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C E A S
DE LA SALLE LIPA
JOURNAL
of
EDUCATION, ARTS
&
SCIENCES
ISSN 2449-4429
Volume 1 Issue No. 1, JUNE 2015
DLSL JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, ARTS & SCIENCES
All information mentioned in each article
reflects the stance of the contributors.
Thus, they are solely responsible for
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write-ups.
THE EDITORIAL BOARD
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Editorial Board so appropriate action or
rectification can be done for the
subsequent issue.
Associate Editor
Dr. Hermogenes B. Panganiban
Editor-in-Chief
Mr. Bernardo Lunar
Mr. Jose Macatangay
Publications Manager
Mr. Roy Dalisay
Copy Editor
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THE EDITORIAL BOARD DLSL-JEAS
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3/F Sen. Jose Diokno Hall
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Lipa City 4217, Philippines
Ms. Lorna A. Achico
Artist
Vol. 1 No. 1
(S.Y. 2015-2016)
June 2015
CONTENTS
Beyond Feedback: The Error Correction
Strategies of Teachers in L2 Tertiary Writing
Roy Dalisay
1
Type Of Laboratory Examination In Microbiology:
Its Effect On Students' Achievement
Bernardo Lunar
Edmerson Geronimo
11
Assessment of the Performance of Area Chairs
of De La Salle Lipa
Hermogenes B. Panganiban, DPA
19
Assessment of Learning Gains from
Student- Originated Projects in Ecology
Laboratory Course Delivered Through
Service Learning Design
Catherine Precioso
Bernardo Lunar
35
Subli: And The Gospel Became Dance
Michael M. Ramos
47
What we see is (not) what we get:
ArtSocs Students' Appreciation of Performance Art
Aileen Joy Saul, Ph.D.
59
JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, ARTS AND SCIENCES
Vol. 1 No. 1 (June 2015)
Beyond Feedback: The Error Correction
Strategies of Teachers in L2 Tertiary
Writing
Roy Dalisay
Abstract
The study examined the error correction strategies used by teachers of writing produced in tertiary level
English classes. It used qualitative analysis of marks found in 20 essays comprised of two sets of above-average
and below-average students enrolled in Freshmen Writing course. Results showed that most of the teacherrespondents employed the coded method of correcting essays with encircling as the dominant form of
correction. Diagnosed errors were mostly local in nature and teachers generally provided handwritten
comments as feedback on the writing output of students. Recommendations were provided on enhancing the
strategies of teachers in error correction and exploring students' responses in prompts given to them.
Keywords: writing error correction strategies, second language writing
1.0 Introduction
Marking student papers is one of the aspects
of teaching that could be exhausting, especially if the
nature of the paper is subjective (or in essay form).
Currently, the transformative learning approach is
implemented in the course, Communication Skills 2
at De La Salle Lipa. The said subject, which focuses on
Writing and Grammar Skills, encourages the use of
rubrics in correcting papers that are mostly subjective
in nature.
However, in spite of popularity of using
rubrics in correcting the outputs of the students, it still
needs attention on how to actually correct the errors
of students. This situation was cited by Lee (2003) and
Pardede (2006) which both concluded that there are
indecisive results in error correction research. Ellis
(2012) cited that there is a debate on the value of
written corrective feedback in helping learners
achieve greater accuracy in their writing. The
research areas that are in question are on the
following: what should teachers correct? Should
writing teachers focus on the content rather than the
grammar or the other way around? What are the
other criteria in marking papers?
In the writer's observations through seven
years of teaching second language (L2) coursesreading, writing, grammar, oral communicationwriting seems to be the most demanding task. On the
part of the students, they have to demonstrate skills in
applying grammar rules, choosing the right diction,
organizing ideas and shaping sentences and
paragraphs into a comprehensible form- essay, report
or document. The writing teacher, on one hand, is
beset with numerous concerns not only on imparting
lessons but also on the criteria for marking students'
output. Troyka and Hesse (2007) believed that
evaluation and grading foster students' interest in
writing. Teachers influence their students either
negatively or positively depending on the way they
grade their papers. In relation to this, teachers differ
on the criteria to follow in marking students' work.
Copyright © 2015 De La Salle Lipa
R. DALISAY
Sometimes, the mechanical aspect (grammar) is
heavily underscored to the relegation of the content.
The allotment of percentages also varies depending
on the rubric that the teacher is using or being asked
to use. Colombo and Furbush (2009) cited that
content-area teachers provide English language
learners with ongoing support through editing.
Teachers pay specific attention to the errors that are
pervasive in second language writing and have been
shown to be judged most harshly by instruction.
Part as well of the researcher's observations
and informal feedback from current and former
students, is the manner of correction. The manner
could be perceived in as simple as the color of the ink
or material used in correcting papers to the complex
like the tone or kind of language used together with
the annotations of the teacher.
Having different teaching backgrounds, the
instructors of the English Language Area of the
College of Education, Arts and Sciences, conduct
error correction in varied ways. Thus, this paper aims
to identify the strategies/tools used by teachers in
correcting errors It frames its analysis on the context
of student writing development in the English
language.
This study could pave the way for an Error
Correction/Marking policy of the English Language
Area that will guide new teachers and refresh
seasoned mentors in grading student outputs. The
identified individual marking strategies were
collated from writing teachers during the 2nd
Semester of School Year 2010-2011 and result to a
portfolio of Error Correction strategies. Our teachers
will be encouraged to share their best practices to help
the new ones in the service.
Although the English Language Area is the
direct beneficiary of the study, this will also serve as a
reference of teachers in other Areas/Departments of
the College of Education, Arts and Sciences, which
require essays from their students.
Finally, it is a prelude to studying the
composing habits of Lasallians. The utilized samples
will gauge how our students compose which may be a
reflection of how they expect to be graded. For
example, if the students perceived that fluency
(content) is heavily graded by their teacher as
opposed to accuracy (grammar), then they will exert
every effort to express their ideas without bothering
so much on the grammar.
The study limits itself to writing teachers of
the English Language Area who were employed
during the 2nd Semester of School Year 2010-2011.
Respondents marked twenty (20) essays from 10
student-writers who took part in an essay writing
contest and 10 students from below-average writers
who were gathered to compose an essay using the
same writing prompt and other conditions of the 10
student-contestants. Prior endorsements from the
then Chair of the English Language Area as well as
consent from the student-writers for using the essays
in the research were secured.
2.0 Literature Review
Language Errors. Language errors can be defined as
any deviation from the rules of language use which
reflects imperfect mastery of the language (Brians as
cited in Pardede, 2006). Brians also defines it as
“deviations from the standard use of English as
judged by sophisticated users such as professional
writers, editors, teachers, and literate executives and
personnel officers.” Mina Shaughnessy, as cited in
Eaton (2003), explains that errors in writing are
'alternative forms in spots where usage has stabilized
a particular form”.
Writing, as a significant chunk of language, is
naturally exposed to deviations that are evidences of
the writers' drive to fluency. Evaluating these errors is
possibly the single most difficult task required of a
writing teacher.
Brown (2000) listed four major sources of
errors: inter-lingual transfer from the native
language, or inference, or using the first language
system in second language communication which is
different from the system of the second language.
The second source of error is intra-lingual transfer, or
the negative transfer of items within the target
language, or, in other way, the incorrect
generalization of rules within the target language
itself, is a major factor of errors in second language or
L2 learning. This kind of transfer can be found in such
utterances as, She writed a letter, and I don't know to
you.
In Brown's book, the third major source of
error is the context of learning. Context refers, for
[2]
BEYOND FEEDBACK: THE ERROR CORRECTION
example, to the classroom with its teacher. The fourth
major source of error can be found in different
communication strategies used by the learner to get a
message across to a reader. It is possible, for example,
that an English as Second Language (ESL) learner will
write, “He works hard so that the family will be taken
out of puberty”. This sentence produced a torrent of
laughter, it had an incorrect approximation of the
word poverty. However, the writer is just trying to
convey a message albeit to hilarious result.
Errors can also be classified as global
(affecting the over-all sense of the work) or local
(focused on singular elements of the output).
Error Correction and Feedback. During the writing
process, teachers spend a great deal of time offering
feedback on their students' work. Some teachers
grade the outputs with accompanying comment on
the drafts that often justify the grade they gace.
Comments vary, as well as the grade, to assign in the
essay/draft.
Julian, as cited in Troyke and Hesse (2007),
presents generally acceptable guidelines in grading
papers that include indicating the letter grade with its
corresponding meaning. For instance, the letter grade
A means “ the paper has a spark of true originality. It
has few if any mechanical errors, and it has clear
organization, smooth transitions, exceptional detail,
consistent diction and tone, and sophisticated
sentence structure”.
Lee (2003) reported the different types of
error feedback such as direct feedback, indirect
feedback (direct location of errors) and indirect
feedback (indirect location of errors) with examples
for each type. She added that direct and indirect
feedback has no different effects on student accuracy
in writing.
Based on the foregoing descriptions,
correcting papers is an exacting process with many
facets of language interplaying. Corollary to this is
the use of rubrics that are either teacher-made or
adapted to make the process standardized and less
labor-intensive.
Methods of Response. Ferris (2002) cited the
different methods of responding to errors and the
different types or nature of error. These include direct
response which is seen when a teacher provides
students with explicit written corrections or response
to the error. Another is indirect response that is also
known as coded. This response occurs when a teacher
alerts students to error using general comments and
in some cases, through symbols .
Ferris added that the nature of errors can be
global or local. Global errors are errors that interfere
with the comprehensibility of a text. These are errors
concerning over-all content, ideas and organization
of the writer's arguments. Local errors, in contrast, are
minor ones such as grammar, spelling or punctuation
that 'do not impede understanding' of results of the
marking of teacher-respondents to the concerned
essay papers.
On another perspective, Martinez (2007)
distinguished errors which affect the linguistic
competence- grammatical errors- or the
communicative competence-communicative errors.
Linguistic competence errors are local errors while
communicative competence errors are global.
Feedback and its Effects Several research studies
investigating the effects of different types of feedback
on second language students' writing have suggested
that explicit or direct error correction of surface-level
errors (spelling, punctuation, grammar) seems to be
generally ineffective (Huntley, 1992; Truscott, 1996 as
cited in Diab, 2006).
Some teachers just put a numerical value on
the students' papers without any comment while
others use symbols to mark the papers. Nunez (2008)
reported in her study that when teachers mark
student essays, their backgrounds and personal
preferences inevitably influence their decision in
rating a paper whether or not they are aware of it. The
study analyzed four writing teachers' comments,
identified the patterns and categorized them.
In a related study, Ignacio-Paez (2008)
discussed the numeric marks and corresponding
descriptive evaluations for a given set of criteria that
encouraged more critical analysis.
Grammar in Writing. With respect to grammar, the
categories of errors proposed by Politzer and Ramirez
as cited in Pardede (2006), is often made as a
reference. The categories include morphology such as
possessive case incorrect, syntax with error in noun
phrase, for instance. Further, under syntax errors are
[3]
R. DALISAY
verb phrase, verb construction, word order and some
transformations. Each kind of error is provided with
example in the said taxonomy.
2010-2011.
The study used the total enumeration
sampling wherein it focused among the then College
writing instructors of De La Salle Lipa. Respondents
were selected through an endorsement from the thenChairperson of the English Language Area as noted
by the Research Coordinator and by the Dean of the
College of Education, Arts and Sciences.
The said letter mentioned also the
parameters of the respondents' checking which
include the following: a) Criteria of Marking- Content
(based on the theme: The Change I Want To See
Begins With Me), Organization and Mechanics. The
researcher deliberately did not include the point
allocation per criteria. However, each essay should
have a maximum of 50 points. The researcher also
encouraged the respondents to comment on each
essay. Rubrics are also deliberately not provided to
the teachers. Checked essays are returned to the
researcher two (2) weeks after receipt.
All ten (10) instructors of the Communication
Skills course received the letter and the essays.
However, only eight (8) respondents returned the
checked essays.
As for the essays, they are composed of two
sets. Set 1, composed of 10 essays, is written by
students whose works were part of an on-the-spot
essay writing contest sponsored by the English
Language Area. These students represented the best
of each writing class during the covered semester.
Only those who did not win the top three (3) spots are
included in the study. Set 1 was selected for they
wrote the essays in almost similar conditions. The
approval of the English Language Area Chair for
using the said essays in this study was secured
together with the consent of the student-writers
themselves.
Set 2, composed of another 10 essays, are
written also by representatives from different writing
classes. However, they belong to the below-average
performers in contrast to Set 1 writers. These students
were gathered in a room, to simulate an essay-writing
contest. These student-writers were asked to
compose an essay with the same theme, prompt,
which is “Compose an essay based on the theme: 'The
Change I Want To See Begins With Me'” and other
conditions of Set 1 students.
2. 1 Theoretical Framework
This study adopted several concepts as bases
of its research paradigm. Coffrey, as cited in Pardede
(2006) revealed that writing, like speaking, is an
important means of communication in which
someone can meaningfully express, for examples,
intentions, ideas, hopes, and findings to other people.
Therefore, it will lead to the realization that writing is
akin to communicative competence. Communicative
competence then means students are able to compose
language components well and to express ideas or
opinions clearly in order to communicate
successfully with other people.
Another concept on writing is “it is the act of
making up correct sentences and transmitting them
through the visual medium as marks on paper”
(Widdowson as cited in Pardede, 2006). “Correct”
sentences would certainly gauge the skill of the
writer. The pressure is on the teacher (as a reader) to
properly read the “marks” left by the student-writers
and if there are undecipherable marks, teachers
should correct them. Colombo and Furbush (2009)
warn that when uncorrected errors become
practiced and ingrained, learners become extremely
resistant to change which is known as “fossilization of
errors”.
Error correction then is an essential
component of the writing act. Hence, writing teachers
are strategically placed in the learning path through
correction strategies they espouse which will
eventually shape future drafts of the students.
3.0 Method
The study is a qualitative research on the
error correction strategies of teachers in Second
Language or L2 tertiary writing as practiced by
Communication Skills 2 (or Writing and Grammar
Skills) teachers of the English Language Area, College
of Education, Arts and Sciences, De La Salle Lipa. By
gathering and analyzing documents, the study
provides significant data about these instructors who
were employed during the Second Semester of SY
[4]
For contextualization, the essays that were marked
for this study are composed during the initial stage of
the writing process but in timed conditions. Both sets
of students responded on similar prompts and were
able to express their thoughts in controlled
environment. The researcher co-facilitated the onthe-spot writing contest (of Set 1 students) while he
solely administered the separate activity for Set 2
students. The essays represent the typical
characteristics of the writers that mentors handle.
The specific kinds of student papers (above
and below-average) were chosen in order to establish
consistency in the marking/correction of the teacherrespondents. The respondents checked two sets of
essays on the researcher's assumption that their
checking will reflect their style and manner of
correction.
The forms mentioned above were based
from the shapes and styles prevalent in the collected
markings of the teacher-respondents as noted by the
researcher.
4.0 Results
The tools/materials and methods used by the
teacher-respondents were identified and compiled.
These are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1 Summary of Materials and Methods Used
in Correction of Essays
Teacher Code
Material Used
Method Used
Coded
B
Ballpen in violet
ink
Ballpen in black ink
C
Pencil
Coded
Numerous essays have
marginal notes from
this teacher
D
Ball pen in red ink
Direct
Some essays have
marginal notes from
this teacher
E
Ball pen in blue ink
Coded
F
Pencil
Coded
Some essays have
marginal notes from
this teacher
G
Pencil
Coded
This teacher was the
only one who added
codes and comments in
the spotted errors;
dominant code is
labeled as CW
H
Ball pen in blue ink
Coded
A
Coded
Mode of Error Correction
The study observed the following steps and
parameters: the respondents were asked to correct the
essay in any way/strategy they can. A sheet of paper
was provided individually to the respondents for
their personal notes. Then, the corrected essays were
collated and analyzed based on two aspects. The first
aspect is as to type of corrected error (whether local,
global or cannot be determined). As defined by Ferris
(2002), local errors are concerned with grammar,
spelling, punctuation and other minor ones that do
not affect the comprehensibility of a text. In contrast,
global errors are errors that interfere with the
comprehensibility of a text. These are errors
concerning over-all content, ideas and organization
of the writer's arguments. The errors that cannot be
determined as to type are the ones that are difficult to
classify as to nature due to lack of details and/or clear
markings from the teacher-respondents.
The other aspect of analysis is according to
feedback (direct or coded) or non-feedback by the
teacher about the corrected error. For the coded
feedback, the following forms of code were adopted
by the researcher for systematic analysis later:
encircled
underlined
question marked
double slashed
bracketed
Remarks
As shown in Table 1, seven out of eight
respondents utilized the coded method in correcting
the essays given to them. Most of them also used a
pencil in marking the essays. The table further shows
that ball pens of varied colors were commonly used
by the mentors in checking.
Table 2 Summary of Type of Corrected Errors
Type of Error
Frequency
Local
5
Undetermined/Mixed Local and Global
3
After due tallying, the study revealed that most of the
errors detected by the respondents are local in nature
as depicted in Table 2. There is a considerable number
of mentors whose detected errors are difficult to
determine as to the nature.
check marked
slashed
check marked
double underlined
curved line
[5]
R. DALISAY
Table 3 Summary of Form of Codes Dominantly
Used in Correction
Form of Code
Frequency
Encircled
5
Underlined
1
Double-slashed
1
understandable that students commit a lot of local
errors which is especially noticeable in Set 2 essays.
Set 2 writers need more exposure to language forms
and rules. What the teachers can help is to provide a
list of language features that a writer can generally
encounter in a particular type of writing. The list will
alert the students on the proper forms of language as
pointed out by Nunan (2009), that they could
integrate in their writing outputs.
It is also of worth that there are three
respondents whose markings are difficult to
categorize due to the limited clues provided. This
could also be a room for enhancing the methodology
of this study that might include interview as one of its
data collection procedures.
For the respondents who coded their
corrections, the dominant form of their code is by
encircling the item as shown in Table 3.
5.0 Discussion
The results of the study reveal how
Communication Skills 2 (Writing and Grammar
Skills) teachers mark the compositions that were
turned in by their students in the course of their
functions as learning facilitators.
This study taps into the workings of writing
instructors as they deal with marking errors perhaps
who are hoping that students will learn from the said
errors and eventually correct themselves.
On the Prevalence and Use of Comments
It is also striking that six out of eight
participants wrote their comments on the papers
provided to them. Majority of the teachers marked
errors comprehensibly. This is consistent with what
Julian, as cited in Troyka and Hesse (2003), stated that
handwritten comments is one of the most
Common Correction Strategies
common methods of offering student feedback
on their writing. Some of the comments are
inspiring like the following comments for
Writer 10:
Though riddled with codes (seven out of
eight respondents resorted to coded method) that
may hamper understanding of the students on what
the instructors mean, feedback is still provided to
guide the students.
The use of codes could further mean that the
respondents are very attentive in their processes of
marking compositions. Teacher G even added
abbreviations that could represent grammar areas.
There were also underlines and/or curves beside each
abbreviation.
One teacher also wrote the meanings of the forms of
the codes that he or she utilized. Due to the varied
forms of coding such as encircling and underlining; a
guide may be formulated by each teacher to be issued
to students.
Only one respondent resorted to direct
feedback as the dominant form of checking. This
could mean that the instructors wanted the students
to foster the value of responsibility and self-discovery.
As for the type of error, local errors were
detected by most of the participants. It could be
Well written, admirable if you're really
doing what you stated here; some sentences are too
long though – From Teacher D;
well written – From Teacher E
….got a good beginning... – From Teacher F
Some respondents chose a clarifying tone in
their remarks as seen in the examples below:
what do you mean?- For Writer 17 from
Teacher C
what are you trying to say in this sentence? –
For Writer 10 from Teacher D
[6]
However, a few scribbled comments seen in
the study may also demoralize students. Examples of
these are:
Still, one teacher did not reveal the
breakdown of the scores given to the students.
Another teacher gave the breakdown of the scores but
no assignment of values in the criteria was shared.
These variations could mean that generating
rubrics for grading essays is still tricky and the Area
needs to intervene as to the proper criteria. Yet this
would not mean that the academic freedom of the
mentors is curtailed, policies and standards are only
in place to have a more harmonious engagement with
members of the academic community, especially the
students.
They are not sentences; looks like this is a
sermon; the sequence of tenses needs a lot of
improvement! There's no consistency of tenses, too. –
For Writer 11, from Teacher C
Teacher H conveyed a string of comments
mostly connected to grammar areas or forms but
failed to specify which of the lines written by the
students is characterized by a particular grammar
lapse.
Since almost all writers are freshmen, it is
acceptable that they are still in the developing stage of
'automaticity' in the language as pointed out by
Malicsi (2005). He argued that once automaticity is
truly developed, one could proof the draft globally,
considering all possible errors in forms and rules as
one goes through each sentence. The proofing could
be a form of feedback as cited by Lee (2003).
6.0 Conclusions and Recommendations
The study has found that most instructors of
the English Language Area of the College of
Education, Arts and Sciences handling the
Communication Skills 2 conduct error correction in
coded method. The codes used by the respondents
vary; however encircling was the dominant form of
coding followed by underlining. Also, the errors
identified by the instructors are mostly local in
nature. Teachers employ strategies of error correction
that generally focus on providing handwritten
comments and switching from the traditional red ink
to other colors of writing instruments used in
marking.
Only one teacher revealed the rubrics that he
or she used as the basis of his or her feedback. There
could be alternative means to diagnose and guide
students' efforts that the teacher-respondents were
not able to reveal. These other ways might be the
adoption of error correction code and follow-up
conferences to clarify certain points like the tone and
grammar used in the written output.
It is recommended that the direction of
succeeding researches may concentrate on deepening
the teachers' view of error correction through postactivities like focus interviews. In so doing,
clarifications on what do they mean by some coding
symbols may be accomplished. Clarifications from
the respondents may then further validate what the
researcher arrived at in the study.
Moreover, the genre of the essays corrected
by the teachers may also be considered by future
researchers in order to compare and contrast the error
correction styles of the teachers when applied
according to genre.
On the Use of the 'Proper' Material in Marking
Julian as cited in Troyka and Hesse (2003),
asserted that as simple as switching from red ink to
pencil or blue ink has a positive effect on the students'
attitudes. Students are more likely to see pencil
comments as less threatening though for clarity sake,
the participants in this study may have resorted to
ballpens as their tool.
It is good that pencils were used by a third of
the participants. As for the others, various colors of
the ink were utilized as perhaps marks of
individuality. Nobody wrote their comments in a
separate sheet.
On the Criteria for Grading
Though it is not the primary focus of the
study, the preferences for the criteria for grading the
essays were also revealed in the research. There is still
a heavy emphasis on Content as shown in the
breakdown of the scores given by five teachers (A, B,
C, E, F and H). Some suggestions on the grading were
implied by some participants, i.e. Teacher A asking
about the Grammar and Teacher H wondering about
the Tone.
[7]
R. DALISAY
in English in our Local Contexts”.
Proceedings from the 14th International
Conference on English in Southeast Asia,
November 26-29, 2009, Ateneo de Manila
University
To enrich the discussion, students' further
input, this time on how do they react after seeing the
responses, may also be pursued. This could mean
gauging the impact of error correction to their
subsequent outputs that might necessitate more
extensive research.
On the concern about proper diagnosing, it
may be imperative to prescribe a guide on error
correction for students' reference. It may be in a form
of a checklist of common errors, whether local or
global, committed in writing and their remedies.
Teachers can help complete and update the list plus
remind their students on how do they mark the
outputs submitted to them.
Finally, the paper dealt with revealing the
strategies of teachers in marking errors. Other
researches can perhaps deal with measuring the
impact of strategies in view of writing skills
development.
Krashen, S. (2013, December 28) Radio Interview with
Dr. Stephen Krashen via www.tefl.com.
