Glacial regitne of the highest Tien Shan tnountain, Pobeda

J ournal rifClaciolol.y, Tal. 43, No. 145, 1997
Glacial regitne of the highest Tien Shan tnountain,
Pobeda-Khan Tengry tnassif
VL ADIMIR
B.
AIZEN,I EL E A
DAYID
D.
M.
AIZ EN, I JEFF DOZI ER,I JOH N
SEXTON,2* VICTOR
NI.
M ELAC K,i
N. N EST E ROy 3
Ifnstilulejor Cam/mlalional Earth Sjlstem Science and SchooL rif Environmental Science and J1anagemenl,
Un ivmilJI rifCalifornia, Santa Barbara, Califomia 93106, US.A .
2 Scolt PoLar Research Instilule, Cn iversity rifCam bridge, Cambridge CB2 fE R, England
:, Pacific Institute rif Oceanology, Far-Eastern B ranch rifthe Russian Academy rif Science, Radio 7, T'ladivostok, Russia
ABSTRACT. l\Iaj or processes co ntrolling the ex istence of a la rge sub-contin e nt a l
g lac ier system were identifi ed o n th e bas is of glac iologica l, meteo rol ogical and iso topic
a na lyses using ex p editiona ry a nd long-term data . Observations we re m ade on the so uthern Inylch ek glac ier located in the Po beda- Kha nTe ngry massif, th e la rgest sub-contin enla l g lacier system on the nOrLh,crn p eriphery of ce nt ral Asia. '\[ore th a n 1200 glac iers with
a tota l a rea of abo ut 4320 km 2 co mprise th e massif. l\lelt is for th e m ost part ca used by
radi ati on and is m os t illlensive during peri ods of a nti eyelonic wea th e r with f6hn devel opm ent. The prop o rtion of sola r ra di a tion input in rel a ti on to heat b a la nce is more th a n
90 % . Evapora ti o n a nd condensati o n a rc neglig ibl e during mos t times a nd co mpri se 7%
o f heat ex penditure. Acc umul a tio n was assoc iated w it h cold cyelo nic weath cr. Four icefo rm ation zones were identifi ed , th e uppcr bound a r y o f liquid run o fTi s a t 5200 m a nd the
rec r ys ta lli,z ati o n zo ne is a bove 59 00 m. Th e ca lcul a ted net g lac ie r m ass is negati\'C,
- 318 kg m 2 a I, a nd indicates the d eg radation of m od ern Pobeda Kh a nTengry glac iers.
INTRODUCTION
Our stud y co nce rns the present condition of co ntin enta l
g lac iers at mid-la titudes a nd th e e\'a lu ati on of sn ow a nd
g lacier resources. Although ce ntra l Asian glaciers ha ve received a good d ea l of attenti on (K o novalO\ , 1979; K;-enke,
1982; Academi a Sinica, 1986- 87; Ya ng Zh enni a ng, 1988; l\'la
H ong and oth er s, 1992), one o f th e la rges t, th e Pob eda
Kh an Tengr y g lacier system at th e northern peripher y of
central Asia, has not been well ex pl ored. Studi es o f g lacier
energy a nd m ass ba lance in remo te a lpine watersh ed s require deta il ed m o nito ring of the local clim ate. Sn ow acc umul ati on a nd its m eta morphi sm into firn a nd ice, sno\\'a nd ice-melt a nd run ofT are co ntroll ed by the mag nitude of
energy ava il abl e to dri\'e these pro cesses.
Thc first of o ur i n\'estiga ti ons o f remote high-m o unta in
wa tersheds at m id-l a titudes was co mpleted in the n o rthern
Ti en Sh an, th e north crn periph er y of th e ce ntra l A sian
mountain system , an a rea a fTected by western cycl o nic and
north ern anticyclonic ac ti vity (Ai zen and oth ers, 1995,
199G b). In 1990 92, we ca rri ed o ut investigations a t th e
so uth ern periphe r y o f th e ce ntral Asian mounta in system
in the Him a laya a nd so uth eas t Tibet, with monsoo n clim atic conditio ns (Ai zen a nd Ai ze n, 1994a, b). Thi s pa p er
summ ari zes inves ti gati ons orl oca l temporal a nd sp a ti a l va ria ti ons of th e m ass- energy co mpo nents in the inner subcontinenta l central Asian hi gh m ounta in s, cha rac teri zed
by a prec ipita tio n de fi cit at lo,,\' e leva ti ons and inc reasing
m oisture at high a ltitudes.
* D eceased.
Th e Pobeda (C hin ese name Tuomu er )-Kh an Teng ry
massif, composed o f m o re than 1200 g laciers with tota l a r ea
a bo ut 4320 km ~, is the la rgest sub-continenta l glac ier sys tem
at th e northern per iphe ry of central Asia (Fig. I). Th e PobedaKh a nl engry glac iers a rc the maj or so urce o f the main ri\'e rs
in those regions of inte rn al dra inage in central Asia. Th ese
a fTect th e great Ta ri m a nd Balkh as h hyd rographic syste m s,
wh ere 45- 50% of to tal runofT is cO nLributed by glaciers
(D olg ushin and O sipova, 1980; Xie a nd o th ers, 1982).
MEASUREMENTS AND DATA COLLECTION
In th e summers of 1989, 1990 and 1992, we conducted exp editio na r y observati o ns o n Inylchek g lac ier located a t th e
ce nter of Pobeda- Kh a n Tengry massif (Fig. 2). Inylchek
glacier cove rs all glacia l zones from 2900 to 7400 m a nd
has two maj or bra nch es stretching 60.5 km from east to wes t.
