Bova Marina Archaeological Project Survey and Excavations

Transcription

Bova Marina
Archaeological
Project
Survey and
Excavations
Preliminary
Report,
2001
Season
John Robb
with contributions
by Helen Farr, Lin
Foxhall and David
Yoon
Department of Archaeology
Cambridge University
Cambridge CB2 3DZ
United Kingdom
tel. 00-44-1223-339004
fax 00-44-1223-335032
email [email protected]
Bova Marina Archaeological Project 2001
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to Dottoressa Elena Lattanzi, Soprintendente, and Dottoressa Emilia Andronico,
Ispettrice, of the Soprintendenza Archeologica della Calabria for help, advice and administrative support;
to Sebastiano Stranges and to Luigi Saccà for friendship, help during fieldwork and local knowledge; to
Brian McConnell and Laura Maniscalco for advice on Sicilian archaeology; to our hosts, Antonino and
Silvana Scordo, for much hospitality; and to our cooks, Mariella Catalano and Annunziata Caracciolo. We
are also grateful to Dr. A. Dattola for medical help and friendship during the field season. MaryAnne
Tafuri translated the riassunto into Italian. The field staff (David Yoon, Lin Foxhall, Paula Lazrus,
Kostalena Michelaki and Starr Farr) and post-excavation staff and analysts (Umberto Albarella, Marina
Ciaraldi; Helen Farr) helped carry the project forward with great dedication and efficiency. Finally, we are
grateful to all the crew members from Southampton, Leicester, Michigan, New York, Florida and Rome
for their hard work and enthusiasm.
We gratefully acknowledge funding from a British Academy Larger Research Grant, the Arts and
Humanities Research Board (Research Grant AHRB/RG-AN4798/APN8592), the University of
Southampton for a competitive Annual Grant, the Department of Archaeology, University of
Southampton, and the School of Archaeology and Ancient History, University of Leicester.
BOVA MARINA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT: CREW, 2001 SEASON
Co-director (Prehistory, general management)
Co-director (Survey and Classical excavations)
Co-director (Survey and Classical excavations)
Field Supervisor
Lab Manager
Ceramic Specialist
Lithic Specialist (Southampton)
Computing (Southampton)
Faunal analysis (Durham)
Paleobotany (Birmingham)
Cook
Cook
Crew Members
Siân Anthony (Northants)
Lisa Beyer (South Florida)
Carina Buckley (Southampton)
Glenn Dunaway (Southampton)
Anne Forbes (Leicester)
Helen Forbes (Leicester)
Janet Forbes (Leicester)
Sally Gardner (Leicester)
Steven Harris (Southampton)
Meg Hiers (Michigan)
Children
2
John Robb (Southampton)
David Yoon (New York)
Lin Foxhall (Leicester)
Paula Kay Lazrus (New York)
Starr Farr (Southampton)
Kostalena Michelaki (Michigan)
Helen Farr (Southampton)
Doortje Van Hove (Southampton)
Umberto Albarella (Durham)
Marina Ciaraldi (Birmingham)
Mariella Catalano
Annunziata Caracciolo
Nicky Hughes (Leicester)
Simeon Low (Southampton)
Stephen Matthews (Southampton)
Ian Reeds (Leicester)
Luigi Saccà
Mary Anne Tafuri (Southampton)
Alan Thomas (Leicester)
Steven Usher-Wilson (Leicester)
Katie Woodford (Southampton)
Johanna Farr, Nicholas Robb
Riassunto Italiano
Introduzione
La quinta campagna di scavo del Progetto Archeologico Bova Marina ha avuto
luogo dal 29 giugno al 28 luglio, 2001. Un gruppo di 27 persone da Southampton,
Leicester, New York, Michigan e Florida, diretti da John Robb, Lin Foxhall e David
Yoon, hanno condotto ricognizioni di superficie e scavato siti di epoca Neolitica, di età
del Bronzo e Classici. Gli scavi sono stati intrapresi in zone distinte: la zona Neolitica di
Umbro al di sotto del dirupo (Trincea 1), la zona di età del Bronzo di Umbro sulla
sommità del dirupo (Trincea 6), il sito Greco di Umbro, il sito di età del Bronzo di
Limaca ed il sito a diverse fasi di occupazione di Penitenzeria.
