battle of new orleans - Louisiana State Museum

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Commemorating the Bicentennial of
the Battle of New Orleans
1815-2015
Desk Reference for Educators ©2014
Developed for the Battle of New
Orleans Bicentennial Commission
by the
Office of the Lieutenant Governor
and
The Historic New Orleans Collection
Author of Narrative
Jason Wiese
Associate Director
Williams Research Center of
The Historic New Orleans Collection
Lesson Design and Project Director
Ann Lilly Trappey
Education Consultant
For information, please contact
Richard Hartley
Director of Special Projects
[email protected]
or
Julie Vezinot
Director of Boards and Commissions
[email protected]
A BATTLE REMEMBERED
Battle of New Orleans 1815
Battle of New Orleans Commission
The following are members of the commission: Honorable W. Henson Moore III (Chairman),
Baton Rouge; Mike Bayham, Chalmette; Edward O. Cailleteau Baton Rouge; William Highland,
Chalmette; Gary D. Joiner, Ph.D., Shreveport; Representative Nick Lorusso, New Orleans; Elizabeth
McDougall, Arabi; Mark Romig, New Orleans; Willam A. Schultz, New Orleans; Katie Tommaseo,
Arabi; Roger Villere Jr., Metairie; Mark Zelden, New Orleans.
A Message From
LIEUTENANT GOVERNOR JAY DARDENNE
The 200th anniversary of the Battle of New Orleans (1815–2015) provides
Louisianans with another exciting education opportunity. Once
commemorated as a national holiday every January 8, the Battle of New
Orleans was remembered as one of the most significant military victories
in our nation’s early history. General Andrew Jackson’s triumph helped to
foster our national identity when the United States was an infant republic.
Yet few Americans today know much about the Battle of New Orleans,
or the broader War of 1812 of which it was a part. The 200th anniversary
provides educators a unique opportunity to focus on the importance of
the Battle of New Orleans and the War of 1812.
The Battle of New Orleans Commission, chaired by former Congressman
Henson Moore, the Office of the Lieutenant Governor, The Historic
New Orleans Collection, and the Department of Culture, Recreation and
Tourism have developed this standards-based desk reference. Designed
for ease of implementation and aligned to state standards and GLEs,
the lesson plans and projects will assist teachers in actively engaging all
students in learning about Louisiana, especially the importance of the
Battle of New Orleans.
As we join together to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the Battle
of New Orleans, I urge you to make full use of the educational materials
which are being provided. Please visit the Battle of New Orleans website,
www.battleofneworleans2015.com or the Department of Culture,
Recreation and Tourism site, www.crt.state.la.us/education, for more
information about our educational resources and opportunities. It is my
desire that Louisiana students will experience a renaissance in the learning
of Louisiana history and culture. Field trips to The Historic New Orleans
Collection, the Chalmette Battlefield, operated by the National Park
Service, and other historical sites and museums such as the Cabildo in
New Orleans or the Capitol Park Museum in Baton Rouge are strongly
encouraged.
It is my pleasure to provide this curriculum and my hope that it will assist
in achieving academic growth at your school. Thanks for all you do for the
students of the great state of Louisiana!
JAY DARDENNE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS: AN OVERVIEW............................1
II. ACTIVITIES
1. Battles for New Orleans Timeline.............................................35
2. Plotting the Course .................................................................36
3. Why Was New Orleans So Important?.....................................37
4. John Bull Before New Orleans ................................................38
5. The Life of Andrew Jackson......................................................40
6. Problems, Obstacles, & Opposing Forces.................................42
7. Assorted Defenders...................................................................45
8. Jackson’s Louisiana Forces.........................................................48
9. Battle of Lake Borgne, the First Battle for New Orleans...........49
10.The British Arrive.....................................................................51
11.Preparing Line Jackson.............................................................53
12.The Night Battle of December 23, 1814..................................54
13.Military Music.........................................................................56
14.The Engagement of December 28, 1814..................................58
15.Unwelcome Guests...................................................................60
16.The Artillery Duel of January 1, 1815......................................61
17.What if the Baratarians Had Sided with the British?.................62
18.Women of New Orleans...........................................................64
19.January 8, 1815, Battle of New Orleans...................................66
20.Treaty of Ghent........................................................................69
21.Songs About the Battle of New Orleans...................................71
III. APPENDIX
Extended Response Rubric.............................................................75
Grade Level Expectations Literacy and Writing Standards..............76
Selected Sources.............................................................................80
BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS: AN OVERVIEW
INTRODUCTION
The anniversary of the Battle of New Orleans was once
celebrated as a national holiday every January 8th. Americans
remembered it as the most significant military victory in our
nation’s early history, with the possible exception of Yorktown,
during the Revolutionary War. General Andrew Jackson’s
triumph helped to foster our national identity when the United
States was still an infant republic. Yet few Americans today
know much about the Battle of New Orleans, or the broader
War of 1812 of which it was a part.
“The United States in 1812” map.
Archiving Early America. March 15, 2014.
WHY WAS NEW ORLEANS SO IMPORTANT?
In the early 1800s, American
growth beyond the Appalachians
relied on the port of New Orleans,
which served the Mississippi River
and by extension the entire interior
of the continent. Hundreds of
new farms and settlements in the
Ohio River valley, Kentucky, and
Tennessee produced crops and
commodities that were too heavy
to carry overland to the markets on
the East Coast. In the days before
steam propulsion, bulky cargoes
had to be floated downriver on rafts
or flatboats. Most of the streams
and rivers in the western American
territories led to the Mississippi
and to the old French and Spanish
city of New Orleans. This is why
the United States purchased New
Orleans and the vast colonial
province of Louisiana in 1803.
By the start of the War of 1812,
despite its being part of the United
States for nearly a decade, New
Orleans was still geographically
and culturally isolated from the
rest of the country. There were
no roads and hundreds of miles
of a mostly unbroken wilderness
separating Louisiana from the
other states. Getting there could
be difficult, as the threats of
hostile Indians by land and pirates
by sea were ever present. Even
so, New Orleans was a growing,
cosmopolitan city of approximately
20,000 people by 1814, almost
evenly divided between white and
black people. Unlike their Englishspeaking Protestant countrymen, New
Orleanians were Latin and Catholic
in their history and culture. They
tended to speak French or Spanish
instead of English, a habit reinforced
by the recent arrival of thousands
of French-speaking refugees from
the Haitian Revolution. The city’s
foodways and architecture marked it
as radically different from the rest of
the United States, a unique blend of
European, African, and Caribbean
traditions. Yet the former territorial
capital became a new state capital
when Louisiana entered the Union
as the eighteenth American state in
April of 1812. Two months later,
President Madison declared war on
Great Britain, and Louisiana became
a possible target for invasion.
Because of their isolation from
the rest of the country, the people
of Louisiana were not as caught up
in the war against Great Britain,
either for it or against it. Local
merchants suffered some losses due
to the British Royal Navy stopping
American ships and seizing cargoes
and seamen, but authorities in New
1
Orleans were far more concerned
about the rumors of British spies
inciting Indian attacks and slave
uprisings in the sparsely populated
southern territories.
Governor William C. C. Claiborne
understood that New Orleans was
poorly defended and somewhat
politically unstable because of its
diverse population. American flags
flew in the Place d’Armes (now
Jackson Square), but many New
Orleanians considered themselves
to be French or Spanish at heart,
even if they saw opportunities in the
new, young republic of the United
States. The early nineteenth century
was a politically complicated time:
revolution had spread from the
Americas in the 1780s to France in the
1790s, and was still spreading through
the Caribbean and back to the Gulf
of Mexico. The future seemed very
uncertain, and no one knew if the
United States would succeed and
grow. Our strong national identity
had not yet emerged.
was no way the United States could
defend itself from the huge and
powerful fleet of the Royal Navy.
There were some early victories in
single-ship actions that were celebrated in America and that angered
the British public, but soon enough
the tide swung around in Britain’s
favor, and the Royal Navy imposed
a tight blockade of American ports,
choking off trade and bottling up
our few warships in port.
Great Britain actually hadn’t
wanted to go to war with the
United States at all, because it was
already embroiled in a life-or-death
struggle with Napoleon Bonaparte’s
France. As an island nation, Britain
faced the constant threat of being
invaded by sea, or of having its
seaborne trade cut off. To counter
these threats, Britain developed its
large and powerful Royal Navy,
which had to patrol and control the
seas worldwide to protect extensive
trade routes, colonies, and allies.
Trade restrictions were another
type of warfare: Napoleon imposed
a “Continental system” to block
British trade with Europe. Britain
responded with its own “Orders
in Council,” which cut off trade
between Napoleonic France and the
rest of the world.
The young United States was
simply caught in the middle of
a European war. Even though it
was a neutral nation, its merchant
fleet, which had long carried trade
between Europe and the Americas,
became a target for the warring
British and French. American ships
and cargoes bound for France were
seized by the Royal Navy as prizes of
war, and British-born seamen were
“impressed,” or forced into service
in the Royal Navy. Why was this? A
single frigate required a crew of more
than two hundred men. Hundreds
of warships patrolling the seas in all
weather conditions required tens of
thousands of sailors, and new men
were always desperately needed.
The British government, aware that
MR. MADISON’S WAR
If New Orleans was vulnerable
to attack, so too was the rest of
the United States. When President
Madison declared war against Great
Britain in June of 1812, he was challenging one of the most powerful
militaries in the world. Britain’s
Royal Navy had triumphed against
the combined fleets of France and
Spain and controlled the world’s
oceans. The British army had been
at war almost continually since the
1790s, and its veteran regiments
had seen every kind of fighting
through Europe, the Mediterranean,
and beyond. By contrast, at the
beginning of the War of 1812, the
United States had no large standing
army or navy. President Madison’s
predecessor, Thomas Jefferson, had
relied upon citizen militias and a
small fleet of gunboats to patrol
harbors and inland waterways. The
construction of large navy frigates
begun by Jefferson’s predecessor,
John Adams, had been suspended
years before. Even if it hadn’t, there
2
Causes of the War of 1812
British impressment of
American sailors
Seizures of American
ships and cargoes by the
Royal Navy
Indian attacks against
American frontier
settlements thought to
be encouraged by
British agents
Desire by some Americans
to “annex” Canada as part
of United States
“Mr. Madison’s War” (1812). The Historic New Orleans Collection, 2001– 68– L.3 The William C.
Cook War of 1812 in the South Collection.
their policies were infuriating the
Americans, eventually withdrew
some of the restrictions that were
affecting American sea trade, but the
news travelled too slowly to avoid the
American declaration of war.
From its beginning, the War of
1812 was unpopular in some parts
of the United States, especially New
England, whose maritime economy
was being strangled by the Royal
Navy blockade of its ports. But it
wasn’t popular in Britain, either.
After years of war against France
on the Continent, the cost of yet
another war seemed too much
to bear. The first two years of war
were inconclusive, and consisted
largely of skirmishes along the
Canadian border. In 1814, after
Napoleon’s armies had finally been
defeated in Spain and at the Battle
of Toulouse, in France, the Royal
Navy in North America was joined
by veteran British army regiments.
In an effort to put a quick end to
“the American War” in the summer
of 1814, the redcoats marched
into Washington, DC, and burned
most of the government buildings
there, including the White House.
Even though the British offensive
eventually stalled and withdrew
from the Chesapeake, it was clear
that “Mr. Madison’s War” was not
going well.
3
LOUISIANA’S SITUATION IN 1814
That was the news in New
Orleans in the late summer and
fall of 1814, and it was mixed with
disturbing rumors about a planned
British invasion of Louisiana. It
turns out that the rumors were
absolutely true. In fact, the idea
had been suggested two years
earlier, in August of 1812, as a way
to reduce American pressure on
British Canada. In March 1813,
Royal Navy captain James Stirling
contributed a detailed report on
Louisiana’s terrain and defenses.
Stirling and others believed that
the cultural differences between
TIMELINE:
Summer of 1814
July 5
Royal Navy squadron
ordered to blockade
Mississippi River
August 10
British government
officially authorizes
invasion of Louisiana and
seizure of New Orleans
August 24
Washington, DC, burned
by British troops
August 30
Lt. Lockyer ordered to
contact, recruit
Baratarian pirates
4
Louisianans and Anglo-Americans
could be exploited to aid the British
cause. Royal Marines had been
landed in Spanish West Florida to
arm Creek and Seminole warriors,
and one of them, Colonel Edward
Nicolls, issued a proclamation to the
“Natives of Louisiana” encouraging
them to rise up against the illegal
and “imbecilic” US government.
Some British diplomats and
government ministers even claimed
that the 1803 Louisiana Purchase
had been illegal, pointing out that
Napoleon Bonaparte lacked the
legal authority to sell Louisiana to
the United States or anyone else.
An existing treaty had dictated
that Louisiana must be returned to
Spain if France ever decided not to
keep it. Yet Napoleon was powerful
enough in 1803 to ignore inconvenient political agreements, and it
was in the interests of the United
States to play along. In any event,
on August 10, 1814, the British
government issued official orders
to proceed with the invasion.
The Pirate Laffite
One of the more colorful characters associated with the Battle of New Orleans is the
famous (or infamous) pirate Jean Laffite (also spelled Lafitte). He has been the subject
of many books and at least two movies (both called “The Buccaneer”). Many popular
versions of the story hold that Laffite acted as one of General Jackson’s guides and
advisors during the battle, and that he saved the American cause with large quantities
of gunpowder and the assistance of his crew of Baratarian pirates.
The historical Jean Laffite was probably born in Bordeaux, France, sometime around
1780. Eventually he and his older brother Pierre Laffite (1770–1821) ended up on the
northern Gulf Coast, where they established an armed encampment on Grand Terre, in
Barataria Bay. Their business was piracy and the smuggling of contraband goods into
American Louisiana, including enslaved persons from the West Indies. Business was
good for the Laffites: many prominent citizens bought their stolen merchandise, as many
of these goods were difficult to buy legally in Louisiana at the time.
Legends continue to swirl around the brothers, some more easily verified than others.
The Laffites did offer their services to the American side after they were approached by the
British in September of 1814, and General Jackson eventually overcame his reluctance
to be aided by “hellish banditti” and accepted their aid. The Laffites contributed a
large quantity of gunflints for American muskets and rifles, and a crew of Baratarians
manned one of the American gun batteries on Jackson’s front line. Pierre Laffite appears
to have acted as an advisor to General Jackson, but Jean Laffite was almost certainly not
present on the battlefield during the crisis, and was instead guarding one of the southern
approaches to the city, in an area near the present-day Jean Lafitte National Park and
Preserve. For their assistance against the British invaders, the Laffites and their men
earned pardons from the United States government and many of them subsequently left
Louisiana. Jean Laffite is believed to have died off the Mexican Yucatan coast in 1826.
Stories about buried treasure left behind by Laffite and his Baratarian pirates can still
be heard in Louisiana to this day.
PREPARING THE INVASION
In early September of 1814,
before a large invasion fleet began to
assemble in Jamaica, British officers
attempted to enlist Jean Laffite’s
Baratarians. The Royal Navy was
well aware of the pirates, who had
seized English merchant vessels in
the Gulf of Mexico. British officers
were confident that Laffite knew
every nook and cranny of the
coast—all the secret routes through
the swamps and into the city. Jean
Laffite put them off, however,
stalling for time until he could cut
a better deal with the Americans.
Copies of the British proposals to
Laffite soon found their way into
Governor Claiborne’s hands, and
from there, sped their way to the
new commandant of the 7th US
Military District, a recently commissioned major general formerly of the
Tennessee Militia. His name was
Andrew Jackson.
“OLD HICKORY”
The 47-year-old Jackson was an
unknown factor to both Louisianans
and the British. A tall, rugged man
of Scotch-Irish ancestry, Jackson
had a quick temper and a fierce
loyalty to his friends and family.
He wasn’t formally trained like
military officers of today, and prior
to entering the militia, he’d had a
career as a lawyer, judge, and politician in the frontier settlements
of Tennessee. His hawk-like eyes
suggested a personality that was
pitiless and inflexible. The Creek
Indians—on whom he had honed
his skills as a soldier—had a name
for him: “Sharp Knife.” His men
called him “Old Hickory” because
he was as tough and reliable as that
wood. Jackson essentially learned
how to be a soldier on the job and
in the saddle during the Creek War
of 1813 and 1814, much as he had
learned to be a circuit judge riding
from settlement to settlement alone,
in the wilderness, as a young man.
What he may have lacked in formal
training, Jackson made up for in
determination and unusually sound
instincts. His strategy of carrying
the war to the enemy and beating
him on his own ground brought the
Creek War to an end the previous
March, and earned him a promotion
into the regular US army. In his new
job, Jackson became responsible for
the security of what was then the
southwestern corner of the United
States, including New Orleans. In
the end, the Creek War provided
Jackson with valuable training for
the impending British invasion of
Louisiana.
Jackson’s dislike of redcoats went
back to his boyhood in the Carolinas.
A popular story relates an incident
during the Revolutionary War: a
young Andrew Jackson refused to
polish a British officer’s boots, and
for his disobedience he received
sword cuts to his face. The deaths
of his brothers and mother during
the war left him an orphan, and he
nursed a deep hatred of the British
years later, as a man. When news
from Louisiana’s governor arrived
concerning the British invasion of
Louisiana, Jackson had just seized
Pensacola in Spanish West Florida
to deny the British a safe harbor. He
knew the Royal Navy had already
tried and failed to take Mobile
Bay, but he didn’t know when
or where they would strike next.
The evidence from New Orleans
was strong, and Jackson departed
Mobile for Louisiana on November
11, traveling overland to scout
all the landing sites and possible
5
approaches to the threatened city.
He and his men arrived on a cold
and rainy December morning at
Fort St. Jean, just outside of New
Orleans. By now, rumors of the
British invasion were rampant, and
a sense of doom pervaded the city.
At first glance, the general looked
gaunt and worn, his clothes shabby
from the long journey. However,
the locals also noticed how he
sat ramrod straight in the saddle.
Jackson went immediately to meet
with the governor and mayor, and
that afternoon, he addressed a
crowd that had gathered outside.
He was brief, but full of fire: the
British were coming, he told them.
He was there to fight and defend
the city. Would they join him?
Out in the crowd, the Creoles and
people of all different backgrounds
saw and heard him, and sensed
that there was something different
about this man, and that he meant
exactly what he said. Gloom gave
way to hope and even excitement.
Men who the day before would
have called themselves Spaniards or
Frenchmen made up their minds
to stand with Jackson and fight as
Americans.
6
“Major General Andrew Jackson” (1819). The Historic New Orleans Collection, 1979.112
JACKSON’S SOLDIERS
For his part, Jackson was dismayed
in the days that followed to find a
poorly defended city paralyzed by
social and political disagreements.