Th e a r ea oLthe glacier is 794 km 2
\ Ve carri ed out th e field measurements a nd observati o n s
at fo ur poillls: th e ac tive ablati on zon e (near the :Me rcbakhe r glacial outburst la ke) at 3400 m ; a t 4 150 m, close to
th e firn line; at 5200 m , th e upper level o f liquid runolT fo rmati o n; a nd at 6100 m in the acc umul a ti o n zone. \Ve used
sta nd a rd Russia n hydrometeo rologica l instruments a nd
fo ur a uto matic mini-me teorological sta ti o ns built by Gra nL
Instrum ents (Cambridge) Ltd, Engla nd (Ta ble I). The d a ta
loggers of the stati o ns l"('co rded hourl y m eas urements o f n e t
tota l radiation, total incoming radi a tion, refl ec ted ra diati o n, a tmos ph eric press ure, snow a nd ice tempera ture,
a nd di scharge from the a bl ati on pl ots. l\IIeas uremel1ls wer e
reco rded at t wo level s (0.5 a nd 2.0 m ) a bO\'C the surface [o r
503
J ournal rifGlaciology
Balkhash Lake
Na r i n R.
Issik Kill Lake
40"
45"
; ....-,
\
~ Pobtda - Khan T~ogry Massif
K 0
~,o
Khan Tengry peak 69~
Ta r i m R. ":;:-'
Takla Makan desert
~
Mercbakher L~
e ~ .
S h
~
a
.~.
T
"
J ~J
, ~.~
~~
. t7~
..~
~
~
fb RlRl ~~
r
~e:(n ~ ~
"-'Fb 4400m 5200nt?~~ \
W v V V ) Y {j 31..00 m;{)£4150 m.. ---v CjLr.r.
U,)v-"
crf!'
£
K I R G I ZST
10
Mt. 7439 m
0
;~,AIP~ ~-l?~O~~~:tN ~
v~
)
o
~ PObeda
~~u
~
20
30 km
)
,
P
~
\
C
H \ I
N
~\
A
Fig. 1. Pobeda-Khan Tengly glacier massif, central Tien Shan. Shading denotes gla ciers; flags are observation stations.
air tempel-ature, relative humidity and wind sp eed. \Vind
direction was recorded at 2.0 m. The glaciological observations incl uded measurem ents o[ ablation, acc umul ation
a nd snow- firn- ice stratig ra phy in pits and ice co res. Ablation was m eas ured on three slightly inclined 2 x 2 m ablation pl ots (Fig. 3) at 3500, 4150 a nd 5200 m . M ea surements
Table 1. Technical specification of meteorological equipment
x
Air tClll peraturc
A ir humidi\y
l ee tcmperature
Wi nd d ircction
Wi nd speed
R ain fa ll, discharge
Atmospheric
pressure
Solar radiation
Total rad iation
Fig. 2. Southern l nylchekglacier.
504
System
V H-G-ZI (R A D)
VH-G -ZI (RAD )
CS-U
W 200
AIOO
ARGI OO
PTBIOOA
SES
Pyrgeometer
Ba la nsomer
Range
Sj,slem accuracy
~O to + 70' C
0- 100 % rh
- 30 0 to + 70°C
< 0.3 to 75 m s 1
- 25° to +55°C
- 0. 15 to 75 m s 1
< 30° to +65°C
800- 1060mbar
0.4- C
±2% rh
0.4°C
> 10°
± O. I m s 1
0.2 m m
± 0.30 mbar
300- 1100 nm
300- 4000 nm
> 4000 nm
were made in the m orning and evening at 121 points located
w ithin 20 cm ce lls. Di scharge from these plots was m easured
using a current m e ter which a uto m a tica lly recorded th e
p assage of water. Sn ow-density m easurements were m ade
in a snow pit located nea r th e abla tion squares. The d ensity
of melting ice was ass umed to be 890 kg m- 3 (Shumski y,
1978). The discr epancy between m eas ured abl ati on a nd disch a rge averaged 5 mm.
Measurem ents of acc umul atio n were made in th e acc umul ation zone a t the beginning and end of summer, b ecause
m aximum precipita ti on occ urs during summer in thi
region. Depth o f snow cover was m easured fi ve times at
m ore th an 400 p o ints located 50 m from one a nother. At a
single point, the m eas urement error was on aver age a bout
5%. Snow density on the snow surveys was m eas ured by
electric balance.
We ana lyzed the tr itium concentrati on CH ) in atmospheric moisture a t 2 m above th e surface, in water [rolll
glacial cha nnel s in different glacia l zones (Ai zen a nd others,
1996a ) and in samples coll ected from snow and firn pits a nd
obta ined by hand drilling. The coll ecti on interval thro ugho ut the core vari ed from 5 to 30 cm d epending on the homo-
A izen and a/hers: Glacial regime of/h e highest Tien Shan mountain
SNOW liCE SURFACE
Line
Channels for melt water shed
Data Logger
/
Wire cells for ablation measurements
]
Discharge meter sensor
Fig. 3. Ablalion plo/Jar meaSllremell/s of ice- and sllowlI7elt.
ge neity of th e layers. The equilibrati on technique for the
prepa ra tion o f samplcs was a pplicd (Epstein a nd ~1 aye d a,
1953). Th e prec ision of th e sa mpl es data was 1- 10 TU.
Th e stati stical a na lysis a nd simul ation of prescnt a nd
p as t meteorol ogical conditi o ns in this regi o n we re based on
long-term d a ta from a m e tc orological sta tion located
150 km west of the glacier m assif. The stati o n o pe ra ted (I-om
1930 to 1990 (Kobishe\'a, 1990). \Vc a lso used precipit ation
d a ta coll ect ed from 1959 to 1972 a t sitcs loca tcd at a ltitudes
(i-om 2800 to 4200 m in the Tnylch ek gla cier basin . Topog raphi c m aps of thc centra l Ti e n Sha n regio n at I: 25 000
sca le a nd sy no ptic maps of s urface a nd 500 mba r were also
used.
