Wk3Slides

4/12/16
Phonologicalprocessing
Atschool,whereeveryteacherwasapoten:alspy,Itriedtoavoidans
soundwheneverpossible."Yes,"became"correct,"oramilitary
"affirma:ve."…AEerafewweeksofwhatshecalled"endless
pestering"andwhatIcalled"repeatedbadgering,"mymotherbought
meapocketthesaurus,whichprovidedmewiths-freealterna:vesto
justabouteverything.…
Pluralspresentedaconsiderableproblem,butIworkedaroundthemas
bestIcould;"rivers,"forexample,becameeither"ariverortwo"or
"manyariver."Possessiveswereasimilarheadache,anditwaseasierto
saynothingthantoannouncethattheleE-handandtheright-hand
gloveofJanethadfallentothefloor.
--DavidSedaris,MeTalkPre*yOneDay
Thisweek
Veryearlypercep:on
•  Moreaboutwhatkidsperceive
•  Then,backtowhattheyproduce
•  Alotofinfantlanguageprocessingresearchis
allaboutpercep:onbecausetheyaren’t
producingmuch.
•  Bigtake-homethisweek:
•  PERCEPTIONPRECEDESPRODUCTION.
•  Someauditorysoundprocessingmaybe“hard
wired”butalotofitislearned.
X
Lisker&Abramson,1964
Voiced
Voiceless
√
X
Voiced
Voiceless
**
**
**
-20020406080
VOT(ms)
Englishspeakerscandis:nguishsynthesizedb/psoundsdifferingonlyinVOT,if
testedusing20and40msec.
Buttheycan’t(orperformpoorly)iftestedusing0and20or40and60.
-20020406080
VOT(ms)
Categoricalpercep9on:listenersaremuchbecerat
discrimina:ngbetweencategoriesthanwithincategories.
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Howdoinfantsperceivespeechsounds?
Propertyofauditorysystem[s]topickuponthisboundary
Eimasetal.:1-and4-month-olds;habitua:onprocedure.
VOT:
+20/+40
(ba/pa)
0/+20,
+60/+80
Control
(ba…ba…ba…ba…)
√ X
Soundcontrasts
•  YOUNGinfantscandis:nguishmostsoundsin
mostlanguages
•  Consonants,vowels
•  Tone:veryunclearpicture
•  Olderstudies:“useitorloseit”—refinedownto
yourlanguage’scategories
•  Newerstudies:somecategoriesgetsharperover
:me(ortheydon’tevenshowupun:lchildren
havealotoflisteningexperience)
language-specificrefinement:vowels
chinchilla
macaque
J.quail
Basicauditoryability
language-specificrefinement
Werker&Tees1984:testdiscrimina:onofHindidental
andretroflex/t/,anddiscrimina:onofNthlakampxvelar
anduvularconsonants[k’]and[q’],usingCHT.
velar
uvular
Canadianbabies:
discriminatedat6-8months
onlysomedidat8-10months
almostnoneat10-12months
Infantsgetworseatdiscrimina;ngsoundsthat
aren’tcontras;veintheirlanguage.
language-specificrefinement:vowels
similarresults,perhapsevenearlierdevelopment
CatalanandSpanish
Polka&Werker1994,usingvisualhabitua:onprocedure
Catalan:has/e/and/E/(like“bait”and“bet”)
Spanish:justsomethinginbetween,near/e/
German/u/vs/y/ 1 4monthsdiscriminate
6monthsdon’t
12monthsdon’t
Bosch&Sebas:an-Gallés,usinghabitua:onprocedure:
all4.5montholdsdiscriminate/e/and/E/;
Catalan8.0montholdsdiscriminatethemtoo;
Spanish8.0montholdsdon’tANDbilingualsdon’t;
Bilingualsdiscriminateagain,by12months.
