Conflict and Cultural Survival at Washita Battlefield National

Conflict and Cultural Survival
at Washita Battlefield
National Historical Site
by Minoma Littlehawk-Nixon
with Lloyd Burton
My name is Minoma Littlehawk
Nixon, a member of the Southern
Cheyenne tribe, based in western
Oklahoma. My Cheyenne name is
He' ooneva' e, which means
Pipewoman.
Several of my family members and
other elders, who I introduce in this
presentation, are lineal descendants
of peaceful Cheyennes who were
attacked by forces commanded by
George Armstrong Custer on the
banks of the Washita River in
November of 1868.
These my elders have told me many
stories about the old days and old
ways, including the Washita
massacre. But these are all part of
one story: how my people survived
efforts to wipe our people and our
culture off the face of the Earth.
This presentation is dedicated to all who have walked
before me and told me their stories, that I may speak
for them; to give voice to our culture and help assure
its survival.
River path, Washita Battlefield National Historical Site
“No Nation is conquered
until the hearts of the
women are on the
ground.
Then it is finished.
No matter how brave the
warrior or how strong
the weapon.”
Cheyenne Proverb
Sand Creek Massacre
November, 1864
For many years after first contact,
The whites and the Plains Tribes
co-existed. But with many more
settlers, ranchers, miners, and
buffalo skinners came more
conflict.
Finally, in 1864, some politicians
and military leaders in Colorado
decided that the only solution was
to kill all the Indians who did not
surrender to military authorities.
Cottonwoods and Pond, SCMNHS, near Eads, Colo.
“The Cheyennes will have to be soundly whipped before they will be quiet. If
any of them are caught in your vicinity kill them, as that is the only
way.”
Colonel John Chivington
Commander, Colorado Volunteers
Sand Creek Massacre
Cheyenne Chief Black
Kettle had traveled to the
Denver area for peace
talks, and was assured that
if he flew the American flag
and white flag over his
encampment on the
prairie, he and his
community would be
protected.
This he did. But in the cold
dawn of Nov. 28, 1864,
Col. Chivington and his
Colorado Volunteers
attacked his camp anyway,
killing about 150
defenseless Cheyenne and
Arapaho people—mostly
women, children, and the
elderly.
Black Kettle (seated, second from left) and other
Cheyenne/Arapaho peace chiefs
In Denver for peace conference, September, 1864.
LONEBEAR
My great-grandfather, son of One Eye, who lost his
life at Sand Creek.
Chivington’s massacre of Black Kettle’s peaceful community convinced Plains
Indians war chiefs that the Americans intended to wipe out all Indian peoples;
so the warrior societies decided to try to wipe out the Americans instead. As
revenge for Sand Creek, war parties attacked wagon trains, military forts,
miners’ camps, and homesteads throughout the western Plains.
Custer (seated, 4th from right, in large white hat) and leaders of the Washita Massacre, 1868
Washita Battlefield National Historic Site
November 27, 1868
After the Civil War ended, veteran soldiers
were sent West to overwhelm tribal
resistance to encroachment of the Americans onto the Plains. General Sherman,
who had waged total war against the South
during the Civil War – destroying the ability
of people to survive on their land – came
West to do the same thing to the Indian
peoples of the Plains. In late November of
1868, Almost 4 years to the day from the
Sand Creek Massacre, Col. G.A. Custer,
acting on Sherman’s general orders, led a
pre-dawn sneak attack on another
community led by Chief Black Kettle,
who had survived the Sand Creek Massacre
and still wanted to make peace.
General W.T. Sherman
“We want to take good tidings home to our people, that they may sleep in peace.”
Chief Black Kettle
The Washita Massacre, November 2, 1868.
My great–great-grandmother, Frogwoman, was 16
years old when the Cavalry attacked that cold
November morning. I can in no way imagine the fear
she must have felt to be running for her life. She is the
grandmother of my grandpa Daniel Warren Big Foot
Littlehawk.
When Custer’s men attacked the sleeping village, this time they killed Chief
Black Kettle and his wife. After killing dozens of women, children, and
the elderly, they also slew the community’s horse herd of over 800 animals,
and destroyed all the camp’s winter provisions. Sherman’s total war had
come to the Western Plains.
Women and children taken captive at Washita massacre site.
Custer divided his forces, and left the field
with the hostages shown above. The second
group, led by Major Elliot, continued to
chase those trying to run away down
along the Washita River.
By this time, a Cheyenne war party
further down the river learned of the
attack, and came up the river where they
met Major Elliot and his soldiers, and
killed them all.
Through my grandmother, Leah, I am
related to Man on Cloud (pictured at
right). He led a war party to the Washita
that pinned Major Joel Elliot and his men.
Man on Cloud
Dog Soldier Warrior
Wife of Man on Cloud,
she is known as Marble,
Strong Road or Hard Road.
Some Remaining Questions
1. Was what happened that cold November morning along the
Washita River a massacre or a battle?
For the Cheyenne and Arapaho peoples related to those who
survived, the answer is “both”. Custer and his men attacked a
peaceful, defenseless village, and killed as many Indians as they
could, just like Chivington did at Sand Creek four years earlier.
Then when Man on Cloud and his men met Major Elliot’s force
at the river and killed them, there was a battle. However, this
sacred site is officially referred to only as a battlefield.