He immediately went to work,
personally surveying the terrain and
ordering improvements to defensive
works. Locals were ordered to
obstruct all the bayous and creeks
that might aid the British approach.
General Jackson also reviewed
both his regular US troops and
the Louisiana militia. He did have
some professional soldiers, but not
many— only about 1,100 men and
some sailors.
Fortunately, Jackson’s professional
soldiers would be aided by militia
and volunteers from Louisiana,
Mississippi, Tennessee, and eventually Kentucky. As state militias
and volunteers poured into the city
that December, Jackson approved
the raising and equipping of additional units, including Choctaw
Indians, Baratarian pirates, and two
armed battalions of free colored men.
Free colored men had served in
the local militia since the Spanish
colonial period. Some had served
with distinction in the West
Florida campaigns of Bernardo de
Gálvez in the 1780s. Under the
Spanish system, there was a policy
called fuero militar, which was a
special legal status given to men
serving in either the regular army
or the militia. This legal privilege
Jackson’s Regular Troops
• US Light Artillery
• 7th Regiment US Infantry
• 44th Regiment US Infantry
• US Marines
• US Light Dragoons
• US Navy
Approximately 1,100 men
“Laffite The Pirate” (1945). The Historic
New Orleans Collection, 1983.123.9.
A Free Colored
Battalion Soldier
- National Park Service
A member of Captain Thomas
Beale’s New Orleans Rifles
7
included exemptions from certain
taxes. For free men of color, it was
a means of obtaining a legal status
that was equal—or nearly equal—
to their white neighbors. There was
also the social prestige that came
from wearing a uniform. Andrew
Jackson had made clear in a proclamation to the free colored inhabitants of Louisiana that they would
be treated equally to white soldiers,
and they accepted his promise. The
men of the Free Colored Battalion
of New Orleans stepped forward
for service and were soon joined by
a second battalion of free colored
volunteers, recent immigrants to
Louisiana from Haiti. Together, the
two battalions brought over 450
men under Jackson’s command.
Some white locals rebelled, but
when an assistant paymaster questioned Jackson’s authority to employ
black soldiers, the general responded
sharply, “Be pleased to keep to
yourself your opinions upon the
policy of making payments to the
troops with the necessary muster
rolls without enquiring whether
the troops are white, black, or tea.”
Jackson had no time for nonsense.
Time was running out: strange sails
had been sighted in the Gulf.
Other Louisiana Militia Troops
and Where They Came From
• Jedediah Smith’s “Feliciana Troop of Horse” (St. Francisville area)
• Dubuclet’s Volunteer Troop of Hussars (Bayou Teche, Attakapas District)
• Hubbard’s “Mounted Company of the 2nd Brigade” (Attakapas)
• Griffith’s “Volunteer Company of Mounted Riflemen” (Bayou Sara, Feliciana Parish)
• Gordon’s “Company of Volunteer Infantry from Rapides”
• Trudeau’s “St. Charles Troop of Horse” (St. Charles and St. James Parishes)
• Chauveau’s “Company of Orleans Cavalry” (New Orleans)
• Ogden’s “Orleans Troop of Dragoons” (New Orleans)
• LeDoux’s “Company of Volunteers of Pointe Coupee”
• Alpuente’s “Company of Louisiana Bayou Militia” (New Orleans)
• Thomas’ Company of Louisiana Militia (Baton Rouge)
• Thibodeaux’s Detachment of Lafourche Volunteers
Source: Powell Casey, Louisiana in the War of 1812
(Baton Rouge, 1963)
Kentucky Militia
8
THE INVADERS ARRIVE
The advance ships from the
British fleet had arrived off the
mouth of the Mississippi at the same
time Jackson reached New Orleans
on December 1, 1814. Their flagship, HMS Tonnant, anchored a
week later near Ship Island, some
eighty-five miles from the city. Due
to the sandbar at the mouth of the
Mississippi River, and the shallowness of the inland waterways,
large British warships could get no
closer to the city. Even so, British
morale was high, despite the uninviting terrain and difficulties ahead.
Little new information had come in
about New Orleans’ defenses except
that they consisted mostly of militia
and volunteers. British naval and
army commanders began planning
their approach to the city, which
required the capture or destruction
of the American gunboats sighted in
Lake Borgne. Lieutenant Nicholas
Lockyer assembled 45 launches and
barges from the fleet, and 1,000
seamen and volunteers to man
them. This fleet of pulling boats,
armed with muskets and small naval
cannons, entered Lake Borgne on
December 12; their objective was
the fleet of five American gunboats,
which they caught 48 hours later.
Anne S.K. Brown Military Collection,
Brown University Library
9
THE FIRST BATTLE
The naval Battle of Lake Borgne
on December 14 ended with the
capture of all five gunboats and
one dispatch vessel, the Alligator.
The first battle of New Orleans
had been won by the British. It
was a costly victory, and even Lt.
Lockyer was badly wounded, but
the way was now open for British
troop transports, and small parties
began to explore the western shore
of Lake Borgne for the best route
to the city. When news of the battle
reached New Orleans the following
day, December 15, panic gripped
the city, and Jackson realized that
without the gunboats he would
be blind to the movements of the
British force.
“Battle of Lake Borgne” (Between 1815 and 1844). The Historic New Orleans Collection, 1950.54.
The Sacrifice
The plantation house of Maj. Gen. Jacques
Villeré was used by the British as headquarters
from December 23, 1814, to January 19, 1815.
This drawing shows the old house as it was
about 1860 -- National Park Service
10
Governor Jacques Philippe Villeré
(LSM 01145), oil on canvas, by Andres
Molinary, c. 1910. Courtesy of the
Collections of the Louisiana State Museum.
Alexander Walker, writing about the Battle of New Orleans in the 1850s, relates a tale
connected with the British landing on December 23, 1814. Major Gabriel Villeré of
the Louisiana Militia had been tasked with guarding the downriver approach to the
city, but he and his men were surprised by British advance troops and captured at his
father’s plantation. The young Villeré was determined to escape and raise the alarm
in the city. This he did, seizing a moment while his captors were distracted to dive
through a window and run into the trees as darkness fell. As British troops pursued him,
spreading out to cut off any chance of escape, Major Villeré found himself at the foot of
a large live oak tree on the edge of the cypress swamp. He was cut off and certain to be
recaptured. His plan was to climb the tree and evade detection until the searchers had
passed. But as he started to climb, he heard a whimper at his feet. “He looked down
and beheld his favorite setter crouched piteously on the ground,” Walker wrote, “by her
mournful look and action, expressing … her sympathy for the perils of her master, and
her desire to share his fate.” The major’s heart sank at the sight of her, for her presence
under the tree would reveal his hiding place, and everything—his family’s honor and
the fate of his city—depended on his successful escape. He had no choice but to sacrifice
his loyal friend. “With a deep sigh and eyes full of tears,” Walker tells us,” the young
creole seized a large stick and striking the poor, fawning, faithful dog as she cowered
at his feet, soon dispatched her.” The major hid her body and climbed the tree, thereby
eluding the searching British soldiers. At length he managed to find his way to General
Jackson’s headquarters in the city, and was the first to alert him that the British army
had landed in Louisiana. Whether the story of Major Villeré’s dog is true or an artful
embellishment we do not know. Historians continue to sort fact from fiction in the
many stories of the Battle of New Orleans.
PUBLIC REACTION AND MARTIAL LAW
TIMELINE:
Early December 1814
December 1
Andrew Jackson arrives in
New Orleans, rallies locals
to defend city
December 8 –11
Large British fleet anchors
near Ship Island, off
Louisiana coast
Jackson spread out his available
force to cover all the approaches
to New Orleans, ensuring good
communication so that they could
be quickly brought together to any
point of attack. He appears to have
kept his numerical strength a secret,
even from his own junior officers.
Jackson was beginning to have his
doubts about the loyalty of New
Orleans, and those doubts, along
with the panic in the city after
Lake Borgne, led him to declare
martial law, though he had no legal
authority to do so. A strict curfew
was implemented, and hunting
guns and other weapons were taken
from households for military use.
HELP ARRIVES FROM FELLOW STATES
December 9 –16
Volunteers pour into New
Orleans, including some
Choctaws and free colored
men from Haiti
December 14
Battle of Lake Borgne
December 16
Jackson declares martial law
in New Orleans
Carroll’s Tennessee Militia
On December 20, two
large groups of Tennessee
militia arrived from upriver along
with Thomas Hinds’ Mississippi
Dragoons. The Tennesseans were
led by Jackson’s friends John Coffee
and Billy Carroll. Kentucky militia
troops were known to be en route.
What brought young men
from the frontier settlements
down to New Orleans? Some of
the Tennesseans had served with
Jackson in the Creek War, seeing
it as a duty to protect their homes
from hostile Indian attacks. New
Orleans was also important to the
future prosperity of their farms and
towns, as everything they grew and
manufactured would have to float
down the river to the port, and
from there to markets elsewhere in
America and abroad. There was also
militia pay and the promise of land
11
bounties from the government.
Most were young men, accustomed
to hard work and deprivation, and
handy with a musket or rifle.
One problem was arming them,
as muskets and rifles were in very
short supply. Another problem
was linguistic: many of the local
soldiers and volunteers in New
Orleans spoke only French, which
complicated relations between
locals and out-of-state units. Yet
Jackson’s personality was indomitable, and he required every soldier
to do his duty, no matter what
language he spoke. Jackson’s headquarters was a hive of activity, and
on the afternoon of December 23,
news arrived that hit like a thunderbolt: the British had landed in
force downriver. Jackson’s response
was immediate. He said, “By the
eternal, they shall not sleep on our
soil.” He would attack them that
very night.
Militia and Volunteers
December 1814 – January 1815
• Plauche’s Uniformed Battalion of Orleans Volunteers
• Louisiana Militia Companies
• Captain Thomas Beale’s Company of New Orleans Rifles
• LaCoste’s 1st Battalion of Free Men of Color
• Daquin’s 2nd Battalion of St. Domingue Free Men of Color
• Captain Pierre Jugeant’s Choctaws
• Coffee’s Brigade of Mounted Tennessee Gunmen
• William Carroll’s Mounted Tennessee Volunteers
• John Adair’s Kentucky rifles
• Hinds’ Mississippi Dragoons
• Jean Laffite’s Baratarians
Approximately 4,100 men
Hinds’ Mississippi Mounted Rifles
12
THE BRITISH LANDING
they shall
“ Bynotthesleepeternal,
on our soil !
”
-Andrew Jackson
“Map Showing the Landing of the British Army”(1816). The Historic New Orleans Collection,
1979.238.7.
At this point, a British advance
force of approximately 1,600
men, plus rocket artillery, had
successfully landed in secret, having
reached a point about eight miles
below the city. Their route had
been scouted six days earlier by
two British officers dressed as local
fishermen, who had studied the
plantations and levee road without
being detected. Though the advance
comprised only about a third of the
troops available, the cream of the
force was here, including elements
of veteran British regiments such as
the 95th Rifles Regiment, who wore
distinctive green jackets instead of
the usual red coats. This advance
was led by Major General John
Keane, temporarily commanding
the ground forces until the expected
arrival of Sir Edward Michael
Pakenham. Though some of his men
wanted to push on, Keane ordered
the main body to make camp on the
grounds of Villeré’s plantation, near
the river, after establishing guards,
forward observers, and scouting
parties. In this defensive position
they could rest and refresh themselves until reinforcements could
reach them, hopefully that evening.
Due to the shortage of small
boats, the British could only land,
at most, two thousand men at a
time, and that only after hours of
strenuous rowing back and forth
across Lake Borgne. General Keane
knew that he was at least ten hours
away from being reinforced and
resupplied. His initial landing had
been unopposed, but he was still
outnumbered and outgunned by
the Americans. Therefore, he would
be careful, wait for the rest of his
army to come up, and move on the
city in force.
On the afternoon of December
23, the outposts alerted the British
camp that a body of American
horsemen was approaching down
the river road. About two hundred
brightly dressed cavalry advanced in
loose formation, but they quickly
retreated after the British formed
a line of defense and fired a volley
at them. The British veterans were
not at all impressed by this first look
at the Americans, and the incident
only reinforced their general
impression that they would meet
no determined resistance. Yet at
about seven that night, after dark,
they discovered that they were quite
mistaken.
13
THE “NIGHT BATTLE” OF DECEMBER 23, 1814
14
Confused fighting and marching in the dark, illuminated momentarily by flashes of gunfire—
such was the battle of December 23.
Photocopy by Dan Leyrer from Frost’s Pictorial Life of Andrew Jackson.
Major-General Sir Edward Pakenham
As most of their comrades
gathered around campfires, or slept,
the guards near the river watched
what they supposed to be an
American merchant schooner glide
down the river and anchor opposite
the Villeré plantation. They called
out to the sailors aboard, but got
no response, until the schooner
suddenly opened fire on them.
This was the USS Carolina, and
her cannons were the prearranged
signal for an all-out attack. While
the deadly cannonade pounded
the British camp, the forward
guard posts heard the tell-tale
rumble of horses and marching feet
approaching through the darkness
from upriver.
The Americans came on in two
columns. The ensuing fight was
long, bloody, and often quite
Christmas Day, word quickly spread
that General Pakenham had finally
arrived to take charge of the army.
Sir Edward was a young man—only
36—but he was a distinguished
veteran of Wellington’s Peninsular
army who had faced the soldiers
of Napoleonic France. It’s hard
to know what he thought or felt
upon reaching his army at last, but
he immediately set about solving
the problems that he found on his
arrival. His first order of business
was to end the constant harassment
from the Carolina, and if possible,
to destroy her consort farther up
the river, the USS Louisiana. The
first part was duly accomplished
at daylight on December 27 when
British gunners firing heated shot
succeeded in starting a fire aboard
the Carolina. She blew up after
confusing due to the darkness, the
fog rolling in from the river, and the
common language shared by many
of the combatants. For almost two
and a half hours, the fight raged,
with men fighting hand-to-hand,
and the Americans briefly penetrating British defenses. The tide
was turned as British reinforcements
finally began to arrive, and at length
the Americans were driven off. Both
sides suffered losses.
Jackson’s bold strategy, while
costly, had slowed the British
advance and given the Americans
valuable time to fall back and fortify
a line of defense upriver. Mounted
dragoons covered the retreat and
effectively screened the Americans
from close surveillance in the days
that followed. Meanwhile, redcoats
continued to arrive, and on
her crew had evacuated to the
opposite shore. The other American
schooner escaped upstream, and
would remain a threat in the days
to come.
Jackson’s bold strategy, while costly, had slowed the British
advance and given the Americans valuable time to fall back
and fortify a line of defense upriver.
Map recreated - National Park Service
15
PREPARING “LINE JACKSON”
Jackson’s men had withdrawn
behind the Rodriguez Canal, a
couple of miles upriver from the
British camp. There he employed
the soldiers and many citizens and
slaves from the city in the hasty
construction of an earthen barrier
along the far bank of the canal.
Enslaved men from nearby plantations were set to work digging and
piling muddy earth, and fence slats
and wooden siding was stripped
from properties for miles around
and used to reinforce the rampart
and prevent it from collapsing.
Soon the canal was dug out
and deepened and a wall of earth
extended a thousand yards, from the
river to the cypress swamp. Cotton
bales provided platforms for eight
gun batteries along the wall. Across
the river, more heavy artillery guns
were being prepared. Jackson knew
that his inexperienced troops would
stand no chance against veteran
British infantry out in the open
field, so he wisely kept them in a
strong defensive position behind
the rampart. Work on the American
defenses continued both day and
night.
“Defeat of the British Army, 12,000 strong, under the command of Sir Edward Packenham” (1818). The Historic New Orleans Collection,1989.79.135; bequest of
Boyd Cruise and Harold Schilke.
16
AMERICAN TACTICS
Jugeant’s Company of
Choctaw Volunteers
Meanwhile, the British general
Edward Pakenham had to resume
his army’s push toward New Orleans
while minimizing his vulnerability
to American attacks. George Gleig
of the British 85th Regiment later
described their situation this way:
“Regularly as night closed in…
began that system of irritation in
which General Jackson appeared
to take so much delight; and which
… served to harass and annoy our
troops severely.” Gleig was referring
to the nighttime raids on British
outposts. In Europe, it was not
usual to attack an opposing army’s
camp after nightfall unless one was
attacking that army in force. The
American general did not play by
those civilized rules. Every night,
in addition to ordering his cannons
to target any hint of a campfire
in the British outposts, Jackson
sent out small groups of Choctaw
warriors and buckskin-clad frontiersmen armed with tomahawks
and Kentucky long rifles—a
practice denounced as barbaric by
Pakenham and his officers.
Jackson had the support of about
sixty Choctaw warriors who were
especially talented as scouts and skirmishers, able to silently approach
the enemy through the swampy
woods, attack suddenly, and then
just as silently withdraw. There’s a
story about one of the Choctaws,
known only as Poindexter, who
made quite a business for himself
selling souvenir rifles he had taken
off of the British guards he’d killed.
These attacks would raise the alarm
in the main encampment several
times each night, and served to
keep the British invaders on edge
through the campaign.
Obviously, the early intelligence
on New Orleans’ defenses had
been wildly wrong. Far from being
welcomed by Louisiana Creoles
opposed to American rule, the
British expedition had been met
with a united and determined
hostility. The neighboring plantations were mostly emptied of
stores, and most of the cattle
and horses had been driven off.
Few horses had been captured
to mount officers, and the heavy
British artillery guns had to be
moved by hand. On top of this, the
unusually cold and wet conditions
made life very unpleasant indeed.
Rain soaked their wool uniforms,
and a number of men from the
West India Regiments had already
died of exposure. The troops were
quickly using up their rations, and
food became increasingly scarce.
As if the damp chill and their
empty bellies weren’t bad enough,
the inhospitable swamps of south
Louisiana also seemed ominous
to the invaders. A Royal Navy
midshipman
named
Robert
Aitchison had been charged with
keeping a campfire burning at
the mouth of Bayou Bienvenue,
to mark the landing place for
incoming troops. He later wrote
that he and his colleagues were wary
of the local wildlife: “I took very
good care to keep a glorious blaze
of light, not only for the sake of
our boats, coming up with soldiers,
but because we were not a little
afraid that some stray alligator, or
some other brute inhabiting these
swamps, might make a meal of us
before we were aware of it.”
17
THE ENGAGEMENT OF DECEMBER 28, 1814
“Map Showing the Landing of the British Army”
(1816). The Historic New Orleans Collection,
1979.238.7
The time had come for General
Pakenham to move forward to
his objective, which he did on
the morning of December 28
through a reconnaissance in force.