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Produc:onfollowspercep:on
Percep:ontakessome:me
•  Somesoundboundariesyou’rebornwith(VOT
dis:nc:on),orlearnveryfast
•  Othersaremorelanguage-variableandmayrequire
morelearning
•  Verylikelythatchildrencanperceivecontrastsbefore
theycanproducethem
•  Perceptually,kidscandis:nguishallsortsofsoundsearly
on
•  Graduallynarrowdowntoownlanguage
•  Simultaneouslylearningwords(Bergelson&Swingley,2011)
–  Dis:nguishingallsoundsmaynotbegood--
–  Needsomesimilaritytobuildon
–  Maybeknowinglotsofwordshelpsyounarrowdownthe
soundsinyourlanguage
•  Knowingindividualsoundsisn’tthesameas
knowingwhichonesgotogetherinwords
•  Learningwordsaslabelsforthingsmaymake
percep:onharder
•  Produc:onoflanguage-specificsoundstakesmuch
longer
–  Needsmotorprac:cetogetmotorcontrol
Percep:ontakessome:me
•  Boundariesyou’rebornwithorlearnvery
fast(VOTdis:nc:on)
•  Learningcategoryboundaries
•  Learningwhichsoundsgotogether
•  Learningwordsaslabels
–  Thisisthepointofitall,isn’tit?
–  Similarwordsarehardtolearntotellapart
Keepingtrackofsounddistribu:ons
Maye,Werker,&Gerken(2002)
Categoryboundaries
✔
•  Infantslearncategoriesbykeepingtrackof
sounddistribu:ons
–  Maye,Werker,&Gerken,2002
•  Adultskeeptrackofsounddistribu:onstoo
–  Newman,Clouse,Burnham2001
Keepingtrackofsounddistribu:ons
Newman,Clouse&Burnham(2001)
•  Twodistribu:onsorone
distribu:onofspeechsounds
–  Made-updis:nc:on
•  Incidentalexposuretooneor
other
-20
•  Playtwosoundsfromsame/
differentdistribu:ons
•  Infants,6&8months
•  (Adultscandotoo)
•  Two-lumps:different!
•  One-lump:notdifferent!
0
20 40 60 80
Speech dimension
STOPconsonantvoiceonset;me:
Lisker&Abramson,1964
•  Frica:ves(s,sh,f,th,
z,v,dth)showthese
distribu:onsaswell
•  Somecontextual
varia:on
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What ARE they thinking?
(A Q&D tutorial on infant methods)
Percep:ontakessome:me
•  Boundariesyou’rebornwithorlearnvery
fast(VOTdis:nc:on)
•  Learningcategoryboundaries ✔
•  Learningwhichsoundsgotogether
•  Learningwordsaslabels
Headturn Preference Procedure: What seems interesting?
✔
–  Thisisthepointofitall,isn’tit?
–  Similarwordsarehardtolearn
1. 
2. 
trial starts with green light
once baby’s ready, flash one side light
3. 
when baby turns to light, start playing sounds from
speaker
4. 
when baby turns away, stop sounds and start new
trial
dependent measure: listening time to
a given kind of auditory material
Soundsthatgotogether
•  Saffranetal.(1996)
•  Jusczyk&Johnson(2001)
•  Nonadjacentdependencies
Cuestowordboundaries
•  Strong-ini:alvs.weak-ini:alwords
–  Strong:BUTter,CANdle,PUPpy,SAUsage
–  Weak:baNAna,caBOOSE,reCLINE,aGREE
•  Cutlerandcolleagues:“metricalsegmenta:on
strategy”(MSS)
–  Strongsyllableisthestartofaword
Cuestowordboundaries
•  Stress
–  English:mostnounsarestress-ini:al
–  ThePREcyBAbyWANTSaBOTtle
Cuestowordboundaries
•  Jusczyk,Houston&Newsome
–  7.5.Months:
•  Familiarizeinfantswithstress-ini:alwords
–  Kingdom,hamlet
•  Playpassageswithkingdom,hamlet(ordoctor,candle)
•  Infantslistenlongertokingdom/hamletpassages:they
recognizethewords
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Cuestowordboundaries
•  Jusczyk,Houston&Newsome
–  7.5.Months:
•  Stress-ini:alOK
Cuestowordboundaries
•  Jusczyk,Houston&Newsome
–  7.5months:
•  Stress-ini:al✔
•  Stressnotini:al✘
Cuestowordboundaries
•  Jusczyk,Houston&Newsome
–  7.5months:
•  Stress-ini:al(kingdom)✔
•  Stressnotini:al(guitar)✘
•  Stressedsyllable(tar)✔
Cuestowordboundaries
•  Jusczyk,Houston&Newsome
–  7.5.Months:
•  Stress-ini:alOK
•  Familiarizewithguitar,surprise
•  Testwithguitar,surprise,balloon,device
•  Nodifferenceinlooking:mes
Cuestowordboundaries
•  Jusczyk,Houston&Newsome
–  7.5months:
•  Stress-ini:al✔
•  Stressnotini:al✘
•  Familiarizewithtar,prize,loon,vice
•  Playguitar/surprise--getit
Cuestowordboundaries
•  Jusczyk,Houston&Newsome
–  7.5months:
•  Stress-ini:al(kingdom)✔
•  Stressnotini:al(guitar)✘
•  Stressedsyllable(tar)✔
–  10.5months:
•  Stressnotini:al(guitar)✔
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But…
•  Notalllanguageshavethiskindofstress
pacern.