Scavo di Umbro di epoca Neolitica (Trincea 1)
Gli scavi dell’area Neolitica di Umbro (Trincea 1) avevano finalità limitate. Gli
scopi principali erano di scavare la lente argillosa sita lungo il profilo nord della trincea
del 2000 e possibilmente collegata ad attività di produzione ceramica, nonché di
terminare lo scavo di alcune zone poste agli angoli della trincea e rimaste inesplorate. A
scavo concluso, tutta la trincea era scavata per 320 cm al di sotto dello zero, con un
sondaggio in corrispondenza –9n/38e portato fino ai 370 cm.
La lente argillosa era situata a –7,5n/38e ad una profondità compresa tra 240 e
260 cm al di sotto dello zero. Stratigraficamente, essa si trova nella parte inferiore dello
Strato 3, tuttavia, tale sequenza potrebbe essere alterata dalla presenza di un imponente
crollo; la lente di per sé è posta tra due grandi massi che potrebbero aver distorto la sua
posizione originaria in maniera illegibile. Una volta scavata, la lente di argilla si è
rivelata di circa 30 cm di diametro, variando tra i 5 ed i 15 mm di spessore. Lo strato di
argilla più puro era di 5 mm di spessore e si trovava nella parte superiore della lente. La
suddetta lente consisteva di argilla biancastra apparentemente priva di inclusi. Al di
sotto di essa, l’argilla diveniva mista alla matrice sabbiosa. Non si sono effettuati
ritrovamenti diagnostici associati con la lente, al di là di generici frammenti di ceramica
brunita di epoca Neolitica. L’argilla, con tutta probabilità, è stata portata sul sito non
essendo naturalmente presente nella zona. Tuttavia, non è possibile stabilire se l’argilla
servisse come materia prima per la produzione di ceramica, se consistesse in un
pozzetto per la lavorazione dell’argilla o se avesse qualche altro scopo. Alcuni campioni
sono stati raccolti e verranno confrontati con le vicine fonti di argilla e con il materiale
utilizzato per la produzione della ceramica.
Scavi di Umbro di età del Bronzo
Nella zona di epoca del Bronzo sita sulla sommità del dirupo (Trincea 6), le
finalità dello scavo erano dirette alla creazione di un’estensione nella parte
settentrionale della trincea esistente nel punto in cui la struttura di epoca del Bronzo si
infilava sotto la sezione. Si è scavata un’area di due metri per due (-4-5n/-59-60e). In
questa zona il limite della lunga struttura ovale si è rivelato quasi esattamente come si
era previsto considerata la direzione del profilo. Sono state inoltre scavate due zone
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residue al di fuori della zona orientale della struttura, fino alla profondità raggiunta nel
resto della trincea. Lo scavo effettuato ha confermato la delimitazione della struttura
come un lungo recinto ovale largo 4 metri e lungo almeno 6 (il limite ovest era eroso),
pavimentato con uno strato irregolare di pietre appiattite. La superficie interna
dell’abitazione presenta diversi ritrovamenti e diversi terreni rispetto al suolo sterile
esterno. Tuttavia, la funzione della struttura (es. una capanna priva di sovrastrutture o
una zona di rifiuto di un’abitazione, un’area aperta per attività di culto o di altro genere,
una zona separata di una deposizione non trovata) rimane da chiarire.
Saggi di scavo a Limaca
Limaca è un piccolo sito preistorico posto a circa 200 metri a nord di Umbro.
