Kinema

Feature: Fermented Soybean Foods in Daily Life
Feature
Fig. 3
Production of Natto
Selection
Soybeans
Cooling
Maturing
10˚C orbelow
24 hours
Washing
Finished
Product
(Natto)
Soaking
Steaming
Inoculation
10-12 hours
2 millibars
for 20 min.
Spore of natto
mold
103 spores/1g
soybeans
Packing
Filling
Fermentation
40˚C for
16-18 hours
B
Jyoti Prakash Tamang Ph.D., Professor, Sikkim Government College/
Director, Darjeeling Centre for Traditional Food Research
Distribution
Natto stirred and sticky
A
Kinema
C
D
Kinema is one of the important components of the
diverse food culture of the ethnic communities in the
Eastern Himalayan regions of Nepal, the Darjeeling
hills and Sikkim in India, the northeastern hills of
India and Bhutan. Kinema is a whole-soybean
fermented food with a sticky texture, gray tan in color
and flavorful. It is similar to Japanese natto.
Hypothesis on the Origin of Kinema
Varieties of natto packages
E
F
G
Kan Kiuchi Ph.D.
Born in Tokyo in 1940, Dr. Kan Kiuchi is now a
professor at the Department of Food Science and
Nutrition at Kyoritsu Women’s University. He
graduated from the Faculty of Agriculture at
Tokyo University and later received his Ph.D. in
Agricultural Chemistry from the university’s
agricultural graduate school. After joining the
H
A. Wheat straw wrap
B. Inside wrap
C. Kyogi (thin wood shavings)
D. Inside wrap
E. Boat-shaped container
F. Inside boat
G. PSP container
H. Paper cup
Food Research Institute (today known as the
General Food Research Center) of the former
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, he
worked as chief researcher of the Department of
Applied Microbiology, and as Director of the
Third Research Laboratory of Microbial
Applications.
References
Ebine, H., Ishima, N., Kiuchi, K., Ohta, T., Takabayashi, T. “Miso Lipids and Relations Between Free Fatty Acids and Quality of Miso.” Nippon Shokuhin
Kogyo Gakkaishi 24 (1977): 295-299.
Kanai, Y., Kimura, M., Kiuchi, K., Miura, N., Muramatsu, K., and Yoshida, K. “Production of Natto with High Elastase Activity.” Nippon Shokuhin
Kogyo Gakkaishi 42 (1995): 575-582.
Kanai, Y., H-R, Kim, Kiuchi, K., Muramatsu, K., Takeyasu, M., and Tanaka, T. “Manufacture of Chungkuk-jang with Elastase Activity.” Food Science
and Technology, International 3 (1997): 251-256.
Kanai,Y., Kimura, M., Kiuchi, K., Muramatsu, K., Yamawake, N. and Yoshimi, T. “Purification and Crystallization of a New Bacillus Subtilis Elastase.”
Home Economics of Japan 51 (2000): 1127-1135.
Katsumata, R., Kiuchi, K., Muramatsu, K., Tanaka, T., and Watanabe, S. “Natto Manufacturing Methods Employing Natto Bacilli with High Elastase
Activity and Its Mutants.” Proceedings of The Third International Soybean Processing and Utilization Conference, Tsukuba, Japan, October 15-20,
2000. Ed. K. Saio. 333-334.
Katsumata, R., Kiuchi, K., Muramatsu, K., Tanaka, T., and Watanabe, S. “Improvement of the Itohiki-Natto Manufacturing Process of Employing
Commercial Natto Starters.” Proceedings of The Third International Soybean Processing and Utilization Conference, Tsukuba, Japan, October 1520, 2000. Ed. K. Saio. 335-336.
10
FOOD CULTURE
The common word kinema is derived from “kinambaa”
of the Limboo dialect (Limboo, being one of the major
ethnic communities of Nepalis), “ki” means fermented
and “nambaa” means flavor. The kingdom of
“Limbuwan” (presently the eastern Nepal districts of
Therathum, Taplejung, Panchthar, Dhankuta, and Ilam)
was established by the Limboo earlier than the seventh
century and remained independent till the unification of
Nepal in the seventeenth century. Though there is no
historical document on the origin of kinema, it is certain
that among the Nepalis, the Limboo started production
and consumption of this unique fermented flavorful
soybean food. The unification of Nepal, the existence of
a mixed society of multiethnic communities and the
migration of people from one place to another might
have resulted in the spread of kinema making and eating
to other related Nepali communities such as the Rai,
Tamang, Gurung, Mangar, etc. However, even now
kinema is not popular among the Brahmin Nepalis.