•  Lookacheprecybaby
•  Howdoyouknowwhattheproper;esof
wordsareifyoudon’tknowwhatthewords
are?
•  Lookacheprecybaby
•  Whereisthebabynowprecygirl
•  Thisliclebabyisprecygood
•  Lookacheprecybaby
•  Whereisthebabynowprecygirl
•  Thisliclebabyisprecygood
•  LookachepreRybaby
•  WhereisthebabynowpreRygirl
•  ThisliclebabyispreRygood
•  LookachepreRybaby
•  WhereisthebabynowpreRygirl
•  ThisliclebabyispreRygood
•  Given“ty”,what’slikelytocomenext?
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Let’sdosomemath…
•  LookachepreRybaby
•  WhereisthebabynowpreRygirl
•  ThisliclebabyispreRygood
•  Given“ty”,what’slikelytocomenext?
•  Whataboutgiven“ba”?
Sta:s:callearning
•  Saffran,Aslin&Newport(1996)
–  8-month-oldinfants
• 
• 
• 
• 
pago:numabékolifudé
panumalifubékogo:dé
palifunumago:békodé
…
•  Given“pa”,what’slikelytocomenext?
•  Whataboutgiven“go”or“:”?
Sta:s:callearning
•  Saffran,Aslin&Newport(1996)
–  8-month-oldinfants
golabubidakutupiropado:tupirobidakupado:gol
abupado:bidakugolabutupiro
golabupado:tupirobidakupado:bidakutupirog
olabupado:bidakugolabutupiro…
golabubidakutupiropado:tupirobidakupado:gol
abupado:bidakugolabutupiro
golabupado:tupirobidakupado:bidakutupirog
olabupado:bidakugolabutupiro…
Sta:s:callearning
Sta:s:callearning
•  Saffran,Aslin&Newport(1996)
–  8-month-oldinfants
golabubidakutupiropado:tupirobidakupado:gol
abupado:bidakugolabutupiro
golabupado:tupirobidakupado:bidakutupirog
olabupado:bidakugolabutupiro…
•  Saffran,Aslin&Newport(1996)
–  8-month-oldinfants
golabubidakutupiropado:tupirobidakupado:gol
abupado:bidakugolabutupiro
golabupado:tupirobidakupado:bidakutupirog
olabupado:bidakugolabutupiro…
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Sta:s:callearning
•  Playfor2minutes
•  Presentkidswithbidakuorpiro.bitypewords
•  Whatdotheylistentolonger?
bidaku<piro.bi
Butwhataboutstress?
•  Johnson&Jusczyk(2001)
–  8-month-olds
–  Stressvs.sta:s:cs:Stresswins
–  (noveltypreference)
•  At8monthsinfantscansegmentwordsbased
onsta9s9calcues
Butwhataboutstress?
•  Johnson&Jusczyk(2001)
–  8-month-olds
–  Stressvs.sta:s:cs:Stresswins
Butwhataboutstress?
•  Johnson&Jusczyk(2001)
–  8-month-olds
–  Stressvs.sta:s:cs:Stresswins
•  Thiessen&Saffran(2003)
•  Thiessen&Saffran(2003)
–  Sta:s:cswins@7mos
–  Stresswins@9mos
–  Sta:s:cswins@7mos
–  Stresswins@9mos
•  Segmenta9onprecedesstress.
Sta:s:callearning
•  What’sge}nglearned?
–  Frequency:XYhappensalot
•  Butthedog,thegirl>hassock,:pple
–  Condi9onalprobability
•  GivenX,Yis__likelytohappen
•  Predic9veness
•  Aslin,Saffran&Newport(1996)
Sta:s:callearning
•  What’sge}nglearned?
