Background Report for the Muskeg Lake Cree Nation #102

Transcription

Witchekan Lake First Nation Source Water Protection Pilot Project Background Report
Witchekan Lake First Nation #117
Source Water Protection Pilot Project
Background Report
Witchekan Lake First Nation
Source Water Protection Plan
Photo here
Compiled by Denise Benfield, AAg
First Nations Agricultural Council of Saskatchewan Inc.
February 2008
Executive Summary
The purpose of this Background Report is to provide stakeholders in Witchekan
Lake First Nation with relevant information to assist in the development of a
Source Water Protection Plan (SWPP) to protect both surface and ground waters
that exist on and around Witchekan Lake First Nation Reserve No. 117. This
report provides a wide range of information to help build awareness of the many
factors which affect the First Nation, the Beaver River Watershed, and ultimately,
water quality and quantity. The First Nation is described in terms of its physical
characteristics, ecology, land use, climate and population demographics. The
major economic activity on the Reserve is agriculture. Water resources are
related in terms of quantity, quality, allocation and use. Current Reserve and
watershed management interests include hydrological concerns, agricultural
impacts, urban impacts, recreational use, groundwater well decommissioning
and water borne pathogens. Different land cover functions are described for
upland, riparian and wetland habitats. Watershed and land stewardship activities
and funding are important for watershed management.
The focus of this Source Water Protection Pilot Project is to protect source
waters with an emphasis on drinking water sources. The people of Witchekan
Lake First Nation are dependent on groundwater specifically for their drinking
water sources. Once the Background Report has been brought to the public for
review and approved, the process of developing the SWPP will begin. This plan
will assemble pertinent information, analyze threats and opportunities, and build
commitments to protect water, as well as summarize the committees’ discussions
and technical analysis in a number of recommendations. Finally, key actions will
be formulated as to what recommendations will be implemented.
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Acknowledgements
The development of the background report would not have been possible without
the hard work and participation of those involved in the Source Water Protection
Pilot Project (SWPPP) from Witchekan Lake First Nation, especially the
committee members – Leonard Tipewan, Alvin Fineday and Edgar Tipewan. A
big thank you also to those from SWA, EC, ACTC, and everyone else who
contributed time and resources to this project. Last, but definitely not least, thank
you to John Thomas, an elder who contributed to the First Nations People and
the Environment section.
General information about the North Saskatchewan River Watershed,
ecoregions, soil, water, agricultural practices, riparian areas and wetlands,
stewardship activities, programs and funding, as well as other general
information was derived from the Preliminary Background Report of the North
Saskatchewan River Watershed, provided by the SWA.
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Table of Contents
Executive Summary ............................................................................................... i
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................... ii
Table of Contents................................................................................................. iii
List of Figures ...................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables ........................................................................................................ v
List of Abbreviations............................................................................................. vi
List of Appendices............................................................................................... vii
1.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Purpose of Developing the Source Water Protection Pilot Project (SWPPP)
.......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Process of Developing the SWPPP ............................................................. 1
1.3 First Nations People and the Environment .................................................. 2
2.0 Reserve Land Characteristics ......................................................................... 3
2.1 Physical Characteristics .............................................................................. 3
2.2 Ecology ..................................................................................................... 15
2.3 Land Use ................................................................................................... 19
2.4 Climate ...................................................................................................... 21
2.5 Demographics ........................................................................................... 22
3.0 Economic Activities and Opportunities .......................................................... 23
3.1 Agriculture ................................................................................................. 23
3.2 Tourism and Recreation ............................................................................ 25
3.3 Industry ..................................................................................................... 25
4.0 Water Resources .......................................................................................... 26
4.1 Surface Water Resources ......................................................................... 26
4.2 Surface Water Quality ............................................................................... 29
4.3 Surface Water Allocation ........................................................................... 30
4.4 Ground Water Resources .......................................................................... 32
4.5 Ground Water Allocation ........................................................................... 34
5.0 Current Watershed Management Interests ................................................... 37
5.1 Hydrological Concerns .............................................................................. 37
5.2 Agricultural Concerns ................................................................................ 40
5.3 Community Impacts ................................................................................... 47
5.4 Road Maintenance and Road Salts ........................................................... 51
5.5 Ground Water Well Decommissioning ....................................................... 51
5.6 Water Borne Pathogens ............................................................................ 53
6.0 Upland and Wetland Conservation ............................................................... 53
6.1 Upland Areas............................................................................................. 54
6.2 Riparian Areas........................................................................................... 54
6.3 Wetland Areas ........................................................................................... 55
7.0 Current Watershed Management .................................................................. 56
7.1 Stewardship Activities, Programs and Funding ......................................... 56
8.0 Glossary of Terms......................................................................................... 61
9.0 References.................................................................................................... 67
iii
List of Figures
Figure 1. First Nations located in the Province of Saskatchewan. Witchekan
Lake First Nation is the red/black dot on this map. ............................................... 4
Figure 2. Satellite imagery of Witchekan Lake First Nation, including surrounding
area, Reserve boundaries and well locations. ...................................................... 5
Figure 3. Major watersheds and basins of the Prairie Provinces. Witchekan Lake
is located in the Churchill River Basin. .................................................................. 7
Figure 4. Location of the Beaver River Watershed within the province of
Saskatchewan. Witchekan Lake First Nation is located just north of Spiritwood in
the watershed. ...................................................................................................... 8
Figure 5. Soil textures of the Witchekan Lake area, with Reserve boundaries and
water well locations. ............................................................................................ 10
Figure 6. Elevation model of the Witchekan Lake area, with Reserve boundaries
and water well locations. ..................................................................................... 14
Figure 7. Endangered and threatened species, as well as species of special
concern located in the Witchekan Lake/Spiritwood area. .................................... 18
Figure 8. Land cover of the Witchekan Lake area, including Reserve boundaries
and water well locations. ..................................................................................... 20
Figure 9. Monthly precipitation for Prince Albert from the Canadian Climate
Normals 1971-2000 (Environment Canada, 2004).............................................. 21
Figure 10. Average monthly temperature for Prince Albert from the Canadian
Climate Normals 1971-2000 (Environment Canada, 2004). ............................... 22
Figure 11. There are multiple small horse operations on the Reserve. ............... 24
Figure 12. Pastures on Witchekan Lake First Nation Reserve # 117. ................. 25
Figure 13. The hydrologic cycle (Source: Environment Canada,
http://www.ec.gc.ca/Water/en/nature/prop/e_cycle.htm). .................................... 27
Figure 14. Drainage area of Witchekan Lake, its tributary creeks and outlet
channel to the Big River (Fraser, 1975). ............................................................. 28
Figure 15. Exterior of the Witchekan Lake First Nation WTP. ............................ 35
Figure 16. Examples of riparian areas and wetlands. (a) Source: Agriculture and
Agri-Food Canada, http://www.agr.gc.ca/pfra/land/riparea.htm. (b) Witchekan
Lake eastern shoreline. ....................................................................................... 43
Figure 17. Witchekan Lake First Nation’s sewage lagoon, view looking
southwest. ........................................................................................................... 49
Figure 18. Previous and current waste disposal grounds on Witchekan Lake First
Nation. ................................................................................................................ 50
Figure 19. Potential waste disposal sites and sources of contamination in
individual yards. .................................................................................................. 51
Figure 20. Abandoned wells should be probably decommissioned to avoid
contamination and for public safety. They should also be properly maintained, if
not decommissioned, as to avoid rodents and other materials from entering wells.
............................................................................................................................ 52
Figure 21. Procedure for decommissioning a large diameter (bored) well (Source:
A Landowner’s Guide to Water Well Management, SWA). ................................. 53
iv
List of Tables
Table 1. Weed species in the Boreal Transition Ecoregion (Leeson et al., 2005).
............................................................................................................................ 16
Table 2. Land cover classifications and area covered on Witchekan Lake First
Nation. ................................................................................................................ 19
Table 3. Registered population of Witchekan Lake First Nation as of November
2007 (INAC, 2007). ............................................................................................. 22
Table 4. Criterion Guidelines for various parameters measured in water quality
testing. ................................................................................................................ 31
Table 5. Nutrient composition of select manures and commercial fertilizer
(Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed,
SWA 2005). ........................................................................................................ 41
Table 6. Manure management for beef, dairy, hog and poultry operations
(Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed,
SWA 2005). ........................................................................................................ 41
Table 7. Canada-Saskatchewan Farm Stewardship Program BMP Categories. 58
v
List of Abbreviations
AAFC
ACTC
ADF
AE
AOA
ASL
BWA
CCME
COWQ
CSFSP
DOC
DUC
DFO
EFP
EC
EMPA
EMS
FNACS
GCDWQ
HC
ILO
INAC
IR
IWM
MC
PFRA
PFSRB
PMRA
PPWB
RM
SA
SE
SNOWS
SSWQO
SWA
SWPP
SWPPP
TLE
WPO
WTP
WQI
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Agency Chiefs Tribal Council
Agricultural Development Fund
Alberta Environment
Agricultural Operations Act
Above Sea Level
Boil Water Advisory
Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment
Committee on Water Quality
Canada-Saskatchewan Farm Stewardship Program
Dissolved organic carbon
Ducks Unlimited Canada
Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada
Environmental Farm Plan
Environment Canada
Environmental Management Protection Act
Earthen Manure Storage
First Nations Agricultural Council of Saskatchewan, Inc.
Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality
Health Canada
Intensive Livestock Operation
Indian and Northern Affairs Canada
Indian Reserve
Integrated Weed Management
Manitoba Conservation
Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration
Partners for the Saskatchewan River Basin
Pest Management Regulatory Agency
Prairie Provinces Water Board
Rural Municipality
Saskatchewan Agriculture
Saskatchewan Environment
Saskatchewan Network of Watershed Stewards
Saskatchewan Surface Water Quality Objectives
Saskatchewan Watershed Authority
Source Water Protection Plan
Source Water Protection Pilot Project
Treaty Land Entitlement
Water Plant Operator
Water Treatment Plant
Water Quality Index
vi
List of Appendices
Appendix 1. Saskatchewan Watershed Authority Factsheets ............................. 69
Appendix 2. Water Well Locations on Witchekan Lake First Nation IR #117. ..... 70
Appendix 3. Pictures of Water Wells Located on Witchekan Lake First Nation IR
#117. ................................................................................................................... 73
Appendix 4. Water Quality Analysis Results for Witchekan Lake First Nation
Water Treatment Plant, February 2007. .............................................................. 79
Appendix 5. Water Quality Analysis Results for Witchekan Lake First Nation
Water Wells, October 2007 ................................................................................. 80
Appendix 6. Geology and Groundwater Resources of the Shellbrook Area (73G),
Saskatchewan..................................................................................................... 81
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1.0 Introduction
1.1 Purpose of Developing the Source Water Protection Pilot
Project
In 2004, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) identified water quantity and
quality as major concerns on First Nations in Canada. To deliver this project,
INAC contracted Environment Canada (EC), who contracted the First Nations
Agricultural Council of Saskatchewan (FNACS). Contract agreements were
signed in March 2007 between FNACS and EC and FNACS and the
Saskatchewan Watershed Authority (SWA), and provided funding for FNACS to
deliver this SWPPP on three First Nations in Saskatchewan – Witchekan Lake
First Nation, Muskeg Lake Cree Nation and Sweetgrass First Nation. If
successful, EC and INAC would like to look at the delivery of this type of project
to other First Nations in Saskatchewan.
There are many concerns about water quality on First Nations in Saskatchewan.
Water is a very important aspect of First Nations culture, and with changes in the
lifestyles and culture of First Nations individuals since the introduction and
incorporation of Western European culture, views and treatment of water have
subsequently been affected.
The purpose of this project is to identify threats and potential sources of
contamination to Witchekan Lake First Nation’s water sources, raise awareness
of these issues and provide a plan to minimize and/or eliminate these threats.
1.2 Process of Developing the SWPPP
Information included in the background report was acquired from many sources.
Information about the Reserve itself was found on the INAC website, from
Agency Chiefs Tribal Council (ACTC), the Band, field work, and from interviews
with community members. Information about the general area was found from
Saskatchewan government websites, the Preliminary Background Report of the
North Saskatchewan River Watershed, SWA reports, and the Atlas of
Saskatchewan (Fung, 1999), etc. This background report includes information
about: First Nations culture, population, land use activities, climate, physical
characteristics, surface and ground water characteristics, water and wastewater
treatment and disposal, riparian and wetland area information and stewardship
activities and partners.
The background report is a living document, and is subject to additions and
changes when additional relevant information becomes available. Once the
Source Water Protection Plan (SWPP) is finished, this background report will be
finalized. The information included in it will be current, so that the First Nation
and its partners in the SWPPP will be able to make informed decisions about
protecting the quality and quantity of water on the Witchekan Lake First Nation.
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1.3 First Nations People and the Environment
The environment and everything it includes (water, land, air, animals, etc.) are
key components of First Nations culture and the traditional beliefs of First Nations
people. The worldview and spirituality of the Cree culture are very complicated
to put into a few words, because in doing so, much of the meaning behind
traditions and beliefs may be lost.
John Thomas is an elder in the Witchekan Lake First Nation. He does
counseling at the First Nation’s school, as well as at the correctional center in
Saskatoon. He explains that water is in nature, and is a big part of life in all
nationalities. “If you don’t have water you’re not going to live, so it’s a big part
within our culture.” Not only is water important to sustain life, it is also an
important part of Cree ceremonies and traditions. Most ceremonies are used for
healing, and “water, because of its source, plays a big part of healing, because
it’s part of life.” Some examples of where water is used traditionally are sweat
lodges, round dances, chicken dances, horse dances and sun dances.
In the past, First Nations people were very close with nature; however, in current
times, the “worldview in First Nations is pretty weak. In the olden days spirituality
was pretty strong because people did not have alcohol. They concentrated and
accepted everything in nature as spiritual. Immigration started, introduced
alcohol, and the Indians got caught up with that…then the guys that are in power
brought in the preachers to brainwash all the Indians and dissolve their powers.”
In his personal and professional experiences, John has found that “the younger
generation was brought up with all kinds of drugs, and when you confront them
with spirituality they get defensive, because they are not ready to make a change
and accept that life that they are leading at the moment. So the spirituality is an
enemy to them because it condemns what they’re doing now and the life that
they live.”
Historically, First Nations people hunted for food. Now, with a change in the way
of life, and the convenience of other foods, the necessity to hunt is not there – for
most of the people that hunt now, it is a sport. Where they used to be able to
hunt, it is now often posted that there is no hunting allowed or only outfitters are
allowed to hunt on lands. “It’s been commercialized, and that is not good.” In
addition, the quality of the meat from animals, such as deer, is not as good –
“before, you’d kill a deer and it’s gone in no time, but now it doesn’t taste that
good. So nobody goes after deer anymore.”
When it comes to the land itself, John feels that the people that make the
decisions “have no intention of ever changing the land to the way it was
before…the people that are involved in and manage the land are all into
harvesting, like forestry, and commercial farming and stuff. I don’t see it
anywhere, that it will go back to that way.” Currently, John feels that “First
Nations people play a very small role in managing the land because there’s no
resource people that can manage the way that the land needs to be managed.”
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However, with more education on the traditional uses of the land, and the
importance of nature, the people may become closer to this goal. The goals of
this project were to find out what issues First Nations have with regard to water,
and to help them resolve some of these issues, based on the goals of the First
Nations, because, as John states, “the view of a Native person is very different
from what would be introduced in a different protection plan.” When it comes to
the ideas of this project, “this kind of involvement should have taken place at
least about 50 years ago. Now that it has been done, I think it’s permanently
damaged, and there’s no going back.”
John feels that there are some springs (where water comes out of the ground to
the surface) that may still be able to be protected, not on the Reserve, but just
north of it. “When we were kids, we used to go for water a couple times a
month…that’s where they’d get their water from and it’s good to drink. You boil it
for tea, and there’s not a spot.” “It is government land. If a person [or business]
could approach the government to purchase this land for a dollar maybe, for the
water’s protection…to initiate that we are trying to protect that water, to have an
ownership to that parcel of land.”
As John said, “If this was done 50 years ago or more, there was probably a time
when you could stop that ammonia and other kinds of chemicals from ending up
in the ground…as far as I know, all those little rivers that flow underneath - a
good percentage of them are contaminated.” Everyone may not have realized
how important protecting the water was before, but this concept has become
more widespread in the last few years, especially with highly publicized stories of
people becoming sick from things in the environment and water. With plans such
as this, we can prevent additional contamination of water from happening.
The development of this SWPP is one of the first steps in preserving some of the
traditional ways of First Nations people, and preserving nature for future
generations. If future generations of First Nations people are to have somewhere
to live and raise their children, today’s youth must start, or continue to, learn
about their history and spirituality.