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Classics Foundation
Martinez, S. (2007). Should we correct our students'
errors in L2 learning? Journal of Research and
Innovation in the Language Classroom. Vol. 5,
No. 4, pp. 426-439
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and Innovation in the Language Classroom.
Vol. 5, No. 4, pp. 426-439
Ellis, R. (2012). Language teaching research and
Language Pedagogy. Singapore: Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
Nunan, D. (2009). Second Language Teaching and
Learning. Pasig City: Cengage Learning
Asia Pte. Ltd.
Ferris, D. (2002) Treatment of Error in Second Language
Student Writing. Ann Arbor: MJ:
University of Michigan
Nunez, C. (2008) “What teachers look for in college
freshmen essays”. Proceedings from the 14th
International Conference on English in
Southeast Asia, November 26-29, 2009,
Ateneo de Manila University
Ignacio-Paez (2008) “Im STILL Checking Papers!”:
Assessing What and How We Assess Writing
[8]
Pardede, P. (2006). Grammatical Errors in the
Compositions of the Second Year Students
of the English Department of FKIP-UKI
Jakarta. Retrieved from
http://www.ebscohost.com/
Troyka, L, and Hesse, D. (2007). Strategies and
Resources for Teaching Writing with the Quick
Access for Writerrs. S/E USA:Pearson
Education, Inc.
[9]
Vol. 1 No. 1 (June 2015)
Type Of Laboratory Examination In
Microbiology: Its Effect On Students'
Achievement
Bernardo Lunar
Edmerson Geronimo
Abstract
The effect of the type of test administered to evaluate the learning of students in their laboratory classes is
not given much consideration in planning out the course delivery. This study utilized experimental design
which compared the achievement scores of the students as they were evaluated using two different types of final
laboratory examination in the Microbiology. The study was conducted among 48 Second Year BS Nursing and
BS Biology students. Using their midterm grades, the students were grouped into two, each with similar grade
point average. One group took the first half of the examination in written form while the other group took the
demonstration type. For the other half of the test, the two groups shifted type of exam. Mean scores between two
groups evaluated using two different types of practical exam were then compared. Results revealed that students
scored significantly higher when they took the demonstration type. A survey on the preferred type of
examination was also done which revealed that the majority of the respondents favored the demonstration type
of laboratory examination in Microbiology Laboratory.
Keywords: achievement, laboratory examination, demonstration, Microbiology
1.0 Introduction
For more than a century, laboratory
experiences have been purported to promote central
science education goals including the enhancement
of students' understanding of concepts in science and
its applications; scientific practical skills and problem
solving abilities; scientific 'habits of mind';
understanding of how science and scientists work;
interest and motivation (Hodson, 1993).
According to Dykes (2012) the
demonstration of basic laboratory skills is a valued
student-learning outcome in the microbiology
laboratory classroom. The skills taught in a basic
microbiology laboratory are fundamental for these
future health care providers because they will work
directly or indirectly with microbes. To assess their
achievement, students can be evaluated via a
laboratory practical where, in a testing situation, they
are asked to demonstrate their newly learned skills.
Students are usually given one opportunity to show
proficiency. If they fail a technique, they do not have
the chance to improve their performance. Another
solution is needed to verify proficiency in basic
laboratory skills.
Few experimental researches have been done
for the purpose of addressing the problems
encountered in Microbiology laboratory classes in
particular. Furthermore, the effect of the type of test
administered to evaluate the learning of the student
in their laboratory classes is also not given much
attention.
Cognizant of the importance of bridging this
gap, the researchers would like to determine if the
B. LUNAR & E. GERONIMO
Type of practical examination has an effect on
students' achievement in Microbiology laboratory
class. It is deemed important for the College of
Education, Arts and Sciences, specifically the Biology
and General Education Department of De La Salle
Lipa to establish a basis on improving the quality of
laboratory classes.
Instruction connects objectives and
evaluations and is based on the teacher's knowledge
of the students' characteristics and how best to
motivate them. If the evaluations do not demonstrate
that the desired results have been achieved, the
teacher re-teaches the material and starts the process
all over again. Classroom management is subsumed
under the rubric of motivating students. Gage and
Berliner (year) suggest that the teacher should use
research and principles from educational psychology
to develop proper teaching procedures to obtain
optimal results.
2.0 Theoretical Background
This study is anchored on Gage and
Berliner's (1992) Model of the Instructional Process
(Fig. 1). According to this model, the
Many researches have been conducted to
investigate the effectiveness of of laboratory work in
science education in facilitating the attainment of the
cognitive, affective, and practical goals. It is clear that
in general, although the science laboratory has been
given a distinctive role in science education, research
has failed to show simple relationships between
experiences in the laboratory and student learning
(Lazarowitz and Tamir, 1994).
In line with the current interest in alternative
and authentic assessment, De Ture and Doran (2005)
focused on the evaluation of students' performance
on science laboratory process skills. The assessment
of students' performance in the laboratory is usually
based on the attainment of behavioral objectives:
cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.
Types of
assessment of performance in science laboratory have
been described by Priestley, et. al (1997) as
(1)alternative, (2) collaborative (3) Essay (4) Informal,
(5) Laboratory Report: (6) Objective: (7) Performance:
and (8) Project:
According to Carpenter (2004), the
microbiology laboratory provides a valuable
opportunity for students to be engaged in hands-on
approach to learning. Routine assessments for the
basic microbiology laboratory skills are necessary to
ensure safe usage and correct methodology. By
connecting the curriculum to real-life applications,
the student's learning becomes authentic. Laboratory
skills assessments are often designed to simulate real
world situations. Microbiology laboratory work
should be fun, exciting and build higher-order
thinking skills.
way by which students' achievements are
measured is as crucial as the instructional phases
before and during instruction. Quality instruction
employs a fitting evaluation process that measures
the actual learning gained by the students in the
course of the learning process. In this light, the
researcher looked into the measure of achievement
of students in Microbiology Laboratory Classes as
to how it is affected by the type of practical
examination employed.
A teacher begins with identifying the
objectives of teaching and understanding the
characteristics of students before the instruction is
done. The teaching approach and strategy to be
employed do matter before and even during the
instruction. After the instruction, an evaluation to
measure the effectiveness of the instruction needs to
be administered.
[ 12 ]
TYPE OF LABORATORY EXAMINATION IN MICROBIOLOGY
A related study was conducted by Lunar et.al
(2008) entitled “An Analysis of Different Methods of
Instruction in Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory
Classes.” Using pre-test and post-test method of
descriptive research, the study determined if
achievement in Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory
Classes could be affected by the type of evaluation
technique to which they were exposed to.
Furthermore, it also determined the effect of coloring
activities on the achievement of students.
Comparisons of examinations results revealed that
there is significant difference on the achievement
between the group exposed to coloring activities and
the group with the usual experiment-labeling
exercise method. On the other hand, there is no
significant difference in the mean scores of the group
of students who took the computer-aided test and the
move-system test.
Dykes in 2012 came up with a study entitled
“ Ta s k B o o k s a s a n A s s e s s m e n t To o l f o r
Demonstrating Basic Laboratory Skills in a
Microbiology Course”. He adopted the proficiency
task book approach to the laboratory assessment of
skills learned in class. It was found out that the use of
the Laboratory Proficiency Task Book in the
Microbiology Laboratory class had been an
exceptionally positive experience. It ensured that all
of the key hands-on skills were covered, and
motivated students to ensure they learn the skills.
Additionally, it encouraged the timid student, who
typically allowed the stronger personalities of the
group to do much of the hands-on work, to develop
their own hands-on skills.
Written Lab
Exam (WLE)
Groups A1B1
Achievement
Groups A2B2
Demonstration
Lab Exam (DLE)
Independent Variables
Dependent Variable
Fig. 2 Research Paradigm
3.0 Methodology
3.1 Design
This study made use of the experimental
method of research that ascertained the effect of type
of practical exam on students' achievement.
Likewise, the study employed the descriptive method
of research to survey the preferred type of laboratory
exams and the respondents' reasons for preference.
3.2 Study Site
The study was conducted at the De La Salle
Lipa, an institution that provides education from preschool level to tertiary school level. De La Salle Lipa
was built on a 5.9- hectare lot along the National
Highway, an institution located at Lipa City,
Batangas. The examination took place at MB 204, the
school's microbiology laboratory room. This room
could accommodate at most 30 students.
3.3 Data Collection Procedure
2.3 Operational Framework
Two classes composed of 19 heterogeneous
BS Biology students from the College of Education,
Arts and Sciences and 27 heterogeneous BS Nursing
students from the College of Nursing of De La Salle
Lipa who were enrolled in Microbiology Laboratory
Class during the First Semester of SY 2012-2013
served as the respondents for this study. The
respondents were grouped into two, both having 6
male and 17 female members. The grouping was
based on their midterm grades. The two groups took
turns in becoming the experimental group as they
were made to shift on examinations type during their
final examination in the laboratory.
As shown in Figure 2 below, two types of
practical examinations were considered in this study:
the written laboratory examination (WLE) and the
demonstration laboratory examination (DLE) as
independent variables while the learning
achievement is the dependent variable.
[ 13 ]
3.4 Ethical Consideration
Prior to the examination, all students were
exposed to the same teaching strategy which
included pre-lab discussion, experiment, worksheets
submission, and post-lab discussion. During the prelab discussion, history and principles were taught.
This was also the time in which the necessary
techniques were demonstrated by the instructor. The
discussion would then be supported by laboratory
works which required the performance of the
techniques previously demonstrated by the
instructor. Worksheets would then be submitted after
the students had generated and analyzed the results.
Post-lab discussion was conducted to evaluate the
data generated from the experiments, look for trends
or any new findings, and determine possible sources
of error.
The final practical examinations that used
either written or demonstration types were designed
to have the same content as validated by the
Department and Area Chairs. Both examinations are
35-item tests.
The examinations covered the
following topics: preparation of smear, Gram
staining, and isolation techniques (streak, spread,
and pour).
Table 1 below shows the schedule of test
administration. Group 1 took the first half of the test
using the written laboratory examination and the
second half using the demonstration laboratory
examination. Simultaneously, the other group took
the first half of the test using the demonstration
laboratory examination and the second half using the
written laboratory examination.
The respondents, being the students enrolled
in the subject, were all made aware and gave their
consent to be the respondents of this research. Own
personal biases and opinions were shun to get in the
way. All responses were treated and interpreted in
appropriate context.
3.5 Data Analysis
Data gathered were analyzed using
frequency count, arithmetic means and ranking. The
t-test for independent variables was used in this study
to determine whether the two means are significantly
different at 5 percent probability level. Chi- square
goodness of fit was performed to determine if there is
a preferred type of practical examination at 5 percent
level of significance.
4.0 Results
Effect on Achievement
As shown in Table 2, the difference in the
mean scores of Group 1 (24.1) which took the written
examination and of group 2 (27.7) which took the
demonstration type at the first half of the final
examination is significant with a t- value of 0.281 at
5% level of significance. This means that there is a
significant difference in the achievements of the two
groups during the first half of the test. Furthermore,
it also shows that the difference in the mean score of
group 1 (27.0) who took the demonstration
examination compared to the mean score of group 2
(19.00) who took the written examination during the
second half of the final examination is significant with
a t- value of 0.000 at 5% level of significance. This
denotes that the group who took the demonstration
examination got significantly higher achievement.
Table 1. Schedule of Laboratory
Examination Type
Type of Practical Examination
Groups
1
1st half of Final Exam
Demonstration Laboratory
Exam
2nd half of Final Exam
2
2nd half of Final Exam
1st half of Final Exam
Written Laboratory Exam
A survey form was also used to validate the
findings based on the data collected, as to the
respondents' perception regarding the effect of the
type practical examination in their achievement and
their preference.
[ 14 ]
However, six students still preferred the
written exam. They shared that they became more
anxious in performing the assigned tasks in front of
the teacher. During practical exams, they tend to
panic thus affecting their confidence to perform. They
felt more comfortable in answering the questions in
the written exam at their own pace.
Table 2. Comparison of Final Examination
Results of Groups 1 and 2
Group
Laboratory
Examination
WLE
Mean
24.1
T value
significance
DLE
27.0
0.281
significant
DLE
27.7
WLE
19.00
0.000
significant
1
2
5.0 Discussion
The results of this study revealed the impact
of the type of assessment in reflecting the learning
gains of the students. Indeed demonstration type of
examination contributed significantly to the
achievement of students enrolled in Microbiology
laboratory class. Likewise, the said type of evaluation
is preferred by the majority of the students because
they could easily recall and apply the skills they
gained from the said course. Interestingly, these
results are consistent with the expectations of the
authors. Several studies have substantiated the
importance of the methods of assessment on attaining
the objectives of a science course. Tobin (1990)
asserted that assessment can focus learning activities
in science classrooms. The findings in this study also
harmonize with the position of Hodson (1993) and
Trumper (2003) that the laboratory should focus on
teaching students practical skills and abilities, and
not the nature of science, scientific concepts, nor
affecting student attitudes about science.
Furthermore, attainment of science process skills
could be best measured through laboratory practical
exams as demonstrated in the study made by
Stensvold & Wilson (1993 as cited by Hofstein and
Lunetta, 2003).
Having demonstrated the impact of the type
of examination in the achievement of students
enrolled in Microbiology class, it could now be
concluded that the demonstration type of evaluation
can adequately assess the range of learning outcomes
and even has a positive effect on the achievement of
the students. Moreover, this study also corroborated
several literatures that traditional written exam i.e.
paper-and-pencil, multiple-choice approach; to
testing cannot be used alone to measure learning
derived from actual laboratory experience (Tobin,
1990; Meng & Doran, 1993; Stensvold & Wilson, 1993
Hofstein and Lunetta, 2003).
Preferred Examination Type
Table 3 presents the preferred laboratory examination
type of the studentrespondents.
Out of 46
respondents, 40 students preferred the
demonstration laboratory examination with a
percentage of 86.96 %. The computed Chi square
value of 25.14 is lower than the tabular value of 61.63
at 5% level of confidence; hence, the difference in their
preferences is significant.
Table 3. Students' Preferred Laboratory
Examination Type
Type
Demonstration
Written
Frequency
Percentage
40
86.96%
6
13.04%
Chi Square Value
Significance
25.14
significant
It is evident that students preferred the
demonstration examination. Several reasons for this
preference were stated. Students found it easier to
recall the learnings they gained from the class by
demonstrating the techniques in front of the teacher.
They also related that preparing for this type of
examination is not as tedious as the preparation they
would need for the written examination. One student
even commented that:
“Demonstration/practical exam actually
reflects what we (students) learned from
the class. Some of us may not remember the
topics word per word but we will surely
remember how the techniques should be
Carried out.”
[ 15 ]
Dykes, J. (2012) Task Books as an assessment tool for
demonstrating basic lab skills in a microbiology course.
Journal of Microbiology and Biology Education.
Based on the foregoing conclusions, the
following recommendations are put forward.
Laboratory instructors in Microbiology should
consider the demonstration type of evaluation as an
alternative to the usual written type of examination.
Other laboratory instructors handling science courses
with laboratory component like Chemistry and
Biology may consider employing such modification
in the evaluation process. Future researchers may
look into the effect of the demonstration examination
on students' attitude towards the course. Moreover,
instructors handling laboratory classes may also
adopt tasks books pioneered by Jeff Dykes (2012). As
an instructor for Microbiology, Mr. Dykes uses this
method to ensure proficiency of the students in
demonstrating their newly learned skills. In this
method, the students must go through a series of
tasks designed to evaluate their understanding of the
skills needed to efficiently carry out the assigned
technique in Microbiology. This method entails two
phases. One is an opportunity to get the proper
training, while the second and usually final, is done
under the supervision of the instructor.
Fraser & K.G. Tobin (Eds.) The International
Handbook of Science Education. Dordrecht, The
Netherlands: Kluwer
Gage, N. and Berliner, D. (1992). Instructional
designs model. Retrieved from
http//web2windsor.ca/courses/edf on October 15,
2012
Hodson, D. (1993). The importance of science laboratory
work. Retrieved from www.hkr.se/.../nfsun9 on
August 13, 2012.
Hodson, D. (1993). Re-thinking old ways: Towards a
more critical approach to practical work in school
science. Studies in Science Education, 22, 85-142.
Hodson, D. (1996). Practical work in school science:
Exploring some directions for change. International
Journal of Science Education, 18(7), 755-760.
Acknowledgement
Hofstein, A. and V. Lunetta. (2003). The Laboratory
in Science Education: Foundations for the TwentyFirst Century. Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed 88:28
54. DOI 10.1002/sce.10106. Retrieved from
www.interscience.wiley.com on November 25, 2012.
The researchers would like to acknowledge
the Office of Research and Publications of De La Salle
Lipa for the grant provided to this project. Likewise,
the researchers are grateful to the Second Year BS
Biology and BS Nursing students who served as
respondents of this research.
Lazarowitz, R. and Tamir, P. (1994) Learning
chemistry in a laboratory experiment. Retrieved from
http://www.sprigerlink.com/ on November 20, 2012.
References
Lunar, B. (2009). Teachers and students' preferred
method of evaluation: An action research in anatomy
and physiology
Carpenter, L. (2004). What type of skill assessment tests
are in a microbiology lab? Clinical Microbiolology.
681694.
Lunar, B. Doble, M.C. and Rocio, M.C. (2008). An
Analysis of Different Methods of Instruction in Anatomy
and Physiology Laboratory Classes. TALAS, Volume 8,
Issue 1.
Collette, A.T. & Chiapetta, E.L. (1994). Science
instruction in the middle and secondary schools (3rd ed.)
New York: MacMillan
DeTure, F. & Doran, R.(2005). Evaluation of
students' performance on science laboratory process
skills. University at Buffalo, Buffalo: USA
[ 16 ]
Meng, E. and R.L. Doran. (1993). Improving
Instruction and learning through evaluation:
elementary school science. Columbus, OH: ERIC
Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematis, and
Environmental Education.
Priestley, W. etl al. (list down other authors) (1997).
The impact of longer term intervention on reforming the
approaches to instructions in chemistry by urban teachers
of physical and life sciences at the secondary level. Paper
presented at the National Association for Research in
Science Teaching meeting, March 23, Chicago.
Tobin, K. G. (1990). Research on science laboratory
activities. In pursuit of better questions and answers
to improve learning. School Science and Mathematics,
90, 403418.
Trumper, R. (2003). The physics laboratorya historical
overview and future perspectives. Science &
Education, 12, 645-670.
[ 17 ]
[ 18 ]
Vol. 1 No. 1 (June 2015)
Assessment of the Performance of
Area Chairs of De La Salle Lipa
Abstract
This research assessed the performance of academic chairpersons of DLSL during AY 2010-2011. It aimed
to generate a model of effective departmental leadership in higher education institutions. Twenty-seven (27)
academic chairs were the subjects, and 143 faculty respondents assessed their performance utilizing an
instrument - the IDEA Feedback for Department Chairs. Through Factor Analysis, it identified the underlying
factor structure of faculty ratings of the Chairs’ performance in terms of administrative responsibilities, personal
characteristics, and performance of administrative methods.
There is no significant difference in the performance of their superiors when grouped according to
gender, and to years of service. There was significant difference in the description of their detailed
responsibilities as administrators. When they were grouped according to employment status, significant
difference was noted in their broad and specific responsibilities.
The model of an academic chair preferred by faculty is one who can develop a work environment
conducive for them, and who can provide both program and administrative leadership and support; one who
possesses personal characteristics like ability to resolve issues, interpersonal skills and willingness to listen.
Openness, which includes flexibility in dealing with individuals and situations, accessibility to faculty, and
trustworthiness, which includes honesty and fairness are also viewed as important traits. The Chair is also one
who is very goal-oriented, democratic and humanistic.
Key Words: performance, academic chairpersons, IDEA feedback
1.0 Introduction
The role of an academic head, termed
department chair in college, is one of the most critical
in an educational institution. The Chair is regarded as
a front-line supervisor and he/she is the important
link between the faculty and the top management.
Among other functions, he/she is responsible for
implementing the curriculum, supervising the
faculty, and resolving conflicts involving both faculty
and students; and the top management of the school
expects so much from him/her, particularly in terms
of effective delivery of instruction and assuring that
faculty members are doing their best in this regard.
Many researches have pointed to the fact that
most of the chairs are not prepared and do not have
adequate skills and competencies required by the
position. They may have been engaged in teaching
and research for a number of years; they may have
shown marked excellence in their fields of discipline
yet these do not guarantee that they would succeed as
academic leaders when they get promoted as chairs.
Becoming a chairperson demands a different set of
skills including managerial and administrative skills
that are often not there when they were just plain
teachers. The new position calls for a constant
balancing of competing goals and interests those of
the faculty, the students, and those of the institution
H. PANGANIBAN
represented by its administrators.
Most of the time, the faculty members are
engrossed in their given assignments to teach, to do
research, and to render community outreach, without
giving due consideration for the challenges faced by
the academic head. The students, on the other hand
simply expect to gain optimum learning from their
classroom experiences and from their engagement in
co-curricular and extracurricular activities. The top
administrators, however, do have bigger
expectations; i.e., they would want that the needs and
aspirations of students and faculty are met, while at
the same time meeting the loftier goals and objectives
of the institution.
It becomes a necessity then to determine to
what extent these academic heads or chairs are able
to live up to the expectations of the institution. In
more concrete terms, are they able to contribute to the
achievement of the goals and objectives of the
institution? Are they able to transform themselves
from mere purveyors of knowledge (as teachers) to
conflict managers, information disseminators, or
decision makers? To what extent have they been able
to motivate the faculty such that the latter would be
able to contribute their best in the fields of teaching,
research, and community service? These are some of
the questions that this proposed research intends to
answer.
This research intends to assess the
performance of the academic chairpersons, (called by
the terms “Department Chair” and “Area Chair”) in
De La Salle Lipa.
Specifically, this study aims to provide
answers to the following research questions:
faculty ratings of the department chair's personal
characteristics?
5. What is the underlying factor structure of
faculty ratings of the department
chair's
performance of administrative methods?
6. What are the potential impediments to the
Chairs' effectiveness?
7. Is there a significant difference in the
perception of the Respondents on the performance of
their Chairs when grouped according to
demographic profile?
This research conducted an investigation of
the performance of the academic chairs who have
been in the post for at least one year, or since the start
of the AY 2010-2011. There are twenty-seven (27) of
them, distributed among the five degree-granting
colleges of DLSL
the Colleges of Nursing;
Information Technology and Engineering; Education,
Arts, and Sciences; International Hospitality and
Tourism Management; and Business, Economics,
Accountancy and Management. Proportionate
sampling of faculty members, i.e., at least fifty percent
of full-time and part-time faculty per department
constituted the respondents, for as long as they have
been under the supervision of that Chair for at least
one year.
Since this study probed into the performance
of the Chairs as perceived by their faculty, a
standardized instrument known as the IDEA
(Individual Development and Educational
Assessment) Feedback for Department Chairs was
used to attain said objective. This instrument was
intended to be an assessment tool used by faculty
members. It is divided into five (5) parts: the first
dealing with the twenty (20) responsibilities which
some academic chairs pursue, the second dealing
with ten (10) items on the strengths and weaknesses
of the chair, the third consisting of thirty (30) items
pertaining to the professional characteristics of the
chair, the fourth consisting of five (5) items that detail
the potential impediments to the chair's effectiveness,
and the last part consisting of two (2) structured and
three (3) open-ended questions on the summary
judgment of the respondents about the chair.
The performance that is envisioned here is
the overall performance of the Chairs; the study did
not intend to look at the individual performance of
1. What is the socio-demographic profile of
the faculty respondents in terms of the following:
1.1 Age
1.2 gender
1.3 years of experience in DLSL
1.4 employment status
1.5 college affiliation?
2. What is the performance of academic
chairs as perceived by the faculty?
faculty ratings of the department chair's performance
of administrative responsibilities?
