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KART OG PLAN
3- 99
KART OG PLAN
Grunnlagt / Founded 1908
Bind / Volume 59
Årgang / Annual 92
1999
Scient ific J ournal
Geomatics - Mapping Sciences - Geodesy - GPS
Kartography - Photogrammetry - Hydrography
GIS - LIS - GAB - Land Consolidation - Cadastre
Land Vse Planning - Land Dse Law
P ublisher
Scandinavian University Press, Oslo
Internet: http://www.scup.no
Owner
Norwegian Association ofChartered Surveyors,
NJKF, Professional Gronp of Norwegian
Association of Chartered Engineers, NIF
Internet: http://wwworg.nlh.no.njkf
Cooperation
NJKF/NIF and GeoForum
Editorial Council
Leiv Bjarte Mjøs, Leader, Helge Onsrud, Anton S .
Bachke, Eva Irene Falleth, Jan TeJje Bjørke.
Editor
Gunnar Balle
Dept.ofLand Use and Landscape Planning,
Agricultural University of Norway, NLH,
PO.B. 5029, N-1432 Ås, Norway.
Phone: +4764948875 or +47 64 94 08 27
+4764942721 or +47 64 94 83 90
Fax:
Mobile: +47 92 24 39 58
E-Mail: <[email protected]>
Editor Mapping Sciences, Geomatics
Inge Revhaug
Dept.ofMappings Sciences, Agricultural University
of Norway, NLH, PO.B. 5034, N-1432 Ås, Norway.
Phone: +4764948841
Fax:
+4764948856
Mobile: +4792635961
E-Mail.<[email protected]>
Subscription p r ices 1999:
Institution NOK 470,Individual
NOK 375,Students
NOK 170,Subscription and single issues:
Scandinavian University Press,
PO.B. 2959 Tøyen, N-0608 Oslo
Phone: +4722575300
Fax:
+4722575353
E~Mail: <[email protected]>
Sigle issues: NOK 115,-.
Production
Heien Fotosats A.s, N-1820 Spydeberg
© Scandinavian University Press 1999
ISSN 0047-3278
Frontpage photo: Oslo Airport, Gardermoen.
Photo: Norkart as.
Real E state and Cadastre
Real estate and cadastre in a Nordic academic
perspective are presented in this international
edition of the Norwegian professional journal
KART OG PLAN in four articles. They are written by Professors in the relevant disipline at the
Technical Universities in Sweden and Finland,
at Aalborg University in Denmar k , and at the
Agricultural University of Norway.
Professor, Dr. Hans Mattsson, at the Royal
Institute of Technology, Real Estate Planning in
Stockholm, took in 1998 an initiativ on behalf of
the Professors in real estate and cadastre in the
Nordic countries, Denmark, Finland, Norway
and Sweden,. to write papers for printing in English for an international audience, on real estate
and cadastre in a Nordic academic perspective.The proposal was presented and discussed at
a meeting in Stockholm in May 1998 at the the
Royal Institute of Technology, and it was decided
to send a letter to the Nordic associations of
Chartered Surveyors . The letter was presented
at a Nordic meeting of the Presidents and Editors of the N ordic Associations of Chartered Surveyors in Lappeenranta in Finland, August
1998. The proposal was to print an international
edition of one ofthe Nordic Surveying and Mapping Journals. The Norwegian delegates offered
to print an International Edition of the journal
KART OG PLAN as no. 3-1999.
We thank you all in the Nordic countries for
the support we have received, both economical
and pure psychological, so we could be able to
issue this first special International Edition in
one of the Nordicjournals in Mapping and Planning. KART OG PLAN received the challenge, to
make the 1st. International Edition on the
theme: Norclic Acaclemic Views on Real Estate
and Cadastre.
Professor, Dr. Hans Sevatdal, Department of
Land Use and Landscape Planning, Section of
Land Use and Real Estate Planning, Agricultural University of Norway, has been adviser for
the editorial board, concerning the publishing of
this special International Edition of KART OG
PLAN.
We hope it is the beginning of a yearly International Edition ofthe Nordic Journals.
Gunnar Balle
Main Them e
4-1999
1-2000
2-2000
3~2000
4-2000
Digital Map Systems and Physical Planning. Guest Ed.: Geir-Hal' ald Str and,
NIJOS.
Geomati cs.
Land Use Planning. Guest Editor: Eva Irene Falleth, NIBR .
Land Consolidation - A New Means in Land Use Planning.
Geographical I nfor mation Systems. Guest Editor: Jan Terje Bjørke, FFIINLH.
KART OG PLAN
3- 99
Hans Sevatdal
DeadLine
Publication
15.10.
01.02.
02.05.
01.08.
15.10.
December
March
June
Septemb e r
December
251
Innhold - Contents
Real Estate and Cadastre .... ..... .. .. ..... 251
Gunnar Balle og Hans Sevatdal
Real Estate Planning as Scientific
Subject ...................... ......... .......... ..... 253
Hans Mattsson, Professor, TechD,
Real Estate Planning, Royal Institute
of Technology, S -100 44 Stockholm,
Sweden.
Real Estate Planning; An Applied
Academic Subject ........ ... .... .. .... ...... 258
Hans Sevatdal, Professor, Dr. Scient.,
Department of Land Use and Landscape
Planning, Agricultural University of
Norway, N-1432 Ås, Norway.
Cadastral Research - Issues and
Approaches ......... ....... ..... .... .. ..... .. .... 267
Erik Stubkjær, Professor, Lic. Agro.
(PhDj, Department of Development
and Planning,
Aalborg University, DK-9220 Aalborg
øst, Denmark.
Disipline of Real Estate Studies in
Finland ...... .... ... ....... ... ... ... ..... ....... .... 279
Kauko Viitanen, Professor, Dr. Ing.,
Institute of the Real Estate Studies,
Helsinki University of Technology,
FIN-02015 HUT, Finland.
Calibration and Derivation ofInitial
Values in Industrial
Photogrammetry ..... ......... .............. 285
Mathematical Models and Examples
of Applications.
Ingolf Hådem, Professor, Dr. Scient.,
Department of Surveying and Mapping,
International Edition
Norwegian University of Science and
Technology, N-7034 Trondheim, Norway.
The Internet - A Tool for Modern
Planners ...................... .... ........... ...... 294
Øystein Ringen Kristoffersen, Senior
Architect, Norwegian Defence
Construction Service South and West Norway Region,
N-4097 Sola, Norway.
Fra olje og gass til bioenergi ........ ... . 298
J. Låg, Professor Em., Dr. Agric.,
Department of Soil and Water Sciences,
Agricultural University of Norway,
N -1432 Ås, Norway.
Et nytt innsynsverktøy for kart .... .. . 300
Kai Sannes, ingeniør,
Oppmålingsavdelingen, Bamle
kommune, N -3970 Langesund, Norge.
BokomtalerlBook Reviews ..... ..... .... . 303
Jordbrukets kulturlandskap .. ...... ... ... 303
Sverre Øvstedal, Professor Em.
British Planning .... ...... ... .......... ... .. .... 304
August E. Røsnes, Professor, Dr. Scient.,
Dept. of Land Use and Landscape
Planning, Agricultural University of
Norway, N-1432 Ås, Norway.
Urban Planning, Regional Policy.
FIG Dictionary ................................... 305
August E . Røsnes, Professor, Dr. Scient.
Personalia .. .... ...... .......... ..... ...... .... ... .. . 308
Notiser ... .. ... ................ .... .. ... .... .. .... ...... 308
Geodata-Standard. Karsten Lien, The
Mapping Authority, N-3500 Hønefoss,
Norway.
FCTCNCRAS
FLYFOTOGRAFERING· MILJØOVERVÅKING· FLYTJENESTER
Torpvn. 130, pb. 1310, 3205 Sandefjord
Tlf. 33 42 08 00 Fax: 33 42 08 01
Email: [email protected]
252
KART OG PLAN
3- 99
Real Estate Planning as Scientific Subject
H ans Mattsson
KART OG PLAN, Vol 59, pp. 253-257, PO.B. 5029, N-1432 As, ISSN 0047-3278
By tradition in Sweden, a scientific subject field is delimited by the description of a vaeant professorial
appointment prior to its advertisement. When the Professorship in Real Estate Planning (Fastighets teknik) at KTH (the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm) last fell vaeant, the subject was defined
as the design and alteration of property units and property systems and related land-use and settlement structure. This article gives a more detailed description of the subject field .
Key words: Real estate planning. Scientific subject. Property units. Property systems.
Hans Mattsson, Professor, TechD, Real Estate Planning, Royal Institute of Technology, S-100 44
Stockholm, Sweden. E -Mail: <[email protected]>
The discipline of Real Estate Planning
in a historical perspective
Sweden's first academic study programme for
land surveyors was inaugurated by KTH in
1932, simultaneously with the endowment of
a professorial chair in Land Consolidation
(skifteslara). The research field for Land Consolidation at that time can be summed up in
the term "property unit planning", the aim of
which was to co-ordinate the formation of economically rational farming and forestry units
with their surrounding systems of roads and
ditches. It was the rapid transformation of
agriculture and forestry during the first half
ofthe 20th century th at gener ated a need for
knowledge concerning the construction of
rational agricultural enterprises and, con sequently, concerning matters of property formation as well. How were property units to be
readjusted simultaneously with the augmentation oftheir acreage? New efficiency targets
in forestry called for the same kind of knowledge .
The name ofthe subject gradually changed
from Land Consolidation (skiftesliira) to Real
Estate Planning (fastighetsteknik), to highlight the connection between the formation of
viable property units and the establishment
of technical infrastructure. By the next time
the professorship fell vacant, in 1955, the subject designation had accordingly been altered
to Real Estate Planning. Research continued
to focus on agriculture and forestry.
KART OG PLAN
3- 99
The 19GOs and 1970s in Sweden brought an
unprecedented expansion of housing and
secondary homes development, mirrored by a
slow change in the character of Real Estate
Planning research. Agriculture and fore stry
were now supplanted as the main focus of
interest by questions of housing development, and above all of secondary homes development. This impinged closely on agriculture and forestry, due to secondary homes
being built on surplus farmland. Research
topics were as follows. What do potential
secondary home owners want? How are detailed development plans to be drawn up?
How can secondary homes development in
small groups also suppor t ailing agricultural
enter prises? What energy consumption does
secondary homes development entail? The
societal focus of planning in the 60s and 70s
also impa.cted on the discipline of Real Estate
Planning, a shift of emphasis reflected by
research into the role of secondary homes
development in municipal planning.
Year-round residence in the countryside
and in small urban communities, however,
also attracted interest, the basic question
being whether both countryside and small urban communities were being depopulated. In
the ultimate analysis, this affected the desirability offorming new property units for permanent settlement in rural areas.
Clearly, though, the big property formation
questions concerned conurbations and the
infrastrudur e of urban envir onments, and
253
Hans Mattsson
Real Estate Planning research gradually
came to concentrate on the renewal of older
residential and secondary home areas on the
fringes of big cities. In this way urban areas
also came to be included in Real Estate Planning.
Gradually, as coverage has been extended
to all forms of land use and property formation in both rural and urban environments,
Real Estate Planning research has be come
more general and has come to focus on planning, economic incentives and steering
mechanisms, legal relations and organisational principles, with a view to the implementation of changes in land use. This can be seen
from research activities since the mid-1980s,
dealing as they do with three-dimensional
property formation, joint land development,
land development profits and their apportionment, infrastructure charges, implementation methods in other countries, expropriation, entitlement to compensation, shoreline
protection provisions, heritage protection and
the balancing of public and private interests.
All the time the focus of research has been on
property units in one form or another and also
on their interrelationship with the surrounding technical infrastructure.
Thus the discipline of Real Estate Planning
has broadened so as to accommodate more general aspects of pro perty formation and planning, but also with a view to the implementation of changes. The subject retains its original focus on property units and their interrelationship with infrastructure, but reference
to agriculture and fore stry has to a gre at
extent been superseded by urban issues.
ParalleI to the growing complexity of land
use, land-related right of other kinds have
also attracted a growing amount of interest,
at the same time as attention has come to
focus on general land policy and how it should
be implemented.
When the professorship in Real Estate
Planning last fell vacant, in 1985, the subject
accordingly came to be defined as follows:
"the design and alteration ofproperty units
and property systems and related land-u se
and settlement structure".
What is a property unit?
The Swedish name for Real Estate Planning,
fastighetsteknik, (literally translated: "real
254
property unit technique") incorporates the
word fastighet (real property unit). The history of this word goes back to the 19th century, and it is a substantivisation of the
adjective fast (fixed, immovable). In addition
to its more general meaning in Swedish, fastighet also has a specific legal significance. In
everyday speech the word often refers to buildings, especially in towns and cities, but it
can also mean land. The important legal significance ofthe term is defined in the Swedish
Land Code: "Real property is land. This is
divided into property units" No more exact
definition offastighet is to be found in the statutory text. In the normal instance, however,
a Swedish fastighet is an area ofland delimited by vertical boundaries and entered in the
real property register as a separate, conveyable (transferable) unit. Buildings and structures usually belong to the property unit
where they are situated. Forest and plants
belong to the pro perty unit.
Normally, then, a property unit is a delimited object on land having a particular owner
and with an essential relation between land
and owner. To be meaningful, the delimitation must entitle the owner to areasonable
extent to enjoy his property unit and to
exclude others from doing so. This latter proposes State protection of ownership against
encroaehment. Thus a pro perty unit is not
just an object or an object tied to an owner, it
also reflects a relationship between the owner
and other people.
Comparing different parts of the world, one
finds an immense variety in the ways in which
rights are apportioned. Property units can be
designed in a number of different ways, e.g. be
demarcated by verticallines or designed as a
three-dimensional space.1t is a country's legal
system that decides what formation is permissible. :Sut land, like water, need not necessarily be divided into individual property units.
Common land and public areas are examples
of other forms of rights which can supplement
a division into property units. Together these
forms of property make up a theoretical property system. Land-related rights are superimposed on the division into property units
and constitute another vital component of the
property system. When rights structures come
to prevail over the division into property units,
one can instead begin speaking of a system of
bundles of rights.
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Real Estate Planning as Scientific Subject
The creation of pro perty units, like that of
other legally defined rights, is, quite simply, a
means for society to allocate land-related productive resources between people, but also to
appropriation the space for land-consuming
activities between them, e.g. land for housing, offices, shopping centres and industrial
development. Infrastructure too requires a
supply ofland, which can be secured through
direct ownership or by a special r ight ofusing
land belonging to another.
The advantages and disadvantages of different rights in land are in fact a perpetual
topic of political and academic discussion,
with the result that it is not unusual for the
legislature, in purely general terms, to create, remove and mo dify property rights. The
actual creation of rights on the ground then
usually falls to officials, local politicians, and
existing and potential holders ofrights.
1. The alteration requires no change in the
ownership or property structure.
2. The alteration requires a change in the
ownership structure only.
3. The alteration requires a change of both
ownership and property structures.
4. The alteration requir es a change of property structure only.
We have elucidated two parameters of
change, namely changes in rights of ownership and division into pro perty units. Changes
in these structures ofrights are occasioned by
an imminent alteration of land use. Alteration ofland use is accordingly a third parameter of change.
We may continue to presuppose an existing
division ()fland into property units and other
r ights. Let us suppose that social development results in this existing decision no longer meeting the demands which can be made
on it, for example because an expanding cenChanging the division into property units
tral locality needs land for housing developSuppose now that division into property units ment and surrounding agricultural land
does not agree with what, for one re as on or needs to be used for this purpose. The intenanother, is desirable. A change is then called ded housing development will have to be profor. A fragment ed division into property vided with streets, water, sewerage and eIe cunits, for example, may need to be gathered tricity, schools will have to be built and so on.
into a larger holding so that the land can be From the viewpoint of rights, the land will
built on. If we distinguish between owners probably need to change hands by one or
and pro perty units, a change may really be more stag-es, the division into property units
desirable both in ownership and in property to be altered through amalgamations and
units, or in one of these relations only. This new divisions and rights to be created so as to
gives us a number of situations of change, as provide the area with infrastructure. Moreoillustrated in figure 1:
ver, some ofthese changes will require official
permission. As a result of all these changes
we are left with a new structure of rights.
Only then can the whole area be developed.
The types of change in rights which are nee(1)
(4)
(2)
(3)
ded can be seen from figure 2. That figure
Previous
owner
Alteration
proeess
{J
!
! \U \!/
0000
!
Subsequent
owner
mm
{J
{J
!
l'
!
l'
I!\
m
Figure 1.
Typical cases of interaction between change
of land use and change of owne rship and
property structure (Source: Larsson 1993).
KART OG PLAN
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Parcels of land (initial situation)
Transfelr of
property rights
Property
formation
Alteration
of land use
(owners hip
or limited rights)
,.", '"1'"" 0<,
)"'~r>:
l
Parcels of land (new situation)
Figure 2. Three necessary procedures for
changes (Source: Mattsson 1997).
255
Hans Mattsson
refers to property units (parcels) but could
equally well have been based on rights.
It should be added that rights can be regi stered so as to be known and clear to owners and
others. In addition, they may be mortgageable. The availability of credit on the security
of property units is particularly interesting,
because borrowed capital is often a sine qua
non ofthe feasibility of major alterations .
The discipline of Real Estate Planning
If property units and other rights to land
were to be static, unchangeable, the discipline of Real Estate Planning would be essentially uninteresting, except perhaps in terms
of analysing how things came to be the way
they are. In the event, it is changes that give
the discipline its raison d'etre.
Figure 2 will serve as a point of departure
for clarifying the subject field . This figure
contains an original situation, a changed
situation and three parameters of change,
underlying all of which we have a system of
land charges and a system of registration.
Attention thus attaches to the existing
structure of rights in relation to a new division into property units. What are the conditions at present and what ought the conditions to be? The question may refer to the economic efficiency of land-related productive
enterprises such as agriculture and forestry,
but also to the need to create plots for various
purposes such as industrial development,
housing, secondary homes, nature reserves
and so on. The need for an accompanying supply of infrastructure is also important,
because infrastructure can be seen as a
necessary technical part of the process of creating rational pro perty use. One of the two
primary research thrusts of Real Estate
Planning can thus be summarised in the following general topic:
What changes to the existing division into
property units and its appurtenant allocation
of rights are prompted by new needs of land
use?
Fundamental to the feasibility of changes is a
command of the regulatory provisions defining what is or is not permissible, i.e. command of the parameters of change in figure 2.
A change of land use may require all three
parameters to be changed at once, as for
256
example when part of a property unit is
expropriated. But perhaps only one parameter needs to be changed, as for example in the
case of reallotment between two pro perty
units having the same owner. Here one can
speak of implementation technique. This
form ofknowledge or skill can be regarded as
the craftsmanship of Real Estate Planning.
Two motive forces for change are distinguishable. Firstly, an owner or potential
owner may wish to undertake a particular
measure, and secondly, "society" may wish to
pursue a certain land use policy. In practice
this means that economic and political forces
have to be managed. This also means that
methods for voluntary change have to be
supplemented by methods for compulsory or
otherwise controlled change.
Existing methods ofimplementation can be
studied within a given regulatory structure,
but it is perhaps even more interesting to
analyse the implementation system with a
view to deciding whether it can be improved
in any respect. How are legal and economic,
but also advisory, instruments to be combined in the technique ofimplementation? And
how is implementation to be designed so as to
accord with the creation of new forms of property and rights division which are made
desirabIe by new land use exigencies?
Studies of the processes of change provide
the second field of Real Estate Planning research, namely:
How are desirable changes in the existing
div is ion into property units and the appurtenant allocation ofrights to be implemented in
practice? That is to say, how can the parameters of change in figure 2 be built up and
managed?
These, then, are our two main thrusts of Real
Estate Planning research, the first being
associated with the design of division into
property units and the allocation of rights,
and the second with the process of change as
such.
Research under both main thrusts may be
concerned with analysing what is attainable
within the existing regulatory structures, but
developments may have the effect of rendering institutional conditions obsolete, in
which case research has the possibility of contributing ideas for new configurations of
rights or for the framing of new implementing instruments.
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Real Estate Planning as Scientific Subject
A check can be made to see whether these
two thrusts capture the historical development of the discipline and its present research. The brief account which has be en given
of previous research comes under at least one
of the thrusts. Relevance to present research
can be gauged according to thesis work in progress by classifying the projects, if possible,
under one of the above stated thrusts. The
the sis topics (preliminary titles) are as follows:
Efficiency of existing systems ofland acquisition (the second thrust).
The balancing of collective and private land
management (joint property units versus privately owned property units) (first).
Use of compulsory and voluntary changes of
division into property units (second).
The relevance of existing minerallegislation
(first and second).
Development agreements (second).
Joint land development in Finland (second) .
Conflicts between various public interests in
the planning con text (second) .
Concluding remarks
The type of property unit occupying the
main focus of attention in Real Estate Planning has hinged on social development generally. When the rationalisation of agriculture
and fore stry was vitally important, the agrarian sector was at the centre of attention. During the epoch of urban expansion in the 60s
and 70s, there was a growth of interest in
secondary homes development and then in
permanent settlement. Later still, research
came to be dominated by what were more
questions of principle. The fluctuating interest aroused by different aspects of Real
Estate Planning over the years has entailed
corresponding shift of emphasis in the use of
basic tools of scholarship, with the result that
scientific working methods have to a varying
degree been imported from organisation theory, economics and law, but also from human
geography, information technology, sociology, statistics and mathematics. Thus the
prime concern of Real Estate Planning is
with property units and the property systems
connected with them, not with scientific methods.
As a final note, the description of the subject in 1985 as "the design and alteration of
property units and property systems and
related land-use and settlement structure"
includes a research field concerning critical
issues of land use and rights in land. There
are 3.2 million property units in Sweden,
with 1.1 million rights registered in them for
various purposes. In addition there are any
number of unregistered rights. All these
land-related rights including the property
units have to be changed continuously, so as
to harmonise with the general pattern of
social development.
References
Larsson, G. (1993): Land Readjustment.
Newcastle upon Tyne: Avebury.
Mattsson, H. (1997): The Need for Dynamism
in Land Law. In Land Law in Action. Stockholm: The Swedish Ministry of Foreign
Mfairs and Real Estate Planning, Kungl.
Tekniska Høgskolan.
Et selskap eid av:
Norkart AS
ViaNovaAS
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Real Estate Planning; An Applied Academic Subject
H ans Sevat dal
Hans Sevatdal: Real Estate Planning; An Applied Academic Subject.
KART OG PLAN, Vo1.59, pp. 258-266, P.O.B. 5029, N-1432 Ås, Norway, ISSN 0047-3278
Real estate planning, as an applied academic subject, is strongly related to the factual situations and
developments concerning the property right regime, the public regulation regime, land use and professional activity. From an institutional approach some basic concepts, important features of the actual situation in Norway, and aspects ofthe research agenda are presented.
Key words: Real estate. Property units. Owners. Tenure. Research.
Hans Sevatdal, Professor, Dr. Scient., Department of Land Use and Landscape Planning, Agricultural University of Norway, N-1432 Ås, Norway.
E-Mail < [email protected] >
1. Introduction and conceptual
framework
"Real es ta te" is here used more or less in the
same sense as "real property", which points to a
physical object, owned somehow, and to some
extent, by somebody. The concept comprises
land and natural resources in, on or above the
surface, and man made items permanently fixed
to the land. The concept is also sometimes called
"immovable property".
The most important of the man-made items
fixed to the land, are of course buildings, but we
should not forget constructions like roads, fences, pipelines in the ground, cables in the
ground or above the surface, and so on. The
more or less "natural resources" included in the
concept would be crops and trees before harvesting or cutting, minerals, water, the energy in
waterfalls etc.
