for most fish species other than minnows to live in
Muskeg/Paddling Lake. According to residents, Muskeg Lake is only roughly 1.5
m (5 ft) deep at its deepest, and tall residents can stand up in the lake.
2.2.5 Wildlife
The North Saskatchewan River Watershed supports many different kinds of
wildlife, including some species that are considered endangered. Within the
Muskeg Lake Cree Nation area, the Piping Plover is listed as being endangered,
Sprague's Pipit and the Loggerhead Shrike are threatened, and the Monarch
Butterfly and Yellow Rail are listed as species of special concern (Figure 9).
(a) Piping Plover
Photo by David Krughoff
(d)
Monarch Butterfly
Photo by G. Sutter
(b) Loggerhead Shrike
Photo by Rick McNichol
(c) Sprague’s Pipit
Photo by Stephen Davis
(e) Yellow Rail
Photo by black_throated_green_warbler
Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/
7272419@N03/2210232574/
Figure 9. Endangered and threatened species, as well as species of special concern located in
the Muskeg Lake area.
For information on big game animals occurring within the North Saskatchewan
River Watershed, contact Saskatchewan Environment (www.se.gov.sk.ca) in
North Battleford, Prince Albert or Saskatoon, or the Canadian Wildlife Service
(www.cws-scf.ec.gc.ca) at (306) 975-4087.
20
2.3 Land Use
Land use data from the mid 1990's shows that a significant portion, more than
48%, of the land in the North Saskatchewan River Watershed is cultivated.
Seventeen percent of it is native grassland and an additional 3% is in forage, hay
or pasture production. Trees and shrubs account for 23% of the watershed,
while large waterbodies and wetlands occupy 6% of the watershed.
In the core area of Muskeg Lake Cree Nation Indian Reserve No. 102, cropland
is approximately 45%, approximately 20% is mixed wood forest, 14% is pasture,
roughly 7% is water bodies and marshes, and approximately 9% is native
grassland (Table 2, Figure 10). The remaining 5% is classified as forage, tree or
“other” (which includes homes, yards, residential communities, etc.).
Table 2. Land cover classifications and area covered on Muskeg Lake Cree Nation.
Land Cover Type
Area
Area
Percent Landcover
2
(m )
(acres)
(%)
Cultivated
35,132,400
8,681.4
45
Hay/Forage
488,700
120.7
Native Grass
7,014,600
1,733.3
9.0
559,800
138.3
0.72
10,999,800
2,718.1
14.1
Hardwood Open
212,400
52.5
0.27
Hardwood Closed
226,800
56.0
0.29
Jackpine Open
211,500
141.7
0.73
Jackpine Closed
573,300
52.3
0.27
Spruce Closed
207,900
51.4
0.27
Tall Shrub
Pasture
0.63
Spruce Open
511,200
126.3
0.65
Mixed Wood
15,938,100
3,938.4
20.4
Waterbody
5,684,400
1,404.6
7.3
Marsh
253,800
62.7
0.32
Mud/Sand/Saline
18,900
4.7
0.02
Shrub Fen
37,800
9.3
0.05
-
-
-
78,071,400
19,291.7
100.02
Farm/Community
Total Land
21
Figure 10. Land cover of the Muskeg Lake IR # 102 area, including Reserve boundaries and water well locations.
22
2.4 Climate
The Muskeg Lake Cree Nation has a sub-humid climate, characterized by wide
variations in both seasonal and annual temperatures and precipitation. There
are also frequent wide fluctuations in temperature from day to day and between
day and night. The mean annual precipitation for North Battleford is
approximately 373.2 mm (Environment Canada, 2004). Annual precipitation
totals can vary widely from year to year and sometimes exhibit multi-year cycles
of high or low totals.
Monthly average precipitation varies throughout the year with the wettest month
being July while the driest month is February. Figure 11 shows the variation of
monthly precipitation at North Battleford, whose climate is similar to the Muskeg
Lake Cree Nation’s climate.
80
Average Precipitation (mm)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Figure 11. Monthly precipitation for North Battleford from the Canadian Climate Normals 19712000 (Environment Canada, 2004).
Average Temperature (deg C)
20
15
10
5
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov Dec
-5
-10
-15
-20
Figure 12. Average monthly temperature for North Battleford from the Canadian Climate Normals
1971-2000 (Environment Canada, 2004).
23
The daily highs average 24°C in July and -11.8°C in January. Daily lows average
11.2°C in July and -22.2°C in January. Extreme temperatures in North Battleford
range from -46.1°C, recorded on January 20, 1943, to 37.9°C, recorded on
August 10, 1991 (Environment Canada, 2004). Temperatures across the North
Saskatchewan River Watershed vary roughly by ecoregion from cooler in the
northern forests to warmer in the southern grasslands. Figure 12 shows the
average monthly temperature at North Battleford.
2.5 Demographics
Based on the 2006 census data, the population of the Muskeg Lake Cree Nation
is approximately 293 persons (Statistics Canada, 2007). Based on the 2001
census data, the population within the North Saskatchewan River Watershed is
approximately 116,500 persons, not including uncensused First Nations lands.
The median age of the population on Muskeg Lake Cree Nation is approximately
26.6 years old. Approximately 64.4% of the population is 15+ years old
(Statistics Canada, 2007). Population concentration will have a direct influence
on the amount of water used and the amount of water recycled back as waste.
Unlike many communities in the North Saskatchewan River Watershed, Muskeg
Lake Cree Nation depends on groundwater for all of its residential and municipal
use.
3.0 Economic Activities and Opportunities
There are many different activities that provide for an economic benefit to the
region. Agriculture, oil and gas development, forestry and related products, are
all significant activities in the North Saskatchewan River Watershed. Not all of
these activities take place on Muskeg Cree Nation land, but some may influence
the people, land and resources of the Reserve.
3.1 Agriculture
The agriculture production and processing sector represents an important
economic endeavour in the province. Major agricultural activities/industries
include crop and forage production, cow-calf operations, beef feedlots, pork
production units, inland grain terminals, and agricultural machinery
manufacturers. Other agricultural activities within the watershed include smallerscale horticulture, apiculture and agroforestry operations. Additional information
regarding agriculture in Saskatchewan can be found at the Saskatchewan
Agriculture (SA, formerly Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food) website at
http://www.agr.gov.sk.ca.
A survey of farms in Saskatchewan show a decline in the number of total farms
from 56,995 in 1996 to 50,598 in 2001, an 11% reduction. The only farm size
classes that increased in number compared with 1996 were the 180 to 239 acre
class (4%) and the 1600 acre and over class (2%). While total provincial
24
farmland only slightly decreased (approximately 1%) to 64.9 million acres in 2001
compared to 1996, the average farm size increased (11%) to 1283 acres in 2001
compared to 1152 acres in 1996. The lack of commodity price increases
concurrent to the rise of input costs, as well as the closure of particular market
streams (e.g. beef to the USA) has resulted in the loss of many family-farm
operations. Nonetheless, farmers have demonstrated tenacity in the face of
these challenges by diversifying farm operations, improving production efficiency
and utilizing non-traditional market streams.
3.1.1 Agricultural Crops and Forage
An analysis of federal and provincial census data reveal that over the past 15
years agricultural cropping activities have become more diversified and have
adopted management strategies that reduce soil disturbance. Predominant
crops are cereal grains (wheat, barley and oats), oilseeds (canola, flax) and
pulse crops (field peas, lentils). Forage production (alfalfa and mixed grasses)
also comprises a significant proportion of farmland, especially in the Aspen
Parkland and Boreal Transition regions. Specialty crops such as triticale, dry
beans and grain and silage corn increased 24% in 2001 compared to 1996, yet
remain a fraction of total cropland.
Regarding data specific to the North Saskatchewan River watershed, almost
50% of the land used is in annual crop and forage production. A 5% increase in
total cropland from 5.2 million acres to 5.5 million acres was noted between 1996
and 2001. Wheat, barley and canola were the predominant crops grown.
Acreage devoted to flax and peas increased, as did the amount of land in forage
production. Generally, on a year-to-year basis production was slightly higher in
the East and Central regions compared to the West and Battle River regions.
Agricultural management practices in the watershed showed general trends
towards minimizing soil disturbance, through reduction of summerfallow and the
adoption of zero- and min-till practices combined with herbicide application for
weed control. Land devoted to forage production substantially increased, and
considerable opportunity to further increase forage acreage remains, especially
on marginal (classes 5 and 6) agricultural land. This in turn has the potential to
enhance the local livestock industry by increasing the carrying capacity in the
watershed. The total number of irrigated acres declined from 1996 to 2001 for
reasons unknown. A small but growing number of producers manage organiccertified farms within the watershed. As of 2005, a total of 50 farms indicated
certified organic grain production, 8 of which also raise organic beef.
For the purposes of this study, there are two types of land: Band land and
Certificate of Possession (CP) land. Band land is owned by the Muskeg Lake
Cree Nation. The CP land is also owned by the Band, but the CP gives the
individual Band members the “right of use.” All of the Band’s land is farmed by
Muskeg Lake Cree Nation Band members, while most of the CP land is leased
out by the CP holders to non-Band members. There are two Band members who
25
farm much of the land on the Reserve. The crops seeded on the Reserve
include barley, canola, field peas, wheat and oats.
There have been concerns mentioned about agricultural chemicals applied to the
cropland on the Reserve (the amount and application methods) and impacts that
they may have on the environment and the health of the people on the Reserve.
There are also concerns about the local area producers aerial spraying on
neighboring cropland and possible drift onto Reserve land. There have also
been concerns about improper disposal of agricultural chemical containers in
wetlands and sloughs on the Reserve. These containers can be returned to the
retailer where they were purchased to prevent environmental impacts caused by
improper disposal. One local area producer (off-Reserve) is an organic farmer,
meaning that no chemical fertilizers or pesticides are used on organic cropland.
3.1.2 Livestock
There are multiple livestock operations on Muskeg Lake Cree Nation, including
bison, cattle and horse operations. There are two bison operations - one that is
owned/operated by the Band (Figure 13, currently managed by Leslie Arcand)
and one that is privately owned and operated by two Band members. The
Band’s bison herd has approximately 147 head, grazing on approximately 640
acres of woodland grass. This pasture is located on the following parcels of land
in the NW corner of the Reserve: E½-04-47-07-W3, E½-33-46-07-W3 and NE28-46-07-3. The other bison operation has roughly 75 - 80 animals, and is
located in the SE corner of the Reserve, on approximately the following land
locations: Sec. 12 and 1-46-07-W3, and Sec. 6 and 7-46-06-W3.
Figure 13. Muskeg Lake Band bison herd at their wintering site on NE-28-46-07-3.
In addition to the bison operations, there are two cattle operations. One has
approximately 20 head and the other approximately 48 head. There are also
roughly 8 horse owners. Many of these owners have 5 – 16 horses each. One
owner has more than 20 horses.
3.1.3 Intensive Livestock Operations
There are no intensive livestock operations (ILOs) on the Muskeg Lake Cree
Nation Reserve; however, there are multiple ILOs (hog barns, dairies, feedlots) in
the watershed. Watershed residents sometimes raise concerns as to waste
26
management from these ILOs, and the possible future impacts of them on the
groundwater and surface water in the area. For more information about ILOs
and the Agricultural Operations Act (AOA), which regulates the development and
operations of ILOs, please contact SA, Agricultural Operations at (306) 9335095, or refer to the Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan
River Watershed.
3.2 Tourism and Recreation
The North Saskatchewan River Watershed provides many opportunities for high
quality water based recreation, which attract large numbers of visitors (tourists) to
the area. These opportunities have been recognized in various tourism
strategies throughout the region, in a number of Provincial and Regional Park
Management Plans, and in strategies dealing with many lakes and associated
areas within the watershed.
Water based tourism and recreation activities in the watershed include fishing,
canoeing, boating, nature tours, nature viewing, swimming, migratory bird
watching, hunting and kayaking. In addition, other tourism activities dependent
upon water resources include horseback excursions, cattle roundups, golfing
(irrigated high quality courses), camping, and visiting lakeside resorts. Lakeside
cottage developments also attract large numbers of tourists to the area.
There is not extensive tourism and recreation on the Muskeg Lake Cree Nation.
However, the Band hosts a canoe race on Muskeg/Paddling Lake annually. In
addition, Muskeg Lake Cree Nation owns land immediately adjacent to
Mistawasis Lake (Figure 14), which is approximately 19 km northwest of the
Muskeg Lake IR No. 102, or approximately 27 km away when driving. Currently,
the only vehicular access to Mistawasis Lake is from the north end of the lake,
through the Royal Community Pasture, along the west side of the lake, to the
south end where there is currently a small, minimally developed campground. In
the summer, the campground and beach can reach about 300-400 people, and
according to Pinter and Associates (2004), there are inadequate waste disposal
facilities to handle this volume of use. The findings of Pinter and Associates
(2004) brought up the concern that the indiscriminate disposal of human waste
and garbage around the campground could have the same impacts as ILOs, in
the accumulation of nitrates and nitrites, as well as bacteria and viruses
associated with human waste. These are causes for concern about public safety
for users of the campground, and potential downstream water users.