Other mountain ethnic communities in the Eastern
Himalayas now share the delicacy of kinema. In Sikkim
the Lepchas call it satlyangser and the Bhutias call it
bari.
Methods of Preparation
In the Sikkim Himalayas, during the preparation of
kinema (see next page), small-sized (up to 6mm)
yellow-coated seeds of local cultivars of soybeans are
soaked in spring water overnight and cooked by boiling
until they can be pressed easily. Excess water is drained
off and the seeds are cracked lightly by a wooden pestle
(locally called a muslo) in a wooden mortar (locally
called an okhli) to split the cotyledons, probably to
accelerate fermentation and increase the surface area for
aerobic spore-forming bacteria. Grits are placed in a
bamboo basket lined with locally grown fresh fern fronds
Kinema
{ Glaphylopteriopsis erubescens ( Well ex. Hook. )
Ching}, covered with a jute bag and left to ferment
naturally at ambient temperatures (25˚-40˚C) for two to
three days above an earthen-kitchen oven. In some
villages, about one percent of fresh firewood ash is
added to the cooked soybeans during production. In
eastern Nepal, dark-brown-coated seeds of soybean are
used to make kinema. Instead of fern leaves, Ficus and
banana leaves are used as wrapping materials. Other
methods remain the same. Completion of fermentation
is indicated by the appearance of a white viscous mass
and a typical kinema flavor with a slight ammonia-like
odor. The “shelf life” of fresh kinema is two to three
days during summer and a maximum of one week in
winter without refrigeration. Sun-dried kinema is stored
for several months at room temperature.
The preparation of kinema varies from place to place
and is still restricted to household level. It is interesting
to note that the mountain women use their indigenous
knowledge of food production exclusively to prepare
kinema. This unique indigenous knowledge of kinemamaking is protected as a hereditary right and is passed
from mother to daughter.
FOOD CULTURE
11
Feature: Fermented Soybean Foods in Daily Life
Feature
Flow chart of the traditional
method of kinema production
practiced in Sikkim
Soybeans (100g)
KINEMA CURRY Ingredients
Cleaned and washed
serves 6
Kinema
Onion
Tomato
Green chilies
Turmeric powder
Salt
Soaked in water overnight
Drained off; clean water added
250 g
1 (chopped)
1 (sliced)
3
1/4 tablespoon
1 teaspoon
Cooked soybeans are pestled.
Cooked by boiling
Kinema Dishes
Firewood ash is added.
Excess water drained off
Lightly cracked in a wooden mortar with a wooden pestle
Sprinkled with wood ash (up to 1%)
Wrapped in fern leaves, kept in a bamboo basket
Fermented (25˚-45˚C, 2-3 days)
Kinema (~230g)
Socio-economic Factors
Cooked soybean grits are placed in fern
leaves.
Fried to make curry
Wrapped in fern leaves, the grits are kept in
a bamboo basket, covered with a jute bag.
12
FOOD CULTURE
Kinema is eaten as a side-dish curry with cooked rice.
The delicacy of kinema can be perceived from its
appealing flavor and sticky texture. The most common
traditional recipe for kinema curry is as shown above.
To prepare: Heat vegetable oil in a frying pan and add
chopped onion and fry until it becomes tender. Add
tomatoes and turmeric powder and fry for two minutes.
Add fresh kinema, salt, and sliced green chilies and fry
for three to five minutes. Pour in a little water to make a
thick curry, and cook for five to seven minutes. Kinema
curry is now ready for serving with boiled rice. Sundried kinema is sometimes mixed with leafy vegetables
to make mixed curry as a side dish.
Kinema production is an income generator for some
families. It is sold in all local periodical markets, called
“haats” in these regions, by rural women. Usually, it is
sold by volume measured in a small silver mug
containing 150-200 grams of kinema, and packed in the
leaves of Ficus hookeriana, and then tied loosely with
straw. Polyethylene bags are not used for packing
kinema. One kilogram of kinema costs about 30 Indian
rupees (72 yen). An average of five kilograms is sold by
each seller in a local market and brings a profit of about
forty percent. This small profit is spent on children’s
education and on domestic expenses. This trade has
been protected as a hereditary right passed from mother
to daughter. Though there is a good market for kinema,
and some rural women are involved in it for income
generation, processing is still restricted to the individual
household; there is no organized processing unit or factory.
An inexpensive and ready-to-use pulverized starter culture
of Bacillus subtilis has been developed for kinema
production, which can be adapted to local conditions for
more income generation.