–  Aslin,Saffran&Newport(1996)
•  golabu/pado:2xasoEenastupiro/bidaku
•  Sodo:.goisasfrequentasbidaku(45xeach)
•  But
1.0 1.0
bi->da->ku
1.0 .33
do->:->go
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Sta:s:callearning
•  What’sge}nglearned?
Sta:s:callearning
•  Infantsareindeedlearningcondi:onal
probabili:es,notjustfrequency.
–  Aslin,Saffran&Newport(1996)
•  golabu/pado:2xasoEenastupiro/bidaku
•  Sodo:.goisasfrequentasbidaku(45xeach)3minof
listening;thentest
Frequency:
=
1.0 1.0
bi->da->ku
1.0 .33
do->:->go
Condi:onal
probability:
<
Languagespecificity?
• 
• 
• 
• 
Worksforlanguage
Worksfortonesequences(C-C#-G…)
Worksforvisualsequences(n✚★u…)
Maybetamarinmonkeysdoit(Hauseretal.)
•  Notjustalanguage-specificphenomenon.
Perceivingsoundsvs.
learningwords
Percep:ontakessome:me
•  Boundariesyou’rebornwithorlearnvery
fast(VOTdis:nc:on)
•  Learningcategoryboundaries✔
•  Learningwhichsoundsgotogether✔
•  Learningwordsaslabels
✔
–  Thisisthepointofitall,isn’tit?
–  Similarwordsarehardtolearn
Stager & Werker, 1997
“Switch”procedure(fancydishabitua:on)
•  Speechsounds:
–  Startouthearingeverything,
–  Narrowinonna:velanguageby12months.
•  Words:
–  Producebadlyat12months,
–  Butpresumablythementalrepresenta:onsofthe
soundsthemselvesareaccurate.
–  Ormaybenot…
“dih”
“bih”
Test: “dih” 14 mos: no dishabituation!
Dumbed-down: one object
8 mos: ✔
14 mos: ✘
14 mos: lif vs. neem ✔
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Stager&Werker1997
Stager & Werker, 1997
“Switch”procedure(fancydishabitua:on)
•  AHerlearningspeechsounds,14-month-olds
seemnottouse!
•  S&W:maybeforwordlearning,kidsdon’tuse
detail
•  Swingley&Aslin:maybetheyjusthavepoor
representa:onsof“bih”and“dih”--what
aboutrealwords?
“dih”
“bih”
WHY??
Perceptual regression?
Divided attention?
Unfamiliarity of words?
one simple word
recognition task:
picture fixation
Swingley & Aslin,
2000, 2002
Where's the ball? "Correct"
Where's the gall? "Mispron."
Bypreschool(age3-5years),childrenflexiblyinterpret
mispronuncia:ons.*
100%
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
80%
“Ball”
“Gall”
60%
40%
20%
0%
<- 50% = can’t tell
Creel,2012,
DevelopmentalScience
Accuracy
"Fish" "Fesh" "Feesh"
Feed Seethe Feed Seethe
the
the
Novelobject
Fish
Fesh
Target
100%
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
Creel,Rojo,&Paullada,2016
Age (days)
Accuracy
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
1
Accuracy
proportion to target" (ball)
Target fixation given correct pronunciation and mispron.,
plotted by child’s age
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
correct pronunciations
mispronunciations
Novel
*Unlessthereisasimilarwordaround!
Target
…runny
nose
…runny
pumpkin
USaccent
…runny
nose
…runny
pumpkin
MXaccent
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Percep:ontakessome:me
•  Boundariesyou’rebornwithorlearnvery
fast(VOTdis:nc:on)✔
•  Learningcategoryboundaries✔
•  Learningwhichsoundsgotogether✔
•  Learningwordsaslabels✔
–  Newwords:weakerrepresenta:ons
–  Overthelongterm:goodrepresenta:ons
–  Maybechildrenarestoringspecificwordsandnot
somuchsequencesofspeechsounds
Atschool,whereeveryteacherwasapoten:alspy,Itriedtoavoidans
soundwheneverpossible."Yes,"became"correct,"oramilitary
"affirma:ve."…AEerafewweeksofwhatshecalled"endless
pestering"andwhatIcalled"repeatedbadgering,"mymotherbought
meapocketthesaurus,whichprovidedmewiths-freealterna:vesto
justabouteverything.…
Pluralspresentedaconsiderableproblem,butIworkedaroundthemas
bestIcould;"rivers,"forexample,becameeither"ariverortwo"or
"manyariver."Possessiveswereasimilarheadache,anditwaseasierto
saynothingthantoannouncethattheleE-handandtheright-hand
gloveofJanethadfallentothefloor.