Muskeg Lake Cree Nation has indicated interest in developing the land around
the southeast and southwest sides of the lake, by building cabins and
leasing/selling them. They have also indicated interest in building a direct road
from Highway #12 inward toward the south end of Mistawasis Lake, in
partnership with the RM of Meeting Lake, to provide easier access to the lake.
27
(a) View looking west along beach.
(b) View looking west.
(c) View looking north.
(d) View looking east.
Figure 14. Views from the south end of Mistawasis Lake, at the campground area.
3.3 Industry
3.3.1 Oil and Gas Development
Although there is significant oil and gas industry production in the North
Saskatchewan Watershed, most of it is concentrated in the western portion of the
watershed. Historically and currently, no oil and gas development has taken
place on Muskeg Lake Cree Nation lands. For more information about the oil
and gas activity in the rest of the watershed, please consult the Preliminary
Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed.
3.3.2 Forestry
There is currently no commercial harvesting of timber on the Muskeg Lake Cree
Nation. However, according to members of the Band administration, past reports
have determined that selective logging may be feasible in the area around
Muskeg/Paddling Lake. In the past, however, Band members in general have
not been in favour of this harvesting. For information on the forestry industry in
the rest of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed, please consult the
Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed.
28
Historically, there were several sawmills located on the Reserve. Potential
locations that were identified as such by Pinter and Associates (2004) were the
island where the cultural camp currently exists, between houses #222 and 223
and south of house #145. Typically, birch, white spruce and black spruce were
harvested and milled into rough dimensional lumber and timber. These
operations were generally powered by tractors and included other equipment that
potentially have environmental impacts through oil and fuel spills/leaks, and other
contaminants resulting from individual operations. Currently, there are no
sawmill sites active on the Reserve, and the sites previously mentioned did not
seem to have been negatively impacted by the historic sawmill activities.
3.3.3 Fire Management
Fire is recognized as an important part of the natural ecological process. As
such, it is encouraged where fires can be allowed to burn or reintroduced through
prescribed burning. In riparian areas, the effects of fire can be highly variable
depending on the existing vegetative structure, site conditions, fire intensity and
subsequent weather patterns. Fire in riparian areas can affect microclimate
regulation, carbon inputs, floodplain and channel stability (sedimentation), soil
chemistry and nutrient cycling.
Where fire is actioned, fire suppression measures can be modified to reduce
potential negative environmental impacts. Fire Management and Forest
Protection, Saskatchewan Environment (SE), have developed reclamation
standards which include erosion and sedimentation control measures, recontouring of slopes, coarse woody debris and other material removal, reestablishment of natural vegetation and monitoring.
There are occasionally unplanned fires on the Reserve, including in the landfill
site.
4.0 Water Resources
4.1 Surface Water Resources
4.1.1 Hydrologic Cycle
The hydrologic cycle refers to the processes where water moves from
waterbodies to the atmosphere and onto and into the earth’s surface (Figure 15).
For the North Saskatchewan River Watershed, the dominant processes include
precipitation (snowfall and rainfall), evaporation, transpiration, storage in
wetlands, lakes, soils and glaciers, runoff, streamflow and infiltration to ground
water. The following sections will look at runoff rates from the land surface,
streamflows and lake levels.
29
Figure 15. The hydrologic cycle (Source: Environment Canada,
http://www.ec.gc.ca/Water/en/nature/prop/e_cycle.htm).
Runoff
Runoff rates from various landscapes can be compared by examining annual
runoff volumes from small and medium-sized gauged watersheds. The series of
annual runoff volumes is sorted to find the median annual runoff volume (i.e. the
central value where half the values are larger and the other half smaller). Prairie
hydrologists have long recognized that in many years, only a portion of a
watershed is directly contributing to the observed runoff volume at a streamflow
gauging station. Thus in addition to the “gross” drainage area, which is defined
by the topographic height of land, they have developed the concept of the
“effective” drainage area, which is the area contributing to streamflow in a year
with median runoff. The vast majority of the annual precipitation is returned to
the atmosphere by transpiration from plants or by evaporation from waterbodies
and the soil surface.
Information on streamflow and/or water level is available for a number of lakes
and streams in Saskatchewan. For more information and to see if streamflow
and/or water level records are available for various lakes, please contact the
SWA.
Streamflow
To learn about the streamflow of the North Saskatchewan River, please consult
the Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed.
All of the remaining streams in the watershed are typical prairie streams where
streamflow is dominated by spring snowmelt in April. Other important processes
in prairie stream hydrology include soil moisture storage, plant transpiration and
wetland storage.
30
Lakes
There are many lakes within the Saskatchewan portion of the North
Saskatchewan River Watershed. Over two dozen lakes have cottage
development. Many more are used for camping and fishing.
The water level of a lake at any time is the result of the dynamic balance
between inflows and outflows. Inflows include runoff into the lake, and rainfall
and snowfall directly onto the lake surface, and can include groundwater inflow
and diversions of water into the lake. Outflows include evaporation directly off
the lake surface, and can include surface outflow, groundwater outflow, water
withdrawals, and diversions of water out of the lake. Lakes can be classified in a
number of different ways. From a hydrologic perspective, lakes can be classified
by their type of surface outlet: Natural Outlets, Constructed Outlets (operable or
non-operable), and No Outlets. There is one major lake on Muskeg Lake Cree
Nation Reserve No. 102 – Muskeg Lake, which is also known as Paddling Lake.
Mistawasis Lake, as previously mentioned, is located on Reserve No. 102B,
northwest of the main Reserve. The lake outlets on the Reserve are natural
outlets, therefore water flows in and out of the lakes naturally. Therefore, lake
levels respond to long-term balances between inflow, outflow and evaporation.
The natural drainage of this area is down towards the lower-lying sloughs, to
Muskeg/Paddling Lake, and creeks that empty into the lake. Overall drainage
from the Reserve is to the south and southeast, where water coming off the
Reserve drains into smaller lakes such as Blaine Lake (Pinter and Associates,
2004).
4.1.2 Apportionment
The Prairie Provinces Water Board (PPWB) administers the Master Agreement
on Apportionment for inter-provincial waters through the continued cooperation of
a broad range of provincial and federal departments. Several agencies
participate in the PPWB, either through membership on the board or through at
least one of its various committees. Membership on the Board is drawn from
SWA, EC, Alberta Environment (AE), Manitoba Conservation (MC), and Prairie
Farm Rehabilitation Administration (PFRA).
In general, under the Master Agreement, Alberta is entitled to 50% of the natural
flow of an inter-provincial river before it enters Saskatchewan. Saskatchewan is
entitled to 50% of the water which enters the province from Alberta and 50% of
the flow arising within its borders. Manitoba receives the remainder. This
formula is based on flow occurring over the course of a 12-month period in all
eastward flowing streams.
The Master Agreement on Apportionment also has conditions for the quality of
the water that is to be passed. The Committee on Water Quality (COWQ)
reviews the water quality data and their adherence to the Water Quality
Objectives used to promote effective inter-provincial water quality management,
31
protect the users in downstream jurisdictions, evaluate the quality of interprovincial waters, and advise the Board on potential water quality concerns. The
COWQ annually reviews the results of the PPWB Water Quality Monitoring
Program and compares the data to PPWB Water Quality Objectives.
4.2 Surface Water Quality
4.2.1 Water Quality Index
Water quality of the North Saskatchewan and Battle Rivers over the past 15
years was examined using the water quality index (WQI) to evaluate water
quality. Please consult the Preliminary Background Report of the North
Saskatchewan River Watershed for more information on long term trend
analyses for these two rivers, and to learn how the WQI is calculated and
reported.
4.2.2 Surface Water Quality Objectives
In Saskatchewan ambient water quality is compared to the Saskatchewan
Surface Water Quality Objectives (SSWQO) (Saskatchewan Environment, 1997).
These objectives are based on different water uses including contact and noncontact recreation, protection of aquatic life, irrigation and livestock watering.
These objectives apply to all water bodies in the province. To assess overall
water quality, SWA selected 16 parameters to be incorporated into the WQI
including nutrients (e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus), minerals (e.g. sodium, chloride),
metals (e.g. arsenic, mercury), pesticides (e.g. 2, 4-D, MCPA) and bacteria (e.g.
coliforms). Table 3 is a list of the guidelines for various parameters measured in
water quality testing. If measurements in a groundwater or surface water source
exceed these values, the water may be unsafe to consume, and steps should be
taken to reduce the values to safe levels.
4.3 Surface Water Allocation
There are currently no surface water allocations on Muskeg Lake Cree Nation.
Surface water allocations are grouped into four main categories: industrial,
irrigation, municipal/domestic, and environmental/instream. All of Muskeg Lake
Cree Nation’s water for municipal and domestic use comes from groundwater.
Some surface water is used to water livestock in some pastures.
32
Table 3. Criterion Guidelines for various parameters measured in water quality testing.
Criterion Guideline
SWA Drinking Water
Value from GCDWQ*
Quality Standards and
Parameter
(mg/L)
Objectives (mg/L)
†
Alkalinity
ng
500
Aluminum
0.1
ng
Ammonia (as nitrogen)
ng
ng
Arsenic
0.05
0.01
Barium
1
1.0
Benzene
0.005
ng
Boron
5
5.0
Cadmium
0.005
0.005
Calcium
ng
ng
Chloride
≤ 250
250
Chromium
0.05
0.05
Color (in true color units)
≤ 15 TCU
ng
Copper
≤1
1.0
Corrosivity (saturation index at 4°C)
ng
ng
Cyanide
0.2
ng
Dissolved organic carbon
ng
<5
††
Escherichia coliform bacteria
ng
0 ct/100 mL
Fluoride
1.5
1.5
Hardness
ng
800
Iron
≤ 0.3
0.3
Lead
0.01
0.01
Magnesium
ng
200
Manganese
≤ 0.05
0.05
Mercury
0.001
ng
Nitrate
45
45
pH
6.8 - 8.5
6.5 - 9.0
ng
Phenols
ng
ng
ng
Phosphorus
ng
Potassium
ng
Selenium
0.01
0.01
Silver
ng
ng
Sodium
≤ 200
300
Sulphate
≤ 500
500
ng
Sum of ions
1,500
Total coliform bacteria
ng
0 ct/100 mL
Total dissolved solids
≤ 500
ng
ng
Total solids
ng
ng
Turbidity (in NTUs)
ng
Uranium
0.02
0.02
Vinyl chloride
0.002
ng
Zinc
≤ 5.0
5.0
*Guideline criterion values listed above are per the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality
(GCDWQ) published by Health Canada as of the date of issue of this Guide (March 21, 2006). Please
check with Health Canada's web site to obtain the latest criterion values of drinking water parameters.
† ng = no guideline set
†† ct/100 mL = count per 100 milliliters
33
4.4 Ground Water Resources
4.4.1 Geology
A basic understanding of the geologic layers is necessary to assess the regional
ground water resource in the watershed. Ground water moves through the
spaces between particles openings and cracks in the sediments. The distribution
of these sediments control the location, extent and direction of ground water flow.
There are two broad categories of geological deposits found in the watershed:
bedrock deposits and glacial deposits. The geological deposits have been
separated and classified into Formations, which are based on the history, soil
type and past depositional environment.
The diagram in Appendix 5, called Shellbrook Area 73G Cross section K-K’,
illustrates a simplified schematic cross section of the regional geology in the
Muskeg Lake area (Millard, 1994). It is important to note that only the
northernmost part of the Reserve is within the boundaries of the Shellbrook Area
mapsheet, so the information within this section of the report may not apply to the
whole Reserve. Most of the Reserve is located on the Saskatoon mapsheet,
which SWA and the Saskatchewan Research Council (SRC) have not yet
completed.
Bedrock formations
Bedrock formations are those sediments deposited prior to glaciation and
generally cover a larger area and are more consistent in thickness than the
glacial deposits. The composition of the bedrock deposits in the watershed is
complex, composed mainly of shales, silts, clays and fine-grained sands.
The bedrock surface in this area is formed by the Lea Park Formation. The top
of the Lea Park Formation also forms the base of ground water exploration. This
means that useable ground water resources are not expected to occur once the
top of the Lea Park Formation is reached. In the northern part of the Muskeg
Lake Reserve, the top surface of the Lea Park Formation occurs at around 440 m
above sea level (ASL). The Lea Park Formation consists of noncalcareous gray,
marine silt and clay and bentonite beds.
Glacial formations
Saskatchewan was subjected to a series of glacial advances and retreats
resulting in erosion and deposition of sediments. The glaciers eroded, reworked, transported, and re-distributed bedrock sediments across the landscape.
Sediments deposited from the glacier included sorted and unsorted material.