[ 20 ]
ASSESSMENT OF THE PERFORMANCE OF AREA CHAIRS
each of the administrators. The nature of the
instrument was such that the results obtained simply
gave an overall view of how the Chairs have been
performing with respect to the administrative duties
and responsibilities expected of them by the
institution. This overall assessment of performance
shall provide information to those interested with a
model of effective departmental leadership in
Philippine academic institutions.
and improve the work of other workers. Their
managerial efficiency is determined through their
capability to improve others work. Supervisors have
a lot of work to do in the area of improving the
capacities and even tapping the hidden potentials of
their workers. Thus, for many management writers,
their task involve constant mentoring and coaching of
the workers, especially those new recruits in the
organization.
Hypotheses
Key Functions of a Supervisor
The following hypotheses will be validated
by the study:
Supervisors are part of human resources
management and thus have important role in
ensuring that the objectives of the organizations are
achieved and at the same time ensuring that good
relationship between the management and the
employees is maintained. To this end the supervisors
have got the following roles in an organization which
they have to perform as indicated below (Robert,
2010, pp. 2-3):
Ho:
There was no significant difference in the
perception of respondents on the performance of
demographic profile.
Ha:
There was significant difference in the
perception of respondents on the performance of
demographic profile.
Supervision involves the activities
performed by supervisors in overseeing the
productivity and development of employees who
account directly to the supervisor (Robert, 2010, p.1).
Regarding the extent of an organization, middle-class
managers will supervise first level supervisors, while
chief executives will supervise the middle-managers,
etc. thus supervision is a managing activity and
supervisors have management roles in an
organization (Rue and Byars, 2007).
In the educational field, Alfred
Kadushin stated that a supervisor has to ensure
educational advancement of every individual worker
on the organization in a way calculated to stir up
his/her entirely to realize his/her potential of
usefulness (Robert, 2010, p.1).
Salaman (1995) argues that supervisors
should be concerned about both learning and
performance of workers. The critically managerial
aspect of supervisors' work is their duty to monitor
Counseling/discipline. Employees need to be
counseled at work as they may have both personal
and organizational problems. These problems can be
as a result of bad attitudes, insufficient training, and
personality conflicts.
Planning. As part of the management, the supervisor
will have a duty of planning work for the employees
in accordance to the goals of the organization and the
ability of individual workers. The set duty or
assignment should be reasonable and also
measurable; also the supervisor will have to assess
the available resources to be used and formulate
contingency plans and coordinate the activity.
Delegation. The supervisor will have to delegate
duties to his/her subordinates; effective delegation of
duties encompasses defined objectives, tolerance,
timely feedback, and corrective actions. The
supervisor delegates through assigning duties,
granting proper levels of power to carry out those
duties, and creating contract to perform the duties.
Communication. Communication is usually used
within the organization's internal communication by
the supervisors as they shared information with the
employees, management and customers. Such
[ 21 ]
H. PANGANIBAN
sharing of information builds communication
channels and enhances it. The main goals of
communication are: to be understood, comprehend
others, support action, and be accepted.
department chairpersons) would attempt to
influence the process by selecting someone they
prefer for the chairmanship.
In a study conducted in 2006 by Dunning and
associates on “The State of the Art in Evaluating the
Performance of Department Chairs and Division
Heads”, the following qualitative findings were
revealed:
1. Deans and chairs agreed that effective
formal evaluations should be related to outcomes
(such as annual departmental reports/strategic plans)
and should be based on goals that are agreed on in
advance. Additionally, deans felt chairs should be
evaluated on how well they managed their
departments. Chairs felt the evaluation process
should include feedback from peers and students.
2. Deans agreed on key obstacles that
prevented formal performance reviews from being
effective, including interpersonal issues with faculty,
finding time to dedicate to the task, and lack of
resources to link performance to reward.
3. Deans felt not having goals and timelines
as a reference before the evaluation made for an
ineffective performance evaluation. Deans also felt
that poor conduct such as defensiveness or anger by
the person during the evaluation interview/meeting
led to an ineffective formal evaluation. The chairs
indicated as a group that they were not aware of any
problems in the formal evaluation process.
A more recent study conducted by Jan
Middendorf in 2009 entitled “Evaluating Department
Chairs' Effectiveness Using Faculty Ratings” revealed
that faculty ratings of the chair's performance of
responsibilities, personal characteristics, and
administrative methods are positively related to
faculty members' overall judgment of the chair's
effectiveness. The faculty have more confidence in the
department chair's ability to provide leadership and
are less likely to believe that the department chair
should be replaced if they perceive him or her as
supporting the faculty, promoting a positive
environment, and focusing on democratic and goaloriented behaviors in their position.
Flexibility/Adaptability was also a significant
predictor. This implied that faculty have confidence
in the department chair's overall performance if they
perceive that he or she demonstrates the ability to
Motivation. Employees need to be motivated in order
for the organization to get the best out of them. An
employee who is well motivated will easily stay in the
organization and be more productive. For this to
occur the supervisors have to attend to the financial
and psychological needs of the workers by rewarding
them well.
Interpersonal relations. Personal relationship in a
workplace is crucial, it makes an employee feel
valued and cared for, the supervisor will therefore
have a duty of cultivating good interpersonal
relations between himself and the employees. The
supervisor is supposed not to have favorites but
instead should look for fine points and have a concern
for all employees. He/she should also maintain selfcontrol; stay poised, particularly during stressful
moments.
Ali Saad Al Karni (1995) worked on an
extensive study on “Evaluating the Performance of
Academic Department Chairpersons”, the main
purposes of which were to specify who should
evaluate department chairpersons and to provide
criteria considered important to be used in evaluating
chairs' administrative and academic roles. This study
posited that the department chairperson is a key
figure in determining the success or failure of the
university. Al Karni continued by saying that
evaluating chairs' work according to various criteria
is intended to assist them in their professional
development; to improve the quality of their
teaching, research, and creative work; and to
maintain the department's image and reputation. The
same study also revealed that some deans think that
some chairpersons in Saudi universities (the locale of
the research) are not qualified for the position and
that they have come to the chairmanship to serve the
interests of the deans and certain faculty members. In
some cases, though, college deans who desired to be
reelected by the college council (which includes
[ 22 ]
resolve issues, communicate, and demonstrates traits
of trustworthiness, openness and patience in
implementing change.
It may be seen that the literature on the
evaluation of performance of chairs has yet to come
up with definitive guideposts on who should
evaluate the chairs and what constitutes a
comprehensive set of criteria to assess their
performance. In addition, both quantitative and
qualitative modes of evaluation can prove useful or
helpful in determining whether these chairs are living
up to the expectations of administrators who placed
them in office as well as of faculty who are to deal and
work with them on a regular basis. The studies also
have no point of convergence as to the personal and
professional traits and skills that make for an effective
supervisor.
investigations regarding their performance as
academic supervisors. In other words, such results
indicated the type of supervisory skills desired or
preferred by faculty members.
3.0 Methods
3.1 Design
This research made use of the descriptive
research design as it probed into and explained the
role of the academic chair in helping achieve the
mission and goals of a higher education institution,
particularly in the aspect of overseeing the faculty
who, collectively, form or make up the academic
departments. The performance of the chairs was
assessed with the end of coming up with an inventory
of qualities of a successful and effective academic
supervisor or chair.
2.3 Conceptual Framework
3.2 Study Site
The conceptual framework below guided the
researcher in the conduct of the study.
The instrument that was used in this study is
a standardized tool used in most other countries and
was intended to find out the qualities, traits, and
behaviors of an effective academic chairperson. The
results generated were indicative of what type of
academic head is preferred by the faculty
respondents.
Demographic
Profile
Of Respondents
This research was conducted at De La Salle
Lipa, a multi-level educational institution located in
Lipa City. The school was founded in 1962, though the
college unit was established only in 1985. Separate
colleges were put up during the AY 2005-2006. The
subjects of the study were all the department and area
chairs of the college department of De La Salle Lipa,
as well as the faculty who are their constituents in
their respective departments or areas. During the
academic year 2010-2011, there were twenty-seven
academic heads or chairs in the institution. The
faculty served as respondents who, by accomplishing
the questionnaire, assessed the performance of their
bosses. These faculty members were chosen based on
proportionate sampling technique. If, for example the
criterion was to include at least 50% of the faculty in
the department, then they were chosen on the basis of
their length of stay in the department, as well as on
their having worked with the current chair or head
under investigation.
Perceived
Performances
As Academic
Chairpersons
Expected
Performance of
effective academic
chairpersons
As this research wanted to find out if there was no
significant difference in the perception of
respondent-faculty members with respect to the
performance of their Chairs when the former are
grouped according to profile, it was done through the
test of difference between mean values obtained after
they have assessed the supervisory performance of
their Chairs. These perceptions of faculty members
then served as the benchmark for future
3.3 Data Outcome Measures
A standardized instrument was accessed
from a previously conducted study by
Middendorf (2009) referred to as the “Individual
Development and Educational Assessment
[ 23 ]
H. PANGANIBAN
(IDEA) Center's Feedback for Department
Chairs”. The Faculty Perceptions of Department
Head or Chair's Instrument (FPDHS) is a 70-item
instrument containing 67 objectively worded
items and 3 short-answer written-response
items. All objective items were constructed using
a Likert-type format with five possible responses
ranging from 1 to 5 (1=low; 5=high); however, the
wording of the scale anchors varies depending
on the subscales. In the first 20 items on the
FPDHS instrument, the faculty rate their
department chair's performance on various
administrative responsibilities. Five a-priori
subscales are assumed for administrative
responsibilities (Administrative Support,
Personnel Management, Program
Leadership/Support, Building
Image/Reputation, and Developing Positive
Climate). The scale for these items ranges from
“Poor” (scored as “1”) to Outstanding (scored as
“5”).
On the next set of items, 21-30, the faculty
rated their respective department chair's
strengths and weaknesses on personal
characteristics. Five a-priori subscales are
assumed for personal characteristics (Ability to
Resolve Issues, Communication Skills,
Steadiness, Trustworthiness, and Openness).
The scale for these items ranges from “Definite
Strength” (scored as “5”) to “Definite Weakness”
(scored as “1”). Table 2 provides the a-priori
structure of the personal characteristics found in
the IDEA Feedback for Department Chair Report
for items 21-30 in the FPDHS.
Faculty also indicate how frequently
their department chair performed
administrative behaviors associated with five apriori subscales (Democratic/Humanistic, GoalOriented/Structured, Supports Faculty,
P r o m o t e s Po s i t i ve C l i m a t e , P r o m o t e s
Department Advancement). These scales
include subsets of Items 31 -60; the scale for these
items ranges from “Almost Always” (scored as
“5”) to “Hardly Ever” (scored as “1”). The last
items in the FPDHS instrument, 61-65, refer to
financial, bureaucratic, and faculty impediments
to the chair's effectiveness. The scale for these
items ranges from “Definitely True” (scored as
“5”) to “Definitely False” (scored as “1”).
Data for this research were gathered through
the administration of the IDEA Feedback instrument
to the faculty members who were being supervised
by the Chairs. Collection of data was done in the First
Semester of AY 2010-2011. Likewise the researcher
conducted interviews with the deans of the various
colleges to validate some other information pertinent
to the study.
A standardized instrument was accessed
from a previously conducted study by Middendorf
(2009) referred to as the “Individual Development
and Educational Assessment (IDEA) Center's
Feedback for Department Chairs”. The Faculty
Perceptions of Department Head or Chair's
Instrument (FPDHS) is a 70-item instrument
containing 67 objectively worded items and 3 shortanswer written-response items. This was properly
acknowledged in this paper.
3.6 Data/Mode of Analysis
The main tool used in the analysis of the
responses was the Factor Analysis of each of the items
included in the IDEA Feedback Instrument.
The hypothesis was tested using the test of
difference between means, the t-test. Likewise
ANOVA was used.
4.0 Results And Discussions
1. Socio-demographic profile of respondents
Forty-one per cent (41%) of the respondents
of this study have ages ranging from 31-40 while
thirty-two percent (32%) have ages ranging from 2130. More than three-fifths (61%) were females and the
rest were males. These respondents have mostly from
[ 24 ]
1-6 years of experience as faculty members of the
institution as revealed by 30% who have had 1-3 years
of experience and another 30% who have had 4-6
years of experience in De La Salle Lipa. Fifty-five
percent (55%) were full-timers and the rest were parttimers. Almost half (49%) of the respondents were
faculty members of the CEAS while the rest came
from CITE, CBEAM, College of Nursing, and CIHTM,
with 18%, 17%, 10% and 7% respondents,
respectively.
where the department chairs under study have
performed very well with factor loadings of .926, .913,
and .913. It is very important for the Chair to establish
trust between himself and the faculty, to rejuvenate
faculty enthusiasm, and to develop
collegiality/cooperation among faculty members.
Also important is the necessity for the Chair to see to it
that the new faculty and staff are acquainted with
departmental procedures, priorities and
expectations, having a factor loading of .781. The
latter is the basis of all formal relationships and future
interactions among the members of the department.
Likewise, it would be difficult for the Chair to elicit
cooperation and compliance from the faculty
members without their clear understanding of the
department's expectations as well as their own
expectations from the department.
2. Factor structure of faculty ratings of the
department chair's performance of administrative
responsibilities
Table 1. Component Matrix Coefficients and Communalities
for FPDHS Items 1-20 under Factor1: Development of a
work environment conducive to productivity
Variables from FPDHS Instrument
(N=143)
Item
18.
Establishes trust
between
himself/herself and member s of
the faculty.
Item
Stimulates or rejuvenates faculty
16
vitality/enthusiasm.
Item 8. Develops
collegiality/cooperation among
departmental faculty members.
Item
Improves the department’s
12
image and reputation within the
campus community.
Item 9. Encourages an appropriate
balance among academic
specializations within the
department.
Item
Fosters the development of each
13.
faculty members’ special talents
or interests.
Item
Understands and communicates
15.
expectations of the campus
administration to the faculty.
Item
Recognizes and rewards faculty
20.
in accordance with their
contributions to the department.
Item
Sees to it that new faculty and
14.
staff are acquainted with
departmental
procedures,
priorities, and expectations.
Item
Improves the department’s
19.
image and reputation with offcampus constituencies.
Loadings Communalities
M
SD
0.926
0.857
4.29
1.13
0.913
0.833
4.24
0.97
0.913
0.833
4.41
0.94
0.902
0.813
4.36
0.99
0.862
0.743
4.36
0.87
0.846
0.715
4.19
0.96
0.806
0.650
4.47
0.80
0.797
0.636
4.17
1.07
0.781
0.609
4.42
0.83
0.661
0.437
4.55
0.88
2.2. Building image and reputation
Items 12 and 19 have to do with building
image and reputation for the department, both
within and outside the campus community. Such
image and reputation are very important for the
department since they are perceived by external
and internal communities as characterized by
that image based on the historical performance
of both their faculty and students.
2.3. Personnel Management
Items 13 and 20, “fostering the
development of each faculty members' special
talents and interests” and “recognizing and
rewarding faculty in accordance with their
contributions to the department” are basic
functions of the Chair since the faculty members'
motivation to deliver their best is influenced by
how their efforts are being recognized, and how
their competencies are being developed through
the provision of specific faculty development
activities.
2.1. Developing a positive climate
Items 18, 16, 8 and 14 of Table 1 are all
contributing towards developing a positive climate.
As perceived by faculty respondents, this is one area
[ 25 ]
H. PANGANIBAN
Table 2. Component Matrix Coefficients and
Communalities for FPDHS Items 1-20 under
Factor2: Program Leadership and
Administrative Support
Variables from FPDHS Instrument (N=143)
Item 17. Guides
curriculum
development.
Item 11. Guides the development of a
sound organizational plan to
accomplish
departmental
programs.
Item 4. Fosters good teaching in the
department (e.g., encourages
course updating, use of
appropriate
technology,
attending to student feedback).
Item 6. Leads in establishing and
monitoring progress on annual
and biannual department goals.
Item 10. Stimulates
research
and
scholarly activity in the
department.
Item 2. Takes the lead in recruiting
promising faculty.
Item 3. Attends
to
essential
administrative details (e.g.,
class
scheduling,
budget
preparation, promotion and
tenure documentation).
Item 1. Guides the development of
sound procedures for assessing
faculty performance.
Item 5. Facilitates obtaining grants and
contracts from external sources.
Item 7. Communicates the department’s
needs
(personnel,
space,
monetary) to the dean.
Loadings Communalities
M
SD
0.888
0.788
4.37
0.84
0.875
0.766
4.33
0.96
0.863
0.745
4.35
0.85
0.862
0.743
4.36
0.94
0.802
0.643
4.12
0.96
0.757
0.573
4.23
0.98
0.752
0.566
4.70
0.59
0.728
0.530
4.27
1.03
0.714
0.510
4.34
1.23
0.642
0.413
4.55
0.85
departmental programs by coming up with
specific strategies and plans of action. A chair
who is unable to communicate the needs of the
department to the Dean, and who is unable to
attend to essential administrative details like
class scheduling, budget preparation and
promotion will find it hard to elicit the
cooperation of the faculty members. In all three
areas, the department chairs were rated very
well by their subordinates. The mean value of 4.7
for attending to administrative details is
indicative of a very responsible and committed
crop of department chairs in the institution.
3. Factor structure of the Chair's personal
characteristics
Table 3. Component Matrix Coefficients and
Communalities for FPDHS Items 21-30
Factor: Personal Characteristics
Variables fromFPDHSInstrument
Loadings Communalities M
SD
(N=143)
Item Practical judgment.
0.904
0.817
4.24 1.00
26.
Item Flexibility/adaptabilityindealing 0.901
0.812
4.28 0.91
28. withindividuals/situations.
Item Willingness tolisten.
0.878
0.772
4.34 0.93
27.
Item Patience in implementing 0.877
0.770
4.20 1.00
24. change.
Item Problemsolvingability.
0.872
0.761
4.20 1.06
22.
Item Fairness.
0.863
0.745
4.20 1.11
30.
Item Interpersonal skill.
0.849
0.721
4.20 1.09
21.
Item Honesty.
0.835
0.697
4.41 1.00
25.
Item Accessibilitytofaculty.
0.826
0.682
4.41 0.86
29.
Item Appreciation for department’s 0.596
0.356
4.38 0.99
23. history.
2.4. Program Leadership/Support
Items 17, 4, 6, and 10 all pertain to program
leadership/support. Some of the primary functions of
the Chair include leading the department's members
to constantly develop the curriculum and fostering
good teaching in the department. The latter is one of
the most clearly visible or observable functions of a
faculty member. Likewise, the function of leading in
the establishing and monitoring of progress based on
the predetermined strategic plan as well as
stimulating research and scholarly activities in the
department are critical functions of the department
chair. It is worth-noting that these functions are done
very well by these academic supervisors.
2.5. Administrative Support
Items 11, 3 and 7 of Table 2 all pertain to
administrative support. It is the chair's primary
role to guide the department in the development
of a sound organizational plan to accomplish
It may be seen from Table 3 that practical
judgment, as part of the trait involving the ability to
resolve issues got the highest factor loading of .904,
followed by flexibility which got a factor loading of
.901. The willingness to listen comes close with a
factor loading of .878 and patience in implementing
change, which got factor loading of .877. Table shows
that the ability to resolve issues (practical judgment
and problem solving ability) is a “definite strength”
[ 26 ]
of the department chairs surveyed.
This is supported by their flexibility
in dealing with individuals and
situations, as well as willingness to
listen. The last skill is a must-skill
that all leader-managers should
have as this would enable them to
have a comprehensive grasp of the
issues and problems at hand.
It w i l l b e n ot e d t h a t
appreciation for the department's
history got the lowest of .596 which
reflects the fact
that with the
exception of two departments under
CBEAM, all the other departments
have just recently been established,
ranging from three to six years only.
Thus, the Chair would not have any
appreciation at all for the
department's history.
It may be seen from Table 4
that all the department chairs
studied are goal-oriented or goal
structured in their approaches. This
can be seen from the high factor
loadings of items 49, 52, 53, and 54
seeing to it that the work of the
faculty is coordinated (.903); making
sure his/her part in the department is
understood by all members (.897);
acting as though visible department
accomplishment were vital to
him/her (.896) and maintaining
definite standards of performance
(.874). Among other perspectives,
the Chair has to show that right from
the very start, he/she demonstrates
goal-orientedness so that all
strategies and targets are aligned
with the predetermined goal and
that all faculty members have a clear
grasp with respect to the direction
that the department intends to take.
Bolman and Deal, in their classic
work entitled Reframing
Organizations, emphasized that
effective leaders help establish a
vision, set standards of
Table 4. Component Matrix Coefficients >0.87 and Communalities for FPDHS Items 31-60
Fa cto r: S tr uc ture o f A dm in is tra tiv e M e tho ds
V aria ble s from FPD H S In stru m e nt
(N = 14 3)
Ite m
Se es to it th at th e w ork o f the
49 .
fa cu lt y is c oo rd inate d.
Ite m
M ak e s ure he r/h is pa rt in the
52 .
de pa rtm e nt is u nd ersto od by
all m e m be rs .
Ite m
L oo ks o ut for the p erso na l
45 .
w elfare o f ind iv idu al fa cu lty
m em be rs .
Ite m
Prov ides fe ed ba ck to fa cu lty
59
on the ir m a jor ac tiv ities .
Ite m
M ain ta in s d efinite sta nda rd s
54 .
of p erfo rm anc e .
Ite m
A cts
as
tho ug h
v isible
53 .
de pa rtm e nt
ac co m plish m en t
w ere vital to h im /her.
Ite m
L ets fac ulty m em b ers kn ow
51 .
w he n the y h av e d on e a go od
job.
Ite m
Is e as y to un de rs tan d.
39 .
Ite m
Fa cilitate s
po s itive
56 .
re lations hip s be tw ee n fa cu lty
an d
th e
c le ric al/te ch nica l
sta ff.
Ite m
T rea ts a ll fac ulty m e m b ers a s
47 .
he r/h is e qua l.
Ite m
Su pp orts
a nd
p ro te cts
32 .
ac ad em ic fre edo m .
Ite m
Se es
to
it
tha t
fa cu lty
42 .
m em be rs a re w o rking u p to
ca pa city.
Ite m
T rie s to lea rn ab ou t ea ch
60 .
fa cu lt y m em be r’s in te re s t,
talen ts , a nd as p ir ation s.
Ite m
E n co urag es te am w ork a m o ng
57 .
m em be rs of the fac ulty.
Ite m
M ak es s ou nd s u gge stion s for
35 .
de ve lo ping /ch an ging
de pa rtm e ntal
de cis io ns /p rio ritie s .
Ite m
R e du ces ,
re so lv es ,
a nd /o r
33 .
prev en ts
co nflic t
a m o ng
de pa rtm e ntal
fa cu lty
Item
34.
Item
38.
Item
31.
Item
50.
Item
36.
Item
41.
Item
48.
Item
40.
Item
58.
Item
37.
Item
55.
Item
46.
Assists faculty in developing
their own goals and priorities.
Acts as though high faculty
morale is vital to him/her.
Allocates
faculty
responsibilities in an effective
and equitable manner.
Explains the basis for his/her
decisions.
Is willing to stand up to
higher
authority
when
departmental interests are
threatened.
Does little things that make it
pleasant to be a member of
the department.
Gains input from faculty on
important m atters.
Tries out new ideas with the
faculty.
Encourages faculty ownership
of a vision of the department.
Maintains steadiness in the
face of crisis or unanticipated
frustrations.
Puts faculty suggestions into
actions.
Lets faculty members know
what is expected of them.