Microbiology and Nutritive
Value of Kinema
The heat resistant spore-forming bacterium Bacillus
subtilis, lactic acid bacteria such as Enterococcus
faecium, and a few types of yeast, Candida parapsilosis
and Geotrichum candidum, for instance, have been
recovered from kinema. However, Bacillus subtilis is
the dominant microflora in kinema fermentation,
followed by Enterococcus faecium. The rich microbial
diversity in various sources, particularly the soybeans,
equipment and leaves used as wrapping materials,
harnesses indigenous microbiota for the spontaneous
fermentation of kinema. The rural practices of not
cleaning the mortar and pestle, and using fresh leaves
used as wrapping materials, significantly correlate with
their indigenous knowledge of “microbiology” to
preserve and supplement microorganisms for the
spontaneous fermentation of kinema without using
starter cultures.
On a protein cost per kilogram basis, kinema is the
cheapest source of plant protein and cheaper than
animal and dairy products. During kinema production,
soya-proteins, which have been denatured by the
cooking process, are hydrolyzed by proteolytic enzymes
produced by Bacillus subtilis into peptides and amino
acids, enhancing digestibility. A remarkable increase in
water-soluble nitrogen, trichloroacetic acid-soluble
nitrogen contents, total amino acids, free amino acids
and mineral content occurs during kinema fermentation,
and subsequently enriches the nutritional value of the
product. Kinema contains (per 100 grams dry matter):
FOOD CULTURE
13
Feature: Fermented Soybean Foods in Daily Life
Feature
protein 48 grams, fat 17 grams, carbohydrates 28 grams
and 478 kilocalories.
The diversity of Bacillus-dominating fermented soybean
foods of Asia needs to be studied to trace the antiquity
and similarity in the food cultures of Asia.
Transition in Food Culture
The food culture in the Eastern Himalayas shows a
transition to a mixed food culture containing both a
“rice-soybean-alcoholic beverage diet,” the characteristic
food culture of Southeast and East Asia, and the “wheatmilk-non-alcoholic beverage diet” of Central and West
Asia. This is seen in the case of fermented soybean
foods, which are prepared and consumed in the Eastern
Himalayas and the adjoining foothills, such as kinema in
eastern Nepal, the Darjeeling hills, Sikkim and Bhutan,
aakhuni in Nagaland, hawaijar in Manipur, turangbai in
Meghalaya, and bekanthu in Mizoram. Consumption of
fermented soybean food is uncommon in Central and
West Asia, and even in other parts of the Indian
subcontinent. These fermented soybean foods are
similar to the natto of Japan, chungkok-jang of Korea,
thua-nao of northern Thailand and pe-poke of Myanmar.
Katarzyna J. Cwiertka Ph.D.
Leiden University, the Netherlands
Katarzyna J. Cwiertka has for more than a decade conducted research in the field of
Japanese food culture. Since acquiring a Ph.D. from Leiden University in 1999, she has
also worked on a number of projects dealing with East Asian food habits. Dr. Cwiertka
is the co-editor of the forthcoming volume Asian Food: The Global and the Local
(Curzon Press 2001) and the coordinator of the Kikkoman Food Forum to be held in the
Netherlands. Her most recent publications in English include “Culinary Globalization
and Japan” in Japan Echo vol. 26 no. 3; and “From Yokohama to Amsterdam: Meidi-ya
and Dietary Change in Modern Japan” in Japanstudien vol. 12 (N. Liscutin & R. Haak,
eds.), IUDICIUM 2000.
CHINA (Tibet)
NEPAL
Kinema
Sikkim
Arunachal Pradesh
Darjeeling BHUTAN
Northeast INDIA
Assam
Nagaland
Aakhuni
Meghalaya
Turangbai
BANGLADESH
Manipur
Hawaijar
Tripura
Mizoram
Bekanthu
MYANMAR
Pe-poke
Japanese Food Heads West
traditional fermented foods and beverages of the
Himalayas, particularly kinema, mostly
concerning microbial diversity. He has published
more than forty research papers in national and
international journals. He is professor at Sikkim
Government College and also president of the
Darjeeling Centre for Traditional Food Research.
References
Hesseltine, C.W., Sarkar, P.K. and Tamang, J.P. “Traditional Fermented Foods and Beverages of Darjeeling Hills and Sikkim—A Review.” J Science of
Food and Agriculture 44 (1988): 375-385.
Nikkuni, S. “Natto, Kinema and Thua-nao: Traditional Non-Salted Fermented Soybean Foods in Asia.”Farming Japan 31(4) (1997): 27-36.
Nikkuni, S. and Tamang, J.P. “Effect of Temperatures During Pure Culture Fermentation of Kinema.” World J Microbiology and Biotechnology 14
(1998): 847-850.