2.0 Reserve Land Characteristics
2.1 Physical Characteristics
2.1.1 Location
The core area of Witchekan Lake First Nation is located just west of Highway #24
and north of Highway #3, and is located within the Rural Municipality (RM) #496
Spiritwood. The Witchekan Lake First Nation encompasses roughly 8,485
hectares (20,960 acres, 84.8 km2) of Reserve and Treaty Land Entitlement (TLE)
lands. Figures 1 and 2 show where Witchekan Lake First Nation is located in
Saskatchewan, and a satellite image of the immediate area.
3
Figure 1. First Nations located in the Province of Saskatchewan. Witchekan Lake First Nation is
the red/black dot on this map.
4
Figure 2. Satellite imagery of Witchekan Lake First Nation, including surrounding area, Reserve boundaries and well
locations.
5
2.1.2 Physical Setting
Witchekan Lake First Nation is located in the Beaver River Watershed, which is
located within the Churchill River Basin (Figures 3 and 4). The Churchill River
Basin is approximately 187,995 km2, which makes it the largest basin in
Saskatchewan. This basin encompasses three watersheds: the Beaver River,
Churchill River and Reindeer River/Wollaston Lake Watersheds. The Beaver
River begins at Beaver Lake, northeast of Edmonton, Alberta, drains from the
west side of Alberta, across northern Saskatchewan and Manitoba, and empties
into the Hudson Bay.
Alberta
As mentioned previously, the Beaver River originates at the Beaver Lake,
northeast of Edmonton, Alberta, and drains east. The catchment area (area
where rivers and lakes drain into) on the Alberta side of the watershed is
approximately 22,000 km2. In Alberta, the Beaver River Watershed includes the
major urban centers of Bonnyville, Cold Lake and Grand Centre.
The major municipalities in Alberta’s portion of the watershed use surface water
for their infrastructure. Wastewater treatment meets Alberta’s guidelines; plans
are in the process of being created and implemented to improve these
wastewater treatment systems as well. There is also a plan to install a regional
water supply system from the Cold Lake to supply water to municipalities beyond
the City of Cold Lake. Currently, water use on the Alberta side of the watershed
is less than 2% of the total volume flowing through. Some lakes in the watershed
have had low lake levels because of the last 15-20 years of climate conditions,
however. Even in the last few years of higher precipitation, lake levels have not
recovered (Joe Prusak, personal communication, 2007).
The majority of the groundwater allocation and use on the Alberta side of the
watershed is for the oil and gas industry, however only about one-third of the
allocations are used in this sector. The oil and gas industry is not the only user
of groundwater – there are also many domestic groundwater wells drawing from
shallow aquifers. Therefore, there is great risk for contamination of the aquifers
and wells, especially because not all of the wells are adequately protected from
surface contamination (e.g. surface runoff) (Joe Prusak, personal
communication, 2007).
For more information about the Beaver River Watershed in Alberta and source
water protection efforts there, please see Alberta Environment’s (AE) website:
http://www.environment.alberta.ca/1760.html or contact Joe Prusak at
[email protected] for more information.
6
Figure 3. Major watersheds and basins of the Prairie Provinces. Witchekan Lake is located in the Churchill River Basin.
7
Figure 4. Location of the Beaver River Watershed within the province of Saskatchewan. Witchekan Lake First
Nation is located just north of Spiritwood in the watershed.
8
Saskatchewan
The area of the Beaver River Watershed is approximately the same on the
Saskatchewan side as the Alberta side. The Beaver River Watershed is
characterized by many meandering streams and rivers which drain multiple lakes
such as Chitek Lake, Cowan Lake, Cold Lake, Meadow Lake, Lac La Plonge,
Waterhen Lake, Witchekan Lake, Lac des Iles, and Flotten Lake. The area
around Witchekan Lake is gently sloping and moderately undulating. As the
distance away from the lake increases, the landscape changes to mixed
undulating to rolling.
In Saskatchewan, major towns found within the watershed include Spiritwood,
Meadow Lake, Big River, Pierceland, Loon Lake and St. Walburg. The Beaver
River Watershed includes approximately 9 First Nations Reserves in
Saskatchewan, including: Big Island Lake Cree Nation, Island Lake First Nation,
Onion Lake First Nation, Makwa Sahgaiehcan First Nation, Flying Dust First
Nation, Waterhen Lake First Nation, Pelican Lake First Nation, Witchekan Lake
First Nation and Big River First Nation. Other First Nations may also lay claim to
land in the watershed as traditional lands, but that data has not been collected for
the purposes of this study at this time.
2.1.3 Soils
On the Reserve, loam (L) is the dominant soil texture (Figure 5). On the south
end of the Reserve, there is also a large amount of loamy sand (LS) soils. Loam
soils are of medium texture, with approximately equal proportions of sand, silt
and clay-sized particles. There are also clay (C) soils dominant around the
northwest side of Witchekan Lake. Clay soils are of fine texture, with small pore
spaces. They tend to hold much more water than a more coarse textured sand,
whose large pores allow water to infiltrate more freely through the soil. There are
also patches of sandy loam (SL) soils in the south end of the Reserve and the
very northern part of the Reserve. On the northeast side of the Reserve there is
also a very small patch of silty loam (SIL) soil. Both SL and SIL are medium
texture soils; however they do differ slightly in the relative proportions of sand, silt
and clay-sized particles.
Organic (O) soils are found on the west side of the Reserve around Sylvander
Lake, the area around which is classified as wetland. Organic soils form where
surface water collects and slows down the decomposition of organic materials
(leaves, roots, stems, soil microbes, etc.). These soils are inadequate for
agricultural uses, and are generally too saturated to be highly productive.
9
Figure 5. Soil textures of the Witchekan Lake area, with Reserve boundaries and water well locations.
10
Soils perform many functions for life. Soils are the growth medium for plants,
they filter water and are an important part of the nutrient cycle. Microorganisms
and soil fauna are the driving forces behind these functions. Soil organic matter
consists of living and dead plant and animal materials at various stages of
decomposition. Soil organic matter plays a major role in keeping the soil well
aggregated, aerated and porous, making soils easier to cultivate and improving
water infiltration. It also plays important roles in the retention of moisture and
nutrients for crop growth.
Soil mineral particles range in size from sub-microscopic clay particles, through
silts, to sands up to 2 mm in diameter. Stones and gravel, while present in soils,
have little influence in soil properties. The relative proportion of sand, silt and
clay-sized particles in a soil is called the soil texture. Soil texture greatly
influences many soil properties such as the fertility and moisture holding capacity
of the soil, which together largely determine the soil’s suitability for growing
crops. Soils with a large proportion of sand-sized particles are usually well
drained, well-aerated and easy to cultivate. However, on the Prairies, sandy
soils may not retain enough moisture to sustain crops between precipitation
events, making them less suitable for annual cropping. Soils with high clay
content can absorb and retain more water making them good for annual crops in
semi-arid climates. However, clay soils with low organic matter levels may be
sticky when wet and when dry may become hard and difficult to cultivate. Clay
particles can attract and attach nutrients and contaminants such as pesticides
and bacteria from human sewage or manure (Hillel, 1982).
Erosion
Erosion is the loss of soil from a particular location due to the action of wind,
water and gravity. Soil productivity is reduced after erosion due to loss of soil
organic matter, loss of fine soil particles, and degradation of soil structure. In
most cases the maintenance of a vegetative cover on the soil surface is the
critical factor in controlling soil erosion. Vegetation absorbs the energy of wind
and water; also, plant roots bind soil particles together making them more
resistant to erosion.
Three types of erosion may significantly impact water quality in the Beaver River
watershed: water erosion, wind erosion and stream bank erosion. Plant
nutrients, microorganisms, and agricultural chemicals may be attached to soil
particles or dissolved in water; consequently, erosion and runoff can transport
these substances to surface waters. The eventual fate of eroded soil and any
potential contaminants depends on the intensity of the erosion event.
Water Erosion
Water erosion begins with rain drops hitting the soil surface causing soil
aggregates to break into smaller pieces. If the amount of rain exceeds the
capacity of the soil to absorb it, water starts to flow downhill across the soil
11
surface transporting loose soil, finding low spots and eventually cutting channels
into the soil.
The severity of water erosion depends on the (a) the amount and velocity of
runoff which is determined by the intensity of rainfall or the rapidity of snowmelt,
the steepness and length of slopes, and the area of the upstream watershed, (b)
soil properties (such as texture, organic matter content and density) affecting the
rate of infiltration of precipitation and the susceptibility of the soil to erosion, and
(c) the amount of protection provided by growing crops or residues from previous
crops.
Vegetation intercepts raindrops and reduces the amount of erosion caused by
rainfall and runoff. On fields with little or no vegetation to absorb the impact
rainwater will hit the bare soil loosening soil particles. Vegetation also slows
down runoff and acts as a filter by trapping sediment and any adsorbed
contaminants.
Note that not all fields will erode the same amount. According to the Preliminary
Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed, some areas in
the watershed could erode at rates between 5-12 T/ha/yr. This value may be
similar for areas within the Beaver River Watershed, because of its close
proximity to the North Saskatchewan River Watershed, and similar landscapes in
many areas. Areas with steep slopes in annual crop production and with very
fine sandy or silty soils are the most prone to erosion. Witchekan Lake First
Nation may not have to be concerned about this type of erosion because the
landscape is relatively flat.
Wind erosion
Wind erosion may result in sediments being deposited directly in water bodies, or
in drainage ditches and runs where sediments will be susceptible to water
erosion. Wind erosion results when strong winds come into contact with loose
dry soils. Fine soil material becomes suspended in the air and may travel many
thousands of kilometers before being deposited. Fine sand sized particles and
aggregates are mobilized by the wind and skip along the surface of the eroding
area. This process greatly increases the intensity of wind erosion. Eventually
these particles are trapped by vegetation or behind stones, usually within a few
hundred meters from their starting point. Larger sand sized particles and
aggregates, which are too heavy to be picked up by the wind, are rolled along the
soil surface and seldom moved far. Persistent wind erosion over several years
may remove tens of centimeters of soil from susceptible areas causing the
formation of sand dunes. The removal of fine particles by wind erosion
significantly impacts soil fertility and may transport pesticides, nutrients, and
pathogens attached to the soil.
The factors affecting wind erosion are surface soil moisture, wind speed and
turbulence, soil texture, soil aggregation, the presence of surface crusts, surface
12
roughness, unsheltered field width, and the amount, orientation and type of
surface vegetation. Sandy soils are the most erodible, but clays may be
extremely erodible if exposed to freeze-thaw which results in fine sand sized
aggregates which are very susceptible to erosive winds. Vegetation absorbs the
energy of the wind, protects the soils surface and traps eroding particles.
Therefore crop residue management and permanent forage are the most
effective practices to control wind erosion.
Stream Bank Erosion and In-stream Sedimentation
The erosive force of high water flow in creeks and rivers may undercut the banks
causing them to slump into the water - this is called stream bank erosion. The
greater the water flow velocity, the greater will be the erosion on stream banks.
Water velocity also determines how much sediment can be carried - the faster
the stream velocity, the more sediment load can be carried. As stream velocity
slows, this sediment is then deposited either within the stream where stream
gradients decrease or when river water enters a lake (deltas).
Vegetative cover is important in controlling stream bank erosion. Its
effectiveness depends on the type, location, and amount of plant material.
Vegetation in the stream will slow water flow resulting in less erosion of stream
banks and greater in-stream sedimentation of entrained material. The roots of
riparian (shoreline) vegetation bind the soil together and help to stabilize the
banks; they also function as filters to stop sediment, nutrients and contaminants
from entering a stream. Riparian vegetation is water tolerant and usually
consists of thick dense brush, trees, or grasses.
2.1.4 Topography
Slope classifications across the Beaver River Watershed vary significantly.
Figure 6, an elevation model, shows the high and low elevations across the
Witchekan Lake First Nation. Generally, the area immediately around Witchekan
Lake is very level. The only major change in elevation is seen at the north end of
the Reserve, where the river valley runs through the landscape and Witchekan
Lake empties into Big River.
13
Figure 6. Elevation model of the Witchekan Lake area, with Reserve boundaries and water well locations.
14
2.2 Ecology
Ecology is defined as the study of the mutual relationships between organisms,
both plant and animal, and their environment (Parker, 2005). Although there is a
lot that can be discussed under the scope of ecology, this section will only
examine information which was readily available.
2.2.1 Ecoregions
The geography of Saskatchewan has been described and classified into
ecozones and subsequent ecoregions on the basis of landform (i.e. soils,
topography, hydrology and geology) and the resulting dominant vegetation
communities (Acton et al., 1998). Within the various ecozones are found
wetlands, lakes, rivers and landforms with high wetland densities (e.g. the
Thickwood Hills) that are important to migrating and breeding waterfowl and
other water birds.
The Churchill River Basin has very diverse landscapes and vegetation scattered
throughout it – it encompasses portions of five ecoregions: the Boreal Transition,
Mid-Boreal Upland, Churchill River Upland, Athabasca Plain and the Selwyn
Lake Upland. The Beaver River Watershed itself traverses three ecoregions:
Boreal Transition, Mid Boreal Uplands and a small amount of the Churchill River
Upland. The Witchekan Lake First Nation falls in the Boreal Transition
ecoregion. The description below is taken from the Atlas of Saskatchewan
(Fung, 1999).
Boreal Plain - Boreal Transition
“This ecoregion is characterized by a mix of forest and farmland, marking both
the southern advance of the boreal forest and the northern limit of arable
agriculture. Gray soils supporting tall stands of aspen are characteristic of the
hilly upland areas. White spruce and jack pine occur throughout the area but are
less common than in the more northern ecoregions. Peatlands are also less
common. Except for the areas of jack pine on sandy soils along the North
Saskatchewan River valley, the lowlands or plains are mostly cultivated. In fact,
the black and dark gray soils are some of the most fertile and productive in the
province, producing a wide range of forage crops, feed grains, cereals and
oilseeds. Wildlife populations are diverse with white-tailed deer, moose, elk and
black bear being the most prominent. Other mammals include the beaver,
northern flying squirrel and the short-tailed shrew. The gray jay, boreal
chickadee, black and white warbler, and great-crested fly-catcher are typical
birds.”
Common fish in this region include Northern pike, walleye, perch and rainbow
trout.
15
2.2.2 Weeds
A weed survey on cropland in Saskatchewan was completed in 2003, and a
summary of the results of all Prairie Provinces was completed in 2005. The size
and extent of some of the more common weeds from the Boreal Transition
Ecoregion can be found in Table 1.
Table 1. Weed species in the Boreal Transition Ecoregion (Leeson et al., 2005).
Weed Species
Relative Abundance*
Wild oats
35.3
Wild buckwheat
35.0
Chickweed
23.2
Green foxtail
19.6
Canada thistle
19.4
Lamb’s quarters
18.4
Field horsetail
11.9
Cleavers
11.4
Hemp-nettle
10.6
Stinkweed
10.6
Dandelion
10.1
Quack grass
9.2
Wheat
8.8
Canola/rapeseed
8.5
Pale smartweed
7.9
Redroot pigweed
7.9
Shepherd’s-purse
6.6
Narrow-leaved hawk’s-beard
6.2
Perennial sow-thistle
5.8
* Relative abundance: A combination of the frequency, field uniformity and field density values for each species.
Invasive Species/Noxious Weeds
Invasive species are non-native organisms that can invade and disturb natural
ecosystems resulting in the displacement of the native species. Often these
plants are more competitive and offset the natural vegetation. This results in a
loss of biodiversity.
Noxious weeds are undesirable plants that can cause physical or economic
damage. Noxious weeds pose a real threat to reduce the biodiversity of plants
and animals in the watershed. The presence of noxious weeds in riparian areas
can destabilize the natural buffer zones resulting in increased erosion and the
decreased ability of the vegetation to filter any contaminants. Control of noxious
weeds can be difficult, especially around waterbodies. Furthermore, The
Environmental Management Protection Act (EMPA) restricts the use of control
substances such as chemical weed controls within 25 meters, or 50 meters for
aerial applications, of a water body including intermittent waterways and drainage
ditches without a permit. This poses a problem as noxious weeds will readily
grow in riparian areas and can be easily transported by water flows. Some
examples of noxious weeds include downy brome, scentless chamomile, green
foxtail and leafy spurge. A complete list of noxious weeds can be found online at
http://www.qp.gov.sk.ca/documents/English/Regulations/Regulations/N91R2.pdf.