The sorted material was the result of glacial meltwater transporting sediments at
the ice-front. These sediments were typically composed of layered deposits
composed of sand, silt and clay, and gravel. The unsorted sediments were the
glacial tills that were deposited in the ice. Till is defined as the unsorted mixture
of silt, clay and sand. The glacial till may be weathered or unweathered
depending on the environment after glaciation. The deposition of glacial
34
sediments resulted in a very complex combination of till, sand, silt and clay
layers. The complexity was compounded by the repeated cycles of glacial
movement over Saskatchewan. Sediments deposited by the glacier are often
variable in extent, thickness, and composition as compared to the bedrock units.
These glacial deposits are collectively referred to as glacial drift and are
distributed throughout the watershed.
Mapping on the Shellbrook map sheet suggests that regional aquifers associated
with the Sutherland Group and Floral Formation occur over the northern portion
of the Reserve. The Sutherland Group lies on top of the bedrock (Lea ParkUpper Colorado Group), and below the Floral Formation of the Saskatoon Group,
forming a sediment layer about 0 to 50 m thick. On the northern part of the
Reserve, the lower unit of the Sutherland Group is present, consisting of the
Dundurn and Mennon Formations. The Sutherland Group tills are generally
clayier, harder, less resistive electrically and more difficult to penetrate by drilling
than the Saskatoon Group tills. The Sutherland Group is also differentiated from
the Saskatoon Group because of the presence of clay pebbles in the till, and a
weathering zone (characterized by leaching, oxidation, staining and other
alteration features) separating the two groups (Millard, 1994).
The Saskatoon Group encompasses all sediments lying between the Sutherland
Group and the present surface. On the northern portion of the Muskeg Lake
Reserve it occurs from roughly 440 to 520 m ASL. Around Muskeg Lake, the
Saskatoon Group includes the Floral Formation (more specifically, sands and
gravels), which consists of multiple tills and associated stratified units, and
“Surficial Stratified Deposits.” These “Surficial Stratified Deposits” occur as
glaciolacustrine (glacial lakes) and glaciofluvial (glacial meltwaters/streams)
sediments and as alluvial (from rivers) sediments that were deposited by modern
streams and rivers. The Floral Formation tills are commonly more sandy, more
resistive electrically and have higher carbonate content than the Sutherland
Group tills (Millard, 1994).
Intertill aquifers are defined stratigraphically; this means that the depth to the
same intertill aquifer can vary from relatively shallow to deep in different areas.
They can also be quite variable in thickness. It appears that there are stratified
deposits, classified as shallow intertill aquifers, within the Saskatoon Group in the
Muskeg Lake region, within the lower till of the Floral Formation. Shallow intertill
aquifers are rarely found at depths exceeding 60 m (Millard, 1994).
Near surface aquifers
The final ground water zone is the surficial stratified drift unit or the near surface
zone where the ground water is more likely to be directly influenced by
precipitation. The surficial stratified drift unit occurs as sediment deposited from
glacial lakes, glacial rivers, wind, and as sediments deposited by streams and
rivers. These deposits are deposited near the surface and are permeable to
water. Wells developed in this geologic unit are shallow seepage wells
35
(generally less than 15 m deep) and bored wells. Water quality is generally less
mineralized as compared to the deeper sources. This geologic unit is more
prone to drought and vulnerable to surficial contamination. Recharge to the
aquifer is mainly from precipitation infiltrating to the water table. Nearby surface
water bodies such as lakes, river, and wetlands also contribute to recharge.
The glacial drift aquifers generally receive recharge through seepage from
surrounding low permeability sediments. Although the seepage is very slow,
when considered over a large spatial extent, the total recharge could amount to
appreciable volumes of water in the watershed. Water quality is variable from
being highly mineralized to low concentrations of dissolved ions. Glacial drift
aquifers are probably the most heavily utilized source of ground water in the
North Saskatchewan River Watershed, ranging from domestic to industrial
usage.
4.5 Ground Water Allocation
The installation and design of water wells in the North Saskatchewan River
Watershed vary depending on the local geology. Within the watershed, there are
approximately 50% bored wells and 50% drilled wells, which indicates the
variability, extent and depth of the aquifers. The majority of the water wells in the
watershed are for individual domestic use (90%), followed by municipal (5.4%)
and industrial (1.8%) uses. The remainder of the wells is used for other
purposes such as irrigation, research, and for recreation.
Similar to surface water, ground water allocations have been divided into four
categories or types based upon use: domestic, industrial, irrigation and
municipal. Similar to the surface water, ground water usage for non-domestic
purposes requires an allocation. To learn more about non-domestic groundwater
use licenses, please contact the SWA. Individual wells/domestic usages do not
have to be licensed and therefore are not allocated. This makes it impossible to
gauge the amount of water being removed from the groundwater system.
Allocation usage is not monitored, therefore the total used may be different than
the amount allocated.
There are currently no industrial or irrigation groundwater allocations on Muskeg
Lake Cree Nation Reserve or TLE land. In addition, because of the jurisdiction,
the First Nations’ municipal and domestic wells do not have licensed/allocated
water usage.
4.5.1 Industrial
Industrial ground water used can be subdivided into six categories: aquiculture,
bottled water, ILOs, oil recovery, process water and other. In the North
Saskatchewan River Watershed, oil recovery is the largest industrial ground
water user taking 96% of the total industrial allocation. Overall it contributes to
51% of the total ground water allocations in the watershed. There currently are 5
36
ILOs, 4 bottled water operation, and 4 process operations that make up the
remaining 4% of the 10,500 dam3 ground water allocation.
4.5.2 Municipal – Water Treatment Plant
The municipal water system for Muskeg Lake Cree Nation draws groundwater as
its source from two groundwater wells. Both wells and the WTP (Figure 16a)
were constructed in approximately 1990, one on the west side of the WTP (West
well) and one across the road to the east of the WTP (East well). These wells
supply water to approximately 105 units (houses and other buildings). The raw
water is treated with chlorine (disinfection) and potassium permanganate
(removal of iron) (Figure 16b). The water plant operator (WPO) has also started
to treat the water with alum because of the large amount of very fine iron
particles. Once treated, the water is piped through the municipal water line to the
units.
(a)
(b)
Figure 16. (a) Exterior of the WTP. (b) Chlorine and potassium permanganate used for water
treatment inside the WTP.
Saskatoon Tribal Council (STC) conducts the water quality testing for Muskeg
Lake Cree Nation’s WTP. The Water Quality Technician collects a bacterial
sample every week for analysis.
The Band has had trouble in the past retaining certified WPOs, and as such, the
person who is currently acting as the certified WPO lives in Saskatoon. There is
a need for a full-time on-Reserve, certified WPO to operate and maintain the
WTP. An on-Reserve Band member is on-call, and gets called in to the WTP
generally, when needed. A Water Quality Technician from STC helps to perform
maintenance and supervises the actions of the current acting WPO to ensure
treatment is being done adequately.
Water quality analyses were done by SWA in October 2007 for the purposes of
this study; those results may be found in Appendix 4. Both of the water wells
were sampled and detailed analyses of the raw water (before treatment) were
completed. It was recommended by SWA that because of levels of arsenic (east
and west wells) and total coliforms (east well) exceeding the maximum
37
acceptable concentrations in Saskatchewan’s Drinking Water Quality Standards
and Objectives, the water from both wells should not be consumed by humans.
In this report, only the raw water was sampled and tested. The treated water
may have lower levels of total coliforms, but the water is currently not being
treated to reduce arsenic levels. Arsenic naturally occurs in some ground water
supplies, and has been commonly found in ground water in and around the
Muskeg Lake area.
The dissolved organic carbon (DOC) levels also exceeded the recommended
levels; organic matter in water can cause aesthetic problems such as unpleasant
odor, taste and colour. The organics do not post serious health problems, but
can interfere with water treatment equipment, promote bacterial growth in pipes,
and can generate harmful chlorinated organic compounds if the water is
chlorinated. Other parameters that exceeded objectives included iron,
manganese and total alkalinity.
4.5.3 Domestic Water Wells
There are approximately 15 active individual or community wells that provide
water for one to three houses each. Currently, all of the individual wells are not
regularly tested by STC or HC; samples from random houses are tested weekly
by STC. When there are serious water quality problems, the health department
gives recommendations as to the steps to be taken, such as issuing boil water
advisories (BWAs). Water quality analyses were done by SWA on 6 individual
wells for the purposes of this study; those results may be found in Appendix 4.
These results are similar to water quality results from tests done by STC.
The water testing completed by SWA in 2007 determined that only 2 of the 6
domestic wells were safe to drink, although both exceeded the recommended
objectives for dissolved organic carbon. The other 4 wells were deemed unsafe
for human consumption because of high levels of arsenic, turbidity or nitrates.
Turbidity, in simple terms, measures the suspended particles in the water, or the
cloudiness of the water. These particles can be sediment, particles of dirt, clay,
silt and vegetation plankton, and other microscopic organisms suspended in the
water. High turbidity levels detract the appearance of water and can reduce the
efficiency of disinfection. Nitrates are a health concern in water, and water
containing these should not be consumed until the problem is corrected and the
well site has been inspected for possible sources of contamination. The
detection of nitrates in water indicates contamination resulting from decaying
plant or animal material, agricultural fertilizers, manure or domestic waste.
Nitrates are highly soluble in water, and can readily move through the soil to the
ground water.
In general, the following aesthetic objectives were exceeded: hardness, DOC,
iron, manganese, sum of ions, and sulphates. Sodium and total alkalinity were
also high in one well. These aesthetic parameters do not necessarily cause
serious health problems, but may adversely affect the taste, smell, and colour of
38
the water. They may also stain fixtures and clothing, promote the growth of
certain types of bacteria, and reduce the efficiency of water treatment and
distribution systems.
Site inspections of the individual wells show that some of these wells are not well
maintained, may not have been constructed properly in the first place, and there
are many wells that are inactive, but have not been decommissioned properly to
protect the groundwater and for public safety (Figure 17). Livestock may also
often have access to areas immediately surrounding the wells (i.e., no buildings
or fences to protect the wells), which may be a concern for well and aquifer
contamination. In the wells sampled by SWA, possible contamination may be a
result of the following things observed immediately around the wells: cracked
cement pads around wells, storage of agricultural and other chemicals near the
wells or in the yard, trees nearby, well caps not properly sealed, septic tanks
nearby and old, abandoned wells nearby.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 17. (a)-(c) Uncapped and improperly sealed wells allow bugs, rodents, etc., to enter the
wells and possibly contaminate the water. (d) Wells should be a recommended distance from
possible sources of contamination such as septic tanks, abandoned vehicles, waste, livestock,
etc.
39
5.0 Current Watershed Management Interests
There are many different factors which can influence water quality and quantity.
These include the variability in annual precipitation and the hydrological extremes
of drought and floods.
5.1 Hydrological Concerns
Because of droughts, climate change, and natural variations in the climate,
concerns have been raised about the shortage of water. Over the last 10 or 20
years, most lake levels have been in decline until the recent rains in 2004.
5.1.1 Increasing Water Use by Alberta
Please consult the Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan
River Watershed or contact the PPWB for more information about this issue.
5.1.2 Drought
Droughts are complex phenomena with no standard definition. In the Canadian
Prairies, droughts of various severities, durations and geographic extents are
normal. Catastrophic droughts are a natural, regular feature of the Canadian
Prairies. Analysis of meteorological records and proxy data for the past 200
years suggests that the climate in western Canada has been relatively benign
during the past century (Environment Canada, 2004). Research by the
University of Regina, Drs. Leavitt and Chen, indicates that the drought of the
1930s was only the fifth mildest in the past 1,000-2,000 years and that the
average drought lasts 12 years. Droughts of 40 years duration are not
uncommon. The most prolonged dry period lasted 500 years. The climate in the
20th century was one of the wettest on record (Lee, 2005).
Drought conditions had persisted for a number of years over the North
Saskatchewan River Watershed, however rainfall during the summer and fall of
2004 were well above normal, particularly in the eastern part of the watershed.
On the Muskeg Lake Cree Nation Reserve, the south part of Muskeg/Paddling
Lake dried up in some years during the 1930s. When this occurred, residents of
the Reserve used to make hay in the dried-up lakebed.
5.1.3 Current and Future Water Allocations vs. Water Availability
Refer to the Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River
Watershed or the SWA to find out more about how water is allocated for projects.
5.1.4 Impact of Beavers on Flooding
Beaver dams usually have only localized flooding impacts. That is, the area
flooded or waterlogged by the dam itself fails, a localized area downstream could
receive incrementally higher flood levels than would otherwise occur. The
cumulative effects of many beaver dams in a watershed would be to moderate
40
flood flows in low and medium runoff years; in high runoff years, this moderating
effect would be diminished. Sometimes beavers dam up the culvert in the road
by the Band office, coming from Muskeg/Paddling Lake. This causes the lake
level to rise, but does not often flood the land.
5.1.5 Flood Risk Management
There are four phases in dealing with any type of natural disaster or crisis,
including flooding. They are: mitigation, preparation, response and recovery.
These phases can be followed by communities, businesses, organizations, and
individuals. Mitigation means taking measures in advance to avoid and/or
minimize the risk. Preparation implies planning for how you will respond to the
event.