Tamang, J.P. “Fermented Soybean Products in India.” The Proceedings of the Second International Soybean Processing and Utilization Conference,
Kesetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand, 1996. Ed. A. Buchanan. 189-193.
Tamang, J.P. “Development of Pulverized Starter for Kinema Production.” J Food Science and Technology 36 (5) (1999): 475-478.
Tamang, J.P. “Case Study on Socio-economical Prospective of Kinema, a Traditional Fermented Soybean Food.” The Proceedings of the 1997
International Conference on Traditional Foods, CFTRI, Mysore, India March 6-8, 1997. Ed. Director, CFTRI. 2000. 180-185.
Tamang, J.P. “Microbial Diversity Associated with Natural Fermentation of Kinema.” Proceedings of the Third International Soybean Processing and
Utilization Conference, Tsukuba, Japan, October 15-20, 2000. Ed. K. Saio. 713-717.
FOOD CULTURE
apanese Food in Holland:
The Global Trend Spreads
Kinema Diversity in the Eastern Himalayan Regions
Jyoti Prakash Tamang Ph.D.
Born in Darjeeling (India) in 1961, Dr. Jyoti
Prakash Tamang holds a Ph.D. degree in
microbiology from North Bengal University in
India. He did post-doctoral research in kinema
and natto at the National Food Research
Institute, Tsukuba, Japan, under a United
Nations University-Kirin fellowship in 1994-95.
He is one of the growing authorities on the
14
J
About Food Culture from the Netherlands 3
The twentieth century was a very turbulent period in the
history of Japanese cuisine. Along with economic and
technological advancement,accompanied by urbanization
and other social changes, Japanese foodways underwent
a transition whose importance can be compared to the
culinary borrowings from China in earlier times. The
manner in which food had been produced, distributed,
prepared and consumed in Japan for centuries has altered
considerably in the last hundred years, in particular since
the economic boom of the 1960s.1
The twentieth century was in the first place the time
in which Japanese cuisine accumulated influences from
the West and accommodated itself to the needs of a
modernizing society. However, it was also the period
when Japanese food began to spread beyond the home
isles. This process was initiated by the migration of
Japanese people to East and Southeast Asia and South
and North America. It intensified from the 1970s
onwards, when the Japanese economy started to conquer
foreign markets.
The first Japanese restaurant outside Asia opened in
San Francisco in 1887, but eventually Los Angeles
became the center of Japanese food culture in North
America. By the early twentieth century, a Japanese
quarter with the name Little Tokyo had developed in
Los Angeles’ Chinatown, containing about forty
Japanese restaurants, next to numerous Japanese
butchers and vegetable dealers (Koyama 1985). Similar
developments were observed in other areas with large
accumulations of Japanese immigrants, such as Hawaii
and Brazil (Mori 2000). A characteristic feature of these
efficiently operated culinary infrastructures was the fact
that they were targeted exclusively at the immigrant
Japanese community. It was not until the 1970s that the
Japanese restaurants operating in San Francisco, S~
ao
Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and other areas with high
concentrations of Japanese immigrants began to cater
for non-Japanese customers, and that new Japanese
restaurants began to open outside these areas.
The ecology movement initiated by the American
hippies in the late 1960s was the first step in the global
diffusion of Japanese food. The rediscovery of organic
foods and a growth of interest in alternative diets,
traditional Asian foodways in particular, among
Americans provided Japanese cuisine with a spectrum
of new possibilities for expansion. The progress of
nutritional knowledge, which at about the same time
began to recognize the negative impact of heavy, meatbased diets on human health, was another important
factor that helped to promote Japanese cuisine in the
West. American dietitians began to recommend the lowfat and low-cholesterol Japanese-style diet as one of the
healthiest in the world, and this image accompanied the
cuisine as it diffused worldwide.
The fashion of eating Japanese food, sushi in
particular, that first flourished in California, was within
a couple of years picked up by people in large cities of
the east coast in the U.S. and gradually spread among
the European capitals. By the end of the twentieth
century, Japanese food had acquired a firm position in
the Western culinary repertoire.
The spread among Europeans of a fashion for dining
Japanese-style was fuelled, next to the health aspect, by
the worldwide distribution of Japanese electronic
products and cars and the rise of Japan’s prestige in the
global arena. However, the role of the United States in
the global diffusion of Japanese cuisine was at least as
important. It can safely be assumed that sushi and
teppanyaki2 would have never become so popular in
Europe without the added value of being American food
fads.
FOOD CULTURE
15