2. Who won the Plains Indian Wars?
Eventually, after the northern Plains tribes defeated and
killed Custer and his forces in the Battle of the Little Bighorn
In 1876, the Indian wars came to an end. We lost most of our
lands, the buffalo, and the way of life on which we depended.
However, Chivington, Sherman, Custer, and the boarding schools
Indian Children were later forced to attend were actually trying
to destroy an entire culture; and in this, they failed.
Sustaining a Culture Against Impossible Odds
How did the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and other Plains tribes survive the efforts
to destroy our cultures and erase our memories? We did it through
preserving and sharing our stories, and honoring the voices that tell them.
Stories of how to live in the old ways, stories of the courage of our
ancestors who fought bravely, tried to make peace, and endured years of
cultural and economic imprisonment. Stories that teach us how to live with
honor in the present.
We do this privately and
informally, among family
members. We do it in
groups, at dances and powwows. And we do it in our
our own schools and
Tribal colleges. What
follows is an introduction to
some of these teachers and
teachings, from the raising
of the tepee to the honoring
of our ancestors who died
In that cold dawn of 1868.
A new dawn at Washita Battlefield National Historical Site
Cantonment Indian Agency and boarding school. Located in
Canton Oklahoma. Where my grandma Leah went to boarding school. The building to
the left still stands.
Grandma Leah is on
the right. I remember
her saying she didn’t
like it when they cut
her hair at the
boarding school.
Granny Grace
Scalpcane
and
Grandma Leah Bear
Head Littlehawk
I miss these women
terribly they taught me to
bead, how to skin and cut
up a deer, slice meat and
dry it, how to mash
chokecherries and dry
them. Most of all they
taught me what it takes to
be a strong Cheyenne
Woman.
The Cheyenne were in constant
fear, early each evening the camp
crier went about camp and called
out, directing the women to
put moccasins on the children,
so that if attacked and had
to run, they would
not be barefoot.
My grandfather Chief
Eugene Blackbear Sr. of
Clinton, Oklahoma he is
a Sundance Priest, a
Sweat Priest, and keeps
our culture and
traditions alive through
his stories.
Dr. Henrietta Mann ,of
Weatherford, Oklahoma,
my Aunt Henri, who
guides me with love. She
feels my passion to
preserve the past, present
and future.
Chief Lawrence Hart of Clinton, Oklahoma.
A man of peace and a preserver of our stories
and history.
My Uncle Lee Lone Bear,
of Lame Deer, Montana.
He named me “Cat Eyes”
the first time he held me
as a baby.
A Traditional Healer,
great-great grandson of
White Antelope and One
Eye, who both lost their
lives at Sand Creek. My
uncle is singing the
ceremonial songs that you
are hearing.
My Uncle Chief Moses Starr, of Weatherford,
Oklahoma, he is a Camp Crier,
Singer, Story Teller and Historian.
Chief Gordon Yellowman
Director
of
Cheyenne and Arapaho
Culture and Heritage Program
Sundance Priest,
Has extensive back ground in
repatriation,
Cultural Advisor
Thank you for teaching me
how to put up a Tipi.
Quinton Roman Nose
Director
of
The Cheyenne and Arapaho
Department of Education
National Indian Education
Association Board Member,
Tribal Education Department
National Assembly
Board Member,
Advocate for preserving our
culture through education.
Dr. Henrietta Mann
President
At the First Cheyenne and
Arapaho Tribal College
Graduation, September 6, 2008.
My National
Park Service
Family with
some of my
best memories.
The first time I
helped raise
a Tipi, I was told
by my Uncle
Mike Elk
Shoulder, that I
was blessed,
because of the war
bonnet shape at
the top of the Tipi.
Uncle Mike
told me that
the war
bonnet shape
shows that,
“You come
from a
strong line of
Warriors.”
Junior Ranger Day, April 25, 2008
Notice the ranger holding my hat! It was a
blustery day at the park, look at the ribbons
being blown straight out. We couldn’t raise the
tipi, only the tri-pod. That’s Oklahoma for you!
Red Moon Singers
at the Teacher Workshop
July 25, 2009.
Sand Creek November 8, 2009
The Witness Tree,
it was just a sapling when the massacre occurred.
My first snow at the Washita, I spent my time there at dawn,
with my Ancestors and my Washita Battlefield National
Historic Site Family.
I speak to my ancestors on the banks of the Washita during
this first snow. In our culture, we understand that those who
have gone before can still teach us, if we have respect and
patience, and know how to listen.
The first sweat near the site of the attack.
July 24, 2009.
The Tribal Archive
Training at the
Oklahoma Historic
Center
October 29, 2009
I received a great honor in
being asked to carry the tribal
flag into the ceremony
SPECIAL THANKS TO
Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes
Cheyenne and Arapaho Culture and Heritage Program
Cheyenne and Arapaho Department of Education
Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribal College
Elva Stands In Timber
Chief Eugene BlackBear Sr.
Mike Elk Shoulder
Dr. Henrietta Mann
Chief Lawrence Hart
Lee Lone Bear
Chief Moses Starr
Oveta Lira
John Doerner, The Little Bighorn
National Monument
Craig Moore, Sand Creek
Massacre National Historic Site
Drew Hughes, Washita Battlefield
National Historic Site
Richard Zahm, Washita
Battlefield National Historic Site
Archives and Manuscripts
Division of the Oklahoma
Historical Society
Gene Eakins
Haho
(Thank you)