Dynamic events in hard rocks
Transcription
Dynamic events in hard rocks
Dynamic events in hard rocks Autor: Christian Jakob & Prof. Dr. habil. Heinz Konietzky, (TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Geotechnical Institute) 1 Introduction ................................................................................. 2 2 Introduction to seismology ............................................................... 4 3 4 5 2.1 Characteristics of elastic waves ..................................................... 4 2.1.1 Body waves ................................................................... 4 2.1.2 Surface waves ................................................................ 6 2.2 Localization of earthquakes .......................................................... 7 2.2.1 Absolute localization ......................................................... 7 2.2.2 Relative localization .......................................................... 9 2.3 Magnitudes and intensities ........................................................... 9 2.4 Seismotectonics ....................................................................... 12 2.5 Determination of source parameters ............................................... 13 2.5.1 Fault plane solution .......................................................... 13 2.5.2 Seismic moment, corner frequency and secondary source parameters15 2.6 Sensors for seismic waves ........................................................... 18 2.7 Station networks ....................................................................... 19 Engineering seismology .................................................................. 21 3.1 Engineering seismological parameters ............................................. 21 3.2 Estimation of maximal magnitude ................................................... 22 3.2.1 Determination from magnitude-frequency relation....................... 22 3.2.2 Determination from Benioff curve .......................................... 23 3.3 Estimation of peak ground velocities ............................................... 23 3.4 Legal standards........................................................................ 24 Induced seismicity ......................................................................... 28 4.1 Surface dam induced seismicity ..................................................... 28 4.2 Mining induced seismicity ............................................................ 28 4.3 Injection induced seismicity .......................................................... 30 Blast vibrations............................................................................. 33 Editor: Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Heinz Konietzky Layout: Angela Griebsch TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Institut für Geotechnik, Gustav-Zeuner-Strasse 1, 09599 Freiberg •[email protected] Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! 1 Updated: August 16, 2014 Introduction All geomechanical processes are time-dependent i.e. dynamic. Only process velocities vary strongly. There are highly dynamic processes like explosions with propagation speeds of several 1000 m/s and extremly slow elapsing processes like orogenesis or creep processes with velocities in order of mm/year. According to the length of the observation window processes can be treated as real dynamic or quasi-static: Thus if change of physical quantities in the observation window is insignificant low, a static view can be carried out. In many cases processes interfere with each other, where velocities and magnitudes can be very different (e.g. a blast event at digging in a creeping salt rock). That is why it must be decided in every individual case how these coupled processes have to be considered. For practical reasons in geomechanic often just the “highly dynamic” ones are meant by dynamic processes in contrast to the slowly elapsing ones, that usualy fall in the definition “creeping”. Page 2 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 Table 1 shows an overview over the significant geomechanical relevant dynamic processes. Dynamic process Duration Occurances Remarks Earthquakes Seconds to minutes Shocks, rifts, cracks, faults at plate edges, intra plate seismicity Blasts, explosions Seconds Shocks, fractures because of mining, tunnel excavation and military Induced seismicity Seconds to minutes Shocks, fractures dam-, mining-, injection-, reservoirinduced and fracing Recent crust movements Millions of years plate tectonics, trench formation, orogenesis mm/year Depression events at earth surface Minutes to years Earth fall, geosyncline up to several m deep and several km2 big Mass movements Minutes Rockslide, mudflow avalanches into the km3 range Dynamic events in rock and tunnel construction and mining Seconds to days Rock burst, fractures triggers microearthquakes and earthquakes up to M ≈ 5 Table 1: Dynamic processes in hard rocks Page 3 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! 2 Updated: August 16, 2014 Introduction to seismology Dynamic events in the earth generate different kinds of elastic waves. The different types of waves differ in propagation velocity, amplitude and frequency. Figure 1 shows an seismological record, in which body waves (P and S) as well as surface waves (Rayleigh and Love) are visible. Fig. 1: Example seismological record (source: T. Meier, http://www.ifg.uni-kiel.de) From the records of worldwide installed seismometers seismologists can characterize the source (explosion, landslide, earthquake, mine collapse, meteor impact and so on) and determine source parameters (hypocenter, source time, magnitudes, source mechanism and so on). 2.1 Characteristics of elastic waves During propagation in a media elastic waves dissipate energy. The dissipation differentiates between geometrical spreading, damping and scattering. Surface waves propagate only at the surface of a media, accordingly in two dimensions. Body waves propagate in three dimensions in the media. Consequently the energy dissipation from geometrical spreading of surface waves is smaller and the range of influence is bigger than that of body waves. The damping of elastic waves is frequency dependent. High frequencies are damped stronger than low frequencies. This is the reason for the frequency spectra change of the wave depending on traveled distance in a media. 