Nel 2000, nel tentativo di datare il sito, sono stati scavati due saggi che hanno restituito
alcuni frammenti di ceramica databili all’età del Bronzo. Tale attività è stata continuata
nel 2001 con lo scavo di due ulteriori trincee, le Trincee 3 e 4, di un metro per due.
Entrambi le trincee erano poste nella piccola sella sulla sommità del sito. Le due trincee
hanno restituito un paio di frammenti diagnostici di età del Bronzo che, tramite
confronto, potrebbero collocare il sito in un periodo preciso dell’età del Bronzo.
Tuttavia, i frammenti ceramici suggeriscono che il sito è stato soggetto ad una forte
erosione o addirittura disturbato fino al letto roccioso non meritando quindi ulteriori
indagini.
Saggi di scavo a Penitenzeria
Lo scavo più esteso è stato effettuato a Penitenzeria. Penitenzeria è una piccola
zona aperta sita a circa 150 metri a sud-ovest di Umbro, su di un piccolo terrazzo rivolto
verso il mare a sud e ad ovest. Il sito è posto in un piccolo terrazzo agricolo di circa 50
mq. il ritrovamento risale al 1999, e due piccoli saggi di scavo (Trincee 1 e 2) nel 2000
hanno messo in evidenza la presenza di un sito post-Neolitico o di probabile età del
Bronzo ed hanno rivelato la possibile presenza di un sito Neolitico.
Nel 2001, si è estesa la Trincea 2 e si sono scavate tre ulteriori trincee (Trincee
3, 4 e 5) che hanno portato alcuni interessanti risultati. Innanzi tutto, un sito postNeolitico o di età del Bronzo è presente nei 50-90 cm superiori della stratigrafia; si tratta
con tutta probabilità di materiale dilavato e fuori contesto. Non si sono ritrovati
materiali di epoca classica o storica. In secondo luogo, un sostanziale sito di epoca
Neolitica si trova al di sotto di esso. Il sito contiene ceramica di tipo Diana, Stentinello
ed Impressa; è stato inoltre trovato un frammento di tipo Serra d’Alto. L’industria litica
è prevalentemente su ossidiana e tecnologicamente è molto simile a quella proveniente
da Umbro. I materiali di epoca Neolitica sembrano essere più consistenti nell’angolo
nord-orientale della zona di scavo, un’area di circa 20x20 metri. La mancanza di
materiale Neolitico negli strati superiori e le crescenti dimensioni dei frammenti man
mano che si scende in profondità, suggeriscono che il sito Neolitico sia sostanzialmente
indisturbato. Questo è confermato dalla presenza di diversi stili ceramici. E’ inoltre
suggerito dalla presenza di una varietà di ceramica di tipo Stentinello in qualche modo
diversa da quella ritrovata ad Umbro; Penitenzeria potrebbe quindi essere stata occupata
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almeno durante un periodo non rappresentato ad Umbro. Tutto ciò porta a concludere
che il sito meriti ulteriori scavi in estensione.
Il sito Greco di Umbro: sondaggi di scavo
Durante la campagna del 2001, gli scavi del sito Greco di Umbro si sono estesi
in due aree inizialmente aperte durante gli scavi del 2000. La trincea 2 è situata su un
ripido dirupo rivolto ad ovest lungo il lato occidentale della collina, a sud del pilone
elettrico. La Trincea 3 è posta sulla sommità della collina lungo il margine meridionale
ed è rivolta a sud.
Gli scopi principali dello scavo rimanevano gli stessi della stagione precedente
(2000), ovvero di rivelare tracce di strutture sul sito e di comprendere la datazione e la
durata del sito stesso. Le ipotesi di lavoro all’inizio della stagione erano che ci si
trovasse di fronte ad una piccola ‘fattoria’ rurale isolata, del tipo Casa Vari. Questa idea
ha perso forza man mano che la stagione è progredita.