His whole army moved upriver in
two columns—one following the
levee road on their left and the
other the edge of the swamp to
their right. Their objective was to
scout the American defenses, and if
possible, attack and overrun them.
Driving the mounted American
troops back as they advanced,
the riverside column rounded the
bend by Bienvenue’s plantation,
passing a burning house as they
did so, and the American army
was right there in front of them.
As Colonel Alexander Dickson, the
commander of the British artillery,
later recorded, “at this point we
suddenly found ourselves within
700 or 800 Yards of the Enemy,
drawn up behind an entrenchment,
touching the river and from thence
extending … across to the wood
… and the Enemy commenced a
brisk fire of Cannon, with considerable effect on our Column, which
had been pushed nearer than it
otherwise would, from our so
Unexpectedly getting close to their
line of entrenchment.”
18
The way to New Orleans was
barred by a thousand-yard long,
fortified wall of earth, with cannon
strategically placed at points along
it. Pakenham and his officers put the
infantry regiments under whatever
cover they could find, before riding
back and forth to examine the
barrier as best they could. One
of the engineers climbed a tree
with a spyglass, and discovered
the additional obstacle of a waterfilled canal in front of the wall. To
make matters worse, the surviving
gun-schooner was anchored in
the river in a position to rake any
army that dared to approach the
American position. After long
consideration, Sir Edward ordered
his army to return to its downriver
encampment. Rather than throwing
away his best infantry regiments in
a frontal attack on such a strong
position, Pakenham chose to
bring up cannons to hammer the
American line first with artillery to
open a breach for his troops to pour
through.
Due to poor communication,
Pakenham was unaware that a
junior officer had probed forward
through the woods and found
that the American defenses at
their extreme right were weak and
susceptible to being overrun. If
exploited, they possibly could have
forced Jackson’s entire army from
its strong position. But the general’s
decision had been made and the
orders given. Battlefield communication was always a challenge
in the days before radios, and
messages often had to be carried
by mounted messengers. In any
event, the Americans had withstood
the first major push against them.
Fortunately, Jackson also noticed
the weakness in his defensive line
and took steps to extend it further
into the swamp, where it would
be harder for enemy troops to get
around it.
This is from an old photograph of the now destroyed plantation home of Augustin Francois Macarty,
used by Andrew Jackson as his field headquarters. From the collection of Stanley Clisby Arthur.
-National Park Service
THE ARTILLERY DUEL OF JANUARY 1, 1815
Royal Artillery Mounted Rocket Corps
Colnaghi and Co., 1815
Anne S.K. Brown Military Collection, Brown University Library
Having settled on what he felt
was the most sensible plan of
attack, on December 29 Pakenham
ordered his engineers and artillerymen to construct forward gun
batteries about 700 to 800 yards
from Jackson’s line, on the grounds
of the Bienvenue plantation. Since
the army’s own cannon had not
yet arrived, the Royal Navy loaned
Dickson a number of naval 18 and
24 pounder cannons. That’s how
much their shot weighed; the guns
themselves would have weighed
well over a ton each, and there was
no way to get them from the fleet
to the front line except through
sheer manpower. Hundreds of
sailors accomplished this seemingly
impossible task by the night of
December 31, as engineers and
working parties built the batteries
to shelter them. There was no cover
out in the bare cane fields, so they
used sugar casks filled with dirt as
makeshift protective barriers.
As the gun crews crept up into
position before dawn on New
Year’s Day, the infantry regiments
took up a position behind them,
in readiness for the opportunity to
storm any opening in the rampart.
A heavy fog obscured the Americans
until it burned off at 9 o’clock; then
they promptly opened fire. Colonel
Dickson of the Royal Artillery
observed that the first salvos “put
the Enemy into a visible confusion,
but they very soon put their people
under cover of the parapets, and
opened from all their Guns in
reply.” American shot soon plowed
through the makeshift British
batteries, killing gunners, but still
Dickson’s men kept up a brisk fire.
For over two and a half hours, this
19
artillery duel raged, while thousands
of redcoated infantry eagerly waited
for the cannons to open the way to
New Orleans and glory.
At length, however, the British
guns fell silent, having run out of
ammunition, while the American
cannons continued to hammer
away. Pakenham’s own army—
again forced to retire from the
battlefield and return to camp—was
tremendously demoralized by these
setbacks, and had reached a crisis
point. They were essentially stuck
there between the river and swampy
woods, and facing superior artillery.
Pakenham knew he could not
honorably or safely retreat to seek
battle on better terms elsewhere; the
only way out was forward, to New
Orleans. With the support of his
veteran officers, he opted to make
an all-out attack when expected
reinforcements from General John
Lambert’s brigade arrived in a few
days. He began planning a multipronged assault on both banks of
the Mississippi.
“The Battle of New Orleans” (ca. 1850). The Historic New Orleans Collection, 1959.60.2
“Cannon ball from the Battle of New Orleans” (between 1800 and 1815).
The Historic New Orleans Collection, 1944.40; Gift of Sylvia Norman Duncan Harry Macdonald.
20
THE PLAN
Pakenham’s main attack, under
General Gibbs, would hit near the
center of the American line, at a
point believed to be defended by
untrained militiamen; this column
would be led by the 44th Regiment
carrying ladders and woven
fascines—bundles of sticks—that
could be used to bridge the canal
and climb the rampart. A second
brigade, led by General Keane,
would attack Jackson’s river-side
flank to draw attention and fire away
from the main attack. Groups of
free-firing riflemen would precede
both attack columns to harass and
distract the dangerous American
cannon crews. The third brigade,
commanded by General Lambert,
would be held in reserve to support
either attack column as necessary.
Finally, a fourth brigade would cross
the river before daylight, capture
the American batteries there, and
turn those guns against Jackson’s
line. It was an ambitious plan that
also involved the construction of
a canal to enable boats to ferry the
troops across the river. The timing
and execution of each brigade’s
operation would be crucial.
TIMELINE:
December–January 1814
December 28
Pakenham advances army
in a reconnaissance in
force, studies American
defenses, and retires to
previous position
December 28–31
British sailors haul heavy
artillery eighty miles from
the fleet to the front lines
December 31
Royal artillery commander
establishes forward
batteries after nightfall
January 1
Artillery duel between
British and American
batteries ends when
British gunners run
out of ammunition;
planned infantry attack is
cancelled, and British army
again retreats
January 2–3
Pakenham plans grand
assault as reinforcements
begin to arrive from fleet
Rifleman, 95th Regiment, 1815
21
JACKSON PREPARES FOR ASSAULT
Meanwhile, Jackson did what
he could to prepare his men for
the coming assault. On January 3,
he was reinforced by over 2,300
Kentucky militiamen, but they were
ill-equipped. Later that day Jackson
wrote: “not more than one third of
them are armed, & those very indifferently. I have none here to put
into their hands. I can, therefore,
make no very useful disposition
of them.” Already he’d had to deal
with a rumored plan to surrender
the city by threatening to burn New
Orleans to the ground rather than
let the redcoats have it. Worse, he
was tired, having slept and eaten
very little. Though history would
later overlook it, Jackson was quite
ill at the time; not only had he
picked up a case of dysentery on the
march from Mobile, but he was also
suffering chronic pain from two
pistol balls lodged in his body from
duels—one near his heart and the
other in his arm. In a dispatch dated
January 3, Jackson requested that
the Secretary of War replace him
with “some proper officer to take
command of the army here, when
my want of health, which I find to
be greatly impaired, shall oblige me
to retire from it.” But there was no
one else on the scene, and Jackson
retained the sole command of the
American side throughout the crisis.
Meanwhile, life in the threatened
city went on. A young woman named
Laura Florian described the scene in
a letter to a friend. “The town is as
quiet & tranquil as if inhabited by
shades & spectres instead of man,”
she wrote. “We have [been] busy
since the commencement of the
war here making lint [bandages] for
the wounded, shirts, pantaloons &
blanket coats for the Kentuckians
& Tennesseans who may almost
literally be called Sans Culottes”
(poor working class men). She
added: “Blankets, mattresses, pillows
have been sent from almost every
house for their use, & I assure you
if the bravery of our Men is to be
commended, the humanity of the
ladies deserves no less praise.”
PAKENHAM’S PLAN UNRAVELS
On the British side, preparations
for the grand assault went forward
on all fronts, but morale was not at
all what it had been. Of this period,
Lt. Gleig wrote: “I do not recollect
to have experienced at any period
of my life, a degree of fatigue at all
to be compared with that which
now oppressed me. During three
whole nights and days I never
closed an eye; my food, during that
entire space, consisted of a small
quantity of salt beef, a sea-biscuit or
two, and a little rum. ... it was no
uncommon thing for both officers
and men to appease the cravings
of hunger by eating … sugar; not,
indeed, as it was found in the casks,
but after they had moulded it into
22
cakes.” Finally, the time for the final
grand assault drew near, and in the
wee hours of January 8 the weary
but determined regiments quietly
moved forward to their assigned
positions, as British gunners reoccupied and restocked the forward
batteries they had abandoned on
New Year’s Day.
All around in the darkness, in
the freezing early morning air, a
good many men wondered how
much longer they had to live. Not
many of them knew it, but an epic
tragedy had begun to unfold. The
canal designed to float the 4th
Brigade to its position across the
river had collapsed, and those men
hadn’t even left the East Bank yet.
Pakenham’s artillery commander
later wrote, “It is much to be
regretted that no person called Sir
Edward up during the night to
acquaint him with the delay and
difficulty in getting the boats into
the river, as in all probability he
would have begun with fewer boats,
… [and] a force with Artillery etc.
would have been across long before
daylight to execute their orders
agreeable to the original plans.”
Worse, the colonel leading the 44th
Regiment at the head of General
Gibbs’ main attacking column had
neglected to learn where the fascines
and ladders were stored, and now
sent two hundred men scurrying
to the rear to find them. Pakenham
had not been told of these difficulties in time to do anything about
them. The British were running
out of supplies and time, and the
Americans would only get stronger.
The sky was showing signs of the
coming dawn, and the attack had
to be made now. At Sir Edward’s
signal, the blue rocket soared above
the battlefield, and the regiments all
rose as one to advance.
85th, The Bucks Volunteers Light Infantry, 1808
Pakenham’s Plan Unravels
• Man-made canal engineered to float small transports from swamp
to river suddenly collapses, delaying 4th Brigade’s departure.
• Pakenham is unaccountably not informed.
• 44th Regiment neglects ladders and fascines needed to storm
American defenses, and must return to the rear to get them.
• Low morale and dwindling supplies make further delays dangerous.
• Rapid approach of daylight dictates that the attack
proceed immediately.
23
24
“Plan Of The Attack And Defence Of The American Lines below New Orleans, on the 8th January, 1815” (1816). The Historic New Orleans
Collection, 1979.238.4.
THE BATTLE OF JANUARY 8, 1815
“Battle of New Orleans” (1856). The Historic New Orleans Collection, 1960.22.
Everyone saw them, the American
Line included. Jackson and his
officers watched one rocket soar up
near the woods to their left, and
then another answering flare from
near the river at their right. Jackson
turned to one of his aides and said,
“I believe that is their signal to
advance.” Soon enough, through
the fog and gloom, the approaching
ranks of red-coated infantry could
be seen advancing in columns. The
Americans opened up on them
almost immediately. Some British
soldiers stumbled over the small
irrigation ditches as the crackle of
American muskets and rifles was
joined by the tremendous booming
flashes of cannon fire. Numbers of
men began to fall, jerked backwards
by hails of iron and lead, sometimes
crying out. Through the smoke
and horrendous noise, they took
a terrible beating, but still the
regiments continued to advance,
right into the teeth of the American
batteries. Pakenham’s artillery
commander, Alexander Dickson,
could see that they had got off
too late, instead of exploiting the
darkness. He wrote: “When the
fireing first Commenced there was
rather too much light, that is to
say if the attack had been a little
earlier it would have been better, as
the Enemy could not have directed
their fire with such certainty, for
although as I moved forward, in the
first instance I only saw the Enemies
fire by the Flashes, Still the troops
in motion were perfectly visible.”
The intense fire of American
25
artillery and small arms quickly
halted the main British attack.
Cannon shot and musket balls tore
through the advancing ranks, killing
General Gibbs and badly wounding
General Keane. Their loss left
the attacking brigades leaderless,
and some men fled while others
waited in vain for orders. The 93rd
Sutherland Highlanders bravely
marched across the battlefield to aid
Gibbs’ column, drums beating and
bagpipes wailing, very distinctive in
their red coats and tartan trousers.
General Pakenham cheered them
on as he rode toward the front to
personally assume command. He
saw clearly what was happening
and he did what was expected of
him. But as he tried to rally his
men, a burst of American grapeshot
knocked him off his horse, badly
mangling his leg. His staff quickly
found him another mount and
helped him into the saddle, but he
was soon hit again, and that time
his wounds proved to be fatal.
The battered remnants of the
British expedition were now
commanded by Maj. General John
Lambert, who quickly decided—
despite a successful assault on the
West Bank of the river—that his
force was now too weak to capture
New Orleans. After discussions
with his surviving officers, Lambert
gave the order to retreat, and sent
a flag of truce to the American
lines to request a cease-fire, so
that the wounded and dead could
be collected. British casualties
numbered over two thousand men.
“Battle of New Orleans and Death of Major General Packenham [sic] on the 8th of January 1815” (1816). The Historic New Orleans Collection,
1949.2 i,ii.
26
The Battle of New Orleans was over,
and incredibly, the British army,
the best trained and most powerful
in the world, had lost. The victors
were a ragtag force of local and state
militias, regular US troops, free
men of color, Choctaw Indians,
and Baratarian pirates. It was then,
and remains to this day, one of the
greatest upsets in military history.
Jackson’s victory made him
into an American icon, and eventually got him elected as our
seventh president. But beyond that,
Jackson’s successful defense of
New Orleans, at the far edge of a
young but growing United States,
put the world on notice that this
critical port, and the control of the
Mississippi River, would remain in
American hands. The pride in this
victory led to celebrations in city
streets all over the country. Bells
rang and people cheered and newspapers could not be printed fast
enough. Soon a booming market
in commemorative prints took off,
draping Jackson in the laurels of
victory, and placing New Orleans
in the center of a new American
patriotism.
Battle of January 8, 1815
British Force
approximately 9,600 men
American Force
approximately 5,200 men
“Sketch of the Position of the British and American Forces, during the Operations against New Orleans from 23d. Decr. 1814 to 18th. Jany.
1815” (June 30, 1915). The Historic New Orleans Collection,1971.98; bequest of Richard Koch
27
DIVINE INTERVENTION
Photo courtesy of The Archdiocese of New Orleans
During the night of January 7, 1815,
Andrew Jackson and his relatively small,
little-prepared and ill-equipped band of
soldiers organized their defenses against
the large, very well equipped British
army that would attack the city before
dawn. At the same time, many citizens
not directly involved in the army joined
the Ursuline Sisters in an all-night
vigil in their chapel on Chartres Street,
imploring Our Lady of Prompt Succor to
give the victory to Jackson for the United
States, saving the city of New Orleans
from British control. During the night,
the Superior, Mother Ste. Marie Olivier
de Vezin, promised Our Lady that if
Jackson and his men won, a mass of
thanksgiving would be sung every year
in memory of her saving help to the city
on that day. As dawn was breaking, Fr.
DuBourg began a mass for the same
intention. At the very moment of the
Communion a courier rushed into the
chapel announcing that Andrew Jackson
and his men had won the victory, and
the mass ended with the joyous singing
of the Te Deum.
“Dominique You” (ca. 1945). The Historic New
Orleans Collection, 1983.123.8.
Free Men of Color and Choctaw Indian Volunteers at New Orleans
Courtesy of the Army Art Collection
28
THE BATTLE OF JANUARY 8, 1815
“Battle of New Orleans” (1890). The Historic New Orleans Collection, 1959.20.
The Rifle Brigade When the 95th foot, c. 1808
1814. 5th The West India Regt.
Anne S.K. Brown Military Collection,
Brown University Library
29
WHEN DID THE WAR OFFICIALLY END?
It has often been claimed that the
Battle of New Orleans was fought
after the War of 1812 had ended.
While it is true that the Treaty of
Ghent—the diplomatic agreement
to end the war between Great
Britain and the United States—
had been signed in Europe on
Christmas Eve of 1814, no treaty
goes into effect immediately with
its signing. First, official copies of
the document must be sent to the
governments of the signing nations
“While many historians and
students of the Battle of New
Orleans have a long held belief
that the battle was fought
uselessly, after the signing of the
Treaty of Ghent, documents such
as this letter written by British
War Secretary Henry Bathurst
to General Pakenham have
given pause for reconsideration
by some experts. It is evident
that Pakenham had orders to
take New Orleans even though
a treaty was expected. British
foreign policy may have taken a
drastic turn with a victory.”
GARY JOINER, Ph.D.
Professor of History, Chair
Department of History and Social Sciences
Louisiana State University, Shreveport
for review, possible debate, and ratification, or official approval. In the
age of sailing ships, this took some
time. The British commissioners
who negotiated the Treaty of Ghent
with their American counterparts
had insisted that hostilities could
not end until both governments
had ratified the treaty. Even upon
ratification, a treaty does not
become binding until the ratified
copies are formally exchanged by
representatives of each government.
War Department
24th October 1814
M. Genl The Hon.le
Sir E. Pakenham
Secret
Sir:
It has occurred to me that one case may arise affecting your Situation
upon the Coasts of America for which the Instructions addressed to the late Major
General Ross have not provided.
You may possibly hear whilst engaged in active operations that the Preliminaries of Peace between His Majesty and the United States have been signed in
Europe and that they have been sent to America in order to receive the Ratification
of The President.
As the Treaty would not be binding until it shall have received such
Ratification in which we may be disappointed by the refusal of the Government of
the United States, it is advisable that Hostilities should not be suspended until you
shall have official Information that The President has actually ratified the Treaty
and a Person will be duly authorized to apprise you of this Event.
As during this Interval, judging from the Experience we have had, the
termination of the war must be considered as doubtful, you will regulate your
Proceedings accordingly, neither omitting an opportunity of obtaining signal
success, nor exposing the Troops to Hazard or serious Loss for an inconsiderable
Advantage. And you will take especial care not so to act under the Expectation of
hearing that the Treaty of Peace has been ratified, as to endanger the safety of His
Majesty’s Forces, should that expectation be unhappily disappointed.
I have etc.