"Real estate planning", as an applied academic subject, has to be closely related to "real
world" situations and problems , and to professional activity. The aims of the paper are to outline 1) some basic concepts and principles concerning property units, owners and tenure systems, 2) some important features concerning
factual ownership and tenure arrangements
and situations in Norway, proeedures for handling dynamic aspects like buying/selling, subdi-
258
visions and other transactions and 3) on this
background refiect on "real estate planning" as
an academic, applied field of study and research.
However, in a relatively brief overview, I will
have to omit a lot of details and stick to the
basics.
The three basic terms to start out conceptualising are the property units (objects), the owners
and right holders (subjects) and the relationships between subject and object, which I will call
form oftenure.
The property units may be understood as physical objects that somehow constitute a unit in
the pro perty right system in the actual jurisdietion, normally a country. The owners and right
holders are either physicalliving persons or legal persons like a firm, the state and so on.
For the relationship between object and subject I will apply the term "tenure". By this term
is understood different types of rights that are
included in, or derived from the concept of "property right". It should be noted that by this definition, not only complete title to land like private freehold (fee simple), but also more limited
rights such as usufruct rights, contract rights,
renting and leasing, shareholder rights, access
to commons, mortgage etc., will be included in
the concept oftenure.
The totality of property rights in an object
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Real Estate Planning; An Applied Academic Subject
nised possibilities for use, in a broad sense. The
different elements in the bundle could, in principle, belong to different persons. In faet these elements can be distributed in many ways to different parties. Doeble 1983 puts it this way, p.71 :
" . . . property in land consists of a bundle of
rights , which can be distributed in an almost
infinite number ofways to different parties".
It should, however, be noted that there is a
slight, but important, difference between economic theory and legal theory in the understanding of the concept of property right. In a legal
sense, certain types ofrights granted to an individual, for instance abuilding permit to a landowner, is not to be considered a property right. It
is definitely a right, which might add great value
to a property unit, but from a legal point ofview
it is not a property right. In economic theory this
types ofrights are regarded as property rights.
Let us now turn to another very useful concept in this field, namely institutions. I will
introduce the concept of institutions by quoting
two authors:
North 1990 p.3: "Institutions are the ru les of
the game in a society or, more formally, are the
humanly devised constraints that shape human
interaction"
Scott 1995. p. 5: "Institutions consist of cognitive, normative, and regulative structures and
activities that provide stability and meaning to
social behavior".
In a more concrete sense institutions understood as the "rules of the game" would be formal
law and regulations, informal law, customary
law, cultural norms and standards for behavior.
It also includes mechanisms for enforcement
and punishment for violation of the rules. It does
not, however, include organizations and persons,
they are the aetors. Institutions are legal and
cultural framework within which persons and
organizations can act. North uses the analogy of
a football match; the institutions are the rules of
the game, both the formal and the informal
rules, the teams and the players are the aetors.
Property right is an institution, understood as
the formal and informal ru les of the game. The
owners and right holders are actors whose particular role in the game are defined by these ru les.
But the owners and right holders also have
other types ofinstitutions than property right to
take into consideration. Especially when it
comes to the use of real estate and exercising of
their property right, public regulations and control is of utmost importance. For our purpose
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he re I will present these regulation as two
groups :
1) The first one is public legislation and regulations aiming directly to control the use of land
and resources related to land, in the name of
public interests. Such le gisla ti on and re gulations are also institutions, within which the
owners and right holders are actors. But in addition to the owners and right holders, there are
public agencies that aet to implement, and
sometimes enforce, public legislation and regulations. Quite often the regulations take the
form of land use planning and zoning for the
future use ofland etc.
The second group ofinstitutions 2) is also public
legislation and regulation, but aimed at controlling the tenure and ownership situation and
conditions in itself. It could be restrietions on
seize and subdivision of property units, control
of transactions, access to ownership and so on.
This institution may overlap to a considerable
degree with the institution of property right
itself, and with land use control, but it is still
useful to have this category. There are also
public agencies and/or political bodies to enforce
these regulations.
To keep these two groups apart I will use the
name land use control for the first one, and
tenure control for the second one.
It might als o be convenient to have a concept for
institution and actor combined. Here I will
adopt a terminology, by which an institution
and corresponding actors is named "regime".
The term "regime" has a certain element of
power in it, it points to an aspeet of "rule" or
"government". This is appropriate in this conneetion, both the pro perty right and the public
control of land use have a gre at deal to do with
power. It should be noted however that the
power deriving from property right to a large
extent is to be attached to private aetors.
Thus there are two basic regimes related to
land and assets permanently attached to the
land: The property right regime and the public
regulation regime. The public regulation regime
could be further subdivided into regimes for
land use control and tenure control. There are
interplay between them, and together these regimes, and the interplay, constitute the basic framework for use of, and transactions with, "real
estate" in a society.
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Hans Seuatdal
It should be noted of course that there are
other types of institutions and players in the
"land use game" than owners, right holders and
public agencies. A wide variety of interest
groups, certain segments of the general public,
etc. could be mentioned. They are all omitted
here.
Summing up: The situation in a country, in
this case Norway, concerning ownership, tenure
and public regulations of land and assets permanently attached to the land could be analyzed
and understood by using the following concepts:
• Property right
• Property unit
• Owners and right holders
• Form oftenure
• Institutions
• Actors
• Public ageneies
• Land use control
• Tenure control
• Regimes
The property units
The Cadastre Unit
What is a property unit, and what are the property units in Norway like? In other words: How
are they conceptually defined and what are
their interesting characteristics?
The obvious staring point is the property
register (cadastre) in the officialland registration system. The official land registration system consists of two different, but interdependent parts; the legal register and the cadastre.
The cadastre, including maps, is basically a
register for defining and providing information
about the objects, i.e. the property units. The legal register defines the subjects and provide
information about the form of tenure, i.e. the
owners and right holders, and the nature of
their right.
In both registers the building biock is the
"standard" property unit, every one of which in
the whole country has an u nique identification.
I use the term "standard" pro perty unit because
there are other types of units as well, which I
will mention below, but I think it wise not to
introduee too much details at this stage. The
identification system is like this: The whole territory of Norway is subdivided into administrative units; the municipalities. Each municipalitYis subdivided into auxiliary territorial units,
260
mainly for cadastral purposes and partly for historical reasons which need not bother us here.
Each of these units is subdivided into the real
proper ty units. The municipalities, the auxiliary units and the property units each have a
number, the series for the municipalities starting with one for the whole country, the series
for the auxiliary units starting with one in the
municipality, and the property units staring
with one within the auxiliary unit. In this way
every "standard" property unit is uniquely defined as a territorial entity. It has got an identification in the registration system by the numbers, and in space by coordinates. It could be one
consolidated pareel, or it could com prise severaI
parcels .
The "standard" property unit is thus a physical entity with a fixed area on the surface of the
land. But in our system - as in most other countries - this entity in reality is a volurne, it has an
extension upwards in the air and downwards
into the ground. The distances upwards and
downwards are not stated in formallegislation,
but fairly well established in numerous court
rulings. It might roughly be said that the extension in both directions is as far as a "normal"
owner might have reasonable opportunities for
utilization.
Areas covered with fresh water are in principle handled in the same way as dry land, but
there are of course a lot of special usufruct and
use arrangements to water in rivers, in lakes
and in the ground. It could be water supply,
hydroelectric energy, fishing, transport, sewerage and so on. We are not going into these details, it suffice to say that a property unit on dry
land, adjacent to fresh water, extends out into
the body of water until it meets with another
property unit. It is not common to establish property units solely in water, even ifit is theoretically possible. The different use rights to
various recourses related to water are subject to
special formal and informallegal provisions.
Property units adjacent to salt water extend
for some distance out in the water, normally to
the drop off of the bottom if such a configuration
exists at reasonable depth, or 2 meters depth in
very shallow waters . At this boundary line property rights end, the territory further out is by
and large not within the regime of ownership
right, even if some specific rights might extend
further out. The property rights in salt water
are not stated in formallaw, they are based on
customary law and court rulings.
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80 far I have defined the standard pro perty
unit as a purely physical entity; a kind of volume with the surface of the earth as the central
element. That is however a rather incomplete
description, we must also add rights in or on
other property units and territories (or volumes), rights that are an integral part ofthe property unit. Typically this would be rights that is
somehow necessary or beneficial for the functioning of the entity. It could be right ofway, rights
to pipelines for water supply, drainage and
sewerage, and a multitude of usufruct rights in
rural settings, like pasture, firewood, timber
and so on. These rights are characterized by
being positively specified in volume and type of
use, and are called "servitudes" or "easements".
The point here is to make it clear that they are
"real" in the sense that they are integral parts of
the property unit, as opposed to personal easements, which belong to a person.
Another type of "judicial" extension of the
physical unit, which is highly important in rural
settings are "rights" and "shares" in common
areas. These areas could be state- or parish commons, owned by the state or a local body, where
farms in the local community of old have rights
to use the land for pasture, wood, hunting and so
on. But even more important are the cases
where land like forests, pastures, mountains,
lakes and rivers are used and actually "owned"
jointly by a group of property units, most often
farrns. Put together these two types of commons
and joint ownership constitute the dominant
type of ownership arrangements in mountain
areas over the timber line, and thus covers a
huge part of Norwegian territory. These ownership arrangements are described by me in an
article "Common Property in Norway's Rural
Areas", 8evatdal 1998. It is however important
to stress that the shares in jointly owned areas
are really owned, with all opportunities and responsibilities of ownership, conceptually fully
integrated into the property unit. The shares
are not to be confused with easements.
The land registration system in Norway
recognizes some other types of property units in
addition to the standard property unit. They
need not bother us too much here, but two have
to be mentioned. They are both based on special
legislation:
l)The first are building sites which are leased
on long term leasing contracts, according to conditions laid down in special legislation. This
units could be fixed areas with boundaries of
KART OG PLAN
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much the same types as the standard units, but
the they could be also a rented right to build a
house, f. ex. a cabin for recreational use, on a
certain spot. In that case the leasing would
include the exclusive use of a small area surrounding the house. The person in possession of
such a unit owns the building and rents the site.
2)The second is a speciallegal arrangement of
ownership to "sections" (apartments) in buildings with two or more fiats. The legal construction here is that the site and building itselfis a
standard property unit, but this standard unit
is owned jointly by a number of persons, normally corresponding to the number of fiats in
the building. Each owner of a share in the standard property unit have to his disposal exclusive
right to "his" fiat, and corresponding right to use
the rest of the property unit.
For most practical purposes persons in possession of both 1) rented building sites and 2)
fiats mentioned above, can dispose of his "property" in the same way as an owner. He can do
transactions like selling and mortgaging, and
the inheritance practices will be almost the
same.
2.2. Composite Property Units, or the concept
of "Property Units" in an economic, in an everyday, and in a functional sense
A "property unit" in a practical and everyday
sense, normally is a cadastral unit. But rather
frequently is not, a property unit in people's
consciousness does not necessarily always correspond with one cadastral unit. In all kind of
legal transactions the cadastral unit is at the
core of the matter, in the sense that it has to be
specified in the contracts; in away one may say
that the cadastral unit is the only formal legal
property unit. But a "property unit" in an eco nomic, functional or everyday sense, could consist
of severai cadastral units. A farm unit for
instance, or an industri al or other commercial
unit, often consists of severai cadastral units. In
that case legal transactions have to refer to all
cadastral units involved. I will use the term
"composite property unit" in these cases.
In a lot of cases, also cases of public and official nature, the composite property unit is the
real functioning unit. In a modern, dynamic
society it is almost impossible to make the cadastraI units correspond completely to the
demands of the economic life . The formal, public
mechanisms for creating cadastral units by sub-
261
Hans Sevatdal
divisions and amalgamations, have to follow
certain legal procedures. But all of these other
units have to have a well defined relationship to
the cadastral units, for instance that they are
multiples of - composed of - cadastral units. In
this way one may obtain a rather fiexible and
adaptable system, without loosing control in a
legal and political sense. A commercial enterprise of some sort may buy an additional piece of
land, and incorporate it into the enterprise in an
economic sense, but the particular piece of land
might still be kept as a separate cadastral unit.
For taxation purposes, for applying public land
use contral and tenure contral, and in a lot of
other cases, we have to deal with composite praperty units.
The most important public controls of the property units concern subdivisions and land use.
No subdivision can be made without consent
(permission) from the proper public agencies.
This applies not only to cadastral units, but also
to certain composite property units. Let us take
the exemple of a farm. A farm in Norway normally consists of the farm houses, agricultural
land and fore st land. Quite often there would
also be mountainous land, used for pasture,
hunting, fishing, recreation and so on, held
exclusively by the farmer, or held in some sort of
joint ownership with other farrns. This entity,
named a farm, could be one cadastral unit, but
quite often it would be a composite ownership
unit. Even so, all types of public land use restrictions, and tenure controls like prohibition of
subdivision, would apply to the composite unitthe farm as such. The same would be the case for
taxation, valuation, buying/selling, mortgaging
and inheritance.
2.3. Some approximate figures and facts
about the property units in Norway
The whole territory of mainland Norway is
324.000 sq. km. Only 3% is arable land, 25 %
productive commercial fore st, less than 1% is
urbanized land, the rest, appr.70% are mountains, bogs, lakes etc.
There are 4.4 million people, 75% live in urban or semiurban communities, 25% in rural
communities.
There are 435 municipalities, and 2.3 millions
cadastral property units. Every year there is an
increase of 40.000 property units, by subdivisions of existing ones. The annual turnover of
262
proper ty units (buying/selling) were appr.
135.000, which gives an annual turnover rate of
5,8%, at a total value of 68.000 million kroner
(1996). 67% of these 135.000 properties were
residential, 15% were recreational (cabins), 6%
were agricultural and fore st properties, 2% were
commercial properties and 1% industrial. The
rest, 9% were a mixed gro up or unspecified.
There are 180.000 combined agricultural and forest property units, but actually less than half
the number - appr. 70 - 80.000 farms in terms
of effective economic (commercial) entities. They
are generally small, but highly productive and
"modern" family farrns . Quite often the economic activity of the farming household combine
agriculture, fore stry and an extremely wide
variety of other occupations .
3. Owners and right holders, and types
oftenure
3.1. Introduction
Who are the owners ofreal pro perty, and how do
they own the properties? Conceptually speaking, characteristics of owners should be kept
separate from types of tenure. The former concerns features related to the ownersand right
holders (subjects), the latter deals with the relationship between property unit (object) and
owner (subject). For convenience sake and economy of description, I will portray both in the
same chapter.
The types of tenure found in Norway do not
deviate too much conceptually from the types
found in other countries in the Western European historical traditions. The distribution of
the different types may of course differ very
much, but by and large the same concepts and
terminology could be used, and understood, in
most of the Western World. There is however
one demographic, historical factor that is important to understand the Scandinavian situation,
and probably especially the situation in Norway: These countries have never experienced
neither massive invasions and subsequent settlements of alien peoples, nor gre at revolutions.
This means that there has been a more or less
continuous legal and cultural development of
institutions concerning land tenure.
For example, the transformation of Norwegian farmers from tenants to owners were a
slow process of farmers gradually buying their
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holdings as a response to economic feasibility. It
was not a land reform in the usual sense. It started late in the seventeenth century and was
completed late in the nineteenth century.
Tenure systems and property rights under
such conditions tend to develop in response to
economical, technological and demographie factors, normally in a peaceful and gradual manner. It also means that "old" or even "archaic"
forms and features do not suddenly disappear.
They may fade away and gradually lose importance in some regions or for some types ofland,
while in other places they are very much alive.
Institutional history is somehow preserved, as
layer up on layer of tenure arrangements. All in
all this may result in highly sophistie situations,
that may even seem complicated and difficult to
understand by outsiders.
3.2. The most important types of tenure and
corresponding gro ups of owners.
3.2.1. Freehold
This is the most familiar type oftenure for most
people in a "modern" society oftoday. In its simplest form it means that one person; a physical
human being or a legal person (corporation,),
owns a property unit completely. That means
that the owner is not restricted in any way in his
use and transactions by others, except for public
control ofland tenure and land use, and possible
mortgage holders. This is the dominant type of
tenure for urban land, and also, with some
exceptions, for agriculturalland.
3.2.2. Leasehold
This tenure form is based up on a contract between owner and the holder. The tenure arrangement between them is regulated in contract law,
not property law. The arrangement may comprise the total property unit, physical parts of
the unit or even functional parts of it. Such
types of tenure is very common for urban land,
and to a certain extent and in a special form, for
agriculturalland.
3.2.3. Joint ownership
There are mainly three different types of collective tenure:
1) Personal joint tenure.
In this case a number ofphysical or legal persons
are holding the title to a property unit jointly. I
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should be stressed that it is the title as such that
is jointly held, the property unit is an ordinary
unit in the cadastral system. This tenure may be
found everywhere for all types ofland.
2) Land owned in Common by farrns.
This is a very ancient and very traditional type
oftenure, and it apply to large mountain areas;
pastures, fore st over the timber line, hunting
grounds, lakes and rivers, but also to other
types of outfields, for instance along the coast.
The shares, which may be very unequal in size,
are integrated parts of the farm, and can normally not be separated from the farm. The
access to the use ofthe land is linked to the possession of a farm holding, the extent of use is relative to the size of each share.
3) Commons
This is also a very ancient and traditional type
of tenure. The State, and in some cases a group
of locals, have the title to the land, but a specified local community have extensive collective
rights to use the land for a multitude of purposes. Pasture, reclamation for agriculture, timber and firewood, hunting and fishing would be
the most important. The use oflakes, rivers and
waterfalls for hydroelectric development belong
to the title holder, i.e. the State. Huge areas in
the mountains and the north of Norway are
dominated by this type oftenure.
3.2.4. Easements
This means that a certain portion of the total
bundle of rights comprised by property right, is
held by another person than the title holder.
The legal base for the easement could be a contract, or it could be a very old arrangement
whose origin can not be traced any more. In the
Norwegian tenure system such rights have an
equal status as title, they are legal in the same
sense, and is equally well protected in law. The
easements might be fixed permanently to a property unit, or held by a physical or legal person
for a specified period oftime. They are very common and are found in all parts of the country,
and deemed to be very useful to create a dynamic and fiexible system. The distinction between easement and leasehold may not always
be very clear.
3.3. The owners
Who are the owners and right holders to real
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Hans Sevatdal
pro perty in Norway? The question of course has
an endless number of answers, one can always
tind new and somehow interesting features relating to the owners. Here I will make it very simple. First I will separate according to type of
land and land use; urban, agriculture, forests,
and mountains areas. Secondly I apply the following dichotomies: Individual- collective, physical-legal, private - public, residential- absentee, us er - non user.
Residential properties, that is family houses
and fiats, whether urban or rural, are largely
owned by the residential individuals and households themselves. In other words; the households normally own the house or fiat they are
living in. Leasehold are of course rather common for apartments in cities, but even there different types ofmixed property arrangement are
dominant, for instance cooperatives and corporations owned by the residents. It could take different forms we will not go into here. Pure and
simple leasehold is not dominant. In 1990 there
were appr. 1.7 million residential units, out of
which 58% were owned by the residents in freehold and 20% owned by the residents in other
types of mixed property arrangements. Only
22% were rented. (Bærug 1999)
Commercial and industrial real property are
mostly owned by corporations, as this is the
dominant organizational form for such enterprises.
There are also a high proportion of public property in urban areas. Naturally all kind of public
space, streets, roads, squares, public buildings,
infrastructure and so on in towns and cities, are
owned either by the municipality, the county
authorities or the government. But there are a
rapid increase in what we may call "semiprivate" or "semipublic" owners. A lot oftraditional
public activities have lately been reorganized
into independent legal bodies, some sort of corporations, that operate more or less like corporations in the private sector, but are completely
owned by the government. That is for instance
the case with state forests and the railroads.
Farms, including forest and mountains, are
almost always owned by private individuals. So
far there is practically no legal bo dies (corporations) that own farmland, and very few farms
are owned by public organizations. There is one
very obvious reason for that - the so called "odel
right", which is a right for members of the
family, to claim ownership to the family farm, in
case the farm is being sold to somebody outside
264
the family . The claim has to be made within one
year after the sale, and the price is decided by a
special court in case of disagreement between
the parties. This is an extremely ancient institution, deeply rooted in tradition and even protected in the Constitution. The right apply to practically all farmland, most of the forests and a
huge proportion ofmountainous areas. But only
physical persons can be members offamilies, never legal persons. Transfer to a corporation
would then always violate this tradition, and
release a possible claim by a family member.
In addition the tradition of individual private
ownership to farms is backed by tenure policies
and other legislation. Every transfer of farms
has to be approved by the land policy authorities, regarding both the new owner and the
price. There is no such thing as a free market for
farmland.
Practically all farmers in Norway are owners,
but not all owners are farmers. If an owner decides to quit farming, he normally rents out the
agricultural land as additional land to another
farmer. This process has been going on for quite
some decades. Today between 25 and 30 % of the
arable land is rented, only 50 % of the owners of
farmland properties are actually farmers, and
appr. 35 % of all farmers rent additionalland.
Approximately 60 % of the productiue forests
land is somehow part of farrns. The rest is
owned partly by private individuals, partly by
corporations and some by the government and
municipalities.
The typical ownership in the mountains are
commons of some sort, as outlined above.
3.4. Transactions
The owner have exclusive power to do all kind of
use and transactions which is not explicitly forbidden in law and regulations of equal power.
However, a lot oflegal types ofuse and transactions are still regulated in law in such away
that certain procedures etc. have to be observed.
Let us look into some of the most common transactions:
• SeIling a property unit. In some cases, most
notably for agricultural properties, the transaction needs concession (approval) from
public authorities, regarding both the new
owner and the price. In any case the deed has
to be registered in the legal land register to
make the new title valid.
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Real Estate Planning; An Applied Academic Subject
• Contraets establishing easements, leaseholds, mortgage and similar transaetions are
normally valid without concession and without being entered into the land register, but
leasehold arrangements have to be registered
if the duration exceed 10 years. However, to
have such transaetions registered, gives security and protection against eventual claims
from a third person, and are most often done,
except for short time renting of additional
agricultural land. The information in the legal land register have so called "trustworthiness"; a person in good faith, should be able to
do safe transactions on the basis of the information in the register. If losses still should
occur, due to mistakes in the registration,
such a person may claim compensation from
the state. Very few such claims are made, less
the 10 pr. year, out of a total of appr. 1 million
entries annually.
• Subdivisions of property units are rather
strietly regulated; such operations, both the
subdivision as such, and the new boundaries
need approval from proper authorities. The
aetual operation; surveying, documentation,
demarcation and so on, have to follow certain
procedures and standards, and are (normally)
performed by the surveying seetion of the
municipal administration.
• Reallocation of land, establishing of joint
infrastructure like access roads, fences and
drainage for severaI property units, regulations (rules) for commons, settling boundary
disputes and a multitude of similar operations are made by the Land Consolidation
Service. The point is that in case all the
owners and right holders agree, and otherwise follow laws and regulations, they may
perform these transaetions among themselves as they wish. In cases of disagreement,
even if only one out ofmany disagree, this one
or the others may take the case to the land
consolidation court. Here a solution will be
made either by ruling of the court, or a solution will be found by mediation and negotiations among the parties. The latter are becoming more and more frequent.
4. Some refiections on public control and
the research agenda
The institution ofproperty right is deeply rooted
in Norwegian society. So deep in faet that it has
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tion into The Constitution, or in ordinary legislation for that matter. It is taken for granted.
There is however a large body oflegislation, and
also some political controversy, devoted to the
problem of public control of tenure and the use
of real property. From an owner's point of view
this will often be seen as limitations and even
sometimes unfair encroachments on his rights.
From a "public" standpoint this may bee seen
quite different. One crucial question, on which
this controversy often ends up, is to what extent
compensation should be paid to owners for
restrictions imposed on them, in their use and
transaetions with real property.
The public control of real estate are, as mentioned above, oftwo kinds; land use control and
tenure control.