--DavidSedaris,MeTalkPre*yOneDay
Onthe‘output’side…
•  Soundskidsmake:
•  Pre-6months:mostlyvowels,somebackconsonants
(velars)
•  Later(canonicalbabblingstarts):widerrangeof
placesofar:cula:on
–  Regardlessoflanguage,kidsseemtobemakingvery
similarsounds(un:laliclewhilebeforewordsappear)
–  Consonantsaremostly:ptkbdgmnwjsh(Locke‘83)
•  Kidsbuildonthesetosayfirstwords
Babblingtowords
•  Istherealink?Yes!
•  Kidswhoprefercertainbabblingpacernsendup
withthosepacerns
–  Vocalmotorschemes(Vihman1996)
–  Canvoluntarilyproducematchingwords
•  Babblingfrequencypredicts#&accuracyofwords
producedat2-3years
•  Lateinprespeech,starttodropoutsoundsthat
aren’tinchild’slanguage,andadoptrhythmsof
na:velanguage
Firstwords
•  Some:resembleadultwordsinsoundandsocial
context(hi,byebye,peekaboo)
•  Others:madeupbykidbutusedforpar:cular
func:on--protowords
–  Controlsvocalapparatus?✓
–  Knowswordshavespecificmeanings?✓
–  Knowsthatyouhavetofigureoutthewordsthat
everyoneelseuses?✗
–  (Somevariabilityinform)
ExamnextThursday
•  Bringapen,pencilandbrain
•  Format:mul:partques:ons
–  Someveryshortanswerparts.
–  Somesentence-to-paragraph-sizeanswers
•  REVIEWSESSION
–  TBA
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Acquiringyourlanguage’ssound
system
•  Notsimpleaddingonofperfectly-pronounced
words.
•  Some:mespronuncia:onschangeforthe
becerorworse.
•  Soundscanshowuponsomewords,butnot
others.
Acquiringyourlanguage’ssound
system
• 
• 
• 
• 
Regression:soundsget“worse”(Menn71)
Down&stone:/dæwn//don/oralVnasal
Later,neworalVnasalwords:
Beans&dance:/minz/&/næns/
–  nasalassimila:on
•  “Tookover”moreaccurateformsofdownand
stone,whichbecame/næwn/&/non/
Acquiringyourlanguage’ssound
system
Acquiringyourlanguage’ssound
system
•  Progressivephonologicalidiom:somewordsare
accurate“tooearly”
•  No/h/exceptonhiandhello
•  Others:‘orse,‘ose,‘amster…
•  Sohasheacquired/h/ornot?
•  Howtoaccountforregression?Thinkofchildasproblemsolving(Ferguson&Macken‘83):HowdoIsoundlikethe
peoplearoundme?
•  Temporarysolu:ons:
– 
– 
– 
– 
– 
Avoidanceofhardsounds/sequences(Sedaris’s)
Exploita:onofsoundsyoulike
Replacementofonesoundwithanother(/wɛw/)
Rearrangementofsoundsinword(/pəskɛ:/)
Oneword,orapproximatewholephrase(Peters,1977)
•  Thesesolu:onspervademuchofcogni:veandlanguage
development
Acquiringyourlanguage’ssound
system
•  Varia;onofthesestrategies
–  Acrosslanguages
–  Acrosschildren
–  Tendencies,notabsolutes
Acquiringyourlanguage’ssound
system
•  Otherinfluencesthataren’tstrategic
•  Biologicalconstraints
–  Forinstance:stops[physically]easierthanfrica:ves
•  Perceptualfeedback
–  Can’tdomuchifyoudon’thaveanacous;cmodelfromadultsand
internalfeedback
–  E.g.ifyou’rehearing-impaired,lessinternalfeedback,thoughcanalso
getexternalfeedback
•  Internalfeedback=immediate
•  Externalfeedback=delayed,reliesonotherperson
–  Internalrewardforsoundinglikethosearoundyou
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Normalprogression
•  Age3:vowelsandmanyconsonants
–  Toughconsonants:r,l,v,th,dth
•  Shouldbeintelligibleby4
–  Not?Possiblyatypicaldevelopment
•  Byage8:mostlyadultlikesounds
–  Butslowerspeechrate
–  Morevariablepronuncia:on,:ming
Describingkids’pronuncia:ons
•  Waystodescribe:
–  Rulestotranslateadultformintokidform
•  E.g.“delete/s/inclusters”
–  Describekid’slimita:onsintermsofconstraints
(e.g.“noclusters”)
–  Preferredformsastemplates(CVC)
•  Makesenseofseemingly-unrelatederrors
Describingkids’pronuncia:ons
•  Caveat:whatwehearisfilteredthroughourown
phonologicalsystem!