Trincea 2. Durante gli scavi del 2000 una pietra rivolta ad ovest è stata messa in
evidenza nella Trincea 2. Un quadrato di 1x1 m è stato aggiunto al di là del muro (in
direzione est), allo scopo di chiarirne le finalità costruttive e la relazione con altre
possibliti strutture. Gli scavi hanno dimostrato che il muro consisteva in un
terrazzamento rivolto ad ovest che formava il muro posteriore di una costruzione in
pietre e mattoni. Ad est del muro è stato trovato quello che appariva come una
pavimentazione a circa –26: una punta di freccia Greca classica (V-IV sec. a.C.) mista
ad alcuni frammenti di carbone è stata trovata in questo livello subito dietro al muro. Al
di sotto di questo livello (contesto 208), il misto di terra, pietre di piccole dimensioni e
rari frammenti ceramici ritrovati hanno suggerito che la zona sia stata deliberatamente
riempita allo scopo di assicurare stabilità come parte del processo di costruzione.
Ad ovest del muro, si sono ritrovati i resti del crollo di un tetto a coppi misti ad
uno strato di fango decomposto (contesto 205). E’ chiaro che il crollo del tetto deve
essere avvenuto in due fasi distinte (contesti 206 e 209). Al di sotto di questi livelli di
crollo, è apparso uno strato di argilla grigiastra dura con inclusi di scisto che sembra
rappresentare un livello di pavimentazione. E’ quindi chiaro che il lato occidentale del
muro corrisponde con l’interno della struttura. Il buono stato di conservazione della
ceramica e dei laterizi dimostra senza dubbio che si tratta di un edificio classico. La
maggior parte dei ritrovamenti chiaramente associati alla struttura sembrano riferibili al
IV secolo a.C., benché sul sito siano strati trovati materiali più antichi e più recenti
rispetto a questa datazione. E’ quindi possibile che l’edificio fosse approssivamente
contemporaneo alla Casa Vari Attica, benché il materiale ritrovato suggerisca un
maggiore ricchezza in termini di quantità e varietà.
Trincea 3. Il quadrato di 1x1 m aperto nel 2000 è stato esteso aprendo tre
quadrati di 1x1 m ad est ed a sud di esso. Lo scopo di quest’intervento era di verificare
se il denso e non stratificato deposito di frammenti di ceramica e mattoni di fango,
potesse essere chiaramente attribuito ad un contesto archeologico, ed in particolar modo
associato ad una struttura. Da un certo punto di vista la stratigrafia è più chiara: un fine
livello sterile (contesto 301) copre il livello ricco di manufatti (contesto 302) addensato
intorno a larghi massi e rocce. Il materiale archeologico non è presente al di sotto dei
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grossi massi (contesto 303). Nonostante il ritrovamento di alcuni sostanziali (più di 2
cm) frammenti di mattoni di fango, e la presenza di numerosi manufatti, il contesto 302
non sembra restituire una stratigrafia interna, così come il deposito non sembra essere
associato direttamente alla struttura. I ritrovamenti ceramici includono una vasta gamma
di ceramica fine a vernice nera (tazze, ciotole, alabastra/aryballoi, lucerne, lekythoi),
ceramica da mensa e vasi da immagazzinamento, ceramica semi-grezza da cucina e
diversi larghi frammenti di pithoi. La maggior parte, benché non la totalità, dei
ritrovamenti ceramici può essere facilmente attribuita al IV secolo a.C. Non è attestata
presenza di ceramica fine, al tornio, impressa o a figure. Alcuni frammenti di ceramica
preistorica ed ossidiana sono stati ritrovati sul sito, nonostante quest’ultima possa essere
attribuibile al perido classico. I ritrovamenti di oggetti di metallo consistono di un pezzo
scarsamente conservato di ferro, probabilmente una lama, ed una piccola moneta di
bronzo. Quest’ultima è stata pulita e conservata e potrebbe rappresentare un importante
elemento di datazione del sito. E’ sicuramente difficile che possa essere attribuita ad un
periodo antecedente al V secolo.