Bathurst
30
In the case of the War of 1812, the
Treaty of Ghent was ratified by the
US government on February 16,
1815, and the ratified copies of the
treaty were exchanged by US and
British diplomats the next day in
Washington, DC. The War of 1812
was finally officially over, more than
a month after the Battle of New
Orleans had been fought.
WHAT IF THE BRITISH ARMY
HAD WON THE BATTLE?
There’s an old joke along the
lines of “If the British army had
beat Andrew Jackson in 1815,
people would speak English
in New Orleans today.” Some
historians and tour guides have
supposed that Louisiana might
have become a British colony had
Pakenham’s troops won the Battle
of New Orleans in 1815, and that
the westward expansion of the
US would have stopped then and
there. Other historians point out
that there’s no solid documentary
evidence to suggest that Great
Britain ever intended to hold New
Orleans or Louisiana long-term had
it succeeded on the battlefield, and
that Britain’s primary interest in
the War of 1812 was to end it as
quickly as possible, and to do what
they could to protect their valuable
Canadian territories. In the end, we
can’t be certain what would have
happened to New Orleans if the
battle had gone the other way. It’s
a question about which historians
continue to disagree. New research
may help to settle the question, but
in the meantime it is fascinating
to imagine how the history of the
lower Mississippi Valley might have
unfolded differently. Among other
things, Andrew Jackson might
never have been elected president,
and Native American tribes of the
Southeast might have remained
in their ancestral lands, instead of
being forced to migrate west. Such
questions help us to see that history
is an intricate chain of causes and
effects. Our interpretations of the
past are constantly changing, as new
information becomes available.
31
WHO WON THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS?
Former
president
Thomas
Jefferson was overjoyed with the
news from New Orleans, seeing it
as confirmation that the people of
Louisiana, despite their cultural
differences with other Americans,
could be “sincerely attached to
the Union.” But others were not
convinced, and in some versions
of the history of the famous battle,
Louisianans were depicted as being
mostly Frenchmen and foreigners,
who refused to defend their city
and stood by while real Americans
from the frontier settlements of
Tennessee and Kentucky fought the
battle with their long rifles.
A popular song that appeared
soon after the War of 1812, called
“Hunters of Kentucky,” helped
to popularize this notion. In the
song, Louisiana soldiers aren’t
even mentioned, but it’s implied
that they weren’t brave enough to
face the threat to their homes and
loved ones. The song ends with
these lyrics: “And now if danger
e’er annoys, remember what our
trade is / Just send for us Kentucky
boys, and we’ll protect you, ladies.”
A century later, Jimmy Driftwood
wrote his variation on the same
story, the version made famous by
Johnny Horton in 1959.
In reality, General Jackson’s
triumph at New Orleans came from
the joint efforts of French-speaking
Louisianans and English-speaking
militiamen from Tennessee and
elsewhere, and in any case the issue
was largely decided by Jackson’s
strong defensive position and
32
“
the American advantage in big
cannons. Even so, throughout the
nineteenth century, many printed
views of the famous Battle of New
Orleans prominently feature the
frontier militia of Tennessee and
Kentucky as being the most active
combatants. Some writers and
artists simply liked the striking
contrast between the spit-andpolish regular soldiers of the
British army and the rough-edged,
buckskin-clad frontiersmen from
Kentucky and Tennessee, seeing
a heroic and uniquely American
character in the latter.
More recent histories have
helped recover and explore the
contributions of Louisiana’s militia
and volunteers at the Battle of
New Orleans, and have shown a
reality that is far more interesting
than the accepted popular fiction.
Buckskin-clad frontiersmen fought
alongside Frenchmen who so
recently had joined the Union,
and many others—black men,
Choctaws, even pirates. Together
they prevailed over the army that
had beat Napoleon and burned the
public buildings in Washington.
Their shared victory demonstrates
to this day that diverse languages,
races, and cultural traditions are
not barriers to a sincere, collective
devotion to our country.
But the gratitude, the
admiration of their country,
offers a fairer reward than
that which any praises of
the general can bestow,
and the best is that of which
they can never be deprived,
the consciousness of having
done their duty, and of
meriting the applause they
will receive.
”
Directed by major-general Jackson to
be read at the head of each of the corps
composing the line below New Orleans,
Jan. 21, 1815
Arsène Lacarrière Latour, Historical Memoir
of the War in West Florida and Louisiana.
Expanded ed. (The Historic New Orleans
Collection; University Press of Florida, 1999)
Smith, John R. Peace. ca 1814. Library of Congress. Web. 13 Apr. 2014.
33
ACTIVITIES
34
GLES:
LITERACY AND WRITING
STANDARDS
Grade 3: 46
Grade 4: 50
Grade 5: 20, 21
Grade 7: 43, 44
Grade 8: 62, 63
Grade 11: US.1.5
RH.6-8.7
RH.11-12.7,
Activity 1: Battles for New Orleans Timeline
WHST.6-8.9,
WHST.11-12.9
OVERVIEW:
Using a variety of primary
and secondary resources,
students will find and
record information about
important dates and
events in history and
create a timeline in which
they integrate visual
information concerning
these important dates
and events.
DIRECTIONS:
Have students construct a timeline that may be displayed on butcher
paper or newsprint around the classroom. The dates of major events leading
up to and including the battles for New Orleans, as well as events following
the battles, should be included on the timeline. The timeline should be used
throughout the school year to reinforce the concept of time and chronology
of historical events. For each date on the timeline, have students write a
brief description of the event under the date. Students may include drawings
or other visuals to depict the event. Encourage students to use colors to
represent different events.
RESOURCES:
markers
colored pencils
newsprint or butcher paper
Internet access for research
(optional: for enrichment exercise)
Electronic references for timelines include the following websites:
The Historic New Orleans Collection www.hnoc.org/BNO/bno_timeline.html
National Park Service www.nps.gov/jela/historyculture/places-chalmette-battlefield.htm
Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/neworleans/timeline/
America’s Story from America’s Library (Library of Congress)
www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/nation/jb_nation_jackson_1.html
Time Line Maker www.teach-nology.com/web_tools/materials/timelines/
35
Activity 2: Plotting the Course
GLES:
Grade 3: 4, 5, 6
Grade 4: 5
Grade 5: 3, 4
Grade 7: 1
Grade 8: 2
Grade 11: US.1.5
STANDARDS
RH.6-8.1
RH.6-8.2
RH.6-8.7
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.2
RH.11-12.7
WHST.6-8.2b
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
Students will use historical
and contemporary maps as
well as The Historic New
Orleans Collection and
the National Park Service
timelines to identify and
label locations and dates
for important events that
occurred between the
British and Americans
leading up to and during
the battles for New Orleans
in 1814.
Ask students to complete the outline map of the Gulf of Mexico and the
area surrounding the battles for New Orleans using the timelines, historical
and contemporary maps, and the list of locations below. Students will label
the locations on the map and write important dates and events that occurred
in these locations. Students should also include a title for their maps, map
key, compass rose, and a map scale.
1. Gulf of Mexico
2. Pensacola
3. Mobile
4. Cat and Ship Islands
5. Lake Borgne
6. Lake Pontchartrain
7. Barataria Bay
8. New Orleans
9. Mississippi River
10. English Turn
11. Chalmette
12. Bayou Bienvenu
13. Villeré plantation
14. Macarty plantation
15. Rodriguez Canal
The Historic New Orleans Collection and the National Park Service timelines may be
found on the following links:
http://www.hnoc.org/BNO/bno_timeline.html
http://www.nps.gov/jela/historyculture/places-chalmette-battlefield.htm
RESOURCES:
The Historic New
Orleans Collection and
the National Park Service
timelines & outline maps
Historical and contemporary maps may be found on the following links:
http://hnoc.minisisinc.com/thnoc/scripts/mwimain.dll/144/M3/WEB_DETAIL_M3/SISN%2018200?SESSIONSEARCH
http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/jela/hrsi1.htm
Have students discuss and explain their completed maps. Display the
maps on a thematic board. Refer to the maps as needed when discussing
events relating to the battles for New Orleans.
36
GLES:
Grade 3: 5, 6
Grade 4: 5
Grade 5: 3, 4
Grade 7: 1, 3
Grade 8: 2, 4, 6, 70, 78
Grade 11: 1.5
STANDARDS
RH.6-8.1
Activity 3: Why Was New Orleans So Important?
RH.6-8.7
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.7
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
Students will use visuals to
learn why the Mississippi
River and New Orleans
were of utmost importance
to Great Britain and the
United States.
Provide students with a map outline of the Mississippi River valley. Have
students color the route that the Mississippi River takes as it travels from
Lake Itasca in Minnesota to the Gulf of Mexico. Students will also color and
label the major tributaries that feed into the Mississippi River. Locate and
label the major cities that are situated along the river. Display the finished
maps in the classroom for further reference.
http://www.earlyamerica.com/earlyamerica/maps/US_1812/
“The United States in 1812” map. Archiving Early America. March 15, 2014.
Brainstorm with the class the reasons why control of New Orleans and
the Mississippi River were so important to both the United States and
Great Britain. Have students read and discuss “Why Was New Orleans So
Important?” on pages 1 and 2 in this document. Students will work in groups
of two to complete the Reasons Why New Orleans and the Mississippi River
Were So Important graphic organizer (below).
RESOURCES:
markers
colored pencils
crayons
maps of the Mississippi River
and river valley
Reasons Why
New Orleans and the
Mississippi River
Were So Important
Conduct a show-and-tell session in which students explain the reasons
why New Orleans and the Mississippi River were so important. Students
should be able to draw conclusions as to why the British hoped to conquer
New Orleans and why the United States so desperately needed to maintain
control of this important port city. Display the completed graphic organizers in the classroom.
37
Activity 4: John Bull before New Orleans
GLES:
Grade 3: 48
Grade 4: 52
Grade 5: 24
Grade 7: 46
Grade 8: 67, 68
Grade 11: US.1.5
STANDARDS
RH.6-8.1
RH.6-8.2
RH.6-8.4
RH.6-8.6
RH.6-8.8
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.2
RH.11-12.4
RH.11-12.6
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
Students will closely examine
Have students read “Mr. Madison’s War” on pages 2 and 3 of this document.
Discuss with the students why the war was not going well for the Americans.
Emphasis should be placed on the burning of Washington, DC, and the
effects of Napoleon’s surrender in Europe.
the “John Bull before New
Orleans” political cartoon
and discover inferences made
therein about the situation
depicted.
Give students a copy of the “John Bull before New Orleans” political cartoon
and the Library of Congress Political Cartoon Student Analysis worksheets
(on the right). Students will work in groups to interpret the political cartoon.
Students will identify and discuss the information that is presented in the
cartoon. Students will offer informed speculations concerning the creator’s
point of view as depicted in the cartoon and explain how the illustrator
presents his message. Have students identify any propaganda techniques
that are found in the cartoon.
Ask volunteers to share with the class their findings using the Political
Cartoon Student Analysis worksheets. Engage the class in a discussion of the
glimpse offered by the “John Bull before New Orleans” political cartoon into
a key moment of United States history.
Information about political cartoons may be found on the following websites:
RESOURCES:
markers
colored pencils
crayons
“John Bull before New Orleans”
political cartoon
The Library of Congress
Political Cartoon Student
Analysis worksheets
38
John Bull before New Orleans political cartoon:
http://louisdl.louislibraries.org/cdm/singleitem/collection/lapur/id/6024/rec/1
Library of Congress Political Cartoon Analysis Worksheets:
Cartoon Analysis Worksheet:
http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/worksheets/cartoon.html
Teacher’s Guides and Analysis Tool:
http://www.loc.gov/teachers/usingprimarysources/guides.html
Student’s Analysis Tool:
http://www.loc.gov/teachers/primary-source-analysis-tool/
Have students create political cartoons that analyze the issues surrounding
the battles for New Orleans. Encourage the use of markers, colored pencils,
crayons, computer graphics, etc.
Conduct a show-and-tell session in which students explain their cartoons.
Students should be able to describe the propaganda techniques used in their
cartoons. Display the cartoons in the classroom.
Charles, William. John Bull Before New Orleans. 1815. New Orleans Public Library, Louisiana Division/City Archives and Special
Collections, New Orleans. Web. 10 Apr. 2014.
OBSERVE
REFLECT
QUESTION
Have students identify and note details.
Sample Questions:
Encourage students to generate and test
hypotheses about the source.
Have students ask questions to lead to
more observations and reflections.
Describe what you see.
What’s happening in the cartoon?
What do you notice first?
What was happening when this
cartoon was made?
What do you wonder about...
who?
what?
when?
where?
why?
how?
What people and objects are shown?
What, if any, words do you see?
What do you see that looks different
than it would in a photograph?
What do you see that might refer to
another work of art or literature?
What do you see that might be a symbol?
What other details can you see?
Who do you think was the a
audience for this cartoon?
What issue do you think this
cartoon is about?
What do you think the cartoonist’s
opinion on this issue is?
What methods does the cartoonist use to
persuade the audience?
39
Activity 5: The Life of Andrew Jackson
Grade 3: 6, 47, 53
Grade 4: 5, 50, 53, 57
Grade 5: 20, 21, 24, 26
Grade 7: 43, 44, 47
Grade 8: 62, 66
Grade 11: US.1.1 US.1.5
STANDARDS
RH.6-8.3
RH.6-8.5
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.2
WHST.6-8.2
WHST.6-8.2b
WHST.6-8.2f
WHST.11-12.2
WHST.11-12.2b
WHST.11-12.2e
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
The students will identify
and describe major events
that occurred during the
life of Andrew Jackson
and explain how these
events influenced his life.
Have students read “Old Hickory” on pages 5 and 6 of this document.
Discuss with the students how events in General Jackson’s life influenced
his attitudes and beliefs and created the man who was not afraid to stand
up against the strongest army in the world. Have students explain why his
troops affectionately called Jackson “Old Hickory.”
RESOURCES:
posters
markers
colored pencils
Life of Andrew Jackson graphic
organizer
40
GLES:
Organize the class into nine groups. Assign each group a different topic
concerning Andrew Jackson’s life:
• birth information and childhood experiences during the American Revolution
• education
• marriage and adopted children
• duels
• legal and political careers
• military career
• participation in the Creek Indian wars
• the War of 1812
• the Battle of New Orleans
Have students use primary and/or secondary source documents (textbooks,
encyclopedias, and reliable Internet resources) to find information concerning
the major events of Andrew Jackson’s life.
The following websites contain information on Jackson’s life:
The Hermitage timeline:
http://www.thehermitage.com/jackson-family/timeline
http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/jackson/
Have students use The Life of Andrew Jackson graphic organizer to record
information as they examine their assigned topic (see the sample on right).
THE LIFE OF ANDREW JACKSON
TOPIC AND DATE OF EVENT:
SUPPORTING DETAILS:
Birth information and childhood experiences
during the American Revolution
Education
Marriage and adopted children
Duels
Legal and political careers
Military career
Participation in the Creek Indian wars
War of 1812
Battle of New Orleans
As students research their assigned topics, have them prepare maps detailing Jackson’s locations and movements as
they relate to their assigned topic. Post these maps around the room for future reference and discussion.
Students will use their completed Life of Andrew Jackson graphic organizer to present their findings to the class
using PowerPoint presentations, posters, or various other visual presentations. As student groups present their reports,
have the other students record important facts and supporting details on their copies of the Life of Andrew Jackson
graphic organizer as each topic is presented.
Students will use RAFT writing (view literacy strategy descriptions) to write a newspaper article in which they describe
one of the major events in the life of Andrew Jackson (see the sample below).
ROLE
AUDIENCE
FORMAT
TOPIC
Newspaper reporter
US newspaper subscribers
Newspaper article
Major event in the life of Andrew
Jackson and the effects of this
event on Jackson’s life
Students should orally present their newspaper articles to the class and then display the RAFT letters on a
thematic bulletin board.
Gather the class back together. Solicit observations from each group and discuss their findings with the class.
Compare student findings. Some teacher guidance may be needed.
Have students add the dates and other pertinent information concerning the life of Andrew Jackson to the
timeline. The timeline should be used to reinforce the concept of time and chronology of historical events.
41
Activity 6: Problems, Obstacles, & Opposing Forces
GLES:
Grade 3: 3
Grade 4: 53
Grade 5: 26
Grade 7: 47
Grade 8: 72
Grade 11: US.1.5
STANDARDS
RH.6-8.1
RH.6-8.2
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.2,
WHST.6-8.2f
WHST.11-12.2e
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
Students will learn
about General Jackson’s
response to the problems
and obstacles that he
found when he arrived
in New Orleans early
in December of 1814.
Students will also learn
about the forces that made
up the opposing armies.
Discuss with students the problems and obstacles that General Andrew
Jackson faced when he first arrived in New Orleans. The discussion should
probe student background knowledge of the defense of and conditions in
the city, lack of weapons and equipment, and volunteer as well as professional troops that reported to the city. Have students use DL-TA (directed
learning-thinking activity; (view literacy strategy descriptions) to examine
the major obstacles that Jackson faced as he prepared for the arrival of
the British invasion forces. The class discussion should activate students’
interest and build on background knowledge concerning the battles for
New Orleans.
RESOURCES:
posters
newsprint
markers
Invite students to make predictions about the content they will be reading.
Have students write the predictions in their notebooks in order to keep a
record of them while they learn the new content.
Guide students through a reading selection from “Jackson’s Soldiers”,
found on pages 7 and 8 of this document, stopping at predetermined places
to ask students to check and revise their predictions. At each stopping point,
ask students to reread their predictions and change them if necessary. New
predictions and relevant information should be recorded. Ask questions
involving the content.
Students’ attention should be directed to the obstacles and problems
that Jackson encountered when he arrived in New Orleans on December
1, 1814. Explain Jackson’s actions to immediately address the seemingly
insurmountable obstacles. Attention should also be placed on the varied
assortment of troops that poured into the area to protect New Orleans.
Once students have been exposed to the content, their predictions may
be used as discussion tools. Ask students to compare what they predicted
would be learned to what they actually learned concerning the immediate
problems facing Jackson; the solutions that he used to solve these problems;
and the massive troop buildup that was a response to his call for assistance.
Hold a class discussion in which students describe their experience with
DL-TA. Have students orally explain and summarize what they learned
about Jackson’s response to the situation that he found upon arriving in
New Orleans.
42
Review with the class the varied assortment of troops that were under
the command of Major-General Pakenham and General Jackson. Place
students in groups of two and give each group an Opposing Forces Table.
Using posters or newsprint and markers, have students complete a web
diagram using the information in the Opposing Forces Table on right.