[ 27 ]
L o ad in gs
C o m m u na lities
M
SD
0.9 03
0.8 16
4 .31
1. 02
0.8 97
0.8 05
4 .38
0. 96
0.8 96
0.8 03
4 .23
1. 14
0.8 81
0.7 77
4 .45
0. 89
0.8 74
0.7 63
4 .38
0. 94
0.8 73
0.7 62
4 .41
0. 91
0.8 72
0.7 60
4 .23
1. 05
0.8 61
0.7 42
4 .31
0. 91
0.8 61
0.7 41
4 .46
1. 07
0.8 58
0.7 37
4 .23
1. 16
0.8 53
0.7 27
4 .33
1. 01
0.8 47
0.7 18
4 .25
1. 02
0.8 40
0.7 06
4 .10
1. 19
0.8 39
0.7 04
4 .45
0. 96
0.8 35
0.6 98
4 .36
0. 92
0.8 34
0.6 96
4 .24
0. 99
0.832
0.693
4.24
1.01
0.831
0.691
4.31
1.00
0.826
0.682
4.22
0.95
0.822
0.675
4.29
1.03
0.795
0.631
4.20
1.17
0.786
0.618
4.17
1.16
0.786
0.618
4.46
0.79
0.782
0.611
4.23
1.00
0.781
0.610
4.32
1.07
0.763
0.582
4.36
0.95
0.737
0.543
4.38
0.88
0.706
0.499
4.31
0.87
H. PANGANIBAN
performance, and create focus and direction for
collective efforts (Bolman and Deal, 1997).
Looking out for the personal welfare of
individual faculty members and letting faculty
members know when have done a good job are
important indicators of democratic style of
leadership.
.
Along with this goal-orientation is the
manifestation of a democratic and humanistic
approach by the Chair. Items 45, 51, 39, and 47,
namely “looking out for the personal welfare of
individual faculty members”, “letting faculty
members know when have done a good job”; “easy to
understand”; and “treating all faculty members as
his/her equal”, respectively all indicate the great
importance the Chair accords to each and every
member of the department. Items 45, 51, 39, and 47
are indicative of the democratic/humanistic
approaches adopted by the Chairs, as shown by
factor loadings of .896 and .872, .861 and .858
respectively. A faculty member who realizes that his
supervisor puts premium on his welfare and treats
him as a co-equal will definitely exert his/her utmost
effort in order to reciprocate this democratic
treatment by his/her superior.
organizational climate that can emotionally
unify and build camaraderie among the
department's members. This is a prerequisite to
their developing a feeling of belongingness in
the department.
Potential Impediments to the Head/Chair's
Effectiveness
The table below shows the items which are
considered “potential impediments” to the
effectiveness of the academic head. It can be seen that
highest mean value of 3.08 was obtained by the item
“Financial resources are inadequate to support the
department's programs”, with descriptive rating of
“in between”. Closely following this is the item on
“the head or chair's effectiveness is impaired by
bureaucratic rules and regulations.” While the
answer has a verbal interpretation of “in between”, its
relatively high value seems to indicate that it is also
an issue for the faculty. Faculty members seemed to
be divided on the issue of whether financial resources
are inadequate or not to support the department's
programs. While many responded that indeed these
are inadequate, an almost equal number indicated
that these are not inadequate. The lowest mean value
of 2.20 was obtained by the item “The department has
been given a relatively low priority by the Dean”
which is “more false than true”. Indeed, all the Deans
of the institution put a high priority to the
departments. Still another item got a low mean value
of 2.43, that on the matter that “there is
obstructionism/negativism from one or more senior
members of the faculty”. This is more false than true
in almost all the departments covered by the study.
The promotion of a positive climate in
the department can also strengthen the
cohesiveness or solidarity of its members. Items
32, 33, and 57 “supporting academic freedom”;
“reducing, resolving, and/or preventing conflict
among departmental faculty members”;
“facilitates positive relationships between
faculty and clerical/technical staff”; and
“encouraging teamwork among faculty
members” are all supportive of a strong
Table 5. Potential Impediments to the Head/Chair's Effectiveness
Potentia l Imp ed im ents
Th e d ep artmen t’s facilities are inadequ ate
Th e h ead/ch air’s effectiv en ess is imp aired b y
bu reau cratic ru les/reg ulation s
Financial resou rces are inadequ ate to su pp ort th e
department’s p ro gram s
Th e d ep artmen t has b een given a relatively low
priority b y the Dean
Th ere is ob structio nism /n eg ativism from on e o r
mo re senio r m emb ers of the facu lty
[ 28 ]
M ea n v alues
2 .64
Description
In between
2 .78
In between
3 .08
In between
2 .20
M ore false th an tru e
2 .43
M ore false th an tru e
This last portion of the questionnaire
includes two statements that summarize the overall
performance of the Chairs being studied. The first
item which states that “I believe the department
would be better off if we replaced the current
head/chair” got a mean value rating of 1.80 which is
equivalent to “more false than true”. Most of the
faculty members surveyed were satisfied with the
way their heads have been managing them;
otherwise, they would want the latter to be replaced.
And this perception is the result of their relatively
long, consistent, and regular interaction with such
supervisors who have been guiding and directing
them to do their best.
This is supported by the next statement
which says that “I have confidence in the head/chair's
ability to provide leadership to the department”
which got a mean value rating of 4.24, indicating that
it is “more true than false”. Indeed, most of the faculty
members have confidence in the leadership of their
heads such that they want them to continue serving
them as their supervisors. This may be due to the fact
that such chairs have been able to provide a kind of
leadership that is responsive to the needs of their
faculty constituencies.
Their expectations as
members of the academic community and their
aspirations as human persons are being fulfilled by
these academic chairs.
Table 6. Summary Judgment
M ea n v alue s
I be lie ve th e de partm en t w o uld be be tter o ff if w e
repla ce d th e c urre nt h ea d/c hair
I ha ve co nfiden c e in th e he ad/c ha ir ’s a bility to
prov ide le ad ers hip in the de pa rtm en t
D e sc ription
1 .80
M ore fals e th an tru e
4 .24
M ore true than fals e
Test of difference in the perception of respondents when grouped according to profile
A. Age
Table 7 reveals that there is no significant difference in the perception of the faculty respondents when
they were grouped according to age. This simply shows that whether young or old, they have almost the same
Table 7. Difference In The Perception Of Respondents When Grouped According To Age
P E R C E P T IO N
R esp o nsib ilities
S tro ng a nd
W eak P o ints
D escrip tio n
E ffec tive ness
AGE
N
M EAN
S T D .D E V IA T IO N
2 1 -3 0
3 1 -4 0
4 1 -5 0
5 1 -6 0
6 1 -7 0
7 1 -8 0
T o tal
2 1 -3 0
3 1 -4 0
4 1 -5 0
5 1 -6 0
6 1 -7 0
7 1 -8 0
T o tal
2 1 -3 0
3 1 -4 0
4 1 -5 0
5 1 -6 0
6 1 -7 0
7 1 -8 0
T o tal
2 1 -3 0
3 1 -4 0
4 1 -5 0
5 1 -6 0
6 1 -7 0
7 1 -8 0
T o tal
2 1 -3 0
3 1 -4 0
46
58
26
7
5
1
143
46
58
26
7
5
1
143
46
58
26
7
5
1
143
46
58
26
7
5
1
143
46
58
4 .5 0 72
4 .0 8 19
4 .4 5 04
4 .3 9 71
4 .5 2 00
5 .0 0 00
4 .3 2 29
4 .4 5 43
4 .0 7 24
4 .4 1 23
4 .2 5 71
4 .4 8 00
4 .8 0 00
4 .2 8 55
4 .4 9 80
4 .0 2 26
4 .2 7 27
4 .2 1 29
4 .5 5 40
4 .7 7 00
4 .2 5 41
2 .7 3 91
2 .8 1 72
3 .0 3 08
2 .9 7 14
4 .2 0 00
1 .8 0 00
2 .8 7 97
3 .2 0 65
3 .2 1 55
.5 4 9 09
1 .0 9 22 3
.4 1 6 71
.6 6 6 25
.6 8 6 11
.0 0 0 00
.8 2 4 36
.6 7 6 50
1 .0 2 66 3
.4 7 9 94
.8 2 0 28
.8 8 7 13
.0 0 0 00
.8 3 2 59
.5 9 0 98
.9 8 3 48
.5 0 6 92
.6 9 9 42
.7 4 3 02
.0 0 0 00
.7 9 1 68
1 .1 4 45 5
1 .1 1 46 8
1 .0 7 88 0
1 .2 4 05 8
1 .0 9 54 5
.0 0 0 00
1 .1 4 00 9
.7 4 9 64
.8 1 1 71
[ 29 ]
F -V alue
p -value
1 .8 3 1
.1 1 1
1 .4 1 2
.2 2 4
2 .1 8 9
.0 5 9
Interp
retati
on
NS
NS
NS
NS
1 .8 4 9
.1 0 7
H. PANGANIBAN
way of assessing the performance of their
superior based on the indicators shown
namely responsibilities, strong and weak
points, administrative responsibilities,
and effectiveness.
Table 8. The difference in the perception level
when grouped according to gender
N
GENDER
Mean
Male
Female
56
86
4.3614
4.3480
.73539
.75092
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
56
87
56
87
56
87
56
87
4.3018
4.2749
4.2545
4.2539
2.7750
2.9471
3.2054
3.2241
.76193
.87923
.81764
.77931
1.25107
1.06464
.77329
.71022
PERCEPTION
B. Gender
Table 8 shows the difference in the
perception of respondents when
grouped according to gender. Statistical
tests show that there is no significant
difference between males and females
when it comes to assessing the
performance of their respective
department or area chairs.
Responsibilities of
the Department
Chairs
Strong and Weak
Points
Description
Effectiveness
Summary
Judgment
Standard
Deviation
t-test
pvalue
Verbal
Interpretation
.105
.917
Not Significant
.188
.852
Not Significant
.004
.997
Not Significant
-.881
.380
Not Significant
-.149
.882
Not Significant
Table 9. Difference in the perception of respondents when grouped according to years of service
PERCEPTION
Responsibilities
Strong and Weak
Points
Description
Effectiveness
Summary
Judgment
YEARS OF
SERVICE
1-3
4-6
7-9
10-12
13-15
16 or more
Total
1-3
4-6
7-9
10-12
13-15
16 or more
Total
1-3
4-6
7-9
10-12
13-15
16 or more
Total
1-3
4-6
7-9
10-12
13-15
16 or more
Total
1-3
4-6
7-9
10-12
13-15
16 or more
Total
N
MEAN
STD.DEVIATION
42
43
18
18
11
11
143
42
43
18
18
11
11
143
42
43
18
18
11
11
143
42
43
18
18
11
11
143
42
43
18
18
11
11
143
4.3579
4.5407
4.0522
4.0900
4.2591
4.2255
4.3229
4.3671
4.4977
4.1056
3.9833
4.0455
4.1727
4.2855
4.3752
4.5207
4.0944
3.7967
4.0755
3.9382
4.2541
2.7000
3.0372
2.4889
2.9667
3.1455
3.1818
2.8797
3.1905
3.3140
3.0833
3.2500
3.2727
3.0455
3.2168
.99874
.54775
1.05113
.81261
.50981
.76537
.82436
.85407
.65410
1.09838
.74538
.67285
1.04220
.83259
.70458
.55614
1.05455
.97693
.63637
.84436
.79168
1.03993
1.20100
1.18465
1.03866
1.40311
1.03326
1.14009
.55163
.86619
.71229
.77174
.75378
.82020
.73293
[ 30 ]
F-Value
p-value
1.351
.247
1.533
.184
3.215
.009
1.094
.366
.413
.839
VI
NS
NS
S
NS
NS
C. Years of Service at DLSL
D. Employment Status
Table 9 shows the difference in the perception
of respondents when grouped according to years of
service. It may be seen from this table that with the
exception of the dimension describing the way the
Chair performs his/her tasks, there was no significant
difference in all the other dimensions when the
respondents where grouped according to length of
service. There was significant difference only in the
way they assessed their superior particularly in the
aspect describing their day-to-day managerial
behavior. It is worth noting here that most of the
departments in the College Division were established
during the late nineties, while a few were put up
between the years 2000 and 2005..
Table 17 reveals that there is a significant
difference in the way the respondents assessed the
performance of their Chairs when grouped according
to employment status, particularly in the dimensions
that have to do with the responsibilities of their Chairs
as well as with the description of the Chair's behavior
on a day-to-day basis. Full-timers will definitely have
an edge over the part-timers on matters regarding
their familiarity to their superiors and their awareness
of the detailed activities that the latter are engaged in
on a daily basis. Both responsibilities and descriptions
deal with the general and specific aspects of the work
being done by the academic head. In the other aspects
like strong and weak points, effectiveness and
summary judgment, no significant difference was
noted.
Table 17. Difference in the perception level when grouped according to employment status
E MP LO YM EN T ST AT U S
N
Me a n
S tan d a rd
D e viat ion
PER C EP TIO N
Res ponsibilities of
the D epartment
Cha ir s
S tro ng and W eak
P oints
Des cription
E ffectiveness
S umm ary
J udgment
fu ll
tim e
part
tim e
fu ll
tim e
part
tim e
fu ll
tim e
part
tim e
fu ll
tim e
part
tim e
fu ll
tim e
part
tim e
79
4.2371
.83273
63
4.4990
.58457
79
4.1684
.92106
64
4.4300
.68828
79
4.1182
.89124
64
4.4219
.61443
79
2.8608
1.10028
64
2.9031
1.19576
79
3.1835
.65622
64
3.2578
.82130
t-te st
pva lu e
Ve rb a l
Inte rp re ta tio n
-2.115
.036
S ign ific a nt
-1.885
- 1.885
N o t Sig n ifica n t
-2.315
.022
S ign ific a nt
- .220
.826
- .601
.549
5.0 Conclusions
One of the basic questions of this study, as
mentioned in the Introduction is this: What is the
model of departmental leadership that is best
preferred or desired by faculty members? Could this
model of leadership serve as guide for prospective
occupants to the position as well as for administrators
who would be in-charge of appointing them?
The major findings of this study have
captured the qualities of departmental leadership
that can be considered a model. First, he/she is one
who has the habit of developing a work environment
that is conducive for faculty and one who can provide
Program and administrative leadership and support.
The former can still be subdivided into categories that
include developing a positive climate, building image
and reputation, and personnel management,
particularly in the aspect of motivation. The latter, on
the hand, involves matters concerning the
curriculum, instruction, and program
administration/management. He has to take the
initiative and to provide strong leadership in these
critical areas.
Second, he/she should possess certain
personal characteristics like practical judgment,
[ 31 ]
H. PANGANIBAN
willingness to listen, flexibility in dealing with
individual situations, and the ability to resolve issues.
These traits are indeed very important in as much as
one of the Chair's most important functions is
problem-solving and decision-making.
Third, the Chair should be a very goaloriented administrator as can evidenced by the high
factor loadings of the following items: “sees to it that
the work of the faculty is coordinated”; “maintains
definite standards of performance”; “acts as though
visible department accomplishment were vital to
him/her”; and “provides feedback to faculty on their
major activities.” But this goal orientation must be
blended with a style of leadership that is both
democratic and humanistic. This is evidenced by the
high factor loadings obtained by the items pertaining
to it: “looks out for the personal welfare of individual
faculty members”; “treats all faculty members as
her/his equal”; “lets faculty members know when
they have done a good job”; and “is easy to
understand”. Moreover, as Bolman and Deal cited the
results of studies by Likert some fifty years ago,
“employee-centered” managers were more effective
in the long run than “task-centered” managers.
Having mentioned these “internal factors” in
the Chair's role as academic head, there are also
certain external factors that must be present. This
study would seem to suggest that a highly supportive
top management is a must and this must be coupled
with the removal of certain bureaucratic rules and
regulations that hinder the effective performance of
the academic head. For instance, rigidity in the
compliance with communication protocols is more a
hindering than a promoting factor.
2.
There is also a need to document the history,
contributions, and accomplishments of the different
departments over the years and to make these known
not only to the department's members but also to
other sectors of the institution. With the fast changes
in departmental leadership, oftentimes, the
accomplishments and contributions of previous
Chairs are forgotten or else relegated to the dustbins.
We must give due recognition to
such
accomplishments as these are always the springboard
for future achievements.
3.
Since more almost half of the faculty
members are serving the school on a part-time basis,
there is a pressing need to always inform them of
what is expected of them by the department and by
the institution. Part-timers, just like their full-time
counterparts contribute a lot to the formation of
Lasallian students. Thus, they have to be regularly
apprised of updates and expectations from the
institution.
4.
Since the study disclosed that major
impediments to the effective performance of the
Chair include inadequate financial resources as well
as inadequate facilities of the department, it behooves
upon the school administration to provide these to
the best of the school's capability.
5.
Further studies on factors or determinants of
the effectiveness of Department Chairs need to be
conducted. This may include a wider scope or
coverage so that a greater sample size may be studied.
Recommendations
On the basis of the findings of this study, the
following recommendations are being advanced:
1.
The department chair should communicate
regularly to the Dean the various concerns, needs and
plans of the department. Since this study found that
this is one common weakness of most Chairs, there is
a need to develop a system whereby the different
academic concerns of the faculty are elevated to the
Dean or to some other higher officials on a regular
basis.
[ 32 ]
REFERENCES
Rue, L. and Byars, L. (2007) Supervision: Key Link
to Productivity. Boston: McGraw-Hill Irwin.
Al Karni, Ali Saad “Evaluating the Performance of
Academic Department Chairpersons”
Higher Education 29: 37-57. 1995.
Salaman, G. (1995): Managing. Buckingham: Open
University Press.
Bartol, K and Martin, D. (2001). Management.
Singapore: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
http://www.umuc.edu/library/guides/apa.shtml.
(accessed February 9, 2011).
Bolman, L and Deal, T. (1997). Reframing
Organizations: Artistry, Choice, and
Leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
http://www.umkc.edu/provost/chairs/toolkit/defaul
t.asp (accessed July 31, 2012).
Christian, C. & Kitto, J. (1987): The Theory and
Practice of Supervision.
London: YMCA National College.
Dunning, D., Durham, T., Aksu, M. and Lange, B.
(2007). The State of the Art in Evaluating the
Performance of Department Chairs and
Division Heads. Journal of Dental
Education 71(4): 467-479
Gibson, J., Ivancevich, J. and Donnelly, J,. (2000).
Organizations, Behavior, Structure,
Processes. Boston: McGraw-Hill Irwin.
Gmelch, W. H., & Miskin, V. D. (1993).
“Understanding the Challenges of
Department Chairs.” Leadership Skills for
Department Chairs. Bolton, MA:
Middendorf, J. (2009). Evaluating Department
Chairs' Effectiveness Using Faculty Ratings.
A dissertation submitted to the College of
Education, Kansas State University.
Rettig, Perry, Scherie Lampe, and Penny Garcia.
(fall 2000). Supervising
Your Faculty with a Differentiated Model.
The Department Chair 11(2)): 121
Robert, S. “Theory and Practice of Supervision” in
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ry-And-Practice-Of-Supervision
(accessed Dec. 14, 2010)
[ 33 ]
[ 34 ]
Vol. 1 No. 1 (May 2015)
Student- Originated Projects in Ecology
Laboratory Course Delivered Through
Catherine Precioso
Bernardo Lunar
Abstract
Student-originated projects play an important role in maximizing student achievement and making their
learning experience more meaningful. This study looked into the students' self-assessment of their learning gains
from the student- originated projects in Ecology Laboratory Course which was delivered through Service Learning
Design. Assessment of perceived learning gains was based on the 3 Expected Lasallian Graduate Attributes: critical
thinkers, excellent communicators, and socially responsible. As the student respondents were directed to work
independently on the field and explore both terrestrial ecosystems, they were tasked to engage into scientific
investigations. Survey results showed that students strongly agree that the projects they did in the course have
positively contributed to their learning gains as manifested in the perceived high levels of attainment of the expected
graduate attributes. Correlation revealed that there is significant relationship between the final grades of the students
and the attainment of the three graduate attributes. Students' reflection using the ORID Model showed that students
regarded the learning experiences as relevant and meaningful service with the community; as avenues for their
enhanced academic learning; and as purposeful civic learning or social responsibility. A set of guidelines regarding the
conduct of Student- Originated Projects was proposed to the Biology Department and Science Area of the College of
Education, Arts and Sciences as the output of this study.
Key words: Service Learning, Ecology Laboratory Class, Student- Originated Projects
1.0 Introduction
With Service Learning and the importance of
honing scientific and research skills among Biology
majors, student-originated projects play an important
role in maximizing student achievement and making
their learning experience more meaningful. This
strategy is increasingly being utilized in the biology
laboratory as a means of engaging students and
enhancing the laboratory experiences by allowing the
students to venture into independent inquiry.
The usual experiments in the laboratory fail
as good models of investigative learning because,
more often than not, they put more emphasis on novel
ideas, than on hypothesis testing, experimental
design, statistical rigor, or use of primary literature.
With the usual set-up, students get used to the routine
and tend to design the same type of simplistic
experiments in each course unless challenged.
On one hand is Project Based Learning,
wherein students go through an extended process of
inquiry in response to a complex question, problem,
or challenge. Rigorous projects help students learn
key academic content and practice 21st century skills
such as collaboration, communication and critical
thinking. It is a teaching and learning model that
emphasizes student-centered instruction by
assigning projects. It allows students to work more
autonomously to construct their own learning, and
culminates in realistic, student-generated products.
C. PRECIOSO & B. LUNAR
On the other hand is Service-learning, which
is an educational method in which the service is
integrated into the course curriculum and requires
that the students reflect on their service activity.
Bringle et.al (1994) provide a good definition:
discipline, and an enhanced sense of civic
responsibility (Kaye, 2010).
Related studies include the work of Chaplin
(2003) wherein laboratories in a Comparative
Anatomy and Physiology course at the University of
St. Thomas were reorganized to encourage the
development of investigative skills in a stepwise
fashion throughout the semester. Initial labs
concentrated on experimental design and statistical
analysis, then use of the primary literature in
interpretation of the data was emphasized, and
finally, students were asked to design their
experiments and analyze their data on the basis of
models from the primary literature. The guided
approach to inquiry-based laboratories described in
this report takes development of research and
investigative skills a step further than the basic
laboratory experience. The intention of investigative
labs, especially in the introductory curriculum, is to
engage students by encouraging them to “think like
scientists” and get out of the practice of the rote
performance of a cook mastering a recipe. The guided
approach to inquiry-based teaching described in this
report provides more substantial support to the
development of critical, analytical thinking and use of
primary literature in student investigations. Without
modeling the practice of science at a higher level of
thinking, students continue to practice investigative
science at the introductory level, even though their
exposure to science content is considerably richer
with each science course they take.
Another related study was conducted by
Casotti et.al (2008) entitled Successful
implementation of inquiry-based physiology
laboratories in undergraduate major and non- major
courses. They implemented inquiry-based learning
into three physiology courses: Comparative
Vertebrate Physiology (majors), Human Physiology
(majors), and Human Anatomy and Physiology (non
majors). The aims of our curricular modifications
were to improve the teaching of physiological
concepts, teach students the scientific approach, and
promote creative and critical thinking. We assessed
our modifications using formative (laboratory exams,
oral presentations, and laboratory reports) and
"Service-learning is a credit-bearing,
Educational experience in which students
participate in an organized. Service activity
that meets identified community needs and
reflects on the service activity in such a way
as to gain further understanding of course
content, a broader appreciation of the
discipline, and an enhanced sense of civic
responsibility.”
This study is a follow-up to the study done by Lunar
and Ronsairo (2011) entitled Assessment of Service
Learning in Ecology Class Using the ORID Model.
The study assessed the students' perception of their
learning experiences as they were exposed to servicelearning design in Ecology to conform with the
transformative learning framework being employed
by the institution. Working on one of the study's
recommendations, this study aimed to survey the
students' perception as regards their learning gains
from the student- originated projects based on the
attainment of the three Expected Lasallian Graduate
Attributes (ELGAs).
2.0 Theoretical background
This study is anchored on the concept of
Project Based Learning as a systematic teaching
method that engages students in learning essential
knowledge and life-enhancing skills through an
extended, student-influenced inquiry process
structured around complex, authentic questions and
carefully designed products and tasks (Markham et.
al, 2003).