1) Land use control takes different forms, the
most important is town and country planning, zoning, and building control. The building control comprise both where to build,
what to build, and control of the aetual standards (quality) of the works. It is most
strongly imposed in an urban contexts. Land
use planning is however generally applied to
all the territory of Norway, in various forms
and with varying degree of detailed regulations and legal consequences. It is based on
nationallegislation and standards, but municipal authorities play a crucial role in the
aetivity, both in the planning and the enforcement processes. In rural areas, and especially
in forests, mountains and the like, landscape
and nature conservation aspeets seem to be
most important for the time being. It is generally accepted throughout most segments of
society that the governments on national, regional and local levels have both a right and
duty to perform this aetivity, even if the
actual regulations themselves may be highly
controversial.
2) Tenure control is most strongly applied in
rural areas, to farms and fore st land. It comprise severaI components, the most important are: a) Control of ownership; to buy a
farm the buyer has to get approval from the
Iocal government, and settle (live) on the
farm for the next 5 years . The aim ofthis is to
enhance local settlement, and farmer's
ownership. b) Control ofthe price to keep it at
Iow leveIs; the aim of this is to enhance the
economy for the aetive farmers , and to prevent speculation in farmland.
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Hans Sevatdal
The two regimes; property right on one hand
and public controlon the other, constitute the
basic institutional framework for use of, and
transactions with real estate. Together with the
factual situations, development and problems
concerning real estate, they also comprise the
framework for education and applied research.
Education and research at an academic level
started in Norway in 1898, with the establishment of two chairs, one in land consolidation
and one in surveying, and a study programme,
at The Agricultural University. The aim at the
beginning was to serve the needs of the The
Land Consolidation Service, established in
1859. This service has successively developed
into a special branch of the judicial system. The
original two chairs have developed into two
departments, one in surveying and the other in
land use planing, both serving a multitude of
professional needs . I will not dwell on educational aspects, suffice to say that the programms
always have had, and still have, an applied
caracter; an educational mixture of "know-how"
and "do-how", comprising surveying, law, economics, cadastre, tenure systems, land use planning, land concolidation and so on.
The research activity has the same applied
character. The posing of problems and research
questions have be en mainly focused on:
• Factual situations and development concerning property units, owners- and right holders, tenure arrangements and so on: In short
the dynamics in the property right regime.
• Relationships between factors within the property right regime, the public regulation
regime and actual land use.
• The actual professional activity in real estate
planning, management, re arrangement and a
lot of different "transactions" by public and
private actors within the pro perty regime; in
The Land Consolidation Service, in the cadastraI practices, in public land acquisition,
expropriation and so on. Most often the aim of
this research has been to provide insights and
266
knowledge for more efficient ways of doing
things; more effective "do-how". The concept
of "trans action costs" seems to be more and
more impor tant, also in public agencies working in this field.
• Valuation ofreal estate for different purposes.
• Land registration
• The development and impact of institutional
arrangements . At present there seems to be
especially three inter dependent, very promising research questions in this field: 1) How do
institutional factors influence transactions
costs, 2) how do they frame conditions for
mediation, negotiations and negotiated solutions, and 3) how are the consistency oflegislation in the field oftenure regulations.
Traditionally the main body of research was
related to rural settings, partly because we are
at an agricultural university, partly because
land consolidation was developed primarilyas
an instrument for re arrangement of rural real
estates. This instrument is still not very well
developed for use in urban areas, but it is underway. As an academic subject however, both in
teaching and research, urban situations and
problems have been on the agenda at our
department for a long time.
5. Referenees :
Doeble, w.A. 1983: Concepts of Urban Land
Tenure. Pp. 63 - 107 in Dunkerly, H.B. : Urban Land Policy. Issues and Opportunities.
Oxford University Press.
North, D.C .1990: Institutions, Institutional
Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge University Press.
Scott, w.R. 1995: Institutions and Organizations. SAGE Publications
Sevatdal, H. 1998: Common Property in Norway's Rural Areas. Pp.141 -169 in: Berge and
Stenseth (ed.): Law and the Governance of
Renewable Resources.
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Cadastral Research - Issues and Approaches
E r ik Stubkjær
Erik Stubkjær: Cadastral Research - Issues and Approaehes
KART OG PLAN, Vol 59, pp. 267-278, P.O.B. 5029, N-1432 Ås, ISSN 0047-3278
In Denmark land management inc1udes cad astral issues, property law, and certain economic issues.
The artic1e r estricts itself to the cadastral issues and presents a survey of the cadastral problem domain. The survey is based on an early Danish cadastral work, and on t wo internationally oriented
textbooks.
The textbooks present cadastre in the context of information systems . Consequently, a selective
survey of information systems r esearch is made, focusing on natural science (positivistl and alternative paradigms. It appeared that the alternative paradigms became recognised in information systems research around 1990 and some years later in GIS research. The development suggests viewing
the cadastre in its cultural context. It is discussed whether this can be done within natural science faculties.
Danish experiences with information systems development have earlier been reported with reference to network theory (Stubkjær, 1992). A similar approach was identified within recent lSD research. This and the above survey led to proposals for the design of future cad astral research.
Keywords: Cadastre. Kataster. Problem domain. Information system. Information systems development. Research design. Paradigm.
Erik Stubkjær, Professor, Lic. Agro. (PhD), Department of Development and Planning, Aalborg University, Fibigerstræde 11, DK-9220 Aalborg øst, Denmark.
E-Mail: < [email protected]. > UML: www.i4.auc.dklest!
1. Introduction
In some countries cadastral issues have been
taught at institutions of higher education for
more than 100 years. This is due to the need of
the society for high-Ievel qualifications regarding transactions concerning land and real
estate, including the change of boundaries of
real property.
Transactions concerning real property, and
hence the cadastral subject area, are described
in terms of legal prescripts . It would, however,
be misleading to conceive the field as a sub-discipline within law. This is because the cadastraI subject area includes substantial technical
elements. For example, the legal determination
of the boundary of real property is based on
identification and measurement of objects in the
field . Also, the maintenance of national or regional databases on real property and related
rights and obligations demands substantial
technical knowledge, especially because of the
geospatial nature of the recor ded data. The
technical knowledge is provided by professioKART OG PLAN
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nals and represented in an international setting
by FIG, the International Federation of Surveyors.
During the 1970s and 80s the cadastral issues
got an international dimension. This was partly
motivated by a concern, hosted by the UN and
other agencies, to support developing countries
with incomplete or non-existent cadastral systems. Another impetus for an international perspective on cad astral issues was the fact that
the diffusion of applications of computer software was hampered by national peculiarities.
The development of general mo dels of the diverse, national cadastral systems might reduce
these bar riers. Finally, research efforts, also
within neighbouring and emerging disciplines
like cartography, geographical information systems, and computer science by the very nature
of research introduced an international dimension into the cadastral subject area.
The Danish term of the cadastral field is
'matrikelvæsen'. The term derives from late
Latin matricula - register, as in the matriculation of students of a university, that is to enter
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Erik Stubkjær
information into a form (matrix) . The suffix:
'-væsen' probably emerged within Kameralwissenschaft (Zincke, 1755) and denotes the institutional aspects of a field. The term '-væsen' is
approximated by English terms like service,
authority, or system.
Cadastral and related teaching has expanded
its part of the Danish study programme for
chartered surveyors from about 1/6 around 1970
to 2/7 now, largely at the expense ofthe disciplines of drawing and site development and drainage ('Jord og Vand'), which were phased out.
Surveying, mapping, photogrammetry and
remote sensing, and GIS cover about 4/7, and
spatial and public planning dominates the
remaining subjects . The umbrella name of cadastraI teaching is 'Arealforvaltning' - Land
Management. The majority of cadastral study
elements are lectured during the 3rd study year
and includes cadastrallaw and procedures, property law with land registration, assessment for
property tax and compulsory purchase, and property registration at large, with legal aspects of
GIS.
In the following I shall outline my view of
cadastral studies, by focusing on cadastral research. I write primarily for staff at university
departments, who relate themselves to FIG, and
for researchers in related disciplines. My special
concern is the colleagues in European countries
in transition, where geodetic studies have a
recognized position among the natural science
disciplines. It is a challenge to maintain that
position when social science elements must be
appropriated more weight within the study programmes .
The limitations of the paper mean that substantial issues are left out:
• Economy with transaction co st theory, regulatory policy, and economics of information
• Sociology ofprofessions, of organisations, and
of science
• Law in terms of sociology of law, and the important study of positive law
• Political science, especially from the point of
view of governance and implementation
• Geography, with urban dynamics, spatial
analysis, and GIS, and
• Linguistics and knowledge engineering, providing an approach to elicit general knowledge that is carried by legal and other texts,
and to use it for improvement of education (cf.
Stubkjær,1994)
268
The following pages aim at charting the cadastraI problem domain and developing grounded
suggestions for the design of further cadastral
studies. To gain perspective, section 2 refers to
early Danish cadastral research and indicates
essential components of the domain. Section 3
extends the scope to the worldwide by means of
two textbooks in the cadastral field (Dale &
McLaughlin, 1987; Larsson, 1991). Common for
the three works is that they aim at covering a totality, rather than focusing on a specific issue.
The two textbooks introduce the importance of
information technology for cadastre and land
management. A substantial amount of cadastraI issues may thus be conceived as a subfield
within information systems research. If this
position holds it means that the approaches and
methods of information systems research can be
applied for cadastral studies. Section 4 provides
for a selective survey of information systems
development (lSD) research.
The main re as on that cad astral research is
not entirely a subfield of information systems
research is that lSD research is mainly concerned with information systems in the industry,
while the specific conditions which regard
governmental information systems are less
explored. Cadastral systems may be organized
as a purely governmental affair, or - alternatively - rely on market-based services. Decisive is
that the cadastre is rooted in the government
and may be conceived as an instrument of law
and order. Therefore cadastral research must
take into account the power relations and specific cultures of the government. Section 5 refers
to lSD research that addresses these issues.
It is contended that a cadastre presupposes a
specific culture, a bureaucratic maturity, to operate. While GIS technology expands worldwide,
the cultural implications may question the role
of cad astral research outside the European
homeland of the cadastre. Section 6 develops on
the cultural aspects and outlines alternative
approaches to cadastral research. A conclusion
doses the paper.
2. Cadastral studies - An emerging
discipline
In Denmark the first cadastral position within
higher education was established in 1874
(Betænkning, 1972), and the first professor was
installed in 1970. It branched from the discipline of surveying (in Continental Europe one
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Cadastral Research - Issues and .Approaches
would say: the discipline of geodesy). The first
holder of the cadastral position, the reader E.
Mørup, rather quickly provided a compendium
of circular letters and decisions on cadastral
issues (Mørup, 1880, 1893). The scientific contribution is not the compendium as such, but the
naming and ordering of the elements of the
cadastral subject matter.
It is a classical aetivity in science to open a
new subject area by describing and naming the
elements of the subject area. Prominent examples include the botanical system of Linne (Systema naturæ, 1735), and the table of elements
by Mendelejev, and Lothar Meyer, respectively
(about 1869).
Mørup was concerned with governmental
praetice and teaching, rather than with the nature . His elements were ministerial letters.
Mørup named 35 classes to which he allocated
relevant prescripts from 1782 to his own time.
So far, we do not know ofhis ordering principles.
Catchwords ofthe classes were organized alphabetically, and within the classes the letters were
put in chronological order. In Figure 1 below the
35 classes are struetured into 6 groups, to make
the cadastral universe of Mørup more explicit.
His own numbering and wording appear (in
Danish) in the right column. Some Danish cadastraI terms are not translated.
From Figure 1 it appears that legal rules
regarding terrain objeets of different kinds motivated the largest number of classes . The
second largest group includes the different
types of cadastral proeedures, which got one
class each. The group includes procedural rules
for expropriation where chartered surveyors
had (an d have ) a statutory task.
Compared to other countries it is worthy of
note that no prescripts were issued which
demanded a certain quality of measurements
and calculations. This is due to the faet that theory-based quality measures were developed in
Germany during and after Mørup's time. Also,
prescripts on permanent boundary marks and
other monuments did not get special mentioning
until the present century.
From a recent systems analysis perspeetive
you miss a reference to what is today called databases. The ledgers and archives of Mørup's time
were largely internal ministerial business; only
copies and certificates were relevant to the outside, cf. the group: Prescripts on documents.
Also, reference to land law: the conceptions of
real property, title, mortgages, easements, etc. is
KART OG PLAN
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missing Oll appears only implicitly from Mørup's
classification.
The classification by (Mørup, 1880) is, nevertheless, worth mentioning. His efforts were useful for the profession, by providing an easy
access to the knowledge that was needed by the
surveyors, and his dasses are still indicative of
essential cadastral elements, even if they are
not all embracing.
3. Cadastre and information systems
Mørup's classification charaeterizes a cadastral
subjeet area with the following elements: An organizational, partly governmental structure
provides the setting for procedures that convey
information in the form of documents on termin
objects, which are statutorily described .
The following extends the discussion of the
cadastral subjeet area by means of two textbooks: Land Information Management - An introduetion with special reference to cadastral problems in Third World countries (Dale &
McLaughIin, 1989), and Land registration and
cadastral systems - Tools for land information
and management (Larsson, 1991). Both textbooks use the term Land Information as a general
term, in accord with the title Land Information
Systems that was adopted in 1978 by the International 1"ederation of Surveyors (FIG) for one
oftheir scientific commissions (Eichhorn, 1981).
(Dale & McLaughlin, 1989) present a taxonomy of information systems where Land Information Systems is the term applied for systems
related to large map scales (generally used for
cadastral purposes), while Geographical Information Systems (GIS) is the term applied for
small map scale systems (mostly used by geographers). The latter term became, however, the
general term for the rapidly developing research
field, cf. (Longley et al, 1999).
The two textbooks discuss cadastral and related issues in the context of management of
information systems. They present the new subjects: Information management and related economic issues, together with more traditional
material: Surveying and mapping, and law.
Figure 2 overleaf provides a survey of the chapters of the two textbooks according to the mentioned disciplines.
The scope of the survey justifies that a chapter
is generally related to only one content headline . Larsen's chapter 11 addresses legal as well
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Erik Stubkjær
Terrain objects
to which specific rules apply
Procedure rules
for cadastral and related cases
2) Washed awayareas (Bortskyllede arealer)
5) Joint property units (Fælleslodder)
7) - (Gadejord)
9) Fences (Hegn)
10) Railroads (Jernbaner)
11) Midwife's house (Jordemoderboliger)
12) Churchyards (Kirkegårde)
21) Mills (Møller)
25) Sand drift areas (Sandfiugtsstrækninger)
27) School plots (Skolelodder)
28) Forests (Skove)
4) Expropriation (Expropriation)
19) Exchange ofland (Magelæg)
23) - (Omdeling affæstegods)
24) Amalgamation (Sammenlægning)
30) Registration oftitle (Thinglæsning af
adkomstdocumenter)
32) Partition of co-owned property unit (V dskiftning)
33) Subdivision (Vdstykning)
3) Building and fire protection (Bygnings- og brandvæsen)
6) Tenants and ordinary estates (Fæstevæsen og
Legislation to comply
in cadastral cases
Bondejords behandling)
18) Entailed estates (Lehn og Stamhuse)
22) Sanitary prescripts
N æringsvæsen
34) Watercourse services (Vandløbsvæsen)
35) Road services (Veivæsen)
Taxes and duties, incl.
soil fertility classification
Organisation of the cadastre
and related administration
13) - (Kongelige Penge .. og andre afgifter)
16) - (Landskatshartkorn)
26) System of taxation (Skattevæsen)
29) System of stamp duty (Stempelvæsen)
31) Transfer duty to private persons (Tiende)
15) Chartered surveyors (Landinspecteurer og Landmaalere)
17) Quasi judicial commissions
(Land væsenscommissioner)
20) Cadastral service (Matriculsvæsen)
Prescripts on documents
1) - (Attester om hartkorn)
8) Copies and certificates (Genparter og ud skrifter)
14) Maps (Kort)
Figure 1: 35 elasses used by (Mørup, 1880) in a compendium of cadastral prescripts
as information management issues, and is thus
recorded twice. It appears that the authors largely agree on the subjects covered.
Both textbooks introduce issues, which were
not mentioned in the context of Mørup's classification, but which are inherently cadastral. The
international perspective of the textbooks
makes it evident that land parcels can be identified in severaI ways. As a consequence, alterna270
tive parcel reference systems (Dale & McLaughlin, 1989: 39f) and land unit identifiers (Larsson, 1996: 157f) are mentioned. An early record
of the land parcel identifier issue is (Moyer &
Fisher, 1973).
The identification ofparcels and real property
units has to be completed with information on
the relative location and form of the lots. For
most countries in Europe the analogue, cadastraI maps serve that purpose, supplemented by
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Cadastral Research - Issues and Approaches
Textbook
content
Dale & McLaughlin
Larsson
Introduction,
history, visions,
conclusions
1. Land information
3. The fiscal cadastre
4. The multipurpose cadastre
12. Conclusions and recommendations
1. Land information systems
2. Cadastre and land registration
3. Historical development ..
4 ... systems in Europe
15 . .. in English-speaking countries
Surveying and
mapping
5 . .. spatial referencing
6. Surveys and mapping
9 . Cadastral surveying
Legal issues
2 . Land registration
10. Adjudication (ofrights in land)
11. Registration (ofrights in land)
Management of
(geo-)informa tion
7. Digital mapping
8. Data management
11. Management issues
11. Registration (, organization of)
13. Organization, automation,
education
6. Benefits of cadastre and land
register ..
7. Further benefits .. Calculating
benefits
8. Feasibility studies
14 .. . ways ofsimplification
Economic and
9. The economics of LIS
feasibility issues 10. Institutional arrangements
Figure 2: Survey of issues covered by two cad astral textbooks
monumented, geodetic control networks, cf.
(Dale & McLaughlin, 1989), chapters 5 and 6.
Both textbooks address the issue of quality measures, mostly from the perspective that the
benefits of cadastrelland registration systems
can be achieved with lower demands on measurement standards (Larsson, 1996: 96; Dale &
McLaughlin, 1989: 27f, 126).
The geodetic information is metric, but important spatial information, e.g. neighbour relations, is of an ordinal rather than a metric nature. (Dale & McLaughlin, 1989) mention spatial refereneing that is not related to the centre
of the earth, e.g. 'metes and bounds'. Also, you
can describe routes and the location ofpremises
without referring to co-ordinate systems. (Stubkjær, 1992) mentions severai, metric and nonmetric, spatial reference frames.
Regarding the legal issues both textbooks discern between title and deed registration of real
property and mention the main seetions of the
land registry: property (identification) section,
the proprietorship seetion, and the encumbrances section, including mortgages and easements. It appears that the authors take an
information system, rather than a legal view of
the issue. The information systems aspeets are
more fully addressed below in section 4.
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Both textbooks introduee economic and fea sibility issues. It must be noted, however, that the
issue is introduced in away that does not match
Danish experiences, e.g. regarding the development of the national information system (frequently called 'register') on Buildings and Premises
(1974-80), cf. (Stubkjær, 1992). As a matter of
faet merging interests of the participating parties motivated the Danish development. A cost!
benefit estimate of the project was made, but not
much diseussed.
This is in contrast to the development
approach taken by the two textbooks, which
emphasizes a rational analysis of problems,
assessment of benefits and costs, decision on
Land Information project, implementation, and
monitoring. The established Land Information
System will in turn improve decision-making,
cf. Figure 3 below.
IInfonnation
,
People
I Technology
-~
......
Land
Infonnation
Management
f }lore
--+~ ,ff"tive
decision
making
Figure 3: The land information management
challenge (Dale & McLaughlin, 1989) Fig. 1.8
271
Erik Stubkjær
illustrated by a paper by G. Feder for a World
Bank seminar in 1986, a pa per that is quoted by
both textbooks. The reasoning goes that titled
land provides security to farmers as well as to
lenders, which will trigger more investment.
The increased investment provides for more variable input use, which in turn gives higher output, higher income, and higher prices in land
(Dale & McLaughlin, 1989: 174f; Larsson, 1996:
58±).
Rationalistic reasoning has motivated the
development of information systems, too, but
the reference to Danish experiences above indicate, that such logic of development not always
correspond to reality.
Research in the field of information systems
development provides for alternative conceptions, which fit better with experiences, as will
be described in section 4.
Summarising, the survey of the contents of
the two textbooks demonstrated that cad astral
issues are related to severaI disciplines: Surveying and mapping, law, information systems,
and economics. The dominant role of the information systems discipline appears from the
introduction and scope of the land information
textbooks and from the way legal issues are treated, rather than from the amount of chapters,
which specifically addresses information systems.
Furthermore, the survey suggested an extension ofthe list of cadastral issues, which originated from Mørup's work, including parcel identifier and spatial reference frames, which identify
and locate information on terrain objects in
databases.
Finally, it was noted that the development
logic of information systems, as described by the
textbooks, differed from Danish experiences.
A tentative view of the cadastral problem
domain (a 'root definition', cf. Checkland, 1981,
as summarised by Hirschheim et al, 1995) is
presented without comments as figure 4.
4. Research in information systems
development
The previous section established information
systems (IS) as a context for cadastral studies.
The economic potential and various consequences of computer technology have attracted substantially more intellectual resources to this
new field, and to the field of GIS, than to cadastraI studies. Therefore, it is beneficial to draw
on experiences from the IS and GIS research.
The research regarding computers and information systems is overwhelming, and the research
focus has developed over time. The present survey focuses on the basics of research: methodo-
hold
Property Rights
Ru1e Sets
to
reflect
Terrain Objects
Technolo 'lY
Cu1ture
Figure 4: A view of the cadastral problem domain
272
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Cadastral Research - Issues and Approaches
logy and reality conception and include the purpose of fin ding an answer to the discrepancy
mentioned above between a development logic
based on economics and the Danish experiences.
It appears that early computer science rese arch was techno-centric and largely restricted to
the traditional engineering disciplines . The
development of information systems benefited
from computer technology, as it became available during the decades: Computer aided systems
engineering (CASE) tools were developed by
applying the available technology for systems
analysis and design. Prototyping became part of
the development strategy as standard software
packages and graphical us er interfaces became
available, and object-oriented analysis and design methods have been developed as a refiection of object-oriented software engineering.
Improvements of information systems development methods are, however, not only due to the
technological impact.
Research into the human and organizational
aspects of information contributed to the development, as did new technology. From an organizational perspective one can note that early
systems development methods assumed a rational and hierarchically structured organization,
which called for a similarly structured development proeess. The concern for achieving well
defined goals in an optimal way originated in
the hierarchically structured, armed services.
The developed methods were applied by private
enterprises, and from the 1960s used by governmental ageneies to provide products and services effectively.
Human and wider organizational aspects
were included in the IS research during the
1980s (e .g. Bjørn-Andersen et al, 1986; Eason,
1988). In Scandinavia the research had specific
reference to trade unions. From the 1990s social
and philosophical issues were addressed as weU
(Floyd et al, 1992 ; Dahlbom & Matthiassen,
1993; Hirschheim et al, 1996). This development
marked an important distinction between research in computer science, and research in information systems. Computer science research, as
represented by (Denning, 1989), shares the
basic assumptions of reality and scientific
enquiry with (natural) science, while research
in information systems includes, and often largely relies on, the research paradigms of sociology.
(Klein, 1999) refers to a paradigm shift in MIS
Quarterly and three articles in Communications
KART OG PLAN
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oftheACM during 1989 as a turning point in the
IS r esearch. One of the articles (Denning, 1989)
described a 'Core of Computer Science' that may
be related to a positivist viewpoint, while the
two other articles stated and developed up on alternative approaches to information systems
development and information systems research.
Klein notes that a debate of paradigms hardly
took place . Within few years it became accepted
in research circles to con sider «three research
paradigms in information systems research,
namely the positivist, the interpretivist, and the
critical» (Klein, 1999: 20). Positivism is, however, still the most frequent type of research, as
counted by the number of articles and other
research contributions.