16
2.2.3 Waterfowl
The Province of Saskatchewan has been identified as an area of continental
significance to breeding waterfowl populations, producing over 50% of the
waterfowl in Canada, and approximately 30% of the population of in North
America. The Beaver River watershed itself contributes a significant number of
birds to the continental duck population because each year thousands of
waterfowl are attracted to the numerous productive wetlands found within its
boundaries. Saskatchewan Environment has closed the Witchekan Lake area to
the hunting of game birds, however this does not apply to First Nations peoples.
According to the people of Witchekan Lake First Nation there are many geese on
their lands, but not an abundance of ducks.
2.2.4 Fish
The Beaver River Watershed system supports a wide diversity of fish species.
Species of interest to anglers include northern pike, walleye, sauger and yellow
perch. Other fish species that may be present are brook trout, lake trout, rainbow
trout, lake whitefish, white sucker, longnose sucker and burbot. There is no
commercial or recreational fishing on Witchekan Lake. Prior to the 1980s there
used to be some recreational fishing for jackfish, as well as suckers, who used to
spawn in the lake. There also were settlements on the east and west sides of
Witchekan Lake, where the tributary creeks enter the lake. According to some of
the First Nation people on the Reserve, there used to be good fishing on the east
side of the lake. However, now the elders think that even if fish do come in from
the streams, they do not survive long because of low oxygen levels in the lake
because it is so shallow.
Fish Habitat
Fish habitat means "all areas that fish depend on directly or indirectly throughout
their life stages. It includes spawning grounds and nursery, rearing, food supply
and migration areas." This means that fish habitat not only includes areas where
fish are actually found during one or more phases of their life cycle but also those
areas that supply the food items necessary to support those fish species.
Fish habitat can be easily damaged and lost due to human activities that occur
in, near or with water. These often result in both large and small changes to fish
habitat in ways that are both obvious and subtle. These changes often have
profound effects on the economic, social, cultural and environmental benefits that
marine and freshwater fish provide to Canadians. In many cases these effects
are not seen or noticed for years after the initial impacts have occurred.
2.2.5 Wildlife
The Beaver River Watershed supports many different kinds of wildlife, including
some species that are considered endangered. Within the Witchekan Lake area,
the Piping Plover is listed as being endangered, the Loggerhead Shrike,
Sprague's Pipit and Woodland Caribou are threatened, and the Monarch
17
Butterfly, Long-billed Curlew and Yellow Rail are listed as species of special
concern (Figure 7).
(a) Piping Plover
Photo by David Krughoff
(b) Loggerhead Shrike
Photo by Rick McNichol
(c) Woodland Caribou
Photo by Troy B. Thompson
Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/
troybthompson/352054492/
(d) Monarch Butterfly
(e) Yellow Rail
Photo by G. Sutter
Photo by black_throated_green_warbler
Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/
7272419@N03/2210232574/
(g) Sprague’s Pipit
(f) Long-billed Curlew
Photo by G. Tosh
Photo by Stephen Davis
Figure 7. Endangered and threatened species, as well as species of special concern located in
the Witchekan Lake/Spiritwood area.
For information on big game animals occurring within the Beaver River
Watershed contact Saskatchewan Environment (www.se.gov.sk.ca) in Spiritwood
at (306) 883-8501 or the Canadian Wildlife Service (www.cws-scf.ec.gc.ca) at
(306) 975-4087.
18
2.3 Land Use
One of the primary land uses in the Spiritwood/Witchekan Lake area is cropland.
There are also a large amount of wetlands and waterbodies in the area, as well
as dense tree stands and large patches of native grassland.
On the Witchekan Lake First Nation Indian Reserve No. 102, land use is mainly
agricultural – with just over 20% cropland, about 35% native grassland and
approximately 30% marshes and water bodies (Table 2) . The remainder is
classified as forage, tree or other (which includes homes, yards, residential
communities, etc.) (Figure 8).
Table 2. Land cover classifications and area covered on Witchekan Lake First Nation.
Land Cover Type
Area
Area
Percent Landcover
2
(m )
(acres)
(%)
Cultivated
14,262,300
3,524
22
Hay/Forage
1,440,000
355
2.2
Native Grass
22,620,600
5,589
35
Tall Shrub
3,764,700
930
6
Hardwood Open
2,340,900
578
3.6
108,900
27
0.2
Pasture
0
0
0
Jackpine Open
0
0
0
Jackpine Closed
0
0
0
Spruce Closed
28,800
7
0.04
Spruce Open
31,500
8
0.05
Mixed Wood
0
0
0
Waterbody
6,713,100
1659
10
Marsh
12,647,700
3,125
20
27,000
7
0.04
0
0
0
193,500
99
0.3
64,179,000
15,908
99.43
Hardwood Closed
Mud/Sand/Saline
Shrub Fen
Farm/Community
Total Land
19
Figure 8. Land cover of the Witchekan Lake area, including Reserve boundaries and water well locations.
20
2.4 Climate
The Witchekan Lake First Nation has a sub-humid climate, characterized by wide
variations in both seasonal and annual temperatures and precipitation. There
are also frequent wide fluctuations in temperature from day to day and between
day and night. The mean annual precipitation for Prince Albert is approximately
424.3 mm (Environment Canada, 2004). Annual precipitation totals can vary
widely from year to year and sometimes exhibit multi-year cycles of high or low
totals.
Monthly average precipitation varies throughout the year with the wettest month
being July while the driest month is February. Figure 9 shows the variation of
monthly precipitation at Prince Albert, whose climate is similar to the Witchekan
Lake First Nation’s climate.
90
Average Precipitation (mm)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Figure 9. Monthly precipitation for Prince Albert from the Canadian Climate Normals 1971-2000
(Environment Canada, 2004).
The daily highs average 23.9°C in July and -13°C in January. Daily lows average
11.1°C in July and -25.2°C in January. Extreme temperatures in Prince Albert
range from -50°C, recorded on January 20, 1943, to 38.8°C, recorded on August
5, 1988 (Environment Canada, 2004). Temperatures across the Beaver River
Watershed vary roughly by ecoregion from cooler in the north to warmer in the
south. Figure 10 shows the average monthly temperature at Prince Albert.
21
20
Average Temperature (deg C)
15
10
5
0
-5
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
-10
-15
-20
-25
Figure 10. Average monthly temperature for Prince Albert from the Canadian Climate Normals
1971-2000 (Environment Canada, 2004).
2.5 Demographics
The population of the Beaver River Watershed in 2001 was 22,418 persons.
Being in the northern part of Saskatchewan, the population density is much lower
(0.68 people/km2), compared to more southern watersheds, such as the South
Saskatchewan River Watershed (6.54 people/km2) (SWA, 2006). On Witchekan
Lake First Nation specifically, the population density in 2006 was approximately
4.7 people/km2 (Statistics Canada, 2007). Therefore, the stress on the Beaver
River Watershed and the Reserve caused by human activities is theoretically
lower than in more densely populated areas.
However, as of November 2007, the population seems to have increased (Table
3). The median age of the population on Witchekan Lake First Nation is
approximately 15.6 years old. Approximately 53.7% of the population is 15+
years old (Statistics Canada, 2007).
Table 3. Registered population of Witchekan Lake First Nation as of November 2007 (INAC,
2007).
Registered males on own Reserve
221
Registered females on own Reserve
193
Registered males on other Reserves
23
Registered females on other Reserves
18
Registered males off Reserve
80
Registered females off Reserve
88
Total registered population
623
22
3.0 Economic Activities and Opportunities
There are many different activities that provide for an economic benefit to the
region. Agriculture, forestry and related products are all significant activities in
the watershed.
3.1 Agriculture
The agriculture production and processing sector represents an important
economic endeavour in the province. Major agricultural activities/industries
include crop and forage production, cow - calf operations, beef feedlots, pork
production units, inland grain terminals, and agricultural machinery
manufacturers. Other agricultural activities within the watershed include smallerscale horticulture, apiculture and agroforestry operations. Additional information
regarding agriculture in Saskatchewan can be found at the Saskatchewan
Agriculture (SA, formerly Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food) website at
http://www.agr.gov.sk.ca.
A survey of farms in Saskatchewan shows a decline in the number of total farms
from 56,995 in 1996 to 50,598 in 2001, an 11% reduction. The only farm size
classes that increased in number compared with 1996 were the 180 to 239 acre
class (4%) and the 1,600 acre and over class (2%). While total provincial
farmland only slightly decreased (approximately 1%) to 64.9 million acres in 2001
compared to 1996, the average farm size increased (11%) to 1283 acres in 2001
compared to 1152 acres in 1996. The lack of commodity price increases
concurrent to the rise of input costs, as well as the closure of particular market
streams (e.g. beef to the USA) has resulted in the loss of many family-farm
operations. Nonetheless, farmers have demonstrated tenacity in the face of
these challenges by diversifying farm operations, improving production efficiency
and utilizing non-traditional market streams.
3.1.1 Agricultural Crops and Forage
An analysis of federal and provincial census data reveal that over the past 15
years agricultural cropping activities in Saskatchewan have become more
diversified and have adopted management strategies that reduce soil
disturbance. Predominant crops are cereal grains (wheat, barley and oats),
oilseeds (canola, flax) and pulse crops (field peas, lentils). Forage production
(alfalfa and mixed grasses) also comprises a significant proportion of farmland,
especially in the Aspen Parkland and Boreal Transition ecoregions.
All of the cropland on Witchekan Lake First Nation is rented or leased out to
neighboring farmers. Much of this cropland has been bought from these
neighboring farmers as TLE land, and has been rented back to the original
owners, or other local area producers. Pasture and hayland is mainly used by
Witchekan Lake First Nation Band members. The crops generally seeded on the
Reserve and TLE land include barley, canola, field peas, wheat, and oats. From
23
interviews with the land renters, the most commonly used herbicides are
Touchdown®, Roundup®, 2,4-D, MCPA, and other common broadleaf, wild oat
and grassy weed herbicides. Fungicides such as Quadris® on pulses and Tilt®
on cereals are sometimes used in wet years, but not on all fields. In these
interviews with the renters, it was also indicated that insecticides are rarely, if
ever, used.
3.1.2 Livestock
There are three major pastures on Witchekan Lake First Nation: the Bapaume
Pasture, the South Pasture and the North Pasture. In addition to these three
large pastures, there are also three smaller horse operations, ranging in size
from 5 to 30 horses, and the occasional resident with possibly one or two animals
(Figures 11 and 12).
Bapaume Pasture has been owned by Witchekan Lake First Nation for
approximately 8 to 10 years – prior to that it was a Community Pasture. It is
approximately 6,900 acres. In the summer of 2007, there were roughly 850 cowcalf pairs in the pasture. This pasture is managed by Kevin Anderson, a nonBand member who managed the Community Pasture as well. Livestock of nonBand members are pastured in the Bapaume Pasture.
The South Pasture is approximately 730 acres in area, consisting of the following
quarters: E ½-36-51-12-3, S ½-31-51-11-3, and the eastern parts of the following
quarters: NE-31-51-11-3, E ½-06-52-11-3, SE-07-52-11-3. Approximately 80
cow-calf pairs were grazing on the South Pasture in 2007. Generally the herd
size is larger in drier years (approximately 200 pairs), however, in 2007 some of
the pasture land was flooded so the herd size was reduced. This South Pasture
in leased to a local farmer. There are also approximately 70 horses in the South
Pasture.
The North Pasture is part of a joint partnership between Witchekan Lake First
Nation and Pelican Lake First Nation. Gary Havorson is the pasture manager.
The North Pasture is reserved for a bison herd; in 2007 there were approximately
33 cow-calf pairs grazing there. This pasture consists of five quarters of
Witchekan Lake First Nation land: N ½-07, S ½-18 and NW-08-53-11-3.
Figure 11. There are multiple small horse operations on the Reserve.
24
Figure 12. Pastures on Witchekan Lake First Nation Reserve # 117.
3.1.3 Intensive Livestock Operations
There are no intensive livestock operations (ILOs) on the Witchekan Lake First
Nation Reserve. There is an old, abandoned dairy barn and corrals located on
SW-06-53-11-3, but it has not been used for many years. Currently, it is
unlocked, open and subject to occasional vandalism. There are also old
livestock medicine containers, automotive liquid jugs and many other pieces of
debris and garbage scattered throughout and around the dairy barn.
There are multiple ILOs (hog barns) in the Spiritwood area. Concern has been
raised as to waste management from these barns, and the possible future
impacts of them on the groundwater in the area, especially with possible future
expansions of the current operations and additions of new ones. For more
information about ILOs and the Agricultural Operations Act (AOA), which
regulates the development and operations of ILOs, please contact SA,
Agricultural Operations at (306) 933-5095, or refer to the Preliminary Background
Report of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed.
3.2 Tourism and Recreation
There is currently no recreational development on Witchekan Lake First Nation
land. There are also no current discussions to develop the lands around the
lake.
3.3 Industry
3.3.1 Oil and Gas Development
Although there is significant oil and gas industry production in northwest
Saskatchewan, most of it is concentrated southwest of the Beaver River
Watershed and in southeastern Saskatchewan. Historically and currently, no oil
and gas development has taken place on Witchekan Lake First Nation lands.
3.3.2 Forestry
There is currently no commercial harvesting of timber on the Witchekan Lake
First Nation, although there is extensive forest harvesting in the Beaver River
Watershed and in the adjacent North Saskatchewan River watershed. According
25
to the SWA State of the Watershed Reporting Framework (2006), as of January
2006, approximately 80% of the Beaver River Watershed is forested, and
approximately 1.21% of that area has been disturbed in the past 20 years by
harvesting (cutover).
3.3.3 Fire Management
Fire is recognized as an important part of the natural ecological process. As
such, it is encouraged where fires can be allowed to burn or reintroduced through
prescribed burning. In riparian areas, the effects of fire can be highly variable
depending on the existing vegetative structure, site conditions, fire intensity and
subsequent weather patterns. Fire in riparian areas can affect microclimate
regulation, carbon inputs, floodplain and channel stability (sedimentation), soil
chemistry and nutrient cycling.
Where fire is actioned, fire suppression measures can be modified to reduce
potential negative environmental impacts. Fire Management and Forest
Protection, Saskatchewan Environment (SE), have developed reclamation
standards which include erosion and sedimentation control measures, recontouring of slopes, coarse woody debris and other material removal, reestablishment of natural vegetation and monitoring. In the summer of 2007,
Witchekan Lake First Nation hired roughly 5 people from SE’s Fire Suppression
Unit to be on standby in case of fire emergencies. However, these individuals
were never called in on the Reserve.
4.0 Water Resources
4.1 Surface Water Resources
4.1.1 Hydrologic Cycle
The hydrologic cycle refers to the processes where water moves from
waterbodies to the atmosphere and onto and into the earth’s surface (Figure 13).
For the Beaver River and North Saskatchewan River Watersheds, the dominant
processes include precipitation (snowfall and rainfall), evaporation, transpiration,
storage in wetlands, lakes, soils and glaciers, runoff, streamflow and infiltration to
ground water. The following sections will look at runoff from the land surface
tributary creeks and streams and lake levels.
26
Figure 13. The hydrologic cycle (Source: Environment Canada,
http://www.ec.gc.ca/Water/en/nature/prop/e_cycle.htm).
Runoff
Runoff rates from various landscapes can be compared by examining annual
runoff volumes from small and medium sized gauged watersheds. The series of
annual runoff volumes is sorted to find the median annual runoff volume (i.e. the
central value where half the values are larger and the other half smaller). Prairie
hydrologists have long recognized that in many years, only a portion of a
watershed is directly contributing to the observed runoff volume at a streamflow
gauging station. Thus in addition to the “gross” drainage area, which is defined
by the topographic height of land, they have developed the concept of the
“effective” drainage area, which is the area contributing to streamflow in a year
with median runoff. It is estimated that Witchekan Lake has a drainage area of
approximately 371,200 acres (1502.2 km2, 580 square miles) (Goy, 1961). The
vast majority of the annual precipitation is returned to the atmosphere by
transpiration from plants or by evaporation from waterbodies and the soil surface.
Information on streamflow and/or water level is available for a number of lakes
and streams in Saskatchewan. For more information and to see if streamflow
and/or water level records are available for certain lakes, please contact the
SWA.
Tributary Rivers and Creeks
Witchekan Lake is fed by a network of well-established creeks and tributary
rivers that empty directly into the south half vicinity of the lake. It appears that
the drainage area of Witchekan Lake is pear-shaped, with the apex located at the
north end of Witchekan Lake, at its outlet to the Big River, as seen in Figure 14
(Goy, 1961).
27
Figure 14. Drainage area of Witchekan Lake, its tributary creeks and outlet channel to the Big
River (Fraser, 1975).