Likewise, it is premised on the concept of
service learning. It is a credit-bearing, educational
experience in which students participate in an
organized service activity that meets identified
community needs and reflects on the service activity
in such a way as to gain further understanding of
course content, a broader appreciation of the
[ 36 ]
ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING GAINS FROM STUDENT-ORIGINATED PROJECTS
summative evaluations (surveys, laboratory
they had as they participated in the various activities
notebook, and an end of semester project). Students
of the Project Carbon Neutral and the One million
appreciated the freedom offered by the new
Trees and Beyond Project of the school. Using the
curriculum and the opportunity to engage in the
ORID Method of Focused Conversation, their
inquiry process. Results from both forms of
experiences were moved to analytical and subjective
evaluation showed a marked improvement due to the
reasoning.
curricular revisions. Our analyses indicate an
Another study by Laguardia et.al (2012)
increased confidence in students' ability to formulate
entitled Outcomes- based Evaluation of the
questions and hypotheses, design experiments,
Transformative Learning Design in Environmental
collect and analyze data, and make conclusions.
Science Course of De La Salle Lipa evaluated the
A study entitled The Impact of a Serviceoutcomes of employing the transformative learning
Learning Project on Student Awareness of
design specifically in the attainment of expected
Homelessness, Civic Attitudes, and Stereotypes
Lasallian graduate attributes. This study used
Toward the Homeless by Buch and Harden (2011)
descriptive method of research with the aid of the
was written in relation to the initiative of the
questionnaire checklist and unstructured interview
University of North Carolina of providing shelter to
to assess students' perception regarding the level of
the homeless during the winter months. A student
attainment of the three expected learning outcomes
organization was formed to sustain university
among purposively sampled students who were
support. The author created a service-learning project
enrolled in Environmental Science course during the
as part of a Citizenship and Service Practicum course.
SY 2010-2011 and 2011-2012. Results showed that the
Three semesters of end-of-course student evaluations
transformative learning design in Environmental
indicate that the service-learning experience had an
Science was regarded effective in making the students
impact on the students in three ways. It raised
attain all the three graduate attributes expected of
awareness of homelessness; helped dispel negative
them. The highest composite mean of 3.87 was on
stereotypes and foster more positive attitudes; and
becoming excellent communicators. Though with
promoted positive civic attitudes and desire to “make
relatively lower composite mean values of 3.82 and
a difference.”
3.81 for attributes- critical thinkers and socially
A study conducted by Lunar and Ronsairo
responsible, respectively, still perceived effective by
(2011) entitled Assessment of Service Learning in
the studentrespondents.
Ecology Class Using the ORID Model. This study
2.3 Operational Framework
assessed the students' perception of their learning
experiences as they were exposed to service- learning
As can be gleaned from Figure 1 below, as an
design in Ecology to conform to the transformative
input, students will be asked to conduct two studentlearning framework being employed by the
originated
projects related to terrestrial and marine
institution. Ecology class is intended for BS Biology
ecosystems in Ecology Laboratory Class designed to
and Education students of De La Salle Lipa. It is
conform
to Service Learning. Self- evaluation on
designed to cover topics such as nature of Ecology;
learning
gains,
correlation analysis and assessment
various biotic and abiotic factors needed for survival;
through reflection using ORID Model were used as
population, communities, ecosystem dynamics and
the
process to evaluate its efficacy.
Proposed
different kinds of ecosystem. The course delivery
guidelines
on
the
conduct
of
student
originated
was lecture blended with Service Learning. This
projects is the expected output of the study.
teaching method falls under experiential education, a
method in which students were made to learn
Student- Originated Project
and develop through active participation in
Self- Assessment of Learning Gains,
Proposed Guidelines on the
Reflection on Service Learning, and
thoughtfully organized service that is
Conduct of Student- Originated
conducted in and meets the needs of a
Project
Correlation with Grades
community. In this study, students were
made to reflect on the concrete experiences
Figure 1. Operational Framework
[ 37 ]
3. 0 Methodology
personal biases and opinions were shun to get in the
way. All responses were treated and interpreted in
appropriate context.
3.1 Design
This study made use of the descriptive
method of research that evaluated through selfassessment of the learning gains of students from
student- originated projects related to terrestrial and
marine ecosystems in Ecology Laboratory Class
designed to conform to Service Learning. Photo
documentation was also used to capture the activities
undertaken during the entire conduct of the study.
3.5 Data Analysis
Data gathered were analyzed using
frequency count, arithmetic means and ranking.
Correlation analysis was also done to show the
relationship between the perceived learning gain and
the students' final course grades.
4.0 Results
3.2 Study Site
On Being Critical Thinkers
The study was conducted at De La Salle Lipa,
an institution that provides education from preschool level to tertiary school level. Founded in 1962
by the Brothers of the Christian School, De La Salle
Lipa was built on a 5.9- hectare lot along the National
Highway, an institution located at Lipa City,
Batangas. The tertiary school provides education in
the college level offering degree programs like
Accountancy, Business Management, Computer
Science, Education, Engineering, Psychology and
Nursing. It also provides Certificate programs in
Culinary Arts, Entrepreneurship and Information
Technology.
The assessment of the learning gains through
attainment of the attribute critical thinker is shown in
Table 1. Based on the result, the respondents
considered all the indicators as highly attained
having stimulated their understanding of ecological
principles and processes with the highest mean value
of 3.79. Although all the indicators were found to be
attained, the student respondents rated the indicator
that says that the projects have helped them analyze
and statistically evaluate the data they collected the
least with a mean value of 3.42.
These findings were supported by the
following statements shared by some of the studentrespondents:
A class composed of 24 third year BS Biology
students from the College of Education, Arts and
Sciences of De La Salle Lipa who were enrolled in
Ecology Laboratory during the first semester of SY
2012-2013 served as the respondents for this study.
With a researcher- made survey questionnaire the
students' self- assessment of their learning gains from
the experience was solicited. Students' final grades in
the course were then used as secondary data to which
their evaluation was correlated with. Students
assessed also their service- learning experience
through guided reflection using the ORID Model.
“The projects made me realize how wonderful our
environment is”
“The activities boost the enthusiasm and interest
of the students in learning more about our
environment”
“The project helped us understand more of the
ecological principles making us aware of our
responsibility in the preservation of our
environment.”
“The projects in ecology are very appropriate and
offer a lot of exposures.”
The respondents, being the students enrolled
in the subject, were all made aware and gave their
consent to be the respondents of this research. Own
[ 38 ]
“One of the strengths of doing this project is that it
developed our interest in conducting scientific
researches”
“Our group set a quadrat of 100 sq. M…the
diameter and height of all trees inside the quadrat
were measured.”
Likewise, other students shared that:
“The aim of this project is to plan and carry out an
ecological research as a requirement in Ecology
Laboratory”
“The project improved our understanding about
experimental designing”
Table 1. Assessment of attainment of the Graduate Attribute: Critical Thinkers
Indicators
The projects stimulated their interest in the field of ecology
The projects stimulated their understanding of principles and processes
The projects increased their confidence in conducting scientific investigations
The projects helped them read and understand primary literature
The projects helped them analyze and statistically evaluate data
The projects helped them understand and critically evaluate experimental design
On Being Excellent Communicators
Presented in Table 2 is the assessment of
learning gains based on the attainment of the attribute
excellent communicators. The respondents found all
the indicators to have been highly attained
specifically in analyzing, interpreting and comparing
the data they collected which ranked 1 with the mean
value of 3.92. However, the indicator which says that
the projects permitted them to offer explanations for
their findings to be understood, was ranked the least
with a mean value of 3.75. These results were
supported by student-respondents' statements that:
“I feel so lucky to be part of that activity because it
helped me realize the importance of our nature and
our roles as Ecology students- to carry out
scientific research about Mt. Malarayat”.
Mean
3.71
3.79
3.46
3.67
3.42
3.50
“The activity changed my perspective about the
environment by making me see the beauty of our
nature and conduct an ecological study that is of
relevance.”
“The experience made me think of a lot of things
but to describe everything in one word, it is all
about APPRECIATION of the things around us
done in a more scientific manner.”
One of the aims of teaching Ecology in a
Service Learning Design is to develop students with
excellent communication skills. Through the learning
activities provided for each student they were
expected to learn to articulate coherently their
insights and stand regarding ecological issues, listen
critically and respectfully to the viewpoints of others,
and formulate clear, relevant and humane solutions
to identified ecological problems.
Table 2. Assessment of attainment of the Graduate Attribute: Excellent Communicators
Indicators
The projects helped them organize and present a research project in written form
The projects helped them organize and present a research project orally
The projects enabled them to analyze, interpret, and compare data collected
The projects made them do citations of primary work
The projects permitted them to offer explanations for their findings to be understood
The projects allowed them to discuss and conclude from data analyzed
[ 39 ]
Mean
3.83
3.88
3.92
3.58
3.75
3.79
On Being Socially Responsible Citizens
Likewise, most of the student-respondents stated
that:
.
“The experience made me realize how wonderful
our environment is and how great God is for doing
such things”
Table 3 shows the assessment of learning
gains in terms of the attainment of the attribute
socially responsible citizens. Based on the results, the
student-respondents found all the indicators to have
been highly attained particularly the ones that claim
that the projects developed in them appreciation of
the natural world, that they familiarized them with
the variety of ways that organisms interact, and that
they enticed them to participate in various
environmental projects, all with the highest mean
values of 3.88. Although all the indicators are found to
have been attained, the indicator that says that the
projects developed them the appreciation of the
modern scope of scientific inquiry was ranked the
least attained with a mean value of 3.67.
These findings are supported by the studentrespondents sharing that:
“The experience made me more aware of the
environment and to value it more.”
“I will strive to sustain our natural resources and
environment for future generations.”
“After the activity I was left with an idea wherein
in I want to continue or pursue on a job or a related
In the preservation of our nature”.
“…it can help a person's personality to change in
a way of having a passion in the appreciation of
our environment…”
“It is not the act of just planting but the act of
caring and maintaining each
seedling…Hopefully we can go back to monitor
the growth of our seedlings”
“I am now more determined to contribute in
protecting the environment”
“I am aiming and planning to have more
environmental services. This year especially tree
Planting in some remote area.”
“The design strengthened my advocacy of
protecting the environment in my own simplest
ways”.
Table 3. Assessment of attainment of the Graduate Attribute: Socially Responsible
Indicators
The projects developed in them appreciation of the natural world
The projects developed in them appreciation of modern scope of scientific inquiry
The projects familiarized them with the variety of ways that organisms interact
The projects made them translate the gained knowledge and skills into practice
The projects enticed them to participate in various environmental projects
The projects made them respond to the call to stewardship & foster Lasallian values
Learning Gains and Over-all Attainment of
Expected Lasallian Graduate Attributes
Mean
3.88
3.67
3.88
3.79
3.88
3.79
responsible citizens. Though with relatively lower
composite mean values of 3.79 and 3.59, the
attributes- excellent communicators and critical
thinkers, respectively, they were still perceived to
have been highly attained by the studentrespondents. This connotes that students agree that
the projects they designed in the course translate into
gained learning and attainment of expected Lasallian
graduated attributes particularly in their Ecology
Laboratory course.
Table 4 summarizes the assessment made as
regards the perceived learning gains through
attainment of the ELGAs. In general, the Service
Learning design in Ecology Laboratory was regarded
effective in making the students attain all the three
graduate attributes expected of them. The highest
composite mean of 3.81 was on becoming socially
[ 40 ]
Table 4. Assessment of Learning Gains Based Over-all attainment of the ELGAs
Attributes
Critical Thinkers
Excellent Communicators
Socially Responsible Citizens
Relationship of Perceived Learning Gains and
Final Grades
Table 5 shows that there is direct relationship
between perceived learning gains and the final grade
of the students. As the perception of the attainment of
graduate attributes increases, the final grade also
increases. There is significant relationship between
Composite Means
3.59
3.79
3.81
Rank
3
2
1
the final grade and the attainment of the three
graduate attributes. It shows that the understanding
of the subject had been attainment of the attributes
with the aid of student originated projects. The
projects they executed therein had been contributory
to the increase in the final course grades of the
students.
Table 5. Relationship between attainment of graduate attributes and the final grade
Correlation
coefficient
.210
.219
Verbal interpretation
Critical Thinkers
Direct, very low
Excellent
Direct, very low
Communicators
Socially Responsible
.183
Direct, very low
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Reflections on Service Learning Using ORID
Model
“The objective of the Q3A class in their ascent to
Mt. Malarayat was to conduct an initial ocular
.088*
assessment and to plan and carry an ecological
research as a requirement in Ecology Laboratory.
Having known that Mt. Malarayat serves as a
watershed to Lipa and neighboring towns, our
group chose to assess the quality of water of two
high- altitude reaches of a stream using macroInvertebrates as indicators”.
On Objective Mode
At the end of the service-learning experience
and completion of the student- originated projects,
when students were asked about what they did as
service learning, all of the students manifested
knowledge and awareness of the project and its
relevance to mitigating the ecological problems.
They were able to state the objectives of their projects.
They were completely aware of the task that they
chose to do in response to the needs assessment done
which led them to work on establishing baseline data
on species diversities and water quality. They were so
eager to share their own experiences biological and
ecological expeditions on their respective study sites.
One of the students said:
Probability
(Interpretation)
.040*
.032*
For the second service learning project, , the
students were brought to Bangkong Kahoy Valley in
Dolores Quezon where they were made to observe
the different terrestrial ecosystems wherein they
climbed a mountain and studied the flora and fauna
present in the forest. They were also tasked to interact
with the local people aimed at identifying the needs of
the locality and thereby carrying out a relevant
project. When probed about their experience, it was
clear to them how organisms, including humans, and
their environment are interrelated and how human
activities affect this interrelatedness. They were able
to interact with the selected members of the
environmental youth group in the area called
[ 41 ]
Bangkong Kahoy Environmental Triumph (BAKET)”
, as they interview and did tree planting with them.
They were able to identify the need of the community,
which is active participation of the youth in
preserving and protecting their resources and in
raising awareness with regard to environmental
protection. One student's reflection says:
“The whole experience was fun, but
tiring as well. It was also educational that if you
are going to take and process the learning from
within, it can help a person's personality to
change in a way of having a passion of
appreciation to our environment. I feel so lucky to
be part of that activity because it helped me realize
the importance of our nature and our roles as
stewards”.
“Our primary purpose for visiting
Bangkong Kahoy in the province of Quezon was
to assess whether the place can be considered an
ecotourism destination. I never thought that this
nature trip can actually be fun and educational.
It was very refreshing to see fresh trees, large
mountains and nature itself. We were able to
accomplish our goal, to interact with the locals
and plant trees”.
On Interpretative Mode
Both service learning projects opened their
eyes to the reality that nature is beautiful and there is
still hope for our Mother Earth. They were also
reminded that although they may be part of cause of
the problem, they can become part of its solution in
their own little ways. One student quoted:
On Reflective Mode
“I was surprised on how much of nature
is still preserved in the mountains The residents
must have done a great deal of care taking in the
area. It made me realize that despite the rapid
urbanization these days, there is still so much left
in nature untouched and to be taken cared of”.
When the students were asked as to how they
feel about the experience in Mt. Malarayat, they all
agreed that being outside in the mountain was a bit
tiring but an exciting encounter with trees and
animals of varying species and sizes. They reported
to be so exhausted with the task but have felt to be
really productive students and felt good as they got to
realize that they are being stewards of God's creation
in their own little ways, claiming their experience and
their contribution as a success. One student claimed:
Relating the experience to their being Biology
students, they were able to relate their learning with
their future tasks of becoming an environment
friendly scientists. As they care for all life forms and
as they care for the future generation, these intensify
their desire to start a change. Moreover, they were
able to conquer the feeling of insignificance, as they
became cognizant that though the impact they have
done was not that big, still their small steps were not
put into waste. One student put it this way:
“The experience made me felt tired but
glad. The fact that there was still such a place near
my hometown made me happy. It struck me the
most to see that the area is still lush and teeming
with life even though there were few pieces of trash
that were obstructing the beauty of the place. After
the experience, I had a few cuts and my clothes
were soiled, but I had much learning not only for
our study but for the environment”.
“The experience made me think that we
still have hope for our environment. There are
still many wonderful places that should be
protected. The people who lived there for almost
their lifetime and the children who have devoted
themselves in the Bangkong Kahoy Valley made
me realize that we too should be like them, a
responsible one for God's creation for the benefit of
ourselves, and for the benefit of the next
generations”.
The same reflections were heard for the
second service-learning project. They all felt good
and fulfilled as they recalled the experiences they had
not only during their stay in the valley, but also
during the trek, interview and tree planting. This was
reflected in one of the student's remark:
[ 42 ]
On Decisional Mode
Students were one in saying that their
experiences were equally important, if not more
important, than what they got on books and the four
corners of the classroom. Being outside, seeing the
reality and having the chance to contribute to the
community. They made them become cautious of
their activities and actions. One of the students
pointed out that:
“I have decided to do what I can for the
environment. Even the little things in life like
throwing candy wrappers properly will be a good
start for everyone
They were all willing to continue serving
their respective communities by taking an active part
on the school's environmental organization and other
civic organizations working on environmental
protection. They expressed their commitment to the
service-learning project and were all motivated to
become volunteers in the up- coming projects. As one
student wrote:
“This service- learning project did not
only focus on the requirement that our professor
wanted us to submit but to remind us on how we
can be aware of the environment and on how we
can contribute to our mother earth. As a student,
I will follow the CLAYGO policy in our school and
will be joining into the group with the objectives of
taking care of the environment. These are small
things, but can help a lot”.
5.0 Discussion
The results of this study revealed that
Student Originated project implemented in Ecology
class through Service Learning design led to the
students' attainment of the three Expected Lasallian
Graduate Attributes (ELGAs) namely: critical
thinker, excellent communicator and socially
responsible citizen. The responses of the students are
varied depending on the personal backgrounds that
individual students brought with them into the
course, but throughout the project students described
that the most important things they learned in the
project were: their important role in the preservation
of the environment and gaining a greater awareness
of the environment. On the other hand, one student
revealed a more realistic view of his potential career
path after the activity.
The results of the study conform to the claim
of Wolk (1994) that the collaborative nature of the
investigations in student- originated projects
enhances all of the valuable experiences of the
students as well as promotes a greater appreciation
for social responsibility.
Project-based learning
offers an engaging instructional method to make
learners active constructors of knowledge. Rooted in
constructivism, constructionism and collaborative
learning, project-based learning has strong
theoretical support for successful achievement
(Grant, 2002).
Teaching of critical thinking is important in
order to make sound decisions. If students learn to
think critically, then they can use good thinking as the
guide by which they live their lives (Beyer, 1995).
Putting students in group learning situations is the
best way to foster critical thinking (Cooper, 1995). In
this research, students were exposed to group
learning activities aimed at developing students'
critical thinking skills and Lasallian core values. This
is parallel with Cooper's statement in 1995, that in a
properly structured learning environment, students
perform more of the active, critical thinking with
continuous support and feedback from other
students and the teacher.
The result of this research on the attainment
of being an excellent communicator is supported by
the claim of the U.S. Department of Education and the
National Institute of Education, which highlighted
student involvement as one of three critical
conditions for excellence in education (U.S.
Department of Education 1984:18-19). The findings
are also supported by Mezirow's in 1997. He stated:
“to facilitate transformative learning, educators must
help learners become aware and critical of their own
and others' assumptions. Learners need practice in
redefining problems from a different perspective”.
The result of the self-assessment of the
students as regards the perceived attainment of the
ELGAs by the projects implemented in the course is
relatively the same as what was found out in the study
of Laguardia et.al 2012) which looked into the
[ 43 ]
transformative learning design in Environmental
Science. It was also revealed in this study that the
students attain all the three graduate attributes
expected of them.
The findings of the present study are also
consistent with the literature on service-learning that
finds that service-learning has the potential to offer
students opportunities to develop a number of
different competencies and skills, such as: decision
making, critical thinking and becoming increasingly
conscious of the problems of the world (Davidson et.
al, 2010).
According to Freeman in 2001, Service
Learning enhances and supports students' academic
development by providing them opportunities to
apply their newly acquired skills in real life
situations. The activities likewise provided students
the opportunities to have an in - depth reflection that
led them realize the importance of preserving and
conserving the environment. The activity also
prepared the students to make decisions that will
affect the school or community leading them to think
critically and become socially responsible.
Much of what students learn in the classroom
is based on hypothetical case examples and roleplaying certain techniques and scenarios. Service
Learning, according to Davidson et.al (2010), is
valuable for getting students into the habit of using
the information they are learning, and when different
material is most appropriate to use, but being able to
go out and actually do what they learned out in the
community with real unpredictable situations was
where comprehension of the material was obtained,
where critical thinking occurred, and where some
insights were gained. Applying what they learned
from the classroom to their work as change agents in
the community was the real test in his study.
Based on the foregoing findings, it is
concluded that as the studentrespondents were
directed to work independently on the field engage
into scientific investigations, there were positive
learning gains as manifested in the perceived high
levels of attainment of the expected graduate
attributes.
Correlation revealed that there is
significant relationship between the final grades of
the students and the attainment of the three graduate
attributes. Students' reflection using the ORID Model
showed that students regarded the learning
experiences as relevant and meaningful service with
the community; as avenues for enhanced their
academic learning; and as purposeful civic learning
or social responsibility.
This study recommends among all others the
need to enhance the implementation of service
learning and student- originated project in the course
Ecology and the utilization of the guidelines
developed. Furthermore, a yearly assessment of the
said program, a replication of this study perhaps, in
other Science subjects, a conduct of comparative
study of service learning between and among
different subjects and further improvement of the
proposed guidelines, may also be taken into
consideration in future teaching and learning
endeavours.
Acknowledgement
The researchers would like to acknowledge the Office
of Research and Publications of De La Salle Lipa for
the grant provided to this project. Likewise, the
researchers are grateful to the Third Year BS Biology
students who served as respondents of this research.
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[ 46 ]
Vol. 1 No. 1 (May 2015)
Michael M. Ramos
Abstract
The Catholic Church recognizes that popular religiosity, as an expression inherent in the nature of the
natives' religious expressions, is the most important element in her mission of evangelization and inculturation.
In the interaction between culture and Christian faith, the Church wishes to preserve the cultural identity and
religious expression of the natives while integrating it within the Christian faith and giving it a Christian
meaning. The Subli, a peculiar religious practice in the province of Batangas, is a ritual dance which serves as an
example of popular religiosity whose Christian meaning is compared to the indigenous practices and beliefs.
This religious belief and practice of the indigenous natives of Batangas concretely illustrated their belief to the
diwatas and anitos - a belief that if they could appease the spirit of the mountain or invoke the anitos for help
through their offerings and sacrifices, a good result would come from it. By dancing the subli they believe that
they could delight the Poon and invoke it to manifest its power that effectively brings protection from any
disaster, promotes physical well being, and for any conceivable purpose. Hence, this paper explored how subli
gradually integrated into Christian faith through the process called inculturation. That in the process, the gospel
is incarnated by taking the form a dance and eventually, the traditional belief transforms into Christians' context
of worship.
Key words: Inculturation, Incarnation, Culture, Evangelization, and Subli
1.0. Introduction
The mission of the Church to evangelize the
people is rooted in the authority of the risen Christ
and it is simply assumed that obedience to the great
command to go into all the parts of the earth making
disciples and baptizing was the greatest motivation
for the mission; “ Go, therefore, make disciples of all
nations; baptize them in the name of the Father and of
the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teach them to
observe all the commands I gave you.” Thus, the
Church understood herself as being obliged and
called by the mandate of Christ to be missionary
demanded by her own essential universality, which
implies that she is by her very nature missionary. In
retrospect, the early Church was a mission church
that began its activity gradually after the Pentecost.
Independently from the motives, mission has always
been the main objective of the Church of all centuries.
As the Church understood mission as her vocation to
be a sign or symbol of salvation, which in a strict sense
was seen as the proclamation of the gospel and the
foundation of new communities of faith among
people, her interest in the mission arises mainly from
the necessity to spread her faith before the second
coming of Christ, which she believed was imminent.