OPPOSING FORCES TABLE
BRITISH INVADERS
AMERICAN DEFENDERS
Major-General Sir Edward Pakenham
General Andrew Jackson
Infantry Regiments
7th and 44th Regular United States Infantry
4th (King’s Own)
US Light Artillery
7th (Royal Fusiliers)
Detachment of United States Marines
21st (Royal North British Fusiliers)
43rd (Monmouth Light Infantry)
44th (East Essex)
Louisiana Militia, including
Orleans Rifle Company (Beale’s Rifles)
Orleans Battalion of Uniform Companies
Carabiniers
85th (Bucks Light Infantry Volunteers)
Dragons à Pied
93rd (Sutherland Highlanders)
Francs
95th (Rifle Corps; 6 companies)
Chasseurs
1st & 5th West India (colored)
14th Dragoons (dismounted)
Royal Artillery including rocket troops
Drivers
Royal Navy
Royal Marines
Louisiana Blues
Baratarians
Two battalions of Free Men of Color
Other Louisiana Militia in Reserve
Tennessee Militia
Coffee’s Tennessee Mounted Infantry
Kentucky Militia
Company of Choctaw Indians
Cavalry: Hinds’ Mississippi Dragoons
Attakapas Dragoons
Chauveau’s Horse Volunteers
Feliciana Troop of Horse
43
Activity 6 (continued)
Students will write the names of the opposing generals in the center of each of the web diagrams. In the outer
ovals of the web diagrams, students will list the different fighting forces that were led by each general.
AMERICAN
DEFENDERS
BRITISH
INVADERS
In a culminating activity, hold a class discussion in which students orally explain and summarize what they
learned about the different troops that fought at the battles for New Orleans. Have students write a paragraph in
which they provide a concluding statement that supports the information presented in the “Jackson’s Soldiers”
reading and the Opposing Forces chart. Ask for student volunteers to share their writings with the class.
44
GLES:
Grade 3: 53
Grade 5: 24
Grade 8: 70
Grade 11: US.1.1
STANDARDS
Activity 7: Assorted Defenders
RH.6-8.
RH.6-8.2
RH.6-8.7
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.2
RH.11-12.7
WHST.6-8.2a
WHST.6-8.2b
WHST.6-8.6
WHST.11-12.2a
WHST.11-12.2b
WHST.11-12.6
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
Students will develop
multimedia presentations
about one of the groups
that came to defend
New Orleans against the
British invasion.
Divide the students into groups. Assign one of the assorted defenders
groups to each student group.
RESOURCES:
markers
colored pencils
GRADING CRITERIA
CONTENT
Historically Relevant Facts
• Choctaw Indians
• Kentucky forces
• Mississippi forces (including: Hinds’ Mississippi Dragoons)
• 7th and 44th Regular United States Infantry
• Tennessee forces (including Coffee’s Tennessee Mounted Infantry)
• United States Marines
Have students use “Jackson’s Soldiers” and “Help Arrives from Fellow
States” found on pages 7–8 and 11–12 of this document to learn more about
the assorted group of defenders that joined Jackson’s army and fought in
the battles for New Orleans. Students will use primary and/or secondary
source documents (books, encyclopedias, and reliable Internet resources) to
read about the volunteer and regular United States army troops that came
to defend New Orleans against the British invasion. Students will prepare a
five-minute multimedia presentation to share with the class concerning their
group of defenders. See multimedia project rubric below.
POINTS
MULTIMEDIA RUBRIC
5
4
Contains at least 2 accurate
pieces of information for each
required heading (5 pts)
Facts are accurate
Significance of Information and significant for
all entries (5pts)
Accurate facts;
most info is
significant
3
2
1
Contains 3,
accurate
Contains 2,
accurate
Contains 1,
accurate
Most facts are
accurate, some info
is significant
Some facts are
accurate; some
info is significant
Much important
information is
lacking
Pictures or Graphics
Contains at least 4 accurate/
relevant (5pts)
Contains 2, accurate and/or
lack relevance (3/2pts)
Contains 1,
accurate
Spelling
No errors (5pts)
1 error
2 errors
3 or more errors
Grammar/Style
No errors (5pts)
1 error
2 errors
3 or more errors
Organization
Well organized and
easy to follow (5pts)
Average
organization
Title Page or Visual
Contains title, group members’ names, date (5pts)
Visual Appeal
Colors and graphic design
complements information,
does not detract from audience
engagement with information. (5pts)
Colors/graphs visually appealing
but detract from audience
engagement with information (3pts)
Little attention
given to graphic
design
Group Participation
All members participated in
organization/construction of
visual. Covers all indicated issues
related to the topic.
Some assignments incomplete, some
members not on task (3/2pts)
Failed to cooperate,
incomplete or
poor quality product
Lacks
organization
Information
incomplete (2pts)
No information
given
45
As students read informational texts, have them use a graphic organizer to summarize and record information
concerning important facts and contributions made by their assigned group of defenders (see New Orleans Defenders
sample below).
NEW ORLEANS DEFENDERS
DEFENDERS
IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS
AN ASSORTMENT OF DEFENDERS
DEFENDERS
Company of Choctaw Indians
Kentucky Militia
Hinds’ Mississippi Dragoons
7th and 44th Regular
United States Infantry
Tennessee Militia and Coffee’s
Tennessee Mounted Infantry
United States Marines
46
IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS
Readings on the different groups that came to defend New Orleans against the British invasion may be found on the following websites:
Choctaw Indians:
http://www.nchgs.org/html/road_to_new_orleans.html
http://www.history.army.mil/html/topics/afam/aa-art-2.html
Kentucky Forces:
http://kynghistory.ky.gov/history/1qtr/warof1812.htm
http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/hh/29/hh29m.htm
http://lanclib.org/history/resources/exhibits/no/no.htm
http://www.2ndkentucky1812.com/2012/03/29/kentucky-regiments-the-battle-of-new-orleans
http://www.americaslibrary.gov/aa/jackson/aa_jackson_icon_2_e.html
Mississippi Forces (including Hinds’ Mississippi Dragoons):
http://battleofneworleans.org/Britishland.htm
http://jeffersoncountyms.org/jefftroop.htm
http://npshistory.com/handbooks/historical/29/hh29m.htm
http://files.usgwarchives.net/la/state/military/war1812/battle-no.txt
7th and 44th Regular United States Infantry:
http://battleofneworleans.org/
http://www.crt.state.la.us/museum/online_exhibits/Cabildo/6.aspx
http://www.frenchcreoles.com/CreoleCulture/battalion%20creoles/battalion%20creoles.htm
Tennessee Forces:
http://www.battleofneworleans2015.com/page.php?name=battle-story
http://www.tennessee.gov/tsla/exhibits/veterans/1812.htm
http://www.tennesseehistory.com/class/NewOrleans.htm
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/25699/25699-h/25699-h.htm
http://www.tngenweb.org/campbell/hist-bogan/NewOrleans.html
United States Marines:
http://battleofneworleans.org/
http://www.frenchcreoles.com/CreoleCulture/battalion%20creoles/battalion%20creoles.htm
http://files.usgwarchives.net/la/state/military/war1812/battle-no.txt
As student groups present their findings to the class, have students use split-page notetaking (view literacy
strategy descriptions) to record information from their peer multimedia presentations (see sample left of page).
Hold a class discussion in which students reflect on the important contributions made by these assorted
defenders. Some teacher guidance may be needed.
Have students imagine that the diary of an American soldier, who participated in the battles, was found in an
old chest in an attic in Nashville, Tennessee. Have students write an entry in which they describe the assorted
group of defenders that were present for the battles for New Orleans. Ask for student volunteers to share their
diary entries.
47
Activity 8: Jackson’s Louisiana Forces
GLES:
Grade 3: 53
Grade 4: 52
Grade 5: 26
Grade 7: 50
Grade 8: 66, 67, 70, 75
Grade 11: US.1.1, US.1.5
STANDARDS
RH.6-8.1
RH.6-8.2
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.2
WHST.6-8.2
WHST.6-8.9
WHST.11-12.2
WHST.11-12.9
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
Students will learn that
the Louisiana forces that
joined Andrew Jackson’s
army in defending
Louisiana and defeating
the British during the
battles for New Orleans
were a very diverse group.
By analyzing visuals
associated with the
different ethnic groups,
students will see that these
forces represented a true
cross section of Louisiana’s
population at that time.
Students will learn how to
look for potential bias and
consider the point of view
of the artist.
Organize the class into groups of two. Provide copies of the paintings
that depict the different Louisiana ethnic groups that joined Jackson’s forces
and the How to Analyze Visuals worksheet (see sample below). Students will
analyze and interpret the paintings while completing the worksheet.
RESOURCES:
Images of the different
Louisiana ethnic groups
that joined Jackson’s forces
to defend New Orleans
HOW TO ANALYZE VISUALS
What is the title of the image?
What is the image about?
Evaluate the details. (What do the details suggest?)
Think critically about the information that you
see in the image.
How is the artist’s personal perspective reflected in
the image?
Is the purpose of the visual to entertain, inform,
or to persuade the audience?
Visuals of the different ethnic groups that fought in the battles for New Orleans:
The Battle of New Orleans, John Andrews, 1856, detail showing Free Men of Color battalions
http://www.crt.state.la.us/louisiana-state-museum/online-exhibits/the-cabildo/the-battle-of-new-orleans/
The Creole Soldier
http://www.frenchcreoles.com/DCP03387.jpg
Captain Daquin’s Battalion of San Domingo Free Men of Color
http://www.history.army.mil/html/topics/afam/print/1814-p.html
Major Lacoste’s 1st Battalion of Free Men of Color
http://www.battleofneworleans2015.com/page.php?name=whos-who
Ask student groups to report their findings concerning the images,
bias depicted in the visuals, and the point of view of the artists. Open the
discussion to the entire class in order to allow students to think and communicate graphically.
Have students imagine that they are a war correspondent working for a
newspaper that is located on the East Coast. Students will write a descriptive
passage, in the form of a newspaper article, in which they describe the people
and the events that are represented in their favorite visual.
ROLE
AUDIENCE
FORMAT
TOPIC
Regional newspaper
reporter from
the East Coast
Subscribers
Newspaper
Jackson’s
feature article
Louisiana forces
(descriptive passage)
Ask student volunteers to read what they have written to the class and
then display the newspaper articles on a thematic bulletin board.
48
GLES:
Grade 3: 46, 48, 53
Grade 4: 50, 54
Grade 7: 43, 46, 48
Grade 8: 62, 65, 70
Grade 11: US.1.1, US.1.5
Activity 9: Battle of Lake Borgne,
the First Battle for New Orleans
STANDARDS
RH.6-8.1
RH.6-8.2
RH.6-8.7
RH.6-8.9
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.2
RH.11-12.7
RH.11-12.9,
WHST.6-8.2,
WHST.11-12.2
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
Students will cite specific
textual evidence to
support the use of primary
and secondary sources in
the process of analyzing
and interpreting historical
data while learning about
the first battle for New
Orleans, fought on Lake
Borgne.
Have students learn about the Battle of Lake Borgne by reading “The
Invaders Arrive” and “The First Battle” on pages 9 and 10 of this document.
Students will use split-page notetaking to organize their notes and to record
supporting details and information as they read the passages about the Battle
of Lake Borgne (see the graphic organizer below).
THE BATTLE OF LAKE BORGNE NOTES
Date: December 14, 1814
Topic: The Battle of Lake Borgne
Describe the difficult terrain and obstacles that
forced the large British warships to anchor 85
miles from New Orleans near Ship Island.
Five American gunboats had been sighted in
Lake Borgne. Describe what British Lieutenant
Nicholas Lockyer did to prepare for the conflict
with the American gunboats.
Even though the British won the first battle for
New Orleans in Lake Borgne, explain why the
victory was costly.
Explain why the Battle of Lake Borgne was so
important.
Describe what happened when news of the
American loss reached New Orleans.
As the students gain new knowledge, stop periodically as content is
covered and ask students to cite specific evidence supporting their responses
as they fill in their Battle of Lake Borgne Notes graphic organizer.
RESOURCES:
Gather the class back together. Solicit observations from students and
discuss and compare their findings. Some teacher guidance may be needed.
markers
colored pencils
Organize the class into groups. Have each group look at different primary
sources that relate to the Battle of Lake Borgne.
Below is a list of selected primary sources on the battle:
The Historic New Orleans Collection:
National Park Service:
http://cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/hh/29/hh29f.htm
http://cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/hh/29/hh29g.htm
49
As the students look at and analyze these primary sources, have them complete the National Archives and
Records Administration Document Analysis Worksheets. (Adobe Reader will be needed to open the worksheets
which are in PDF format.) Adobe Reader is a free download at http://get.adobe.com/reader/.
Map Analysis Worksheet:
http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/worksheets/map.html
Photo or Painting Analysis Worksheet:
http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/worksheets/photo.html
Written Document Analysis Worksheet:
http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/worksheets/document.html
As primary source documents on the Battle of Lake Borgne are analyzed, have students use the Battle of Lake
Borgne primary source chart to analyze the primary sources (below). Ask students to tell how they would explain
the documents to someone who was completely unfamiliar with the Battle of Lake Borgne.
BATTLE OF LAKE BORGNE PRIMARY SOURCE CHART
DECEMBER 14, 1814
TOPIC: BATTLE OF LAKE BORGNE PRIMARY SOURCES
What is the title of the primary source?
What type of primary source is it?
Why was the primary source written, recorded, or painted?
Which words or terms would be considered uncommon today or
would mean something different?
How would you explain the primary source to someone who was
completely unfamiliar with it?
When would it be more useful to use primary sources rather than
secondary sources in analyzing historical events?
Gather the class back together. Solicit observations from each group and compare and discuss their findings.
Some teacher guidance may be needed.
Discuss with students why primary sources are important. Ask students:
• When is the use of primary sources the most appropriate means of researching a historical topic?
• When would a secondary source be more appropriate?
• Upon completion of the presentation of information, engage students in a discussion involving the questions in their Battle of
Lake Borgne Notes graphic organizer and Battle of Lake Borgne primary source chart in order to clarify any misconceptions
about the issues, information, or concepts.
• Have students work individually, using the questions and answers, to write a short summary of the “story” of the Battle of Lake
Borgne. Students should also include an explanation of the process of analyzing and interpreting historical data.
Have students add the dates and other pertinent information concerning the Battle of Lake Borgne to the timeline.
The timeline should be used to reinforce the concept of time and chronology of historical events.
50
GLES:
Grade 3: 46
Grade 4: 50
Grade 5: 20, 23, 24
Grade 7: 43, 46
Grade 8: 62, 65
Grade 11: US.1.1
STANDARDS
Activity 10: The British Arrive
RH.6-8.1
RH.6.8.2
RH.6-8.5
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.2
WHST.6-8.2f
WHST.11-12.2e
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
Students will cite specific
textual evidence to support
analysis of secondary
sources, connecting insights
gained from specific details
about the British secret
landing only a few miles
from New Orleans.
Have students read “The Bristish Landing” passage on page 13 of this
document. By using “The British Arrive” process guide below, students will
gain additional insight of the British invasion on Louisiana soil.
THE BRITISH ARRIVE
List three facts concerning the first British invasion force:
Describe the way in which the British scouted the area to find the way to
the levee road along the Mississippi River:
State the reason why the 85th Light Infantry and the 95th Rifles Regiment
were known as the cream of the force:
List an interesting fact about the uniforms of the 95th Rifles Regiment:
Name the temporary commander of the British ground forces prior to the
arrival of Sir Edward Michael Pakenham:
State the reason why Major General John Keane did not want to push on
to New Orleans immediately:
State the reason why the British believed that the Americans would not
offer a determined resistance against them:
RESOURCES:
Information on the December 23, 1814, night battle may be found on the following site:
https://archive.org/stream/historicalmemoi00latogoog#page/n108/mode/2up
51
Ask students to work with a partner to fill in the guide. Then ask students to share their findings. Engage the class
in a discussion of the events surrounding the British arrival on December 23, 1814.
Place students in groups of four and use text chains (view literacy strategy descriptions) to create a short story
about the British landing near New Orleans. On a sheet of paper, ask the first student to write the opening sentence
of a text chain in which the students explain the topic of the first British invasion force’s secret landing in Louisiana.
The student then passes the paper to the student sitting to the right, and that student writes the next sentence in
the story. The paper is passed again to the right to the next student, who writes a third sentence of the story. The
paper is passed to the fourth student, who must complete the story. See the sample text chain that follows:
Student 1: The British had to row their men and supplies across Lake Borgne
because the lake is shallow and their large ships would get stuck.
Student 2: Two British officers dressed up like fishermen and were able to
find a route to the Mississippi River without being noticed.
Student 3: Major General John Keane was the British general in charge of
soldiers that were very experienced.
Student 4: Two hundred American soldiers on horses spotted the British
troops and ran away when the British fired on them.
As a culminating activity, ask students to share their text chains with the class. Hold a class discussion and ask
students to compare methods of reconnaissance used in 1814 to those used today. Reread the last sentence in the
reading passage: “Yet at about seven that night, after dark, they discovered that they were quite mistaken.” Ask
students to predict what they think happened next.
Have students add the date and other pertinent information concerning the landing of the British invasion force
to the timeline. The timeline should be used to reinforce the concept of time and chronology of historical events.
52
GLES:
Grade 3: 6, 47, 53
Grade 4: 53, 57
Grade 5: 25, 26
Grade 7: 47
Grade 8: 66, 75, 78
Grade 11: US.1.1, US.1.5
STANDARDS
Activity 11: Preparing Line Jackson
RH.6-8.1
RH.6-8.2
RH.6-8.3
RH.6-8.7
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.2
RH.11-12.3
RH.11-12.7
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
Students will create
visual representations
of Line Jackson and
be able to describe the
ways in which General
Jackson prepared for
the approaching British
army.
Discuss with the students some of the unorthodox tactics that General
Jackson used to protect his inexperienced troops and to harass and annoy the
British. Have students fill in the K-W-L-H chart as they read and research
information about the American general who did not play by civilized rules.
The chart asks students to tell what they already know, what they want to
find out, what they learned, and how they can learn more about the topic
(see below).
K-W-L-H CHART
What I Know
What I Want
to Find Out
What I Learned
How Can I
Learn More
Have students read “Preparing ‘Line Jackson,’ ” found on page 16 of this
document. As the students read the passage, have them complete the Line
Jackson graphic organizer. Ask students to work with a partner to respond
to each question in the Line Jackson graphic organizer as they read about
the ways in which General Jackson prepared for the invading British army.
LINE JACKSON
Where was Line Jackson?
Who built Line Jackson?
RESOURCES:
What materials were used to build Line Jackson?
markers
colored pencils
crayons
What did Jackson have the workers to do with the
Rodriguez Canal?
K-W-L-H chart
Line Jackson graphic organizer
What use were cotton bales to the line of defense?