In Saskatchewan, communities and provincial departments and agencies are
required to have an Emergency Planning Officer and to develop an Emergency
Plan. As an emergency plan develops, the response will either follow the
Emergency Plan or be ad-hoc if there is no plan. Recovery refers to the actions
taken to restore normal operations and functions and should include a review of
the response to see how well the mitigation measures, planning and response
dealt with the emergency.
See the Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River
Watershed or the SWA for more information on flood risk management.
5.1.6 Climate Change and Water Resources
Many scientists around the world now recognize that humans are having an
impact on the Earth’s climate – our world is getting warmer. Climate is naturally
variable, and has changed greatly over the history of the Earth. Over the past
two million years, the Earth’s climate has alternated between ice ages and warm,
interglacial periods. On shorter time scales, climate changes continuously. For
example, over the last 10,000 years, most parts of Canada have experienced
climate conditions that, at different times, were warmer, cooler, wetter and drier
than experienced at present (Warren, 2004).
Climate scenarios provide information on how future human activities are
expected to alter the composition of the atmosphere, how this may affect the
global climate, and how changes in climate may affect natural systems and
human activities. Climate scenarios offer a quantitative description of the
changes in climate to be expected. Climate scenarios are not predictions but are
plausible indications of what the future could be like given a specific set of
assumptions. These assumptions include future trends in energy demand,
emissions of greenhouse gases, land use changes as well as assumptions about
the behavior of the climate system over long time scales. Climate scenarios for
the ecoregions of Saskatchewan were constructed using data from the Canadian
Climate Impacts Scenarios website: http://www.cics.uvic.ca/scenarios/index.cgi.
41
General climate change projections for the prairies are summarized below:
 Temperature: increasing; greater change in winter than summer
 Precipitation: great uncertainty; annually small decrease to significant
increase
 Evaporation: mixed increases, decreases, or no change depending on
location and season
 Soil moisture: decrease
 Growing season: increased length
 Water resources: increased variability; earlier peak flows
 Extreme events: increased frequency and magnitude
5.1.7 Water Conservation
The Government of Saskatchewan has made a commitment to develop a water
conservation plan by the end of 2005. In 2004, SWA released the document –
“CONSERVING OUR WATER - A Water Conservation Plan for Saskatchewan –
A Discussion Guide for Public Consultation.” This document was the first step in
developing the water conservation plan. It summarizes all of major water issues,
as well as poses a series of consultative questions for interested Saskatchewan
residents. From this discussion guide, the SWA produced the “Saskatchewan
Water Conservation Plan” in 2006. Both documents are available online at:
www.swa.ca/waterconservation.
Metering of water use in urban communities has been demonstrated to be a costeffective means of water conservation but for rural use, there are few instances
of metering programs other than those tied to rural water distribution systems.
However, there is a strong assumption that most rural water users are already
conserving water because of dugout or well capacity limitations, as well as
limitations due to water quality, in-home treatment costs, and/or issues around
wastewater treatment and effluent disposal.
5.2 Oil and Gas Industry
Although there is no water supply problem at the present time, concerns have
been raised about the use of fresh water for enhanced oil extraction. These
mainly revolve around the loss of fresh water from the hydrological cycle, but
also with the usage of ground water when the supply is not well understood.
There are a number of regulations in place to ensure protection of surface and
ground water from oil and gas exploration and extraction. For further information,
please see the Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River
Watershed.
Because there is no oil and gas development activity on the Muskeg Lake Cree
Nation, this may not necessarily be a great concern to the First Nations people;
however, they should be aware of this concern in the rest of the watershed.
42
5.3 Agricultural Concerns
5.3.1 Managing Livestock Production
Livestock operations that confine animals temporarily or on a permanent basis
need to be managed in such a way that minimizes the impacts to soil, water, and
air. Livestock operations may not be ideally located or managed and issues
related to soil nutrient loading, surface water, ground water, riparian health and
odor may exist irrespective of size. Producers need to be aware of their potential
impact on surface and ground water and the importance of evaluating their sites
and taking any necessary corrective actions to protect these resources.
Producers across Saskatchewan are applying practical solutions to address
these issues. These solutions include:
 Good site selection
 Reducing the concentration of animals
 Water development
 Runoff and erosion control
 Buffer strips
 Manure management planning
 Effective manure application and timing
 Controlled access, and
 Relocation of facilities
Data on the kilometers of stream course and survey data from two flights were
combined with 1996 Agricultural Census data to estimate the number of cattle
wintering sites in the province that might trigger the AOA, which is administered
by SA. Of approximately 21,000 cattle operations in Saskatchewan, there are an
estimated 11,000 that could require approval under the Act, with the largest
percentage occurring in the grassland regions of the province. However, this
estimate is at best preliminary as it is based on a survey limited to 300 km along
major water courses.
5.3.2 Intensive Livestock Operations
Please refer to the Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan
River Watershed or SA, Agricultural Operations Branch.
5.3.3 Manure Management
Manure is a valuable nutrient source which, if used properly, has the potential to
create economic benefits through cost reduction of commercial fertilizers. At the
same time, utilizing this by-product in an environmentally-sound manner
enhances soil quality through addition of organic matter and improved soil tilth.
Manure exists in both solid and liquid form, and contains low concentrations of
both macronutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, and micronutrients, such
as calcium and copper. The macronutrient concentration in hog, cattle and
poultry manure and commercial fertilizer are listed in Table 4.
43
Table 4. Nutrient composition of select manures and commercial fertilizer (Preliminary
Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed, SWA 2005).
Commercial
Solid Beef
Solid Poultry
Liquid Swine
Fertilizer
Nutrient
(kg / tonne)
(kg / tonne)
(lb / 1000 gal)
(kg / tonne)
Nitrogen
3 – 16
3–9
2–6
240
Phosphorus
1–3
4 – 13
0.1 – 2
85
Potassium
3–8
4–8
1–2
85
Sulfur
<2
1–3
< 0.5
72
When animals are housed indoors, rainfall and snowmelt is prevented from
reaching manure and other substances that could potentially contaminate
surrounding areas through surface runoff and soil leaching. Outdoors, holding
ponds for solid manure and earthen manure storage lagoons (EMS) for liquid
effluent are constructed to prevent surface runoff and deep leaching. Liquid
swine effluent, if stored in an EMS lagoon, does not lead to increased
populations of pathogenic organisms (e.g. E. coli), because the storage lagoons
have a hostile environment that kill most pathogenic microorganisms. Table 5
summarizes typical manure management for various species.
Table 5. Manure management for beef, dairy, hog and poultry operations (Preliminary
Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed, SWA 2005).
Beef
Dairy
Hogs
Poultry
Housing
Pen/pasture
Barn/pasture
Barn
Barn
Manure Type
Solid
Liquid
Liquid
Solid
Holding pond
EMS/tank
EMS
Barn
Application
Frequency
2 x / year
2 x / year
2 x / year
6 x / year
Application
Method
Surface
Surface
Injection
Surface
Manure
Storage
Manure is generally applied to the land using two methods: injection of liquid
manure below the soil surface, and surface broadcast and incorporation of solid
manure. Manure injection is an effective way to apply manure to farmland
because it reduces odor, eliminates volatilization of nitrogen-based gases (hence
more readily-available N), and combined with a balanced crop nutrient
prescription greatly restricts nutrient movement. The increase in soil moisture
following liquid injection equates to approximately a half inch of rainfall.
Saskatchewan researchers were instrumental in development of this technology
with the assistance of the Agricultural Development Fund (ADF). Proper surfacebroadcast of manure includes soil incorporation, which binds manure to soil
aggregates, and results in a slower release of plant-available nutrients as organic
matter is decomposed.
44
When manure is treated as a waste, it is usually disposed of in solely the most
economical method (near to the manure source), which often results in manure
accumulations that may ultimately cause environmental problems. Research has
shown that where manure is over-applied (greater than the agronomic rate)
nitrates will migrate down the soil profile, posing a threat to groundwater.
However, this risk can be effectively eliminated through the adoption of the
following best management practices for manure application:
 Knowing what is in the manure (manure nutrient analysis)
 Determining the nutrients available in the soil (soil testing)
 Matching crop nutrient demand to total nutrients applied (in manure and
commercial fertilizers)
 Applying manure through injection or surface broadcast and incorporation
 Record keeping and monitoring
5.3.4 Riparian Area Management
Riparian areas serve many important functions in the watershed. Healthy
riparian areas with abundant vegetation will trap sediment, filter farm chemical
residues, minimize erosion and wave action, and recharge ground water.
Vegetation found in the riparian zone is water tolerant and typically includes thick
dense brush, trees, or grasses, the roots of which bind the soil together and help
to stabilize the banks. Streambank vegetation slows water flows resulting in less
instream and bank erosion. A healthy riparian area is vital to maintaining water
quality and reducing erosion (Figure 18).
Healthy and functioning riparian areas also serve to maintain cooler water
temperature, natural stream channel shape (i.e. deep and narrow vs. shallow and
wide) and slow the natural wandering of a river across its floodplain.
Unprotected streambanks and lake shores will result in rapidly eroded shorelines,
especially during high water events.
(a)
(b)
Figure 18. Examples of riparian areas and wetlands. (a) Source: Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canada, http://www.agr.gc.ca/pfra/land/riparea.htm. (b) Witchekan Lake eastern shoreline.
45
Maintained riparian areas can have a positive impact on agriculture. They
provide productive grazing areas if properly managed and will help to minimize
salinity build-up around wetlands and sloughs. Conversely, cultivation, burning,
and/or overgrazing of riparian areas will result in vegetation loss and the loss of
the riparian area to serve to protect water supplies.
Several different agencies have regulations that can assist in the management of
riparian areas. These include Department of Fisheries and Oceans (Fisheries
Act), Environment Canada (Fisheries Act), Saskatchewan Environment (EMPA),
and local municipalities with zoning and bylaws (under the Planning and
Development Act). For further information on these pieces of legislation please
see the Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River
Watershed.
5.3.5 Drainage and Wetland Loss
Wetlands play an important hydrological role in storing and releasing water,
filtering contaminants, recharging local and regional ground water supplies,
erosion prevention and possibly regulating peak floodwater flows. Wetlands
store water and help reduce flooding during runoff, but become less effective in
larger runoff events.
Drainage programs have been in place since the late 1920s. The majority of all
the land that could be easily drained in Saskatchewan was done so by the end of
the 1970s. This was also the time when grain prices were very high. Therefore
a significant amount of land was drained to allow for more acres to be farmed. In
1981, an approval process for drainage works was put into place. Works
constructed prior to 1981 do not require approval but are subject to complaints.
Additional information on the approval process for surface water drainage can be
obtained by contacting the SWA.
The Government of Saskatchewan has estimated that 40% of wetlands in the
southern half of the province have been lost since settlement due to drainage
and degradation, while half of those remaining are threatened by future
development (Huel et al., 2000). The extent and amount of drainage in the North
Saskatchewan River Watershed is not known. Further study would be required
to determine the amount of drained wetlands. Flood control projects often result
in the drainage of wetlands.
Drainage has the potential to increase water velocity. As velocity increases,
water can carry more sediment. When velocity is decreased, such as flows
entering an impoundment or a level portion of ditch or channel, the water will
deposit its sediment load. During high runoff events, wetlands will fill and spill to
downstream. The amount of water added from drained wetland areas during a
high runoff event is small when compared to the total volume of flood waters.
Therefore, during high runoff events, drainage has little impact on downstream
water flows and flooding but can add to flows in low to medium flood events.
Drainage generally serves to increase peak flows and to decrease flow duration.
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Wetland drainage is often as much a cultural as an economic decision.
Topography is also a major factor influencing drainage e.g. landowners near
creek systems are more likely to drain because of the slope and gentle
undulations conducive to wetland drainage. The province recognizes the
importance of wetlands and the SWA has committed to the updating of our
Drainage Policy which will guide the Authority’s approach to regulating and
managing drainage and wetland retention issues (SWA Performance Plan 20052006).
5.3.6 Chemical Usage
Fertilizers
By providing valuable nutrients and pest control, the usage of fertilizers and
pesticides is a significant part of today’s agricultural landscape. Current
concerns about agricultural chemicals center on storage, application and
disposal.
Fertilizers are used to replace the nutrients lost due to continual cropping, and
are most effectively used as part of a balanced fertilization plan that aims to
maximize economic return and maintain environmental quality. Nutrients
(especially nitrogen) contribute primarily to grain yield and forage biomass
production, and at the same time to protein. While most soils in the agricultural
region Saskatchewan are relatively fertile, nutrient limitations often exist, and the
application of nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and
sulfur (S) can boost crop production. The two main components of fertilizer that
are of the greatest concern to source water quality are N and P. However,
proper management of agricultural fertilizer applications abates nutrient
movement to surface and groundwater sources.
Nitrogen fertilizer, whether organic or inorganic, is biologically transformed to
nitrate that is highly soluble in water, which means that while it is readily
absorbed by plant roots, it also is highly mobile and can move with water as
surface runoff or leach down through the soil profile, making it unavailable for
plant uptake. Crop producers, therefore, need to match N applications to
predicted crop uptake.