M. RAMOS
During the early Church's missionary engagement,
the mission remained confined to Israel and only to
extend it to the end of the world when the apostles
went out to the then gentile world to preach directly
the gospel to the people (Acts 8:1-4). Consequently,
this proclamation of the gospel leads to the
foundation of numerous Christian communities
throughout and within the outer boundaries of the
Roman Empire. However, as the Church's missionary
activity started to flourish outside its main parameter,
the gospel became exposed and brought into contact
with the multiplicity of languages, life style, and ways
of thinking and believing, which anthropologists
today call culture. From the emerging circumstances,
the problem of the gospel and its relation to a
multiplicity of cultures burst upon the early Church
suddenly and unexpectedly. The early missionaries
wrestled with the problem of how the gospel will be
proclaimed to people of different cultures. Thus, in
the course of the history, the Church has been in
dialogue with the cultures of people among whom
she carries out her mission. As the document
Gaudium et Spes states;
with its theological reflections from the traditional
practices, aims at empirically analyzing practices,
and should be directed towards the transformation of
these practices. This process is called comparative
theology. Comparative theology is intimately
connected, though not identical, with the elaboration
of local theologies, inculturation and missiology.
From this practice orientation, it analyzed the strong
connection between traditional religious beliefs and
theology and Christian beliefs.
1.0. Pre-Colonial Spiritual Beliefs in the
Philippines
In reconstructing the historical background
of the origin of subli from the information available, it
can be conceived that subli is a practice and belief
among the indigenous natives of Batangas during the
pre-colonial period, which became an explicit part of
the natives' religiosity. As recorded, when Ferdinand
Magellan reached our archipelago and introduced
Catholicism in 1521, there was already an existing
system of religion or beliefs practiced by the
indigenous Filipinos, which is called animism. From
the outset, the indigenous Filipinos believed in a
Supreme Being whom they called Bathala, who
resides in the spirit world and often depicted as a
being above other gods. Likewise, the natives also
believe in the existence of other supernatural beings
or powers but acknowledge the Supreme being as
head of all existing supernatural forces by virtue of
his being the creator of all. These supernatural beings
are the lesser divinities, who are part also of the
created world of Bathala, are the spirits like anito and
diwata serve as intermediary in which they were not
worshipped but venerated. They are the main
channel of communication with the Supreme Being,
Bathala, and are the pivot on which the religious life
of the people revolve. The diwatas are localized and
“From the beginning of its history, it has
learned to express Christ's message in the
concepts and languages of various peoples, and it
has also tried to throw light on it through the
wisdom of the philosophers, aiming so far as was
proper to suit the gospel to the grasp of everyone as
well as to Expectations of the wise.”
This paper studied the subli dance of
Batangas to see how the interaction between gospel
and indigenous belief takes place in a particular
cultural setting. The concept of action or practice
plays a central role in this study because to
understand the religious underpinning and the
integration of subli in Christian context, it must start
1
Matthew 28:18-19
Chibueze Udeani, Inculturation as Dialogue: Igbo Culture and the Message of Christ
(International Society for Intercultural Theology and Study of Religions, Amsterdam, New York, 2007) p. 69.
Fr. Andre De Bleeker, CICM. is a professor of MaryHill School of Theology who is teaching Missiology. Fr. De Bleeker compiled his lecture and notes in Missionlogy that
serves as a handout for his students. This handout contains the history and development of Missiology in the course of history of the Catholic Church. p. 38-41. Henceforth
cited as De Bleeker, Missiology
Norbert Brox, A Concise History of the Early Church, trans. John Bowden (New York, NY: Continuum, 1996), p.2
Joseph P. Fitzpatrick, One Church Many Culture: Challenge of Diversity. . (Sheed and Ward Armour Blvd. Kansas City, 1987) p. 7
Herman Tirkey, Inculturation of the Word (Gospel): An Indian Tribal (Oraon) Perspective. p. 1
Gaudium et Spes no.44
On the nature and task of comparative theology, Clooney distinguishes three moments of comparative theology: comparison of the theologies of different religions,
comparison tested by posing of theological questions, and construction of theologies generated after and from comparative practices. Francis X. Clooney, Theology After
Vedanta: An Experimental in Comparative Theology. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993)
2
[ 48 ]
SUBLI: AND THE GOSPEL BECAME DANCE
derive their power from the Supreme Being, which
allows them to preside over their jurisdiction, while
the anitos are the ancestors who have lived socially
acceptable lives and through death have attained
superhuman powers. These lesser divinities were
venerated and they offered ritual of sacrifices to
appease so as to ensure a good harvest or bring good
luck, to invoke protection and to carry guidance and
counsel, for healing, and any conceivable purpose.
Essentially, this is the fertile ground in which
Christianity took form roots in the Philippines.
To set up the journey on this research, it
behooves us to investigate the dimension of beliefs
and origin of subli because it inevitably involves
phenomena, which must be studied empirically. In
order for those phenomena to be understood in
depth, leading to the creation of realistic approach
and development of methods either for systematic
controlling or directing the process of inculturation,
the full source of social and cultural anthropology (of
religion) must be applied. Hence, the work of various
authors on science of anthropology provided the
many insights into the uses of ritual symbolism by
human societies.
2.0. The Subli Dance of Batangas
The province of Batangas can be considered
among the provinces in the archipelago as devoted
Catholics and many people say that one of the
regional traits of Batagueños is religiosity. This is true
in the sense that various religious customs and
traditions manifest the religiosity of Batagueños. This
is a trait that is proven to be present in the natives of
Batangas even during the pre-colonial time. The
different religious practices or popular religiosity of
Batagueños are the “pa-poon,” a sponsored readingpraying ritual in which the sponsoring family is
offering prayers to obtain special petition or
thanksgiving; “panata or novena” is an act of
religious devotion often consisting of private or
public prayers repeated for nine successive days in
belief of obtaining special intercessory graces;
“tapusan” or “luglugan” is usually done during the
last week of the month of May where young girls of
the barrio would make a floral offering to the Virgin
Mary in the “tuklong” or small chapel; “pabasa ng
pasyon” is a sponsored reading-and-chanting ritual,
commemorating the passion, death and resurrection
of Christ during holy week; the “salubong at dagit”,
the former an Easter Sunday pre-dawn ritual that reenacts the Risen Christ's meeting with his mother
while the latter refers to little girls who play the role of
angels, remove the “lambong” or veil of mourning
from the Blessed Mother shortly after processions at
Easter dawn, signifying the resurrection of Jesus; the
“luwa” is rendered in honor of Blessed Virgin Mary
by reciting a long poem; the “prusisyon ng Santo” is
an organized body of people walking in a formal or
ceremonial manner where the patron saint of the
town is paraded; the “panuluyan” the re-enactment
of the birth of Christ performed during Christmas
Vigil Mass, and the “orasyon” or angelus which is a
recited devotional tradition where everybody stops
and prays the salutation Hail Mary at the time the
Church bell rings at 6:00 pm. All these customary
religious practices are piously observed in all towns
of the province of Batangas that explicitly show their
religiosity. However, there is a religious practice
peculiar among the aforementioned religious
practices called the Subli and it is commonly
performed in the towns of Bauan, Alitagtag and
Agoncillo.
The Subli dance is performed by the
manunubli, which is a dramatization of the
Kambulong's journey to the town of Alitagtag in
search of the Holy Cross. This story of the
Kambulong's spiritual journey is manifested in the
The term animism applies to the belief that within all creatures and objects, there exist a soul or personality. It is thus a spiritual belief, and many scholars have offered the
idea that animism was the first spiritual concept of humankind, and that it underlies all further religious thought. This is the background that Christianity found itself when it
was first introduced to the indigenous Filipinos.
Elesterio, Fernando G. Pre-Magellanic Religious Elements in Contemporary Filipino Culture (De La Salle University Press. Manila, Philippines. 1989), 3-14 Henceforth
cited as Elesterio, Pre-Magellanic Religious Elements in Contemporary Filipino Culture
This belief articulates that humans should seek harmony between themselves, spirits, nature and the whole universe because maintaining harmony is considered as a moral
obligation, which, if violated, may lead to sickness, misfortunes, or suffering. The idea of evil is a disturbance of universal harmony manifested in neglect of religious
duties, forgetting God, violations of his commandments, harm against fellow human beings, abuse of nature, and the like. George Capaque, The Problem of Evil in the
Filipino Context, In Doing Theology in the Philippines. Quezon City, Philippines: OMF Literature, Inc. and Asian Theological Seminary. p. 10
There are also some occasional sacrifices offered to the ancestors at both family and clan levels. Theses kind of sacrifices consists mostly of expiatory rather than
thanksgiving and votive offerings. Ramon Obusan, Rituals in the Philippines. ( National
[ 49 ]
M. RAMOS
3.0. The Phenomenology of Subli
songtexts that the manunubli sung during their
performance. Elena Mirano analyzed the symbolism
of the poem in every phasing which, from her
conclusion, was derived from several sources. The
first phase of the poem describes the kambulong's
spiritual journey in search of the cross in Dingin. This
episode symbolically represents the tale of Santa
Elena searching for the cross of Christ and after
finding it, Santa Elena and Santa Isabel concealed the
cross and kept it secret. The second phase describes
the kambulong's prayer and sing praises to the Mahal
na Poon, invoking its efficacy as a channel that may be
used as a means to travel between earth and heaven
and the third is the transition to the dance of subli. The
kambulong asks the permission of the Poon to start
the dancing and to offer their humble gift of “tuwa at
ligaya” to the Poon. The movements of subli,
according to the legend, are patterned after the dance
movements of a mannequin or doll, particularly the
traditional Filipino doll called “naaginging” that was
found on the scene when the Poon first shown its
power. When the Kambulong imitated the dance
movements of the doll, they successfully delighted
the Poon, thus wining its favor to come with them.
Although the Church states that it was the prayers of
the priests that won the cross for Bauan, the
manunubli insisted that it was the dance subli that
caused this incident to happen. From thereon, it
becomes customary for the people of Bauan,
Alitagtag, and Agoncillo to perform subli because
they believe that to delight the Poon, they could gain
possession of the Poon and invoke it to manifest its
power that effectively brings protection from any
disaster, promotes physical well being, and for any
conceivable purpose. Hence, the devotional act to the
Mahal na Poong Santa Krus started to be observed by
the townsfolk of southern Batangas.
The Mahal na Poong Santa Krus that the
towns of Bauan, Alitagtag and Agoncillo adored is a
crucifix made of a hardwood called anubing or
balayong. It is sculpturally carved as a cross, a golden
disc with a face and rays which is attached to the
center of the cross with a stole or alampay draped
over the ends of the crossbar falling to a point at the
vertical post forming an “M” shape, encased in silver
stainless steel, and it is footed in a pineapple-shaped
wood. According to Elena Mirano, the history of the
creation of the cross was documented by Pedro
Amuedo de Castro in 1790 and is found in the
Archives of Bauan stating that there were twenty-five
Indio elders and residents of Alitagtag who made the
anubing into a cross and erected it in Dingin. The
purpose of planting the cross is to exorcise the evil
vision and terrible ghost that disturbed their town
and denying them access to water from a nearby
fountain named Tolo (1595). After that, the ghosts
disappeared. Subsequently, another miracle took
place when a woman, fearful of the ghosts of the past,
prayed to the cross for assistance while on her way to
fetch water from Tolo. Suddenly, water gushed from
one arm of the cross. The news about this amazing
incident spread throughout the barrio and many
began to come to worship the cross.
Aside from the documented miracles found
by Elena Mirano in the Archives, it was said that
natives who were living around Taal Volcano area
would usually plant the anubing around the crater of
the Volcano and these natives would even immerse
themselves in the waters of the crater just to ask the
“Poon” to save them from the wraths of nature. This
account of Mirano on the legend of “Subli” was
supported by the work of Thomas Hargrove, who
deals with the historical basis of the eruptions of Taal
volcano and the changes it had made in the town of
Taal and other nearby towns. Hargrove found old
Commission on Culture and Arts) http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/articles-on-c-n-a/article.php?igm=1&i=123. Date Accessed: July 26, 2012. Henceforth
cited as: Ramon Obusan, Rituals in the Philippines.
Anthropology of religion aims to study the religious phenomenon. The study comprises a literature review of relevant myth theories that proceeds to theorize the semiotic
technical functions of myth in religion. By Semiotics, it involves the study not only of what we refer to as 'signs' in everyday speech, but of anything which 'stands for'
something else. Semiotics literary criticism, therefore, can study how meanings are made and how reality is represented in myth.Joseph M. Kitagawa, The History of
Religions: Restrospect and Prospect, A Collection of original essays by Mircea Eliade, Paul Ricoeur, Michel Meslin, Ugo Bianchi, Ninian Smart, Charles H. Long, Kurt
Rudolph, and Joseph M. Kitagawa (Macmillan Publishing Company, N.Y. 1985), p. 47. Henceforth cited as Kitagawa, The History of Religions
The task of anthropology of religion is to analyze the human experience of the sacred. When man encounters the sacred, it affects his being that can be observed in his
behavior and activity.
Religiosity pertains to the relationship of the people to a Supreme Being and to how they manifest this belief.
[ 50 ]
documents, that in 1611, after six years of irregular
eruption of Taal Volcano, 400 natives who were living
in the surrounding of the Volcano erected a cross of
hardwood anubing at the brink of the principal crater
to exorcise the deadly volcano and afterwards, the
volcano stopped from erupting and the island has
regained its fertile condition. From then on, different
miracles occur to the town that led the people to
believe that the anubing has a divine intervention.
Whether it is a sacred phenomenon or not, it later
became an explicit part of the natives' religiosity.
Most of the traditional religions were not properly
documented precisely because the primitive people
were not interested in explaining things logically;
rather, their beliefs were solely based on their
experiences and personal interpretations. In this
study, due to lack of written documents, the history of
the origin of subli is not certain. Information on its
recent history can be considered as inadequate and its
prehistory might be speculative. Any lead on this
history of subli is based on the oral traditions and
modern records of its legends, both of which are
unrealiable. In our quest to understand subli as a
human experience of the sacred, we must not content
ourselves with the history of its myth. Instead, it
requires us to go beyond it, in the sense that we are
exploring the human dimension that is quite constant
yet frequently mysterious and extra-temporal. It
must be stated well, that in understanding a
particular religious phenomenon, it is suggested that
we must start from human experience because an
anthropological view of religious reality becomes the
only systematic approach in order to understand the
object of research. Meslin explains: “Because man
understands himself through what he says about his
own religious experiences, he becomes conscious of
his own existence when he is challenge by the
sacred.” Hence, it is very understandable that religion
first offers itself to us as a human phenomenon.
According to Joachim Wach, who created a synthesis
between the religious and the social, the individual
and the collective, the person's behavior and activity
in the society is based on his religious beliefs that do
well reflect. Wach recounted that “ If we must
remain conscious that the mystery occupies an
ineluctible place at the heart of every individual
religious experience, we must also relate the
experience of the mystery to the diverse social and
cultural systems which human societies have
developed, the systems in whose context mystery is
experience”. By acknowledging the universality of
religious experience in human culture through
asserting that man is naturally religious and to satisfy
with that assertion is to be satisfied with saying and
explaining nothing. Religion reflects the beliefs of
human society, which are contained in the ritual
practices and myths inserted into the fabric of day-today society. This is to say that myths are but the
spoken side of the ritual, which could have been
either danced or merely acted out. The indigenous
people used it not to identify things that are untrue;
rather, it is used to symbolize the sacred, which
d e p i c t s a s o c i e t y ' s wo r l d v i e w a n d s e l f understanding. It helps the natives to deeply
understand not just the story itself but the meaning
and symbol it represents. Myth and ritual are
expressions of reality. Thus, myth and rituals were
intended by the primitive to be imaginative picture of
the way one actually experiences reality. Through this
process of thinking, they were able to grasp the reality
beyond this world by means of symbols they use to
convey its meaning in their own human level of
existence. This explains what ritual and myth really
means, which is not just a mere word that is usually
uttered or sung but it signifies the sacred.
Such proposition would mean that myths are
true stories. This is so because it is a story that tells the
experience of man about the sacred, exemplary, or
significant. Myth narrates a sacred history, it is an
event that took place in a particular setting but
Kambulong is the old term used to refer to the performers of sbuli. Elena Mirano,
Ibid. 85-86
Elena R. Mirano, Ang mga Tradisyonal na Musikang Pantinig sa Lumang Bauan, Batangas (National Commission on Culture ant the Arts. Manila, 1997), p.141.
Henceforth cited as: Mirano, , Ang mga Tradisyonal na Musikang Pantinig
Jean M. Miranda, Ang Sayaw na Subli sa Lalawigan ng Batangas (Ala Eh: Magazine sa Batangas, July 23, 2010), p. 5
Mirano, , Ang mga Tradisyonal na Musikang Pantinig. p.23-25
Thomas R. Hargrove, The Mysteries of Taal (Bookmark Publishing. Manila, 1991), p.
[ 51 ]
M. RAMOS
Usually in a primordial time wherein the deeds of the
supernatural being is experienced. And after such
encounter, it produces an account of creation, which
is an explanation on how something began to be. In
short, myth describes the different and often time
dramatic entrance of the sacred into the world. More
so, myth provides models for human behavior and
that very fact, gives meaning and value to life and
later on will establish and justify all human conduct
and activity. Likewise, myths and legends serve to
explain natural phenomena and people's belief so
that members of their communities would
understand mysterious things in their environment
and probably become less fearful of them. Since no
religious experience is truly ineffable and due to the
capacity of human consciousness to grasp and
describe it, it must be formulated in such a way that it
can be understood by others when it is being
transmitted. This is the very nature of the symbol
which implies that it always retains a secret aspect
inside itself and that which falls within its meaning is
not capable of translating completely the religious
reality it is meant to signify. Furthermore, man takes
recourse to symbolic language only when he has no
other means for signifying what he wishes to evoke.
The use of symbols is to bring out a meaning that is
partially hidden but that always extends the symbol's
established meaning. Thus, the more difficult it is to
understand and describe, the more it intensifies the
desire of man to connect with the sacred. That is why
symbol becomes the only way man can be connected
to the divine as it can be perceived through words,
images, or movements. Hence, as man tends to realize
his being by adhering to a religious system that
expresses what he sees as the truth, this affects his life
in all aspects.
conditioned. This means religious belief is an
integrated system of culture, that serves as a pattern
of perceptions of reality into conceptualizations of
what reality should be. Understanding religious
belief as part of cultural system implies that our belief
is part of the ambivalent cultural creation of people.
Accordingly, worldview explains how and why
things got to be as they are and how and why they
continue or change and it also conditions the mind of
the people to what to believe and how to understand
or interpret the reality which is being experienced.
However, this must not be misconstrued that
worldview explains everything; rather, it only
describes, evaluates and interprets what is being
experienced. In this way, it points out that all the
reality that man knows is always based on his own
worldview, which produces all the components of a
culture, that in the process it becomes the integral
system and identity of a particular society.
In this way we can comprehend that subli is a
religious belief that cannot exist without cultural
contents. The way in which religion is expressed at a
given point in time and space, by its adherents and
outsides alike, is a part of a particular culture, given
both its form and much of its substance by the whole
force of that culture at all levels, from the most
abiding root of paradigms to the most transient fads
or passing fancies. Since a human community is
connected in the symbolic experiencing and
expression of the sacred, then, one particular
symbolic experience cannot become the criterion to
judge the authenticity or adequacy of the others,
precisely because the same experience of the sacred,
though their symbolic expressions of their experience
are different, their experiences themselves are
different. Hence, any attempt to separate the essential
features of any particular religion or religious beliefs
must be conscious of the fact that those features never
exist in an empty space, but rather in a cultural body
or content, which gives them empirical existence and
makes them accessible to people.
4.0. Subli: As a Cultural System
To understand how each society develops its
own religious sentiment or beliefs, it behooves us to
understand that the reality we know, the religious
beliefs that we cherished are all culturally
Joseph M. Kitagawa, The History of Religions: Restrospect and Prospect, A Collection of original essays by Mircea Eliade, Paul Ricoeur, Michel Meslin, Ugo Bianchi,
Ninian Smart, Charles H. Long, Kurt Rudolph, and Joseph M. Kitagawa (Macmillan Publishing Company, N.Y. 1985), p. 47. Henceforth cited as Kitagawa, The History of
Religions
Joachim Wach, Sociology of Religion (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1944), p. 6
[ 52 ]
5.0. The Inculturation of the Gospel into the
Filipino Culture
Since every culture has a certain basic
assumption about the reality of the world and the
values, which are appropriate to a particular
community of people, it implies that the pre-existing
beliefs cannot simply be separated or to be called into
question by anyone and the complexity and
heterogeneity of a culture should never be
underestimated by those people who live outside the
given community. In case a new perspective or beliefs
attempt to enter a new culture, it must root itself first
into the general patterns and assumptions already
laid out by the root paradigms of the pre-existing
culture. However, in most cases, when new
perspective or religious beliefs bring to the culture its
own fundamental values and doctrines, it may come
into serious conflict with the pre-existing
fundamental values and beliefs of the culture that
might be doomed to failure. But by understanding the
natural orientation to the spirits of the Filipino this
would provide us a sound cultural basis for Filipino
religiosity and to be acquainted on how indigenous
Filipinos relate to the spirits and create their primal
religion. By this, we can grasp the whole process how
Christianity becomes a vital part of the Filipino
culture. However, it is a question of how the Christian
gospel might touch, permeate, and be incarnated in
such systems so that they in turn give the gospel
historical form.
The worldview of Filipinos received a
considerable place in the thoughts of the early
Christian missionaries. They have demonstrated the
possibility of using the cultural traits and worldview
for a Filipino reading of the Christian belief and
spirituality. By this process it displays a pattern of
continuity between indigenous religious practices
and present day Catholicism and Charles J-H
Macdonald calls this transformative continuity. This
continuity is accomplished by using the same belief
structure within a new framework or by simply
transposing a preexisting structure into a new idiom.
Gerald A. Arbuckle shares the same idea that in the
interaction between faith and culture, what happens
is not just an integration of faith and culture but also a
substitution. The natives gradually substituted their
indigenous beliefs and practices with Christian ideals
using the functional substitution technique. Arbuckle
argues that in this process of substitution, the
symbols change their meanings gradually, while
natives accept intellectually a new understanding of a
rite but it takes a very long time for their hearts to feel
comfortable with it. The substitution process is being
done in an unconscious but natural way so as order
Christianity will gradually integrate itself with the
traditional practices and beliefs of the people and this
process is called inculturation. Pope John Paul II
defines inculturation as: “ The encounter of the Good
News with cultures, an encounter which entails
transformation of the authentic values of these cultures by
their integration into Christianity…” This means,
“making Christianity not only be expressed but thought
and lived in terms of the cultural tradition of the people to
whom it is preached.” In other words, while gospel
integrates itself within a culture it does not seek to
tear out the community's culture, nor does it intend to
just add the gospel, rather it is an effort of the Church
to make the gospel relevant to the people.
6.0. The Incarnational Process
To spell out this successful incarnation
process or integration and blending of Christian faith
in the indigenous beliefs, the mediation role of the
Filipino diwata and anito serves as the basis for the
incarnation of some aspects of the Christian faith like
the veneration of the saints. By the case, it shows the
most obvious aspects of popular religiosity or
devotion that illustrates a pattern of continuity
between indigenous religious practices and present
day Catholicism. As already mentioned, the diwata
(spirits) and the anito (ancestors) were venerated
because they are thought to have mystical or
supernatural powers and people can invoke them
through ritual and sacrifices for any conceivable
Kitagawa, The History of Religions. p. 48
Mircea Eliade, Myth and Reality. Trans. Willard R. Trask ( New York: Harper & Row, 1963)
Roest Crollius, INCULTURATION:Working Papers on Living Faith and Cultures. Centre “Cultures and Religions” Pontifical Gregorian University, 1987. p.63
[ 53 ]
M. RAMOS
purpose in either way personal or communal.