•  Fine-grainedanalyses(Macken&Barton‘80)
–  Maybewecan’thearadis:nc:onthey’reacemp:ngto
make
•  Needformul:plemeasurementsofsameword@
givenage
–  Kidsgraduallyaddin,correctsounds
–  Phaseswherenewformcoexistswitholdone
Describingkids’pronuncia:ons
•  Thingsthataretough
–  Clusters
–  Coda(endofsyllable)consonants
Inherentvariability
•  Cau:oninmispronuncia:on:kidsmayhave
referen;alvs.expressivestyle
–  Sayonewordperfectly(referen:al)
–  Sayapproxima:onofwholesentence(expressive)
•  Hardtotranscribe!
•  Regionalvariantsinpronuncia:on
–  Definecorrectnessbydialectbeingacquired
•  Variantsincontexts:readinglistvs.casual
conversa:on
Describingkids’pronuncia:ons
•  Thingsthataretough
–  Clusters
–  Coda(endofsyllable)consonants
Relatedly,somelanguages
don’thavethese!
Alsonotfoundinbabbling
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Describingkids’pronuncia:ons
•  Thingsthataretough
– 
– 
– 
– 
Clusters
Coda(endofsyllable)consonants
Longwords
Ini:alweaksyllables
Relatedly,somelanguages
don’thavethese!
Alsonotfoundinbabbling
Describingkids’pronuncia:ons
•  Thingsthataretough
– 
– 
– 
– 
Relatedly,somelanguages
don’thavethese!
Alsonotfoundinbabbling
Clusters
Coda(endofsyllable)consonants
Longwords
Ini:alweaksyllables
•  Varioussolu:ons…
– 
– 
– 
– 
Describingkids’pronuncia:ons
•  Wordstress
•  Weak-ini:alwordsarehard
–  Tomato“mato”
–  Surprise“prize”
–  Dessert“zert”
Omit/s/
Omitother
Assim.place
Describingkids’pronuncia:ons
•  Assimila;on
•  Changingonethingtomatchanother
•  Happensinadultspeechtoo
–  Greenpeas-->/grimpiz/
•  Withkids,moreextreme
•  Notjustwordlength
–  Blanket“banket”
–  Puppy“puppy”
Wordtemplates
•  AKA“canonicalforms”Vihman&CroE,2007
•  Between5-100words,mostarevariantsonafew
templates,plusafewisolatedphonologicalidioms
•  Similaradultwordsthatareperformedbychildfrom
sametemplate
–  Fish dish vest
–  ɪʃ dɪʃ ʊʃ –  Pacern:(C)Vʃ
Sock
Spock
School
String
brush fetch
byʃ ɪʃ
•  Ruleschangeadultwordstofittemplate
–  Well-->/wɛw/
–  Cat,dog,pug-->/tæt//gɑg//kʌg/
–  Mump,means,nance-->nasalfeaturespreadsbackward
Howmuchofthisisnot
understanding?
•  Verylicle.
•  Afewadultsoundsareconfusable(f,ɵ)
–  Butnotthatmany
•  Goodatdiscrimina:ngcontrastsofna:velanguage
–  (Withafewexcep:ons)
•  Evenforweakstress,canhearsyllables
–  Gerken&McIntosh(1993)
•  Findwasdogforme(confusion!)
•  Findthedogforme(noconfusion)
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