2.1.1 Body waves The P-Wave (primary wave or also called pressure wave or longitudinal wave) is characterized by high frequencies and high propagation velocities. Because of the stronger damping of this high frequency waves they mostly have smaller amplitudes than other waves. The oscillation of particles in the media take place in the direction of propagation (see Fig. 2). Page 4 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 Fig. 2: P-wave P-waves propagate in all media (solids, liquids and gases). Depending on the density of a media the propagation velocity varies between 343 m/s (acoustic waves in air) and ∼ 13700 m/s in the lower mantle of the earth. More propagation velocities for rocks and sediments are shown in table 2 Die propagation velocity for P-waves is given by the elasticity parameters (elasticity modulus E and Poisson’s ratio ν) and the density ρ. With the Lamé parameters λ= νE (1 + ν)(1 − 2ν) and µ= E 2(1 + ν) (1) the P-wave velocity is resulting in s vp = λ + 2µ . ρ (2) The S-Wave (secondary wave or also called transverse wave or shear wave) has lower frequencies and lower propagation velocities than the P-wave. Normally the S-wave has a higher amplitude than the P-wave. The oscillation of particles in the media take place orthogonally to the direction of propagation (see Fig. 3). Fig. 3: S-wave S-waves propagate only in media which have a shear modulus G = µ > 0 and hence have a shear resistance. For that reason shear waves can not propagate in liquids and gases. The S-Wave velocity is determined by µ and ρ as follows. r µ vs = (3) ρ √ As an approximation the S-wave velocity can determined by the ratio vp /vs ≈ 3. Page 5 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! material air clay loam marl sand∗ sand∗∗ gravel∗ sandstone limestone claystone vp in km/s Updated: August 16, 2014 vs in km/s 0.3 sediments 1.2 - 2.8 0.11 - 1.5 0.5 - 1.9 0.44 - 1.08 1.2 - 4.7 0.4 - 2.6 0.1 - 0.6 0.1 - 0.5 0.2 - 2.0 0.1 - 0.5 0.6 - 1.4 0.32 - 0.7 0.8 - 4.5 2.0 - 6.2 2.2 - 4.2 0.32 - 2.7 1.8 - 3.8 0.42 - 0.8 material vp in km/s vs in km/s water 1.5 metamorphic gneiss 6.6 - 7.0 amphibolite 6.9 - 7.0 peridotite 7.9 - 8.1 eclogite 7.8 - 8.1 magmatic granite 5.6 - 6.3 gabbro 6.5 - 6.8 basalt 5.5 - 6.3 ∗ (dry) ∗∗ 3.4 - 4.0 3.8 - 4.6 4.2 - 4.7 4.5 - 5.0 2.5 - 3.8 3.8 - 3.9 n. a. (wet) Table 2: Typical propagation velocities for P- and S-waves in rocks and sediments 2.1.2 Surface waves Surface waves are generated by refraction of P- and S-waves at all free surfaces (huge impedance contrast). Rayleigh-waves, named by the british physicist John William Rayleigh (1842-1919), are characterized by low frequencies (around 0.05 Hz) and high amplitudes. The oscillation of particles in the media is elliptically on a vertical plain (see Fig. 4). Fig. 4: Rayleigh-wave The propagation velocity is with 2 - 4 km/s a bit smaller than the S-wave velocity. Water waves at the surface of a sea or an ocean are typical Rayleigh-waves. Rayleigh-waves triggered from earthquakes felt most strongly and cause the most damage. Love-waves, named by the british mathematician Augustus Edward Hough Love (1863 - 1940), are also characterized by low frequencies and high amplitudes. The oscillation of particles in the media is horizontal, perpendicular to the direction of movement (see Fig. 5). They are with 2 - 4.4 km/s the fastest surface waves, but still slower than S-Waves. Love-waves generated from earthquakes can cause damage by horizontal shearing of the soil. Page 6 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 Fig. 5: Love-wave 2.2 Localization of earthquakes The localization of an earthquake consists of the determination of the source parameters geographic location, depth and source time of the earthquake. To determine this parameters the arrival times (tp and ts ) from P-waves and S-waves are used. 2.2.1 Absolute localization The analysis of the differences in the waves runtime is denominated absolute localization. This method for local earthquakes presumes a homogeneous and isotropic half space. The model concept supposes a punctate rupture (hypocenter with coordinates x0 , y0 , z0 ) in the rock at the time t0 . The source emits seismic waves spherical with the velocities vp respectively vs and hit the seismic stations (seismometers or geophones) i at the times ti . With the coordinates (xi , yi , zi ) the station locations are termed. If the arrival time of P-wave and S-wave tp,i und ts,i can be determined, then the source time t0 and the hypocenter distance Di to the station can also by determined. vp = Di tp,i − t0 and vs = Di ts,i − t0 (4) Equations in (4) result in the relation between runtime difference ts,i − tp,i and source time. vp − 1 (tp,i − t0 ) (5) ts,i − tp,i = vs From equations (4) and (5) the source time can be determined by t0 = tp,i − ts,i − tp,i vp −1 vs (6) and the hypocenter distance Di to the station i by Di = vp (tp,i − t0 ). (7) In general P-onsets are allocable more exactly than S-onsets from the seismograms. For this reason most locating algorithms use P-onsets preferential. The theoretical onset time result from geometric considerations as follows. p (xi − x0 )2 + (yi − y0 )2 + (zi − z0 )2 Di = (8) ttheo. = v v Page 7 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 Thereby is v the propagation velocity of the P-wave or the S-wave. The measured runtime tmeas. = ti − t0 (9) differs in normally from the theoretical value ttheo. . Hence is the difference ∆t = tmeas. − ttheo. 6= 0, (10) because the propagation velocity distribution is not homogeneous in the ground and the onsets are not exactly allocable. Using equations (8) and (9) in equation (10) results in the Geiger-equation (named by the swiss geophysicist Ludwig Carl Geiger). p (xi − x0 )2 + (yi − y0 )2 + (zi − z0 )2 (11) ∆t = ti − t0 − v For solving the equation system the least square method is used, that means it becomes a minimization problem (Künzel 2013). #2 " p N (xi − x0 )2 + (yi − y0 )2 + (zi − z0 )2 1 X ⇒ M in (12) ti − t0 − N i=1 v This minimization problem is solved by giving a start value and find the minimum iteratively (Schulte-Theis 1995). Equation (11) contains four unknowns (x0 , y0 , z0 und t0 ). For this reason at least four onsets of P- and S-waves from at least three stations are necessary for localization. Figure 6 shows the overlap of three hemispheres with the radius Di . Fig. 6: Localization of an earthquake with three stations (source: http://www.geophysik.uni-muenchen.de/) Page 8 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! 