METHODS OF CALCULATION OF HEAT AND
MASS BALANCE
The simplified therm a l ba la ncc equ ation m ay be stated as:
IlV
=
B
+ P t ± LE
laye r in a hom oge neo us nuid , d evel op ed by M o nin a nd
ObukhO\· (1954) a nd K aza nski y (1965).
cl > 0:
d
<
0 :
11(x) = f J(x)
fl(x)
=
X =
= 1 + 5:r
(1 - 16.r) I/2:
(2)
.
_ . 1/ 2
f "CI ) - (1 - 16x)
(z - do) / d
(3)
wh e re t ( C ) is th e a ir tcmpera ture, q (mbar) is a ir humidit y, v (m s I) is wind , d is th e dista nce fo und from non-linear
equa tions, do is s urface roughn ess, z is hcight of m ea surem e nt s abO\T th e surfacc. E\'apora tioll was a lso m ea sured
by repeated weig hing or decimete r c ubes of snoll' and Grn
using a n elec tric b a la nce with an acc uracy of 0.1g.
To ca lcul a te a n a nnu a l mass-ba la nce index (h i), Equ ati o n (4) was used. All components we re determin ed a t the
lo ng-term mea n a ltitudc of the equilibrium-line positi on
(H 0 .1. = 4476 m ) whi ch was ca lc u la ted using Kuro wski's
(1891) method. \ Vc ass ume this el evati o n is the level o f the
a ve rage charac te ri sti cs of" mass exc hange (Ahlm a nn , 1940;
Kre nke, 1982).
(4)
(1)
wh ere ~V is th c melt intensity at a point (kg m ~) ; I is th e
la tcnt heat o f ice fu sion (J kg \ B is th e to ta l ra di ation
ba la nce (J m 2), including th e short wave ra di a tion ba lance
(Q (l - A ) ) a nd longwa\'e ra diati o n ba lance; Q is thc incoming shortwavc radia ti o n; A is the surfacc a lbedo; Pt is
th e turbule nt-h eat nu x frol11 th e a tm osphere (J m 2); LE is
the la tent-h eat nu x due to evap o ra tion o r co ndensation
J m 2). U sin g hourl y g ra di e nt meas urements, turbulent
heat a nd humidit y flu xes we re calcul ated fro m fun c ti ons of
simil a rity computed using Equ a ti o n (2). All calcul ati ons
were ca n 'ied o ut using the th eo r y of th e surface b o unda r y
whe re P0 .1. is a nnu a l so lid precipita tio n (from O ctobe r to
S e ptember) a t th e a ltitude of th e equilibrium-line positi on,
vVc .1. is tota l g lac ie r melt, E e .1. is th e m ass of eva po ra ti o n o r
co ndensatio n and Jd is rcfi-ozen meltwa ter.
Th e tota l precipita ti on was calc ulated as
Pc"1.
=
Po + ,,((P )( H,, [ - Ho)
(5)
wh e re Pt, (Illm ) is mean prec ipita ti o n al thc Ti en Sh an
m e teo rologica l sta ti o n at Ho = 3614 m a. s.\. ; ,,((P ). (0.52 mm /
Ill ) is Illea n a ltitudinal gradicnt o f prec ipitati on calcu la ted
fr o m data at th c Tie n Sha n mcteo rolog ica l stati on (308 mm )
a nd long-t erm d a ta from precipita ti on sitcs a t 4200 m
(673 mill ).
505
Joumal qfGlaciology
CIRCULATION AND CLIMATIC PROCESSES
To estimate the total glacier melt, the air temperature at
the altitude of the equilibrium-line position was calcu lated as
Te.l = To -,(t)(Hcl - Ho)
Th e high ranges surrounding centra l Ti en Shan prevent the
entra nce of moisture; hence, winter precipitation is sma ll,
especiall y in J anuary and February, accounting for only 810 % of the total in this region (Kobisheva, 1990). In summer,
the level of condensation rises, which lead s to a precipitation
increase at high elevations. Development of convection and
strengthening of unstable at mospheric stratification result in
a summer maximum of precipitation in Jun e and July
caused by cold moist a ir masses from the west. At the sam e
time, these high mountains are an obstacle to dr y tropical
(6)
where To (O C) is mea n air temperature at the Tien Shan
meteorological station; ,(T) (0.0053 °C m I) is mean aititudinal g radient of ai r temperature calcu lated from data at
the Tien Shan meteorological station and expeditionary
observations at 4150 m on the glacier.
c'
c
_,b
d
8
Synoptic pattern s
•
b
d
b
d
•
•
95
90
85
0-
80
75
70
80
60
E
E
40
:t
20
o
20
15
10
5
ID
o
-5
6
?
~
4
2
0
-2
-4
~
~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
10
14
18
22
26
30
3
7
11
15
19
23
DATE
Fig. 4. Synoptic ( a-d) and meteorological (e) conditions al 4150 m on southem lnylchek glacier during the ablation period
( July-August1989) qf the expeditionary observations. (a) and ( b) are antiC)lclonic wann and cold weather; (c) and ( c') are
C)lclonic warm weather; (d) is C)lclonic cold weather; (e) is diumal mean air temperature (1); total radiation balance (2); glacier
ablation (3); relative humidity (4).
506
Aizen and others: Glacial regime ofthe highest T ien Shan mountain
aIr masses formed over the Takla Makan, Gobi, Alashan
and Tsaidam deserts and moved to the north. These processes have a substantial effect on the mass and energy excha nge of the glaciers.
According to our observations on Inylch ek glacier a nd
the analyses of synoptic maps, there are four m ain synoptic
processes (Fig. 4; Table 2):
cyclonic warm weather (Table 2). Melt associated with
radiation amounted to 23 mm d 1 Due to high values of
radiation balance, ice- and snowmelt took place at negative a ir temperatures with a diurnal mea n of - 3.3°e.