Phosphorus, unlike N, is not highly soluble and is strongly sorbed by soil
particles, thus limiting its movement within the soil solution. Movement of P
occurs when soil particles themselves are redistributed through erosion. Surface
water loading of N and P results in eutrophication and water quality deterioration,
while N migration into groundwater has potential human and animal health risks.
Agricultural producers develop comprehensive nutrient management plans to
prevent nutrient (and $$) losses from their land. Decisions regarding fertilizer
application focus on balancing crop nutrient demand with available and applied
nutrients. Three common guidelines are described as “right rate,” “right time”
and “right method.” Soil testing to determine availability of N along with other
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nutrients and the assessment of stored soil moisture is critical to selecting the
appropriate rate of fertilizer to match crop yield. Fertilizers are commonly
surface-applied and incorporated, or injected directly into the soil. These
methods prevent nutrient losses due to runoff and enhance rapid soil-crop
coverage by increasing fertilizer use efficiency. Average fertilizer application
rates in Saskatchewan vary with crop type and soil nutrient and moisture
conditions, however they generally range from 20 to 80 lb/ac and 10 to 50 lb/ac
for N and P, respectively.
Pesticides
Pesticides are chemical substances used to prevent, control and/or destroy
unwanted plant or animal life, such as bacteria, fungus, insects, nematodes,
weeds and rodents. Pesticide use in agricultural production includes products
such as herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides, and occurs for the purpose of
improving productivity and controlling future pest infestations.
All pesticides used for domestic and commercial application are regulated by the
Pest Control Products (Saskatchewan) Act. The Act legislates licensed action to
permit, sell, and apply pesticides on public and private land. As well, regulations
regarding the registration, storage, application, and disposal of pesticide products
and containers are formally established through a series of articles, which
include:
 Designation of pesticides
 Pesticide label requirements
 Prohibition to apply to or near open bodies of water
 Backflow control devices
 Storage procedure and facilities
 Treated grains
 Container disposal
Product label and other extension information provide users the necessary
guidelines for safe pesticide application.
By far the predominant pest control products used in Saskatchewan are
herbicides for weed control. Herbicides are designed to selectively work through
one of two general modes of action: a) cellular disruption upon contact; or
through b) ingestion and subsequent disruption of plant system functioning. The
active chemical constituents of herbicides are intended to decompose into less
complex components of the soil organic fraction. Many factors interact to
influence the efficacy of herbicides, such as water quality, carrier volume, weed
growth stage, weed susceptibility and environmental factors. The importance of
application timing cannot be overstressed in order to maximize yield benefits
from herbicide application.
In order to achieve greater sustainability and ecological integration, crop
production systems have emphasized minimal soil disturbance on both active
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and fallow cropland, which has led to herbicide development and use to control
weeds. The 2001 Census of Agriculture recorded 51% of crop and forage land in
Saskatchewan was treated with herbicides, and 71% of all reporting
Saskatchewan farms used herbicides. As well, land to which chem fallow was
practiced increased 31% from 1996 to 2001. The use of in-crop herbicides is
often very important in determining the success or failure of a crop. However,
other cultural and biological practices are often implemented before and after
herbicide application to help reduce weed competition. Examples of this include
using short-term forages in a crop rotation to reduce weed populations, or early
seeding and fertilizer banding to give the crop an advantage over weeds. The
use of these practices is termed integrated weed management (IWM).
Herbicides are applied over large areas of agricultural land and may move from
treated fields into the broader environment through atmospheric deposition,
spray drift, and soil and water erosion. The following statements highlight our
current understanding of pesticides and Saskatchewan’s surface water
resources.
 Almost all water samples taken in Saskatchewan have pesticide readings
that are significantly below aquatic life protection and drinking water
standards.
 Some of the pesticides found in samples have never been used in
Saskatchewan, highlighting the importance of global air patterns in
pesticide distribution.
 New technology has allowed detection of pesticides at increasingly lower
levels (parts per billion). Most media reports about detection do not refer
to how significantly those levels are below aquatic and drinking water
standards.
 While most of the individual chemical readings are significantly below
standards, concern has been expressed about the cumulative effects of
the various pesticide combinations that might be found in any given
sample.
 Research is also going on to understand the pesticide levels found in
water bodies and wetlands (seasonal and permanent) and dugouts that
do not flow like the streams and rivers where sampling is normally done.
 Technological improvements have significantly improved nozzle
performance and application control, as well as reducing the amount of
pesticide drift.
 Pesticide movement from the soil to surface waters is influenced by how
strongly the herbicide binds to the soil and how long the herbicide
remains in the soil. Under drought conditions carryover of herbicide
residue in the soil can occur, which can be detrimental to the following
year’s crop.
 The transport of pesticides in the soil to water bodies has been
significantly reduced with the conversion of marginal lands to forage and
the adoption of minimum and no-till practices by producers.
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 While minimum and no-till practices have resulted in an increase in active
ingredient per hectare per year than conventional tillage, it must be noted
that the soil environment under no-till supports a more diverse microbial
community for a quicker and more complete breakdown of active
ingredients.
Pesticide complaints are categorized as either a product performance or drift
issue. Product performance complaints are generally resolved between the
producer and the chemical representative and/or dealer, but occasionally may
require third party inspection and documentation. The Regional Compliance
Office of HC’s Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA) may be contacted
if the product is suspect (e.g. improper active ingredient concentration or
misleading statement on the label direction). Resolution of drift complaints vary
from simple producer-to-producer (applicator) communication and agreement on
a level of compensation to civil and criminal court action. If the pesticide was
applied by a commercial applicator, a SA Pesticide Complaint Form should be
completed. Documentation of spray records (location, date, time, product and
rate), weather conditions and purpose for the application is necessary to
establish legal responsibility. The PMRA and the Provincial Pesticide
Investigator are involved in resolving drift complaints; however, neither
organization is capable of deciding compensation, as this is a civil court decision.
5.4 Community Impacts
Cities, towns and resort communities concentrate people and result in the
concentration of garbage and sewage wastes and the issues around the
treatment and disposal of these wastes. In addition, storm water runoff from
lawns, parking lots and roads provide a direct source of contaminants to drain
into river and lake supplies.
5.4.1 Sewage Treatment and Effluent Releases
Private sewage systems such as those found on rural farms or acreages are
dealt with in the Plumbing and Drainage Regulations and are regulated by the
local health authority. (For further clarification concerning on-farm/acreage
systems, it is recommended that both you local Health and SE officials be
contacted.)
For private sewage systems, there are several factors which should be
considered in their construction and operation. Basic factors to be considered
include treatment and discharge locations related to the originating source,
proximity to other buildings and dwellings, proximity to wells and surface water,
and to soil conditions in the area. Some common methods of treatment and
disposal for private works include septic tanks with liquid discharge to an
absorption field, a mound system, a seepage pit, or a jet disposal system onto
the surface. For a septic tank, the solids which settle in the tank must be
pumped out and disposed of appropriately; typically by spreading on agricultural
land or in a municipal waste water treatment facility. In some cases due to the
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location of a dwelling with private sewage works, the local health authority may
require the installation of a sewage holding tank. In this case all solids and
liquids from the tank must be pumped out and disposed of properly. A final
means of sewage disposal and treatment from private sewage works is through
treatment in a sewage lagoon. The lagoon is constructed and sized according to
the number of people that will be using the lagoon. The installation and
construction of any private sewage works must be conducted with an appropriate
permit obtained from the local health authority and is subject to inspection during
construction by a public health inspector. Saskatchewan Environment regulates
municipal wastewater systems which include sewage collection, mechanical
treatment, and/or lagoon treatment facilities.
Waste water collection and treatment facilities are permitted under The Water
Regulations, 2002, which also specify minimum requirements for wastewater
treatment facilities. Saskatchewan Environment has A Guide to Sewage Works
Design, which is commonly referred to in the construction and upgrading of
municipal wastewater facilities. The most common means of municipal
wastewater treatment in the province is through the use of facultative lagoons.
This type of lagoon takes advantage of naturally-occurring aerobic and anaerobic
bacteria to break down organic matter in the wastewater. Facultative lagoons
must have a minimum of two cells operating in series, with the primary cell not
exceeding a Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) load of 30 kg per hectare per
day, and a secondary storage cell with 180 days holding capacity. Effluent is
typically discharged from the lagoon storage cell after the 180 days holding
period and is limited to the period between April and October. Saskatchewan
Environment can impose additional treatment requirements and limits on effluent
quality, such as disinfection or nutrient reduction of discharged effluents.
Information is available on the status and potential impacts of 30 wastewater
treatment systems in the North Saskatchewan River Watershed, 19 in the North
Battleford and 11 in the Prince Albert areas in the Preliminary Background
Report of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed. Of these, 11 discharge
directly or indirectly into waters that could enter the North Saskatchewan River.
Ten other systems have effluent that could enter the groundwater.
Muskeg Lake Cree Nation has a two-cell sewage lagoon located on SE-02-4707-3 (Figure 19). Sewage lines pipe the sewage from the core area of the
Reserve (including Gregville) into the lagoon. A microbial decomposer is in the
first cell of the lagoon. The microbial decomposer “eats” the raw sewage,
reducing the amount of waste left in the lagoon and the water, and speeding up
decomposition. The lagoon also allows the waste to sediment out, separating
the solid matter from the liquid waste. If the wastewater level gets too high in the
first cell, the fluids overflow into the second cell. The fluid in the lagoon can only
leave by evaporation – it has never been drained. According to the study by
Pinter and Associates (2004), the lagoon is oversized, and may not be operating
to its full potential because of changes made to it from the original design. They
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also raised the concern that because the lagoon has never been drained, there is
the potential that the waste (contaminants and nutrients) is infiltrating into shallow
groundwater and the soil. They noted that in other communities, infiltration such
as this has produced salt and nitrate/nitrite impacts in the soils and shallow
groundwater. There is also a lot of vegetation growing around the lagoon, which
may compromise the lagoon’s liner and cause leaks.
Approximately half of the units on the Reserve are on the municipal wastewater
system and half have individual septic tanks/infiltration systems. For those
houses with septic systems, the septic tanks are emptied into a truck; the
sewage waste is transported to the lagoon and is treated in the same fashion as
the piped sewage from the core area.
(a) View looking northeast
(b) View looking northeast
(c) View looking north at outlet to second cell of lagoon.
Figure 19. Muskeg Lake Cree Nation’s sewage lagoon.
5.4.2 Waste Disposal Grounds
Muskeg Lake Cree Nation’s current waste disposal site is located on the west
side of SE-02-47-07-W3, near the Gregville townsite. It has been in use since
approximately 1989, although the Band is currently filling its third trenched pit at
the same site. There are no existing policies about what materials and objects
can and cannot go into the waste disposal site. In addition, there is no recycling
program on the Reserve. The waste disposal site also often burns about every 2
to 3 weeks (generally when there is a south wind) (Figure 20). This may have a
52
negative impact on the environment, especially on air quality. There is concern
about how this site can be maintained and where some items (e.g. appliances,
vehicles, etc.) can be taken to be properly disposed of or recycled.
In the past, garbage was often burned in barrels or pits at the household level,
and objects that would not burn or were too large were taken to the bush or
sloughs. There are also many auto salvage sites, some of which are large
enough or have existed long enough to have potentially negative environmental
impacts from chronic leaks of automobile-related fluids and other materials
(Pinter and Associates, 2004).
(a) View in landfill trench
(b) Burning garbage in landfill
(c) Discarded appliances beside landfill
Figure 20. Muskeg Lake Cree Nation Landfill.
There are also many yards on the Reserve that may be considered small waste
disposal sites, with many old appliances, agricultural chemical containers,
abandoned fuel storage tanks, miscellaneous garbage and toys, lumber, etc.
(Figure 21). In the findings of Pinter and Associates (2004), some of these sites
have hazardous materials in them that could potentially impact the environment.
These smaller dumpsites may not have immediate environmental impacts, but
over time the materials may decompose and release contaminants into the
ground and water. Some of these old dumpsites may also have been overgrown
by vegetation or filled in with soil, and therefore they may be difficult to find and
clean up to eliminate or reduce potential environmental impacts.
53
(a) Agricultural chemical containers
(b) Agricultural chemical containers
(c) Old fuel storage tanks
(d) Empty automotive fluid jugs
(e) Empty hydraulic oil pails
(f) Abandoned tanks
(g) Empty agricultural chemical containers
(h) Empty agricultural chemical container
Figure 21. Potential waste disposal sites and sources of contamination in individual yards.
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5.5 Recreational Developments
There are a number of recreational lakes in the watershed. The natural beauty of
these lakes, coupled with the recreation potential has resulted in the
development of cottages and resorts. The resulting increase in population can
have impacts on the water and lake environment. It is critical that all
developments have proper sewage waste treatment. A leaky system, improper
surface application or improper mounding can result in contamination to the lake.