2.2.2 Updated: August 16, 2014 Relative localization A relative localization can be used to improve the distribution resolution from nearby events. In the process a relocation with the results of the absolute localization is performed. Thereby the runtime of different earthquakes is compared to get more accurate results. For the relative localization an absolute reference point is necessary. For the Master-Event-Technique a well localized earthquake or a performed blast is used for that. For the Joint Hypocenter Determination (JHD) the focal point of all hypocenters is used instead. Both methods can be combined with a waveform correlation (Waldhauser). The relative localization error can be reduced significantly with this methods (see Fig. 7). Fig. 7: Comparison of localization accuracy of absolute (left) and relative localization (right) (source: Fischer and Horálek 2000) 2.3 Magnitudes and intensities Magnitudes are normally related to maximum amplitudes of the seismograms and therefore they are related to the released energy of an earthquake. A well known magnitude is the local magnitude ML also called Richter-magnitude. Charles Richter (1900 1985) realized the correlation between measured amplitude A and the epicenter distance ∆ and found the following relation. A(∆) = constant A0 (∆) (13) A0 denotes the amplitude of a reference earthquake. In doing so the reference earthquake in a distance of ∆ = 100 km and a amplitude of A0 = 1 mm in California is defined by Richter as magnitude ML = 3. The local magnitude is given by equation (13). ML = log A(∆) − log A0 (∆) (14) Equation (14) is valid for epicenter distances ∆ < 600 km only. The local magnitude has an upper limit of ML = 6.5 which is caused by measurement devices. Larger magnitudes are determined by moment magnitudes. Page 9 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 The moment magnitude Mw is based on the concept of the seismic moment M0 and is calculated as follows. Mw = 2 (log M0 − 9.1) 3 (for M0 in Joule) (15) The seismic moment is a measure for the strength of the earthquake and is composed of rocks shear modulus G, the rupture area F and the displacement u along F . M0 = GF u (scalar) (16) To determine the surface wave magnitude Ms the peak ground velocity (A/T )max is used. Ms = log (A/T )max + 1.66 log ∆ + 3.3 (17) The Moscow-Prague-equation (17) is valid for epicentral distances between 2° and 160° and hypocenter depths up to 50 km. The surface wave magnitude scale is limited at Ms = 8.5. For the body wave magnitude Mb (also mb or mB ) the peak ground velocity (A/T )max of P- and S-waves is used. (18) Mb = log (A/T )max + Q(∆, h) Where Q is the correcting term which depends on epicentre distance, depth h and the used instrument. The body wave magnitude scale is valid up to Mb = 6.5. Table 3 gives an overview about the Richter scale (respectively other scales at M > 6.5) including the released energies and the frequency of occurrence per year. Magnitude Description 0,1 - 1,9 2,0 - 2,9 3,0 - 3,9 4,0 - 4,9 5,0 - 5,9 6,0 - 6,9 7,0 - 7,9 8,0 - 8,9 9,0 - 9,9 10,0 - ∞ Micro Minor Minor Light Moderate Strong Very strong Disastrous Catastrophic Ruinous Released energy 0,006 to 1 t 1 to 32 t 32 to 1.000 t 1 to 32 kt 32 to 1.000 kt 1 to 50 Mt 50 to 1.000 Mt 1 to 5,6 Gt 5,6 to 1.000 Gt > 1.000 Gt 0,002 to 4,2 GJ 4,2 to 135 GJ 135 to 4.200 GJ 4,2 to 135 TJ 135 to 4.200 TJ 4,2 to 210 PJ 210 to 4.200 PJ 4,2 to 23,5 EJ 23,5 to 4.200 EJ > 4.200 EJ Occurrence > 2.500.000 350.000 49.000 6.200 800 120 18 1 0,05 0,01 Table 3: Magnitude scale with description, released energy (TNT-equivalent in [t] and in [J]) and the average frequency of occurrence per year Page 10 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 Fig. 8: Comparison of moment magnitude with other magnitudes (source: Studer and Koller 1997) The intensity is a measure for the strength of an earthquake. It describes the observed effects of an earthquake without measurement devices (Studer and Koller 1997). These effects are damages at buildings and human feelings (macro seismics). In contrast to a magnitude multiple intensity values exist for one earthquake depending on the epicentral distance. There are different scales of intensity. Most of them are divided in twelve steps an usually numbered by roman digits. The most common scales are the European Macroseismic Scale (EMS-98), the Modified Mercalli Scale (MMS) and the Rossi-Forel-Scale. Figure 9 shows the EMS-98 in short form. Page 11 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 Fig. 9: Short form of EMS-98 2.4 Seismotectonics Seismotectonics describes the earthquake origin with focus on movements and deformations of the earth’s crust. The american geophysicist Harry Fielding Reid (1859 1944) developed the elastic rebound theory that implies that stresses in the earth’s crust are discharging jerkily in form of earthquakes along preexisting faults. The conceptional model is a shear fracture like shown in Fig. 10. With the growing stress the strength of the rock is exceeded at a certain point and it comes to a fracture along the shear surface. A black dot (see Fig. 11) tags the hypocenter of the earthquake. The movement of the rupture front around the hypocenter is pointed by the time steps t1 and t2 . The displacement field is indicated by the small arrows. Page 12 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 initial state preexisting fault stress is growing rupture Fig. 10: Elastic rebound theory Hypocenter t2 Rupture area t0 t1 Displacement field Rupture front Fig. 11: Rupture area in a volume 2.5 2.5.1 Determination of source parameters Fault plane solution P-wave polarities of the vertical component (z) are picked from seismometer recordings. This happens already during picking the onsets. Imagine a hypothetic sphere around the earthquake focus (s. Fig. 12). The pentration points of ray paths to the stations are marked on the spheres surface. A peak upwards means a compressive onset and is denoted by C. In contrast a movement downwards is a dilatative onset and is denoted by D. The penetration points are marked by C or D respectively their onset (s. Fig. 13 left). In doing so quadrants with same polarities