The research within geographical information science (GIS, replaeing the former notion of
geographieal information systems) has similarities with the research in computer science and
information systems. In both cases the discussion on paradigm and worldview became manifest in research, however, with some delay in the
specialized field. J. Pickles refers to a workshop
at Friday Harbor, November 1993, which raised
«Questions of origins , epistemology, .. , forms of
representation, and the politics and ethics of
information (which so far) have generally been
seen as marginal to the more technical questions of systems development and application .. »
(Pickles, 1999 : 64).
The discussion ofresearch paradigms furthermore becomes visible through special issues of
journals. In the field of information systems
mention is made of 'Social Science Perspectives
on IS' inACM Transcations on Information Sys tems (Kling, 1994), and the more comprehensive
special issue: Research on Systems Development - Position and critique, in Accounting,
Management and Information Technologies
(Hirschheim, Klein & Lyytinen, 1996). The GIS
complement is the special issue : GIS and Society in Cartography and GIS (Sheppard, 1996).
Finally, the different worldviews may be related to departments. It has been observed that
information systems research is perforrned to a
gre at extent at business departments (Kling,
1999). Therefore, one can imagine a division of
work between computer science departments,
working within a natural science paradigm, and
business department research in information
systems within social science paradigms.
Also in geography a division is made between
researchel' s and departments with different
273
Erik Stubkjær
Computer science/
Information systems
Geographical Information
Worldview disThree articles in Communications
cussion surfaced of the ACM, during 1989.
National Centre for Geographical
Information and Analysis
(NCGIA)'s Friday Harbor
Workshop, 1993
Pickles: Ground truth, 1995
Social Science Perspectives on IS
ACM Transactions on Information
Systems (1994) 12/2
Special issues of
Research on Systems Development
journals
- Position and critique Accounting,
GIS and Society Cartography and
GIS (1995) 22/ 1
Management and Information
Technologies (1996) 6/ 1-2
Labels of
'schools' or
approaches
computer science;
(natural) science, positivist
'spatial analysts';
technicist, instrumentalist, positivist
information systems;
interpretivist, critical
'social theorists';
hermeneutie, critical
Figure 5: References to literature on 'worldview' discussions in computer science and in geographical information science .
worldviews. In geography physical geographers,
that is staff of departments of physical geography, are counted as 'spatial analysts' that
take a natural science approach. Human geographers are divided: some are 'spatial analysts', too, some are called 'social theorists'
(Johnston, 1999: 42, referring to Sheppard,
1995). (Johnston, 1999) presents a typology of
'the nature of science': empirical, hermeneutie,
and critical, which provide partly alternative
conceptions of the reality (ontology) and how it
can be inquired (epistemology).
It is worthy of note that the paradigms of
sociology are apparent not only in philosophical
treatises, but also in empirical research, e.g.
(Gartner & Wagner, 1996). Their article describes actors, arenas, networks, and procedures,
respectively, in a case study of information systems development in Germany and Austria.
These are the concepts which (Stubkjær, 1992)
used to describe the development of Danish national information systems of the 1970s.
The above selective review of research in
information systems and in geographical information systems, thus did succeed in finding a
research approach that fits the mentioned
account of Danish experiences. Furthermore,
the review provides a reference for an interpre274
tation of the two cadastral textbooks, which
were discussed in the previous section: They
appear to be written in the same tradition as the
first phases of computer science research. Organizational and other social science issues are
addressed by the textbooks, but as con text rather than as an issue for investigation, and the
development logic that is presented in the textbooks is as rational as the computer science
paradigm.
The review of the present section touched
upon methods and techniques, which are relevant for cadastral studies, e.g. CASE tools, but
focused on research on the reality relation of
information systems. It was established that
the natural scientist, positivist paradigm was
questioned during the 1980s and 90s and in
some research departments supplemented with
alternative paradigms.
Cadastral research must include alternatives
to the positivist paradigm. However, as cadastral
studies in Europe are generally related to naturaI science disciplines (surveying and geodesy)
and located within a faculty of science, it is considered a drawback if cadastral research should be
based on a paradigm that does not relate to the
positivist paradigm. The challenge is thus to
draft a research approach that accepts different
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Cadastral Research - Issues and .Approaches
worldviews in a consistent way, for example similar to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle (Heisenberg, 1927). The challenge is addressed in the
following section, by developing on the article by
Gartner and Wagner and relating it to a previous
attempt of establishing a theoretical basis for
cad astral studies (Stubkjær, 1996).
5. A theoretical basis for cadastral
studies
(Gartner & Wagner, 1996) present a theoretical
framework for the development of information
systems in a political context. The framework
enables a discussion of the political and organizational context of the design of information
systems, including the participation of the parties concerned. This is highly relevant for cadastraI research, as
• cadastral information systems are part of the
public administration,
• their development has frequently political
implications, and
• more parties are mostly involved.
Three social arenas for participation are distinguished: designing work and systems, designing
organizational frameworks for action, and designing the industrial relations context, respectively. A social arena is «a place in which different communities of actors meet to discuss shared or overlapping projects and concerns»
(:191-2). «Each arena of action has its own set of
legitimate agendas - from questions of user
interface design to quality of working life and
privacy issues» (:188). Arenas need not be limited by boundaries, agendas, and values set by
existing organizations and their subunits; they
may rather extend across such limitations, and
change over time.
Actors interact in actor networks as representatives of, for example a professional community, an organizational unit, a setting of workplaces, or a political group. The actual behaviour of actors is, however, not conceived as
determined by their representative tasks or
recorded according to rational, goal-seeking patterns. Rather, «we can lo ok at an actor network
as being engaged in creating an identity space,
which can be described in the very mixed vocabulary ofvalues, myths, political strategies, styles, and taste - in moral-political as well as in
aesthetic categories» (:192).
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The theoretical base that Gartner & Wagner
draw upon views systems development as 'culturaI practiees' and 'socio-technical dramas'. The
authors themselves point to the fact that an
interpretation in terms of 'particularly shaped
identities" may conceal the political nature of
practices. They state that «Actor networks are
networks of powers and dependencies, .. »( :193),
and refer to «the power of established networks»
(:211). Power is, however, also related to places :
«.. it is important to look at the specific location
or place from where these powers act. These places can be a local or national union, the offices of
a company's top management, a specific workplace, a consultant firm, . . . Each of these places hosts its own political framework which in
turn shapes what its inhabitants hold as a legitimate standard, value, interest, or procedure.»
(:193).
When research in cadastral issues aspires to
extend from the Continental European homeland of the cadastre it is surely mandatory that
different cultural practises are recognized and
accounted for. However, for cadastral research
the investigation of cultural practices is ameans
rather than an end in its own right. It is, therefore, questionable how cultural aspects ought to
be addressed.
This issue is illustrated by another study that
does not address cultural aspects. The study
used a similar set of terms to describe how the
German law of chemical substances came into
being (Schneider, 1988), however with a different interpretation. Volker Schneider conceived
actors as holders of power relative to other
actors of a policy issue network and arenas as
the places where actors meet, e.g. OECD working groups, Parliament, boards of organizations, and secret working groups. Arenas in
terms of commissions and working groups changed during the process. The legitimate agendas
of the arenas were understood as largely determined by the actors who set up the arenas (working groups with their terms of reference ). The
pace and direction of development was determined by the actors and their bargaining with
their power resources of different forms : technical knowledge, position in governmental hierarchy, organizational strength, reputation relative to social dynamics, among others. The re construction of the chain of events and the assessment of power resources, etc. were objectivized
as far as possible.
The benefit of the approach of Schneider is
275
Erik Stubkjær
that a decade of events, spanning severaI countries and interest groups, is elicited into a tight,
consistent record. Furthermore, the law development process, or drama ifyou prefer, is treated with the same search for rigor that one
would find in the natural sciences. Schneider's
concept set and research design can thus be
related to the positivist paradigm, surely a
benefit in the context of the challenge of cadastraI studies that were mentioned at the end of
previous section.
A limitation is, however, that such research
design presupposes a practice of setting up commissions, etc. in pursue of quasi rational solutions of the actor's rather explicitly established
goals. Such practice demands a specific culture,
namely a high level of bureaucratic maturity of
the country concerned, a national appreciation
ofrational approaches, and furthermore a country so big that the national expertise in a specific
field is generally objectivized and not the monopoly of a single person. This culture cannot be
expected globally, and it is thus a research issue
to develop a research design which benefits from
both the cultural practice/ interpretivist
approach and a rather positivist approach.
What can be concluded from this section is,
however, that the concept set of actors, actor
networks, arenas, and agendas must be included in the theoretical basis of cad astral research.
6. The cultural setting ofthe cadastre,
and its implications for research
The previous section indicated that an understanding of the development of national information systems need to include cultural issues.
One can narrow the question ofhow this is done
best, by taking into consideration that information systems, and especially national information systems, ne ed a certain culture, in terms of
practices and values, to operate. More specifically, the cadastre presupposes a specific culture, not only by the surveyors and civil servants involved, but also by the society at large .
This issue is illustrated by a quotation of the
article by Gartner and Wagner, and some implications for cadastral research are stated.
The recording of real estates and the protecting of real property rights must be rooted in the
government and the procedures of a constitutional state (Rechtsstaat). The idea of 'govern by
rule and not by man', and its development into
276
modern bureaucracies or public administrations, is a means to secure a high level ofpredictability and stability. The compliance with and
enforcement of rules is the precondition for the
general trustworthiness of agreements on all
leveIs: individual, collective, and national.
However, one may question the norm of
loyalty towards rules. One type of critique of the
norm is moral, as it sees a too strict compliance
with governmEmtal rules as a denial or suppression of individual responsibility (cf. Germany
1933-45). Another type is rather economic, as it
sees the formalization and inflexibility of
bureaucracy as an impediment to efficiency. Critique may, however, also be raised as a means to
undermine the strength of the bureaucracy
when it discloses and attacks vested interests.
The issue ofloyalty towards norms is vast.
The mixed values that are related to bureaucracies are illustrated very well by the following
quotation: «.. the existence ofnumerous conventions and Ioc al procedures .. create the strange
situation in which human actors and technical
objects evolve predictably, as if acted on by rules
to which they confirm» (Gartner & Wagner,
1996:194). The text goes on by seeking ways to
achieve a «more dynamic and flexible [network]».
A bureaucracy may indeed be as strange, difficult to accomplish, and culture specific as an Indonesian dance, and much research is needed to
assess to what extent it is advisable and possible to transfer such culture specific practice to
other regions of the globe. For the present it is
assumed that a certain - and rather high - level
of predictability in the social sphere is a necessity for operating and developing a cadastre .
Consequently, the means to achieve such predictability: rules, procedures, and humans who
act according to rules, etc. must be part of cadastraI investigations.
A draft design for cadastral research can be
motivated as follows : The information content
and maintenance of existing cadastre and related information systems are described by a positivist approach, using system analysis tools.
This aceounts for the predictable aspect of the
cadastre and includes the prescripts that specify
the information flows and databases. In parallel, a preliminary investigation is made of the
actors and arenas (in Schneider's sense) that
are conc:erned with cadastral information, including the end users. An investigation of the cultural practices (Gartner & Wagner, 1996: 193f)
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Cadastral Research - Issues and Approaehes
should enable an informed choice of the research design of the main investigation. A key
issue is whether a sufficient number of actors
demonstrate an intention of integrative , co-ordinated action or not.
Options for a subsequent investigation are
mentioned below. The two first-mentioned are
within the positivist approach, the third within
the interpretivist approach. Options include:
• to identify and overcome concrete, observed
obstacles, for example by reducing the dissimilarity of the actors' conceptual mo dels of
the information system (cf. Wierda, 1991:
173)
• to chart the events within an actor network as
a quasi rational, bargaining process, conducted by actors with rather explicitly stated and
integrative
objectives,
cf.
Schneider's
approach.
• to interpret the events within an actor network as a playing with words without real
commitment. Changing purposes may motivate the proposed new system and the de signated responsible person finds reasons to
transfer the ide a to others . «The collective
garnes actors play build up on complicity, shared experiences, and complementary interests rather than on integration» (Gartner
&Wagner, 1996: 193).
• to engage in discussion on basic concepts and
norms as real property, government, justice,
and scientific method, recognizing that also
science is culturally bound, or - in other
words - to question the proposed view of the
cadastral problem domain (Fig 4).
new or revised prescripts of any kind, e.g. laws,
by-laws, or technical standar ds regarding the
cadastral information flow, and new or changed
organisational units. A fourth level was identified as the level of philosophy, and of scientific
and moral norrns. Methodological issues were
only implicitly addressed, but for each level reference was made to specific theory elements.
The above account of different research
approaches to cadastral studies may be seen as
a development ofthe ideas ofthe previous work.
A similar ordering is quoted by (Wierda, 1991:
10) noting that different development strategies
are needed for development ofinter-organizational information systems, dependent on the decision-making structure within the network.
Mter further review of the research literature
he conducts a case study in the positivist tradition.
In (Stubkjær, 1996) mention is made of different 'leveIs' of investigation. The first and
second regard measurement and mapping of
terrain objects and the performance of routine
property transactions, respectively. The main
objects of the third level are the organisations
(actors) who issue and maintain the prescripts
oflevel one and two. The activities of the third
level are conceived as «a trade with resources of
a societal nature». The outcome of this trade is
References
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7. Conclusion
The cadastral problem domain has been charted on the basis of an early Danish work and two
internationally oriented textbooks. The textbooks presented a logic of development for the cadastre that has been related to research in information systems development (lSD). The survey of
lSD research focused on research paradigms and
noted the fact that alternatives to the established
natural science (positivist) approach became
recognised in lSD research after the 1980s.
Cadastral research can, by following that pattern, keep the rigor of the related geodetic research as appropriate and still be able to address
the social and cultural aspects that are inherent
in the cadastral domain. Danish experiences
with information systems development have earlier been reported with reference to actor network theory (Stubkjær, 1992). A similar
approach was identified within recent lSD research. This and the above survey led to proposals
for the design offuture cadastral research.
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vedrørende Landinspecteurernes virksomhed
(Compendium of circular letters and administrative rulings of relevance for the activities
of land surveyors). Del I 1782 - 1879; Del Il
1880 -1892. Den Danske Landinspektørforening. København.
Pickles, J (1999) Arguments, debates, and dialogues - The GIS-social theory debate and the
concern for alternatives. Pp 49-60 in Longley,
et al (Eds) Geographical Information Systems. 2nd edition, Vol 1. John Wiley. New
York.
Schneider, Volker (1988) Politiknetzwerke der
Chemikalienkontrolle - Eine Analyse einer
transnationalen Politikentwicklung. Berlin,
Gruyter.
Sheppard, E. (Ed) (1995) Special issue: GIS and
society. Cartography and GIS 22 (1).
Stubkjær, Erik (1992) The development ofnational, multi-purpose spatial information systems - Danish experiences in a theoretical
context. Computers, Environment and Urban
Systems Vol 16, no 3 (May/June 1992) p 209217.
Stubkjær, Erik (1994) Employing the Linguistic
Paradigm for Spatial Information. In: Advances in GIS research: Spatial Data Handling
Conference, Sept. 1994, Edinburgh 1 Waugh,
Thomas C; Healey, Richard G (Eds) . Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh. Voll, pp 572587.
Stubkjær, Erik (1996) A Theoretical Basis for
Cadastral Development. Proceedings, Third
Seminar of the European Co-operation Network for Education and Research in Land
Information Systems (EUROLIS), Sept. 1994.
Delft; Delft University of Technology, 1996. pp 0.9 - 0.23 .
Wierda, Folkert W (1991) Developing interorganizational information systems. Dr. Thesis
TU Delft. ISBN 90-9004069-2. Delft. 213 p.
KART OG PLAN
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Discipline of Real Estate Studies in Finland
Kauko Vii tan en
Kauko Viitanen: Discipline of Real Estate Studies in Finland
KART OG PLAN, Vol. 59, pp . 279-284, P.O.B. 5029, N -1432 Ås, ISSN 0047-3278
Definition of the diseipline :
The real estate studies, espeeially the prineiples and advaneement of the land registration and eadastrai system, including real estate valuation, real estate eeonomies, and regional and loeal planning
of real estates.
Key words: Real estate studies. Land registration. Cadastral system. Real estate valuation.
Kauko Viitanen, Professor, Dr. Ing., Helsinki University of Teehnology, Institute of the Real Estate
Studies, P.O . Box 1200, FIN-02015 HUT, Finland.
E -mail : <[email protected]> Internet: http://www.hut.fi
The history of the discipline of real
estate studies
The history of the discipline of real estate studies is closely related to surveying and the occupation of the surveyor. The first surveyor in Finland, OlofGangius, was authorised in 1633, and
this is said to be the starting year of surveying
in Finland.
At first, the education of surveyors was arranged according to the system of apprenticeship,
so that the theoretical subjects were usually taken at the university. In 1855 the education of
surveyors was moved to the technical field, following the Central-European examples, and in
1908 to the Helsinki University of Technology,
the Department of Surveying. The first permanent teaeher of the discipline of real estate studies was Professor E . A. Piponius in 1900 (discipline of land consolidation at that time). The
education at the Institute of Real Estate Studies
started to have its present form by the appointment of the associate professor of Real Estate
Techniques (Land Management) in 1966 and
the associate professor of Real Estate Techniques in Towns in 1973.
In the 1970's and 1980's the education in the
real estate studies was divided into theoretical
and practical studies, with the theoretical parts
of the Principles of Land Registration and CadastraI System, Real Estate Economics, Real
Estate Planning and Land Consolidation being
the responsibility of the professor. The practical
studies were the responsibility of the associate
professors. This structure greatly corresponded
to the offices of the surveyors at the National
Land Survey and local governments.
KART OG PLAN
3- 99
Following the Finnish social structure the
real estate studies were at first concentrated on
the management of the use, development, and
valuation of agricultural and fore st properties.
The real estate economic issues in the densely
populated are as did not fully emerge until in the
1960's, the decade ofurbanisation. When in the
1930's more than 90 % of the surveyors were
employed by the National Land Survey, their
share by the 1990's had decreased to less than
40 %. In the municipal sector the amount of jobs
for the Masters of Science in Surveying was
nearly septupled between the 1960's and the
1990's. During the re cent years the jobs in these
traditional fields have decreased, but increased
in the private sector.
Along with the real estate boom in the late
1980's it eventually turned out that the real
estate studies, as a part ofthe generally applicable education for the Master of Science in Surveying, no longer met the requirements of the real
estate economics. In 1993 the degree programme of surveying was divided into two
options, Real Estate Economics and Law, and
Surveying and Mapping Technology, which already have independent entranee examinations.
At the same time an important reform was also
carried out in the real estate studies by combining the teaching of Real Estate Techniques in
Towns and the special subject in Real Estate
Planning, and establishing a new special subject in Real Estate Management. One of the
most important reasons for this reform was the
increasing demand of real estate management
both in the private and public sectors, the dramatic decrease of the «traditional» prospects of
279
Kauko Viitanen
offices in the public sector, and the anticipated
reforms in the real estate legislation.
Real estate studies today
Today the discipline is defined as follows according to the teaching and research sector of the
professorship: real estate studies, especially the
principles and advancement of the land registration and cadastral system, including real
estate valuation, real estate economics, and regional and local planning of real estates.
The Institute of Real Estate Studies offers
three options of majors: Real Estate Economics
and Valuation, Real Estate Management, and
Land Management. The Institute is operating
in a close co-operation with the Institute ofLaw
for degrees in the major Law on Real Estate and
Environment. These majors are also the main
fields ofresearch and further study.
The major of Real Estate Economics and Valuation studies the bases and theories of real
estate economics: the real estate market, planning, investment, financing, and taxation, and
the related valuation both on the level of an individual real estate and a property portfolio. The
studies are extended from the national economics to the business economics, the main emphasis being on the so-called external valuation.
To say this succinctly, the purpose is to understand the operations of the real estate market.
The fields ofteaching and research ofthe professor in charge of the major is defined considerably wide: real estate studies, especially the principles and advancement of the land registration
and cadastral system, including real estate
valuation and real estate economics, and the regional and local planning of real estates.
The major of Real Estate Management will
train th e Masters of Science for duties of real
estate and asset management in the private and
public sectors. The studies concentrate on the
owner's point ofview, i.e. issues within an enterprise. The knowledge and the skill of purchasing, renting out and seIling real estates, practising real estate investment and controlling the
risks involved will be provided. Facility management is also included in the education. The aim
is to have the management ofreal estates arranged effectively and productively in the owner's
property portfolio.
The major of Land Management treats the
static bases of the land registration and cadastraI system (real estate registers) and real
280
estate surveys. The point of view is the efficient
management of the processes, which is social in
the respect that in Finland the services are provided by the state and the municipalities. The
aim is to secure a reliable and efficient land registration and cadastral system. Good knowledge
of the land registration and cadastral system is
the basic strength of the graduated Masters of
Science in Real Estate Studies, and Helsinki
University of Technology is the only source of
university level education in this field.
Research within the real estate studies
As to education, but most of all research, the
real estate studies are strongly connected to
many a wider discipline.
Thus research within the real estate studies is
strongly interdisciplinary, and in a fairly hard
competition for financing. For instance, in the
research financing of the technical field the
chair is often seen as sociological. However, in
the field of soeial sciences it seems to be a part of
the technical sciences. Research within the real
estate studies tends to scatter into severaI directions by structure, and by nature it can be
mainly classified as applied studies or even
development activities .
There are no larger research teams at the
Institute of Real Estate Studies. Research carried out at the Institute of Real Estate Studies
has mainly been related to individual theses
and dissertations. Nearly all of the research
financing is received from the public sector. The
share of the private sector has been limited to
Master's theses . The share of the private sector
as the financier of the Master's theses and
employer has indeed remarkably increased in
~k-EST~lESTI.JD~ D
c~nnvE l su Bsn TunvEE D~ oN
KART OG PLAN
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Discipline of Real Estate Studies in Finland
the 1990's. As at the end of the 1970's only 10%
of the Master's theses in the real estate studies
were financed by the private seetor, the share is
now a half. In the same period the share of the
municipal sector has decreased from 50 % to
5 %. The share of the state has remained the
same (1/3).
Some 20 doctoral (Appendix 1) and 30 licentiate's dissertations have be en completed at the
Institute of Real Estate Studies during its history. Master's theses amount to approximately 20
each year. Until the 1970's the research was
strongly focused on the domestic problems ofland
consolidation in the rural areas. Since the 1970's
the research has been diversified and dearly entered into the fields of real estate valuation, real
estate economics, land use planning and real
estate management. The problems of the developing countries are also represented (Appendix 2).
At the moment research into land readjustment
has been reactivated. There are about five postgraduate theses actively under work on the subjeet. Real estate valuation and real estate management are the other active fields of research. The
Institute of Real Estate Studies is also in dose
contaet with the ongoing research projeets on the
environmentallaw. Until the 1980's the research
reports were in Finnish (or Swedish) almost without exception, but nowadays some quarter ofthe
reports are written in English.
The long-term project on the planning of
the rural areas financed by the Academy of
Finland in the 1980's can be pointed out as an
example of the research projects. Another
project on the real estate problems in the
developing countries also financed by the
Academy of Finland is just completed. One
licentiate's dissertation is already written
(Torhiinen, 1997) on the subject, and another
one is just being completed (Veijalainen,
1999). In addition to this there were 2 to 3
Master's Theses and one doctoral dissertation at the University of Helsinki. Financed
by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
three research reports on the compensation
for economic losses of the assignor have been
written since 1994, and one isjust about to be
completed. There are further two reports on
expropriation of real property and real property survey (Korhonen, 1997 and 1999) written at the Institute of Law.