Lakes
There are many lakes within the Saskatchewan portion of the Beaver River
Watershed. Many of the lakes in the southern portion of the watershed have
cottage development, and many more are used for camping and fishing.
The water level of a lake at any time is the result of the dynamic balance
between inflows and outflows. Inflows include runoff into the lake, and rainfall
and snowfall directly onto the lake surface, and can include groundwater inflow
and diversions of water into the lake. Outflows include evaporation directly off
the lake surface, and can include surface outflow, groundwater outflow, water
withdrawals, and diversions of water out of the lake. Lakes can be classified in a
28
number of different ways. From a hydrologic perspective, lakes can be classified
by their type of surface outlet: Natural Outlets, Constructed Outlets, and No
Outlets. There are two types of Constructed Outlets: operable and non-operable.
Witchekan Lake currently has a natural outlet, although at one time it was
suggested that an operable constructed outlet be built.
Apportionment
The Prairie Provinces Water Board (PPWB) administers the Master Agreement
on Apportionment for inter-provincial waters through the continued cooperation of
a broad range of provincial and federal departments. Several agencies
participate in the PPWB, either through membership on the board or through at
least one of its various committees. Membership on the Board is drawn from AE,
SWA, EC, Manitoba Conservation (MC), and Prairie Farm Rehabilitation
Administration (PFRA).
In general, under the Master Agreement, Alberta is entitled to 50% of the natural
flow of an inter-provincial river before it enters Saskatchewan. Saskatchewan is
entitled to 50% of the water which enters the province from Alberta and 50% of
the flow arising within its borders. Manitoba receives the remainder. This
formula is based on flow occurring over the course of a 12-month period in all
eastward flowing streams.
The Master Agreement on Apportionment also has conditions for the quality of
the water that is to be passed. The Committee on Water Quality (COWQ)
reviews the water quality data and their adherence to the Water Quality
Objectives used to promote effective inter-provincial water quality management,
protect the users in downstream jurisdictions, evaluate the quality of interprovincial waters, and advise the Board on potential water quality concerns. The
COWQ annually reviews the results of the PPWB Water Quality Monitoring
Program and compares the data to PPWB Water Quality Objectives.
4.2 Surface Water Quality
4.2.1 Water Quality Index (WQI)
For more information please consult the Preliminary Background Report of the
North Saskatchewan River Watershed or see the Canadian Council of Ministers
of the Environment (CCME) website: http://www.ccme.ca.
4.2.2 Surface Water Quality Objectives
In Saskatchewan ambient water quality is compared to the Saskatchewan
Surface Water Quality Objectives (SSWQO) (Saskatchewan Environment, 1997).
These objectives are based on different water uses including contact and noncontact recreation, protection of aquatic life, irrigation and livestock watering.
These objectives apply to all water bodies in the province. To assess overall
water quality, SWA selected 16 parameters to be incorporated into the WQI
including nutrients (e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus), minerals (e.g. sodium, chloride),
29
metals (e.g. arsenic, mercury), pesticides (e.g. 2, 4-D, MCPA) and bacteria (e.g.
coliforms). Table 4 is a list of the guidelines for various parameters measured in
water quality testing. If measurements in a groundwater or surface water source
exceed these values, the water may be unsafe to consume, and steps should be
taken to reduce the values to safe levels.
4.3 Surface Water Allocation
There are currently no surface water allocations on Witchekan Lake First Nation,
or from Witchekan Lake. Surface water allocations are grouped into four main
categories: industrial, irrigation, municipal/domestic, and environmental/instream.
There are currently no industrial or irrigation groundwater allocations on
Witchekan Lake First Nation Reserve or TLE land. Saskatchewan Watershed
Authority records show that there may have been irrigation projects licensed for
spring flood irrigation from tributary streams that flow into the south end of
Witchekan Lake in the past (Mitchell, 1976). All of Witchekan Lake First Nation’s
water for municipal and domestic use comes from groundwater. Some surface
water may be used to water livestock in the pastures.
30
Table 4. Criterion Guidelines for various parameters measured in water quality testing.
Criterion Guideline
SWA Drinking Water
Value from GCDWQ*
Quality Standards and
Parameter
(mg/L)
Objectives (mg/L)
†
Alkalinity
ng
500
Aluminum
0.1
ng
Ammonia (as nitrogen)
ng
ng
Arsenic
0.05
0.01
Barium
1
1.0
Benzene
0.005
ng
Boron
5
5.0
Cadmium
0.005
0.005
Calcium
ng
ng
Chloride
≤ 250
250
Chromium
0.05
0.05
Color (in true color units)
≤ 15 TCU
ng
Copper
≤1
1.0
Corrosivity (saturation index at 4°C)
ng
ng
Cyanide
0.2
ng
Dissolved organic carbon
ng
<5
††
Escherichia coliform bacteria
ng
0 ct/100 mL
Fluoride
1.5
1.5
Hardness
ng
800
Iron
≤ 0.3
0.3
Lead
0.01
0.01
Magnesium
ng
200
Manganese
≤ 0.05
0.05
Mercury
0.001
ng
Nitrate
45
45
pH
6.8 - 8.5
6.5 - 9.0
ng
Phenols
ng
ng
ng
Phosphorus
ng
Potassium
ng
Selenium
0.01
0.01
Silver
ng
ng
Sodium
≤ 200
300
Sulphate
≤ 500
500
ng
Sum of ions
1,500
Total coliform bacteria
ng
0 ct/100 mL
Total dissolved solids
≤ 500
ng
ng
Total solids
ng
ng
Turbidity (in NTUs)
ng
Uranium
0.02
0.02
Vinyl chloride
0.002
ng
Zinc
≤ 5.0
5.0
*Guideline criterion values listed above are per the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality (GCDWQ)
published by Health Canada as of the date of issue of this Guide (March 21, 2006). Please check with Health
Canada's web site to obtain the latest criterion values of drinking water parameters.
† ng = no guideline set
†† ct/100 mL = count per 100 milliliters
31
4.4 Ground Water Resources
4.4.1 Geology
A basic understanding of the geologic layers is necessary to assess the regional
ground water resource in the watershed. Ground water moves through the
spaces between particles openings and cracks in the sediments. The distribution
of these sediments control the location, extent and direction of ground water flow.
There are two broad categories of geological deposits found in the watershed:
bedrock deposits and glacial deposits. The geological deposits have been
separated and classified into Formations, which are based on the history, soil
type and past depositional environment. The diagram in Appendix 5, called
Shellbrook Area 73G Cross section D-D’, illustrates a simplified schematic cross
section of the regional geology in the Witchekan Lake area (Millard, 1994).
Bedrock formations
Bedrock formations are those sediments deposited prior to glaciation and
generally cover a larger area and are more consistent in thickness than the
glacial deposits. The composition of the bedrock deposits in the Shellbrook area,
which extends to the Witchekan Lake area, is complex, composed mainly of
shales, silts, clays and fine-grained sands.
The bedrock surface in this area is formed by the Lea Park Formation. The top
of the Lea Park also forms the base of ground water exploration. This means
that useable ground water resources are not expected to occur once the top of
the Lea Park is reached. In the immediate vicinity of Witchekan Lake the top
surface of the Lea Park occurs at around 450 meter above sea level (ASL). The
Lea Park Formation consists of noncalcareous gray, marine silt and clay and
bentonite beds.
Glacial formations
Saskatchewan was subjected to a series of glacial advances and retreats
resulting in erosion and deposition of sediments. The glaciers eroded, reworked, transported, and re-distributed bedrock sediments across the landscape.
Sediments deposited from the glacier included sorted and unsorted material.
The sorted material was the result of glacial meltwater transporting sediments at
the ice-front. These sediments were typically composed of layered deposits
composed of sand, silt and clay, and gravel. The unsorted sediments were the
glacial tills that were deposited in the ice. Till is defined as the unsorted mixture
of silt, clay and sand. The glacial till may be weathered or unweathered
depending on the environment after glaciation. The deposition of glacial
sediments resulted in a very complex combination of till, sand, silt and clay
layers. The complexity was compounded by the repeated cycles of glacial
movement over Saskatchewan. Sediments deposited by the glacier are often
variable in extent, thickness, and composition as compared to the bedrock units.
These glacial deposits are collectively referred to as glacial drift and are
distributed throughout the watershed.
32
The Sutherland Group lies on top of the bedrock (Lea Park-Upper Colorado
Group and Ashville-Lower Colorado Group), and below the Saskatoon Group in
the area around Witchekan Lake. The Sutherland Group comprises at least
three till units and associated stratified deposits (Warman, Dundurn and Mennon
formations). In the Shellbrook area, the Sutherland Group varied in thickness
from roughly 15 m to 130 m, as recorded. The Sutherland Group tills are
generally clayier, harder, less resistive electrically and more difficult to penetrate
by drilling than the Saskatoon Group tills. The Sutherland Group is also
differentiated from the Saskatoon Group because of the presence of clay pebbles
in the till, and a weathering zone (characterized by leaching, oxidation, staining
and other alteration features) separating the two groups (Millard, 1994).
Regional mapping suggests that aquifers associated with the Sutherland Group
may occur to the immediate southwest and east of Witchekan Lake. It is not
known if these aquifers may extend onto the reserve.
The Saskatoon Group encompasses all sediments lying between the Sutherland
Group and the present surface. The Saskatoon Group ranges in recorded
thickness from about 20 m to 145 m in the Shellbrook area. The Saskatoon
Group includes the Floral Formation, which consists of multiple tills and
associated stratified units, as well as the Battleford Formation and “Surficial
Stratified Deposits.” These “Surficial Stratified Deposits” occur as glaciolacustrine
and glaciofluvial sediments and as alluvial sediments that were deposited by
modern streams and rivers. The Saskatoon Group tills are commonly more
sandy, more resistive electrically and have higher carbonate content than the
Sutherland Group tills (Millard, 1994).
Intertill aquifers are defined stratigraphically; this means that the depth to the
same intertill aquifer can vary from relatively shallow to deep in different areas.
They can also be quite variable in thickness. It appears that there is a stratified
deposit, classified as a shallow intertill aquifer, within the Saskatoon Group
under, and on the eastern side, of Witchekan Lake, within the lower till of the
Floral Formation. Shallow intertill aquifers are rarely found at depths exceeding
60 m (Millard, 1994).
Near surface aquifers
The final ground water zone is the surficial stratified drift unit or the near surface
zone where the ground water is more likely to be directly influenced by
precipitation. The surficial stratified drift unit occurs as sediment deposited from
glacial lakes, glacial rivers, wind, and as sediments deposited by streams and
rivers. These deposits are deposited near the surface and are permeable to
water. Wells developed in this geologic unit are shallow seepage wells
(generally less than 15 m deep) and bored wells. Water quality is generally less
mineralized as compared to the deeper sources. The geologic unit is more prone
to drought and vulnerable to surficial contamination. Recharge to the aquifer is
33
mainly from precipitation infiltrating to the water table. Nearby surface water
bodies such as lakes, river, and wetlands also contribute to recharge.
The glacial drift aquifers generally receive recharge through seepage from
surrounding low permeability sediments. Although the seepage is very slow,
when considered over a large spatial extent, the total recharge could amount to
appreciable volumes of water in the area. Water quality is variable from being
highly mineralized to low concentrations of dissolved ions. Glacial drift aquifers
are probably the most heavily utilized source of ground water in the North
Saskatchewan River and southern part of the Beaver River Watersheds, ranging
from domestic to industrial usage.
4.5 Ground Water Allocation
Similar to surface water, ground water allocations have been divided into four
categories or types based upon use: domestic, industrial (aquiculture, bottled
water, ILOs, oil recovery, process water and other), irrigation and municipal.
Similar to the surface water, ground water usage for non-domestic purposes
requires an allocation. To learn more about non-domestic groundwater use
licenses, please contact the SWA. Individual wells/domestic usages do not have
to be licensed and therefore are not allocated. This makes it impossible to gauge
the amount of water being removed from the groundwater system. Allocation
usage is not monitored, therefore the total used may be different than the amount
allocated.
There are currently no industrial or irrigation groundwater allocations on
Witchekan Lake First Nation Reserve or TLE land. In addition, because of the
jurisdiction, the First Nations’ municipal and domestic wells do not have
licensed/allocated water usage.
4.5.1 Municipal - Water Treatment Plant
The municipal water system (Figure 15) for Witchekan Lake First Nation draws
groundwater as its source from one groundwater well. There is a second well
that is connected to the municipal water treatment plant (WTP) system, however
it has not been used in a few years. According to the water plant operator
(WPO), it runs but kicks off the pump; they are going to attempt to pull out the
pump, clean it and try to get it running again so the WTP can draw water from it
once again. There are approximately 60 units (houses and offices) along the
distribution line of the municipal WTP. The raw water is treated with chlorine
(disinfection) and potassium permanganate (removal of iron), and ran through a
green sand filter system. Once treated, the water is piped through the municipal
water line to the units. The WPO maintains maintenance records and records all
of his actions regarding the WTP every morning. When SWA was on-site testing
the quality of the groundwater, the technician discovered that the WTPs turbidity
meter needed to be calibrated, and recommended that the WPO take the steps
to do so.
34
There have been discussions with INAC and SaskWater to attempt to upgrade
Witchekan Lake First Nation’s WTP. According to the WPO, he has problems
maintaining consistent water quality because of the current WTP system. Iron
levels are also very high in the raw groundwater – often the Agency Chiefs Tribal
Council (ACTC) Water Quality Technician’s instruments cannot test for iron
because the levels are too high to measure. The WPO started backwashing the
system daily as of January 1, 2008, and this has seemed to reduce some of the
iron problems.
Water quality testing is conducted weekly by ACTC at the following buildings that
are connected to the municipal water system: health clinic, school, WTP and the
store. The weekly tests done by the ACTC Water Quality Technician check for
E. coli, coliforms, turbidity and chlorine levels. Health Canada (HC) does backup checking, and does a complete water quality analysis annually (See Appendix
4 for February 2007 results). Water quality analyses were also done by SWA in
October 2007 for the purposes of this study; those results may be found in
Appendix 5.
The municipal water well was sampled and a detailed analysis of the raw water
(before treatment) was completed. It was recommended by SWA that because
of the arsenic level exceeding the maximum acceptable concentrations outlined
in Saskatchewan’s Drinking Water Quality Standards and Objectives, the water
from the well should not be consumed by humans. In this report, only the raw
water was sampled and tested. The water is treated for bacteria, iron, etc., but it
is currently not being treated to reduce arsenic levels. Arsenic naturally occurs in
some ground water supplies, and has been commonly found in ground water.
The dissolved organic carbon (DOC) levels also exceeded the recommended
levels; organic matter in water can cause aesthetic problems such as unpleasant
odor, taste and colour. The organics do not post serious health problems, but
can interfere with water treatment equipment, promote bacterial growth in pipes,
and can generate harmful chlorinated organic compounds if the water is
chlorinated. Other parameters that exceeded standards included iron,
manganese and sulphate.
Figure 15. Exterior of the Witchekan Lake First Nation WTP.
35
Approximately six houses do not receive their water from the municipal pipeline,
but rather have their water brought to them in a water truck, which delivers water
from the WTP into a cistern. The WPO cleans the water tank on the truck with
chlorine weekly, and adds floran if the tank is a brown color. The WPO also
carries chlorine in the water truck to shock chlorinate individual wells if needed.
4.5.2 Domestic Water Wells
There are approximately 13 active individual wells that provide water for one or
two houses each. Some of these wells have consistently tested positive for fecal
coliforms, and as a result, have had boil water advisories (BWA) placed on them.
Currently, the individual wells are not regularly tested by ACTC or HC, and are
only tested when ACTC receives referrals from nurses to test them, and when
ACTC or the Band receive complaints from residents to check the wells. When
there are serious water quality problems, HC issues BWAs to residents; there
has been the odd occasion when ACTC has had to issue the BWAs. Water
quality analyses were done by SWA on 6 individual wells for the purposes of this
study; those results may be found in Appendix 5.
The water testing completed by SWA in 2007 determined that none of the 7
domestic wells sampled were safe for human consumption because of high
levels of turbidity, total coliform bacteria, uranium or nitrates. Turbidity, in simple
terms, measures the suspended particles in the water, or the cloudiness of the
water. These particles can be sediment, particles of dirt, clay, silt and vegetation
plankton, and other microscopic organisms suspended in the water. High
turbidity levels detract the appearance of water and can reduce the efficiency of
disinfection. Nitrates are a health concern in water, and water containing these
should not be consumed until the problem is corrected and the well site has been
inspected for possible sources of contamination. The detection of nitrates in
water indicates contamination resulting from decaying plant or animal material,
agricultural fertilizers, manure or domestic waste. Nitrates are highly soluble in
water, and can readily move through the soil to the ground water. Uranium may
occur in groundwater from naturally occurring deposits, or from human activities
such as mill tailings and phosphate fertilizers. Chemical criteria determine the
toxicity of uranium in drinking water. Six of the 7 individual wells exceeded the
maximum acceptable concentration of total coliform bacteria (which is 0). The
presence of coliform bacteria does not definitely mean that disease-causing
organisms are in the water – it just means that they may currently exist, or may
exist in it in the future. Basically, the total coliform bacteria test indicates the
water quality as it relates to the possible presence of disease-causing organisms.