develop, which are seperated by big circular curves (s. Fig. 13, middle). After convention of Aki & Richards compressive onsets are colored in black or any other (dark) color and dilatative onsets in white or any other (light) color (Fig. 13 right). If many points are located in the transition zones of C to D, both areas can be exactly Page 13 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 dilatative onsets compressive onsets Epicenter 2 1 North 4 3 East Station Depth Pentration point Ray paths Hypocenter Fig. 12: Earthquake focus with hypothetic sphere and penetration points of the ray paths (red: compressive, black: dilatative) to the stations seperated and a very accurate faul plane solution can be achieved. That is why many station recordings are needed for this method. C C C D D C C C C D D C D (a) mark onsets (b) plot circles (c) color quadrants Fig. 13: Evolution of a fault plane solution by the onset method With this method good results can just be obtained, when a sufficient amount of polarities are available and when they are well distributed over the sphere surface. This means that this method can be used for earthquakes with big magnitudes. To determine fault plane solutions of smaller earthquakes with less polarities, additional informations like amplitude ratios are neccessary. Page 14 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 A fault plane solution is usually illustrated by a azimuthal equal-area projection (also called Lambert azimuthal projection or Schmidt net) of the lower hemisphere. Fig. 14: Different fault types with corrensponding fault plane solutions (source: Berckhemer 1990) 2.5.2 Seismic moment, corner frequency and secondary source parameters log(amplitude) From the amplitude spectrum of P- and S-wave the long-period amplitude level A0 and the corner frequency f0 can be determined (s. Fig. 15). A0 log(f requency) f0 Fig. 15: P-wave amplitude spectrum of an earthquake (source: Chair for rock mechanics, TU Bergakademie Freiberg) The seismic moment M0 is (like magnitude) a measure for the strength of the source Page 15 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 process. From amplitude level the seismic moment is derived as follows. M0 = 4πρDi vp3 A0 /Φ (19) Φ represents the directivity factor from directional characteristic1 of the earthquake. The hypocentral distance to station i is denoted by Di . The corner frequency f0 characterizes the dimension of the seismic source. Assuming a circular source plane the source radius R is calculated from corner frequency after Madariaga 1976. R= 2vp (2πf0 )2 (20) For the calculation of displacement D with shear modulus µ it applies: D= M0 µπR2 (21) f0 , R, M0 und Mw are closely linked. Figure 16 demonstrates these correlations graphically with the help of some global earthquakes. The difference between source stress σ0 before and source stress σ1 after the earth- Fig. 16: Correlations between corner frequency, source radius, moment and magnitude of induced earthquakes (source: G.Kwiatek from presentation FKPE-Workshop 2010) 1 In case of a shear failure Φ can be obtained from fault plane solution. Page 16 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 quake is called stress drop. ∆σ = σ0 − σ1 (22) Assuming a circular source plane stress drop can be derived from displacement and source radius. 7 πµD · (23) ∆σ = 16 R Stress drop is closely linked with the seismic moment Mij . The seismic moment (tensor) is obtained by volume integration over moment tensor volume density mij . ZZZ mij dV (24) Mij = V The moment tensor volume density is a fictitious stress tensor, which is derived from the product of inelastic deformation tensor Eijkl and the inelastic deformations εTij . mkl = Eijkl · εTij (25) σij mij ∆σij εTij εij Fig. 17: Visualization of seismic moment und stress drop Page 17 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! 2.6 Updated: August 16, 2014 Sensors for seismic waves We distinguish between deformation sensors, velocity-proportional sensors and acceleration sensors. In seismology mainly geophones and seismometer (technical advancement of seismograph) are established. These sensors convert mechanical vibrations acting at measuring point into a velocity-proportional electrical voltage. The voltage signal is amplified and digitized afterwards. An inertia seismometer consists of a mass M , that is connected in parallel with a spring and a damper (s. Fig. 18). Assuming that all movements are restricted in zz(t) direction, then u(t) is the movement of the earth and z(t) is the relative movement of the mass M . In idle state the spring has a length of z0 . Two z0 M forces are acting on mass M in this system. The spring bears a force proportional to deflection z − z0 . With the stiffness of the spring k the force z is obtained by −k(z − z0 ). The damper bears a force proportional to its relative velocity ż(t) beEarth tween mass and earth. With damping constant C Fig. 18: Inertia seismometer damping force is defined as −C ż(t). With accelerations ü(t) and z̈(t) following relationship is given. M (z̈(t) + ü(t)) = −C ż(t) − k(z(t) − z0 ) (26) By setting z0 = 0 the equation becomes z̈ + 2hω0 ż + ω02 z = −ü, (27) where 2hω0 = C/M and ω02 = k/M . Hence, acceleration ü can be described from a linear combination of z(t) and its time derivations. Seismographs are no longer used today. They were used before digital age and recorded soil movement by a needle on paper strips (s. Fig. 19 left). Geophones (s. Fig. 19 middle) work the same way as inertia seismometers. They are used in seismic exploration, to gather informations about the ground. There, usually artificial sources are used (hammer stroke, drop weight, vibratory plate or blast) to create seismic waves. In modern seismometers (s. Fig. 19 right) a magnet induces a voltage in a surrounding inductor. The measured voltage is amplified, digitized and either saved on site (offline station) or sent via internet conection to a data-collection center (online station). Page 18 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 Fig. 19: Different seismic sensors: seismograph (left), geophone (middle) and inner life of a seismometer (right) Both geophones and seismometers are available as 1-component variant (just vertical) and 3-component variant (1 vertical and 2 horizontal). They differ furthermore in their frequency sensitivity. For long-range