The Institute of Real Estate Studies and
the Institute ofLaw share a common series of
publications for introducing the recent reseKART OG PLAN
3- 99
arch reports and publications in foreign languages (Appendix 3). The research findings
are also reported in the referee publication
Surveying Science in Finland published by
The Finnish Society of Surveying Sciences.
Starting from 1999 the abstracts of the theses
are also published in English on the net
pages of the Institute, address www.hut.fi/
Units / Departments / M / .
Today the research carried out at the Institute of Real Estate Studies can be defined as
follows:
The Institute of Real Estate Studies carries
out research into real estate economics and
the basic structures of the land registration
and cadastral system, and its maintenance
and management as a technical, informative,
economic, administrative, andjuridical issue.
Besides the juridical concept of the real
estate the research is also concentrated on
the various derivative forms of real estates
and other land resources on the national and
international real estate and stock market.
The aim of the research is to understand the
mechanisms and regularities of the system,
and as sist in the planning, advancement, and
management of effective systems and metho ds of good quality and conformable to sustainable development. The aim is networking
and interdisciplinary research work on an internationally high level. The reports will be
published in foreign languages and in internationally recognised series of publications.
In order to achieve the set objectives the
Institute will focus on establishing research
teams of high standard and improving the
appreciation ofresearch work among the students, employers of the real estate branch,
and other sectors.
New challenges to the real estate
studies
The land registration and cadastral system
forms a foundation to the operations of our society. The systems of ownership and financing are
operating on this system, and in faet the whole
human aetivity. In the Western countries the
existence ofthe system is not even easily noticed,
but its importance is tangibly seen in the transition processes of Eastern Europe. It seems that
without a properly funetioning land registration
and cadastral system it is impossible to a longterm investment activity and thereby to the
281
Kauko Viitanen
whole national economy to get straight. The situation is the same in many developing countries.
The land registration and cadastral system
brings security and stability to the society. Changes in the system should be therefore carefuUy
considered and implemented. Yet, a precondition
for the system is the smooth implementation of
the changes required by the respective stage of
development in the real estate structure, without
the system being a hindrance to the necessary
changes in the society. Maintaining the service ability of the land registration and cadastral system in the complex and rapidly developing world
is one of the greatest chaUenges ofthe real estate
sector to the real estate studies.
The real estate sector is strongly regulated by
legislation. For instance, there are separate laws
for the formation, ownership, use, conveyance,
rental, expropriation, registration, mortgage and
taxation of real estates. The statutes are rather
slowly changed, which is weU described by the
fact that the statutes on the conveyance and
morlgage of real estates, and registration of title
to a property, becoming effective in an Act in
1997, were greatly based on the Act of 1734.
However, in the economic activity the regulations for real estates have not been very flexible
or favourable, and that is why the real estate
business, especially in the population centres,
has largely been based on property securitation.
The real estate is treated in the form of a company, investment company, fund, etc. Within
the real estate studies this leads to a special
need of shifting the emphasis of the education
and research more profoundly towards Real
Estate Economics and Finance, especially in
case of real estate valuation and management.
The ways of the real estate studies to
accept the challenges
The reform of 1993 in the real estate studies
fairly well meets the present educational requirements. Understanding and proficiency in the
principles and operations of the land registration and cadastral system and market are the
essential basic requirements in every sector of
the real estate studies. The division of majors is
greatly in accordance with the requirements of
specialisation, although with the present
resources it is not very possible to go any deeper
into subjects or increase the education. The
means of development will have to be sought
from other directions.
282
In order to accept the challenges of development the Institute of Real Estate Studies will
have to start networking both in the educational
and especially research activities, not only in
Finland but also internationally. However, turning the communications into an active operation seems to be difficult and laborious even
domestically. In this light the project in progress by the Department of Surveying and the
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering for common education on real estate
management in the Helsinki University of Technology is very positive.
The project was started in the summer of 1998
on the initiative ofthe private sector, and a degree programme common to both of the departments has been under special consideration. By
means of the new degree programme the education on real estate management could be arranged to comprehensively meet the requirements
of the real estate sector, taking the requirements and strengths ofboth of the departments
into consideration. The degree programme
might include severaI majors of the Departments of Surveying and Civil and Environmental Engineering, and a new major in English.
Thus the programme would be versatile, flexibly
intensify the freedom of choice, and even be internationally comparable.
In the real estate studies this would mainly
mean a separate option of advanced studies in
the management of the property rights and cadastraI system in the public sector, which would intensify the present situation, and on the other
hand, greatly resemble the structure effective at
the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm.
The development project of real estate management is not the only one in progress. There
are already long traditions of co-operation with
the Department of Architecture in urban planning, and the advancement of education is being
discussed even today. There are severaI projects
under way with international partners as well.
In the management of the land registration
and cadastral system the National Land Survey
of Finland has adopted a land survey and registration system (JAKO) based on geographical
information, which is revolutionising the ways
of working, for example, by integrating the real
estate activities with the mapping sector. The
demand for young experts will increase along
with the new system, and internationalisation
will most likely create further demand for
recruiting highly educated people. In the
KART OG PLAN
3- 99
Discip line of Real Estate Stud ies in Finland
Land Management
Option: Land Management and
law on Reat Eslate and
Environment
Reat Elta ... Economics
and Valuation
law on Real E&latø and
Envlronmenl
Degrae PlllgIamme In
Real E........ Management
Option: Real Estalø ECOI'oomicslr--I
autumn of 1999 the JAKO system will be introduced for educational purposes at the H elsinki
University of Technology. At the same time it
will also make possible to start the research for
the further development of the system at the
Helsinki University of Technology.
Concluding words
In conclusion I would like to point out that the
challenges of the real estate sector to the real
estate studies are hard. The Institute of Real
Estate Studies cannot accept these challenges
alone, but we are prepared for co-operation by
networking both within the Helsinki University
of Technology and internationally. Creating
channels for co-operation requires will to co-operate, patience and resources, the importance of
which I hope the financiers would consider, too.
Together we can make it to the top .
Appendix 1: Doetoral Dissertations at
the Institute of Real Estate Studies
CTitles translated at the Instute)
Viiino Suomaa
(1946)
Compensations of Quality
ofCultivation of the Field
(in Finnish)
Paavo Lappi (1948) Value of Field and Forest
Land at Consolidation (in
Finnish)
Arvid Wiiala (1948)Impacts ofthe Land Reform
on the Farming of the
Partition Unit (in Finnish)
Lauri Kantee
Losses and Expenses on
(1960)
Buildings Caused by the
Transfer of a Farm at PartiKART OG PLAN
3- 99
Law on Real E&lale and
Environment
tioning of Land (in Finnish)
Impacts of the Location ofa
Farm on the Internal and
External Farming Traffic
(in Finnish)
Veikko O. Hyvonen On the Disposition of the
(1970)
Parties Involved in Land
Division Proceedings (in
Finnish)
Veikko Tervola
Auf die Verkehrsplanung
(1972)
wirkende Faktoren in
worniegen Landwirtschaftlich genutzen Gebieten
Pekka V. Virtanen The Feasibility Zone Met(1975)
hod for the Physical Planning of Rural Areas (in
Finnish)
Jorma Kantola
Technical Principles and
(1976)
Methodology of Real Estate
Valuation (in Finnish)
Comparison of Urban
Paavo Littow
(1978)
Development Costs by
Means of Some Significant
Cost Factors (in Finnish)
Site Price and Building
Veikko Kanerva
(1978)
Costs (in Finnish)
Aulis Tenkanen
Valuation of Shorefront
(1983)
Areas, Especially Surplus
Areas on Holiday Sites, for
Compensating Expropriated Landings (in Finnish)
Ossi Heiskanen
(1969)
283
Kauko Viitanen
OlaviMyhrberg
(1984)
Anne Haila
(1990)
Kari I. Leviiinen
(1991)
Formation ofValue in
Municipal Rawland P urchases (in Finnish)
Land as a Financial Asset:
Studies in Theoretical and
Real Trends
A Calculation Method for a
Site Price Index
Appendix 2: Some examples ofthe
recent Master's Theses
Anu Alavuotunki
Assessment of Old Wooden
Houses for Property Taxation - a Study of Pro perty
Tax and Its Basis in Seven
Residential Areas in the
City of Helsinki and the
Rural District of Artjiirvi
Tom Bjbrklund
Planned Maintenance in
the Life-Cycle of Buildings
Jyrki Hahkala
The Main Factors Effecting
the Profitability ofInvestments in Rental Housing
Mikko livonen
Corporate Information in
the Annual Reports of the
Real Estate Investment
Companies
Jukka Jaakkola
Compensation Practice in
Settlements Relating to
Water Cases
Kirsi Kaukonen
Homebuyers Survey and
Valuation as a Part of Real
Estate Appraisal
Marko Luukkonen Interest Rate in Income
Value Method of Forest
Areas
J ohanna Miiiittiilii Rating the Regions in the
Real Estate Market Analysis
Toni Pekonen
The Liability ofthe Real
Estate Val uer
Saku Rantanen
Applying Benchmarking
Method to Analyse Maintenance Services in Hospital
Real Estate
Liisa Raunemaa
Development of Real Estate
Valuation Services in the
Client's Point ofView
Pasi Ryhiinen
Real Estate Purchases and
Price Formation in Protected Shore Areas
Mikko Suhonen
Required Return in the
Valuation of a Shopping
284
Center
Mikko Tamminen Land Prices ofRaw Land
and Detached and Terraced
Housing Sites in Turku
Area
Appendix 3: Research reports published
in English
Pekka V. Virtanen Is urban land a scarce
commodity? (1983)
Saad C. Yahya
Compulsory Purchase
Practice: Guidelines on
Public Land Acquisition
Methods in Africa (1989)
Anne Haila
Land as a financial asset:
Studies in theoretical and
real trends (1990)
Bijaynand Misra Urban land markets in
Asia: The role of private
developers and guidelines
on public acquisition of
land (1991)
The real estate portfolio
J ussi Palmu
strategies and management
of Finnish foundations
(1994)
Urban property market and
Kauko Viitanen
Kari Anttila,
land law in Finland (1994)
Kaisa Vuorio
Anna-Maija Nisula A Study on Cadastral
Surveying Methods and
Cadastral Map in the Context of Developing Countries (1995)
Matti Yli-Laurila The expropriation of real
property in Finland (1995)
Jouni Anttonen
Master Planning in Tanzania Mainland
The Practice, Problems and
the Way Forward (1997)
lina Korhonen
Expropriation of Real
Property (1997)
Kauko Viitanen,
Kaisa Vuorio,
Urban Property Market
Matti Yli-Laurila, and Land Law in Finland
(1997)
Kari Anttila
Mika-Petteri Tbr- Land Tenure Confused;
hbnen
Past Present and Future of
Land Management in
Zanzibar (1998)
Marko Hannonen Issues in the Methodology
ofProperty Portfolio Analysis (1999)
KART OG PLAN
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Vitenskapelig bedømt artikkel
Calibration and Derivation of Initial Values in
Industrial Photogrammetry.
Mathematical Models and Examples of Applications.
Ingolf Hådem
Mottatt 11.05.1999. Godkjent 01.09.1999.
Ingolf Hådem : Calibration and Derivation of1nitial Values in Industrial Photogrammetry.
Models and Examples of Applications.
KART OG PLAN. Vol . 59, pp. 285-2 93, PO.B . 5034, N -1432 As, ISSN 0047-3278
The article focuses on the following two problems in industrial close-range photogrammetry: (a) camera calibration and (b) derivation of approximate values for the initialization of the iterative bundle
adjustment. After a general discussion of different approaehes and their mathematical formulation
and numerical solution, two examples ofpractical application are given for dynamic photogrammetric
deformation measurements within structural engineering.
Key words: Indu strial photogrammetry. Camera calibration. Approximate values . Deformation
measu remen t.
IngolfHådem, Professor, Dr. Scient., Department ofSurveying a nd Mapping. Norwegian University
of Science and Technology (NTNU), N-7034 Trondheim, Norway.
Email: <ingolf.h [email protected]>
1. Introduction
Non-contact industrial measurements using
CCD video cameras are gaining increasingly
importance as this technique may prove to
have some clear advantages compared to
competitive 3-D measurement techniques.
However, the success of photogrammetry in
this emerging field depends on solving some
fundamental problems satisfactorily. This
article focuses on two such problems: (a)
camera calibration and (b) closed-form derivation of approximate values for the initialization of the iterative bundle adjustment.
After a short review of some approaches to
solve these problems in Sections 2 and 3, the
procedure and results of two deformation
measurement projects in structural engineering at NTNU are given in Section 4.
The basic formulas for the central perspective projection with additional parameters
and additional constraints are given in
Appendix A, while some important trans forKART OG PLAN
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mations applied in photogrammetry are diseussed in Appendices Band C.
2. Calibration
In this article, calibration is considered as the
proeess of estimating the parameters describing the inner geometry of a photogrammetric measurement system. These parameters
are in the first place the inner orientation of
the perspective projection model: the principle distance (c), and the principle image point
(x o, Yo) in the image coordinate system x, y,
and secondly, additional parameters reflecting model errors. The following grouping of
model errors is often used, see Freyer [2]: (1)
scale change between x and y, and non-orthogonality of these axes, modelling mainly systematie errors in pixel shape and pixellocalization, (2) radial distortion, modelling the
effect of non-ideal lens design, and (3) decentring distortion, modelling misalignment of
lens elements. The different approaches to
285
Ingolf Hådem
calibration will now be briefly discussed (a
more comprehensive discussion is given in
intersections may find all approximate
values. Ifnot, the procedure may be:
[3]):
The expensive and time-consuming optical
calibration using facilities such as goniometers and collimators has found little favour in
close-range photogrammetry.
The elaborate test range calibration involves a test range (e.g. a 3-D frame) with 100 or
more coordinated targets photographed from
a single camera stations or from several
camera stations with convergent camera
axes. The latter case is more reliable and
accurate [1]. Instability ofthe calibration and
refocusing may, however, require a more or
less complete recalibration.
In the case of measurement of smaller
objects (up to the size of a car) on-the-job-calibration is popular. Here the actual object and
a frame with pre-coordinated targets are
exposed simultaneously, so that calibration
information is obtained at the time of photography.
In the self-calibration approach, calibration and object points are simultaneously
determined by using measured image coordinates of object points as input to bundle
adjustment with additional parameters (see
eq. (Al». In the multistation case no given
object data are needed to determine the calibration [13].
3. Derivation of approximate values for
the bundle adjustment
In the literature different approaches to this
problem are found, see e.g. [9, 11]. We will
give two approaches (Sections. 3.1 and 3.2)
which are included in the program package
[7].
3.1. Resection /intersection
The outer orientation can be found by resection in space [4] using the measurement of
image coordinates of at least 3 given object
points (as is commented on below). The coordinates of an unknown object point can be
found by intersection [4], i.e. from the measurement of this point in at least two images
and solving linear equations for unknown
coordinates, see Note 2, Appendix A. Thus, if
at least 3 points are given per image, one
cycle of resections followed by one cycle of
286
1. Estimate unknown outer orientations by
resections with given object points and the
intersected object points so far . If no more
unknown object points to estimate, quit.
2. Estimate unknown object points by intersections with the known outer orientations
so far from step 1. Ifthere are no more orientations to estimate, quit. Otherwise go
to step 1.
There are different algorithms for space
resection dependent on the geometry of given
points:
- Given three non-collinear points . A general
closed-form dual solution is given in
[14,18].
- Given four planar points . First, linear equations in 8 transformation parameters are
solved. The physical outer orientation parameters (Appendix A) may then be found
directly [9,12].
- Given six 3-D distributed points. First,
linear equations in 11 transformation parameters are solved. The physical outer orientation parameters may then be found directly
[8,12].
3.2. Stepwise triangulation
A triangulation step involves either model
forming or 3-D transformation. A model may
be formed by a simultaneous estimation of
coordinates (X'Y'Z'l; and 5 orientation parameters on the basis of eq. (Al) with minimum
constraint defining the model system
X'=[X'Y'Z'f The five parameters may be
( Ra~>,Y'o ,Z'o)n of image Il and the minimum
constraint
(Ra~>'X' 0)1=(1,0)
X' on
(e.g. =l ), (I: unit matrix)
chosen
constant
(1)
°
requiringIX'onllBaseOI-On> >
to avoid illcondition. Alternatively, the model is formed
in steps:
1: Relative orientation [4 ] using the coplanarity condition Fig. A2 and e.g. constraint
(1).
2. Intersection ofmodel points (see above).
KART OG PLAN
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Calibration and Derivation of Initial Values in Industrial Photogrammetry
Model forming with a "trial and error" relative orientation embodied [6,15]. With minimum constraint (1) the coplanarity equations
are linear in the particular unknowns (Yo '
Zo)w see Note 3, Appendix A. Therefor, a
"trial and error" relative orientation may be
based on guessing the rotations ofRop~ u. The
model forming procedure may then be:
1. Guess a (new) set of approximate values of
Ral3'Y u and choose X'ou = constant. (If illcondition occurs because IX'oulIBase Oj-OU
= O, choose Y'ou or Z'ou = constant instead.)
2 . Find approximate values for the two unknown coordinates among (X,Y,Z)ou from
linear coplanarity equations (see Note 3,
Appendix A) with values of Ral3'Yn from
step 1.
3. Find improved values for the two unknown
coordinates among (X, Y, Z)OII and unknown Ral3'Yu using coplanarity equations
and an iterative least squares' fit with initial values found.
4 . Iffailure, go to ste p 1.
5. Find approximate values of unknowns
(XYZ)i by intersection us ing collinearity
equations that are linear in these unknowns (see Note 2, Appendix A), and a
least squares' fit.
Hinsken [11] gives a closed-form iterative
solution of relative orientation.
3-D transformation is used for connecting
mo dels to a block, and for transforming the
block to a global system. Schut [16] (see also
Hinsken [11]) gives a closed-form solution of
the transformation parameters, assuming at
least 3 points with all their coordinates given
in both systems, see Appendix B. If only 7
coordinates of 3 points are given in the global
system, the residua12 coordinates in this system must be evaluated (Appendix C) before
using Schut-Hinsken's method. Dewitt [5]
uses another approach to derive the trans formation parameters.
In the multistation case a stepwise procedure for finding approximate values is:
1. Select stereopairs to form mo dels by relative orientation and intersection of model
points.
2. Select the local system of one stereopair as
a block system and transform the other
mo dels (model points and image orientations in model system) to that selected sysKART OG PLAN
3- 99
tem with t he use of at least 3 common
points (see Appendix B).
3. Transform the block of object points and
image orientations to the global system.
4. If not all images could be oriented, try the
resection/intersection strategy (Section
3. 1) to find the approximate values that
are not present.
4. Examples of applications
We will give two examples of practical applications for deformation measurement of
structural components at NTNU. Two Pulnix
TM6071 cameras were used with a lens of 16
mm focallength, format of 648x464 pixels (1
pixel = 9 /-lm) and connection to a PC with
programs for image acquisition, image processing and digital image measurement. A
program package [7] including the derivation
of approximate values (Section 3), bundle
adjustment with additional parameters and
constraints (Appendix A), and automatic
error search was also used .
4.1. Example 1: Measurement of quasi-static
punching of steel plates
The task was to employ photogrammetry to
measure the deformation (ilZ) of severai circular ste el plates (with radius = 25 cm and
different thickness) during punching (time
elapsed per plate: 10 minutes). The work
place allowed only slightly convergent
camera axes and a base/distance ratio of 1: 2,
see Fig. 1. A stereopair was taken every 10
seconds of approx. 100 retroflex targets on
the plate and 3 additional reference targets Pi
on the stable surrounding frame . The targets
Pi defined the object system with its XY-plane
nearly parallei to the ste el plate and its scale
derived from a measured distance Pi - Pj.
Derivation of approximate values . Each
model was formed as described in Section 3.2.
The left image pl ane was nearly parallei to
the XY-plane of the object system as seen in
Fig. 1. The model could therefore be transformed to the object system XYZ on the basis of
the 3 points Pi with minimum constraint and
the simplified procedure described in Appendix C.
Calibration. A 3-D frame with 40 coordinated
targets was used. The original ide a was to do
287
Ingolf Hådem
•
*
X
~
* Fl
P2
Z
~
1<- 45 cm-J
l
Fig. 1. Configuration, example 1
the calibration on the basis of the two following stereopairs taken with camera orientations as in Fig. 1: a stereopair ofthe frame in
the place of the plate and a stereopair of the
scene with the plate mounted. However,
because the frame was too large, it was photographed outside the mounting instead.
Estimation of defarmation. It was hoped
that the image orientations could have been
assumed constant in system XYZ during the
punching. Because of unexpected instability
in these orientations, a separate bundle
adjustment with given reference points Pi as
input had to be executed for every stereopair.
Fig. 3 shows the final Z-deformation of a plate.
Digital measurement and final aeeuraey.
On the basis of manually measured approximate positions of image points in the initial
stereopair a "centre of gravity" method for the
final precise measurement of all images was
used. Because the targets were affected by
the plate deformation, optimal measurement
accuracy was not obtained. From the bundle
adjustments an estimated standard error 0'0
= 0.1 pixel was obtained. To check the accuracy of estimated deformation the Z-coordinates of some plate points were also measured by laser. The deviations between photogrammetric and laser measured Z-values
gave an RMS = 0.3 mm which corresponded
well with the photogrammetric precision O' LlZ
(derived on the basis of 0'0) '
288
Force
85 c
70 cm
V
*
~ '~~---'\
.s f - '
45 cm
Fig. 2 . Configuration, example 2. The plate is
fixed along the two short sides, simply supported along A and free along B
4.2. Example 2: Measurement of deformation
of aluminium plates subjeet to loeal buekling
The task was to measure the deformation (Ll,
LlY, LlZ0 'ufseveral aluminium plates (5l6x40
mm, different thickness) subject to local
buckling in 10 minutes, see Fig. 2. A stereopair was taken every 30 second of the scene
with 15 targets on the plate and 20 additional
surrounding targets including 3 reference
points Pi with minimum constraint. The calibration was based on 4 images: a stereopair of
the calibration frame (placed outside the
mounting) and the initial stereo pair of the
scene. Approximate values were found as described in Section 4.1. The camera orientations were stable during the photography so
that the targets of the deformed plate could
be determined simply by intersection. The
precision of the estimated deformation
became therefore slightly better than in
example 1. Fig. 4 shows the final Z-deformation of a plate.
5. Final comments and conclul:;ions
Generally, self-calibration is the most preferable approach. However, the industrial environments may not be favourable for self-calibration without also using a 3-D frame . This
is because the base/distance ratio and convergence of camera axes may not be ideal [lJ, the
cameras may have variant calibration parameters which may cause ill-condition [lOJ,
and it may be difficult to get a network with
sufficient 3-D distribution to allow a complete
KART OG PLAN
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Calibration and Derivation of Initial Values in Industrial Photogrammetry
Fig. 3. Z-deformation of a plate, example 1. The grid is generated by the "Krieging" interpolation from the photogrammetrically measured deformation in plate points.
self-calibration. In example 1 (Section 4.1)
the network was not satisfactorily distributed in 3-D to estimate the inner orientation c,
x o, yol, but was sufficient for estimating the
distortion. Therefore the calibration may in
such cases use images ofboth a frame and the
actual scene to obtain an optimal solution
using the bundle method.
CIo sed-form solutions of relative orientation, space resection and 3-D transformation
zem
S imple support
Fixed
Fig. 4. Z-deformation of a plate, example 2. The grid is generated by the "Krieging" interpolation from the photogrammetrically measured deformation in plate points. This interpolation has given some unrealistic unevenness ofthe deformation surface.
KART OG PLAN
3- 99
289
Ingolf Hådem
are valuable means for a stepwise derivation
of initial values in dose-range photogrammetry.
The examples of applications showed that
dose-range photogrammetry may be successfully applied for the measurement of dynamic
deformation within structural engineering.