Likewise, they are considered indispensable
intermediaries of the Supreme Being, Bathala, and as
such capable of interceding for them. From this
traditional belief and practice, it illustrates a cultural
trait of Filipinos which is the “tawaran,” - the art of
asking for a bargain. This is how Albert Alejo explains
the spirituality of negotiation because it is very
observable among Filipinos that when they ask for
something from God they are always negotiating.
This cultural attitude of the Filipinos can be traced
back to how our pre-colonial forefathers deal with the
spirits, that they offer gifts or foods to appease or
negotiate with the spirits. Alejo attested that such
attitude characterizes the popular religiosity that
devotees have it today. It is not enough to pray once;
rather, they have to have novenas, a series of nine
days or nine weeks of unbroken devotion, as a form of
sacrifices, in order to achieve their spiritual goal. This
seems to be a common experience among Filipinos.
Furthermore, Fernando G. Elesterio explained that it
was not that difficult neither easy for the gospel to
dialogue with the pre-existing beliefs and practices of
the Filipino, but the Christian traditions gradually
penetrated the heart of the religious dimension of the
indigenous Filipino and replaced all the religious
culture of the native, because the Filipino cultural
manner of relating to “supernatural” beings are
somewhat similar in many teaching and doctrines of
Christianity, thus, Christian traditions were seen as
closer to the native culture of the Filipino.
In order to illustrate this incarnational or
integration process, Jocano suggested some
theoretical points for a descriptive analysis of this
discussion.
understood as an integrated system that serves as a
pattern of perceptions of reality into
conceptualizations of what reality should be.
Understanding culture this way implies that our
worldview is part of the ambivalent cultural creation
of people because it explains how and why things got
to be as they are and how and why they continue or
change and it also conditions the mind of the people
to what to believe and how to understand or interpret
the reality which is being experienced.
2. By this cultural orientation, it can be
understood that cultures outside of the parameter of
the host culture is not immediately incorporated into
one's religious system rather these elements are first
modified to suit one's cultural ways of believing and
doing things before acceptance is made. That in the
process, if the elements of the outside culture do not
fit into the host's cultural and religious values, they
are rejected or if not, they are retained as alternatives
but their significance is not emphasized.
3. If these new and modified religious values
are found to be more feasible for social and cultural
adjustment, the original belief system is either given
up or restructured to accommodate the nuances of the
new pattern. The procedure that results from these
shaping and reshaping of religious ideas and beliefs is
what comprises the framework of contemporary
Filipino popular religiosity and belief system.
4. Hence, popular religiosity is constructed
and pre-constructed by the people in a dialectic
process where knowledge is shared and passed on,
created and recreated.
7.0. Conclusion
1. Religiosity is the cultural embodiment and
manifestation of faith by individual person. The
reality we know and the religious beliefs that we
cherished are all culturally conditioned. This means
the religious reality or beliefs come into being in a
particular society and culture. Thus, culture is simply
In Subli, the devotees believe that by dancing
in front of the Mahal na Poong Santa Krus it would
appease the Poon to invoke him to manifest his power
and to grant their petitions and accept their
Ibid. p. 67
De Mesa, Primal Religions and Popular Religiosity
Charles J-H Macdonald. Folk Catholicism and Pre-Spanish Religion in the Philippines. Philippine Studies Journal Vol. 52 (1) 2004, p. 89
Gerald A. Arbuckle, Earthing the Gospel: An Inculturation Handbook for the Pastoral Worker (Maryknoll, N,Y: Orbid Books, 1990.
Ad Gentes, 22
Jose De Mesa, In Solidarity with the Culture. p. 14 quoted by the author from the late Filipino historian Horacio De La Costa, S.J.
James T. Bretzke. Minjung Theology and Inculturation in the Context of the History of Christianity in Korea. East Asian Pastoral Review 28, 1991: pp. 103-130
[ 54 ]
thanksgiving. It can be said rightly that this spiritual
expression of the devotees of subli is culturally rooted
respectively.
What may be done in a useful adaptation of
veneration of diwatas and anitos as a Christian
worship is to reformulate the prayers, which
accompany the giving of sacrifice or gifts to the spirits
so as to shift the emphasis from lesser deities to Jesus
Christ - the center of worship for the Christians.
Hence, to attempt to form Christological idea
consonant with the Batanguenos' indigenous
practice, subli, is to recognize Jesus Christ not just as a
redeemer but also as protector, provider, healer,
father, consoler, and friend. In this manner, the
concept of Jesus Christ can become more intelligible
and communicable to the devotees of subli, that Jesus,
like the spirits honored by their ancestors, transcends
them and becoming the “proto-spirits” in whom the
totality of the Filipino Christian life can be rooted and
elevated. In this manner, Batangueno devotees would
honor and worship Jesus Christ in the manner that
indigenous Filipino honored and venerated their
anitos and diwatas through the dance called subli.
Hence, this is how the gospel became dance.
Bibliography
Books
Arbuckle, Gerald A. Earthing the Gospel: An
Inculturation Handbook for the Pastoral Worker.
Maryknoll, N,Y: Orbid Books
Brown, R.E., J.A. Fitzmyer and R.E. Murphy, The
New Jerome Biblical Commentary. London:Student
Edition, Geoffrey Chapmann,1993
Brox, Norbert. A Concise History of the Early Church,
trans. John Bowden. New York, NY: Continuum,
1996
Capaque, George. The Problem of Evil in the Filipino
Context, In Doing Theology in the Philippines. Quezon
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Clooney, Francis X. Theology After Vedanta: An
Experimental in Comparative Theology. Albany: State
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Crollius, Roest. INCULTURATION:Working Papers
on Living Faith and Cultures. Centre “Cultures and
Religions” Pontifical Gregorian University, 1987
_____________ (eds) Inculturation: It meaning and
Urgency. Nairobi: St. Paul's
Publications, 1986
De Mesa, Jose. In Solidarity with the Culture:
Studies in theological re-rooting. Maryhill Press,
Manila, 1987.
____________Why Theology is never far from home.
DLSU Publishing House, 2012
Elesterio, Fernando G. Pre-Magellanic Religious
Elements in Contemporary Filipino Culture. De La Salle
University Press. Manila, Philippines. 1989.
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Trask. New York: Harper & Row,
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Fitzpatrick, Joseph P. One Church Many Culture:
Challenge of Diversity. Sheed and Ward Armour
Blvd. Kansas City, 1987
There are also some occasional sacrifices offered to the ancestors at both family and clan levels. Theses kind of sacrifices consists mostly of expiatory rather than
thanksgiving and votive offerings. Ramon Obusan, Rituals in the Philippines. ( National Commission on Culture and Arts) http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-andarts/articles-on-c-n-a/article.php?igm=1&i=123. Date Accessed: July 26, 2012. Henceforth cited as: Ramon Obusan, Rituals in the Philippines.
Emmanuel Chukwuemeka Umeh, African Theology of Solidarity. Cited from the thesis of Mawusi, Emmanuel Richard. Inculturation: Rooting the Gospel firmly
inGhanaian Culture. A Necessary Requirement for Effective Evangelization for the Catholic Church in Ghana. Dissertation paper, 2009. p. 105
This work of Alejo will contribute, not only for this research, to the understanding and explanation on this phenomenon of popular religiosity of the Filipinos.
Nonetheless, It would be too general to say that there are only four elements to Filipino spirituality. These are but four of many aspects of Filipino spirituality that is still
searching to define itself. And, defining itself it is simultaneously being transforming with the world that surrounds and animates people's lives. Albert E. Alejo, Popular
Spirituality as Cultural Energy. This paper was delivered during the Spirituality Forum III on August 5,2003 at University of Sto. Tomas CME Auditorium, Manila,
Philippines. This article was previously published in Lecture Series 3 on Spirituality, 2004.
Elesterio, Pre-Magellanic Religious Elements in Contemporary Filipino Culture
De Mesa, Jose. Why Theology is never far from home. P.15
De Mesa, Jose. In Solidarity with the Culture: Studies in theological re-rooting (Maryhill Press, Manila, 1987), p.180
Jocano, Filipino Catholicism. pp. 42-43
Ibid. Elesterio, Fernando G. Pre-Magellanic Religious Elements in Contemporary Filipino Culture, 3-14
[ 55 ]
M. RAMOS
Flannery, Austin. Vatican II: Dogmatic Constitution
Gaudium Et Spes
Pope John Paul II. Apostolic Exhortation: Catechesi
Tradendae: “On catechesis in our time.” 1979
____________Vatican II: Dogmatic Constitution
Lumen gentium
Udeani, Chibueze. Inculturation as Dialogue: Igbo
Culture and the Message of Christ. International
Society for Intercultural Theology and Study of
Religions, Amsterdam, New York, 2007
____________Vatican II: Dogmatic Constitution Ad
Gentes Divinitus
Segal, Robert A., Myth: A Very Short Introduction.
Oxford: Oxford UP, 2004
Frazer, James G. The Golden Bough. New York:
Macmillan, 1922
Shorter, Aylward. Towards an African Theology of
Inculturation. N.Y: Orbis, 1980
Hargrove, Thomas R. The Mysteries of Taal.
Bookmark Publishing. Manila, 1991
Tano, Rodrigo D. Theology in the Philippine Setting.
New Day Publishers of the Christian Literature
Society of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines,
1981
Hodges, Melvin. The Indigenous Church (Springfield,
Mo.: Gospel Publishing House, 1953
Kitagawa, Joseph M. The History of Religions:
Restrospect and Prospect, A Collection of original
essays by Mircea Eliade, Paul Ricoeur, Michel
Meslin, Ugo Bianchi, Ninian Smart, Charles H.
Long, Kurt Rudolph, and Joseph M. Kitagawa.
Macmillan Publishing Company, N.Y. 1985.
Tirkey, Herman. Inculturation of the Word (Gospel):
An Indian Tribal (Oraon) Perspective.
Wach, Joachim. Sociology of Religion. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1944
Mawusi, Emmanuel Richard. Inculturation: Rooting
the Gospel firmly inGhanaian Culture. A Necessary
Requirement for Effective Evangelization for the
Catholic Church in Ghana. Dissertation paper, 2009.
Articles
Alejo, Albert E. Popular Spirituality as Cultural
Energy. Lecture Series 3 on Spirituality, 2004.
Miranda, Jean M. Ang Sayaw na Subli sa Lalawigan
ng Batangas. Ala Eh: Magazine sa Batangas, July 23,
2010
Burke, Cormac. Inculturation: John Paul II and the
Third World. East Asian Pastoral Review 1995
____________ Subli: One Dance in Four Voices.
Excel Printing Services Manila, Philippines, 1989.
Buswell III, James O “Contextualization: Is it only a
New Word for Indigenization? Evangelical
Mission Quarterly 14: January 1978
De Bleeker, Fr. Andre CICM. MISSIOLOGY
(Handouts)
____________ Ang mga Tradisyonal na Musikang
Pantinig sa Lumang Bauan, Batangas. National
Commission on Culture ant the Arts. Manila, 1997.
De Mesa, Jose. Primal Religions and Popular
Religiosity. East Asian Pastoral Review 2000 Volume
37 Number 1
____________ Ang mga Tradisyonal na Musikang
Pantinig sa Lumang Bauan, Batangas. National
Commission on Culture ant the Arts. Manila, 1997.
Doin Theology in the Context of Mission: Lessons
from Alexander de Rhodes, S.J. East Asian Pastoral
Review 2002
Mirano, Elena R. Batangas, Forge in Fire. 2002
[ 56 ]
Oborji. Francis Anekwe. Trends in African Theology
since Vatican II
Second Plenary Council of Philippines, no. 13
Internet
http://felixfojas.wordpress.com/2012/03/13/thesupernatural-beliefs-of-pre-spanish-filipinos-byfelix-fojas/
www.tripatini.com/profiles/ blogs/ growingspirituality-among.
http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-andarts/articles-on-c-n-a/article.php?igm=1&i=123.
[ 57 ]
[ 58 ]
Vol. 1 No. 1 (June 2015)
What we see is (not) what we get:
ArtSocs Students' Appreciation of
Performance Art
Abstract
The study explores the audience's mode of reception of performance art as an unconventional form of
art. Since the art form is considered relatively new to De La Salle Lipa students enrolled in Art and Societies
(ArtSocs), the study outlines the overall visual experience that include their understanding and appreciation of
the art. A qualitative research method was utilized through a descriptive assessment of students' reflection and
experience of the performance. Responses were noted and categorized according to the knowledge of elements
involved, commentaries about the act and experience in watching the performance. It was found that the
audience exhibit varying responses in terms of the subject perceived based on identified materials and
act/gestures signifying meanings, messages conveyed, impact of performance and evaluation of the entire act.
The meaning-making and transformative attribute of performance art was explored to which the audiences had
an attempt to read, analyze and evaluate the visual image and their experience, leading to the construction of
various meanings and varying perceptions.
Introduction
Art and Societies (ArtSocs) is an introductory
course to the study of humanities. It aims to expose
students to different art forms, developing in them
the needed traits as well as critical and analytical
skills toward better understanding and appreciation
of the arts. As stipulated in the CHED Memorandum
Order (CMO) No. 59, Series of 1996, the New General
Education Curriculum (GEC) in the Philippine
educational system requires every college student to
enroll 6 units of humanities course of which 3 units
are taken each in the field of arts and philosophy. The
provision emphasizes the aim of the courses in
teaching students how to reflect on the totality of
human experience and to formulate for themselves a
human perspective that integrates all branches of
knowledge in a profound understanding of the
individual as well as society. Art and artistic
]
expression should be contributory to the
understanding of the beautiful and the good in
human experience (p. 3, CMO no,. 59, 1996).
Art education in particular is perceived to
nurture the holistic development of an individual.
According to International Society for Education
Through Art (InSEA) in its mission statement,
“Education through arts is a natural means of
learning at all periods of development of the
individual, fostering values and disciplines essential
for full intellectual, emotional and social
development of human being in a community” (cited
by Law, 2010, p.94). Underscoring the importance of
art education in developing the cognitive, affective
and psychomotor capacities of an individual becomes
the rationale behind prescribing humanities courses
for students in the college level along with the
technical and specialized courses in their respective
fields of study.
A.J. SAUL
Currently, ArtSocs course contains the study
of the conventional forms of art the visual (i.e. Twoand three-dimensional such as drawing, painting,
sculpture, architecture, among others) and the
performing (e.g. music, dance, theater and film) arts.
Central to the study of art forms is its appreciation of
which students are exposed to responding to a work
of art. As Law (2010, p. 96) suggests, art appreciation
implies the involvement not only of the emotions but
also the intellect as it entails reading of the visual
languages, both the explicit and the implicit. To
appreciate arts, according to Zulueta (2003), one has
to understand what it is all about its elements and
how these are put together in a harmonious pattern of
relationships.
Along with classroom instruction, students'
exposure to arts is complemented with artistic events
organized by the Sports and Culture Directorate of De
La Salle Lipa. Through the organization Tupada
Action in Media Art (T.A.M.A.), students are
introduced to a hybrid of visual and performing arts
termed as performance art. Following the concept
“tupada,” an illegal cockfight which began to emerge
during Spanish colonization in the country, T.A.M.A
serves as a gathering of artists who stage their
performances in public spaces. It was in 2002 when
the organization started its events and since then,
they have brought arts to various academic
institutions to broaden public perception of their
performances.
Since performance art is relatively new to
students enrolled in ArtSocs, the study seeks to
explore students' feedback toward this art form as a
text read and appreciated. Exposure to other forms of
arts that is progressively introduced and developed
in the contemporary Philippine art scene is perceived
to strengthen the analytical and critical skills of
students through locating performance art in their
experience of understanding and appreciation. This
study serves as a seminal work dealing with the mode
of reception of students as viewers/readers of
performance art. Findings of the study are deemed
useful in contributing to the genre of reception
studies as it offers insights into the responses of
students toward their experience of live action.
Furthermore, results are seen as beneficial to the
Literature, Filipino and ArtApre Area as well as the
Sports and Cultural Directorate of the institution in
identifying other artistic activities that will promote
culture and art appreciation in the academe and
broaden education in the humanities field,
particularly visual culture and art studies.
Related Literature
Performance art dates back to artistic
explorations included within movements such as
Futurism, Constructivism, Dadaism and Surrealism.
Early performances of artists in Western context came
from circus, vaudeville, variety theater and cabaret,
which Garoian (1999) describes as “popular
performance genres comparable to the lively, forceful,
and unpredictable character of the machine age”
(p.58). These sites are characterized to provide artists
with “spontaneity, motion, parody, and 'the twin
tendency to make something new that was also in
opposition to prevailing values' all the characteristics
of the machine age” (Garoian, 1996, p.45 citing
Schechner, 1993, p.7). In his study, Garoian notes that
early history of performance in the twentieth century
explore the sounds of machine technology as a form
of art, citing Luigi Russolo's The Art of Noises in 1913,
Nikolai Foregger's Mechanical Dances in 1923, Hugo
Ball's Karawane and Oskar Schlemmer's Slat Dance
in 1927 as specific examples.
Attention shift of performance artists from
machine guise of performance art to the politics of art
and the body happened during the periods of 1960s
and 1970s preceded by events such as McCarthynism
and the Cold War in 1950s, the Civil Rights
Movement, the Women's Liberation Movement and
the Vietnam War protest movement. For instance,
Allan Kaprow's Happenings and George Maciunas'
Fluxus actions “made the actions, psychological and
social conditions and cognitive features of the body as
primary medium of art” (Garoian, 1999, p.58). These
artists veered away from the modernist ways of
thinking about and making art (e.g. Abstract
Expressionism) as they found meaningful
experiences for the audience by using their bodies
and politicizing their cultural identities (Garoian,
1996) in combination with other media and objects
(Pembleton and Lajevic, 2014, p.42). Noting that the
body has become a significant element to the
[ 60 ]
WHAT WE SEE IS (NOT) WHAT WE GET
development of the field in the Western avant-garde
scene, Meamber and Venkatesh (1999, p.190) explain
that by 1960s, attention had turned to deconstructing
the binary oppositions of artist/performer and
spectator/object with the inclusion of consumer
bodies as participants in the production of art (citing
Mueller, 1994), while in the 1970s and 1980s and the
rising influence of popular culture, the role of
disengaged artist and spectator in a mediated world
was explored (citing Schneider, 1997). In the 1990s,
the body in performance art is said to be physical, raw
and unmediated or completely mediated through
virtual reality technologies (citing Moser and
MacLeod, 1996).
The term 'performance art,' related to
postmodernist traditions in Western culture, is
generally defined as any form of work that combines
the artist's body and a live-action event with or
without additional media, props or tools. Green
(1999) outlines a number of characteristics common to
most performances. First, performance art
incorporates and may combine a variety of forms
such as film, video, dance, poetry, narrative, music
and movement. Second, performance art resists
commodification. As Pembleton and Lajevic (2014)
explain, the use of the body as a medium in
performance art “countered the avant-garde notion
that art has a monetary value and must be bought or
sold” (p.42). Third, performance art blurs the line
between art and life by including everyday actions as
possible metaphors. The involvement of daily
routines into performance art engages art making
with life experiences (e.g. Dominique Mazeaud's
performance of cleansing the Rio Grande every 17th
of the month since 1987). Fourth, performance art
relies on humor, irony, satire and exaggeration as
means to serious ends. In terms of content and form,
Wheeler (2003) claims that many performance artists
often conflated the personal and political, bringing
once-taboo and intimate activities into public view as
well as embracing the use of camp, nudity and play in
their work (p.339). For instance, the piece Sally's Rape
(1990) by Robbie McCauley illustrates women artists'
use of performance art in voicing out marginalized
views on political and issues such as spousal abuse,
sexual preference and racial bias though exposure of
her naked body in public (Green, 1999, p.8). Fifth,
performance art may occur in more traditional
locations such as museums and galleries but most
often pieces are performed in atypical sites.
Pembleton and Lajevic note that the venue for
performance art continued to interrupt the accepted
notions of where and when art should be experienced
as the boundary between the high culture and
popular culture blurs (p.42).
Scholars describe performance art through
its certain attributes which are found to bear
resemblance with theatre. Richard Schechner (1988)
mentions a current view on theatre and performance
art as subspecies of the performing arts under the
assumption that there is a common denominator
found in both of these, that is, the encounter of live
performers and live spectators (Rozik, 2014).
Comparing performance art to street theater, Ramirez
(1997) describes it as a performance that brings the
artist in direct confrontation with a public in a
seemingly changing and process-driven encounter.
The use of the physical body as a medium to resist
social stereotypes, according to her, is a widely
engaged practice among contemporary visual artists.
For Stradella (2012), performance art is viewed as a
form of “theatre without-a-theatre,” breaking the
divide between art and life. In her study,
performances of Chris Burden (Shoot, 1971 and
Transfixed, 1974 ), Yves Klein (Leap into the Void,
1960) and Vito Acconci (Seedbad, 1971) are cited as
examples of a new art form which she considers “not
an imitation” because “it is real, as life is” (p.166).
Although both are considered live art,
performance art does not involve rehearsals, a script
and a controlled environment; likewise, participation
of the audience is key to the piece which is not
commonly found in conventional theatre.
Comparing theatre to performance art, Garoian
describes the former in the context of culture
“written-on-the-body of the performer and the
audience as it is composed, choreographed and
staged according to the script of the author” (citing
Kaprow, 1993). On the other hand, the body of the
performer and the audience are used as instruments
in performance art to “write-upon-the-culture as they
improvise and invent interpretations through diverse
personal, cultural and disciplinary perspectives”
(citing Battcock and Nikas, 1984). The active
participation of the performer and audience in the act
transpires a relational way of knowing, that is, a way
[ 61 ]
A.J. SAUL
of a meaning-making process. Garoian (as cited by
Washington, 2006) explains that it is the performance
artist's direct connection with the audience with their
body as a primary medium in telling their stories (or
as a medium of expression that outlines various
issues regarding society) makes performance art
different from the conventional theatrical
performance. Participants, on the other hand, “can
use the medium to put things together 'with meaning'
and attend to things in order to understand and
explore how others make meaning” (Booth, 1997 in
Washington, 2006, p.209).
Essentially, performance is an innate human
activity found in every culture. In the Philippines, for
instance, performance has long been part of Filipino
culture even before colonizers came to the country.
Filipino theater historian Doreen Fernandez (1996)
describes early Filipinos as being ritualistic as seen in
their fondness for offering thanks to Bathala or higher
beings and their worship of elements found in nature.
Rituals are executed through dancing as a mode of
performance (palabas). When the Spaniards took
over, they had their influence on the development of
performance in the country by introducing the
concept of drama/theatre. Americans, on the other
hand, made their presence felt in the context of
performance through vaudeville that includes
elements of music, dance, comedy and acrobatics.
Relative to these influences, Tolentino (2001) notes
that during the Spanish period, performance was
found to be in a form of farce (or comedy) while
political and commercial functions of performances
became prominent during the American colonial
period.
Performance is found to significantly play
certain functions in a society. Aside from ritualistic
and entertainment purposes as evident in the
Philippine experience, Schechner (as cited by
Komitee, 2010, p.4) outlines other functions of the act
such as 1) to make something that is beautiful; 2) to
mark or change identity; 3) to make or foster
community; 4) to heal; 5) to teach, persuade or
convince; and 6) to deal with the sacred and/or the
demonic. In any of these varieties, Komitee refers to
Schechner's depiction of performance as a
“transformative site” placing a certain kind of change
experienced by individuals themselves as
transforming their own identities, as there is
something which is “created, born, celebrated or
ended” through performance. This idea coincides
with Mirano's (2013) claim that performance as
“pagganap” in Filipino indicates “that something
comes to being and liberates.”