seismic applications low-frequency sensors (0.01 - 10 Hz) and for microseismic applications high-frequency sensors (1 - 200 Hz) come to use. 2.7 Station networks A requirement for a good source parameter determination is a good azimuthal coverage with stations around the epicenter region. In the ideal case stations are distributed with equal distance on a circle around the epicenter. For local earthquakes with magnitudes < 4 distances of several 100 meters to several kilometers are favorable. In this case the sensors should be desinged to record higher frequencies (seismometers with 1sor 5s-pendular). For global events it is better to choose stations with higher distances. Here broadband seismometers (with 20s- or 100s-pendular) are favored. Page 19 of 35 Fig. 20: Distribution of seismological stations in central Germany and Czech Republic (source: Jakob 2009) Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 Page 20 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! 3 Updated: August 16, 2014 Engineering seismology Engineering seismology is understood as a branch of seismology, that provides required physical data about potentially destructive ground movements of earthquakes to the engineer who is responsible for earthquake-resistant constructions. In contrast earthquake engineering is an engineering discipline, that deals with design and construction of earthquake-resistant structures and thereto uses seismological output parameters provided by engineering seismology (Hurtig 1984). 3.1 Engineering seismological parameters Every building represents a vibratory system, that responds different depending on its resonance on dynamic load caused by waves with corresponding frequencies. To translate the effect of an earthquake into engineering technically feasible parameter, spectral composition and polarization of seismic wave must be considered (Hurtig 1984). Sensors (s. section 2.6) can detect engineering seismological parameters ground acceleration a, ground velocity v and ground displacement s. But regardless of which physical parameters are recorded by the sensor, representation of adequate information of ground motion as acceleration, velocity or displacement is also possible, because it is: Z ZZ d2 s dv = 2 (28) s = v dt = a dt2 resp. a = dt dt Figure 21 shows values for a, as well as calculated values for v and s for a typical earthquake. Fig. 21: Acceleration recording of an earthquake plus calculated velocities and displacements (source: Chair for rock mechanics, TU Bergakademie Freiberg) Respective maximum values are denoted by amax = P GA (Peak Ground Acceleration), vmax = P GV (Peak Ground Velocity) and smax = P GD (Peak Ground Displacement). Additional dynamic stresses can be determined from velocities. p σdyn = ρ · vp · vc and s σdyn = ρ · vs · vt There vc and vt are velocities in compression and translation (shearing). Page 21 of 35 (29) Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 When a seismic wave propagates through the earth, its frequency and amplitude changes (s. section 2.1). Figure 22 shows averaged response spectra2 for an earthquake with 8 and 32 km source distance. Fig. 22: Response spectra of horizontal accelerations of an earthquake with magnitude 6,5 in 8 (left) and 32 km (right) source distance (after Seed et al. 1974, source: Hurtig 1984) The curves in figure 22 show, that big amplitudes with higher frequencies (T = 1/f < 0, 5 s) occur in small distance (8 km). With increasing source distance the influence of damping becomes apparent. At soft underground damping effect is compensated due to soil reinforcement within certain period range, so that a relative delay of amplitudes is observed compared to amplitudes on rocky underground. In a period range of 0,5 to 1,5 s and source distance 32 km it becomes apparent, that amplitudes are higher at soft underground (Hurtig 1984). 3.2 Estimation of maximal magnitude For every region a maximal magnitude Mmax and intensity Imax exists. Their determination is of extremely importance for assessment of earthquake hazard. However there are only few reliable approximate approaches (Hurtig 1984). Two of them will be presented in the following sections. 3.2.1 Determination from magnitude-frequency relation The Gutenberg-Richter law describes the relation between magnitude and frequency of earthquakes in an area. log10 N = a − bM (30) There N is the number of earthquakes, that have a magnitude of ≥ M . a and b are constants, whereupon b generally3 is near 1. Figure 23 shows the Gutenberg-Richter relation for micro-earthquakes in the area Aue-Schneeberg (Germany). In the space of time from 1998 to 2013 approx. 1650 events were registered in this area. Smaller events are harder to detect by seismic sensors, because their amplitudes are near noise level. For this reason the maximum number of events is at a magnitude of 2 Response spectrum is achieved by fourier transformation of time series (e.g. accelerations) in frequency domain. 3 The b-value describes the ratio of small to big earthquakes. For example if many small and few big earthquakes occur, b-value is > 1. Page 22 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 Fig. 23: Gutenberg-Richter relation for the area Aue-Schneeberg (source: Chair for rock mechanics, TU Bergakademie Freiberg) −1, 5 (see Fig. 23). At highest magnitudes the relation usually bends down because space of time for observation is too small for statistical analysis of big earthquakes. By installing a straight line at the linear part of the relation (red line in Fig. 23) maximal magnitude can be estimated (here: Mmax ≈ 2, 5). Hurtig 1984 proposes for estimation of Mmax and Imax : Mmax = Mmax,beobachtet + 0, 5 resp. Imax = Imax,beobachtet + 1 3.2.2 (31) Determination from Benioff curve With Benioff curve is understood to the representation of cumulative release of energy within an area with time t (Hurtig 1984). Xp Ei = f (t) (32) There Ei is the release of energy for a single earthquake. Figure 24 shows the Benioff curve of eastern Germany since year 1500. The curve shows clearly periods of weak and strong activity (Grünthal 1981). From this curve some conclusions can be derived: Assuming that total activity of the region of interest is limited by an upper and a lower strain state (dashed lines in Fig. 24), a possible maximal earthquake can be defined as abrupt release of energy from lowest to highest peak state. This would give a maximal magnitude of 5,7 for the investigated territory (Grünthal 1981). 