Why did Jackson need to build this strong line of
defense?
When was work done on the line of defense and
on the canal?
Ask students to share their findings. Engage the class in a discussion of
the preparations that were made to form a line of protection between the
advancing British army and the city of New Orleans. Ask students to use
their completed Line Jackson graphic organizer and their K-W-L-H chart
while participating in the class discussion.
In a concluding activity, have students create visual representations of Line
Jackson and the Rodriguez Canal. Ask for student volunteers to display and
explain their visual representations to the class. Display the visual representations of Line Jackson on a thematic bulletin board.
53
Activity 12: The Night Battle of December 23, 1814
GLES:
Grade 3: 46, 47, 48, 54
Grade 4: 50, 58
Grade 5: 20, 21, 24, 26
Grade 7: 43, 47
Grade 8: 62, 65, 66
Grade 11: US.1.1, US.1.5
STANDARDS
RH.6-8.1
RH.6-8.2
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.2
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
Students will identify key
steps in a text’s description
of the night battle that
occurred on December 23,
1814, and integrate visual
information with other
information in print.
Students will use SQPL (student questions for purposeful learning; view
literacy strategy descriptions) to learn more about the second battle for New
Orleans that began on the night of December 23, 1814.
Generate a statement pertaining to the night battle. This statement should
be thought-provoking and designed to encourage students to wonder about
and challenge the proposed topic of information that will be presented
in the lesson. For example, an SQPL statement about the night battle of
December 23rd might be:
Chaos erupted with muskets, bayonets, tomahawks, long knives, and even
fists being used during the intense night battle of December 23, 1814.
Present the statement to students. Have students pair up to generate two
or three questions they would like answered about the SQPL statement.
Next, the class will share questions, which are then recorded on the board.
Repeated questions from the groups are highlighted to emphasize their
importance. Add questions to be sure all gaps in information are filled.
Students are now ready to discover the answers to their questions. As
content is covered, stop periodically to allow students to determine if their
questions have been answered.
RESOURCES:
The “Night Battle” of
December 23, 1814 chart
Using the “Night Battle” of December 23, 1814 reading, found on
pages 14 and 15 of this document, and information from primary
and/or secondary source readings, Internet resources, and lectures, have
students work in pairs to research and analyze the night battle of December
23rd. Student attention should focus on the following: events preceding the
battle, Jackson’s reasons for taking the battle to the British, the battle, and the
aftermath of the battle.
More information concerning the night battle of December 23, 1814,
may be found on the following websites:
http://cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/hh/29/hh29h.htm
54
As students research their assigned topic, have them use split-page notetaking (view literacy strategy descriptions) to
organize pertinent information concerning the night battle of December 23rd (see the chart below):
THE “NIGHT BATTLE” OF DECEMBER 23, 1814
Topic: The Night Battle of December 23, 1814
Describe the scene in the British camp at the
Villeré Plantation.
List three facts concerning the USS Carolina.
While the USS Carolina was pounding the
British camp, describe what happened next.
Describe the fight that ensued between the
British and American troops.
Explain why a common language shared
between the opposing armies presented a
problem.
Explain what happened to turn the tide of
the battle in favor of the British.
Explain why Jackson’s bold strategy to take
the battle to the British was so important.
Explain why there was much joy in the
British camp on Christmas Day.
List three facts concerning British General
Sir Edward Pakenham.
Explain what General Pakenham succeeded
in doing to stop the constant bombardment
from the USS Carolina.
Hold a class discussion and ask students to share their findings on the night battle of December 23rd. Check
student responses for accuracy and clarify any misconceptions about the content.
Have students add the date and other pertinent information concerning the night battle of December 23rd to the
In a culminating activity, have students create a graffiti wall in which they create their own drawings of the events
that transpired leading up to, during, and after the night battle of December 23rd. Ask students to explain their
graffiti. Display the Night Battle of December 23rd graffiti wall in the classroom.
55
GLES:
Activity 13: Military Music
Grade 5: 26
Grade 8: 70
Grade 11: US.1.5
STANDARDS
RH. 6-8.1
RH.6-8.7
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.7
WHST.6-8.9
WHST.11-12.1
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
Students will use
primary and secondary
source materials to learn
about the functions of
the different musical
instruments that were
used during the battles
for New Orleans.
Using information from primary and/or secondary source readings,
Internet resources, and lectures, have students read information about the
different types of musical instruments that were used during the battles for
New Orleans.
As students read, have them use split-page notetaking to organize pertinent
information concerning the different musical instruments used during the
battles and their various purposes (see the Military Musical Instruments
sample below):
MILITARY MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
Musical Instrument
Purpose of the Musical Instrument On and Off the Battlefield
bagpipes
bugles
drums
fifes
trumpets
Information concerning the musical instruments used during
the battles for New Orleans may be found on the following websites:
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ammu/hd_ammu.htm
http://www.drums1812.org/HTML/Instruments.html
http://www.nefa.net/archive/songmusicdance/pipes/war.htm
RESOURCES:
markers
colored pencils
crayons
Hold a class discussion and ask students to share their findings recorded in
their split-page notes. Check for student understandings and allow students
to make corrections if necessary.
Have students listen to military music played by bagpipes and fife, and,
drum corps.
The following websites contain recordings of musical instruments used by the military:
http://www.militaryheritage.com/sound.htm
http://podcast.history.org/2013/05/13/fifes-and-drums-the-instruments/
http://history.org/history/fifeAnddrum/media.cfm?sort=video
http://www.loc.gov/search/?q=recordings+of+bagpipes
Hold a class discussion involving the different recordings. Ask students
to describe the effectiveness of each instrument involved during military
conflict.
56
Have students create collages in which they depict scenes in which musical instruments were used during the
battles for New Orleans. Encourage the use of markers, colored pencils, colors, computer graphics, etc.
Conduct a show-and-tell session in which the students explain their collages. Students should be able to describe
and analyze the depictions in their collages. Display the collages in the classroom.
Place students in groups of three to five and use the round robin discussion technique (view literacy strategy
descriptions) to answer the following questions:
• What types of musical instruments were used during the battles for New Orleans?
• Explain why musical instruments were used during battles.
• In what ways were musical instruments used off of the battlefield?
• In what ways were musical instruments used on the battlefield?
• What was an advantage of a bagpipe over a fife?
• Describe the importance of drummer boys to their army.
Round robin is a great technique to ensure all students participate in a discussion. Have each student in the
circle quickly share his or her idea or solution to a question. Students may be given one opportunity to “pass”
on a response, but eventually every student must respond. This technique is most effective when, after the initial
clockwise sharing, students are asked to write down their responses. This allows all students’ opinions and ideas to
be brought to the teacher’s and classmates’ attention. It also provides a record of the group’s thinking, which may
be used for grading purposes and to prepare for future assessments.
Gather the class back together. Solicit observations and compare and discuss student findings. Some teacher
guidance may be needed.
Using their split-page notes, have students write a well-organized short essay in which they analyze and describe
the ways in which musical instruments were used on and off the battlefield during the battles for New Orleans. Ask
for student volunteers to share their completed short essays with the class.
Snare Drum (LSM 00476.1), wood and hide, manufactured
by Klemm & Brother’s, Philadelphia, c. 1860. Courtesy of the
Collections of the Louisiana State Museum, loan by Gaspar Cusachs.
“The British Bugler Boy Sounding The Charge” (January
23, 1858). The Historic New Orleans Collection,
1974.26.5.8.
57
Activity 14: The Engagement of December 28, 1814
GLES:
Grade 3: 46, 54
Grade 4: 50, 53, 58
Grade 5: 20, 21, 23, 24 26
Grade 7: 43, 47
Grade 8: 62, 65, 66,
Grade 11: US.1.1, US.1.5
STANDARDS
RH.6-8.1
RH.6-8.2,
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.2
WHST 6-8.2
WHST.11-12.2
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
Students will use primary
and secondary sources
to learn about the events
that transpired as the
British scouted Jackson’s
line of defense on
December 28, 1814.
Have students read “The Engagement of December 28, 1814” on page
18 of this document as well as other primary and/or secondary source
documents (books, encyclopedias, and reliable Internet resources) to learn
about the events that occurred between the American and British troops
on December 28, 1814. As students read informational texts, they will
complete a graphic organizer in which they summarize information about
important events that occurred during the engagement between the armies
on December 28th (see graphic organizer below).
THE RECONNAISSANCE
Events of December 28, 1814
Supporting Details
Additional Information
RESOURCES:
The Reconnaissance graphic
organizer
Information concerning important events occurring between the American
and British troops on December 28, 1814, may be found on the following websites:
http://www.hnoc.org/BNO/william_cook.html
http://cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/hh/29/hh29j.htm
http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/jela/hrst.htm
58
Students will present their findings to the class. Hold a class discussion in which students reflect on the important
events that occurred on December 28, 1814.
Use the Fishbowl discussion technique (view literacy strategy descriptions) to answer the following questions:
• What was General Pakenham’s objective on December 28th?
• How did the British approach the American line of defense?
• What prevented the British from marching into New Orleans?
• How did Pakenham and his engineers scout the American defensive line?
• What other obstacles stood in the way of the British?
• What did Pakenham decide to do after seeing the American line and all of the obstacles?
• What had a junior officer and his troops been able to do?
• How might history have changed if methods of communication were better?
• What plan did Pakenham decide to use after seeing the American line?
• What did General Jackson do next?
Divide students into two groups sitting in concentric circles. A small group of students in the inner circle (the
fishbowl) is asked to discuss the above questions while the other group (the outer circle) looks on. The outside
group must listen but not contribute to the deliberations of the students who are “in the fishbowl.” At some point
during the discussion, give those students in the outer circle an opportunity to discuss among themselves their
reactions to the conversations that they have observed and to ask questions of the students in the fishbowl.
Have students work individually, using the information from their The Reconnaissance graphic organizer and
their participation in the Fishbowl discussion, to write an informative summary in which they explain important
events that occurred on December 28, 1814. Ask student volunteers to read their summaries to the class as the
other students listen for accurate information. Facilitate any discussion that follows.
Have students add the date and other pertinent information concerning the events of December 28, 1814, to the
59
GLES:
Activity 15: Unwelcome Guests
Grade 3: 47
Grade 4: 53
Grade 5: 23, 24
Grade 7: 47
Grade 8: 6, 66, 72, 75, 78
Grade 11: US.1.1, US.1.5
STANDARDS
RH.6-8.1
RH.6-8.2,
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.2
WHST.6-8.2
WHST.6-8.2b
WHST.11-12.2
WHST.11-12.2b
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
Students will learn
about the inhospitable
conditions that the British
invading army was forced
to endure during its stay
in Louisiana.
Have students read “American Tactics” found on page 17 of this document
as well as other primary and/or secondary source documents (textbooks,
encyclopedias, and reliable Internet resources) to examine the inhospitable
conditions that the British troops experienced on Louisiana soil. Attention
should be focused on General Jackson and his army, the people of Louisiana,
and the environment and wildlife.
Use the Unwelcome Guests graphic organizer below to help students
assimilate, think critically about, and apply new knowledge concerning the
hostile conditions that the British army was forced to endure during the
months of December 1814 and January 1815.
G eneral J ackson
and H is T roops
L ouisiana
C reoles
T he
B ritish A rmy
L ouisiana
E nvironment
RESOURCES:
Unwelcome Guest graphic
organizer
L ouisiana
W ildlife
Ask students to work with a partner to respond to each dilemma as they
read about the problems and terrifying situations that the British troops
experienced on Louisiana soil. Then ask students to share their findings.
Engage the class in a discussion of the inhospitable conditions. Ask students
to use their completed Unwelcome Guests graphic organizers while participating in the class discussion.
Have students assume the role of a British soldier stationed in Louisiana
during the battles to capture New Orleans. Students will write a letter home
to their families in which they explain the tactics that General Jackson and
his army used to harass and terrorize the British troops, the unwelcoming
treatment of the Louisiana Creoles, the hostile environment, and the
terrifying wildlife.
ROLE
AUDIENCE
FORMAT
British soldier in the
invading British army
Family at home in Letter
(informative essay)
Great Britain
TOPIC
Louisiana, it is not
what we thought it
would be!
Students should orally present their letters to the class. Ask students to
select exemplary letters. Display selected letters on a thematic bulletin
board.
60
GLES:
Grade 3: 46
Grade 4: 50
Grade 5: 20, 21
Grade 7: 43
Grade 8: 62, 70, 77, 78
Grade 11: US.1.1, US.1.5
STANDARDS
RH.6-8.1
RH.6-8.2
RH.6-8.7
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.2
RH.11-12.7
WHST.6-8.2b
WHST.6-8.2f
WHST.11-12.2b
WHST.11-12-2e
Activity 16: The Artillery Duel of January 1, 1815
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
Students will read
and analyze primary
and secondary sources
concerning the 1815
artillery duel of New
Year’s Day and write a
narrative account from
the perspective of an
individual who might
have been present at
the battle.
Have students use “The Artillery Duel of January 1, 1815” reading on pages
19 and 20 of this document and other primary and/or secondary source
documents to learn about the New Year’s Day artillery battle. Students
should examine the events leading up to and during this important battle.
Ask students to work with a partner to fill in the Concept Wheel graphic
organizer.
As the students read and examine the primary and secondary source
documents concerning the 1815 artillery duel of New Year’s Day, they will
write supporting details concerning this important battle in the spokes of
the wheel.
Information concerning the duel may be found on the following websites:
http://hnoc.minisisinc.com/thnoc/scripts/mwimain.dll/144/M2A/WEB_DETAIL_M2A/SISN%209399?SESSIONSEARCH
http://cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/hh/29/hh29k.htm
A rtillery
D uel of
N ew Y ear ’ s
D ay
RESOURCES:
markers
colored pencils
Have students share their Concept Wheels with the class. Ask students to
describe the immediate and long-term consequences and problems that the
British faced in having their supply base hours and miles away from their fighting
forces. Post the completed Concept Wheels on a thematic bulletin board.
In a concluding activity have students assume the role of a British newspaper
reporter present at the artillery duel on January 1, 1815. Students will use the
information in their Concept Wheels to write a narrative account in the form of
a newspaper article in which they explain and describe the events that occurred
during the great artillery battle (see sample below).
ROLE
AUDIENCE
FORMAT
TOPIC
British newspaper
reporter covering the
1815 New Year’s Day
Artillery Battle
Subscribers in
Great Britain
Newspaper
article
1815 New Year’s Day
Artillery Battle
Students should orally present their newspaper articles to the class and then
display the articles on a thematic bulletin board. The newspaper articles should
be checked for logic and accuracy of cited information.
Have students add the date, January 1, 1815, and other pertinent information
concerning the events of the artillery duel to the Battles for New Orleans timeline.
The timeline should be used to reinforce the concept of time and chronology of
historical events.
61
GLES:
Activity 17: What if the Baratarians
had sided with the British?
Grade 3: 53
Grade 4: 52
Grade 5: 23, 24, 26
Grade 7: 47, 48, 49
Grade 8: 66, 69
Grade 11: US.1.1
STANDARDS
RH.6-8.1
RH.6-8.2
RH.6-8.4
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.2
RH.11-12.4
WHST. 6-8.2
WHST. 6-8.2d
WHST. 6-8.2f
WHST.11-12.2
WHST.11-12.2d
WHST.11-12.2e
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
Students will use a
questioning and answering
process to construct
meaning from primary and
secondary source texts and
use critical thinking skills to
summarize content as
they read about the
important roles that the
Baratarians played in
the battles for New Orleans.
Have students use primary source documents as well as “The Pirate Laffite”
and “Preparing the Invasion” reading passages found on pages 4 and 5 of this
document to research correspondence that occurred among the British, Jean
Laffite, Jean Blanque, Governor W. C. C. Claiborne, and Andrew Jackson.
This activity requires students to work in pairs. Give each group a different
copy of one of the primary source documents and a Question and Answer
chart (see below).
QUESTION AND ANSWER CHART
Question
Answer (include supporting details)
WHO?
WHAT?
WHEN?
WHERE?
WHY?
HOW?
Links to the correspondence may be found on the following websites:
RESOURCES:
Letter from the Hon. W.H. Percy, captain of HMS, Hermes, and senior officer in the Gulf of
Mexico, to Nicholas Lockyer, Esq. commander of HMS Sophia (Appendix pp. x-xi):
Letter from the Hon. W.H. Percy, captain of HMS, Hermes, and senior officer in the Gulf of
Mexico, to Nicholas Lockyer, Esq. commander of HMS Sophia (Appendix pp. x-xi):
https://archive.org/stream/historicalmemoi00latogoog#page/n298/mode/2u
Letter from Mr. Laffite to Captain Lockyer, Barataria, 4th September, 1814 (Appendix pp. xi-xii):
Letter from Mr. Laffite to Mr. Blanque, Barataria, 4th September, 1814 (Appendix pp. xii-xiii)
Letter from Mr. Laffite to Mr. Blanque, Grande Terre, 7th September, 1814 (Appendix p. xiii)
Letter from Mr. Laffite to his excellency W.C.C. Claiborne (Appendix pp. xiii-xiv)
Letter from Mr. Laffite, he elder, to Mr. Blanque, Grande Terre, 10th September, 1814
(Appendix pp. xiv-xv)
Proclamation, Head-quarters, seventh military district, Mobile, September 21st, 1814
(Appendix pp. xxix-xxx)
62
Battle of New Orleans.org
http://battleofneworleans.org/laffite.htm
Guide students through a reading selection from one of the letters. Stop to ask and answer the questions on the
Question and Answer chart.
Ask students to work with a partner to fill in the guide as they read informational text concerning the correspondence
between the British, Jean Laffite, Jean Blanque, Louisiana Governor William C. C. Claiborne, and Andrew Jackson.
Next ask students to share their findings with the class. Engage the class in a discussion of the critical nature of the
correspondence and the impact of Laffite’s decision to support Jackson.
Using their Question and Answer charts, have students write a well-organized paragraph or short essay concerning
their designated primary source document. Ask for student volunteers to share their writings with the class.
After completion of the study of all of the battles for New Orleans, extend this activity by focusing on the important
role played by Jean Laffite and the Baratarians. Have the students reflect on the different outcome that may have
occurred if the Baratarians had sided with the British. Ask students to work in groups of five to create a story chain
that summarizes how different the history of Louisiana and the United States might have been if the Baratarians had
not joined Jackson and the Americans at this critical time.
The first student will write the opening statement, which argues that the outcome of the battles for New Orleans
may have been different if not for the Baratarians. Students two, three, and four will write sentences that contain
supporting details to defend the opening statement. Student five will write the concluding statement that supports
the argument presented. Conclude the activity by having students read their story chain to the class.