The development of cottages can decrease the natural vegetation buffer zone
around lakes. As more cottages are developed, more of the natural vegetation
may be removed. The loss of riparian vegetation by replacement with concrete,
short mowed grass, and pathways will result in the natural buffering capacity of
the riparian zone being lost and increased runoff with associated contamination.
Riparian zones filter out contaminants, protect the bank and property from
erosion and provide valuable fish and wildlife habitat. Other activities such as
importing sand to create manmade beaches, especially where beaches are not
natural or sustainable, will lead to water quality problems and a loss of fish
habitat. Poorly designed docks and marinas will contribute to erosion and silting
by changing shoreline water movements.
Boating activity through fuel spills and poorly maintained motors can deteriorate
water quality. Boating-related wave action can damage fish and wildlife habitat.
The use of all terrain vehicles (ATVs) in riparian areas is also a concern. These
vehicles can destroy the vegetation and result in increased erosion and bank
destabilization.
There are many beneficial management practices that can help eliminate and
minimize the impacts of increased activity on and around recreational lakes. The
book “On the Living Edge: Your Handbook for Waterfront Living” (Kipp and
Calaway, 2003) provides cottage owners and other shoreline users with
environmentally friendly practices to protect water quality and sustain the natural
beauty of their lake. These practices should be considered if the Muskeg Lake
Cree Nation Band decides to develop Mistawasis Lake or any of the other lakes
on its land, to minimize human impacts on the environment, and the water in
particular.
5.6 Road Maintenance and Road Salts
The main Reserve of Muskeg Lake Cree Nation only has gravel roads running
through it, and therefore there are no road salting or de-icing activities that take
place on the Reserve. The road maintenance is done by the Band, and in areas,
the adjacent RMs.
5.7 Ground Water Well Decommissioning
Ground water protection is dependant upon overlaying soil material. Because of
fracturing, water permeability or flow through glacial tills and clays will be high in
the top few metres of soil. This allows contaminants to move quickly through this
55
zone; however, with increasing depth, permeability decreases rapidly. Once a
depth of 10 metres (30 ft) is reached, permeabilities in clays and tills are very
low, resulting in almost indiscernible contaminant movement. Contaminants will
tend to flow vertically in low permeability materials. As well, clays and till act to
filter and remove contaminants, along with physically slowing their movement.
For example, clay is very effective at binding chemicals and organic matter
through ion exchange and chemical bonding. While not nearly as effective as
clay or till, sand will provide a limited buffer to filter out contaminants. Aquifers
overlain by sand and especially gravel must be regarded as sensitive areas,
susceptible to ground water contamination. This has obvious implications for
gravel and sand quarries.
A well provides a direct conduit for contaminants to reach an aquifer, since a
drilled or bored well bypasses the overlying protective sediment layers. The
location of a well is an important consideration and should be located away from
water runs, surface pooling and all potential contaminants. Where a well cannot
be located on a well drained site, the casing should be left several feet above the
ground. The area around the casing should then be built up with clay or till and
landscaped to ensure that water is diverted away from the casing.
Improper well decommissioning or abandonment poses a high risk concerning
ground water contamination, public safety, machinery damage, and increased
liability. Proper well decommissioning is critical in protecting water supplies
(Figure 22). Decommissioning methods need to be tailored for individual wells;
however, some general procedures to decommission wells can be followed.
These include shock chlorination of the well, excavating and removing the casing
to below the water intake and frost line, filling large diameter well with clean
chlorinated sand or drilled well with pressurized bentonite slurry, capping with a
0.15 m (6 inch) bentonite pad, and then backfilling and mounding with clay
(Figure 23). For more information contact the SWA or Saskatchewan Water
Inquiry Line at 1-800-SASKH20 (1-800-727-5420). This is a referral service that
will forward the request to the appropriate agency.
There are many groundwater wells on the Muskeg Lake Cree Nation Reserve.
Approximately 17 are in active use, and at least 25 are abandoned. There may
be more than this number, but they were not found when this study was
conducted because residents did not know of them, could not find the locations,
or they had been (improperly) filled in with rocks and/or soil. Only two of these
abandoned wells have been properly decommissioned at this time. The
decommissionings were completed as part of a capacity building strategy by
FNACS, who contracted Anderson Pumphouse, North Battleford, to do the work.
The Band does plan on decommissioning abandoned wells in the spring 2008
and will likely complete the task itself, unless the residents do not want inactive
wells decommissioned for any reason (such as for livestock use).
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Figure 22. Abandoned wells should be properly decommissioned to avoid contamination and for
public safety. They should not be used for waste disposal.
Figure 23. Procedure for decommissioning a large diameter (bored) well (Source: SWA).
5.7 Water Borne Pathogens
The low numbers of enteric (intestinal) disease reported indicate that existing
water supplies are relatively safe, because if they were not, the rates would be
very much higher. The mode of transmission for enteric disease can be food,
water or person to person contact, and unfortunately the data does not
differentiate. Even though the disease may be reported locally, this does not
mean that the disease was contracted in the Health Region. In fact, many cases
relate to out-of-country travel. See Section 6.3, Impact on Microorganisms, and
their benefits of reducing pathogens in water supplies.
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6.0 Upland and Wetland Conservation
Uplands, riparian buffers and wetlands are vital components of watersheds and
freshwater sustainability in Saskatchewan. These landcover components
provide many functions that maintain and enhance source water quality while at
the same time providing valuable wildlife habitat. Information from this section is
based upon a variety of Ducks Unlimited Canada (DUC) publications including
“Natural Values” (Gabor et al., 2004) and “The Role of Canadian Wetlands for
Improving Water Quality” (Ross, 2003) which were compiled from over 240
scientific papers.
6.1 Upland Areas
Upland conservation programs, such as no-till and permanent perennial cover,
slow surface runoff, trap sediments and promote infiltration, consequently
reducing the amount of sediments, nutrients and pesticides entering the water.
The most beneficial outcome of implementing conservation tillage and permanent
perennial cover is erosion reduction. Erosion from wind, rain and runoff can be
reduced up to 99%. The results of increased surface crop residue and perennial
vegetation are greater site stability, infiltration and protection.
Upland cover has shown to be effective in reducing up to 90% of N, up to 91% of
P and up to 100% of pesticides in runoff, but there is potential for increased
leaching through the soil profile to ground water. Although conservation tillage
has not always reduced nutrient and pesticide leaching, this practice is
recommended because the benefits outweigh the potential drawbacks. Land
seeded to perennial cover results in fewer pesticides and less fertilizer being
applied and subsequently lost to runoff. Currently there is insufficient information
to correlate upland conservation practices and pathogen movement.
6.2 Riparian Areas
Riparian areas are the transition zone between uplands and wetlands, streams or
lakes. Due to increased water availability, this zone is usually characterized by
dense vegetation. Riparian areas/vegetative buffer strips can effectively control
erosion by forming a physical barrier that slows the surface flow of sediment and
debris, by stabilizing wetland edges and stream banks, and by promoting
infiltration. The required width of a buffer size is determined by the type of
vegetation present, the extent and impact of the adjacent land use, and the
functional value of the receiving wetland. Studies have found the bulk of
sediment removal in surface runoff occur in the first few meters of the buffer
zone. A vegetative buffer strip can effectively remove 75-97% of the sediment
load.
Buffer strips can effectively remove nutrients from surface water flow. The main
mechanisms of nitrate removal are uptake by vegetation roots and anaerobic
microbial denitrification in the saturated zone of the soil. Relatively narrow
58
buffers seem to be very effective in reducing 35-96% of N. Phosphorus
reduction has been found to be 27-97% effective in buffer strips that contain both
woody, herbaceous vegetation, grasses and cropped buffer systems. Buffer
strips can also trap a significant proportion of pathogens (up to 74% of fecal
coliforms). Low soil moisture and high soil temperature substantially decrease
survival of total and fecal coliform bacteria. The key process for pesticide
retention in buffer strips is infiltration. Grass buffer strips can reduce pesticides
by 8-100%.
In the North Saskatchewan River Watershed the natural riparian habitat has
been altered by various landscape activities such as industry, agriculture and
urban development. No systematic riparian assessment has been conducted,
however.
Riparian areas can be dominated by sedge, grass or rush communities, by shrub
communities, forest communities, or even lichen-encrusted rock communities.
Each of these community types offers different ecosystem functions and they are
not readily interchangeable. Each of these community types also has certain
environmental requirements to remain stable. Forest community types,
particularly in the Boreal Forest, require periodic disturbance (e.g. fire) in order to
renew themselves as the common tree species are largely shade intolerant or
moderately so.
Areas adjacent to watercourses (e.g. lakes, streams, rivers) are typically exposed
to similar forms of disturbance as non-riparian areas. While certain topographical
features (e.g. islands, peninsulas) and vegetation community types (e.g.
sphagnum bogs, willow fens) and other features (e.g. prevailing winds) can make
portions of these areas less susceptible to the same frequency, intensity or type
of disturbance (e.g. fire), their function can be impaired or altered by removing
their disturbance/renewal regime.
6.3 Wetland Areas
The hydrological functions of wetlands include the storage and eventual release
of surface water, recharge of local and regional ground water supplies, reduction
in peak floodwater flows, de-synchronization of flood peaks, and erosion
prevention. Position in the landscape, location of the water table, soil
permeability, slope and moisture conditions all influence the ability of wetlands to
hold back floodwaters. Wetland drainage reduces the watershed’s capacity to
naturally hold back runoff during flood events. Maintaining and restoring
wetlands on the landscape reduces overland flow rates and therefore potential
flooding.
Recharge of ground water is an extremely important function of some wetlands.
Water percolates slowly from wetlands to aquifers. Interactions between
wetlands and local or regional ground water supplies are complex, site-specific
and are affected by the position of the wetland with respect to ground water flow
systems, geologic characteristics of the substrate, and climate.
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Wetlands are extremely complex systems. They retain nutrients in buried
sediments, and convert inorganic nutrients to organic biomass. Their shallow
water depth maximizes water-soil contact and therefore maximizes microbial
processing of nutrients and other material in the overlying waters. Wetlands can
be effective nitrate sinks in agricultural landscapes (over 80% removal).
Phosphorus retention in wetlands can also be significant (up to 94%) and is
accomplished through adsorption onto particles, precipitation with metals and
incorporation into living biomass.
Wetlands can reduce the impacts of sedimentation on water quality within
watersheds. Hydrology is a primary determinant of the sediment-retention
capacity of a wetland and controls the source, amount and spatial and temporal
distribution of sediment inputs. The percent of wetland area and position are
important to reduce sediment loads passing through the system.
High levels of biological productivity in wetlands result in dissipation of pesticides
due to profuse submersed (underwater) and emergent plant growth that
increases surface area availability for pesticide adsorption, plant sequestration,
microbial degradation, and from wetland exposure, primarily due to adsorption to
organic matter in sediments and decomposing litter.
Impact on Microorganisms
Many infectious diseases are transmitted through animal and human feces.
Waterborne pathogens of serious risk to humans include strains of bacteria such
as Escherichia coli (E. coli), Salmonella typhi, Campylobacter spp, viruses such
as enteroviruses and Hepatitis A, and the protozoans such as Entamoeba
histolytica, Girardia intestinalis, and Cryptosporidium parvum. These pathogens
are persistent in water supplies due to their ability to survive outside of host
organisms. Protozoans can form cysts that are not necessarily killed by freezing
or drying.
The ability of constructed wetlands to reduce populations of pathogenic
microorganisms in wastewater effluent has been demonstrated globally. Many of
the processes that reduce pathogen populations in natural systems are equally
or more effective in wetland treatment systems. Structurally and functionally,
most wetlands are dominated by naturally occurring populations of microbes and
plant life. Microbial populations in wetlands include diverse flora of bacteria,
fungi and algae that are important for nutrient cycling and biological processing.
In addition, zooplankton grazers may be an important pathogen removal
mechanism in wetlands during certain seasons.
Microphytes are essential as they provide surface contact areas for microbes that
mediate most nutrient and pollutant transformations occurring in wetlands.
Vegetated wetlands appear to be more effective for pathogen removal than
facultative ponds and other natural treatment systems which have less physical
contact between pathogens and solid surface. Wetland treatment removal
60
efficiencies are nearly always greatly than 90% for coliform and greater than 80%
for fecal streptococcus.
7.0 Current Watershed Management
For information on municipal planning and zoning, provincial and federal
legislation regarding groundwater, surface water and agriculture, please refer to
the Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed,
SA, SE, SWA, PFRA, EC, and the Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada
(DFO).
7.1 Stewardship Activities, Programs and Funding
Stewardship is defined as the judicious care and responsibility by individuals or
institutions for reducing their impacts on the natural environment. Various
activities and programs are available to help individuals and organizations
improve land management practices. A variety of agencies and organizations
have been actively working towards improving watershed health and have
provided information about project activities throughout Saskatchewan. Please
refer to the Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River
Watershed or the individual agencies listed.
Ducks Unlimited Canada (DUC) – (www.ducks.ca)
Programs focus on restoration and enhancement of both wetland and upland
habitats, improving the landscape for waterfowl and other wildlife.