3.3 Estimation of peak ground velocities From the empirical relation P GV0 = k1 · Mmax + k2 (33) hypocenter peak ground velocity P GV0 can be estimated. k1 and k2 are empirical coefficients, that have to be determined from a given data set for the respective investigation Page 23 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 Fig. 24: Benioff curve for the territory of the GDR since 1500 with energy E in Joule (source: Grünthal 1981) area. Peak ground velocity P GV (x) changes with distance x according to the following relationship. P GV (x) = P GV0 · e−αt x (34) Here αt is a theoretical damping parameter that contains energy dissipation from diffusion and damping. αt is obtained by the seismic quality factor Q, that depends on frequency f and phase velocity c of the seismic wave. Q= πf αt c (35) Near the source geometrical spreading dominates. This can be considered in equation (34) by multiplication by factor 1/x. Figure 25 shows the decrease of peak ground velocities with distance x at different magnitudes for the region Aue-Schneeberg. 3.4 Legal standards In the construction of buildings in seismic areas special regulations apply. The aim is to save human life, to limit damage and to ensure, that important constructions for public safety and infrastructure stay operable in the case of an earthquake. Following standards are specified from legislator: The european standard Eurocode 8 (EN 1998) “Design of structures for earthquake resistance” applies for design and construction of buildings and structures in seismic Page 24 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 Fig. 25: Peak ground velocities at different magnitudes (source: Chair for rock mechanics, TU Bergakademie Freiberg) areas. It contains ordinary as well as special constructions e.g. nuclear facilities, big dams or offshore-constructions. The DIN 4149 (2005-04) “Bauten in deutschen Erdbebengebieten” applies for conceptual and structural design and construction of usual buildings. Essentially the force F acting on a building or part of the building is calculated. Newton’s second law says, that the force F is given by multiplication of mass m (here: building mass) and the acting acceleration a (here: rated ground acceleration ag ). Different factors affect applied force F . Hence the law is extended by a function f to consider these factors. F = m · ag · f (f actors) (36) Seismic areas in Germany affected by DIN 4149 are classified in earthquake zones 1 to 3 (s. Fig. 26). Seismic risk outside of zones 1 to 3 is regarded as so low, that the standard does not have to be applied there. In DIN 4149 it applies the rated ground acceleration ag as zone specific parameter. earthquake zone 1 2 3 intensity range 6, 5 ≤ I < 7 7 ≤ I < 7, 5 7, 5 ≤ I ag in m/s2 0,4 0,6 0,8 Table 4: Rated ground acceleration relating to earthquake zones and intensity range Page 25 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 Fig. 26: Maps: Earthquake intensity (left) and earthquake zones (right) in Germany (source: Grünthal 2004 and DIN 4149) F actors are: • Regularity of the construction ⇒ behavior factor • Geological bedrock ⇒ control periods of response spectrum and bedrock parameters • Importance of the construction ⇒ importance factor • Construction damping ⇒ damping correction factor • Correction factor for multi-story buildings A method for determination and assessment of impact on buildings caused by vibrations is defined in DIN 4150-3 (1999-02) “Erschütterungen im Bauwesen”. The assessment is based on guide values for velocities of short-time and long-lasting vibrations (s. Table 5 and 6). Page 26 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Type of building Updated: August 16, 2014 Guide values for velocities vi in mm/s Base frequencies 1 Hz to 10 Hz 10 Hz to 50 Hz 50 Hz to 100 Hz Commercially used buildings, industrial and similar structured buildings 20 20 to 40 40 to 50 Residential buildings and in construction and/or use similar buildings 5 5 to 15 15 to 20 3 3 to 8 8 to 10 Buildings with special shock sensitivity that do not match with the above ones and especially worth preserving Table 5: Guide values for velocities for assessment of impact of short-time vibrations on buildings (source: DIN 4150-3) Type of building Guide values for velocities vi in mm/s Uppest ceiling, horizontal, all frequenzies Commercially used buildings, industrial and similar structured buildings 10 Residential buildings and in construction and/or use similar buildings 5 Buildings with special shock sensitivity that do not match with the above ones and especially worth preserving 2,5 Table 6: Guide values for velocities for assessment of impact of long-lasting vibrations on buildings (source: DIN 4150-3) The estimation of peak ground velocities is described in section 3.3. The recieved values for P GV are compared with the guide values. Page 27 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! 4 Updated: August 16, 2014 Induced seismicity Engineering activity of humans can strongly influence the stress state near the surface, so that earthquake-like events called induced seismicity were generated. Even in mainly aseismic areas strong earthquakes can be caused in this way (Hurtig 1984). 4.1 Surface dam induced seismicity Earthquakes are denoted by dam induced, when significant space and time relationships with dam parameters and storage regime are observable. The occurance of seismic events at construction and operation of surface dams may constitute a serious danger for the dam itself and also for residential areas downriver of the dam. Generally seismicity increases at filling the dam, but there are also references on decreasing seismicity especially in seismic active areas (Hurtig 1984). The maximal observed magnitude of a dam induced event was approx. 