During this weather, latent h eal and turbulent exchange
did not play a ny significant role in heat balance and refreezing occ urred. Rcl ative humidity rose to 86%.
Anticyclonic weather withfohn development (A w) is the most
favorable synoptic process for glacier ablation, observed
with 33% frequency during two expeditionary summers. Dry f6hns with low relative humidity occurred
after an advection of cold air masses. \t\Tarm air masses
over theTakla Makan desert flow up the southern slopes
of the Kok Shaal Too range and pass down into the
Inylchek glacier and other adjoining valleys. A f6hn
cloudiness is formed above the ridge-top, while air temperature can rapidly increase by 5°C on the glacier. A
large amount of loess dust is brought into the valley with
fohn winds. The atmosphere becomes less transparent
and longwave radiation increases. In two summers, the
total radiation balance reached its maximum of
15 MJ m 2 d I and albedo its minimum (34% ) (Table
2). Glacier melt intensifi ed abruptly because of heat advection. Turbulent-heat exchange in h eat balance was
6% (1able 2), whereas during the other observed types
of weather th e turbulent co mponent did not play a significa nt role in glacier melt. This period was characterized by the co ntribution of condensation heat to the heat
balance. D espite the fohn advection, humidity remained
relativcly high (76 % ). High humidity a nd aerosol dust
cause the formation of inter-mass cloudiness and local
precipitation, esp ecia lly at elevations above 5000 m.
According to Berg (1938) and Grudzi nskiy (1959), a erosol dust is delivered from northwest of K azakhstan and
Turan to the central Tien Shan. H owever, our observations indicated that dust is delivered by air fluxes from
centr al Asian deserts. During thi s synopt ic process, melt
was maximum , did not stop even at night and averaged
47 mm d- I . During f6hn development, it reach ed
82 mm d- I
Cyclonic warm weather (C w ) occurred with a frequency of
24% . The r egime is associated with northwestern intrusions, when the cold front lingering near the mountains
develops wave activity (Fig. 4b and c) and brings inclement weather with frequent mixed prccipitation.
During such period s, rain was observed even al 4150 m.
Net shortwave radiation fall s to 19.2 MJ m 2 d I, albedo
reaches 48 %, wh il e total radiation balance fall s to
5.6 MJ m - 2 d - I. Mean diurnal temperature was 0.9°e.
Evaporation in such periods preva il s over co ndensation,
reach i ng 13 % . Melt amounted to 15 mm d - I
Anticyclonic cold weather (A c) without precipitation occurs
as cold-air intrusions and is follow ed by a slight temperature increase due to insolation and a transition to
therm a l depression. The fi'equency of thi s type was
19°/c,. There was a slight decrease in n et shortwave rad iation and total radiatio n balance compared to anti-
Cyclonic cold weather (Cc ) had 24% frequency. Cyclonic
activity develops in mid-latitudes of central Asia. Cold
intru sions bring precipitation (Fig. 4d ). During this
weath er in summer, snowfall plays a key role in glacier
accumu lation. Net shortwave radiation (20.1 MJ m 2 d I)
was high er than during warm cyclonic processes,
because of multiple refl ection from slopes covered by
new snow. Albedo increased to 70%. In such periods,
we obsen'ed the lowest values of temperature (-6.9 °C)
and total radiation balance (2.6 MJ m 2 d I). Ice- and
snowmclt averaged 7 mm d I from radiation alon e with
littl e turbulent exchange (only 2% ).
RESULTS OF EXPEDITIONARY MEASUREMENTS
Heat-balance cOlllponent
During summ er ex peditionary observations in 1989 and
1990 at 4150 m , incoming radi ation amounted to 96% of
the heat-ba lance total, while turbulent heat was a bout 4%
of the total. H ealS of evaporation and condensation at
4150 m were negligible (Ta bl e 2) and, on the whol e, were
compensatory, taking only 7 % of heat for evaporation. Evaporation prc\'ails on average in da ytime, and condensation
at night, with the exception offohn da ys when condensation
operates co ntinuousl y (day a nd night ). Th e m<yor p a rt of incoming radiation is used for ice- and snowmelt.
Snow- and icemelt occur through radiation (Table 2)
Table 2. Average components ifthe heat balance and mean meteorologlcal characteristics during different S)lTloptic processes ( SP)
qfablation period ( ]un ~ August, 1989, 1990) at 4150 m if lrrylchekglacier. Aw and A c are anticyclonic warm and cold weather;
C w and Cc are cyclonic warm and cold weather; Q is net shortwave radiation; B is total radi.ation balance; Pt is turbulent -heat
jluxes; LE is latent -Izeatjluxes due to evaporation or condensation; [lIV is heat usedJor ice- and snowmelt; A is albedo; q is
relative humidity; f isjrequency qfsynoptic jJ TO CfSS; T is air temperature
SF
Q
B
Aw
Ac
Cw
Cc
Wh ole
30.5
26.9
19.2
20.1
24.6
14.9
8.9
5.6
2.6
8.5
LE
Pt
NI.J m
1\\1
B
~ cI 1
0.9
0.1
0.4
0.05
0.4
PI
LW
LE
Proportion in heal balance
0
- 1.2
0.8
- 0.2
- 0.5
15.8
7.8
5.2
2.45
- 8.5
94
98
93
98
96
6
2
7
2
4
lOO
87
87
93
93
0
13
13
A
°lc,
34
51
48
70
49
I
T
%
%
(% r' C
76
86
87
89
33
19
24
24-
3.1
3.3
0.9
- 6.9
q
507
J ournal qfGlaciology
Table 3. Calculated means if ice- and snow melt ( rV mm 0')
and measured ablation ( A m mm er] during different synop tic jJ1"Ocesses (SP) of ablation jJeTiod (J une-August 1989,
1990) at 4150 m of 1nylchek glacin Av and A c are anti cyclonic warm and cold weather; C". and Cc are cyclonic
warm and cold weatheJ~· W h . b . is calculated melt though heat
balance; W(T) is calculated melt though air temperature;
J V( Q) is calculated melt though sllOrtwave radiation
balance
and can proceed with both pos itive and negative air tem peratu res. Snow- and icemclt were calcula ted three ways:
through heat balance (Equation (1)), sola r r adi ati on d ata
(E q uation (7)) a nd air te mperature associated with different a i r-flow patterns (Equ ations (8)- (9)). Equations (7)-(9)
wer e b ased on expeditiona r y measurem ents m ade on I nylchek glacier a nd we re checked on the othe r glaciers of the
Pobed a- Kh anTengry m ass if.