In general, the following aesthetic objectives were exceeded: DOC, manganese,
total alkalinity and sum of ions. Total hardness and iron were also high in two
wells. These aesthetic parameters do not necessarily cause serious health
problems, but may adversely affect the taste, smell, and colour of the water.
36
They may also stain fixtures and clothing, promote the growth of certain types of
bacteria, and reduce the efficiency of water treatment and distribution systems.
Site inspections of the individual wells show that many of these wells are not well
maintained, may not have been constructed properly in the first place, and there
are many wells that are inactive, but have not been decommissioned properly to
protect the groundwater and for public safety. Some of these private wells have
collapsed inside, and when well drillers have come to perform maintenance on
them, they are unable to do so, in order to avoid the wells from completely
collapsing. Livestock also sometimes have access to areas close to the wells,
which may be a concern for well and aquifer contamination. In the wells sampled
by SWA, possible contamination may be a result of the following things observed
immediately around the wells: cracked well casings, cracked cement pads
around wells, storage of chemicals or gas jugs near the wells or in the yard, well
caps not properly sealed, wells in low-lying areas prone to flooding in spring
runoff and heavy rainfalls, livestock barns and corrals nearby, septic tanks
nearby, and old, abandoned wells nearby. The cracked/unsealed well casings
and caps, and the close proximity of some of the wells to livestock corrals may
be the causes of the high levels of nitrates and high total coliform bacteria
counts.
5.0 Current Watershed Management Interests
There are many different factors which can influence water quality and quantity.
These include the variability in annual precipitation and the hydrological extremes
of drought and floods.
5.1 Hydrological Concerns
Because of droughts, climate change, and natural variations in the climate,
concerns have been raised about the shortage of water. Over the last 10 or 20
years, most lake levels have been in decline until the recent rains in 2004. Refer
to the Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River
Watershed to read about water use by Alberta, drought, current and future water
allocations and water availability, and flood risk management.
5.1.1 Impact of Beavers on Flooding
Beaver dams usually have only localized flooding impacts. That is, the area
flooded or waterlogged by the dam itself and if the dam fails, a localized area
downstream could receive incrementally higher flood levels than would otherwise
occur. The cumulative effects of many beaver dams in a watershed would be to
moderate flood flows in low and medium runoff years; in high runoff years, this
moderating effect would be diminished.
37
Beaver dams have historically clogged the mouth of Witchekan Lake at the north
end where it flows into the Big River. These dams have often been blown in the
past to reduce flooding.
5.1.2 Lake Level Control Structures and Flooding
In the past 40 years, there have been discussions about constructing a dam (lake
level control structure) at the mouth on the north end of Witchekan Lake, where it
empties into the Big River. Ducks Unlimited Canada (DUC) wanted to put the
control structure on the lake to increase shoreline, thereby increasing migratory
waterfowl production, by lowering the lake level. The control structure was
proposed to keep the lake at a static level of 1914.5 feet above sea level.
Witchekan Lake, at its low stage in 1953 covered approximately 4,420 acres, and
at its maximum flood stage, covered approximately 14,530 acres. This control
structure would limit the amount of flooding of the lake onto surrounding lands by
controlling the water level (Fraser, 1975; Goy, 1961; Kreutzer, 1980).
When this project was proposed, the Band and immediate surrounding RMs were
in favor of the project, because the flooding affected their haylands, resulting in
large losses of hay crops. However, by keeping Witchekan Lake at a static level
with the control structure, if the structure was opened up, the Big River could
flood because of the high water levels being released, and lands along the river
and other First Nations downstream along the river would see flooding.
Opposition downstream to the project resulted in the proposed lake control
structure project for Witchekan Lake being terminated. Since the 1980s, there
have not been any formal talks of a lake control structure on Witchekan Lake
(Eberle, 1996; Kreutzer, 1980).
There are currently two projects on creeks flowing into Witchekan Lake. Ducks
Unlimited Canada has a project called “Witchekan SE” on the southeast side of
the lake, across highway #24, which somewhat regulates creek levels and inflow
to Witchekan Lake. There is also an old reservoir on the south end of the lake,
which acts somewhat like a dam, that the railway company used to used to fill the
boilers in the trains.
A drainage project was designed for the townsite of Witchekan Lake First Nation
to deal with some of the flooding issues that occur in the larger residential part of
the Reserve. Drainage ditches were engineered and constructed to guide some
of the water away from the houses, across an adjacent field, and into the Big
River. There have been issues with the water not flowing exactly where the
drainage ditches were designed to guide them, and as a result, some cropland
across from the townsite has been flooded.
5.1.3 Climate Change and Water Resources
Many scientists around the world now recognize that humans are having an
impact on the Earth’s climate – our world is getting warmer. Climate is naturally
variable, and has changed greatly over the history of the Earth. Over the past
38
two million years, the Earth’s climate has alternated between ice ages and warm,
interglacial periods. On shorter time scales, climate changes continuously. For
example, over the last 10,000 years, most parts of Canada have experienced
climate conditions that, at different times, were warmer, cooler, wetter and drier
than experienced at present (Warren, 2004).
Climate scenarios provide information on how future human activities are
expected to alter the composition of the atmosphere, how this may affect the
global climate, and how changes in climate may affect natural systems and
human activities. Climate scenarios offer a quantitative description of the
changes in climate to be expected. Climate scenarios are not predictions but are
plausible indications of what the future could be like given a specific set of
assumptions. These assumptions include future trends in energy demand,
emissions of greenhouse gases, land use changes as well as assumptions about
the behaviour of the climate system over long time scales. Climate scenarios for
the ecoregions of Saskatchewan were constructed using data from the Canadian
Climate Impacts Scenarios website: http://www.cics.uvic.ca/scenarios/index.cgi.
General climate change projections for the prairies are summarized below:
 Temperature: increasing; greater change in winter than summer
 Precipitation: great uncertainty; annually small decrease to significant
increase
 Evaporation: mixed increases, decreases, or no change depending on
location and season
 Soil moisture: decrease
 Growing season: increased length
 Water resources: increased variability; earlier peak flows
 Extreme events: increased frequency and magnitude
5.1.4 Water Conservation
The Government of Saskatchewan has made a commitment to develop a water
conservation plan by the end of 2005. In 2004, SWA released the document –
“CONSERVING OUR WATER - A Water Conservation Plan for Saskatchewan –
A Discussion Guide for Public Consultation.” This document was the first step in
developing the water conservation plan. It summarizes all of major water issues,
as well as poses a series of consultative questions for interested Saskatchewan
residents. From this discussion guide, the SWA produced the “Saskatchewan
Water Conservation Plan” in 2006. Both documents are available online at:
www.swa.ca/waterconservation.
Metering of water use in urban communities has been demonstrated to be a costeffective means of water conservation but for rural use, there are few instances
of metering programs other than those tied to rural water distribution systems.
However, there is a strong assumption that most rural water users are already
conserving water because of dugout or well capacity limitations, as well as
39
limitations due to water quality, in-home treatment costs, and/or issues around
wastewater treatment and effluent disposal.
5.2 Agricultural Concerns
5.2.1 Managing Livestock Production
Livestock operations that confine animals temporarily or on a permanent basis
need to be managed in such a way that minimizes the impacts to soil, water, and
air. Livestock operations may not be ideally located or managed and issues
related to soil nutrient loading, surface water, ground water, riparian health and
odor may exist irrespective of size. Producers need to be aware of their potential
impact on surface and ground water and the importance of evaluating their sites
and taking any necessary corrective actions to protect these resources.
Producers across Saskatchewan are applying practical solutions to address
these issues. These solutions include:
 Good site selection
 Reducing the concentration of animals
 Water development
 Runoff and erosion control
 Buffer strips
 Manure management planning
 Effective manure application and timing
 Controlled access, and
 Relocation of facilities
5.2.2 Intensive Livestock Operations
Please refer to the Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan
River Watershed or SA, Agricultural Operations Branch.
5.2.3 Manure Management
Manure is a valuable nutrient source which, if used properly, has the potential to
create economic benefits through cost reduction of commercial fertilizers. At the
same time, utilizing this by-product in an environmentally-sound manner
enhances soil quality through addition of organic matter and improved soil tilth.
Manure exists in both solid and liquid form, and contains low concentrations of
both macronutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, and micronutrients, such
as calcium and copper. The macronutrient concentration in hog, cattle and
poultry manure and commercial fertilizer are listed in Table 5.
40
Table 5. Nutrient composition of select manures and commercial fertilizer (Preliminary
Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed, SWA 2005).
Commercial
Solid Beef
Solid Poultry
Liquid Swine
Fertilizer
Nutrient
(kg / tonne)
(kg / tonne)
(lb / 1000 gal)
(kg / tonne)
Nitrogen
3 – 16
3–9
2–6
240
Phosphorus
1–3
4 – 13
0.1 – 2
85
Potassium
3–8
4–8
1–2
85
Sulfur
<2
1–3
< 0.5
72
When animals are housed indoors, rainfall and snowmelt is prevented from
reaching manure and other substances that could potentially contaminate
surrounding areas through surface runoff and soil leaching. Outdoors, holding
ponds for solid manure and earthen manure storage lagoons (EMS) for liquid
effluent are constructed to prevent surface runoff and deep leaching. Liquid
swine effluent, if stored in an EMS lagoon, does not lead to increased
populations of pathogenic organisms (e.g. E. coli), because the storage lagoons
have a hostile environment that kill most pathogenic microorganisms. Table 6
summarizes typical manure management for various species.
Table 6. Manure management for beef, dairy, hog and poultry operations (Preliminary
Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed, SWA 2005).
Beef
Dairy
Hogs
Poultry
Housing
Pen/pasture
Barn/pasture
Barn
Barn
Manure Type
Solid
Liquid
Liquid
Solid
Holding pond
EMS/tank
EMS
Barn
Application
Frequency
2 x / year
2 x / year
2 x / year
6 x / year
Application
Method
Surface
Surface
Injection
Surface
Manure
Storage
Manure is generally applied to the land using two methods: injection of liquid
manure below the soil surface, and surface broadcast and incorporation of solid
manure. Manure injection is an effective way to apply manure to farmland
because it reduces odor, eliminates volatilization of nitrogen-based gases (hence
more readily-available nitrogen), and combined with a balanced crop nutrient
prescription greatly restricts nutrient movement. The increase in soil moisture
following liquid injection equates to approximately a half inch of rainfall.
Saskatchewan researchers were instrumental in development of this technology
with the assistance of the Agricultural Development Fund (ADF). Proper surfacebroadcast of manure includes soil incorporation, which binds manure to soil
aggregates, and results in a slower release of plant-available nutrients as organic
matter is decomposed.
41
When manure is treated as a waste, it is usually disposed of in solely the most
economical method (near to the manure source), which often results in manure
accumulations that may ultimately cause environmental problems. Research has
shown that where manure is over-applied (greater than the agronomic rate)
nitrates will migrate down the soil profile, posing a threat to groundwater.
However, this risk can be effectively eliminated through the adoption of the
following best management practices for manure application:
 Knowing what is in the manure (manure nutrient analysis)
 Determining the nutrients available in the soil (soil testing)
 Matching crop nutrient demand to total nutrients applied (in manure and
commercial fertilizers)
 Applying manure through injection or surface broadcast and incorporation
 Record keeping and monitoring
5.2.4 Riparian Area Management
Riparian areas serve many important functions in the watershed. Healthy
riparian areas with abundant vegetation will trap sediment, filter farm chemical
residues, minimize erosion and wave action, and recharge ground water.
Vegetation found in the riparian zone is water tolerant and typically includes thick
dense brush, trees, or grasses, the roots of which bind the soil together and help
to stabilize the banks. Streambank vegetation slows water flows resulting in less
instream and bank erosion. A healthy riparian area is vital to maintaining water
quality and reducing erosion (Figure 17).
Healthy and functioning riparian areas also serve to maintain cooler water
temperature, natural stream channel shape (i.e. deep and narrow vs. shallow and
wide) and slow the natural wandering of a river across its floodplain.
Unprotected streambanks and lake shores will result in rapidly eroded shorelines,
especially during high water events.
Maintained riparian areas can have a positive impact on agriculture. They
provide productive grazing areas if properly managed and will help to minimize
salinity build-up around wetlands and sloughs. Conversely, cultivation, burning,
and/or overgrazing of riparian areas will result in vegetation loss and the loss of
the riparian area to serve to protect water supplies.
Several different agencies have regulations that can assist in the management of
riparian areas. These include Department of Fisheries and Oceans (Fisheries
Act), Environment Canada (Fisheries Act), Saskatchewan Environment (EMPA),
and local municipalities with zoning and bylaws (under the Planning and
Development Act). For further information on these pieces of legislation please
see the Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River
Watershed.
42
(a)
(b)
Figure 16. Examples of riparian areas and wetlands. (a) Source: Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canada, http://www.agr.gc.ca/pfra/land/riparea.htm. (b) Witchekan Lake eastern shoreline.
5.2.5 Drainage and Wetland Loss
Wetlands play an important hydrological role in storing and releasing water,
filtering contaminants, recharging local and regional ground water supplies,
erosion prevention and possibly regulating peak floodwater flows. Wetlands
store water and help reduce flooding during runoff, but become less effective in
larger runoff events.
Drainage programs have been in place since the late 1920s. The majority of all
the land that could be easily drained in Saskatchewan was done so by the end of
the 1970s. This was also the time when grain prices were very high. Therefore
a significant amount of land was drained to allow for more acres to be farmed. In
1981, an approval process for drainage works was put into place. Works
constructed prior to 1981 do not require approval but are subject to complaints.
Additional information on the approval process for surface water drainage can be
obtained by contacting the SWA.
The Government of Saskatchewan has estimated that 40% of wetlands in the
southern half of the province have been lost since settlement due to drainage
and degradation, while half of those remaining are threatened by future
development (Huel et al., 2000). Flood control projects often result in the
drainage of wetlands.
Drainage has the potential to increase water velocity. As velocity increases,
water can carry more sediment. When velocity is decreased, such as flows
entering an impoundment or a level portion of ditch or channel, the water will
deposit its sediment load. During high runoff events, wetlands will fill and spill to
downstream. The amount of water added from drained wetland areas during a
high runoff event is small when compared to the total volume of flood waters.
Therefore, during high runoff events, drainage has little impact on downstream
water flows and flooding but can add to flows in low to medium flood events.
Drainage generally serves to increase peak flows and to decrease flow duration.
43
Wetland drainage is often as much a cultural as an economic decision.
Topography is also a major factor influencing drainage e.g. landowners near
creek systems are more likely to drain because of the slope and gentle
undulations conducive to wetland drainage. The province recognizes the
importance of wetlands and the SWA has committed to the updating of our
Drainage Policy which will guide the Authority’s approach to regulating and
managing drainage and wetland retention issues (SWA Performance Plan 20052006).
5.2.6 Chemical Usage
Fertilizers
By providing valuable nutrients and pest control, the usage of fertilizers and
pesticides is a significant part of today’s agricultural landscape. Current
concerns about agricultural chemicals center on storage, application and
disposal.
Fertilizers are used to replace the nutrients lost due to continual cropping, and
are most effectively used as part of a balanced fertilization plan that aims to
maximize economic return and maintain environmental quality. Nutrients
(especially nitrogen) contribute primarily to grain yield and forage biomass
production, and at the same time to protein. While most soils in the agricultural
region Saskatchewan are relatively fertile, nutrient limitations often exist, and the
application of nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and
sulfur (S) can boost crop production. The two main components of fertilizer that
are of the greatest concern to source water quality are N and P. However,
Proper management of agricultural fertilizer applications abates nutrient
movement to surface and groundwater sources.
Nitrogen fertilizer, whether organic or inorganic, is biologically transformed to
nitrate that is highly soluble in water, which means that while it is readily
absorbed by plant roots, it also is highly mobile and can move with water as
surface runoff or leach down through the soil profile, making it unavailable for
plant uptake. Crop producers, therefore, need to match N applications to
predicted crop uptake.