Saskatchewan Watershed Authority (SWA) – (www.swa.ca)
 Demonstration projects to promote proper grazing management, off-site
watering options, cropland conversion to permanent cover, and
management to maintain native ecosystems.
 The Lake Stewardship Program was developed to support stewardship
groups throughout Saskatchewan.
 Erosion control program to encourage erosion control and gully
stabilization for individuals and organized groups of landowners by
providing both technical and financial assistance.
Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration (PFRA) –
(http://www.agr.gc.ca/pfra/main_e.htm)
 Rural Water Development Program
 National Soil and Water Conservation Program Riparian Area
Management Program
 PFRA Community Pastures
 PFRA Shelterbelt Center
 Permanent Cover Programs I & II
61
 Greencover Technical Assistance Component (http://www.agr.gc.ca/greencover-verdir/)
Promote and demonstrate environmentally, agriculturally and economically
sustainable land use practices to producers, contributing to healthy and
functional riparian areas and rangelands, as well as improving tame forage
conditions within northwestern Saskatchewan.
 Canada – Saskatchewan Farm Stewardship Program (CSFSP)
Accelerate the adoption of beneficial management practices (BMPs) on
Saskatchewan farms and landscapes, cost-shared incentives to producers.
 Environmental Farm Plans - (http://www.fnacs.ca/EFP/index.html)
Producers can identify their risk to the environment. The focus for the EFP is
on water (nutrients, pathogens, pesticides and water conservation), soil (soil
organic matter, erosion caused by wind, water or tillage), air (particulate
emissions, odors, greenhouse gas emissions), and biodiversity (habitat
availability, species at risk, economic damage to agriculture by wildlife).
Because the implementation of BMPs has a public health benefit, public funding
is provided at 30 or 50% of the costs, depending on the level of public vs. private
benefit. In Saskatchewan approximately $25 million is available for projects up to
March 31, 2008. See Table 6 for the list of 30 BMPs covered under this
program. To be eligible for funding, the applicant must control the land and have
completed an EFP. For further information on the EFP Process, please contact
the FNACS project coordinator (Crystal Clarke) at (306) 978-8872 or
[email protected].
Table 6. Canada-Saskatchewan Farm Stewardship Program BMP Categories.
1. Improved Manure Storage and Handling
16. Improved Pest Management
2. Manure Treatment
17. Nutrient Recovery from Waste Water
3. Manure Land Application
18. Irrigation Management
4. In Barn Improvements
19. Shelterbelt Establishment
5. Farmyard Runoff Control
20. Invasive Alien Plant Species Control
6. Relocation of Livestock Confinement
21. Enhancing Wildlife Habitat and Biodiversity
Facilities and Horticultural Facilities
7. Wintering Site Management
22. Species at Risk
8. Product and Waste Management
23. Preventing Wildlife Damage
9. Water Well Management
24. Nutrient Management Planning
10. Riparian Area Management
25. Integrated Pest Management Planning
11. Erosion Control Structures (Riparian)
26. Grazing Management Planning
12. Erosion Control Structures (Non-Riparian)
27. Soil Erosion and Salinity Control Planning
13. Land Management for Soils at Risk
28. Biodiversity Enhancement Planning
14. Improved Seeding Systems
29. Irrigation Management Planning
15. Cover Crops
30. Riparian Health Assessment
For the 2007/2008 program year, the significance of First Nations Land
Management in Saskatchewan is being recognized through the inclusion of First
Nations, Metis, and Inuit Traditional Land Use Practices (ASKIY
PIMAHICHOWIN) within BMP categories 21, 26, 28 and 30.
62
Partners FOR the Saskatchewan River Basin (PFSRB) –
(www.saskriverbasin.ca)
Saskatchewan Network of Watershed Stewards (SNOWS) –
(www.snows.sk.ca)
Promote stewardship, Foster communication, coordination and cooperation
among stewardship groups, promote interaction and partnerships among
different groups
Funding
There are many opportunities for stewardship groups and landowners to access
funding for various purposes. The Saskatchewan Conservation Programs,
written by the SWA, 2003, contains information on a variety of stewardship, land
cover, and environmental initiatives. It can be located at
http://www.snows.sk.ca/conservationprograms/pdf. Funding is also available for
improving fish habitat through both SWA and DFO. Both of these agencies also
initiate projects and provide advice to groups to restore and develop fish habitat.
Federal funding will also be available for approved BMPs under the EFP
Program. In order to receive funding, producers must have an approved EFP or
equivalent agri-environmental plan. The CSFSP approved BMPs fall into 30
categories which are listed in Table 6.
For more information on funding sources, contact any of the following agencies:
Saskatchewan Watershed Authority
North Battleford Office
402 Royal Bank Tower
1101 – 101st Street
North Battleford, SK S9A 0Z5
Phone (306) 446-7450
Fax (306) 446-7461
Ducks Unlimited Canada
202 – 1301 – 101st Street
North Battleford, SK S9A 0Z9
Phone (306) 445-2575
Fax (306) 445-4016
Saskatoon Office
603 45th St. W.
Saskatoon, SK S7L 5W5
Phone (306) 665-7356
Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration
9800 Territorial Place
North Battleford, SK S9A 3N6
Phone (306) 446-4050
Fax (306) 446-4060
63
Department of Fisheries and Oceans
Regina District Office
1804 Victoria Avenue E
Regina, SK S4N 7K3
Phone (306) 780-8725
Fax (306) 780-8722
Prince Albert District Office
125 – 32nd Street W
Prince Albert, SK S6V 7H7
Phone (306) 953-8777
Fax (306) 953-8792
Partners FOR the Saskatchewan River Basin
Phone (306) 665-6887
Toll Free 1-800-567-8007
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.saskriverbasin.ca
Environmental Farm Plans
Crystal Clarke, EFP Coordinator
First Nations Agricultural Council of Saskatchewan, Inc.
134 – 335 Packham Avenue
Saskatoon, SK S7N 4S1
Phone (306) 978-8872
Toll Free 1-866-233-3358
Fax (306) 978-0115
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.fnacs.ca
64
8.0 Glossary of Terms
Active ingredient (a.i.) – the material in the pesticide formulation that actually
performs the desired function of destroying or suppressing the target pest.
Pesticide labels are required by law to list the active ingredients and their
percentages.
Adsorption – binding of molecules or particles to a surface, usually weak and
reversible.
Aerobic – Living or taking place only in the presence of oxygen.
Allocation – the amount of water assigned for use, out of the total amount that is
available for use in a particular watershed or aquifer.
Anaerobic – living or taking place in the absence of oxygen.
Aquatic – consisting of, relating to or being in water; living or growing in, on or
near water.
Aquifer – a geological unit which can yield water to a well in usable amounts.
Aquitard – a layer of low permeability which restricts or confines the flow of
water.
Bank – the rising ground bordering a water body or watercourse that serves to
confine the water to the channel or bed.
Base of Ground Water Exploration – a feature known as the base of ground
water exploration was established for the initial provincial ground water maps and
is shown on the cross section. Below the base of exploration, useable ground
water is either not present or is at too great of a depth to warrant drilling for small
users.
Bed – that portion of a water body or watercourse that is periodically or
continuously covered by water.
Bedrock formations – rock deposited prior to the glaciation. These layers are
overlain by glacial deposits which consist of glacial till, sand and gravel.
Biodiversity – (biological diversity) the many and varied species of life forms on
earth, including plants, animals, microorganisms, the genes they possess and
their habitats.
Biological oxygen demand (BOD5) – measure of the quantity of oxygen used
by aerobic microorganisms during the decomposition of organic matter.
65
Boundary – the line or elevation contour surrounding a water body or
watercourse where the aquatic vegetation and terrestrial plant species known to
tolerate water saturated soils change entirely to terrestrial vegetation tolerating
little or no soil saturation and includes a minimum surrounding area of five metres
measured outward from the top of the bank.
Chem fallow – applying a herbicide to cropland for weed control, to eliminate or
reduce tillage/cultivation, thus conserving moisture, reducing soil erosion by
leaving more crop residues, and reducing nutrient losses. The most common
herbicides used are non-selective glyphosates, such as Roundup®.
Climate – meteorological elements (e.g. precipitation, temperature, radiation,
wind, cloudiness) that characterize the average and extreme conditions of the
atmosphere over long periods of time at a location or region of the earth’s
surface.
Climate change – an alteration in measured meteorological conditions that
significantly differ from previous conditions and are seen to endure, bringing
about corresponding changes in ecosystems and socio-economic activities.
Conservation – the preservation and renewal, when possible, of human and
natural resources. The use, protection and improvement of natural resources
according to principles that ensure their highest economic and social benefits.
Conservation easement – a legal agreement between a property owner and a
conservation agency to restrict the type and amount of development on the
owner’s property.
Development – building, engineering, mining or other operations that alter or
intensify the use of a resource.
Deleterious substance – and substance that is deleterious to fish, fish habitat,
or to the use by man of fish that frequent that water. See The Fisheries Act for
further details.
Discharge – the flow of surface water in a stream or ditch or the flow of ground
water from a spring or flowing artesian well; the rate of flow.
Diversion – the removal of water from any waterbody, watercourse or aquifer
(either for use of storage), and includes the removal of water for drainage
purposes. Construction of any works required for the diversion of water need
approval pursuant to Section 50 of the Saskatchewan Watershed Authority Act.
The total diversion is equal to the allocation plus any losses from evaporation or
seepage.
Drainage – movement of water off land, either naturally or man-made.
66
Drought – generally in reference to period of less than average or normal
precipitation over a set time, sufficiently prolonged to cause serious hydrological
imbalance that results in biological or economic losses.
Ecological – pertains to the relationship between living organisms and their
environments.
Economic development – the process of using and converting resources into
wealth, jobs and an enhanced quality of life.
Ecosystem – a dynamic complex of organisms (biota) including humans, and
their physical environment, that interacts as a functional unit in nature.
Effective drainage area – the area which is estimated to contribute runoff in at
least half of the years.
Efficacy – ability of a product to produce a desired amount of effect.
Effluent – the treated wastewater discharged into the environment.
Eutrophication - water bodies receive excess nutrients that stimulate excessive
plant growth (algae, weeds, etc.). This enhanced plant growth, often called an
algal bloom, reduces dissolved oxygen in the water when dead plant material
decomposes, and can cause other organisms to die. Nutrient sources can
include fertilizers; deposition of nitrogen from the atmosphere; erosion of soil
containing nutrients; and sewage treatment plant discharges.
Facultative – bacteria that can live in a range of external conditions including
both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
First Nation – and Indian band or an Indian community functioning as a band but
not having official band status, not including Inuit or Metis peoples.
Glacial till (Till) – unsorted mixture of silt, clay and sand that were deposited
from retreating glaciers.
Grazing management – activities that ensure stocking rates are appropriate to
sustain long-term health of livestock grazing conditions during wet and dry
seasons.
Gross drainage area – the area bounded by the height of land between
adjacent watersheds.
Ground water – subsurface water usually in aquifers; water that occurs in voids
or crevices of rock and soil.
67
Habitat – natural surroundings or native environment where a plant or animal
grows and lives.
Headwater – small streams and lakes that are the sources of a river, located in
the upper reaches of a watershed.
Hydro – from Greek hydor, meaning “water.”
Hydrogeology – the science of subsurface waters and related geologic aspects.
Hydrology – the science of the waters of the earth, their occurrences, circulation
and distribution on or below the earth’s surface.
Intensive Livestock Operation (ILO) – production facilities such as feedlots and
buildings where many animals are raised in a confined space that does not have
naturally-growing vegetation and where waste accumulates if not removed (as
defined by The Agricultural Operations Act in Saskatchewan).
Invasive species – non-native organisms that can invade and disturb natural
ecosystems resulting in the displacement of the native species.
Land cover – predominant vegetation on the surface of a parcel of land.
Land use – present use of a given area of land.
Leachate – a liquid that has percolated through or out of another substance such
as soil or refuse, and may contain nutrients or contaminants.
Median – a value in a sorted range of values by which there is the same number
or values above it as there is below it. A statistical term used in non-parametric
statistics.
Native Prairie – age-old plant communities of the prairie and parkland regions
that may contain more than 200 types of grasses, flowers and shrubs (native
grassland and parkland aquatic and terrestrial habitats).
Non-point source pollution – single or multiple contaminants of unknown origin
that enter waterways, degrading water quality.
Noxious weed – undesirable plants that can cause physical or economic
damage.
Partnership – cooperative, collaborative alliance between/among stakeholders
in a non-legal arrangement used to improve and build relationships and achieve
common goals.
68
Permeability – the rate or flow of a liquid or a gas through a porous material
such as soil or rock.
Point source contamination – a static and easily identifiable source of air, soil
or water pollution.
Riparian area – an area of land adjacent to or connected with a stream, river,
lake or wetland that contains vegetation that is distinctly different from vegetation
of adjacent upland areas.
Riparian areas – the zone of vegetation alongside waterways and other surface
water. Lush and diverse vegetation is the best sign of healthy, well-managed
riparian areas and is critical to filtering and slowing runoff.