Acknowledgements
Dr. T. Børvik and Dr. L. Moen executed the
experiments at the Department of Structural
Engineering, NTNU with assistance of Eng.
S.T. Dahl. Thanks are given to them for their
contribution and to the Norwegian Defenee
Construction Service for financial support.
Appendix A. Basic equations
The basic functional model of photogrammetry is the perspective projection assuming
that projection centre, image point and object
point are collinear (Fig. Al). This model
extended with additional parameters reflecting model errors gives the following equation ([4])
or
dX i = f,((x i - x o)' (y i - Yo); t i' t 2 . . )
Xi - X o
Yi - Yo
+
with
O-c
dYi
=
r ij
=
fyC(x i - Xo)' (y i - Yo) ; t i' t 2 .. )
f i/ a, 0, y)
Eliminating Si (point scale) and developing the matrices give
x,-xo+dx; = -c((X;-Xo)r,,+(Y,-Yo)r 1l+(Z;-Zo)r ll )/((X-X O)rll +(Y;-Yo)r,,+(Z;-Zo)r,,)
Y,-Y o+dy, = -cC (X, -Xo)r +(Y,-Yo)r l1+(Z;-Zo)r
(X- Xo)r,,+( Y;-Y )r12+(Z;-Zo)r,,)
21 ) / (
2l
(Al)
O
Here are ((xY)o, c): inner orientation, (tl' t 2.. ): ditional parameters, (( XYZ)o, (a, [3, 'Y): uter orientation (projection centre and rotations), (XYZ)i: object point, and (xy\: image point.
Constraints between parameters in eq. (Al) and new parameters, i.e.:
F(parameters in (Al), new parameters) = O
(A2)
may be added. E.g., introducing an object distance D ij as a new parameter (A2 ) becomes:
D 2 IJ.. -
(X
I
2 - (y- y .) 2 - (Z -Z.) 2 =
-X)
J
I
J
I
J
°
Notes
1. The parameters in eqs. (Al) and (A2) may
be estimated by the least squares' bundle
method with given values of e.g. image
coordinates (xy), object coordinates (XYZ)
and distances D as sto cha stie observations
with a variance/covariance matrix (the stochastic model). This estimation is a nonli-
1 '}x
z.-v
~*(XYZ)i
(XYZ)o~
*e>/f"x
Dy)O
Fig. A 1. Collinearity
near problem, which requires initial
values.
2. The right-hand side of (Al) is a linear function in X;, Xo'
3. Eliminating X; from t he 4 collinearity equations for a pair of corresponding image
points in Fig. A2 gives a coplanarity equation linear in (XYZ)OI and (XYZ)ou' (See [4]).
0,
b
0"
~"",/<t:?
Fig. A2. Coplanarity. Vectors b, Pl and p2lie
in apiane .
290
KART OG PLAN
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Calibration and Derivation of Initial Values in Industrial Photogrammetry
Appendix B . Conformal transformation with
at least 3 control points given in XYZ (Schut
Here are s: the scale, Xo = (Xo, Yo' Zo)' = +ao - O
<a=Ll~o- aoB R: matrix of three rotations.
With the gravity centres x g = lx,/n and Xg =
lX/n of n common control points (x, X)i the
transformation becomes
[16])
Let the transformation from a secondary
system Il: x = (x, y, zjTa primary system I: X =
(X, Y, ZjTbe
(Bl)
Let the rotations be defined by the four parameters a, b, c, d [11] and the condition
d>O
(B2)
With three independent parameters a, b, c arranged in the following skew-symmetrical matrix
c
=
j~
- C
. b
O
a
-b f
-a
O
the elements ofR can be derived as functions ofthese three parameters a, b, c and parameter d
dependent on a, b, c, see (B2), as follows (I: unit matrix):
R = (d I - er' (d 1+ C)
~j
d2+a2 _b 2 _c 2
2(a b -c d)
2(ab + cd)
d2 _a2+b 2 _c 2
2(ac+bd)
2(b c - a d)
(B3)
Introducing vector expression (B3) of R and given coordinates (x, X)i of the common control
points into (Bl) gives the following error equations in unknowns a, b, c, d, s
(B4)
where v = (vx '
VY'
vi are residuals. s and elements ofR are estimated as follows:
1. Estimate s on the basis of distances between points given in both systems Il and I.
2. From eqs. (B4) with (B5) introduced, estimate (a', b', c') by a least squares' fit (lvv = min).
(a', b', c')
=
(a, b, c)/d
(BS)
3. Estimate R from (B3) with d = 1/"1·+""a,2+b-;i+~~2 and (a, b, c) = (a', b', a') d (see (B2), (B5)).
Remark: d "" Ogives ne ar singularity. WrobellKlemm [ 17] propose a solution ofthis problem.
Appendix C. Conformal transformation using minimum constraint
Given are (XYZ)i,i=1,3 in the secondary system Il and (XYZ\ i=1,2' Z3 in the primary system I. A general method (1) and a simplified method (2) will be given for estimating the unknowns (XY)3
so that the transformation parameters can be estimated as described in Appendix B.
1) Assume a new system I: (X'Y'Z') with P1=origin and P 2 lies in the X'Z'-plane (Fig. Cl), i.e.
KART OG PLAN
3- 99
291
Ingolf Hådem
=
cos K, sin K
-sm K, cos K
O,
O
1
f
x-x "f
-y,
1yZ-Z,
(Cl)
Kis estimated from the second equation of(C1) with Y' = Y'2 = O and (XY) = given (XY)2' To estimate (XY)3 we first estimate (X'Y')3 and then use inverse (Cl). From Fig. Cl we see that
(X'Y ')3 = (D'4 coscp, D43 cosco)
where 'P,
tgcp
=
Ul,
Z' 2IX' 2 ,
sin co
D'2
')
=
X'2-+Z'2
=
z P4, ,
,,
(Z' 3 -Z' 4)/D4
D '4 = Dl3cosa,
2
JlX'
~190~ -------
D)4> D43 can be estimated from eqs. :
Z' 4 = D'4sincp ,
D43 = D l3 sina ,
2
P t---
'
""
'IIY'
,,,a. "
D l3
I / ~ ... ""
P ~'~'~__________________~Y '
,
D 13 = d'3 D,/d'2
.-
Fig. C1. Network in the new system I
Here are O'. and d ij (distanee in system Il) given by:
d2/= d ,/+ d '3 2 d '2 d 13 cosa
dij 2 = (Xt X/ + (Yj_Y/ + (Zj-z/
P3l.Y'----------/~
~
r __ -,
Image~.:-
2-
_----
'0:;::__ _
I
I
and (X'Z'h, Z' 3estimated by (Cl) given (XYZh, Z3
~ X'--
,"
-- ___
-
I
and (X'Z')2' Z'3 estimated by (Cl ) given (XYZ)2' Z3
:
I
r __
2
Y'
I
I
-_ I
-- I
P3
I
•
I
P
.............~..{::~
2 d 12
X'·
I
I
:
I I
---
12
P
I
Fig. C2. Simplified case
2) Ifthe three points Pl are given in image system x' y', Fig. C2, and points Pl lie in the X'Y'pl ane paralleI to x'y', (X'Y')3 can be estimated on the basis of eqs.:
X'
=
Y'
=
s-, (x' -x' ,) cos K + s-, (y' -y' ,) sin K
-s-1 (x'-x') sin
K
+ s-, (y'-y' ,) cos
(C2)
K
Firstly, s (scale) is estimated as d\zlD l2 (see Fig. C2), and Kis estimated from eqs. (C2) and given (x' y', X'Y')2' (X'Y')3 can then be estimated by transformation (C2) and given (X'Y')3'
References
IAPRS: International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
[1] Fraser, C. S., 1996: "Network Design".
In: "Close Range Photogrammetry and
Maehine Vision" (Ed. KB. Atkinson).
Whittles Publishing, Caithness. 371
pages: 256-281.
[2] Freyer, J.G., 1996: "Camera Calibration" In: "Close Range Photogrammetry
and Maehine Vision" (Ed. KB. Atkinson). Whittles Publishing, Caithness.
371 pages: 156-179.
292
[3] Clark,T.A. and Freyer, J.G., 1998: "The
development of Camera Calibration
Methods and Models". Photogrammetrie
Reeords 16(91): 51-66.
[4] Cooper, M.AR., 1996: "Theory of close
range photogrammetry". In: "Close
Range Photogrammetry and Maehine
Vision" (Ed. KB. Atkinson). Whittles
Publishing, Caithness: 371 pages: 9-51.
[5] Dewitt, B. A, 1996: "Initial Approximation for the Three-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation". Photogrammetrie Engineering and Remote
Sensing, 62(1): 78-83 .
KART OG PLAN
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.
Calibration and Derivation of Initial Values in Industrial Photogrammetry
[6] Hådem, 1., 1984: "Generalised Relative
Orientation in Close Range Photogrammetry - a Review". ISPRS-Congress, RioBrasil. IAPRS, XXV(A5): 372-38.
[7] Hådem, 1., 1989: "FOMAKON - A Program Package for Industrial Photogrammetry". Kart og Plan, 49 (1): 25-34.
[8] Hådem, 1., 1989: "Bundle Adjustment in
Industrial Photogrammetry". Photogrammetria 47: 45-60.
[9] Hådem, 1.,1989: "Derivation of Approximate Values in Close Range.Photogrammetry - a Rewiev". ISPRS-Symposium,
Ziirich-Sveits. IAPRS, XXVII(B5): 240252.
[10] Hådem, I. and Åmdal, K., 1992: "High
Precision Calibration of Close Range
Photogrammetric Systems", ISPRSCongress, Washington, USA. IAPRS,
XXIX(B5): 568-574.
[11] Hinsken, L., 1987: "Algoritmen zur
Beschaffung von Nahrungswerten fUr
die Orientierung von beliebig im Raum
angeordneten Strahlenbiindeln". Deutsche Geodatische Kommission, C(333).
Munich. 51 pages.
[12] Melen, T., 1994: "Geometrical Modelling
and Calibration of Video Cameras for
Underwater Navigation". Dr.ing thesis,
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
ITK Technical Report 94-103-W. Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim. 100 pages.
Niini, 1., 1993: "Solution of the interior
orientation without control points". Photogrammetric Journal of Finland, 13(2):
78-84.
Munji, R., 1996: "Closed form space
resection using photo scale variation."
ISPRS-Congress,
Washington-USA.
IAPRS, XXIX(B5): 390-394.
Nørbeck, T., 1982: "Generell relativ orientering og generell tilbakeskjæring i
numerisk fotogrammetri" . Dr. ing thesis, Norwegian Institute of Technology,
Trondheim: 271 pages.
Schut, G. H., 1961: "On exact linear equations for the computation of the rotation elements of absolute orientation".
Photogrammetria, XVII(l): 34-37.
Wrobel, B. and Klemm, D., 1984: "Uber
die Vermeidung singularer Falle bei der
Berechnung allgemeiner Raumlicher
Drehungen" ISPRS-Congress, Rio-Brasil, IAPRS, XXV(3b): 1153-1163.
Zeng, Z. and Wang, X., 1991: "A general
solution of a closed-form space resection." Photogrammetric Engineering
and Remote Sensing, 57(10): 327-33.
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293
The Internet - A Tool for Modern Planners
Øystein Ringen Kristoffersen
Øystein Ringen Kristoffersen: The Internet - A Tool (or Modem Planners
KART OG PLAN, Vo1.59, pp. 294-297, P.O.B. 5029, N-1432 Ås, Norway, ISSN 0047-3278
The explosive growth ofthe Internet will inevitably affect the planning profession, as more and more
people start to rely on the Internet as a source of information and communication. For many people,
the Internet is now the first place to look for updated information on almost any topic. The public is
starting to dem and electronic access to services, and the planning system will not remain unaffected
by this trend. This represents a great challenge to the planning profession, as planners might find
that they have to be online in order to serve the needs of their clients.
Key words: The Internet. A tool. Modern planners. Large challenge. Online.
Øystein Ringen Kristoffersen: Senior Architect, Norwegian Defense Construetion Service - South and
West Norway Region, PO . Box 159, N-4097 Sola, Norway.
E-mail: <[email protected]>
Introduction
The Internet And Its Content
The purpose of this article is, firstly, to introduee planners to the global phenomenon known
as the Internet and to its potential in planning.
It is my hope that this article will in spire more
planners to go online and take advantage of the
benefits that the online world have to offer.
Secondly, I wish to inform others of certain
aspects of the research I conducted in 1999,
while writing my Master's the sis in Land Use
Planning at the Agricultural University of Norway,Ås.
Planners in the U.K. and the U.S. have been
aware of the potential of the Internet as a source
of information and communication for quite
some time. However, very little has been published on this subject so far. Zinn and Hinojosa
published an epoch making article in 1994, called A Planner's Guide to the Internet, which, for
the first time, put focus on the use of the Internet in planning. In 1997, O'Mara concluded in
his article that nearly two-thirds of American
planners use the Internet on a regular basis .
The year after, the American Planning Association published a report called On line Resources
for Planners, which clearly signalized that the
Internet was on the planning profession's
agenda; at least in the United States. Apart
from these important publications, the little
that do exist oflitterature about online planning
is located on the Internet itself, where enthusiastic planners from all over the world have decided to share their experiences with others.
The Internet is a "network of networks", consisting of millions of computers connected in a gigantie, global network. To many people, the
Internet is synonymous with the World Wide
Web (or www). www is, however, just one of the
many components which together constitute the
Internet. And contrary to many people's belief,
the Internet is not a new phenomenon. Its predecessor - ARPAnet - was created back in 1969, as
a research project with the US Defense. Its purpose was to ensure safe electronic data transfer
during the Cold War. As the decades went by, the
U.S. government gradually opened the network
to civilians. The Internet has increased enormously in popularity and size over the last years,
and has gone from being a toy for scientists and
computer nerds, to become something that is
widely considered as both useful and trendy.
Today, nobody owns or controls the Internet, and
the modern, user friendly interface (www) enables practically everyone to use this technology.
It is probably easier to explain what is not on
the Internet, than what is. The Internet increases in size at an incredible speed, as anyone is
free to publish virtually anything on the Internet. Unfortunately, not even the best of today's
search engines can successfully separate the
useful information from the rubbish. Finding
the right information on the Internet requires
the careful use of search parametres to avoid
information overflow. So when Sergent claims
in his article that the Internet now contains so
294
KART OG PLAN
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The Internet -A Tool for Modem Planners
many web pages that relate to planning that
«being online is like having the world's largest
planning library in your office" (Sergent 1997),
this is only partially true. Conducting research
on the Internet can be a tedious and risky affair,
as a search conducted only a day or two apart
will, in most cases, yield different results. Millions of new documents are published every week,
and there is no guarantee that today's interesting documents are available tomorrow. This is
the volatile nature of the Internet.
Still, there is good hope for planners who wish to
stay up-to-date on planning matters. The best
approach for locating useful planning related
information, is to visit planning devoted web
sites like Cyburbia - The Planning and Architecture Internet Resource Center - which contains more than 6.600 links to more or less useful web resources. One of the most useful features about Cyburbia is the electronic discussion
area, where the user may post amessage about
virtually any planning matter, and (possibly)
receive feedback from all over the world, sometimes within the hour. This is one of the major
strengths about the Internet - the opportunity
to discuss and share planning related matters
with colleagues from all over the world. Mter
all, planning conventions occur too rarely to
satisfy the need to share one's experiences with
fellow planners.
There are even online planning journals on the
Internet, like the Online Planning Journal by
Centre of Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London. Traditional planning journals still get most of the serious contributions,
as the Internet struggles with its reputation of
being a volatile media. Planning conferences
often have their own official web site where they
inform about the topics of the conference and
call for papers. Mter such a conference, these
web sites often house the official collection of
conference papers. Furthermore, most planning
organizations have their own web site today,
where their members are offered support and
guidance. Planning students are naturally also
visible on the Internet, where their regional and
local organizations publish newsletters and
articles written for - and by - students. Most
planning students are familiar with the Internet, and they dep end on it as an inexpensive
source of updated information. Many of these
young planners take Internet access for granted
today, and they take their habits with them
after they graduate.
KART OG PLAN
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The Online Planning Department
The idea of a democratic society is based on the
assumption of an informed citizenry (Ryan
1996:3). In a traditional context, participation
in planning is largely passive, due to minimal
opportunities for interaction in the planning
process «apart from the statutory procedures of
representation and appeal.» (Batty 1998:23).
Furthermore, a substantial part of the day-today work at any planning department consists
of sheer routine work, and a lot of time and
energy is spent on dealing with general requests
from the public. A great deal of this information
can easily be published on the Internet, thus
allowing planners and other staff members to
dedicate more of their time to important matters. Updating the information on the web site is
usually an easy and inexpensive task. The general public will clearly appreciate the convenience of obtaining the information they want,
whenever they want and without having to
track down the correct agency where the information is accessible. By establishing an interactive web site for the city's planning department,
a whole new level of public participation can be
achieved. Plan proposals and project videos can
be viewed 24 hours a day and the public may
comment on them online.
In December 1998, I conducted a survey
among planning departments in the Eastern
part of Norway, as part of my Master's the sis in
Land Use Planning. The purpose ofthis survey
was, firstly, to examine the attitudes towards and experiences with - the Internet as a to ol in
planning. I was especially interested in fin ding
out whether Norwegian planning departments
were online to the same extent as their American and British counterparts seerned to be.
The sur vey itself consisted of a written questionaire that was sent out to 124 planning
departments, of which 74 percent responded.
The results from the survey indicated that only
12 percent of the planning departments in the
Eastern part of Norway had an official web site.
Twice as many - 24 percent - stated that they
were planning such a project in the near future.
This means that more than one third of the
planning departments that participated in this
survey, had the Internet on their agenda at the
beginning of 1999.
There is, however, good re as on to believe that
this number is somewhat higher today, as the
first part of 1999 saw many prornising projects
295
Øystein Ringen Kristoffersen
to make the Internet a more commonly used
tool. In Vestfold county, the public and private
sectors have joined forces to establish http: / /
www.vestfold.com/. which is meant to house all
governmental and municipal information of
interest to the county. The advantage of such an
approach is obvious; there is only one single web
site to remember for information about the
county. Furthermore, 51 percent ofthe planning
departments can be contacted via electronic
mail, and 78 percent stated that their staff
members have access to the Internet at work.
When asked to assess the staffs need to use the
Internet to search for information, 74 percent of
the participants in this survey described it as
either large (16 %) or medium (58 %). So clearly,
planning departments in Norway have decided
to con sider the Internet as a serious tool in planning.
2D and 3D visualisation of plans on the
World Wide Web
A common tool among today's planners is the
Geographic Information System (GIS) . According to elementary GIS theory, spatial data
should ideally be shared with other potential
users in order to increase overall usage and to
reduce individual costs. The Internet is, in
many ways, the ideal medium for distributing
spatial data to users all over the world, at low
co st and with considerable speed. In 1997, Brandon Plewe published an insightful book called
GIS Online, in which he claims that «(the Internet holds promise for exponential increases in
the efficiency and effectiveness of the ways in
which we obtain, use, and share geographic
information in all its forms» (Plewe 1997:2).
Numerous domestic and foreign databases are
readily accessible today, and spatial data is virtually at the fingertips ofthe user. All major GIS
vendors have had their focus on the Internet for
a couple ofyears now, as the dem and for procedures for www based access with new products
is significant (Bishop 1998:44). However, neither GIS expertise nor software is required to
utilize many of the GIS related resources on the
Net (Heikkila 1998:354), as GIS and mapping
capabilities can be incorporated into a Web server to allow the general public to operate GIS
remotely from their own personal computers .
Also three-dimentional plans can be viewed
on the World Wide Web, as the programming
language Virtual Reality Modeling Language
296
(VRML) can be used to display 3D building elements in a highly realistic way. Building facades can be draped with appropriate textures to
achieve a higher degree ofrealism. The user can
take on the shape of an avatar, which is a digital
representation of the user, and examine the
model from any angle - from the outside as well
as the inside. Several avatars may examine the
same model via www, and communication between users can be made possible through the
use of a keyboard or the combination of microphones and speakers. Furthermore, the us er may
move objects within the model to examine the
visual effects of different physicallocations, and
in some cases even change the building heights.
Object movement and directional sound are als o
options with the late st version of VRML. Such
virtual worlds offer the opportunity to <<practice,
simulate and visualise a design and planning
issue in real time in a 'dry' environment>, (Smith,
Dodge and Doyle 1998:11). The value of this
technology should be obvious to planners. Plan
proposals can be presented and examined independant of a mutual physical presence, and
users may comment and agree on alterations
early in the planning process . This technology is
yet too complex for the average planning dep artment, but it may indicate a future standard for
plan presentation on the Internet - a presentation that is user friendly and understandable by
the general public.
Conclusion
Klosterman has already predicted that the
Internet will allow planners and the general
public to «retrieve vast quantities of spatially
referenced information from their own machines, from departemental or municipal data
bases, or from anywhere in the world without
knowing - or caring - where the information is
stored" (Klosterman 1998:473). Predicting the
future is a rather risky affair, but certain trends
seem to be relatively clear. Ifthe Internet is able
to cope with its own popularity, planners will
find that knowledge of - and presence on - the
Internet is becoming more of a requirement as
the world shifts from paper based to data bas ed
communication. It is, however, important to
have in mind that not everone is online yet, either due to economic reasons or sheer lack of
interest. Clearly, the Internet cannot be more
than an alternative source of information and
communication today, as the focus on traditioKART OG PLAN
3- 99
The Internet -A Tool for Modem Planners
nal media must be maintained to ensure that
the voice of the «information underclass» (Ryan
1996:23) is hear d.
It is my conclusion that planners should be
ready to utilize the Internet as a tool in planning. This conclusion is based on the following
five statements. Planners should go online
because:
1. The Internet is the first place to look for infor-
mation today (Bishop 1998:41).
2. Government agencies at alllevels now recognize the Internet as an efficient and effective
way ofreaching a great number ofthe citizens
they serve (Jeer 1998:1).
3. Your clients expect it and may soon start to
demandit.
4. You should keep yourself updated on technological innovations that may have an impact
on the theory, practice and business of planning.
5. You are already using computer technology in
your daily work, and the next logical step is to
connect to a network in order to share resources.
The Internet will not solve all your problems, as
did neither the introduction of GIS onto the
planning field . And just like a GIS, the Internet
is not worth any more than the data we put into
it.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my thesis advisor, Professor August E. Røsnes at the Agricultural University of Norway, for his valuable assistance in
the writing process; my thesis sponsor, The Norwegian Ministry of the Environment, for believing in my project; all the Norwegian planning
departments which responded to my survey;
and finally all the people on the Internet who
contributed with their insightful comments.
Wher e is the System? -A Review of Developm ents in Hardware and Softwar e» . In: Computers in Urban planning and Urban M anagement, edited by P.K Sikdar, S.L. Dhingra &
KV. Krishna Rao. New Delhi: Narosa Publishing House 1998, pp. 37-49.
Heikkila, lEric J. (1998): «GIS is Dead; Long Live
GIS!» J ournal of the American Planning Association il(64):350-360.
Jeer , Sanjay (1998): «Online Resources for Plan ners». PAS Report no. 474/475 . Washington,
D.C. : Arnerican Planning Association.
Klosterman, Richard E. (1998) : «Farewell to the
Computer Reports». Journal of the American
Planning Association 4(64):4 70-4 7 4.
Kristoffersen, Øystein Ringen (1999): «Utilizing
the Internet as a Means ofCommunication in
Planning». Master's thesis in Land Use Planning. Department of Land Use and Landscape
Planning , Agricultural University of Norway,
Ås. In Norwegian.
O'Mara, W. Paul (1997): «Catching Up With the
Net». Planning, July 1997:20-22.
Plewe, Br andon (1997): «GIS Online: Information Retrieval, Mapping, and the Internet» .
Santa Fe, New Mexico: Onword Press.