6,3 at 10. December 1967 in India (Koyna dam). Because of this event around 200 humans lost their life, over 1500 were hurt and thousands got homeless. The dam got damaged, but resists. Significant dam induced changes in seismicity were detected at over seventy sites worldwide. Among all the factors storage regime most likely correlates with the observed induced seismicity (Gupta 1992). It suggests itself, that dam induced events occur just in areas, where the earths crust is heterogenous near the surface and under significant latent tectonic stress state. Fault plane solutions obtained so far show nearly exclusively either normal slip or horizontal displacements. It is noteworthy, that movement process and fracture direction, which were obtained by fault plane solutions, correlates with the tectonic deformation regime and the orientation of main stress axes. Thus the mechanism of induced seismic events can be explained with given tectonic frame (Hurtig 1984). According to Hurtig 1984 there are two interpretation models for explanation of dam induced seismicity. The load model sees additional stresses, that were generated by load of the accumulated water interfering with the present tectonic stress, as cause of the events. Thus stress increase can reach (at water filling of 100 m) maximal 10 bar. The pore fluid model assumes a reduction of effective stresses by presence of a pore filling medium. The effect of an increased pore pressure expresses itself in a displacement of MOHRs circle at constant radius to the left (s. Fig. 27). While reaching the limit stress curve MOHRs failure criterion can be achieved. Simulatously water infiltration can also lead to a decrease of the inner friction coefficient (Hurtig 1984). 4.2 Mining induced seismicity In numberous mining areas in the world seismic events are detected, whose occurance is related to underground mining. Especially often mining induced seismic events are observed in coal mining. Strong seismic activity is also known from ore and salt mining areas (Hurtig 1984). Because of the variety of complex relationships (geomechanical causes, prerequisits and promotive factors) a typification mining induced events is still not clearly possible. Page 28 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 Fig. 27: Influence of load (a) and changes in pore pressure (P) on stress field (according to Simpson 1976, source: Hurtig 1984) Hurtig 1984 speaks therefore in general of “seismic events in mining areas” and divides into these three types: indirect Earthquakes in mining areas1 cause damage at constructions on and below the surface or trigger seismic events in the extraction area. Type I The local mining induced stress field triggers seismic events in the extraction area. This type corrensponds largely hitherto existing conception of rock bursts. Hurtig 1984 denotes this type as extraction induced seismicity. Type II Underground cavities causes long-range stress rearrangement in a long-term, that can cause earthquakes. Hurtig 1984 denotes this type as digging indued seismicity. Thereby the events are in no relationship with the current extraction operation. However above typification contains just the failure of mine workings. Further events, covered by the term mining induced seismicity, are: • Seismicity in opencasts (mass rearrangements with and without soil liquefaction) • Events triggered by drilling (specifically at natural gas/raw oil extraction) 1 Mostly a natural earthquake is assumed as cause. But it usually can not be excluded, that these earthquakes were triggerd itself by mining activities! Page 29 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 • Injection induced seismicity (geothermal energy, fracking, s. section 4.3) • Fluid extraction induced seismicity (geothermal energy, natural gas/raw oil) • Blast induced seismicity • Events triggered by influx (dissolution in salt or karst) In Germany the strongest events occured in salt mining (see table 7). Year Date Month Day 1888 1936 1940 1943 1953 1958 1961 1971 1975 1981 1989 1991 1996 2003 3 11 5 3 2 7 6 4 6 7 3 5 9 1 18 3 24 5 22 8 29 4 23 13 13 16 11 6 Localization ML I0 Ruhrgebiet NW Ruhrgebiet NW Krügershall, Saale-Revier Schierstedt, Nord-Harz Heringen, Werra-Revier Merkers, Werra-Revier Merkers, Werra-Revier Aschersleben, Nord-Harz Sünna, Werra-Revier Ibbenbüren Völkershausen, Werra-Revier Ibbenbüren Teuschenthal, Saale-Revier Ibbenbüren 3,6 3,9 4,9 3,9 5 4,7 3,6 3,9 5,2 4,1 5,6 4,3 4,9 4,2 VI V I − V II V II V I − V II V II − V III V II VI V I − V II V III VI V III − IX VI V II VI Table 7: Induced seismic events in german mining areas with ML > 4, 0 or I > 6 (source: Grünthal and Minkley 2005) 4.3 Injection induced seismicity By grout injecting of liquids in deep boreholes earthquakes are induced. At hydraulic fracturing this is even desired, because you want to generate cracks in the rock to create or extend flow paths. In particular this procedure is used at extraction of raw oil and natural gas as well as at hydraulic salt production and in deep geothermal systems. Thereby pre-existing fault zones can be reactivated (s. Fig. 28) or unfractured rock will be stimulated by crack formation (Hot-Dry-Rock-Method). Similar to surface dam induced events (s. section 4.1) the increasing pore pressure reduces the effective stress. The effect expresses itself in a displacement of MOHRs circle at constant radius to the left (s. Fig. 27). Some examples of injection induced events in europe are shown in the following table. Interestingly no relationship between maximal magnitude and peak ground acceleration (PGA) results from the table. Page 30 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 Fig. 28: Schematic illustration of a reactivated fault zone at fracking (source: Dusseault et al. 2001) Location/Country Depth [km] Rock PGA [% g] Date Type pmax w [MPa] Vinj. [m3 ] max ML Soultz/FR Soultz/FR Bad Urach/DE KTB/DE Landau/DE Hellisheidi/IS Monte Amiata/IT Basel/CH 3.5 5.0 4.3 9.0 3.0 2.5 3.0 5.0 Granite Granite Gneiss Gneiss complex Basalt Metam. Granite 8 8 9 6 8 49 19 15 1993 2003 2002 1994 2007 2003 1969 2006 Stimulation Stimulation Stimulation Inject. test Circulation Drill&Stim. Circulation Stimulation 10 18 34 55 6.0 1.7 20 · 103 37 · 103 5.6 · 103 200 Balanced 30 12 · 103 1.9 2.9 1.8 1.2 2.7 2.4 3.5 3.4 Unterhaching/DE Larderello/IT Latera/IT Torre Alfina/IT Cesano/IT 3.6/3.35 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 Carb. Carb. Carb. Carb. Carb. 5 16 19 20 14 2007 1977 1984 1977 1978 Circulation Circulation Injection Injection Injection 2.5 Balanced 1.2 7.5 Balanced 4.2 · 103 2 · 103 2.4 3.0 2.9 3.0 2.0 Table 8: Selected events of injection induced seismicity with maximal magnitudes (source: Evans et al. 2012) Based on the example Basel the processes during a stimulation should be explained in more detail. The Basel1 