E’ ora chiaro che il sito Greco di Umbro presenti almeno una sostanziale
struttura di epoca Greca, costruita in mattoni di fango posti su di uno zoccolo di pietra e
coperti da un tetto a coppi. Quanto di questa struttura sia sopravvisuto alla ruspata del
sito per i lavori elettrici, sarà oggetto di indagini future. Le principali finalità dei lavori
futuri saranno di evidenziare l’estensione e lo stato di conservazione della struttura della
Trincea 2. Non è ancora chiaro se esistesse una struttura sulla sommità meridionale della
collina, visto che non sembrano essersene conservate tracce.
Il lavoro di questa stagione ha inoltre gettato qualche dubbio sulla originaria
ipotesi relativa alla funzione del sito. E’ ancora possibile che il sito possa, grazie a
lavori futuri, rivelarsi una ‘fattoria’ rurale isolata, come inizialmente predetto, e che la
Trincea 3 fosse semplicemente una fossa di scarico. Tuttavia, se il sito fosse una dimora
rurale, la sostanza degli edifici, la quantità dei ritrovamenti e la numerosa varietà delle
forme, incluse le lucerne, i lekythoi e gli alabastra, suggeriscono che si trattasse
piuttosto di una grossa casa di campagna. Se ciò fosse vero, non è chiara l’assenza di
ceramica tornita, impressa o a figure. Un’ipotesi alternativa è che la struttura fosse
associata ad un modesto santuario rurale. Questo spiegherebbe il denso deposito di
manufatti nella Trincea 3, e, specialmente le figure poco comunemente associabili a
contesti domestici. Tuttavia, allo stato attuale delle ricerche, nessuna ipotesi può essere
chiaramente proposta e la funzione del sito rimane incerta.
Ricognizioni di superficie
Il saggio di ricognizione, condotto con le stesse metodiche applicate durante gli
anni passati, si sono concentrate su due obiettivi: espandere le esplorazioni in varie zone
limitrofe a Bova Superiore, ed approfondire l’indagine di zone precedentemente
indagate nella valle di San Pasquale. Sono stati rivisitati quattro siti identificati nel 2000
e ne sono stati messi in evidenza quattro nuovi, portando il totale dei siti identificati a
54. I nuovi siti consistono di due piccole concentrazioni di materiali di epoca Romana,
una possibile occupazione di epoca preistorica ed un piccolo sito medievale. Nessuno di
questi siti sembra essere minacciato da incombenti attività edilizie o di altra natura.
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Indagini future
La presente stagione ha sostanzialmente concluso le attività di scavo del sito
Neolitico e di età del Bronzo di Umbro e pochi limitati progetti sono preventivati. Non
si prevedono ulteriori indagini a Limaca.
Tuttavia, si è solo iniziato ad esplorare la possibile funzione del sito di
Penitenzeria, che potrebbe rappresentare un abitato all’aperto almeno in parte
contemporaneo a quello di Umbro e consisterebbe nel solo insediamento all’aperto
scavato in questa zona della Calabria. Il sito appare essere ben conservato e le indagini
future si concentreranno su due aspetti. Il primo rigurada uno scavo in estensione
dell’angolo nord-occidentale del sito, probabilmente espandendo la Trincea 4 verso
ovest. Il secondo, rivolto a supportare le indagini effettuate consisterà in ispezioni
sitematiche in tutto il resto del sito mediante coring, allo scopo di ricostruire
l’evoluzione avvenuta durante l’epoca preistorica della superficie del territorio in modo
da verificare la presenza o l’assenza di strati Neolitici nel resto della zona, in particolare
nell’angolo nord-occidentale dell’area, evidenziando quindi la dimensione e l’esatta
collocazione del sito.