Wd = 1.59 x 1O- 3 [23. 9Q (1 - A/ 100)]LG8
r = 0.73 (7 )
wher e WcI is the d aily value of snow, ice a nd Ern m clt
(mm d I), Q is the d a il y net shortwave radiation during
summer (NU m 2 d \ A is the a lbedo (% ).
Wd( A " , C w )
= 12 .1 + 12.5T
when T
>
0 .9°e
l'
SP
= 0.71
(8)
when T < 0 .9
0
(9)
wher e T¥d( A" , C w ) is melt during wa rm a nti cyclonic (A".)
and cycl onic (C w ) weather p allerns (mm d I), Wd(A c, Cc) is
the m el t during cold pa t terns (Ar , Cc) of weather (m md- I).
M eans of daily m elt calculated by th ese method s we re
cl ose (Tabl e 3). The relative error between calculated a nd
meas ured values of melt was 2.3 7.6% of the aver age.
T herefore, it is possibl e to calcu late the melt through the
sola r radiation d ata (Equa ti on (7)) or to use a ir temper at ure
associated with differen t air-flow patterns (Equations (8)-
M e t eor ological r egime
T he average diurn a l a ir temperatu res, their varia tion
between glacial a nd non-glacial surfaces, and radiati o n
bala nce and relative humidity during different ty pes of
weather obser ved duri ng two summer exp edi tions are presented in Figure Sa- e.
M aximum diurnal variation of rad iati on balance was
E
<"f
E
~
....
m
- +7
Cw
Cc
- 15
- 23
7
- 25
-
-
40
#.
30
0-
20
Atll
- 1
- 25
51
25
- 22
23
-8
-29
16
- 19
-7
- 27
23
+4
3
100
so
50
lV(Q)
observed during a nticyclo nic ty pes of weather, while the
highest diu r n al amplitudes of air temperature occ urred
during cold types of weather with substa nti a l cooling at
night and heati ng during d ay time. The altitudinal gradient
of air temperature calc ula ted b ased on obser vatio nal data at
altitudes of 3200, 41S0, SlOO a nd 6100 m was found to be, on
average, 0.36°e per 100 m ove r a glacial surface. A statistically significant correla ti o n (1' = 0.84) "vas revealed
between m ean daily air temperatures at th e Tien Shan
meteorological stati on a nd at 41S0 m, on Inylchek glacier.
T he altitudina l gradient of the air temperat ure based on
records at the Ti en Sha n m eteorological sta tion a nd at
41S0 m on the glacier am o un ted to - 0.S3 °C p er 100 m.
Anticycl o nic weather was characterized by the highest
frequency of northern and eastern winds (81 % ), especially
in the first ha lf-day. Mean wind speed in anticyclonic weather did not exceed 1.2 m S- I, since calm s we re ra ther frequem
at that time. During cyclonic processes, th e frequency of
Intensity of melt on Inylchek glacier was high a nd
reac hed 12.S mm a nd 1° C.
.-.
Aw
A,
Whole
(9)).
':'
C
W (T )
Wh.h.
- --- - -
90
80
/
70
/
60
~---./
10
50
0
40
-10
/
- - a
-b
c
d
6
1
"
/
'-'2_
o
0
o
....
....
---
10
--- .............
/
'--
,-
0
0
-5
0
.....
....<l
-2
-"4
~
-- e
4
·10
·15
-20
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
3
5
7
9
11
13
16 17
19 21
-25
3
23
5
7
9
11
13
15
17
19 21
23
local time
Fig. 5. Diurnal variation qf mean meteorological characteristics during different synoptic patterns at 4150 m on southern Inylchek
glacier during the ablation period ( JlIly- August /989) qfexjJeditionary observations. (1) is air temperature; (2) is total radiation
balance; (3) is relative humidity; (4) is air-temperature difference between glacier and moraine. ( a) is anticyclonic warm; (b) is
anticyclonic cold; ( c) is cyclonic warm; ( d) is cyclonic cold weather; ( e) is average during whole e jJeditiona1) period.
S08
A i<.en and others: Glacial Tegime if the highest Tien Shan mountain
western and northern winds increased to 75%
speed reached 2.7 m s '.
a nd their
in ice meltwater at night in the ablation area results from
runoff from the warm firn zone. Thi s ass um ption is supported by the increased tritium content at night observed
onl y in watercourses that have direct connections with the
accumulation area. In small er waterco urses, especially in
those lying elose to nl.oraines, night-time tritium concentrations are similar to the daytime values.
TritiuIll IlleasureIllents
At 4150 m , the co ncentration of tritium in atmospheric
moisture varies from 59 to 154 TU over th e observati on
period (Table 4; Fig. 6). At 5200 m, the concentration oftritium in atmosp heric moisture varies from 610 to 1277 TU.