Phosphorus, unlike N, is not highly soluble and is strongly sorbed by soil
particles, thus limiting its movement within the soil solution. Movement of P
occurs when soil particles themselves are redistributed through erosion. Surface
water loading of N and P results in eutrophication and water quality deterioration,
while N migration into groundwater has potential human and animal health risks.
Agricultural producers develop comprehensive nutrient management plans to
prevent nutrient (and monetary) losses from their land. Decisions regarding
fertilizer application focus on balancing crop nutrient demand with available and
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applied nutrients. Three common guidelines are described as “right rate,” “right
time” and “right method.” Soil testing to determine availability of N along with
other nutrients and the assessment of stored soil moisture is critical to selecting
the appropriate rate of fertilizer to match crop yield. Fertilizers are commonly
surface-applied and incorporated, or injected directly into the soil. These
methods prevent nutrient losses due to runoff and enhance rapid soil-crop
coverage by increasing fertilizer use efficiency. Average fertilizer application
rates in Saskatchewan vary with crop type and soil nutrient and moisture
conditions; however they generally range from 20 to 80 lb/ac and 10 to 50 lb/ac
for N and P, respectively.
Pesticides
Pesticides are chemical substances used to prevent, control and/or destroy
unwanted plant or animal life, such as bacteria, fungus, insects, nematodes,
weeds and rodents. Pesticide use in agricultural production includes products
such as herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides, and occurs for the purpose of
improving productivity and controlling future pest infestations.
All pesticides used for domestic and commercial application are regulated by the
Pest Control Products (Saskatchewan) Act. The Act legislates licensed action to
permit, sell, and apply pesticides on public and private land. As well, regulations
regarding the registration, storage, application, and disposal of pesticide products
and containers are formally established through a series of articles, which
include:
 Designation of pesticides
 Pesticide label requirements
 Prohibition to apply to or near open bodies of water
 Backflow control devices
 Storage procedure and facilities
 Treated grains
 Container disposal
Product label and other extension information provide users the necessary
guidelines for safe pesticide application.
By far the predominant pest control products used in Saskatchewan are
herbicides for weed control. Herbicides are designed to selectively work through
one of two general modes of action: a) cellular disruption upon contact; or
through b) ingestion and subsequent disruption of plant system functioning. The
active chemical constituents of herbicides are intended to decompose into less
complex components of the soil organic fraction. Many factors interact to
influence the efficacy of herbicides, such as water quality, carrier volume, weed
growth stage, weed susceptibility and environmental factors. The importance of
application timing cannot be overstressed in order to maximize yield benefits
from herbicide application.
45
In order to achieve greater sustainability and ecological integration, crop
production systems have emphasized minimal soil disturbance on both active
and fallow cropland, which has led to herbicide development and use to control
weeds. The 2001 Census of Agriculture recorded 51% of crop and forage land in
Saskatchewan was treated with herbicides, and 71% of all reporting
Saskatchewan farms used herbicides. As well, land to which chem fallow was
practiced increased 31% from 1996 to 2001. The use of in-crop herbicides is
often very important in determining the success or failure of a crop. However,
other cultural and biological practices are often implemented before and after
herbicide application to help reduce weed competition. Examples of this include
using short-term forages in a crop rotation to reduce weed populations, or early
seeding and fertilizer banding to give the crop an advantage over weeds. The
use of these practices is termed integrated weed management (IWM).
Herbicides are applied over large areas of agricultural land and may move from
treated fields into the broader environment through atmospheric deposition,
spray drift, and soil and water erosion. The following statements highlight our
current understanding of pesticides and Saskatchewan’s surface water
resources.
 Almost all water samples taken in Saskatchewan have pesticide readings
that are significantly below aquatic life protection and drinking water
standards.
 Some of the pesticides found in samples have never been used in
Saskatchewan, highlighting the importance of global air patterns in
pesticide distribution.
 New technology has allowed detection of pesticides at increasingly lower
levels (parts per billion). Most media reports about detection do not refer
to how significantly those levels are below aquatic and drinking water
standards.
 While most of the individual chemical readings are significantly below
standards, concern has been expressed about the cumulative effects of
the various pesticide combinations that might be found in any given
sample.
 Research is also going on to understand the pesticide levels found in
water bodies and wetlands (seasonal and permanent) and dugouts that
do not flow like the streams and rivers where sampling is normally done.
 Technological improvements have significantly improved nozzle
performance and application control, as well as reduced the amount of
pesticide drift.
 Pesticide movement from the soil to surface waters is influenced by how
strongly the herbicide binds to the soil and how long the herbicide
remains in the soil. Under drought conditions carryover of herbicide
residue in the soil can occur, which can be detrimental to the following
year’s crop.
46
 The transport of pesticides in the soil to water bodies has been
significantly reduced with the conversion of marginal lands to forage and
the adoption of minimum and no-till practices by producers.
 While minimum and no-till practices have resulted in an increase in active
ingredient per hectare per year than conventional tillage, it must be noted
that the soil environment under no-till supports a more diverse microbial
community for a quicker and more complete breakdown of active
ingredients.
Pesticide complaints are categorized as either a product performance or drift
issue. Product performance complaints are generally resolved between the
producer and the chemical representative and/or dealer, but occasionally may
require third party inspection and documentation. The Regional Compliance
Office of HC’s Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA) may be contacted
if the product is suspect (e.g. improper active ingredient concentration or
misleading statement on the label direction. Resolution of drift complaints vary
from simple producer-to-producer (applicator) communication and agreement on
a level of compensation to civil and criminal court action. If the pesticide was
applied by a commercial applicator, a SA Pesticide Complaint Form should be
completed. Documentation of spray records (location, date, time, product and
rate), weather conditions and purpose for the application is necessary to
establish legal responsibility. The PMRA and the Provincial Pesticide
Investigator are involved in resolving drift complaints; however, neither
organization is capable of deciding compensation, as this is a civil court decision.
5.3 Community Impacts
Cities, towns and resort communities concentrate people and result in the
concentration of garbage and sewage wastes and the issues around the
treatment and disposal of these wastes. In addition, storm water runoff from
lawns, parking lots and roads provide a direct source of contaminants to drain
into river and lake supplies.
5.3.1 Sewage Treatment and Effluent Releases
Private sewage systems such as those found on rural farms or acreages are
dealt with in the Plumbing and Drainage Regulations and are regulated by the
local health authority. (For further clarification concerning on-farm/acreage
systems, it is recommended that both your local Health and SE officials be
contacted.)
For private sewage systems, there are several factors which should be
considered in their construction and operation. Basic factors to be considered
include treatment and discharge locations related to the originating source,
proximity to other buildings and dwellings, proximity to wells and surface water,
and to soil conditions in the area. Some common methods of treatment and
disposal for private works include septic tanks with liquid discharge to an
absorption field, a mound system, a seepage pit, or a jet disposal system onto
47
the surface. For a septic tank, the solids which settle in the tank must be
pumped out and disposed of appropriately; typically by spreading on agricultural
land or in a municipal waste water treatment facility. In some cases due to the
location of a dwelling with private sewage works, the local health authority may
require the installation of a sewage holding tank. In this case all solids and
liquids from the tank must be pumped out and disposed of properly. A final
means of sewage disposal and treatment from private sewage works is through
treatment in a sewage lagoon. The lagoon is constructed and sized according to
the number of people that will be using the lagoon. The installation and
construction of any private sewage works must be conducted with an appropriate
permit obtained from the local health authority and is subject to inspection during
construction by a public health inspector. Saskatchewan Environment regulates
municipal wastewater systems which include sewage collection, mechanical
treatment, and/or lagoon treatment facilities.
Waste water collection and treatment facilities are permitted under The Water
Regulations, 2002, which also specify minimum requirements for wastewater
treatment facilities. Saskatchewan Environment has A Guide to Sewage Works
Design, which is commonly referred to in the construction and upgrading of
municipal wastewater facilities. The most common means of municipal
wastewater treatment in the province is through the use of facultative lagoons.
This type of lagoon takes advantage of naturally-occurring aerobic and anaerobic
bacteria to break down organic matter in the wastewater. Facultative lagoons
must have a minimum of two cells operating in series, with the primary cell not
exceeding a Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) load of 30 kg per hectare per
day, and a secondary storage cell with 180 days holding capacity. Effluent is
typically discharged from the lagoon storage cell after the 180 days holding
period and is limited to the period between April and October. Saskatchewan
Environment can impose additional treatment requirements and limits on effluent
quality, such as disinfection or nutrient reduction of discharged effluents.
Sewage lagoons are the most common wastewater treatment system in the
province. Witchekan Lake First Nation has a sewage lagoon located on NE-2052-11-3 (Figure 17). Sewage lines pipe the sewage from the core area or
townsite of the Reserve into the lagoon. A microbial decomposer is in the lift
station of the wastewater disposal system. The microbial decomposer “eats” the
raw sewage, reducing the amount of waste left in the lagoon and the water. The
lagoon also allows the waste to sediment out, separating the solid matter from
the liquid waste (which flows into the second cell of the lagoon). The second cell
of the lagoon is emptied annually, generally in the spring or when the lagoon gets
to a certain level. The lagoon is drained into the Big River, which flows out of
Witchekan Lake. For those houses with septic systems, the septic tanks are
emptied into a truck; the sewage waste is transported to the lagoon, and is
treated in the same fashion as the piped sewage from the townsite.
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Witchekan Lake First Nation’s current lagoon system has been in use since
2004. The previous lagoon was south of the health clinic, but was
decommissioned in 2005 and the area has been mostly overtaken by trees.
Figure 17. Witchekan Lake First Nation’s sewage lagoon, view looking southwest.
5.3.2 Waste Disposal Grounds
Witchekan Lake First Nation’s newest and current waste disposal site is located
on the east side of NE-25-52-12-3 (Figure 18c). It has been in use since August
2007. Prior to that, the waste disposal site was located on NW-17-52-11-3
(Figure 18a and b). When the new waste disposal site was dug, the old one was
filled in and the garbage was buried. This previous site was located very close to
the shore of Witchekan Lake, and the water table is quite high in that area.
There may be concerns here about the high water table and possible water
contamination from objects in the landfill. In wetter times the waste disposal site
was often difficult to access because the road became muddy, so the garbage
was often dumped somewhere else more easily accessible. When it dried up,
the garbage was generally taken all the way to the disposal site.
There are no existing policies about what materials and objects can and cannot
go into the waste disposal site. In addition, there is no recycling program on the
Reserve. The waste disposal site also often burns, which may negatively impact
the environment, especially air quality.
There are also many yards on the Reserve that may be considered small waste
disposal sites, with many abandoned vehicles, miscellaneous garbage and toys,
lumber, etc. (Figure 19). Some of the yards with abandoned vehicles in them
may be considered auto salvage yards, which, if present for a long enough
period of time, and with a large enough number of vehicles, could pose serious
threats to the environment. If managed properly, they may not become an issue,
but if not managed properly, chronic leaks of various auto-related fluids (glycol,
fuel, oil, battery acid, etc.) and heavy metals may enter the soil and subsequently
the groundwater and surface water. These sites should be decommissioned or
re-examined to be properly managed.
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(a) Previous waste disposal site
located on NW-17-52-11-3.
(b) Wetland adjacent to previous waste
disposal site.
(c) Current waste disposal site located on NE-25-52-12-3.
Figure 18. Previous and current waste disposal grounds on Witchekan Lake First Nation.
(a) Empty oil barrels in shed.
(b) Empty livestock medicine containers.
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(c) Empty hydraulic fluid pails in shed.
(d) Abandoned machinery.
(e) Abandoned vehicles and fuel storage tanks. (f) Abandoned fuel storage tanks.
Figure 19. Potential waste disposal sites and sources of contamination in individual yards.
5.4 Road Maintenance and Road Salts
The main Reserve of Witchekan Lake First Nation only has gravel roads running
through it, and therefore there are no road salting or de-icing activities that take
place on the Reserve. The road maintenance is done by the Band, and in areas,
the adjacent RMs. It should be noted that construction of a paved road is
planned to begin in the spring of 2008, from Highway #24 west to the Witchekan
Lake First Nation Reserve.
5.5 Ground Water Well Decommissioning
Ground water protection is dependant upon overlaying soil material. Because of
fracturing, water permeability or flow through glacial tills and clays will be high in
the top few metres of soil. This allows contaminants to move quickly through this
zone; however, with increasing depth, permeability decreases rapidly. Once a
depth of 10 m (30 ft) is reached, permeabilities in clays and tills are very low,
resulting in almost indiscernible contaminant movement. Contaminants will tend
to flow vertically in low permeability materials. As well, clays and till act to filter
and remove contaminants, along with physically slowing their movement. For
example, clay is very effective at binding chemicals and organic matter through
ion exchange and chemical bonding. While not nearly as effective as clay or till,
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sand will provide a limited buffer to filter out contaminants. Aquifers overlain by
sand and especially gravel must be regarded as sensitive areas, susceptible to
ground water contamination. This has obvious implications for gravel and sand
quarries.
A well provides a direct conduit for contaminants to reach an aquifer, since a
drilled or bored well bypasses the overlying protective sediment layers. The
location of a well is an important consideration and should be located away from
water runs, surface pooling and all potential contaminants. Where a well cannot
be located on a well drained site, the casing should be left several feet above the
ground. The area around the casing should then be built up with clay or till and
landscaped to ensure that water is diverted away from the casing.
Improper well decommissioning or abandonment poses a high risk concerning
ground water contamination, public safety, machinery damage, and increased
liability. Proper well decommissioning is critical in protecting water supplies
(Figure 20). Decommissioning methods need to be tailored for individual wells;
however, some general procedures to decommission wells can be followed.
These include shock chlorination of the well, excavating and removing the casing
to below the water intake and frost line, filling large diameter well with clean
chlorinated sand or drilled well with pressurized bentonite slurry, capping with a
0.15 m (6 inch) bentonite pad, and then backfilling and mounding with clay
(Figure 21). For more information contact the SWA or Saskatchewan Water
Inquiry Line at 1-800-SASKH20 (1-800-727-5420). This is a referral service that
will forward the request to the appropriate agency.
(a) Dead mouse in water well.
(b) Mice in wells can contaminate water.
Figure 20. Abandoned wells should be properly decommissioned to avoid contamination and for
public safety. They should also be properly maintained, if not decommissioned, as to avoid
rodents and other materials from entering wells.
There are many individual wells on the Witchekan Lake First Nation Reserve.
Approximately 14 are in active use, and 19 are abandoned. There may be more
than this number, but they were not found when this study was conducted
because residents did not know of them, could not find the locations, or they had
been (improperly) filled in with rocks and/or soil. Only one of these abandoned
52
wells has been properly decommissioned at this time. The decommissioning
was completed as part of a capacity building strategy by FNACS, who contracted
Anderson Pumphouse of North Battleford to do the work.
Figure 21. Procedure for decommissioning a large diameter (bored) well (Source: A
Landowner’s Guide to Water Well Management, SWA).
5.6 Water Borne Pathogens
The low numbers of enteric (intestinal) disease reported indicate that existing
water supplies are relatively safe, because if they were not, the rates would be
very much higher. The mode of transmission for enteric disease can be food,
water or person to person contact, and unfortunately the data does not
differentiate. Even though the disease may be reported locally, this does not
mean that the disease was contracted in the Health Region. In fact, many cases
relate to out-of-country travel. See Section 6.3, Impact on Microorganisms, and
their benefits of reducing pathogens in water supplies.
6.0 Upland and Wetland Conservation
Uplands, riparian buffers and wetlands are vital components of watersheds and
freshwater sustainability in Saskatchewan. These landcover components
provide many functions that maintain and enhance source water quality while at
the same time providing valuable wildlife habitat. Information from this section is
based upon a variety of Ducks Unlimited Canada (DUC) publications including
“Natural Values” (Gabor et al., 2004) and “The Role of Canadian Wetlands for
Improving Water Quality” (Ross, 2003) which were compiled from over 240
scientific papers.
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6.1 Upland Areas
Upland conservation programs, such as no-till and permanent perennial cover,
slow surface runoff, trap sediments and promote infiltration, consequently
reducing the amount of sediments, nutrients and pesticides entering the water.
The most beneficial outcome of implementing conservation tillage and permanent
perennial cover is erosion reduction. Erosion from wind, rain and runoff can be
reduced up to 99%. The results of increased surface crop residue and perennial
vegetation are greater site stability, infiltration and protection.
Upland cover has shown to be effective in reducing up to 90% of N, up to 91% of
P and up to 100% of pesticides in runoff, but there is potential for increased
leaching through the soil profile to ground water. Although conservation tillage
has not always reduced nutrient and pesticide leaching, this practice is
recommended because the benefits outweigh the potential drawbacks. Land
seeded to perennial cover results in fewer pesticides and less fertilizer being
applied and subsequently lost to runoff. Currently there is insufficient information
to correlate upland conservation practices and pathogen movement.