E’ inoltre appena iniziata l’indagine sulla funzione del sito Greco di Umbro. Si è a
conoscenza della presenza di un muro in mattoni; il prossimo passo consisterà nello
scavo di un’area che estenda la Trincea 2 sia verso nord che verso sud, allo scopo di
evidenziare strutture e ritrovamenti all’interno ed all’esterno dell’edificio. In ultimo,
questo permetterà di comprendere la funzione del sito (es. ‘fattoria’ o santuario rurale) e
la natura dell’insediamento Greco in questa zona.
Concludendo, ci auguriamo di poter continuare le attività di ricognizione. Ad
oggi, è stata ricognita una parte consistente e rappresentativa del territorio al di sotto dei
500 m di altitudine, in particolare in zone di fondovalle come San Pasquale. Tuttavia, la
copertura è irregolare nelle zone interne e di altura, e si hanno pochi dati sistematici
sulle dinamiche insediative nella zona compresa tra Umbro e Bova Superiore e al di
sopra di questa, a Campi di Bova. Per quanto riguarda l’area compresa tra Umbro e
Bova Superiore, le indagini si rivelano quantomai urgenti, visto che ogni anno la zona è
interessata da un numero crescente di recinzioni.
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Contents
Riassunto Italiano
3
1. Introduction: project history, themes and goals
9
2. 2000 Field Survey (David Yoon)
11
2.1 Background and methods
11
2.2. Sites investigated in 2001
11
2.3. Discussion
12
3. Prehistoric Excavations at Umbro
18
3.1. Introduction: previous work, goals and methods for this season
18
3.2. Trench 1 (the Neolithic site)
19
3.3. Trench 6 (the Early Bronze Age site)
22
3.4. Finds; the Neolithic lithic assemblage (Helen Farr and John Robb)
24
4. Prehistoric Excavations at Penitenzeria
27
4.1. Introduction: previous work, goals and methods
27
4.2. Description of Trenches 2, 3, 4, and 5
28
4.3. Finds
31
4.4. Site interpretation and directions for further work
33
5. Test Excavations at Limaca
35
6. Umbro Greek Site Excavations (Lin Foxhall and David Yoon)
37
6.1. Introduction : previous work and research questions
37
6.2. Extension of Trench 2 and Trench 3
37
6.3. Finds
41
6.4. Interpretations and future research
43
Bibliography
44
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1. INTRODUCTION: PROJECT HISTORY, THEMES, AND GOALS
The 2001 field season of the Bova
Marina Archaeological Project took place from
28 June to 26 July, with a crew which reached
27 members at times. This was the fourth season
of excavation and the fifth season of field survey
to be carried out since the beginning of the
project in 1997.
Our excavations in pursuit of these
goals have been concentrated in the Umbro
area, a small, rough and rocky plateau about a
kilometer in diameter surrounded by low cliffs
and steep slopes (Figure 1). This area has many
known sites. The site of Umbro itself is a rock
shelter at the foot of a cliff on the eastern side of
this plateau. The Penitenzeria site lies about 150
meters to the west on a small south-facing
terrace. The Limaca site lies about 200 meters to
the north of Umbro on a north-facing
promontory. The Umbro Greek site lies about
300 meters south on a steeply sloping rock
outcrop. There are many other unexcavated sites
known in the area as well, and it forms a
compact research area.
Without extensive recapitulation of the
archaeology of Bova Marina (see Robb 1997,
1998, 1999, 2000; Stranges 1992; Stranges and
Saccà 1994), the project has several theoretical
focuses, which have evolved considerably over
the last five years. One aim is to understand the
nature of Neolithic material culture and social
organization, and the second is to investigate the
social reasons for the development of rather
different post-Neolithic societies from the
Neolithic cultural world. A third goal is to
understand the nature of Greek rural settlement
here. Finally, a basic prerequisite for all of
these, and an interesting goal in its own right, is
to reconstruct the settlement history of Southern
Aspromonte throughout the entire span of
human occupation.