STORY CHAIN
1
3
4
2
5
63
Activity 18: Women of New Orleans
GLES:
Grade 3: 53
Grade 4: 52
Grade 5: 23, 24, 26
Grade 7: 47, 48, 49
Grade 8: 66, 69
Grade 11: US.1.1
STANDARDS
WHST.6-8.2
RH.6-8.1
WHST.6-8.2d
RH.6-8.2
WHST.6-8.4
RH.6-8.4
WHST.6-8.9
RH.6-8.7
RH.6-8.10 WHST.11-12.2
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.2
RH.11-12.4
RH.11-12.7
RH.11-12.10
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
Students will integrate
visual information with
other primary source texts
to discover ways in which
the citizens of Louisiana
aided American soldiers
in need.
Have students read an excerpt of Laura Florian’s letter, found on page
22 of this document, as well as other primary and/or secondary source
documents (textbooks, encyclopedias, and reliable Internet resources) to
learn about the important role that the women of New Orleans played in
supporting the American troops that came to fight in the battles for New
Orleans.
Use a process guide (view literacy strategy descriptions) to help students
assimilate, think critically about, and apply new knowledge concerning the
ways in which funds were raised to purchase supplies and the ways in which
the women of New Orleans worked to support the American troops (see the
Women of New Orleans to the Rescue process guide below).
WOMEN OF NEW ORLEANS TO THE RESCUE:
Explain why the Louisiana legislature, the city of New Orleans, and the
German Coast and Attakapas regions raised funds for the militiamen.
Describe the amounts of money that each group raised for this project and
give the total amount raised.
Describe what was purchased with these donated funds.
- Louisiana State Museum
Explain what the women of New Orleans did with these purchased goods.
Identify who received these finished goods.
RESOURCES:
Women of New Orleans to the
Rescue process guide
One Week’s Work graphic
organizer
64
Ask students to work with a partner to respond to each statement in the
guide as they read about the ways in which the women of New Orleans
helped to supply the needs of the American army. Next ask students to share
their findings. Engage the class in a discussion of the desperate situation that
some of Jackson’s troops faced, the financial action taken by the people and
government of Louisiana, and the response of the New Orleans women to
supply the troops with provisions. Ask students to use their completed process
guides while participating in the class discussion.
Information concerning the actions of the Louisiana legislature and the citizens of Louisiana to assist the troops that
came to defend New Orleans against the British invasion may be found on the following websites:
Historical Memoir of The War in West Florida and Louisiana in 1814-1815 by Major Arsène Lacarrière Latour, Chief Engineer in the
Late 7th Military District, United States Army (last paragraphs on pages 141 and 142)
Letter from Laura Eugenie Florian to Lydia Latrobe Roosevelt concerning the Battle of New Orleans
http://hnoc.minisisinc.com/THNOC/SCRIPTS/mwimain.dll/144/THNOC_MANUSCRIPTS/WEB_DETAIL_M2A_INHOUSE/REFD+’mss%20
645’?SESSIONSEARCH
General Jackson’s letter to Nicholas Girod Esq., Mayor of the City of New Orleans, Head-quarters, 7th Military District, January 27, 1815
Using information from Historical Memoir of the War in West Florida in 1814 –1815 by Major Arsène Lacarrière
Latour, have students complete the One Week’s Work graphic organizer (see below).
ONE WEEK’S WORK
Article Produced
Number Produced
Visual of Items
blanket cloaks
waistcoats
pantaloons
shirts
shoes
mattresses
Ask for student volunteers to share their One Week’s Work graphic organizer with the class. Discuss with the class
the different styles and types of clothing worn by the American troops. Focus on the vast quantity of items that were
hand produced by the women of New Orleans in only one week.
In a culminating activity, have students imagine that they are one of the soldiers in great need of warmer clothing
during the battles for New Orleans. Have the students write a thank you letter to a woman in New Orleans who
provided the much appreciated clothing item. Students should include the ways in which the clothing item helped to
influence the outcome of the battles. Ask student volunteers to share their thank you letters with the class and facilitate
any discussion that may follow
ROLE
AUDIENCE
FORMAT
TOPIC
American soldier in need of
warmer clothing and supplies at
the battles for New Orleans
New Orleans woman
Thank you note
Response to receipt of gift of a new
item of clothing or equipment
65
Activity 19: January 8, 1815, Battle of New Orleans
GLES:
Grade 3: 46, 47, 48
Grade 4: 50, 54, 58
Grade 7: 43, 46, 47
Grade 8: 62, 65, 66, 72 77
Grade 11: US.1.1, UW.1.5
STANDARDS
RH.6-8.1
RH.6-8.2
RH.6-8.3
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.2
RH.11-12.3
WHST.6-8.2
WHST.6-8.2f
WHST.11-12.2
WHST.11-12.2e
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
Students will use primary
and secondary sources to
learn about and chronologically plot the events of
the Battle of New Orleans
of January 8, 1815.
Provide students with an anticipation guide that contains statements
about the January 8, 1815, Battle of New Orleans (see the January 8, 1815,
Battle of New Orleans sample on page 67). Have students use “The Battle
of January 8, 1815” reading on pages 25–27 of this document, textbooks,
encyclopedias, and reliable Internet resources to read about the events that
occurred during the battle and to complete their anticipation guides. The
“Before” column of the anticipation guide will be completed before any
research or discussion takes place; the “After” column will be completed
after students read or discuss the informational source.
Before reading about the January 8, 1815, Battle of New Orleans, read
each statement and mark if you agree or disagree with the statement. After
reading, go back to each statement and decide whether the “before” reading
responses need to be changed. For all statements, provide evidence from the
primary and secondary sources for the “after” reading responses.
RESOURCES:
markers
colored pencils
66
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss their responses before reading
and learning the content. Open the discussion to the entire class in order
to provide multiple hunches about the accuracy of the statements. Do not
give any answers at this point. Stop periodically as content is covered and
ask students to reconsider their pre-lesson responses. Students should revise
their original responses as they gain new knowledge about the statements.
JANUARY 8, 1815, BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS ANTICIPATION GUIDE
1. The British used rockets to signal the beginning of the attack on January 8th.
before
agree disagree
after
agree disagree
evidence
2. The American forces met the approaching British army on the battlefield.
before
agree disagree
after
agree disagree
evidence
3. The deadly fire of the American guns and cannons forced the British troops to retreat shortly after the battle began.
before
agree disagree
after
agree disagree
evidence
4. A large number of British officers were killed early in the battle.
before
agree disagree
after
agree disagree
evidence
5. The fighting on January 8th took place on the east and west sides of the Mississippi River.
before
agree disagree
after
agree disagree
evidence
6. Three out of four American generals died during the battle.
before
agree disagree
after
agree disagree
evidence
7. The British were successful in the battle on the West Bank of the Mississippi River.
before
agree disagree
after
agree disagree
evidence
8. The British regrouped and were able to scale the American line on their second attempt.
before
agree disagree
after
agree disagree
evidence
9. The Americans won the January 8th Battle of New Orleans.
before
agree disagree
after
agree disagree
evidence
10. Jackson’s victory at the Battles of New Orleans helped him to become the 7th president of the United States.
before
agree disagree
after
agree disagree
evidence
67
Information concerning the January 8th Battle of New Orleans may be found on the following websites:
http://www.hnoc.org/BNO/william_cook.html
http://cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/hh/29/hh29m.htm
http://cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/hh/29/hh29p.htm
http://cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/hh/29/hh29q.htm
Upon completion of the presentation of information, engage students in
a discussion involving the anticipation guide statements in order to clarify
any misconceptions about the issues, information, or concepts. Anticipation
guides are especially helpful to struggling and reluctant readers and learners
as they increase motivation and focus students’ attention on important
aspects of the content.
Provide students with a Chain of Events graphic organizer. Chain of
Events graphic organizers are used to describe the stages or steps of an event.
Students will use the information in their anticipation guides and readings
to complete the graphic organizer concerning the stages of the January 8th
Battle of New Orleans. Key questions that may be asked when organizing
information are: What was the first event that initiated the battle? What are
the next events? How are the events connected? What is the final outcome?
Have students present their Chain of Events graphic organizers to the
class and hold a class discussion in which students explain and analyze
the stages of the January 8th Battle of New Orleans. Display the Chain of
Events graphic organizers in the classroom.
Have students work individually, using the information from their Chain
of Events graphic organizer, to write an explanatory essay in which they
narrate the sequence of historical events that occurred during the January
8th Battle of New Orleans. Students should also include the effects of the
victory in New Orleans on the nation, New Orleans, and General Andrew
Jackson. Ask students to share their completed essays with the class.
Have students add the date and other pertinent information concerning
the events of the January 8, 1815, battle to the timeline. The timeline should
be used to reinforce the concept of time and chronology of historical events.
68
B eginning
F irst E vent
S econd E vent
T hird E vent
F ourth E vent
F inal E vent
GLES:
Grade 3: 46, 47, 54
Grade 4: 50, 53, 58
Grade 7: 43, 44, 46
Grade 8: 62, 65, 70, 77
Grade 11: US.1.1, US.1
STANDARDS
RH.6-8.1
RH.6-8.2
RH.6-8.3
RH.6-8.4
RH.6-8.5
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.2
RH.11-12.3
RH.11-12.4
RH.11-12.5
Activity 20: Treaty of Ghent
WHST.6-8.2
WHST.6-8.2b
WHST.6-8.2f
WHST.11-12.2
WHST.11-12.2b
WHST.11-12.2e
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
The students will research
events pertaining to the
end of the War of 1812
and the Treaty of Ghent
to determine if the battles
for New Orleans made a
difference in the outcome
of the war and the history
of the United States.
Generate a prompt related to the Treaty of Ghent that will cause students to
wonder, challenge, and question whether the battles for New Orleans, which
were fought after the signing of the peace treaty, really made a difference in
the outcome of the war and the history of the United States. The prompt
does not have to be factual, but it should provoke interest and curiosity. The
following is a sample prompt:
The War of 1812 ended on December 24, 1815, when Great Britain and the
United States signed the Treaty of Ghent. The battles that were fought for New
Orleans really did not matter because the war was over.
Present the prompt to the students. Students should pair up and generate
two to three questions about the prompt they would like answered. Examples
of student questions might resemble these:
Why were the battles fought after the war was over?
Who won the War of 1812?
Did the British get to keep the land that they captured during the war?
Did the British promise to stop impressing Americans?
RESOURCES:
Treaty of Ghent split-page
notetaking chart
The Causes and Effects of the
Events of the War of 1812
When all student pairs have generated at least two questions, ask someone
from each team to share their questions with the entire class. Write the
questions on the board. When similar questions are asked, star or highlight
these questions. After all student questions have been shared, add questions
addressing important information that the students may have omitted.
Have students read “When Did the War Officially End?” “What if the
British Had Won the Battle?” and “Who Won the Battle of New Orleans?”
on pages 30–32 of this document. Students should also read the “Smoking
Gun” letter found on page 30. Discuss with the students the importance of
the Battle of New Orleans and how it is remembered and celebrated as one
of the most significant military victories in the history of the United States.
Also talk about how this victory catapulted Andrew Jackson into the nation’s
spotlight.
As students read informational text or listen to information presented
orally on the topic of the Treaty of Ghent, they should pay attention to
information that helps answer the questions written on the board. Special
attention should be focused on the questions that are starred or highlighted.
As the content is covered, stop periodically and have students discuss with
their partners which questions have now been answered. Ask for volunteers
to share their findings.
69
Use split-page notetaking (see sample chart below) to have students record the questions from the board and the
answers provided by the readings and class discussion. Students will use the questions and answers for later study.
TREATY OF GHENT
Why were the battles fought
after the war was over?
Treaty of Ghent
The means of communication were very slow. It took weeks for the news to travel across the
Atlantic to Washington, DC, and then more time was needed for the news to reach New
Orleans.
The forces in New Orleans were not aware that the treaty had been signed on Christmas Eve.
History of the Treaty of Ghent may be found on these websites:
http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=20
http://www.archives.gov/historical-docs/todays-doc/?dod-date=1224
http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/ghent.asp
http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Ghent.html
http://www.pbs.org/wned/war-of-1812/essays/treaty-ghent/
http://www.history.com/topics/treaty-of-ghent
Treaty of Ghent video:
http://www.pbs.org/wned/war-of-1812/classroom/commencement/dissecting-treaty-ghent/
Gather the class back together. Solicit observations from each group and discuss their findings with the class.
Compare student findings and have students check the work in their split-page notes for accuracy. Some teacher
guidance may be needed.
Have students work individually, using the information in their Treaty of Ghent split-page notes to write an
informative essay in which they establish a claim as to which country won the War of 1812 and whether the battles
for New Orleans did make a difference in the history of the United States. Ask student volunteers to read their
summaries, checking for accuracy and facilitating any resulting discussions.
In a culminating activity, have students complete the flow chart in which they analyze the causes and effects of the
events of the War of 1812. Ask students to share their completed flow charts with the class.
Reasons America Declared
War on Great Britain
Provisions of the Treaty of Ghent
War of 1812
Treaty of Ghent
December 24, 1814
Have students add the date and other pertinent information concerning the Treaty of Ghent and events pertaining to
the end of the War of 1812 to the timeline. The timeline should be used to reinforce the concept of time and chronology
of historical events.
70
GLES:
Grade 3: 48, 53, 54
Grade 4: 54, 57
Grade 5: 24, 26
Grade 7: 46, 47, 50
Grade 8: 65, 66, 67
Grade 11: US.1.1, US.1.5
STANDARDS
RH.6-8.1 WHST 6-8.2
RH.6-8.2 WHST.6-8.2d
RH.6-8.4 WHST.6-8.2f
RH.6-8.6 WHST.11-12.2
RH.6-8.8 WHST.11-12.e
RH.11-12.1
RH.11-12.2
RH.11-12.4
RH.11-12.6
RH.11-12.9
Activity 21: Songs about the Battle of New Orleans
OVERVIEW:
DIRECTIONS:
Students will analyze
songs as historical
artifacts to learn about
the January 8, 1815,
Battle of New Orleans;
identify key events,
people, and beliefs
associated with the battle;
and compare and contrast
two songs that were
written about the battle.
Have students read “Who Won the Battle of New Orleans?” on page 32
of this document. Discuss with the students the contributions made by the
many different ethnic groups that fought on the American side.
Provide students with copies of the “Battle of New Orleans” song by
Johnny Horton, the “Hunters of Kentucky or Half Horse and Half
Alligator” song, and the Library of Congress Songs and Poems Analysis
worksheet.
Songs and worksheet may be found on the following websites:
“Battle of New Orleans” song lyrics by Jimmy Driftwood:
http://kids.niehs.nih.gov/games/songs/patriotic/battleofmid.htm
The story of the “Battle of New Orleans” song and author:
http://www.tsimon.com/battle.htm
“Battle of New Orleans” song lyrics sung by Johnny Horton:
http://www.louisiana101.com/battle.html
“Battle of New Orleans” by Johnny Horton:
http://www.teachertube.com/viewVideo.php?video_id=19272
RESOURCES:
“Battle of New Orleans” song
lyrics by Jimmy Driftwood
“Hunters of Kentucky, or
Half Horse Half Alligator”
song lyrics
The Library of Congress Songs
and Poems Analysis worksheet
“Hunters of Kentucky or Half Horse and Half Alligator” song and
the Library of Congress Songs and Poems Analysis worksheet:
http://www.loc.gov/teachers/lyrical/songs/hunter_kentucky.html
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7rFB2Pq19yU
Place students in small groups. Allow time for students to read the songs.
Play the “Battle of New Orleans” song by Johnny Horton. Ask for student
volunteers to read the “Hunters of Kentucky or Half Horse and Half
Alligator” song. Listen to the song that is recorded on the youtube link.
Hold a class discussion concerning students’ opinions of the two songs.
71
Students will work in their small groups to discuss and analyze the two songs as historical artifacts as they
complete the Library of Congress Songs and Poems Analysis worksheet.
Hold a class discussion in which a spokesperson from each group shares their group’s findings. Focus questions
may include the following:
1.What is the message a listener/reader can get from the song lyrics?
2.What might the intended purpose of the song be?
3.What does the song say about an event in history?
4.What fighting groups are mentioned? Why do you think that so little is mentioned about the Louisiana forces?
5.What exaggerations are made in the songs?
6.How is General Jackson portrayed in the two songs? How does the Battle of New Orleans affect Jackson’s political future?
7.What questions does this song raise? How can the students find the answers to their questions?
Have students compare and contrast the two songs using the Venn diagram below. Using the completed
information from the Venn diagram as well as the Library of Congress worksheets, have students paraphrase the
information by writing an informative paragraph in which they include narration of the historical event or draw an
illustration that narrates the historical events described in the songs. Post student work on a thematic bulletin board.
“Hunters of Kentucky or Half Horse and
Half Alligator” song
72
“The Battle of New Orleans” song
“The Battle of New Orleans” song
Music and lyrics by Jimmy Driftwood
Well, in eighteen and fourteen we took a little trip
along with Colonel Jackson down the mighty Mississip.
We took a little bacon and we took a little beans,
And we caught the bloody British near the town of New Orleans.
We fired our guns and the British kept a’comin.
There wasn’t nigh as many as there was a while ago.
We fired once more and they began to runnin’
down the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico.
Well, I see’d Mars Jackson walkin down the street
talkin’ to a pirate by the name of Jean Lafitte
He gave Jean a drink that he brung from Tennessee
and the pirate said he’d help us drive the British in the sea.
The French said Andrew, you’d better run,
for Packingham’s a comin’ with a bullet in his gun.
Old Hickory said he didn’t give a dang,
he’s gonna whip the britches off of Colonel Packingham.
Well, we looked down the river and we see’d the British come,
and there must have been a hundred of ‘em beatin’ on the drum.
They stepped so high and they made their bugles ring
while we stood by our cotton bales and didn’t say a thing.
Old Hickory said we could take ‘em by surprise
if we didn’t fire a musket til we looked ‘em in the eyes.
We held our fire til we see’d their faces well,
then we opened up with squirrel guns and really gave a yell.
Well, we fired our cannon til the barrel melted down,
so we grabbed an alligator and we fought another round.
We filled his head with cannon balls and powdered his behind,
and when they tetched the powder off, the gator lost his mind.
We’ll march back home but we’ll never be content
till we make Old Hickory the people’s President.
And every time we think about the bacon and the beans,
we’ll think about the fun we had way down in New Orleans.
“Hunters of Kentucky or Half Horse and Half Alligator” song
http://www.loc.gov/teachers/lyrical/songs/hunter_kentucky.html
We fired our guns and the British kept a’comin,
But there wasn’t nigh as many as there was a while ago.