Ryan, Sus an M. (1996): «Downloading Democracy. Dowloading Information In an Electro nic Age». Cresskill, New Jersey: Hampton
Press, Inc.
Sergent, Douglas (1997): «A BriefGuide to Sources ofPlanning Information On the Internet».
APA's InfoText Newsletter 5il:6.
Smith, Andy, Martin Dodge and Simon Doyle
(1998) : «Visual Communication In Urban
Planning & Urban Design». Working paper 2.
Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London.
Zinn, Frank D. & Rene Hinojosa (1994): «A
Planner's Guide to the Internet» . Journal of
the American Planning Association 3(60):389400.
Useful Internet resources:
References
Batty, Michael (1998): «Digital Planning: Prep aring for a Fully Wired World». In: Computers
in Urban Planning and Urban Management ,
edited by P.K Sikdar, S.L. Dhingra & KV.
Krishna Rao. New Delhi: Narosa Publishing
House 1998, pp . 13-30.
Bishop, lan D. (1998): «Planning Support:
KART OG PLAN
3- 99
American Planning Association - http :/ /
www.planning.org /
American planning Association's Information
Technology Division
http://www .netmart.com / imago / apa -infotech /
Online Planning - http://www.plannet.co.uk/
olp/
Cyburbia- http://www.cyburbia.org /
297
Fra olje og gass til bioenergi
J.Låg
J. Låg: From Crude Oil and Gas to Bioenergy.
KART OG PLAN, Vol 59, pp, 298-299, P.O.B. 5029, N-1432 Ås, ISSN 0047-3278
A part ofthe profit obtained from the exploitation of crude oil and gas in Norway is being us ed to build
up a national petroleum foundation. On of the intentions behind the project is that future generations
will gain benefit from the present consumption of natural resources. To improve methods for the production of energy, food and fodder is an important challenge. In addition to electrical energy produced
on the basis of waterfalls, many other enterprises may be proved valuable. Those connected to agriculture in Norway should be seriosly interested in bioenergy problems. Comprehensive investigations are needed.
Key words: Crude oil and gas. Bioenergy. Petroleum foundation.
J . Låg: Professor Em ., Dr.Agric., Department of Soil and Water Sciences, Agricultural University of
Norway, P.O.B. 5028, N-1432 Ås, Norway.
1. Innledning
Med korte mellomrom har vi i Norge i seiner e
år fått opplyst at vårt såkalte olje- eller petroleumsfond vokser raskt. I en melding i mars
1999 ble det sagt at kapitalen var litt over
170 milliarder kroner. Til jamføring kan nevnes at dette beløpet er bortimot halvparten
av årets totale utgiftsbudsjett for den norske
staten.
Olje- og gassressursene utenfor vår kyst er
riktignok store, men selvfølgelig begrensete.
Det synes alt nå å bli minkende interesse for
leiteboring etter olje i Nordsjøen. Ved planlegging av utvinning av disse naturressursene ble det enighet om at noe av inntektene
burde settes til side slik at de kunne utnyttes
av framtidige generasjoner. Det ble vedtatt å
oprrette statens petroleumsfond.
2. Drøfting av fondets arbeidsmåte
De bestemmende myndighetene var til å begynne med innstilt på plassering av fondsmidlene i utenlandske verdipapirer som gav
god økonomisk avkastning. Ved utgangen av
1998 var det kjøpt aksjer for 40% av denne
formuen i 2093 bedrifter i 21 land.
En viktig hensikt med etablering av fondet
var altså å sikre at noe av inntektene ved salg
298
av disse ikke-reproduserbare naturressursene skulle kunne utnyttes av kommende
slektsledd. Retningslinjer for kjøp av utenlandske verdipapirer er blitt grundig drøftet,
og ideer om utvidelse av økonomiske transaksjoner til flere land har vært lansert. Men
eventuelle fordelaktige anvendelser på vårt
fastland har vært påfallende lite diskutert.
3. Framtidige behov for
energimuligheter og for mat
Verdensbehovet for mat og energiråstoffer
har i seinere tid vært raskt stigede. Dette har
sammenheng med økende folketall og med
stigende levestandard i den industrialiserte
delen av verden. Men det har neppe noen
gang vært så mange hungersrammede mennesker som nå.
Vi må gå ut fra at det også i framtida blir
intens etterspørsel etter mat og muligheter
for energiproduksjon. Det er interessant å
merke seg stigende aktivitet for utredning av
alternativer til olje-, naturgass- og kullenergi. Særlig blir det lagt vekt på naturlig
fornybare energikilder. Øket utnytting av
f.eks . vannfall, vind, varmepumper for geoenergi, solstråler, havbølger og havstrømmer
blir drøftet. Det er påfallende at enkelte av
verdens gigantiske oljeselskaper driver med
KART OG PLAN
3- 99
Fra olje og gass til bioenergi
utredning om slik reproduserbar energi. Bioenergiproduksjon er en gruppe meget viktige
prossesser med selvfornybart grunnlag. Personer og institusjoner med tilknytning til
landbruket er sterkt interessert i slike aktviteter.
I enkelte tilfeller kan det blir spørsmål om
produkter fra slike selvfornyende prosesser
skal planlegges brukt til mat eller til teknisk
anvendelse. På noen steder er det av kornavlinger framstilt alkohol som brukes til motordrivstoff. Også for deler av plantemasser fra
såkalt energiskogbruk kan forskjellige former for anvendelse komme på tale.
4. Tenkelige investeringer på det norske
«fastlandet»
Det burde være fornuftig å tenke grundig
gjennom problemer med forsyning av energi
og mat i Norge før det meste av våre olje- og
gassressurser er oppbrukt. Planlegging av
bruk av midler fra statens petroleumsfond til
løsning av slike spørsmål skulle passe godt
med idegrunnlaget for opprettelse av dette
fondet.
Brenning av halm og av gasser fra husdyrgjødsel og andre vannrike avfallsmasser
spiller en viss rolle i energiforsyning i noen
land. Generelt sett vil slike energitilføringer
neppe spille noen særlig viktig rolle i Norge.
Men det bør undersøkes on tekniske forbedringer kan innføres.
Etter at menneskene tok til å utnytte ilden,
har brenning av trevirke vært en meget viktig energifaktor. Det er grunn til å anta at interessen for bruk av ved vil stige når det blir
mindre tilgang av olje og gass. I våre skoger
råtner det stadig store mengder av hogstavfall og annet mindreverdig trevirke som
kunne brukes som brensel.
En annen virksomhet som sannsynligvis
vil vokse raskt, er nyetablering av såkalt energiskogbruk. Denne aktiviteten går ut på
dyrking av rasktvoksende treaktige planter
for energiproduksjon. Plantene høstes i relativt ung alder.
KART OG PLAN
3- 99
I mange land har det vær t i gang fo r søk og
prøvedyrking til belysning av problemer med
tilknytning til energiskogbruk. Vi kan i
Norge ha verdifull nytte av slike undersøkelser. Særlig kan r esultater fra utredninger
gjennomfør t i våre naboland være av stor interesse for oss . Men mange spørsmål bør vi
selv ta opp til undersøkelse. Fordi norske naturforhold som klima og jordbunnsfaktorer
varierer sterkt, er det behov for forsøk på forskjellige steder i landet.
Et viktig spørsmål gjelder valg av plantearter. Rasktvoksende arter av slektene Salix og
Populus har hittil fått stor oppmerksomhet.
Det er i disse to planteslektene mange arter
som fortjener å være med i forsøk . Dessuten
kan arter i andre tre- og buskslekter fortjene
å bli med i utprøvinger.
Under spesielle norske fo rhold er det ellers
tenkelig at dyrking av urteaktige planter kan
være konkurransedyktige som energiprodusenter.
Produksjon av vegetabilske oljer som motorbrensel har fått en viss oppmerksomhet.
Mange biologiske og tekniske spørsmål
knyttet til energiskogbruket bør utredes
grundiger e. Formeringsmåter, gjødsling, kalking, høstealder, høstemåter, m .v., fortjener
omfattende studier.
Jordbruksarealer og andre arealer egnet
for intensiv plante dyrking er forholdsvis små
i Norge . Det har vært sterke ønsker om å bruke slike verdifulle naturressurser som byggegrunn (jfr. f.eks. Miljøverndepartementet
1997, Låg 1983). Den framtidige norske befolkningen vil bli sterkt avhengig av at mest
mulig av disse produktive arealene blir bevart.
Litteraturhenvisninger:
Miljøverndepartementet, 1997: Regional
planlegging og arealpolitikk. St meld nr 29
(1996-·97). 139 s.
Låg, J ., 1983: Jordvern som likevel lønner
seg. 128 s. Aschehougs forlag, Oslo.
299
Et nytt innsynsverktøy for kart
Kai Sannes
Kai Sannes: A New Tool for the Displaying and Publishing of Maps.
KART OG PLAN, Vol. 59, pp. 300-302, F.O.B. 5034, N-1432 Ås, ISSN 0047-3278
The use of Adobe Acrobat and the pdfformat for maps are diseussed. The pdfformat is considered to
be suitable for publishing public plans for new building areas, public development plans etc on Internet. Delivery of maps for different purposes are convenient and purehase of maps through Internet
are possible
Key words: Adobe Aerobat. Pdfformat. Maps on Internet.
Kai Sannes, Engineer, Surveying dept., Bamble kommune, N-3970 Langesund.
E-mail: <[email protected]>
Med en liten innsats fra kartavdelingen kan
kommunes kart legges ut på Internett. Kartene kan lages i løpet av noen timers innsats.
Det står ikke lenger på tekniske problemer,
men er blitt et spørsmål om vilje fra kommunens saksbehandlere og politikere. Dette er
en påstand som noen mener er i drøyeste
laget. Les artikkelen, prøv det ut og døm selv.
Med Adobe's Acrobat Reader kan du lese
alle typer kart. Det fungerer like godt med
raster som det gjør med vektor. Det eneste du
må ha er en datamaskin og gratisprogrammet Acrobat Reader. Dette programmet kan
hentes ned på Adobe's websider, www.adobe.com. Nedlastingen av denne 5 mb store fila
tar ca. 10 minutter med ISDN, og pr ogrammet er fullstendig selvinnstallerende.
Pdf formatet er etter min mening det beste
utvekslingsformat som fins, og er i utgangspunktet ment som et korrektur-Ieseverktøy
for grafisk bransje. Situasjonen er imidlertid
at dette formatet egner seg meget bra som
innsynsverktøy for kart. Spesielt for vektorkart, men også for rasterkart. En kan «zoome»
lynraskt til 16 gangers forstørrelse, og enkelt
flytte rundt i kartet. Man kan søke på gårds-/
bruksnummer eller navn. Dette er fritekstsøk
med 3 forskjellige innstillinger. Søket finner
teksten og tegner lynraskt et nytt utsnitt som
fremhever teksten i sentrum av utsnittet.
Programmet har selvsagt full støtte for
klipp og lim under Windows til andre dokumenter. Pdffiler kan foruten Acrobat Reader
300
også leses inn i Pagemaker, Corel Draw, Illustr ator m . fl. For å lage et pdf kart trenger
man pr ogrammet Acrobat. ( Acrobat må ikke
forveksles med Acrobat Reader som er et gratis leseprogram for Acrobat-filer.)
Etter at Acrobat er installert på din PC,
kan du lage pdf filer fra alle typer windowspr ogram med utskriftsmulighet. Det som
skjer er å skrive til fil i stedet for å skrive til
papir . Denne fila kan etterpå leses ved hjelp
av ACI'obat Reader. Nyere program som
Office97, Corel Draw m. fl. kan lagre eller
eksportere direkte til pdf-formatet.
Fordelene med kart i pdf-format
Formatet komprimerer filene veldig bra og
beholder målestokknøyaktighet og fargene til
originalen. En pdf fil av et FKB-B kartblad
(60x80 cm) i målestokk 1:1000, vil typisk
være i størrelsesorden litt i overkant av 200
kilobyte. Et A4 kart i målestokk 1:1000 blir
typisk på 30-50 kilobyte.
Programmet er raskt og kartene nærmest
spretter opp på skjermen. Dessuten er formatet blitt allmenn standard og Acrobat Reader
er installert på et økende antall datamaskiner.
For å illustrere bruken av pdf, kan du
tenke deg at du som kommunens saksbehandler skal sende et kart til en eiendomsmegler. Hvis du br uker Pumatec, V/G, Arcwiev, AutoCad, eller tilsvarende program,
KART OG PLAN
3- 99
Et nytt innsynsuerktøy for kart
,,
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Figur 1: Her vises kartet i Internettleseren nøyaktig på samme måte som vi ser det i Norkart's
V/G-innsyn. Det er Acrobat Reader som gir oss denne muligheten. Legg merke til det ekstra
«plugin" som ligger i leseren.
lagrer du utsnittet direkte eller indirekte til
fil i pdf-format. Deretter vedlegger du denne
filen i et e-post dokument, sender dette, og
«vips" etter 5 - 10 sekunder ligger vektorkartet (merk! likt ditt eget) på skjermen til eiendomsmegleren. Jeg kjenner ingen andre programmer, som gjør dette i nærheten like godt
som Acrobat og Acrobat Reader.
Pdf-filer er plattfor muavhengige, klare
til trykking og lar seg dele i lag
Pdf-formatet er plattform uavhengig. Siden
trykkeribedrifter gjerne bruker Macintosh og
Adobe's programvar e, kan pdf-filer kjøres
rett til fotosetter hos trykkeriet. Når du tegner utsnitt til pdf, er det heller ikke noe stort
problem å separere høydekurver, hus, grenser o.l. i forskjellige lag ved hjelp av program
som Illustrator eller Cor el Draw. Fra disse
kan en om ønskelig eksportere fila videre til
Autocad-format.
KART OG PLAN
3- 99
Kommunale kart på Internett ved hjelp
av pdf-filer
Det beste med pdf-formatet er kanskje mulighetene som åpner seg med Internett. Hvis
kommunens kart blir lagt ut på web i dette
formatet, blir de plutselig tilgjengelige for
alle med egen hjemme PC med Internett.
Acrobat Reader åpner seg som et «plugin" i
internettleseren, og viser kartene på en imponerende måte . Dette kaller jeg en god 24 timers service til kommunens innbyggere. Her
kan kommunen legge ut reguleringsplaner,
temakart, tekniske 1000-dels kart, raster-øk,
informasjonskilder o.s.v.
Lag en enkel kartadministrator for
Internett
Filer bør ikke være for store på Internett
siden det tar lang tid å laste dem ned. Derfor
bør kartene deles opp i flere kart, i størrelse
301
Kai Sannes
på f. eks . 50x50 cm. Dette tilsvarer ca.
50-100 kilobyte og åpnes relativt raskt.
For å få oversikt over kartene, kan man
lage seg en enkel kartadministrator. Kartadministratoren kan være ei side i html-formatet, med et enkelt oversiktskart i rasterformat (gif eller jpg). Dette er i realiteten et
bilde av kartet. Over dette bildet kan det legges et interaktivt rutenett med koblinger
«linker» til de forskjellige underliggende kartene . Når man dobbeltklikker i et ønsket
området i oversiktskartet, kobler det oss videre til det ønskede kartet, som straks kommer fram som en pdf-fil med utseende likt
kommunens digitale kart.
En annen måte å lage oversiktskart på, er
å bruke vektorkart i pdf-format med samme
type rutenett med koblinger. I programmet
Acrobat 4.0 kan man lage «trykkfølsomme»
ruter som kan peke til alle typer filer eller
URL-adresser. På denne måten kan en bla
seg fram og tilbake i kartutsnittene.
Automatisk salg av kart
Før kartet åpnes kan det legges inn ei web
side med generell informasjon om nøyaktighet, siste oppdatering, merknader om usikkerhet, henvisninger, rettigheter o. s. v. Hvis
det skal betales for å se på kartene kan dette
ordnes på forskjellige måter. En måte er å
legge inn informasjon om pris og betalingsmåte. På samme side kan det være avkrysningsruter der kunden blir bedt om å skrive
inn eget navn, adresse, og e-postadresse. En
trykknapp kan aktivere sendingen med personopplysningene til kommunes server samtidig som kartet åpnes. Et enkelt databaseprogram kan registrere personopplysningene, og lage fakturaer til kundene. Etter
min mening bør et slikt kart ikke koste mer
enn 30-40 kroner for A4 størrelse. Det beste
er hvis kommunene har mulighet til å levere
kartene gratis. Personlig tror jeg at dette vil
øke interessen for kart, noe som igjen fører til
økte kartbevilgninger. Dessuten vil det gjøre
et bedre inntrykk i befolkningen, som slipper
å ta fri fra jobb og reise lange veger for å få en
kopi. Og ikke minst slipper vi all denne kjedelige kopieringen som tar så mye av vår arbeidstid.
302
Oppfølging og vedlikehold av websider
og kart
Oppmålings- og IT-avdelingene bør kunne
finne en måte å løse dette på. Ved hjelp av
Acrobat er det ikke noen stor jobb å lage nye
oppdaterte kart. Like enkelt er det å bytte ut
nye filer med gamle på Internett.
Hvor ofte man bør oppdatere avhenger av
endringene av kartet. Det vil sikkert være
mange forskjellige meninger om dette, men
selv tror jeg at det holder med tre til fire oppdateringer i året i de mest aktive områdene,
mens det kanskje holder med en oppdatering
annen eller tredje hvert år i andre områder.
Noen vil kanskje lage en rutine ved å bytte ut
samtlige kart hver andre eller fjerde måned.
Man kan da lage en stor pdf-fil på 5x5 meter
og deretter splitte denne i mange små med et
egnet program. (Jeg er blitt fortalt at ERDAS
imagine kan utføre splittingen. Dessuten er
jeg veldig spent på Adobe's nye program Indesign som kommer i høst.)
Internettsidene http ://www.langesund.net/
inneholder eksempel på hvordan slike kart
kan fungere for en kommune. Se spesielt på
de tekniske kartene 1, 2, 3 og 4.
Andre muligheter med Acrobat 4.0
Acrobat 4.0 inneholder mange andre muligheter. OCR tekstgjenkjenning av skannede dokumenter er en av mulighetene (Dessverre
ikke med norske tegn Æ og 0 . Svensk tegnsett
er det nærmeste vi har i dag.) Omstokking av
sider i brosjyrer, mulighet til å endre tekst i
dokumentet, skrive gule lapper (kommentarer). Pdf-formatet takler også «hyperlinker» til
alle typer filer og URL'er, f. eks. tekst eller bilder. Man kan lage miniatyrbilder og bokmerker. Man kan laste ned hele webområder og
lagre disse sidene som pdf-filer og oppdage at
koblingene fungerer perfekt.
Acrobat 4.0 kan behandle kart opp til
5,07x5,07 meter, noe som gjør det mulig å
lagre for eks . 26 km 2 1000'dels kart i en pdffil. Lagringsplass på forskjellige webservere
er blitt billigere, typisk ned mot 200 kr./mnd.
for 50 megabyte. Siden kostnadene er så minimale og mange kommuner kan gjøre dette
selv, tror jeg det kan være meget aktuelt å
teste ut «pdf og Internett» før det inngås andre dyre avtaler. Det koster jo nesten ingenting å prøve dette.
KART OG PLAN
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Bokomtaler
Jordbrukets kulturlandskap
Sverre 0vstedal
Dette er ei bok å bli glad i, den er innholdsrik,
kunnskapsformidlende, vakker og pedagogisk godt tilrettelagt. Vi får formidlet kunnskap av allmenn interesse, og boka gir innsikt som er sentral i opplæring og yrke ikke
minst for planleggere, forvaltere og eiendomsutformere.
Boka sammenstiller, samler og populariserer resultatene fra forskningsprogrammer om
jordbrukets kulturlandskap, hovedsakelig
gjennomført i perioden 1991-1996. Det var
omlag 20 naturvitenskapelige og 10 samfunnsvitenskapelige prosjekter. Der er 34 forfattere som presenterer resultatene og smelter disse sammen i den innsikt og kunnskap vi
for tiden har om disse komplekse temaene.
Jordbrukets kulturlandskap omhandler
fire hoveddeler: Gjengroing i tradisjonelt drevet jordbruk; Biologisk mangfold i intensivt
drevet åkerlandskap; Oppfatning og opplevelse av kulturlandskapet og Virkemidler i
forvaltningen av jordbrukets kulturlandskap. Boka har to hovedredaktører, Erik
Fram stad og Ing unn B. Lid og tre fagredaktører, Asbjørn Moen, Rolf A. Ims og Michael
Jones. Erik Frams tad innleder og avslutter
boka og fagredaktørene innleder og oppsummerer i sine bolker. Ikke minst viktig er oversikt over fag- og referanselitteratur til hver
bolk. Det er et helstøpt arbeid med forord,
gode illustrasjoner, vakre bilder, tre vedlegg
og stikkordregister.
For store deler av landet er gjengroing i
inn- og utmark noe som forvandler landskapsbildet og reduserer det biologiske
mangfoldet. Det er utfordringer med å berge
de mest verdifulle, historiske kulturlandskapsområdene ved spesielle vernetiltak,
kontraktfeste skjøtselsplaner for kulturhistorisk og artsinteressante områder og finne
driftsformer for hverdagslandskapet, fra kyst
til seter, for lynghei, hagemark og utmark
som tidligere har vært beitet og delvis slått.
Dette er store områder i vårt grisgrendte
land. Hva er det som går tapt og hvordan er
de alternative veiene videre? Hva vet vi og
hva bør det forskes videre på? Hver undersøKART OG PLAN
3- 99
kelse bringer kunnskap til ettertanke og
handling, så første del er verd et studie.
Biologiske mangfold i intensivt drevet
åkerlandskap er andre hovedbolk. Den angår
mindre arealer, men til gjengjeld de viktigste
jordbruksområdene i dagens samfunn. Det
som skjer i disse landskapene, kan en kanskje i større utstrekning enn for gjengroingsområdene finne pralleller til i andre land.
Mens naturen i gjengroingslandskapene holder på å ta overtaket på det tradisjonelle kulturinnslaget, er det mer brutal teknikk og
menneskemanipulert innsats som har satt og
setter preg på det intensivt drevne resten av
garden og bygda, og landbrukspolitikken er
med å markere åkerlandskapet på flatbygdene. Dyreliv og planteliv i åkerlandskapet,
særlig i restbiotoper i og omkring dyrketarealet er med i det landskapsøkologiske samspillstudiet. Ugras, vann, genetisk mangfold
og andre tema har sine egne artikler. For
jordskifterne som med teigformer, randsoner,
spredningskorridorer og grenser påvirker
landskapet, kan artikkelen: Betydningen av
åkerlandskapets struktur for artene, være
særlig interessant. Men det er så sterk sammenheng mellom artiklene at med like stor
rett kan en si at alle er like viktige. En blir
ikke så fort ferdig med andre bolken.
Oppfatning og opplevelse av kulturlandskapet er med seks artikler den minste hoveddelen i boka. Vi har lagt den naturvitenskapelige
delen av boka på minnet og går inn i andre vitenskaper og opplevelser, ja, selve landskapsopplevelsen. Her blir belyst og framhevet at
kulturlandskap ikke er et entydig begrep, og
landskapet oppleves ulikt og blir av forvaltningen behandlet på forskjellige måter og ut
fra ulike ståsteder. Begrep og verdisyn omtales i egen artikkel, og det samme gjelder belysningen av forvaltningens ulike avveininger ut
fra landbruksproduksjon, natur-, miljø- og
kulturminnevern og videre ses verdiene fra
psykologisk, økonomisk og estetisk vinkling.