Performance has now been placed at the
center of academic fields of inquiry delving on it as
object and method. As an object, Beeman (undated)
describes it as a “mimetic behavior and is imitative of
an action” following Schechner's definition of
performance as “twice behaved” or characterized as a
“repeated activity.” He further explains the mimetic
nature of performance wherein “transformation
through culture happens into (sic) a conventionally
understandable symbolic product.” There exists a
particular representation of an idea or experience as
the raw material utilized by the artist/performer is
then translated into a concrete and visual display of
physical action and language. On the other hand,
performance as a method serves as a way of
presenting ideas which gathers responses from the
audience. Performance as an activity which is focused
on context embraces a meaning-making attribute that
involves the production of knowledge and meaning.
It uses a wide system of semiotics in the production of
meanings (Gilbert as cited by Ramirez, 1997).
Linking performance to visual art, both are
perceived to be types of visual language equally
subject to the interpretation of signs perceived to vary
according to the individuals' mode of production and
reception of meanings. Images, for instance in the
arts, are not merely seen as source of entertainment
nowadays. Felten (2008) explains that images become
central to communication and creation of meanings.
Since images are comprised of codes which are given
meanings, understanding these meanings may
require “reading” as an approach for interpreting and
giving value to these images. As Guillermo (2001)
contends, “understanding an image is like a rerepresentation of the world, a creative construct and
activity that conveys complex ideas, feelings, values
that come from world views and ideologies” (p.1).
Since reading is a considered a creative activity,
Schirato and Webb (2004) agree that it is likewise an
active process involving the reader's general and
specific knowledges, tastes, habits and personal
[ 62 ]
contexts to present what is seen and to make sense of
it.
Performance art now serves as a fundamental
meaning-making practice for artists across the world
(Pembleton and Lajevic, 2014). Law (2010) articulates
how post-modern literary theory asserts that
interpretation can never be universal. She argues that
the meaning-making mechanism an individual views
and represents the world through depends on the
personal, social and cultural factors that determine
the formation of his sensory field. In the context of
contemporary art, Savva and Trimis (2005, p.9) found
that the complexity in forms brings about the
construction of multiple meanings representing icons
of the global and contemporary world.
The way we see things is affected by what we
know or what we believe. Berger, et. al, (1973, p.8)
explains this as every image embodying a way of
seeing to which Law refers to as a “sophisticated
process of perceiving images and generating vision”
(p.97). Roeder (1995 as cited by Law, p.97) illustrates
that vision is about how an individual looks at things
and this likewise relies on how others see those
things. In the context of performance art, artist Anna
Feremore (as cited by Oliver, 2010) describes a
'dialogic' mode of vision as a way of seeing upon
which the “spectator encounters the other.” This
experience entails “a multiplicity of intersubjective
relations and intercorporeal perceptions, both of
which are marked by a reversibility of trajectory […]
that which is looked upon also acts upon what does
the 'looking' (p.125). Expanding on her argument,
Feremore mentions Martin Jay's two opposing modes
of vision anchored on his piece Sartre, Merlau-Ponty
and the Search for a New Ontology of Sight - the
epistemological which is characterized by the
spectatorial distance and objectification and the
ontological as the embedded mode of seeing,
claimed by Feremore as characteristic of audience's
experience of performance art (ibid).
Methodology
The study utilized a qualitative research
design in describing students' mode of reception
toward the performance they watched during the
period of study. Primary data were gathered from the
student's feedback on the performance through the
reflection papers submitted. Students' reactions to the
witnessed act were solicited along with their
knowledge of the art form and their experience as
viewers/readers of the act. Three sections enrolled in
ArtSocs during the current semester of study were
invited during their scheduled class time to witness
the one-hour performance rendered last March 2013
by Ms. Crescelda Roldan, a member of the T.A.M.A.
organization and the institution's Cultural Officer. A
total of 115 students were in attendance from sections
IT2B (BS Information Technology), P2A (BS
Psychology) and E1A (BS Education) of which 70 are
females (60.86%) and 45 are males (39.13%). From the
115 students, a total of 101 reaction papers were
collected and analyzed as basis for outlining the
respondents' overall visual experience that includes
their subjective understanding and appreciation of
the art form within the scope of the study. Responses
were noted using frequency counting and
categorized according to the recognition of elements
involved, commentaries about the act and experience
in watching the performance. Complementing the
data gathered was an interview with the artist
conducted after the performance focusing on the
mode of production of the art. Questions in the
interview highlight the content of the performance
and the mode by which the artist conceptualized it in
general.
Results and Discussion
On Mode of Reception of the Art
Majority of the respondents (53.91%)
mentioned in their papers that they are first-time
viewers of performance art since they have no
exposure to it prior to the actual act they witnessed.
These students had their first encounter of the term
only during the time of the said event and were not
totally oriented on the background of the field along
with what they will be watching. On the other hand,
the remaining number of respondents (41.74%) said
that they already have experienced watching
performance art as part of their previous discussions
in the course and during some other occasions when
members of T.A.M.A. organization were invited to
perform in campus (e.g. Institutional Foundation Day
[ 63 ]
A.J. SAUL
celebration). Frequency distribution of respondents
by exposure to performance art is presented in Table
1.
Table 1. Frequency distribution of respondents
by exposure to performance art
Section
Frequency
Percent
First time to watch performance arts
62
53.91%
Had experienced watching performance
48
41.74%
No answer
5
4.35%
Total
115
100%
art (at least once)
As majority of the respondents were first
timers in regard to performance art, a common
feedback among them is that they had no idea at all
about what is performance art or what the artist shall
do in her performance. They did not know the
purpose of the materials that the artist prepared such
as the oranges, silk fabric and the beer bottle. They
even thought that the performance will involve some
magic tricks because of the said props while 3
respondents described the performance as somewhat
“weird” upon seeing those props from the artist. As
the performance went on, some respondents felt the
urge to understand the act as they tried to explore its
various concepts and themes and while they attempt
to associate those with the performance, they
perceived that it became clearer to them what the
artist was trying to convey. There were 7 respondents
who claimed that they began to appreciate the
performance as they became attentive and curious
about the acts that they were about to witness.
However, one respondent felt shocked by what the
artist did in the performance particularly when she
crawled up and laid on the table and dropped the beer
bottle on the floor. The student explained that she was
not expecting that the performance will involve those
said acts. The summary of the responses during the
performance is presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Students' responses during the performance
Response
Frequency
1. Do not have any idea of what the performance is about at first
56
2. As the performance goes on, it becomes more clear and
21
understood
3. Got curious and attentive about what the performance artist is
7
doing
4. Shocked by the action performed
1
[ 64 ]
When asked to describe the performance,
majority of the respondents initially centered on
identifying the general theme of the entire act.
Students took into consideration various aspects of
the performance such as the materials used,
movements/gestures/physical actions observed, the
language and its form in articulating a major theme.
As a result, there were varying perceptions found
with regard to the themes understood by the
respondents. Data show that temptation as one
identified theme specifically pertains to the choice
between right and wrong acts in society. One
respondent mentioned that the judgment of what is
right and wrong would depend on how man sees
things around him. The effect of temptation was also
given emphasis in particular where 9 respondents,
particularly females pointed out that women are most
likely to be tempted while 2 male respondents
identified this with the youth in general. For 5
respondents, “bawal” or what is illegal as a form of
temptation is now considered acceptable in our
society.
As respondents identified temptation as the
major theme, there were 13 respondents who linked
the performance to the story of Adam and Eve in the
Bible. On the other hand, one respondent connected
the theme to a local movie about faith healing that he
watched, The Healing, primarily because of the
props/materials used by the artist in her performance
which he thought were similar to those involved in a
faith healer's act in the said film. Referencing the
performance to other texts, there seems to be an
intertextuality which emerged from watching the
performance art since there were students who found
it connected to other texts from film and literature.
There were 14 respondents who associated
the performance with the celebration of the Women's
Month as they heard the performer greet them
“Happy Women's Month” at the onset of her
performance. These students took note that the act
was contextualized within a certain event or occasion.
It was evident though that none of the respondents
recognized that March is the celebration of the
International Women's Month as it was not
mentioned in their papers.
Other respondents explored the evolution of
men as a theme in the context of looking at the true
nature of man wherein according to 1 male
respondent, there is a difference between how men
and women are treated in society. Some respondents
understood the theme that revolves around the status
of women in society wherein 8 students agreed that
discrimination against women is strongly felt in
society. In addition, 14 respondents specifically
discussed women being controlled and confined in
their traditional functions (women inside the box)
and sexual abuse as a form of discrimination. On the
other hand, there were 11 respondents who see
women in terms of their essential roles in society and
given this kind of perception, rights of women should
be protected along with their duties and
responsibilities that they have to take care of. The
summary of the identified themes is presented in
Table 3.
Table 3. Respondents' identified themes
spectators, embodying the attempt to establish the
relationship between the artist's body, the objects in
the performance and the concept/idea conveyed. As
the performance culminated, the artist entertained
some of the questions from the audience about the
significance of the props used but she did not
elaborate on her answer too much so that the
audience would be left thinking of the answers to
their own questions. The objects and signified
meanings are enumerated in Table 4.
Table 4. Objects signifying meanings
Response
Frequency
1. Oranges as sin
1
2. Oranges as birth
3
3. Oranges as pain and suffering/abuse
7
4. Red Horse beer as temptation
7
5. Broken pieces of beer bottle as right decision
3
6. Broken pieces of a beer bottle as bad/immoral act
1
Response
Frequency
7. Purple cloth symbolizing power
4
1. Temptation
32
8. White cloth symbolizing purity
3
2. Women as subject of temptation
9
9. Rectangular table as the box
4
3. Youth as subject of temptation
2
10. “Ebalusyon” poem
2
4. Linked to the story of Adam and Eve
13
11. “Alapaap” song to represent the youth
1
5. Women in a box
14
12. Oranges used instead of apple
1
6. Discrimination of women in society
8
7. Evolution of men
5
8. Essential role of women in society
11
9. The “Healing” concept
1
Part of understanding the theme of
performance was the viewer's perception toward the
objects/props used by the artist and how these created
meanings in relation to the identified subject.
Performance art as a text to be read is seen to contain
encoded symbols or signs that may be given meaning
or enable interpretation of the form, language and its
creation as organized in a particular way to make
meaning. As an analytical tool, semiotics could be
utilized in examining these signs in visual culture.
Students took note of the objects they observed were
brought by the artist, their use and significance in the
act along with the meanings which could be attached
in the aim of understanding the whole performance.
It was found that as students placed meanings upon
each of the materials along with the observed
physical action from the artist, there were various
meanings that emerged from their perspective as
Noting temptation as a theme in the act, one
female respondent explained in her paper that
oranges signified sin, a representation which she saw
parallel to the fruit that Eve gave to Adam as told in
the Fall of Man account in the Bible. The said
respondent particularly compared the orange to the
apple as a symbol of sin in the Genesis story. It can also
be noted that there was one female respondent who
felt confused about the material used as she
questioned the purpose of the artist in replacing the
apple with the orange. She mentioned in her paper
that since there was no exact fruit mentioned in the
Bible that Eve gave to Adam, that forbidden fruit
could be anything and should not be limited to apples
only; consequently, she thought that this may be the
reason why the artist used oranges instead.
When the artist placed the oranges on her
stomach while lying on top of the table, there were 2
respondents who saw birth as a concept signified as
she looks like she is about to give birth based on her
position in relation to the objects used. Connecting it
to birth and considering that the artist is a woman,
[ 65 ]
A.J. SAUL
there were 7 respondents who associated oranges
with the pain and suffering that a woman had to
experience in giving birth. Moreover, part of the
identified meaning related to the oranges had
something to do with its bitter and sweet taste (as
mentioned in a line of the poem recited by the artist)
wherein it represents the abuse that women are prone
to encounter in society and their capacity to overcome
it.
Aside from the oranges as main props, the
artist used a beer bottle, Red Horse, as part of her act.
She held the bottle, showed to it to the audience and
asked if they want to drink from it. Since nobody was
taking the bottle that was offered to them, she
dropped it and everyone felt shocked with the act,
seeing all the shards of the bottle on the floor. Seven
respondents mentioned in their papers that the bottle
may signify the temptation that humans should
avoid. Consequently, the dropping and breaking of
the beer bottle into pieces represent the idea that
avoiding this temptation is the “right” thing to do as
quoted from the product tagline, “Ito ang tama.” On
other hand, one male student literally focused on the
meaning of the broken beer bottle as having to do
with beer drinking as an immoral act that people
must avoid.
Other props noted by the respondents were
the fabrics worn by the artist whereby color was seen
to signify general meanings such as the purple cloth
that symbolized power/royalty and white cloth that
symbolized purity. The rectangular table on which
the artist crawled up on and laid upon is a symbol for
the status of women who are boxed into roles in
society through the responsibilities that they are
expected to perform like being a wife, a mother,
among others. Moreover, other texts such as poetry
and music were noted by the respondents as
contributing elements to understanding the
performance. For instance, the poem “Ebalusyon”
recited by the artist was seen to be connected to the
character of Eve in the Biblical Story about temptation
while the Tagalog song “Alapaap” popularized by the
local rock band, Eraserheads which served as the
background music was perceived to give a
contemporary feel corresponding to the youth
generation such that one respondent felt that the
whole performance is dedicated to them.
It can be inferred from the responses that
students paid attention only to the props as visuals
used by the artist. There were no specific responses
that dealt with the space as an element in the
performance as well as the physical movements of the
artist except for the placing of oranges on her stomach
and the act of dropping the beer bottle to which
respondents associated birth and immoral acts,
respectively. The students mainly used selection and
omission of details as a primary technique in reading
the performance as a text. There were other aspects
such as gestures and movements observed in the
performance that should have been given attention
since these could likewise signify meanings such as
how the artist crawled up on the table, the act of
giving away oranges to the audience where only a
few took it and the offering of the beer and their
refusal to accept the offer. There were 3 respondents
though who mentioned that they had no idea
whether they were allowed to participate in the
performance or not; yet the majority of the students
were not able to recognize that interaction with the
artist is a significant element in performance art.
As themes and meanings were generated, the
students came up with their reflection on the message
that the artist would like to convey to them through
her performance. They felt that the artist had a
purpose behind her act and that the performance was
utilized as a medium to convey and share her
thoughts with the audience. Data reveal that majority
of the responses centered on the call for a new woman
in society as the overall message conveyed by the
performance. The new woman, as pointed out by the
respondents should be able to go out of the box, free
themselves from temptation and control of men,
through a change in perception about their status in
society and further protection of their rights.
Furthermore, other respondents realized that women
should not be underestimated in society as they must
receive an equal treatment along with the males. This
is also seen based on the perception of 2 respondents
that call women to acknowledge their choice of what
is right in society. There were also respondents who
emphasized that women should be aware of and be in
control of themselves when it comes to fighting
temptation surrounding them; that they are called to
become stronger in facing the challenges that life has
[ 66 ]
to offer to them; and must follow the commands of
God and society. In the perception of the respondents
especially those who were females, women should
become more proactive in defining their lives as well
as in dealing with their social status. Table 5 presents
the summary of the respondents' reflection on the
message conveyed in the performance.
Table 5. Messages conveyed
Response
Frequency
1. A call for a “new woman” in society
13
2. Women should not be underestimated
9
3. Awaken women to stop and control themselves
2
from falling into temptation
4.Women should be strong to conquer every
3
problem encountered
5. Be contented with what we have in life
1
6. Women have the right to choose what is right
2
7. Follow the commands of God, parents and
1
society
Looking at the audience's knowledge and
visual experience of the art form and its connection to
the societal context in general, majority of the
respondents understood that the overall theme of the
act was contextualized within the conventional role of
women in society, that is, of being a mother. Primarily,
respondents were perceived as associating the artist's
gender to the role that was located as the subject of the
performance itself. Noting that the act of giving birth
places women in a box, respondents were aware that
this is identified as the traditional role that women
play in society. They saw that the performance as a
text had a self-referential characteristic attributed to
the artist being a woman. On the other hand, some
respondents, particularly the males, saw the
performance in relation to how women experience
the violation of their dignity and their rights. These
respondents thought of women and children
becoming victims of vices such as drinking,
anchoring their interpretation on the meanings
signified by the beer bottle and the poem they listened
to. On the other hand, a female respondent looked at
the performance in the context of women
empowerment such that they are now becoming open
to sexual issues, in contrast to the conventional
perception that women seemed to be forbidden to
explore these issues previously. Aside from women
who seem to be the disadvantaged sex, one
respondent noted that the performance likewise
pertains to men who are afraid to express themselves.
Conversely, some of the respondents looked at the
performance not in the context of a specific gender
but relating it to humanity in general. There were 7
respondents who felt that the performance had an
impact on them as youth as they saw this as
addressing them through the beer bottle and
background song. On the other hand, 12 respondents
mentioned that the performance affected them as this
challenged their looking at the nature of man
specifically in terms of their vulnerability to
temptation thus leading to committing sins. Their
interpretation was anchored on the temptation theme
which was identified in the performance. Although
the respondents were able to see the performance in
relation to their knowledge of the context, none of
them mentioned that the act had an impact that could
be related to their own individual personal
experience. Their responses in general reflected their
awareness about women and how they are looked at
and treated in society. It can be inferred that students
as spectators did not feel the totality of their
immersion in the experience of the performance as
they merely described and formulated meanings
from what appears to them as obvious and
distinguishable in the act. Table 6 presents the
summary of the respondents' view on the
performance in connection to its societal context.
Table 6. Respondents' view on the performance
and its societal context
Response
1. Related to the role of a mother (through giving
Frequency
19
birth)
2. Related to the temptation of youth
7
3. Related to men who are afraid to express
1
themselves
4. Related to the “true” nature of man
12
5. Related to women who subjected to the
3
violation of their dignity and rights
6. Related to women becoming open to sexual
1
issues
6. No impact
[ 67 ]
5
A.J. SAUL
With regard to the emotional response
toward the performance, majority of the respondents
felt that watching the whole act developed in them the
critical thinking skills wherein they got to analyze
and reflect on its content in general. Females in
particular described it as something that aroused
their interest and curiosity to watch, looking at the
various ideas they were able to explain as perceived
themes and messages. They likewise perceived that
the artist's intent of performing was effectively
articulated and conveyed to them since they were
able to locate their thoughts within the act. However,
there were others who seemed to expect that there
was a need for the artist to explain the performance
first before the actual act.
These respondents
admitted that they did not understand the concept of
the performance as they were not able to clearly
identify with it; consequently, focus and interest were
lost during the performance causing them to feel that
they did not appreciate the act. Nonetheless, they
acknowledged the effort of the artist for her
determination and serious attitude in carrying-out
her acts despite their observation that a large part of
the audience was not able to consistently pay
attention to the entirety of the act. Overall, responses
show that students appreciated performance art as
they found its significance in relation to the societal
context, it provided new knowledge as well as
experience for them to be exposed to an
unconventional art form. One respondent strikingly
mentioned that as art, performance art is difficult to
comprehend as understanding and appreciating it
was considered a challenge; another one found this
form of art a “weird but a good form of art.” From
these responses, there were two respondents who
mentioned that they would want to further explore
the nature of performance art and experience it
themselves. The summary of responses is presented
in Table 7.
Table 7. Respondents' reactions on performance art
Responses
Frequency
1. Appreciated this kind of art
9
2. Appreciated this art in widening one’s mind to real
7
happenings in society
3. Challenging to interpret; it is like solving a puzzle
1
4. The art provided new knowledge and experience
4
5. Want to explore other approaches and further
3
understand performance arts
6. Want to experience performance art
1
7. Weird but a good form of art
3
8. Cannot appreciate performance art
7
On Mode of Production of the Art
Aside from the physical action and objects,
language through poetry was used by the artist as
part of the performance. Ms .Roldan recited a short
poem which is an original composition of hers
entitled “Ebalusyon” highlighting the concept of her
act. The poem, according to her, was composed in line
with the celebration of the International Women's
Month as it anchored on social issues that she wanted
to explore and address. She mentioned in the
interview that the poem centers on woman as
temptress based on the Biblical story of Adam and
Eve as the performance's reference and that her
intention was to deconstruct this image which is
conventionally attached to women:
Tikim lamang
Sa una
Hanggang
Sa dalawa,
at ilang kagat.
Kumatas
ang tamis
ang pait
ang sumpa,
ng unang
pamana ni Eba,
Sa kapwa niya.
Mapula,matamis
Masarap ang bawal.
Bawal ang bawal.
Wala nang bawal ngayon,
Kay Adan.
[ 68 ]
As explained by the artist, a woman is
described to be boxed in through the imaging of
woman as temptress where she is traditionally
depicted in literature particularly those written by
male authors. In the Bible, for instance, Roldan
observed that there are gender issues of having the
female figure associated with the commitment of sin.
Her use of the rectangular table where she laid upon
while reciting the poem further signified her view of
women being trapped within that conventional
notion. An apple was used as a mere representation
of the temptation theme in the poem and Roldan
intentionally veered away from this when she used
the oranges instead. According to her, the use of the
non-traditional object that represents her concept is
part of her intent of deconstructing meanings.
As for the message she would like to convey
through the poem, there is the double standard when
it comes to how
men's committing socially
unacceptable acts is tolerated unlike in the case of
women who are easily judged by society. Through the
line in the poem that reads, “Wala nang bawal
ngayon, kay Adan,” the artist tells the audience that
we are still living in a highly patriarchal society where
men are still seen as the dominating and stronger sex
by nature such that everything that they do is
conventionally accepted. The act of breaking the beer
bottle in the end puts forward her message of
equalizing standards between men and women in the
context of gender issues. She advocates for the
“breaking” or deconstruction of the image attached to
women in society in order to achieve that equality
among sexes.
Conclusion
Exposure to performance art served as a
participatory and reflexive exercise for students in
understanding and appreciating a certain art form
which is perceived to be unconventional/nontraditional. Through this, the meaning-making and
transformative attribute of performance art is
explored by audiences attempting to read, analyze
and evaluate the visual image and experience leading
to the construction of various meanings and varying
perceptions. Although not all the students
appreciated performance art, it is nevertheless
significant that they were able to recognize and
discover the existence of a progressive form of art.
The performance artist, on the other hand, utilized the
art form as a medium in conveying her ideas, values,
sentiments thus demonstrating how the form
becomes an avenue for communicating and sharing
her personal advocacy, making it public to the
audience. Both the artist's and the audience's mode of
production and reception of the arts were
contextualized in regard to particular social issues
that they were aware of. There were instances when
students' perception of the theme coincided with that
of the artist's particularly about temptation and
women as the main subjects of the performance. From
hereon, there has been a dialogic relationship formed
between the artist and the audience with the
performance becoming the platform for the meaningmaking experience. Furthermore, the development
and strengthening of critical thinking skills as well as
enrichment of the artistic experience of students as
objectives of art education is given much emphasis
through this exercise in performance art appreciation.
From the mode of production and reception of the
performance, art is now perceived to be non-neutral
as it derives its energies from the dynamism and
conflicts of society. Since art can take on political and
social themes, indeed, art as Guillermo (1998)
articulates, is seen to become an agent of change.
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[ 71 ]
DLSL JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, ARTS & SCIENCES
OFFICE OF RESEARCH and
PUBLICATIONS
Jose C. Macatangay
Research & Publications Officer
Sheila E. Maloles
Evaluation and Monitoring Officer
Marife D. Malaluan
Technical Staff
Gina M. Dimaano
Director
Alicia B. Botardo Ph. D.
Vice Chancellor for Academics and Research
ARTICLE TITLES
Page
Beyond Feedback: The Error Correction Strategies of
Teachers in L2 Tertiary Writing
Roy Dalisay
1
Type Of Laboratory Examination In Microbiology:
Its Effect On Students' Achievement
Bernardo Lunar
Edmerson Geronimo
11
Assessment of the Performance of Area Chairs
of De La Salle Lipa
19
Student-Originated Projects in Ecology Laboratory
Course Delivered Through Service Learning Design
Catherine Precioso
Bernardo Lunar
35
Michael M. Ramos
47
What we see is (not) what we get: ArtSocs Students'
Appreciation of Performance Art
59
DE LA SALLE LIPA
College of Education, Arts and Sciences

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