Well, they ran through the briars and they ran through the brambles
And they ran through the bushes where a rabbit couldn’t go.
They ran so fast the hounds couldn’t catch ‘em
But there wasn’t nigh as many as there was a while ago.
“Battle of New Orleans” song lyrics by Jimmy Driftwood:
http://kids.niehs.nih.gov/games/songs/patriotic/battleofmid.htm
73
Appendix
74
Extended-Response Rubric
EXTENDED-RESPONSE RUBRIC
SCORE
DESCRIPTION
4
The student’s response
• constructs a sophisticated argument;
• supports the argument with ample, well-chosen evidence;
• addresses and demonstrates understanding of four of the documents;
• integrates a substantial amount of relevant information beyond
what is provided in the documents;
• contains valid historical understandings and interpretations with no
errors significant enough to detract from the argument.
3
• constructs an acceptable argument;
• supports the argument with sufficient and appropriate evidence;
• addresses and demonstrates understanding of three of the documents;
• integrates adequate relevant information beyond what is provided in the documents;
• contains mostly valid historical understandings and interpretations,
although less important ideas or details may be overlooked or misunderstood.
2
• constructs a weak and/or flawed argument;
• supports the argument with limited and/or uneven evidence;
• addresses and demonstrates understanding of two of the documents;
• integrates some relevant information beyond what is provided in the documents;
• contains some valid historical understandings and interpretations,
but a few significant errors may be present.
1
• must include at least one valid historical understanding or interpretation
that addresses the prompt and is stated in the student’s own words;
• must demonstrate a minimal understanding of the topic;
• may contain several significant errors.
0
The student’s response is incorrect, irrelevant, too brief to evaluate, or blank.
75
Grade-Level Expectations
Literacy and Writing Standards
3rd Grade Geography
3
Interpret a graph, chart, and diagram (G-1A-E2)
4
Use a compass rose and cardinal directions to locate and interpret a map of the community and Louisiana (G-1A-E2)
5
Locate major geographic features of Louisiana on a map (G-1A-E2)
6
Construct a chart, line graph, or diagram to display geographical information (G-1A- E3)
3rd Grade Historical Thinking Skills
46
Complete a timeline based on given information (H-1A-E1)
47
Use information in a map, table, or graph to describe the past (H-1A-E3)
48
Identify primary and secondary sources (H-1A-E3)
4th Grade Geography
5
Draw, complete, and add features to a map (including such map elements as a title, compass rose, legend, and scale),
based on given information (G-1A-E3)
4th Grade Historical Thinking Skills
50
Interpret data presented in a timeline or construct a historical timeline (e.g., events in history, historical figure’s life
and accomplishments) (H-1A-E1)
53
Interpret historical information in a map, table, or graph (H-1A-E3)
54
Compare and contrast primary and secondary sources (H-1A-E3)
5th Grade Geography
3
Interpret a map, using a map key/legend and symbols, distance scale, compass rose, cardinal or intermediate directions,
and latitude and longitude (G-1A-M2)
4
Locate major landforms and geographic features, places, and bodies of water/waterways on a map of the United States (G-1A-M2)
20
Interpret data presented in a timeline or construct a historical timeline (e.g., events in history, historical figure’s life and
accomplishments) (H-1A-E1) Construct a timeline of key events in American history (beginnings to 1763) (H-1A- M1)
21
Demonstrate an understanding of relative and absolute chronology by interpreting data presented in a timeline (H-1A-M1)
22
Identify different points of view about key events in early American history (H-1A-M2)
23
Identify the causes, effects, or impact of a given event in early American history (H-1A-M3)
24
Use both a primary and secondary source to describe key events or issues in early American history (H-1A-M4)
25
Identify historical issues or problems in early America and explain how they were addressed (H-1A-M5)
26
Conduct historical research using a variety of resources to answer historical questions related to early American history (H-1A-M6)
7th Grade Geography
76
1
Analyze various types of maps, charts, graphs, and diagrams related to U.S. history (G-1A-M2)
3
Identify and describe significant physical features that have influenced U.S. historical events
(e.g., Ohio River Valley in the American Revolution) (G-1A-M2)
43
Construct a timeline of key events and key figures in U.S. history from 1763 to 1877 (H-1A-M1)
44
Interpret a timeline to identify cause-and-effect relationships among events in U.S. history (H-1A-M1)
45
Explain the point of view of key historical figures and groups in U.S. history (H-1A-M2)
46
Explain the causes, effects, or impact of a given historical even in U.S. history (H-1A-M3)
47
Explain how a given historical figure influenced or changed the course of U.S. history (H-1A-M3)
48
Compare and contrast two primary sources related to the same event in U.S. history (H-1A-M4)
49
Propose and defend an alternative course of action to a given issue or problem in U.S. history (H-1A-M5)
50
Conduct historical research using a variety of resources, and evaluate those resources for reliability and bias, to answer historical
questions related to U.S. history (H-1A-M6)
8th Grade Geography
2
Locate major landforms and geographic features, places, and bodies of water/waterways on a map of Louisiana (G-1A-M2)
4
Construct a chart or diagram to display geographical information in an organized way (G-1A-M2)
6
Describe ways in which location and physical features have influenced historical events in Louisiana and the development
of the state (e.g., Mississippi River/swamp in the Battle of New Orleans) (H-1A-M2)
62
Construct a timeline of key events in Louisiana history (H-1A-M1)
63
Interpret data presented in a timeline correlating Louisiana, U.S., and world history (H-1A-M1)
65
Analyze the causes, effect, or impact of a given historical event in Louisiana (H-1A-M3)
66
Analyze how a given historical figure influenced or changed the course of Louisiana’s history (H-1A-M3)
67
Identify given source material to identify opinion, propaganda, or bias (H-1A-M4)
68
Interpret a political cartoon (H-1A-M6)
69
Propose and defend potential solutions to past and current issues in Louisiana (H-1A-M5)
70
Conduct historical research using a variety of resources, and evaluate those resources, to answer historical questions related to
Louisiana history (H-1A-M6)
72
Describe leaders who were influential in Louisiana’s development (H-1D-M1)
75
Describe the contributions of ethnic groups significant in Louisiana history (H-1D-M1)
77
Describe major conflicts in context of Louisiana history (H-1D-M3)
78
Describe and analyze the impact of Louisiana’s geographic features on historic events, settlement patterns, and economic
development, etc. (H-1D-M4)
11th Grade Historical Thinking
US.1.1
Produce clear and coherent writing for a range of tasks, purposes, and audiences by: • conducting short and sustained research
• evaluating conclusions from evidence (broad variety, primary and secondary sources) • evaluating varied explanations for
actions/events • determining the meaning of words and phrases from historical texts • analyzing historians’ points of view
US.1.5
Analyze historical periods using timelines, political cartoons, maps, graphs, debates, and other historical sources
77
Grade-Level Expectations
Literacy and Writing Standards
Literacy and Writing Standards for Literacy in History/Social Studies 6–12
Reading Standards for Literacy in History/Social Studies 6–12
78
RH.6-8.1
Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources.
RH.6-8.2
Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of the source
distinct from prior knowledge or opinions.
RH.6-8.3
Identify key steps in a text’s description of a process related to history/social studies (e.g., how a bill becomes law, how
interest rates are raised or lowered).
RH.6-8.4
Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including vocabulary specific to domains related to
history/social studies.
RH.6-8.5
Describe how a text presents information (e.g., sequentially, comparatively, and causally).
RH.6-8.6
Identify aspects of a text that reveal an author’s point of view or purpose (e.g., loaded language, inclusion or avoidance of
particular facts).
RH.6-8.7
Integrate visual information (e.g., in charts, graphs, photographs, videos, or maps) with other information in print and
digital texts.
RH.6-8.8
Distinguish among fact, opinion, and reasoned judgment in a text.
RH.6-8.10
By the end of grade 8 read and comprehend history/social studies texts in the grades 6–8 text complexity band
independently and proficiently.
RH.11-12.1
Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources, connecting insights gained from
specific details to an understanding of the text as a whole.
RH.11-12.2
Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary that makes clear
the relationships among the key details and ideas.
RH.11-12.3
Evaluate various explanations for actions or events and determine which explanation best accords with textual evidence,
acknowledging where the text leaves matters uncertain.
RH.11-12.4
Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including analyzing how an author uses and refines
the meaning of a key term over the course of a text (e.g., how Madison defines faction in Federalist No. 10).
RH.11-12.5
Analyze in detail how a complex primary source is structured, including how key sentences, paragraphs, and larger portions
of the text contribute to the whole.
RH.11-12.6
Evaluate authors’ differing points of view on the same historical event or issue by assessing the authors’ claims, reasoning,
and evidence.
RH.11-12.7
Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in diverse formats and media
(e.g., visually, quantitatively, as well as in words) in order to address a question or solve a problem.
RH.11-12.9
Integrate information from diverse sources, both primary and secondary, into a coherent understanding of an idea or event,
noting discrepancies among sources.
RH.11-12.10
By the end of grade 12, read and comprehend history/social studies texts in the grades 11–CCR text complexity band
independently and proficiently.
Writing Standards for Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, Technical Subjects 6–12
WHST.6-8.1
Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content.
WHST.6-8.2
Write informative/explanatory texts, including the narration of historical events, scientific procedures/ experiments, or
technical processes.
WHST.6-8.2a
Introduce a topic clearly, previewing what is to follow; organize ideas, concepts, and information into broader categories
as appropriate to achieving purpose; include formatting (e.g., headings), graphics (e.g., charts, tables), and multimedia
when useful to aiding comprehension.
WHST.6-8.2b
Develop the topic with relevant, well-chosen facts, definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other information
and examples.
WHST.6-8.2d
Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or explain the topic.
WHST.6-8.2f
Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the information or explanation presented.
WHST.6-8.4
Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose,
and audience.
WHST.6-8.6
Use technology, including the Internet, to produce and publish writing and present the relationships between information
and ideas clearly and efficiently
WHST.6-8.9
Draw evidence from informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research.
WHST.11-12.2
Write informative/explanatory texts, including the narration of historical events, scientific procedures/ experiments, or
technical processes.
WHST.11-12.2a
Introduce a topic and organize complex ideas, concepts, and information so that each new element builds on that which
precedes it to create a unified whole; include formatting (e.g., headings), graphics (e.g., figures, tables), and multimedia
when useful to aiding comprehension.
WHST.11-12.2b
Develop the topic thoroughly by selecting the most significant and relevant facts, extended definitions, concrete details,
quotations, or other information and examples appropriate to the audience’s knowledge of the topic.
WHST.11-12.2d
Use precise language, domain-specific vocabulary and techniques such as metaphor, simile, and analogy to manage the
complexity of the topic; convey a knowledgeable stance in a style that responds to the discipline and context as well as to
the expertise of likely readers.
WHST.11-12.2e
Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the information or explanation provided
(e.g., articulating implications or the significance of the topic).
WHST.11-12.9
Draw evidence from informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research.
79
Selected Sources
SELECTED BOOKS ABOUT THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS
Robert Aitchison, A British Eyewitness at the Battle of New Orleans: The Memoir of Royal Navy Admiral
Robert Aitchison, 1808–1827, Gene A. Smith, ed. (The Historic New Orleans Collection 2004)
Harry Albright, New Orleans: Battle of the Bayous (Hippocrene Books 1990)
Wilburt S. Brown, The Amphibious Campaign for West Florida and Louisiana, 1814-–1815: A Critical
Review of Strategy and Tactics at New Orleans (University of Alabama Press 1969)
Ron Chapman, The Battle of New Orleans: But For a Piece of Wood (Ron Chapman 2013)
John Henry Cooke, A Narrative of Events in the South of France, and of the Attack on New Orleans, in
1814 and 1815 (T. and W. Boone 1835)
Jane Lucas De Grummond, The Baratarians and the Battle of New Orleans
(Louisiana State University Press 1961)
Remy R. Dixon, The Battle on the West Bank
(The Battle of New Orleans 150th Anniversary Committee of Louisiana 1965)
E. M. Eller, W. J. Morgan, and R. M. Basoco, Sea Power and the Battle of New Orleans
George R. Gleig, A Narrative of the Campaigns of the British Army at Washington and New Orleans,
under Generals Ross, Pakenham, and Lambert, in the years 1814 and 1815....(John Murray 1821)
Winston Groom, Patriotic Fire: Andrew Jackson and Jean Laffite at the Battle of New Orleans
(Alfred A. Knopf 2006)
Leonard V. Huber, New Orleans as it was in 1814–1815
Stuart O. Landry, Side Lights on the Battle of New Orleans (Pelican Press 1965)
Arsène Lacarrière Latour, Historical Memoir of the War in West Florida and Louisiana in 1814–15,
Expanded ed. (The Historic New Orleans Collection; University Press of Florida 1999)
William A. Meuse, The Weapons of the Battle of New Orleans
Frank L. Owsley, Struggle for the Gulf Borderlands: The Creek War and the Battle of New Orleans,
1812–1815 (University Presses of Florida 1981)
Benton Rain Patterson, The Generals: Andrew Jackson, Sir Edward Pakenham, and the Road to the Battle of
New Orleans (New York University Press 2005)
80
Tim Pickles, New Orleans 1815: Andrew Jackson Crushes the British (Osprey 1994)
Robin Reilly, The British at the Gates: The New Orleans Campaign in the War of 1812, rev. ed.
(Robin Brass Studio 2002)
Robert V. Remini, The Battle of New Orleans: Andrew Jackson and America’s First Military Victory (Viking 1999)
Valerie McNair Scott, Major-General Sir Edward M. Pakenham
Alexander Walker, Jackson and New Orleans: an Authentic Narrative of the Memorable Achievements of the American
Army, Under Andrew Jackson, Before New Orleans, in the Winter of 1814, ’15 (J.C. Derby; H.W. Derby 1856)
Samuel L. Wilson Jr., Plantation Houses on the Battlefield of New Orleans
SELECTED BOOKS CONCERNING MILITIA AND VOLUNTEER SOLDIERS
Powell A. Casey, Louisiana at the Battle of New Orleans
Powell A. Casey, Louisiana in the War of 1812 (Privately published 1963)
Marcus Bruce Christian, Negro Soldiers in the Battle of New Orleans
William C. Davis, The Pirates Laffite: the Treacherous World of the Corsairs of the Gulf (Harcourt 2005)
Ed Gilbert, Frontier Militiaman in the War of 1812: Southwestern Frontier, Adam Hook, illustrator (Osprey 2008)
Tom Kanon, Tennesseans at War, 1812–1815 (University of Alabama Press 2014)
Rosemarie Fay Loomis, Negro Soldiers, Free Men of Color in the Battle of New Orleans, War of 1812
(Aux Quartres Vents 1991)
Roland C. McConnell, Negro Troops of Antebellum Louisiana: A History of the Battalion of Free Men of Color
(Louisiana State University Press 1968)
Marion John Bennett Pierson, compiler, Louisiana Soldiers in the War of 1812
(1963; reprinted for Clearfield Co. by Genealogical Pub. Co. 2003)
Elbert L. Watson, Tennessee at the Battle of New Orleans
81
SELECTED BOOKS ABOUT THE WAR OF 1812 AND CREEK WAR
Kathryn Braund, ed. Tohopeka: Rethinking the Creek War and the War of 1812 (Pebble Hill Books 2012)
René Chartrand, A Most Warlike Appearance: Uniforms, Flags and Equipment of the United States Forces
in the War of 1812 (Service Publications 2010)
Ronald J. Drez, The War of 1812 Conflict and Deception: The British Attempt to Seize New Orleans and
Nullify the Louisiana Purchase (Louisiana State University Press 2014)
Donald Hickey, Don’t Give Up The Ship!: Myths of the War of 1812 (University of Illinois Press 2006)
Andrew Lambert, The Challenge: Britain against America in the Naval War of 1812
(Faber & Faber 2012)
Benson L. Lossing, The Pictorial Field-Book of the War of 1812…. (Harper & Brothers 1869)
Nathaniel Millett, The Maroons of Prospect Bluff and Their Quest for Freedom in the Atlantic World
(University Press of Florida 2013)
Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars (Viking Press 2001)
Mrs. Dunbar Rowland, Andrew Jackson’s Campaign Against the British, or the Mississippi Territory in the
War of 1812. Concerning the Military Operations of the Americans, Creek Indians, British, and Spanish,
1813–1815 (Macmillan 1929)
Gene A. Smith, The Slaves’ Gamble: Choosing Sides in the War of 1812 (Palgrave McMillan 2013)
J. C. A. Stagg, The War of 1812: Conflict for a Continent (Cambridge University Press 2012)
Alan Taylor, The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, and Indian Allies
(Vintage 2011)
Alan Taylor, The Internal Enemy: Slavery and War in Virginia, 1772–1832
(W. W. Norton & Company 2013)
82
SELECTED JOURNAL ARTICLES
“A Contemporary Account of the Battle of New Orleans by a Soldier in the Ranks,” Louisiana
Historical Quarterly IX (January 1926)
Alexander Dickson, “Journal of Operations in Louisiana,” Louisiana Historical Quarterly XLIV, nos.
3 and 4 (January–April 1961)
Major Forrest, “Journal of the Operations Against New Orleans in 1814 and 1815,” Louisiana
Historical Quarterly XLIV (January–April 1961)
John A. Fort to “Dear Brother,” January 28, 1815, in “Historical Documents,” Louisiana Historical
Quarterly XXXII (January 1949)
John K. Mahon, “British Command Decisions Relative to the Battle of New Orleans,” Louisiana
History 6.1 (Winter 1965)
Carson I. A. Ritchie, “The Louisiana Campaign,” Louisiana Historical Quarterly XLIV, nos. 1 and 2
(January–April 1961)
John Snyder, “Jean Lafitte and the British Offer of 1814,” Louisiana History 20 (Spring 1979)
Howell Tatum, “Major Howell Tatum’s Journal While Acting Topographical Engineer (1814) to
General Jackson Commanding the Seventh Military District,” ed. John Spencer Bassett,
Smith College Studies in History VII (October 1921– April 1922)
Robert C. Vogel, “Jean Laffite, the Baratarians, and the Battle of New Orleans: A Reappraisal,”
Louisiana History 41.3 (Summer 2000)
Robert C. Vogel, “The Patterson and Ross Raid on Barataria, September 1814,” Louisiana History
33.2 (Spring 1992)
Matthew Warshauer, “The Battle of New Orleans Reconsidered: Andrew Jackson and Martial Law,”
Louisiana History 39.3 (Summer 1998)
83
84
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battle of new orleans - Louisiana State Museum

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