The high concentration of tritium there might be assoc iated
wilh a penetration of slratospheric moisture through a rupture of the trop opause during the passage of atmospheric jet
streams, o r with other natural phenomena, including heliophysical ones. Using tritium analysis CH), we obtained the
pattern of diurnal runoff distribution in water courses in the
ablation zone. The abrupt inc rease in tritium concentration
STUDIES IN THE ACCUMULATION AREA
The firn field s o[ so uthern Inylch ek glacier stretch from
southeast to northwest, from the slopes of the Voyennikh
Topografov (6873 m ) and R apasov's (6934 m) peaks to the
base of Khan- Tengry peak. The a rea is more than 30 km 2
and the difference between the lowest and highest points is
1900 m (Fig. 7). A 700 m high icefa ll divides this area into
Table 4. R ange if tritium concentmtion (3H, TU) in samples qfatmosfJIzeric moisture (am), glacier runqfJ ( gr), channel water
( cw), wata in glacial lakes (wl), new snow (ns), surface snow (ss), moisterJim (mJ) and ice (i) in lnylclzek glacier in jury
and August, 1989
H (m )
Gm
1200
4100
5100
59- 154
610 1277
gr
('Ltl
48
6-20
w!
4
38
a
m
50 53
39 45
52-61
lIif
i--
1989
--
Depth, m
1'1968189
""
c
July20
A
2
August 15
2 •
11967/88
4400 m
Density, 10" kg cm" Tritium con1ent TU Temperature,n hole
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.6 020405060 -15-10-5 05'e
I I I I
,,
111
0
I
I
'f"
II
Depth, m
0
2
1
j
6
8
11:::8: \
10
10
1982182
12
1981182 [
6
0
0
1
~
r
8
10
1=;))(/ 3
12
12
1989
- - July15
06
14
- - August16
16
18
IQ ~c9l
7
18
20
~8
20
22
T
2
A
16
Temperature ,n hole
·10 ·5 0 5 'C
4
1966187
1985186
3- 4
54
40
5200 m
Density, 10" kg cm" Temperat ,n hole Tritium centent TU
0.2 0 .4 0.6 0.8 ·20·15-10-5 0 'C
0
20 40
r
f.\
b
6148 m
Depth,
li S
~g
24
~10
26
~11
22
24
28
. 13
f:4112
1900
- - July 10
--
August20
14
Fig. 6. Stratigm/J/7ic profiles ifsnow,Jirn and ice; !he temperaLlIre in drillholes and tritium con!en! in samplesfrom the snow,Jirn
and ice cores aL 6148 m (a), 5200 m (b), 4400 m (c) ifsouthem lnylclzek glacie?: (1) is new snow, (2) isJille-grairtedJirn, (3) is
medium -grainedJim, (4) is corme-grainedJirn, (5) is crust with dust, (6) is ice lells, (7) is densefiTIl lells, (8) is crust dusl and
ice lens, (9) is trace ifget -wet-llzroughJirn la)ler, (10) is get-weL la)ier coarse-grailledJirn, (11) is get-wet la)ier medium -grained
JiTr/, (12) is ice crust, (13) is monoli!h if ice, (14) is marks if annual layers.
509
Journal qfGlaciology
0
1
g
3
mm 2
~ 4
I!Sl!88s
0
6
~7
~
8
'"
9
,
10
•
(r = 0 .89)
11
N
i
Fig. 7 Iceformation zones on Jirn Jield qf southern Inylchek
glacier. (I) is recrystallization, (2) is TeC1Jstallization- regelation and cold infiltration, (3) is warm infiltmtion, (4) is
infiltmtion, (5) is rocks, (6) is momine tenace, (7) is observation site, (8) is drilling holes, (9) is snow Pits, (ID) is snow survey tmnsects, (11) is allimetric p oints.
two main par ts w ith slightl y inclined surfaces, o ne fr om
4400 to 5200 m a nd th e other from 5800 to 6300 m . The
minimal wind a nd absence of sn ow-avalanch e r edistribution inside this area arc fiworable fo r the nat ura l acc umulation of precipitation. The steady sn ow regime is proved by
its small sp atia l va ri ability (0- = ±88 kg m- 2).
According to o ur observatio ns in 1989, 1990 a nd 1992,
snowmelt and runoff in the acc umulation area occurred to
5200 m, whereas on so uthern slop es this bound a r y reached
5800 m . The a nnu al acc um ula tion here is satura ted and,
du ring the d ay, air temperatures are about zero. During
an ticyclonic weath er, a thin radia tion ice cru st is formed
on the snow surface. Under th e crusts, meltwater form s vast
"fi rn bogs" in places with slight inclinations and d e p ressions.
Night cooling is in sufficient to freeze this moist sn owpack,
therefore meltwa ter was drained from thi s zone du r ing day
a nd night.
From 5800 to 6300 m, the a nnual mean snow acc umul ation was found to be 918 g m - 2 (in 1989). Simulta n eous measurements of precipitati on, occ urring during the observational period s a t 5200 and 6100 m revealed a n a ltitudinal
increase of precipitation of 2 mm p er 100 m.
To assess th e a nnual acc umul a tio n and temper a ture, two
cores about 30 m long we re drilled a t 6148 m. Fig ure 6 shows
the structure of two ave raged sn ow- firn cores. Twenty-onc
a nnual layer s of acc umulation wer e separated in th e d rilled
holes by snow- firn- ice-core stra tigr a phic ana lysis a nd 23 in
th e 28 m depth section along the cleared firn- ice w a ll of the
crevasse a t the sam e altitude. Annu al layers we r e identified
by summer h ori zons of mor e compact fi r n a nd yellowbrow n aeolian du st. According to o ur and previou s studies
(R ace k, 1954), dust indicating th e a nnu al layers is d elivered
from dese rts o nl y in the seco nd h alf of summer a nd beginning of autumn during steady a nticyclonical weather.