borehole was put down between may and october 2006 to a depth of 5 km. In this depth granitic rocks of this region reach a temperature of 200°C, which makes a geothermal use economical interesting. The stimulation (Fracking), performed in December 2006, induced a notable seismic activity. In consequence the project had to be aborted and a complete seismic risc analysis took place (Delacou and Sartori 2009). As part of the stimulation 11500 m3 water were injected under high pressures. The injection rate reaches temporary 3300 l/min, which lead to a maximum wellhead pressure of nearly 300 bar (s. Fig. 29). A network of seismometers installed around the borehole detected 10500 seismic events during the stimulation. The seismic activity reached its maximum as expected at maximal injection rate. Although the pressure after closing the bore hole (shut-in) already dropped sharply, the biggest detected event reached a magnitude ML = 3.4 and intensities of IV to V (EMS-98). Further three aftershocks Page 31 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 with ML > 3 occured in january and february 2007 (Delacou and Sartori 2009). Fig. 29: Injection rate, injection phases, wellhead pressure and quake number during Basel1 stimulation (source: Delacou and Sartori 2009) Page 32 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! 5 Updated: August 16, 2014 Blast vibrations Blasts are used in many geotechnical applications like • in hard rock open-cast mining (basalt, granite, diabase etc.), • in underground mining (coal, salt, ores etc.), • at traffic route engineering, • at tunnel construction and • in seismic exploration methods. During detonation explosion gases are generated. Due to the high explosion pressure the gas is compressed and increases the gas pressure. The pressure change is approximately K p1 V2 . (37) ∆p = = p2 V1 Thereby K is the gas rigidity factor and is usually around K ≈ 3. The detonation velocity vdet can be estimated as follows. p vdet = 2(K 2 − 1)U · g (38) g denotes the gravity acceleration and U the specific explosion energy. The detonation velocity reaches several km/s depending on the blasting force. The detonation pressure pdet can be assessed with the explosive density ρ as follows. pdet = 2(K − 1)ρ · U · g (39) The order of pdet lies in the range of GPa. At squibbing (here ejecting masses) the cavity radius R can be estimated empirical with the explosive charge quantity q (in kg). m √ 3 RK = 0, 1 · · · 0, 4 · q · √ (40) 3 kg The size of the corresponding pressure destruction zone is nearly RD ≈ 2RK and the size of the fractured zone RR ≈ 4RK . The fracture patterns for homogeneous full and half space are illustrated in figure 30. Page 33 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 Fig. 30: Fracture patterns for homogeneous full and half space (source: Jendersie et al. 1981) 1. bore hole 2. pressure destruction 3. radial cracks 4. extention of radial cracks and (at half space:) tangential cracks from decompression wave 5. tangential cracks from reflected tension wave 6. radial cracks near surface from compression and tension waves Page 34 of 35 Dynamic events in hard rocks Only for private and internal use! Updated: August 16, 2014 References Berckhemer, Hans (1990). Grundlagen der Geophysik. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgessellschaft, 201 S. ISBN: 3-534-03974-2. Delacou, Bastien and Mario Sartori (Nov. 2009). AP2000 Report - Structural model of potential seismogenic faults. Bureau d’Etudes Géologiques SA. Dusseault, Maurice B., Michael S. Bruno, and John Barrera (2001). “Casing Shear: Causes, Cases, Cures”. In: SPE Drilling & Completion 16.2, pp. 98–107. Evans, Keith F., Alba Zappone, Toni Kraft, Nicolas Deichmann, and Fabio Moia (2012). “A survey of the induced seismic responses to fluid injection in geothermal and CO2 reservoirs in Europe”. In: Geothermics 41, pp. 30–54. Fischer, T. and J. Horálek (2000). “Refined locations of the swarm earthquakes in the Novy Kostel focal zone and spatial distribution of the January 1997 swarm in Western Bohemia, Czech Republic”. In: Studia Geophysica et Geodætica 44.2, pp. 210–226. Grünthal, G. (1981). “Zur Seismizität des Territoriums der DDR”. In: Gerlands Beiträge zur Geophysik 90.3, pp. 202–212. — (2004). “Erdbeben und Erdbebengefährdung in Deutschland sowie im europäischen Kontext”. In: Geographie und Schule 151, pp. 14–23. Grünthal, G. and W. Minkley (2005). “Bergbauinduzierte seismische Aktivitäten als Quelle seismischer Belastungen - Zur Notwendigkeit der Ergänzung der Karte der Erdbebenzonen der DIN 4149:2005-04”. In: Bautechnik 82.8, pp. 508–513. Gupta, Harsh K. (1992). Reservoir-Induced Earthquakes. Elsevier. Hurtig, Eckart (1984). Erdbeben und Erdbebengefährdung. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 328 S. Jakob, Christian (2009). Herdparameterbestimmung von Erdbeben zur seismotektonischen Analyse in der Schwarmbebenregion Vogtland/NW-Böhmen. Diplomarbeit. TU Bergakademie Freiberg. Jendersie, Hans, Dietmar Hartz, and Rainer Dietze, eds. (1981). Sprengtechnik im Bergbau. Leipzig: Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie, 232 S. Künzel, Ulrich (2013). Seismizität im Umfeld der Uranerzlagerstätte Schlema-Alberoda und modifizierte Auswertemethoden für eine präzise Lage- und Stärkeermittlung der im Nahfeld instrumentell registrierten Mikrobeben. Ed. by Heinz Konietzky. Freiberg: Institut für Geotechnik der TU Bergakademie Freiberg. Madariaga, Raul (1976). “Dynamics of an expanding circular fault”. In: Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 66.3, pp. 639–666. Schulte-Theis, H. (1995). Automatische Lokalisierung und Clusteranalyse regionaler Erdbeben. Dissertation. Ruhr-Universität Bochum. Seed, H. B., C. Ugas, and J. Lysmer (Dec. 1974). Site-dependent spectra for earthquake-resistant design. Tech. rep. EERC-Rep. Simpson, D. W. (1976). “Seismicity changes associated with reservoir loading”. In: Engineering Geology 10, pp. 123–150. Studer, Jost A. and Martin G. Koller (1997). “Geotechnisches Erdbebeningenieurwesen”. German. In: Bodendynamik. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 224–322. ISBN: 978-3-662-06124-4. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-662-06123-7_7. URL: http://dx.doi. org/10.1007/978-3-662-06123-7_7. Waldhauser, Felix. hypoDD – A Program to Compute Double-Difference Hypocentre Locations. Manual. Page 35 of 35