Mangfoldet i denne enheten er så stort at biter
av innholdet helst ikke burde gjengis. Likevel
tas med et sitat tillandskapsplanleggeren: «Å
bevare verdier som gir folk identitet i landskapet, er å finne eller skape en framtid for stedet
- på dagens premisser. Å arbeide for et godt
kulturlandskap kan derfor også være å sette
303
Bokomtaler
spørsmålstegn ved dagens planlegging av
landskapet. I forvaltningsapparatet ligger
prosedyrerer som ofte skaper tankeganger der
bruk står i motsetning til vern.» Kan landskapsverdier forvaltes? Det belyses og settes
under debatt i denne bolken.
Den siste bolken: Virkemidler i forvaltningen av jordbrukets kulturlandskap> tar opp
mange aspekter på forvaltning. Målet er å
opprettholde jordas produksjonsevne, motvirke forurensning og erosjon og produsere
biologisk mangfold, kulturverdier, frilufts- og
rekreasjonsverdier og miljøgoder i et estetisk
fullverdig landskap . Her blir økonomisk arealpolitikk og ikke minst areal- og kulturlandskapstillegg gjennomgått i en allsidig kontekst. Den norske kulturlandskapspolitikken
blir også sammenliknet med tilsvarende politikk i andre europeiske land. Lovgrunnlaget,
kommunal planlegging, eiendomsforhold og
jordskifte, er andre emner som blir holdt
under lupen. Michael Jones avslutter denne
delen med en oppsummering og drøfting av
forvaltnings mål og styringsmuligheter for
jordbruksets kulturlandskap.
Etter alt dette kommer det vel med noen
sammenstillinger av hele boka. Erik Fram·
stad avslutter og oppsummerer med hva vi
vet og hva mer vi bør vite om emnet. Og da får
vi glede oss ved å bla tilbake og repetere og se
fram til ny viten.
Jordbrukets kulturlandskap. Forvaltning av kulturverdier.
Hovedredaktører: Erik Framstad og
Ingunn B. Lid.
Fagredaktører: Asbjørn Moen, Rolf A.
Ims og Michael Jones .
Universitetsforlaget 1998, 286 s.
British Planning
August E. Røsnes
To the Norwegian planners and academics in
one or another field related to planning, emeritus professor Barry Cullingworth is a wellknown scholar through his writings on planning, planning history and planning theory
from Great Britain and the USA. His latest
contribution to our understanding of planning and planning behaviour is editorial. The
book is a collection of investigations on Bri-
304
tish planning from the ending of World War Il
to the latest years . Although not explicitly
stated, the purpose ofthe book is obviously to
search for a contemporary status of British
physical planning after 50 years of experience. As the editor states in his preface, it is
not meant to give a comprehensive coverage
of all of those aspects surrounding the system
for town and country planning, like comprehensive planning.
It all starts when Britain, as most of the
European countries, embarked on a period of
reconstruction after years of recession and
war. New directions were set for the immediate development of the country and for longer
perspectives as well. A more ambitious framework was needed for organising planning activities and the realisation ofplans. Accordingly
a new legal framework for town and country
planning was formulated. In 1947 the British
Town and Country Planning Act received the
Royal Assent. The act was meant to be a new
tool for incorporating all relevant aspects into
the physical planning and the control of land
use. Throughout half a century it has served
as the legal basis for public interventions into
the land market under shifting political regimes at any tier of government. It is still in
force, however after numerous amendments.
This judicial continuity is reflected in most of
the subjects studied in the book both by structuring of the chapters and by specific references to legal sentences.
The book contains 18 chapters including the
editor's introduction and overview. Different
contributors appear for each chapter. All of
them are distinguished analysts or experts of
planning and its policy related to particular
issues. The purpose of the book is decisive for
the selection of issues and composition of chapters. Since its main focus is on state-of-the-art
of the planning as such - and not on planning
needs or outcome - structural and functional
aspects of policies and planning efforts are
predominant to substantial aspects. Nevertheless, substantial concerns are well elaborated,
particularly in chapters dealing with sectors
and the control of development. Viewed in the
context of issues addressed the composition of
chapters is fairly balanced.
Out of 17 chapters, 2 comprise issues connected to the planning system: The distinctive
discretionary character of the British planning versus zoning, and the functioning of the
KART OG PLAN
3- 99
Bokomtaler
planning system in relation to a particular
type of plan - the development plan. 3 chapters concentrate on regional aspects of three
various categories. Although the term region
is reserved only for one chapter, they all together cover three almost classical aspects of regional policies or planning: Policies relating to
regional economic development, overall land
use planning especially in the countryside in
some of the chapters. For each chapter, except
the introduction, there is a recommended list
ofliterature for further reading. The book contains not less than 24 pages of references.
Most of these are of course of British origin.
But in general the book refiects an AngloAmerican perspective on planning.
To Norwegian planners and planning academics British town and country planning has
traditionally had gre at professional interest.
In recent times, the spirit of the British Town
and Country Planning Act was of huge inspiration when Norwegians formulated their
first Planning and Building Act for the whole
country in 1965. Later on, Norwegian planning has taken advantage ofthe British experience, especially in the fields of urban development, planning of new towns and urban
renewal more specifically, and transport planning. All these historical relationships rooted
in planning ideology make the book highly relevant for the Norwegian situation. Some of
the overall challenges addressed could hypothetically with some specifications be translated directly into an evaluation of the functioning of the Norwegian planning system.
It might be discussed whether the book
should have included some other subjects of
particular interest for the current planning
situation. Of such subjects, the editor is mentioning planning for town centres, recreation
and leisure, the impact of changes within
retailing, and the role ofplanning implementation. True, chapters on these issues would
have strengthened the professional relevance
of the book, especially since they represent
important aspects of the ongoing changes in
the physical environment. However, I do not
see their absence as any serious objection,
partially because some of the existing chapters are indirectly dealing with some ofthese
issues. When it comes to the methods used,
both with regard to investigation and presentation, the book gives an intuitive and wellbalanced impression of what British planKART OG PLAN
3- 99
ning is about. The consistent subdivision of
the investigation period into phases of policies and events makes it easy to observe
dependencies and relationships between the
prevailing policies for the different sectors,
and how the aggregated consequences relate
to the planning system. The language is kept
in a precise professional style, but the text is
easy to read and understand, even for readers
of another mother tongue than English.
The back-cover states that the book will
prove invaluable to students, researchers and
professionals in planning and social policy. I
would go a step further. It deserves also to be
read (and well understood) by politicians and
officers formulating policies for planning as
well as planning policies, particularly at the
central tier of government. For the Norwegian professionals it gives an excellent introduction to the complicated evolution of the
British town and country planning throughout the second half of the 20th century. In
this respect, it mirrors also the evolution of
planning, its successes and failures, and the
planning system itself, in all those countries
that imported elements from the British
planning to master their own challenges. The
authors' recommendations for further reading and the extensive documentation ofreferences introduce a gateway to research and
policy reports that will inspire academics and
practitioners from neighbouring countries to
similar investigations in their home country.
In short, the book deserves to be found in
every planning professional's shelf ofbooks
British Planning. 50 Years of Urban and Regional Policy, Barry Cullingworth (ed.), London, Athlone Press,
1999, xix+320 pp.
Urban Planning, Regional Policy.
FIG Technical Dictionary, Volume
15, New Edition
August E. Røsnes
A preliminary edition ofthe Technical Dictionary, Volurne 15 of the International Federation of Surveyors (FIG) was published in
1971. At then, Vol urne 15 was labelled urban
planning, physical planning. Concerning the
305
Bokomtaler
con tent, the re cent edition is an extended and
amended version ofthe previous one.
The Dictionary starts with a quite extensive introduction to the subject in all the
three languages - German, English and
French. Crucial for the user is the explanation of the applied methodology for intro ducing the content of the technical words. With
reference to the introduction, five elements
should be considered: The term which is a
unit of thinking summarising the common
features of individual objects identified by
persons in the objects and used by these for
the structuring ofthought. The expression designates the term through definitions and
comprises at least one word. Definitions are
to establish arelation between terms and
expressions as unambiguously as possible.
They identify a term by establishing a relationship to other terms. Terms might be clustered to a system of terms between which relations already exist or have been established
and which thus constitute a coherent entity.
The entry is the smallest independent unit in
a dietionary. It is meant to document the
exact association between a term and its
expression.
German is the language of definition. It
means that the terms covered are oriented
towards the situation and standards of the
laws, administrative regulations and the
related vocabulary in the fields of urban planning and regional policy in the Federal Republic of Germany. In this con text, English and
French are additional languages. Equivalents in these two languages have been adopted where applicable. Eight components constitute the complete entry: The entry number, the language symbols, the German
expression with possible synonyms, the definition ofthe term and necessary references to
related terms of the Dictionary which have
not been stated in the definition. Then for the
English and French parts there are corresponding equivalents of the German expression. An entry with cross-reference is not
defined by itself. But it is attributed a sign
connecting the entered expression to the complete entry which comprises the definition of
the entered term. Entries with cross-references might also for the German part include
further details on the expression, and symbols for the defining authority and country of
the language area. Reference entries are lis306
ted without number of entry, definitions and
equivalents to specify synonyms relating to
the com pl ete entries. A particular sign gives
reference to the complete entry.
In all, the Dictionary contains 496 entry
numbers of German expressions comprising
both complete entries and entries with crossreferences . Additionally, there are 44 entries
of reference. For the comparison, the corresponding amounts of the 1971 edition were
383 and 43. Together with the synonyms the
entries contain a much higher amount of
expressions of the definition language. The
entries are arranged in alphabetic order of
the terms. Under each entry number there
are English and French equivalents of the
German expressions. In those cases no appropriate equivalent to the German expression
has been found either in English or French,
the Dictionary gives a short explanation in
the respective language. Equivalent English
and French terms are alphabetically listed in
two separate indexes. The English index
includes 847 different terms and the French
one 933 compared to 308 and 276 respectively
in the former edition.
Generally, trends of globalisation lead to
social interaction across borders of languages. Transnational co-operation in the fields
of urban planning and regional policy generates needs for harmonising the professional
terminology of the countries involved. Efforts
taken by the European Union to establish
transnational co-operation in the fields of
spatial planning represent a propulsive force
in this process. The initiatives of the International Federation of Surveyors to edit and
update technical dictionaries com prising
three of the largest European languages
show in this context a serious interest to
enhance the professional interaction across
borders of languages. Institutionally, it
represents a positive response to the efforts
taken by the political authorities.
However, translating technical terms relating to planning and policies from one language to another is a demanding task. The
technical terms within of a professionallanguage are not just «technicah. The terminology is embedded in culture, history and constitutional arrangements that diverge between various language are as or might be
more or less unique for each country. English,
French and German languages have their
KART OG PLAN
3- 99
Bokomtaler
core are as within countries where the legalconstitutional and administrative systems
are of different origins and evolved under separate national principles. To give examples
in a few words, the British legal system has
with certain exceptions from Scotland gradually been developed from the tradition of the
English Common Law. And administratively,
the local authorities are regarded as agents
for carrying out policies and regulations of
the central government. In France, the legal
system is underpinned by the codification of
abstract principles according to the Napoleonic style of law, while her Ioc al administration is influenced by the southern European
catholic tradition consisting of a more diversified structure of authorities. German law is
usually looked up on as a descendant of the
Napoleonic one. But the political history of
this country, the strong influence of concepts
of Roman law, together with the distinct style
of formulating the code, contribute to a law
system that is different from those in the two
other countries. Basic laws and constitutional principles that are federal rule the administrative powers of different tiers of government.
Such differences between countries will
with necessity contribute to dissimilarities in
the content of technical terms. The same
applies when terms invented by international institutions are being translated for national use. Additionally, spatial terminology
- either relating to physical planning or regional policies is levelled in a hierarchic system of terms. Some terms might only be possible to explain by decomposing into terms of
lower leveIs, which are covered by these more
abstract forms.
Normally, dictionaries comprising two or
more languages will not introduce the user to
national or cultural distinctiveness of these
kinds. Therefore, it is up to the us er to inquire
into all the specialities that constitute a valid
interpretation of a term. This does not mean
that technical dictionaries as the actual one
generally are of lesser value, or only recommendable for highly skilled users. Supposedly, only a limited part of the terms defined
will be of questionable character reIa ting to
the particular culture, history and legal arrangements of each country. These terms will
usually be formulated as abstractions that
will attract the professional awareness of the
observant reader and hopefully stimulate to
further investigations. In the Dictionary, the
English and French equivalents of the German expressions are miss ing correspondingly
in only 12 and 2 of the 496 entry numbers.
Terms referring to material objects are easier
to both to translate and understand. The Dictionary will be a valuable tool for all professionals struggling with English, French or German equivalents of technical terms in urban
planning and regional policy. Further extensions and updating are welcomed. It might be
asked whether future revisions should be
limited to the three existing languages or
another world language should be included,
for instance Spanish.
Technical Dictionary. Terms and
Definitions as used in Surveying and
Mapping in Germany with Equivalent
Technical Terms in English and
French. Volume 15: Urban Planning, Regional Policy, Prof. Dr. -Ing.
H. Seeger, Frankfurt am Main, Bundesamt fUr Kartographie und Geodasie,
1998, 194 pp.
Landmåling
Industri måling
Digital kartlegging
Mengdeberegning
,
Ledningsregistrering
Teknisk databehandling
GPS satelittmåling
Kurs og opplæring
Oslo: Kjølberggata 27, telefon 22 67 04 06, faks 22 67 07 46
Trondheim. Hoeggveien 66, telefon 73 96 75 75, faks 73 96 75 76
Email [email protected]: [email protected]
KART OG PLAN
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307
Personalia
Jon Eivind Utby, Hasselveien 4, Ottestad, fylte 60 år 5. juli 1999.
Utby er jordskiftekandidat fra NLH (1965), og
arbeidet med kommunal
oppmåling i Oslo og
Stange
kommuner,
1965-1987 og ved Hedmark og Sør-0sterdal
jordskifterett,
Jon Eivind Utby
1987-1993. Fra 1993
har Utby vært overingeniør ved Eidsivating
jordskifteoverrett på Gjøvik, der han fortsatt
arbeider, nå som senioringeniør. Utbyadministrerer også saker som dommer i ankeinstansen. Utby er en grundig og samvittighetsfull jordskifter som holder seg meget
godt oppdatert faglig. Han er en god kollega,
omgjengelig, har godt humør og gir et verdifullt bidrag til det gode arbeidsmiljø som finnes ved dømekontoret.
Dagen ble feiret sammen med en stor familie. Vi ønsker Jon Eivind Utby til lykke med
milepælen og med de kommende år.
Dag Juvkam
Åge Engelien (60), cand.agric. NLH, jordskifte, 1966, er av Landbruksdepartementet midlertidig beskikket som fylkesjordskiftesjef i Hedmark fram til 31.12.2000.
Eilev Gunleiksrud (27), cand.agric. NLH,
planfag 1999, er tilsatt i Gulating jordskifteoverrett, Førde.
Halvor Holvik (38), cand.agric. NLH, jordskifte 1987, er tilsatt i firma Norgeodesi as,
Bærum.
Lars Håvard Verkland (28), cand.agric.
NLH, planfag 1999, er tilsatt i Jordskifteverket, Molde.
Notis
Geodata-standarden
Geodata-standarden er nå godkjent av Standardiseringsringen i Statens kartverk og er
dermed klar for utgivelse på Kartverkets
Standardiserings-CD i høst.
Arbeidet med Geodata-standarden har
pågått siden 1992, da arbeidet med revisjon
av Kartnormen startet. Den ble opprinnelig
kalt Geodata-normen og besto aven generell
del samt seks fagdeler. I fjor ble arbeidet med
standarden omorganisert, referansegruppa
ble nedlagt og den generelle delen av Geodata-normen fikk navnet «Kvalitetssikring
av oppmåling, kartlegging og geodata» (kortform Geodata-standarden).
Etter høring i fjor har Geodata-standarden
blitt bearbeidet videre av ei arbeidsgruppe
hvor 0ystein Andersen, Kjell Berge, Rolf
Bakken og Karsten Lien har vært de sentrale
aktørene . Arbeidet i arbeidsgruppa ble avsluttet i august.
Hensikten med Geodata-standarden er å
spesifisere og sikre kvalitet og dermed legge
308
til rette for bruk, vedlikehold og forvaltning
av den samfunnsmessige ressursen som geodata representerer.
Standarden angir hvordan kvaliteten til
geodata og geodatatjenester skal beskrives og
rapporteres . Standarden kan brukes til å beskrive hvor godt et produkt tilfredsstiller
kvalitetskravene i en produktspesifikasjon og
til å vurdere om et produkt har tilstrekkelig
kvalitet til en aktuell anvendelse. Standarden kan også benyttes til å beskrive generelle
kvalitetsbehov. De konkrete kvalitetskravene finner man imidlertid i de andre standardene som bygger på prinsippene i Geodata-standarden.
Geodata-standarden omhandler stedfestet
informasjon som brukes til offentlige og private formål. Standarden legger vekt på kvalitetssikring av målinger, beregninger, tjenester og produkter; herunder krav til styringssystem, faglig kompetanse, kontrollvirksomhet og dokumentasjon.
Karstein Lien, Statens Kartverk
KART OG PLAN
3- 99
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\
~_. :::-::::=~
Bloms Oppmåling AS
Contact us about surveying
Land Surveying
Alignment Surveying
Harbour Mapping
Cad astral Surveying
GPS Measurements
Cable/pipe route Surveying
Dimensional Control
GPS-rental
Terrain Modelling
Program Development
Special Assignments
Environmental Surveying
Stavanger
Tel. +47 51 70 85 00
Fax +47 51 70 85 01
Oslo
+4722309600
+4722309699
Bergen
+47 55 59 67 60
+4755596799
Mail
blom @blom.no
The national supplier and manager of geographie information
Norwegian Mapping Authority (NMA) establish, update and manage the national
geodata infrastructure - «Norway digital»
eprimary dataseries for land and sea areas
emodem electronic charts along the coast
ea national area- and resourceinformation system
ea national property information system
ea national dGPS-service for positioning with
an accuracy of a few centimetres
ean electronic service to manage and distribute data
NMA makes data and products from «Norway digitab)
avai/able for private and public customers
www.statkart.no
310
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NORWEGIAN MAPPING
AUTHORITY
KART O G P LAN
3- 99
THE ATHLONE P
BRITISH PLANNING
INTRODUCING PLANNING
50 Years of Urban and Regional Change
EDITION III
CLARA GREED
Edited by BARRY CULLlNGWORTH
Presents a comprehensive review of British Planning and
Policy.
Bringing together the country's leading analysts of planning
and planning issues, British Planning is a state of the art
review and analysis which will prove invaluable to students,
researchers and professionals.
048500612 X PB
f:16.99 PB
August 2000
240 pp
100 BIWs & 50 line
Contents Introduction; Housing; Discretion in Planning Versus
Zoning; The Planning System and the Development Plan;
Compensation and Betterment; The Reg iona l Dimension;
Countryside Planning; Preservation, Conservation and
Heritage; British Planning in Its European Context; Design ;
The Chang ing Role of the Courts; Urban Social Policy; Public
Participation in Planning; Transport Plann in g; New Towns;
Public-Private Partnership; Environmental Planning; An
American Perspective on UK Planning; Postscript
Contributors Paul Balchin, Philip Booth, David Cal lies, Lyn
Davies, Malcolm Grant, Peter Hall , lan Hodge, Peter Larkham,
Vincent Nadin, John Punter, Michael Purdue, Brian Robson,
Yvonne Rydin, Paul Truelove, Urlan Wannop, Stephen Ward,
Christopher Wood.
PLANNING AND THE POLITICAL
MARKET
Public Choice and the Politics of
Government Failure
MARK PENNINGTON
0485004062 HB
f:47.50
048500606 5 PB
f:17.99
June 2000
256 pp
THE ATHLONE PRESS
1 PARK DRIVE
LONDON NW11 7SG
Tel: + 44 0181 4580888
Fax:+4401812018115
ath lonepress @btinternet.com
0485004046 HB
f:47.50
0485006049 PB f:16.99
April 1999
392 pp
42 BIWs & 18 figures
SKANNIN(;
og
VEKTORISERING
av tegninger og kart
Vi gir del~;
Storformat skanning
opp til AO-forlenget
Skanning av kart
(rissefolier)
Storformat
fargeskanning
Rask lev.~ring!
Konkurransedyktige priser!
Best resultat ved vektorisering!
CAD SYSTEM C ENTER AS
N ils Hansens vei 20, 0667 O slo
Tel. 22 72 20 48, FAX. 22 72 20 54
KART OG PLAN
3- 99
311
@NLH TINGSRETI FOR LANDMÅLERE
Seksjon for etter- 10 vekttalls videreutdanningskurs
og videreutdanning
Boks 5090
1432 As
~oen ?\o.ss
er
\9~en\
K urset består av seks kurssamlinger, to samlinger hvert halvår. Første samling den
14. - 16. januar 2000 på Quality Park Hotel, Kolbotn.
Målgruppe
Tlf 64947560
Faks 64947440
[email protected]
Kurset retter seg primært mot landmålere som allerede arbeider innenfor
delingslovens virkefelt både kommunalt, privat eller i statlige etater, eller som
ønsker å kvalifisere seg i denne retningen.
Formål
Målet med kurset er å gi nødvendig kunnskap til å håndtere de mest ordinære og
oftest forekommende sakene, samt å kunne vite når det er nødvendig å innhente
spesialkompetanse. Kurset skal gi innsikt i både offentligrettslige og privatrettslige
lover og regler.
Kursavgift kr 2S 000,-. Kurset gis av Institutt for landskapsplanlegging.
PÅMELDINGSFRIST 29. OKTOBER 1999
For nærmere infor mas jon k ontakt:
SEVU - NLH · Boks 5090 • 1432 As • tlf 649475 60 • faks 64 94 74 40
e-mail: [email protected] • http://www.nlh.no/sevu-nlh/frameset.htm
Eksamensrettet etterutdanning ved NTNU
Geografisk info r masjonsbehand ling
Dell: 13.-1 7. desember 1999 · Del 2: 10.-14.januar 1920
Geografiske informasjonssystemer (GIS) framstår i dag som et resultat aven teknologisk utvikling innen flere
fagområder. Pådrivere til denne utviklingen finner vi i miljøer innen digital kartografi, grafisk databehandling,
multimedia og databasesystemer. Ajourførte kunnskaper i de nye metodene er avgjørende for å kunne utnytte
mulighetene til den moderne GIS-teknologien.
Planlegging i bye r og tettsted e r - strat egie r og re d skaper fo r beva r ing og utvikling
Del I: I. -3. november 1999 Trondheim · Del 2: 29. november-I. desember 1999 Trondheim
Framtidas tettstedsplanlegging vil i stor grad gå ut på forbedring og utvikling i eksisterende bolig- og byområder.
Bærekraftig utvikling vil kreve andre tilnærmingsmåter, strategier og løsninger enn den tradisjonelle planlegginga.
Kurset vil ta opp ulike strategier og redskaper for planlegging og gjennomføring. Det blir lagt vekt på eksempler.
NTN U
For ytte r ligere informasjon ko nt a kt o ss på
telefon: 73 59 52 66 • fax: 73 59 51 50
e-post: [email protected] • http://wvvvv.ntnu.no/sevu
312
III
KART OG PLAN
3- 99
\ BANEHEIA
J
3. Stampe
Galgebel
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~~=:::==~\
Blegerøya
&6v,fL
K!erregårdsbukta
C-BLAD
Universitetsforlaget, kundeservice
Postboks 2959 Tøyen, 0608 Oslo
• SURVEYING MAPPING AND REMOTE SENSING
• TRANSPORTATION AND ENVIRONMENT
• INFORMATION TECHNOLOGV
• VISUAL COMMUNICATIQN
• PUBLISHING
http'//www fw no
,
"
AS,
TRONDHEIM Fjellanger W;derøe
Int call. +47 73 8967 DO, Telefax +4773
OSLO FJellanger Widerøe AS, PO Box
_ Intcall +476758 7000 Telefax +4767
005 Trondheim, Norway
96701
90, 1330 Fornebu, Norway
87001