6.2 Riparian Areas
Riparian areas are the transition zone between uplands and wetlands, streams or
lakes. Due to increased water availability, this zone is usually characterized by
dense vegetation. Riparian areas/vegetative buffer strips can effectively control
erosion by forming a physical barrier that slows the surface flow of sediment and
debris, by stabilizing wetland edges and stream banks, and by promoting
infiltration. The required width of a buffer size is determined by the type of
vegetation present, the extent and impact of the adjacent land use, and the
functional value of the receiving wetland. Studies have found the bulk of
sediment removal in surface runoff occur in the first few meters of the buffer
zone. A vegetative buffer strip can effectively remove 75-97% of the sediment
load.
Buffer strips can effectively remove nutrients from surface water flow. The main
mechanisms of nitrate removal are uptake by vegetation roots and anaerobic
microbial denitrification in the saturated zone of the soil. Relatively narrow
buffers seem to be very effective in reducing 35-96% of N. Phosphorus
reduction has been found to be 27-97% effective in buffer strips that contain both
woody, herbaceous vegetation, grasses and cropped buffer systems. Buffer
strips can also trap a significant proportion of pathogens (up to 74% of fecal
coliforms). Low soil moisture and high soil temperature substantially decrease
survival of total and fecal coliform bacteria. The key process for pesticide
retention in buffer strips is infiltration. Grass buffer strips can reduce pesticides
by 8-100%.
Riparian areas can be dominated by sedge, grass or rush communities, by shrub
communities, forest communities, or even lichen-encrusted rock communities.
54
Each of these community types offers different ecosystem functions and they are
not readily interchangeable. Each of these community types also has certain
environmental requirements to remain stable. Forest community types,
particularly in the Boreal Forest, require periodic disturbance (e.g. fire) in order to
renew themselves as the common tree species are largely shade intolerant or
moderately so.
Areas adjacent to watercourses (e.g. lakes, streams, rivers) are typically exposed
to similar forms of disturbance as non-riparian areas. While certain topographical
features (e.g. islands, peninsulas) and vegetation community types (e.g.
sphagnum bogs, willow fens) and other features (e.g. prevailing winds) can make
portions of these areas less susceptible to the same frequency, intensity or type
of disturbance (e.g. fire), their function can be impaired or altered by removing
their disturbance/renewal regime.
6.3 Wetland Areas
The hydrological functions of wetlands include the storage and eventual release
of surface water, recharge of local and regional ground water supplies, reduction
in peak floodwater flows, de-synchronization of flood peaks, and erosion
prevention. Position in the landscape, location of the water table, soil
permeability, slope and moisture conditions all influence the ability of wetlands to
hold back floodwaters. Wetland drainage reduces the watersheds capacity to
naturally hold back runoff during flood events. Maintaining and restoring
wetlands on the landscape reduces overland flow rates and therefore potential
flooding.
Recharge of ground water is an extremely important function of some wetlands.
Water percolates slowly from wetlands to aquifers. Interactions between
wetlands and local or regional ground water supplies are complex, site-specific
and are affected by the position of the wetland with respect to ground water flow
systems, geologic characteristics of the substrate, and climate.
Wetlands are extremely complex systems. They retain nutrients in buried
sediments and convert inorganic nutrients to organic biomass. Their shallow
water depth maximizes water-soil contact and therefore maximizes microbial
processing of nutrients and other material in the overlying waters. Wetlands can
be effective nitrate sinks in agricultural landscapes (over 80% removal).
Phosphorus retention in wetlands can also be significant (up to 94%) and is
accomplished through adsorption onto particles, precipitation with metals and
incorporation into living biomass.
Wetlands can reduce the impacts of sedimentation on water quality within
watersheds. Hydrology is a primary determinant of the sediment-retention
capacity of a wetland and controls the source, amount and spatial and temporal
distribution of sediment inputs. The percent of wetland area and position are
important to reduce sediment loads passing through the system.
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High levels of biological productivity in wetlands result in dissipation of pesticides
due to profuse submersed (underwater) and emergent plant growth that
increases surface area availability for pesticide adsorption, plant sequestration,
microbial degradation, and from wetland exposure, primarily due to adsorption to
organic matter in sediments and decomposing litter.
Impact on Microorganisms
Many infectious diseases are transmitted through animal and human feces.
Waterborne pathogens of serious risk to humans include strains of bacteria such
as Escherichia coli (E. coli), Salmonella typhi, Campylobacter spp, viruses such
as enteroviruses and Hepatitis A, and the protozoans such as Entamoeba
histolytica, Girardia intestinalis, and Cryptosporidium parvum. These pathogens
are persistent in water supplies due to their ability to survive outside of host
organisms. Protozoans can form cysts that are not necessarily killed by freezing
or drying.
The ability of constructed wetlands to reduce populations of pathogenic
microorganisms in wastewater effluent has been demonstrated globally. Many of
the processes that reduce pathogen populations in natural systems are equally
or more effective in wetland treatment systems. Structurally and functionally,
most wetlands are dominated by naturally occurring populations of microbes and
plant life. Microbial populations in wetlands include diverse flora of bacteria,
fungi and algae that are important for nutrient cycling and biological processing.
In addition, zooplankton grazers may be an important pathogen removal
mechanism in wetlands during certain seasons.
Microphytes are essential as they provide surface contact areas for microbes that
mediate most nutrient and pollutant transformations occurring in wetlands.
Vegetated wetlands appear to be more effective for pathogen removal than
facultative ponds and other natural treatment systems which have less physical
contact between pathogens and solid surface. Wetland treatment removal
efficiencies are nearly always greater than 90% for coliform and greater than
80% for fecal streptococcus.
7.0 Current Watershed Management
For information on municipal planning and zoning, provincial and federal
legislation regarding groundwater, surface water and agriculture, please refer to
the Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River Watershed,
SA, SE, SWA, PFRA, EC, and the Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada
(DFO).
7.1 Stewardship Activities, Programs and Funding
Stewardship is defined as the judicious care and responsibility by individuals or
institutions for reducing their impacts on the natural environment. Various
56
activities and programs are available to help individuals and organizations
improve land management practices. A variety of agencies and organizations
have been actively working towards improving watershed health and have
provided information about project activities throughout Saskatchewan. Please
refer to the Preliminary Background Report of the North Saskatchewan River
Watershed or the individual agencies listed.
Ducks Unlimited Canada (DUC) – (www.ducks.ca)
Programs focus on restoration and enhancement of both wetland and upland
habitats, improving the landscape for waterfowl and other wildlife.
Saskatchewan Watershed Authority (SWA) – (www.swa.ca)
 Demonstration projects to promote proper grazing management, off-site
watering options, cropland conversion to permanent cover, and
management to maintain native ecosystems.
 The Lake Stewardship Program was developed to support stewardship
groups throughout Saskatchewan.
 Erosion control program to encourage erosion control and gully
stabilization for individuals and organized groups of landowners by
providing both technical and financial assistance.
Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration (PFRA) –
(http://www.agr.gc.ca/pfra/main_e.htm)
 Rural Water Development Program
 National Soil and Water Conservation Program Riparian Area
Management Program
 PFRA Community Pastures
 PFRA Shelterbelt Center
 Permanent Cover Programs I & II
 Greencover Technical Assistance Component - (http://
www.agr.gc.ca/greencover-verdir/)
Promote and demonstrate environmentally, agriculturally and economically
sustainable land use practices to producers, contributing to healthy and
functional riparian areas and rangelands, as well as improving tame forage
conditions within northwestern Saskatchewan.
 Canada – Saskatchewan Farm Stewardship Program (CSFSP)
Accelerate the adoption of beneficial management practices (BMPs) on
Saskatchewan farms and landscapes, by providing cost-shared incentives to
producers
 Environmental Farm Plans - (http://www.fnacs.ca/EFP/index.html)
Producers can identify their risk to the environment. The focus for the EFP is
on water (nutrients, pathogens, pesticides and water conservation), soil (soil
57
organic matter, erosion caused by wind, water or tillage), air (particulate
emissions, odours, greenhouse gas emissions), and biodiversity (habitat
availability, species at risk, economic damage to agriculture by wildlife).
Because the implementation of BMPs has a public health benefit, public funding
is provided at 30 or 50% of the costs, depending on the level of public vs. private
benefit. In Saskatchewan approximately $25 million is available for projects up to
March 31, 2008. See Table 7 for the list of 30 BMPs covered under this
program. To be eligible for funding, the applicant must control the land and have
completed an EFP. For further information on the EFP Process, please contact
the FNACS project coordinator (Crystal Clarke) at (306) 978-8872 or
[email protected].
Table 7. Canada-Saskatchewan Farm Stewardship Program BMP Categories.
1. Improved Manure Storage and
Handling
2. Manure Treatment
3. Manure Land Application
4. In Barn Improvements
5. Farmyard Runoff Control
6. Relocation of Livestock Confinement
Facilities and Horticultural Facilities
7. Wintering Site Management
8. Product and Waste Management
9. Water Well Management
10. Riparian Area Management
11. Erosion Control Structures
(Riparian)
12. Erosion Control Structures (NonRiparian)
13. Land Management for Soils at Risk
14. Improved Seeding Systems
15. Cover Crops
16. Improved Pest Management
17. Nutrient Recovery from Waste
Water
18. Irrigation Management
19. Shelterbelt Establishment
20. Invasive Alien Plant Species
Control
21. Enhancing Wildlife Habitat and
Biodiversity
22. Species at Risk
23. Preventing Wildlife Damage
24. Nutrient Management Planning
25. Integrated Pest Management
Planning
26. Grazing Management Planning
27. Soil Erosion and Salinity Control
Planning
28. Biodiversity Enhancement Planning
29. Irrigation Management Planning
30. Riparian Health Assessment
For the 2007/2008 program year, the significance of First Nations Land
Management in Saskatchewan is being recognized through the inclusion of First
Nations, Metis, and Inuit Traditional Land Use Practices (ASKIY
PIMAHICHOWIN) within BMP categories 21, 26, 28 and 30.
Partners FOR the Saskatchewan River Basin (PFSRB) –
(www.saskriverbasin.ca)
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Saskatchewan Network of Watershed Stewards (SNOWS) –
(www.snows.sk.ca)
Promote stewardship, Foster communication, coordination and cooperation
among stewardship groups, promote interaction and partnerships among
different groups
Funding
There are many opportunities for stewardship groups and landowners to access
funding for various purposes. The Saskatchewan Conservation Programs,
written by the SWA, 2003, contains information on a variety of stewardship, land
cover, and environmental initiatives. It can be located at
http://www.snows.sk.ca/conservationprograms/pdf. Funding is also available for
improving fish habitat through both SWA and DFO. Both of these agencies also
initiate projects and provide advice to groups to restore and develop fish habitat.
Federal funding will also be available for approved BMPs under the EFP
Program. In order to receive funding, producers must have an approved EFP or
equivalent agri-environmental plan. The CSFSP approved BMPs fall into 30
categories which are listed in Table 7.
For additional information on funding sources, contact any one of the following
agencies:
Saskatchewan Watershed Authority
402 Royal Bank Tower
1101 – 101st Street
North Battleford, SK S9A 0Z5
Phone (306) 446-7450
Fax (306) 446-7461
Ducks Unlimited Canada
North Battleford Office
202 – 1301 – 101st Street
North Battleford, SK S9A 0Z9
Phone (306) 445-2575
Fax (306) 445-4016
Saskatoon Office
603 45th St. W.
Saskatoon, SK S7L 5W5
Phone (306) 665-7356
Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration
9800 Territorial Place
North Battleford, SK S9A 3N6
Phone (306) 446-4050
Fax (306) 446-4060
59
Department of Fisheries and Oceans
Regina District Office
1804 Victoria Avenue E
Regina, SK S4N 7K3
Phone (306) 780-8725
Fax (306) 780-8722
Prince Albert District Office
125 – 32nd Street W
Prince Albert, SK S6V 7H7
Phone (306) 953-8777
Fax (306) 953-8792
Partners FOR the Saskatchewan River Basin
Phone (306) 665-6887
Toll Free 1-800-567-8007
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.saskriverbasin.ca
Environmental Farm Plans
Crystal Clarke, EFP Coordinator
First Nations Agricultural Council of Saskatchewan, Inc.
134 – 335 Packham Avenue
Saskatoon, SK S7N 4S1
Phone (306) 978-8872
Toll Free 1-866-233-3358
Fax (306) 978-0115
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.fnacs.ca
60
8.0 Glossary of Terms
Active ingredient (a.i.) – the material in the pesticide formulation that actually
performs the desired function of destroying or suppressing the target pest.
Pesticide labels are required by law to list the active ingredients and their
percentages.
Adsorption – binding of molecules or particles to a surface, usually weak and
reversible.
Aerobic – Living or taking place only in the presence of oxygen.
Allocation – the amount of water assigned for use, out of the total amount that is
available for use in a particular watershed or aquifer.
Anaerobic – living or taking place in the absence of oxygen.
Aquatic – consisting of, relating to or being in water; living or growing in, on or
near water.
Aquifer – a geological unit which can yield water to a well in usable amounts.
Aquitard – a layer of low permeability which restricts or confines the flow of
water.
Bank – the rising ground bordering a water body or watercourse that serves to
confine the water to the channel or bed.
Base of Ground Water Exploration – a feature known as the base of ground
water exploration was established for the initial provincial ground water maps and
is shown on the cross section. Below the base of exploration, useable ground
water is either not present or is at too great of a depth to warrant drilling for small
users.
Bed – that portion of a water body or watercourse that is periodically or
continuously covered by water.
Bedrock formations – rock deposited prior to the glaciation. These layers are
overlain by glacial deposits which consist of glacial till, sand and gravel.
Biodiversity – (biological diversity) the many and varied species of life forms on
earth, including plants, animals, microorganisms, the genes they possess and
their habitats.
Biological oxygen demand (BOD5) – measure of the quantity of oxygen used
by aerobic microorganisms during the decomposition of organic matter.
61
Boundary – the line or elevation contour surrounding a water body or
watercourse where the aquatic vegetation and terrestrial plant species known to
tolerate water saturated soils change entirely to terrestrial vegetation tolerating
little or no soil saturation and includes a minimum surrounding area of five metres
measured outward from the top of the bank.
Chem fallow – applying a herbicide to cropland for weed control, to eliminate or
reduce tillage/cultivation, thus conserving moisture, reducing soil erosion by
leaving more crop residues, and reducing nutrient losses. The most common
herbicides used are non-selective glyphosates, such as Roundup®.
Climate – meteorological elements (e.g. precipitation, temperature, radiation,
wind, cloudiness) that characterize the average and extreme conditions of the
atmosphere over long periods of time at a location or region of the earth’s
surface.
Climate change – an alteration in measured meteorological conditions that
significantly differ from previous conditions and are seen to endure, bringing
about corresponding changes in ecosystems and socio-economic activities.
Conservation – the preservation and renewal, when possible, of human and
natural resources. The use, protection and improvement of natural resources
according to principles that ensure their highest economic and social benefits.
Conservation easement – a legal agreement between a property owner and a
conservation agency to restrict the type and amount of development on the
owner’s property.
Development – building, engineering, mining or other operations that alter or
intensify the use of a resource.
Deleterious substance – and substance that is deleterious to fish, fish habitat,
or to the use by man of fish that frequent that water. See The Fisheries Act for
further details.
Discharge – the flow of surface water in a stream or ditch or the flow of ground
water from a spring or flowing artesian well; the rate of flow.
Diversion – the removal of water from any waterbody, watercourse or aquifer
(either for use of storage), and includes the removal of water for drainage
purposes. Construction of any works required for the diversion of water need
approval pursuant to Section 50 of the Saskatchewan Watershed Authority Act.
The total diversion is equal to the allocation plus any losses from evaporation or
seepage.
62
Drainage – movement of water off land, either naturally or man-made.
Drought – generally in reference to period of less than average or normal
precipitation over a set time, sufficiently prolonged to cause serious hydrological
imbalance that results in biological or economic losses.
Ecological – pertains to the relationship between living organisms and their
environments.
Economic development – the process of using and converting resources into
wealth, jobs and an enhanced quality of life.
Ecosystem – a dynamic complex of organisms (biota) including humans, and
their physical environment, that interacts as a functional unit in nature.
Effective drainage area – the area which is estimated to contribute runoff in at
least half of the years.
Efficacy – ability of a product to produce a desired amount of effect.
Effluent – the treated wastewater discharged into the environment.