River basin – an area that contributes to form a watershed. (see watershed)
Sewage – the waste and wastewater from residential or commercial
establishments that are normally discharged into sewers.
Sewage lagoon – a shallow pond where sunlight, bacterial action and oxygen
work to purify wastewater; also used for storage of wastewater.
Soil aggregates – groups of soil particles that are bound to each other more
strongly than to adjacent particles. Organic matter “glues” produced when soil
biota decompose dead roots and litter hold the particles together. Threadlike
strands of fungi also bind particles into aggregates. Smaller aggregates combine
to form larger aggregates, which determine soil structure.
Soil tilth – physical condition of the soil as related to its ease of tillage, fitness as
a seedbed and impedance to seedling emergence and root penetration. It is a
factor of soil texture, soil structure (aggregates), organic matter and living
organisms in the soil.
Source water protection – the prevention of pollution and the sound
management of factors and activities that (may) threaten water quality and
quantity of lakes, reservoirs, rivers, streams and ground water.
Stakeholder – individual or groups with direct or indirect interest in issues or
situations, usually involved in understanding and helping resolve or improve their
situations.
Stewardship – judicious care and responsibility by individuals or institutions for
reducing their impacts on the natural environment.
Upstream petroleum industry – everything that occurs before the product
reaches the refinery. This includes all wells and facilities including oil and gas
69
production sites, pipelines, flowlines and associated equipment, satellites,
batteries, metering stations, compressor stations, pump stations, truck unloading
stations and gas plants.
Water quality – the chemical, physical and biological characteristics of water
with respect to its suitability for a specific use.
Watershed – an elevated boundary contained by its drainage divide and subject
to surface and subsurface drainage under gravity to the ocean or interior lakes.
Watershed health – the desired maintenance over time of biological diversity,
biotic integrity and ecological processes of a watershed.
Watershed and aquifer management – a process, within the geographic
confines of a watershed or aquifer, that facilitates planning, directing, monitoring
and evaluating activities to ensure sustainable, reliable, safe and clean water
supplies.
Watershed and aquifer planning – a process, within the geographic confines of
a watershed or aquifer and with the participation of stakeholders, to develop
plans to manage and protect water resources.
Wetland – an area of low-lying land covered by water often enough to support
aquatic plants and wildlife for part of the life cycle. The wetland area includes the
wet basin and adjacent upland.
70
9.0 References
Acton, D.F., G.A. Padbury and C.T. Stushnoff. 1998. The Ecoregions of
Saskatchewan. Canadian Plains Research Center/Saskatchewan Environment
Resource Management. Hignell Printing Limited. Winnipeg.
Environment Canada. 2004. Canadian Climate Normals 1971-2000 North
Battleford A. Modified: 25 Feb 2004. Available at:
http://www.climate.weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca/climate_normals/index_e.html.
Accessed: 11 Oct 2007.
Fung, K. 1999. Atlas of Saskatchewan. Second edition. University of
Saskatchewan. Saskatoon, Saskatchewan.
Gabor, S., A. North, L. Ross, H. Murki, J. Anderson and M. Raven. 2004. Natural
Values. The Importance of Wetlands & Upland Conservation Practices in
Watershed Management: Functions and Clues for Water Quality and Quantity.
Ducks Unlimited Canada.
Hillel, D. 1982. Introduction to Soil Physics. Academic Press. San Diego. USA.
Huel, D. 2000. Managing Saskatchewan Wetlands – A Landowner’s Guide.
Saskatchewan Wetland Conservation Corporation. Regina Saskatchewan.
Kipp, S. and C. Callaway. 2003. On the Living Edge: Your Handbook for
Waterfront Living. Nature Saskatchewan.
Lee, P. 2005. The Worst is Yet to Come for Prairie Farmers. The Ottawa Citizen.
14 Aug 2001. Ottawa.
Leeson, J.Y., A.G. Thomas, L.M. Hall, C.A. Brenzil, T. Andrews, K.R. Brown, and
R.C. Van Acker. 2005. Prairie Weed Survey: Cereal, Oilseed and Pulse Crops
1970s to the 2000s. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. Weed Survey Series.
Publication 05-1. Available at: http://www.cwss-scm.ca/weed_survey.htm.
Accessed: 14 Dec 2007.
Millard, M.J. 1994. Geology and Groundwater Resources of the Shellbrook Area
(73G), Saskatchewan. SRC Publication No. R-1210-9-E-94.
Parker, P.M. 2005. Webster’s Online Dictionary, the Rosetta Edition. INSEAD.
http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/credits/termsofuse.html.
71
Pinter and Associates. 2004. Phase I Environmental Site Assessment of the
Muskeg Lake Cree Nation Reserves No. 102 and 102A-K, Mistawasis Lake and
4-46-5-W3M. Prepared for: Muskeg Lake Cree Nation and Muskeg Lake Cree
Nation Land Advisory Board. 16 Jul 2004.
Ross, L. 2003. The Role of Canadian Wetlands in Improving Water Quality.
Ducks Unlimited Canada.
Saskatchewan Watershed Authority. 2005. 2005-2006 Provincial Budget
Performance Plan. Available at:
http://www.swa.ca/AboutUs/PerformancePlans.asp. Accessed: 13 Dec 2007.
Statistics Canada. 2007. Muskeg Lake Cree Nation 102, Saskatchewan (table).
2006 Community Profiles. 2006 Census. Statistics Canada. Ottawa. Modified:
12/04/2007. Available at:
http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/profiles/community/Index.cfm?La
ng=E. Accessed: 9 Oct 2007.
Warren, Fiona. 2004. Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation: A Canadian
Perspective. Donald S. Lemmen and F.J. Warren (eds). Natural Resources
Canada. Ottawa Canada. Available at:
http://adaptation.nrcan.gc.ca/perspective/index_e.php. Accessed: 13 Dec 2007.
72
Appendix 1. Saskatchewan Watershed Authority Factsheets
For copies of the “Protecting Your Groundwater”, “Abandonment – Test
Holes and Wells” and “Shock Chlorination of Groundwater Wells” please
visit: http://www.swa.ca/Publications/Default.asp?type=FactSheets or
contact the Saskatchewan Water Inquiry Line at 1800-SASKH20 (1800-7275420). This is a referral service that will forward the request to the
appropriate agency.
The following factsheets are available online at the above website address:









Surface Water Approval Process: FS-312.pdf
Drainage Approval Process: FS-314.pdf
Protecting Your Surface Water: FS-304.pdf
Protecting Your Groundwater: FS-303.pdf
Rural Water Quality and Testing: FS-306.pdf
Shock Chlorination of Groundwater Wells: FS-307.pdf
Abandonment – Test Holes and Wells: FS-309.pdf
Ground Water Approval Process: FS-313.pdf
Domestic Water Use: FS-315.pdf
73
Appendix 2. Water Well Locations on Muskeg Lake Cree Nation IR #102.
Easting
Northing
Range
Land Location
House No.
Waypoint
370266
369904
373561
373518
373899
373265
373314
5873400
5872436
5873236
5872848
5873993
5870006
5869464
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
NE-27-46-07-3
NW-22-46-07-3
SE-25-46-07-3
SE-25-46-07-3
NE-25-46-07-3
NW-13-46-07-3
SE-13-46-07-3
481
384
326
324
Youth Center
330
218
64
65
69
70
71
72
73
In
Use?
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
373229
374097
373860
372684
5869615
5874857
5877452
5874932
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
SW-13-46-07-3
SE-36-46-07-3
SE-12-47-07-3
SW-36-46-07-3
319
Band well
150
155/158
74
80
82
88
no
no
no
no
372089
370864
370646
374042
372701
374454
374192
5874912
5874097
5873701
5871885
5868674
5873303
5873560
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
SE-35-46-07-3
NE-27-46-07-3
NE-27-46-07-3
NE-24-46-07-3
NW-12-46-07-3
SW-30-46-06-3
NW-30-46-06-3
163
479
488
Abandoned
312
130
Abandoned
89
90
91
95
97
99
100
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
371751
368991
369050
368472
374346
374165
371851
374160
373643
5867738
5867992
5872789
5872807
5874816
5873235
5867771
5877785
5877729
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
NE-02-46-07-3
SE-09-46-07-3
SE-28-46-07-3
SE-28-46-07-3
SW-31-46-06-3
SW-30-46-06-3
SE-11-46-07-3
SW-07-47-06-3
SE-12-47-07-3
309
304
486
490
142
128
310
148
151
103
108
66
67
79
98
102
81
83
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
yes
yes
374345
375076
375279
5876798
5875939
5875582
Z13
Z13
Z13
NW-06-47-06-3
SW-06-47-06-3
NE-31-46-06-3
147/145
144
143
84
85
86
yes
yes
yes
pumphouse, lid off now
E side of house
375784
5875648
Z13
NE-31-46-06-3
501
87
yes
flowers on top, SW corner of house, beside tree
74
Notes
well by gate
pumphouse, serves 3 houses
N of house
white well, In pasture
DECOMMISSIONED 26 SEPT 2007
Green pumphouse
pumphouse, locked, DECOMMISSIONED 26
SEPT 2007
used to have a shed over it, now doesn't
W side of main road, on hill, in pumphouse
W of house
yellow, in pumphouse, open on top, water ~8"
from top of well
cover not on, looks rusty, in pumphouse
SW side of house, ~ 5 ft wide cribbing
covered by concrete slabs, within old fence
pumphouse, E side of house
S side of house
S side of house, between fence and trees,
garbage in and around well
S side of house
metal casing, in pumphouse, beside 6" well
behind house
N of house, on hill in grass, water not good
beside shack and corrals
front of house
SW corner of old white house
do not use for cooking or drinking, in pumphouse,
serves 3 houses
Easting
Northing
Range
Land Location
374968
374100
374040
372537
372617
372260
369878
369003
375219
371534
5872392
5871736
5869608
5868377
5867028
5866679
5868022
5867993
5866687
587385
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
USR
NE-19-46-06-3
NE-24-46-07-3
SW-18-46-06-3
SW-12-46-07-3
NW-01-46-07-3
SE-02-46-07-3
SW-10-46-07-3
SE-09-46-07-3
SE-06-46-06-3
NW-35-46-07-3
371629
5875407
USR
NW-35-46-07-3
Name
Waypoint
222
221
214
311
208
307
305
304
203
West Municipal Well
(WTP)
East Municipal Well
(WTP)
92
93
96
101
104
105
106
107
109
75
In
Use?
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
Notes
in pumphouse, rusty exterior
yellow, inside tires, NE of house
NW corner of house
N side of house, will be going on main system
S corner of house
between house and store
pumphouse, very rusty, N side of house
6" white well, N side of house
artesian well, a lot of rust, serves 4 houses
Locations of Water Wells on Muskeg Lake Cree Nation
76
Appendix 3. Pictures of Water Wells Located on Muskeg Lake Cree
Nation IR #102.
SE-28-46-07-3, House #486
SE-28-46-07-3, House #490
SW-31-46-06-3, House #142
SW-31-46-06-3, House #142
SW-07-47-06-3, House #148
SE-12-47-07-3, House #151
NW-06-47-06-3, House #147/145
NW-22-46-07-3, House #384
77
SW-06-47-06-3, House #144
SW-06-47-06-3, House #144
NE-31-46-06-3, House #501
NE-24-46-07-3, House #221
NE-19-46-06-3, House #222
NE-19-46-06-3, House #222
SW-18-46-06-3, House #214
SW-30-46-06-3, House #128
78
SW-12-46-07-3, House #311
SE-11-46-07-3, House #310
NW-01-46-07-3, House #208
SE-02-46-07-3, House #307
SW-10-46-07-3, House #305
SE-09-46-07-3, House #304
SE-06-46-06-3, House #203
NE-27-46-07-3, House #481
79
NW-35-46-07-3, WTP West Well
NW-35-46-07-3, WTP East Well
SW-30-46-06-3, House #130
NW-12-46-07-3, House #312
NE-24-46-07-3, Abandoned
NE-27-46-07-3, House #488
NE-27-46-07-3, House #479
SE-35-46-07-3, House #163
80
SW-36-46-07-3, House #155/158
SW-36-46-07-3, House #155/158
SE-12-47-07-3, House #150
SW-13-46-07-3, House #319
SE-36-46-07-3, Band well
SE-13-46-07-3, House #218 - Decommissioned
NW-13-46-07-3, House #330
SE-25-46-07-3, House #324
81
NE-25-46-07-3, Youth Center (cover)
NE-25-46-07-3, Youth Center - Decommissioned
SE-25-46-07-3, House #326
NE—02-46-07-3, House #309
NW-30-46-06-3, Abandoned
NW-30-46-06-3, Abandoned
SE-09-46-07-3, House #304
82
Appendix 4. Water Quality Analysis Results for Muskeg Lake Cree
Nation Water Wells, October 2007
83
Appendix 5. Geology and Groundwater Resources of the Shellbrook
Area (73G), Saskatchewan
84

Muskeg Lake Cree Nation #102 Source Water Protection Pilot

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