Verificati on of a nnu al layer s was also mad e by tritium
(3H ) sampled from the strata (Fi g. 6). Th e m a rks w ere the
layers acc umul a ted during rather high tritium content in
510
1981- 82 and 1985- 86, caused by nuclear tests co nducted in
C hina and the di saster at Chernobyl. According to identificati o n of the annu a l laye rs in th e co res, the mean a nnu a l
sn ow acc umulation was found to be 900 mm (Table 5) a t
6148 m . Results of stratigraphic a na lyses are justifi ed by a
good correlation (Equ ation (10)) between annual acc umula tion measured a t 6148 m and annua l p recipitation m easured a t T ien Sha n sta tion.
(10)
where Ak is accumul a tion over the hydrological yea r (from
September to Aug ust) in Inylchek glacier (6148 m ), P is
a nnu a l precipitation m eas ured at Tien Shan station, a nd 'r/
is the correlation r atio. According to Chinese resu lts
(C h eng Tong, 1982), th e annual precipi tation was ab o ut
800 m m at the sam e a ltitudes on th e so uthern slop e of K ok
Shaal Too near Pob ed a p eak. Increase of precipitati on w ith
altitude is not a linear functi on (Fig. 8). Th e altitudina l di stribution of precipita tion was calcula ted on th e b asis of
lon g-term meteo rolog ical data fr om th e Ti en Sh an m e teorological station, precipitati on sites a nd snow surveys in the
Inylchek glacier a rea.
Four ice-form ation zones have b een revealed in the
so uthern Inylch ek acc umul ation a rea (Fi g. 7), nonc ofthcm
h av ing any clearly d elin eated distribution area. The ice fall
di v iding the acc umul ation area into two parts seem s to lie
in th e cold infiltra tion- recr ystallization zone wh ere th e
meltwater becomes ice due to infiltrati on. Stratificati on
a n a lysis of snow-fi r n layers has sh own th at above 6000 m
ice was formed by subsidence and recr ys tallization at d epth
exceeding 30 m . Therefo re, the altitudin a l belt over 6000 m
we d etermined as a rec rystalli zati on zon e where m elt does
not occur.
Table 5. T hickness ifannual snow-Jirn layers ( hi, cm), den si!y (Pi , Mg m 3) and water equivalent ( C, mm) in the re crystallization. zone ofInylclzek glaciel; ]4- 75 August 1989, at
6148 m
lear
1989
1988
1987
1986
1985
198.J.
1983
1982
1981
1980
1979
1978
1977
1976
1975
1974
1973
1972
1971
1970
1969
Average
hi
Pi
275
152
170
160
146
114
105
138
130
137
133
97
88
97
123
137
90
124
129
135
133
0.32
0.53
0.55
0.57
0.58
0.6
O.n8
0.71
0.78
0.73
0.8
0.81
0.83
0.78
0.79
0.8
0.83
0.76
0.74
0.77
0.79
Ci
880
806
935
912
847
684
714
980
1014
1000
1064
786
730
757
972
1096
747
942
955
1039
1051
900
Aizen and others: Glacial regime ifthe highest Tien Slum mountain
1000
900
800
700
E
E
600
Q.
400
500
300
200
100
0
1500 2500
3500
4500 5500 6500
H(m)
Fig. 8. Vertical change qfannual Jmcipitation in Iny lchek vallex
The va lue of ice formation in lower zones (F ) was calcul ated by Zikin's method (Zikin , 1962).
F
= cp
l
r 6.T(Z) d z,
(11 )
Jz,
wh ere c = 2.09 X 103 J kg 1 °C 1 is specific heat capacity of
ice; l = 333.6 X 1O~1 J kg 1 is h eat of ice melt; p (kg m 3) is ice
density; Z1 (m ) is the bounda r y between firn a nd ice; Z (m )
is the lower bo und ary of the acti ve ice layer; and 6.T (0 C) is
ice-tempe rature \·a ri ation. Ic e temperatures in drillholes at
a ltitudes of 6148, 5200 a nd 4400 m were measured at the
beginning a nd the end of the abl ati on perio d (Fig. 6a and
c). Th e value of ice forma tion in the warm infiltration- recr ys talliz a tion zone (4600- 5200 m ) calcul ated by Equation
(11) was 140 kg m 2, under p = 880 kg m 3 a nd Z = 7 m. In
the infdtration zone (4200- 4600 m ), th e va lue of ice form a.
"
3
li on was 90 kg m -, under p = 890 kg m a nd Z = 9 m.
In th e 30 m hole drilled a t 614·8 m, diurn a l temperature
changes were obsen 'ed only in the top laye r of a nnu al acc umul ati on (Fig. 6a ). At greate r d epths, th e temperatures were
co nsta nt a nd at the bottom th e temperature was - 21°C, that
is, about a nnua l mea n a ir temperature a t this cle\·ation.
Calculations of mea n a nnu a l a ir temperature a t thi s level
were m ad e through the Tie n Sh a n station d a ta using th e
temperature gradient of - 0.53 C per 100 m. At 6100 m, in
August 1989 a nd 1990 the mea n diurna l ai r temperature
was abo ut - 10 C. During d ay time, it did not rise O\'er
- 2.0°C, while at nights it could be as low as - 25.0°C. At these
a ltitudes, air temperature a nd moisture va ri ati ons depended mostl y on the inter-m ass processes. H eat nux
brought by fo hns was not sig nificant th ere. Hi g h humidit y,
observed especia lly at night (85- 95% ), was favo rabl e for
hoa r-frost form a ti on. The co ndensation overnight ca n be as
hi gh as \.5- 2.0 mm. At th e acc umulati on area of southern
Inylchek glac ier sc reened from the west, th e average wind
speed was 1.7 m s I, and ne\'e r exceed ed 6 m s I. At the same
time, on Kok Sh aal Too a nd Teng r y Tag slopes, th e wind
sp eed reached 4 0- 80 m s 1 during cyclonic and fohn
weather.