Eutrophication - water bodies receive excess nutrients that stimulate excessive
plant growth (algae, weeds, etc.). This enhanced plant growth, often called an
algal bloom, reduces dissolved oxygen in the water when dead plant material
decomposes, and can cause other organisms to die. Nutrient sources can
include fertilizers; deposition of nitrogen from the atmosphere; erosion of soil
containing nutrients; and sewage treatment plant discharges.
Facultative – bacteria that can live in a range of external conditions including
both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
First Nation – and Indian band or an Indian community functioning as a band but
not having official band status, not including Inuit or Metis peoples.
Glacial till (Till) – unsorted mixture of silt, clay and sand that were deposited
from retreating glaciers.
Grazing management – activities that ensure stocking rates are appropriate to
sustain long-term health of livestock grazing conditions during wet and dry
seasons.
Gross drainage area – the area bounded by the height of land between
adjacent watersheds.
63
Ground water – subsurface water usually in aquifers; water that occurs in voids
or crevices of rock and soil.
Habitat – natural surroundings or native environment where a plant or animal
grows and lives.
Headwater – small streams and lakes that are the sources of a river, located in
the upper reaches of a watershed.
Hydro – from Greek hydor, meaning “water.”
Hydrogeology – the science of subsurface waters and related geologic aspects.
Hydrology – the science of the waters of the earth, their occurrences, circulation
and distribution on or below the earth’s surface.
Intensive Livestock Operation (ILO) – production facilities such as feedlots and
buildings where many animals are raised in a confined space that does not have
naturally-growing vegetation and where waste accumulates if not removed (as
defined by The Agricultural Operations Act in Saskatchewan).
Invasive species – non-native organisms that can invade and disturb natural
ecosystems resulting in the displacement of the native species.
Land cover – predominant vegetation on the surface of a parcel of land.
Land use – present use of a given area of land.
Leachate – a liquid that has percolated through or out of another substance such
as soil or refuse, and may contain nutrients or contaminants.
Median – a value in a sorted range of values by which there is the same number
or values above it as there is below it. A statistical term used in non-parametric
statistics.
Native Prairie – age-old plant communities of the prairie and parkland regions
that may contain more than 200 types of grasses, flowers and shrubs (native
grassland and parkland aquatic and terrestrial habitats).
Non-point source pollution – single or multiple contaminants of unknown origin
that enter waterways, degrading water quality.
Noxious weed – undesirable plants that can cause physical or economic
damage.
64
Partnership – cooperative, collaborative alliance between/among stakeholders
in a non-legal arrangement used to improve and build relationships and achieve
common goals.
Permeability – the rate or flow of a liquid or a gas through a porous material
such as soil or rock.
Point source contamination – a static and easily identifiable source of air, soil
or water pollution.
Riparian area – an area of land adjacent to or connected with a stream, river,
lake or wetland that contains vegetation that is distinctly different from vegetation
of adjacent upland areas.
Riparian areas – the zone of vegetation alongside waterways and other surface
water. Lush and diverse vegetation is the best sign of healthy, well-managed
riparian areas and is critical to filtering and slowing runoff.
River basin – an area that contributes to form a watershed. (see watershed)
Sewage – the waste and wastewater from residential or commercial
establishments that are normally discharged into sewers.
Sewage lagoon – a shallow pond where sunlight, bacterial action and oxygen
work to purify wastewater; also used for storage of wastewater.
Soil aggregates – groups of soil particles that are bound to each other more
strongly than to adjacent particles. Organic matter “glues” produced when soil
biota decompose dead roots and litter hold the particles together. Threadlike
strands of fungi also bind particles into aggregates. Smaller aggregates combine
to form larger aggregates, which determine soil structure.
Soil tilth – physical condition of the soil as related to its ease of tillage, fitness as
a seedbed and impedance to seedling emergence and root penetration. It is a
factor of soil texture, soil structure (aggregates), organic matter and living
organisms in the soil.
Source water protection – the prevention of pollution and the sound
management of factors and activities that (may) threaten water quality and
quantity of lakes, reservoirs, rivers, streams and ground water.
Stakeholder – individual or groups with direct or indirect interest in issues or
situations, usually involved in understanding and helping resolve or improve their
situations.
65
Stewardship – judicious care and responsibility by individuals or institutions for
reducing their impacts on the natural environment.
Upstream petroleum industry – everything that occurs before the product
reaches the refinery. This includes all wells and facilities including oil and gas
production sites, pipelines, flowlines and associated equipment, satellites,
batteries, metering stations, compressor stations, pump stations, truck unloading
stations and gas plants.
Water quality – the chemical, physical and biological characteristics of water
with respect to its suitability for a specific use.
Watershed – an elevated boundary contained by its drainage divide and subject
to surface and subsurface drainage under gravity to the ocean or interior lakes.
Watershed health – the desired maintenance over time of biological diversity,
biotic integrity and ecological processes of a watershed.
Watershed and aquifer management – a process, within the geographic
confines of a watershed or aquifer, that facilitates planning, directing, monitoring
and evaluating activities to ensure sustainable, reliable, safe and clean water
supplies.
Watershed and aquifer planning – a process, within the geographic confines of
a watershed or aquifer and with the participation of stakeholders, to develop
plans to manage and protect water resources.
Wetland – an area of low-lying land covered by water often enough to support
aquatic plants and wildlife for part of the life cycle. The wetland area includes the
wet basin and adjacent upland.
66
9.0 References
Acton, D.F., G.A. Padbury and C.T. Stushnoff. 1998. The Ecoregions of
Saskatchewan. Canadian Plains Research Center/Saskatchewan Environment
Resource Management. Hignell Printing Limited. Winnipeg.
Eberle, B. 1996. Letter to Gloria Teer Re: Spiritwood Conservation and
Development Area Authority #80. 24 Jan 1996. SWA Records: File #38244 Part
1 Spiritwood CAA #80.
Environment Canada. 2004. Canadian Climate Normals 1971-2000 North
Battleford A. Modified: 25 Feb 2004. Available at:
<http://www.climate.weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca/climate_normals/index_e.html>.
Accessed: 11 Oct 2007.
Fraser, J.B. 1975. Reconnaissance Report Re: Witchekan Lake (West Area), 2
Sep 1975. SWA Records: File #38379 Witchekan Lake Flood Control Project –
Project Reports.
Fung, K. 1999. Atlas of Saskatchewan. Second edition. University of
Saskatchewan. Saskatoon, Saskatchewan.
Gabor, S., A. North, L. Ross, H. Murki, J. Anderson and M. Raven. 2004. Natural
Values. The Importance of Wetlands & Upland Conservation Practices in
Watershed Management: Functions and Clues for Water Quality and Quantity.
Ducks Unlimited Canada.
Goy, M. 1961. Government of the Province of Saskatchewan – Department
Memo, 5 Apr 1961, Re: Witchekan Lake Flood Control. Preliminary Report. SWA
Records: File #38379 Witchekan Lake Flood Control Project – Project Reports.
Hillel, D. 1982. Introduction to Soil Physics. Academic Press. San Diego. USA.
Huel, D. 2000. Managing Saskatchewan Wetlands – A Landowner’s Guide.
Saskatchewan Wetland Conservation Corporation. Regina Saskatchewan.
Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC). 2007. First Nation Detail. Available
at: <http://sdiprod2.inac.gc.ca/FNProfiles/FNProfiles_DETAILS.asp?BAND_
NUMBER=407>. Accessed: 13 Dec 2007
Kreutzer, E. 1980. Minutes of Meeting Held at Witchekan Lake Band Hall (27 Oct
1980), prepared 3 Nov 1980. SWA Records: File #38379 Witchekan Lake Flood
Control Project – Project Reports.
67
Lee, P. 2005. The Worst is Yet to Come for Prairie Farmers. The Ottawa Citizen.
14 Aug 2001. Ottawa.
Leeson, J.Y., A.G. Thomas, L.M. Hall, C.A. Brenzil, T. Andrews, K.R. Brown, and
R.C. Van Acker. 2005. Prairie Weed Survey: Cereal, Oilseed and Pulse Crops
1970s to the 2000s. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. Weed Survey Series.
Publication 05-1. Available at: <http://www.cwss-scm.ca/weed_survey.htm>.
Accessed: 14 Dec 2007.
Millard, M.J. 1994. Geology and Groundwater Resources of the Shellbrook Area
(73G), Saskatchewan. SRC Publication No. R-1210-9-E-94.
Mitchell, G.C. 1976. Government of the Province of Saskatchewan – Department
Memo, 19 Oct 1976. SWA Records: File #38379 Witchekan Lake Flood Control
Project – Project Reports.
Parker, P.M. 2005. Webster’s Online Dictionary, the Rosetta Edition. INSEAD.
<http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/credits/termsofuse.html>.
Prusak, J. Alberta Environment, personal communication. 14 Nov 2007.
Ross, L. 2003. The Role of Canadian Wetlands in Improving Water Quality.
Ducks Unlimited Canada.
Saskatchewan Watershed Authority. 2005. 2005-2006 Provincial Budget
Performance Plan. Available at:
<http://www.swa.ca/AboutUs/PerformancePlans.asp>. Accessed: 13 Dec 2007.
Saskatchewan Watershed Authority Monitoring and Assessment Branch. 2006.
Saskatchewan Watershed Authority State of the Watershed Reporting
Framework January 2006. Available at: <http://www.swa.ca/StateOfThe
Watershed/Default.asp?type=Framework>. Accessed: 13 Dec 2007.
Statistics Canada. 2007. Witchekan Lake First Nation 117, Saskatchewan
(table). 2006 Community Profiles. 2006 Census. Statistics Canada. Ottawa.
Modified: 12/04/2007. Available at: <http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/
data/profiles/community/Index.cfm?Lang=E>. Accessed: 9 Oct 2007.
Warren, Fiona. 2004. Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation: A Canadian
Perspective. Donald S. Lemmen and F.J. Warren (eds). Natural Resources
Canada. Ottawa Canada. Available at: <http://adaptation.nrcan.gc.ca/
perspective/index_e.php>. Accessed: 13 Dec 2007.
68
Appendix 1. Saskatchewan Watershed Authority Factsheets
For copies of the “Protecting Your Groundwater”, “Abandonment – Test
Holes and Wells” and “Shock Chlorination of Groundwater Wells” please
visit: http://www.swa.ca/Publications/Default.asp?type=FactSheets or
contact the Saskatchewan Water Inquiry Line at 1800-SASKH20 (1800-7275420). This is a referral service that will forward the request to the
appropriate agency.
The following factsheets are available online at the above website address:









Surface Water Approval Process: FS-312.pdf
Drainage Approval Process: FS-314.pdf
Protecting Your Surface Water: FS-304.pdf
Protecting Your Groundwater: FS-303.pdf
Rural Water Quality and Testing: FS-306.pdf
Shock Chlorination of Groundwater Wells: FS-307.pdf
Abandonment – Test Holes and Wells: FS-309.pdf
Ground Water Approval Process: FS-313.pdf
Domestic Water Use: FS-315.pdf
69
Appendix 2. Water Well Locations on Witchekan Lake First Nation IR #117.
Easting
Northing
Range
Land Location
House No.
Waypoint
324874
324853
325532
325995
322190
327657
327604
328041
326901
326843
327276
327687
327622
328045
328048
328036
328129
5932546
5932606
5935709
5935694
5918206
5933147
5931828
5932251
5932275
5932175
5931995
5931969
5932029
5931551
5931562
5930859
5932008
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
SW-25-52-12-3
SW-25-52-12-3
SE-01-53-12-3
SW-06-53-11-3
SW-11-51-12-3
NW-29-52-11-3
NW-20-52-11-3
NW-20-52-11-3
NE-19-52-11-3
NE-19-52-11-3
NE-19-52-11-3
NW-20-52-11-3
NW-20-52-11-3
NW-20-52-11-3
NW-20-52-11-3
SW-20-52-11-3
NW-20-52-11-3
6
7
12
15
20
27
29
30
33
35
36
37
38
40
41
44
75
327806
325868
324214
325729
326001
326065
326192
5932258
5932408
5933385
5935731
5935688
5935451
5935672
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
Z13
NW-20-52-11-3
SW-30-52-11-3
NW-25-52-12-3
SE-01-53-12-3
SW-06-53-11-3
NW-31-52-11-3
SW-06-53-11-3
Old house site
Old house site
Corrals
802
Old Bapaume site
800
268
264
295
296
809
214
215
120
120
Space N of #105
Jackie Tipewan's old
place
Old WTP well
150
209
304
802
804
801
In
Use?
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
77
3
9
76
14
16
17
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
324828
5928161
Z13
SE-12-52-12-3
809
18
yes
322209
5920426
NW-14-51-12-3
810
19
yes
321812
329072
5918145
5935362
SE-10-51-12-3
NE-32-52-11-3
807
803
22
25
yes
yes
Z13
Z13
70
Notes
wood leaning over, pump still attached
can see water underneath, dirt
pumphead, watering bowls in corrals
by dairy barn
cistern dug up, well E side, dirty inside
open well, filled in some with rocks, uses cistern
round cement block on top
top sliding off, pumphead
in the bush, completely open well
W side of house, might still be hooked up to well
DECOMMISSIONED 10 OCT 2007
W side, behind some shrubs, watering bowls in corrals
pumphead, beside tin building
~ 30 m from road, by trenches
in a clearing in some willows, abandoned, still works
E side of WTP, old well
told not safe to drink, buy drinking water
drinking water from cistern
NE corner, E side of a group of shrubs
by dairy barn
tested 2006, drink from well, want water tested this year
NE corner of house, just for washing etc., buy drinking water,
well tested often, failed every time it's been tested, put chlorine
in last week; have horses, cattle
N side, drinking water from cistern S side, well - have to clean
filter often because black sediment
shack around it, mouse poop inside, well - rusty water, buy
drinking water; has horses, cattle
caving in, beside garage
behind house, well caving in, contaminated since last year, use
well water for washing and cooking, gravel comes up in water,
buy drinking water
Easting
Northing
Range
Land Location
Name
Waypoint
In
Use?
327351
327373
5932903
5931630
Z13
Z13
SE-30-52-11-3
NE-19-52-11-3
140
125
26
28
yes
yes
327774
327801
5930845
5932290
Z13
Z13
SW-20-52-11-3
NW-20-52-11-3
105
New WTP well
43
78
yes
yes
71
Notes
in a shack, no problems
open hole on top, well caving in, use well water for washing,
etc.; buy drinking water
W side of house
N side of WTP, red posts around
Locations of Water Wells on Witchekan Lake First Nation.
72
Appendix 3. Pictures of Water Wells Located on Witchekan Lake
First Nation IR #117.
SW-30-52-11-3, House #150
NE-19-52-11-3, House #125
SW-20-52-11-3, House #105
NW-20-52-11-3, Jackie Tipewan
NE-32-52-11-3, House #803
SW-20-52-11-3, N of #105
73
SE-10-51-12-3, House #807
SE-12-52-12-3, House #809
NW-31-52-11-3, House #804
NW-25-52-12-3, House #209
NW-14-51-12-3, House #810
NW-14-51-12-3, House #810
SW-06-53-11-3, House #801
SW-06-53-11-3, House #801
74
SE-01-53-12-3, House #304
NW-20-52-11-3, House #268
NW-20-52-11-3, New WTP Well
NW-20-52-11-3, Old WTP Well
SW-06-53-11-3, House #802
SW-06-53-11-3, House #802
SW-11-51-12-3, Bapaume site
SE-30-52-11-3, House #140
75
SW-25-52-12-3, Waypoint 6 – old house
SE-30-52-11-3, House #140
SE-01-53-12-3, by corrals
SW-06-53-11-3, House #802, by dairy barn
76
NW-29-52-11-3, House #800
NW-29-52-11-3, House #800
NW-20-52-11-3, House #264
NW-20-52-11-3, House #264
NE-19-52-11-3, House #295
NE-19-52-11-3, House #296
NW-20-52-11-3, House #214
NE-19-52-11-3, House #280
77
NW-20-52-11-3, House #215, decommissioned
NW-20-52-11-3, House #120
NW-20-52-11-3, House #120
NW-20-52-11-3, House #120
78
Appendix 4. Water Quality Analysis Results for Witchekan Lake
First Nation Water Treatment Plant, February 2007. see attached
report.
79
Appendix 5. Water Quality Analysis Results for Witchekan Lake
First Nation Water Wells, October 2007: see attached report
“Potable Ground Water Quality on Muskeg Lake Cree Nation,
Sweetgrass First Nation, and Witchekan Lake First Nation.”
80
Appendix 6. Geology and Groundwater Resources of the Shellbrook
Area (73G), Saskatchewan- see attached report and maps
81

Background Report for the Muskeg Lake Cree Nation #102

Transcription

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