Duri ng clo udl ess weather, a t 55- 60 % relati vc hum idi ty,
the e\'aporati on was \.5- 2.0 mm d I. It is less th a n a t th e
sa me altitudes of western Kun Lun, in a n extra-continenta l
climate where evaporati on reach ed 5.5- 9.7 mm d I, with
30 % relative humidity (Hi guchi a nd Xie Zichu, 1989).
During anticyclo nic weather, local ve rtical nu xes develop
clo udiness, humidity increased a bruptly and from 1400 to
1500 h snow sta rted. Precipita ti o n from such clo udiness
being typically local amounted to 5- 7 mm d I. At nights,
the cloudiness was di spersed or di sappeared.
MASS BALANCE OF INYLCHEK GLACIER
To calcul ate a nnu al mass-ba la nce indices of Inylchek
g lacier (Fig. 9), th e long-term d a ta of tota l prec ipita ti on
a nd mea n summ er air tempe ra tures at the Ti en Sha n
m etcorolog ical sta tion \I'ere ex trap o la ted up to the elevati on
of the equilibrium-line position (4476 m ). Annu a l precipitation was calcu la ted by Equ ati on (5), a nnu al a bla tion by
Equ ations (6), (8) a nd (9). Assess m e nt of a nnu al melt (T.-Tled
has been calcul a ted by
(12)
wh ere m is number of days when mclt occ urs under the certa in state of Equ a ti ons (8) a nd (9). \Ve ass umed loss by e\'apOt-a tion was co mpen ated by co nde nsa ti on and a co nsistent
value of refroze n meltwater equ a led 90 mm a I. There a rc
eycl es of po iti ve a nd negati\'e d evi ations in glacier massba la nce indi ces (Fi g. 9). From 194·0 to 1953 a nd from 1973 to
th e prese nt, the g lac ier had a negative m ass ba la nce. For Inylchek glacier, th e average weig hted m ea n an nu a l acc umula ti on is 752 mm , th e snow- ice a bl a tion a\'erage weighted
m ean is 1070 mm a nd th e index of net glac ier-m ass cha nge
is negati ve, 318 kg m 2 a I, indicating deg radati on of m ode rn Pobeda Kh a nTengry glac iers.
20
-
Cl'
0
E
()
...~
b
-20
.,..
~
0
-40
a
b
-60
1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1
1940
11 1 1 1 I 1 I I
1950
11 1 1 1 1 I 1 I
1960
11 I 1
1970
1
1
1980
1990
YEARS
Fig. 9. Indices rifglacier mass balance ( a) and their fentra lly weighted mOlling-average values ( b) qf frl);/clzek glacier, central
T ien SllCll1.
511
J ournal qfGlaciology
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Our analysis ex tend s understa nding of the climatic, m e teo rological a nd hydroglaciological conditions a round the continenta l glacia l Pobeda- Kha n Teng r y massif, one of th e
la rgest in the world.
Four maj or synoptic situ ati ons have been identifi ed , with
a n average 4 day durati on, which control regimes of temperature, radi ation bala nce a nd m elt. In th e acc umul ation
a r ea, weath er co nditions have a smaller efTcct and a consider abl e role is determin ed by internal processes affecting a
local water exchange. Th e development of internal processes
is promoted by the high moisture content of a ir masses comi ng mostl y from th e west. At the same ti me, our obser vati ons
indicated th at dust is delive red by a ir flu xes from ce ntra l
Asian deserts during the development ofr6hn.
R adi ation contributes more energy for snow and g lacier
m elt th a n the combinati on of all other form s of heat tra nsfer
and a mounts to more than 90 % of the input in heat. .M elt is
most intensive during peri ods of anticyclonic weath er with
{ohn development. Only at these p eri od s did turbulent exchange a nd condensati on occ ur. F6hns bringing la rge
a mounts of du st from Ta rim affec t the radi ati on balance a nd
cause the developm ent of local cloudin ess a nd the form ation
of precipitati on. Because the m elt r egim e is determin ed
ther e mainly by sola r radiation, it was preferable to ca lcul ate the melt a nd runoff through the so la r-radiation d ata,
or to use air tempera ture associated with difTerent weath er
patterns. Evaporation a nd condensatio n a re eith er mutu all y
compensatory or of negligibl e effect during other synoptic
situatio ns. Spatial distribution of ice-formation zones
y ielded the upper bound ar y of liquid run ofT at 5200 m .
Acc umul ation processes were associated with cold
cyclonic weather. Estim ates of a nnu a l acc umulation were
obtained from 4150-6300 m a nd increase the a mount of informati on about precipitati on di stributi on in the acc umul ation areas of the Tien Shan sub-continenta l glaciers. Spa ti al
distributi on of ice-form ati on zones revealed that the rec rysta llization zone is above 5800 m. Four ice-formation zones
have been revealed in the sou thern Inylchek glacier acc umulation area.
Th e net glacier m ass cha nge is negati ve, - 318 g m 2 a I,
indicating degradati on of modern Pobed a- Khan Tengr y
glaciers.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the Russian Academy of
Science a nd EOS NASA gr ant NTW-2602. The a uthors
tha nk Gra nt Instruments (Cambridge) Ltd and esp ecia lly
the chairma n C. Chapm an, director]. Ba rker and eng ineer
]. Cook, for sponsoring the excellent hydrometeorolog iea l
Mini-Met stations. We a re a lso ver y gra teful to all the m embers of o ur expeditions: A. Dikih, I. R acek, R. K attelma nn,
K . Elder, E. Ermolin, G. Kotov and A . Ai zen. We tha nk U.
G olodov for his excellenr organization of helicopter a nd
provision support.
M S received 14 March 1996 and accepted in revisedfor m 30 J une 1997
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