This season differed from previous
years in having a melange of goals rather than a
single main focus. It was something of a
transitional year; we aimed to finish a number of
ongoing projects and begin others to be
continued in subsequent years. In particular, the
goals to be carried out were:
•
Figure 1. Sites in the Umbro area.
9
In the Neolithic (Trench 1) area of Umbro,
we aimed to finish excavating small
unexcavated areas of the trench, to deepen
our stratigraphic sondage in the deepest
part, and to excavate a
small
clay
lense
discovered at the end of
the 2000 season.
•
In the Bronze Age
(Trench 6) area of
Umbro, we aimed to
finish
excavating
unexcavated areas of the
Bronze Age structure
discovered in 1999 and
mostly excavated in
2000, and to excavate
below it to bedrock.
•
In the Limaca site, we
hoped to carry out two
more test pits beyond
the two dug in 2000, to
establish the date and
preservation of this
Bronze Age site.
•
In the Penitenzeria site,
our goal was to assess the suitability of the
site for major excavations. In particular,
very limited sondages in 2000 had
suggested it might be a deeply-buried
Neolithic site, possibly contemporary with
Umbro. But the evidence was very scanty
and more data on the date and preservation
were needed before making long-range
plans.
•
At the Umbro Greek site, we intended to
extend and deepen several trenches begun
in 2000 to learn more about the date,
preservation and especially the nature of the
site, as a basis for major excavation
planning.
•
Finally, we hoped to continue extending our
field survey to fill in gaps in areas already
covered and to open up new areas.
Etna was actively erupting. This normally meant
no more than a spectacular view of volcanic
fumes issuing from the craters and fissures on
clear days (Figure 2), and an occasional display
of glowing lava paths on the mountainside at
night. However, when local newspapers began
reporting that seismologists were registering
over a thousand earth tremors a day around the
volcano, we decided to suspend work on Trench
1 temporarily. Excavation at that point was
being carried out well below the overhang of the
rock cliff, and we did not know the effect of
many unfelt tremors on the fissure-ridden walls.
After a few days, the situation appeared stable,
and we decided to return to Trench 1 and finish
the excavations with a small crew as quickly as
possible. When we return in 2002, we will see
whether the eruptions and tremors in Eastern
Sicily have actually led to any major collapses.
After the 2001 season, with current
grant funding, we now have one more
excavation season planned (2002) and one study
season (2003). In the coming field season, aside
from continuing the field survey and finishing
the unfinished excavation of Trench 6, Umbro,
our main prehistoric excavation will be at
Penitenzeria, where test excavations have
proven extremely promising (see below). The
other major effort will be to develop the Umbro
Greek excavation into a major area excavation;
this is however dependent on securing new grant
funding specific to this project over the coming
winter. Outside the field season, we will also
begin preparing the Umbro Neolithic and
Bronze excavations for their complete
publication.
In many ways, this season was very
successful. The excavation routines established
in previous seasons worked well, and almost all
of these major goals were accomplished fully or
to a great degree. We also carried out a good
deal of lab work through the efforts of a
dedicated lab crew; this season’s finds were
completely catalogued, and some gaps in artifact
drawing and documentation in previous years
were filled by studies on our collections stored
in the Museo Nazionale di Reggio Calabria.
However, as with excavation permit
delays in 2000, circumstances beyond our
control changed our plans somewhat. In this
case a serious illness of one co-director meant
that we did less field survey than anticipated,
and that crews tended to be shifted to more tasks
where fewer, larger groups could be employed.
Thus, while we did not finish excavating Trench
6 completely, we excavated approximately twice
as much as anticipated at Penitenzeria. In
retrospect, this had no serious effect on our
fieldwork, and the additional information at
Penitenzeria has proven very useful in planning
future work.
Figure 2. Mount Etna erupting.
We also experienced vulcanological
influences. Throughout the field season, Mount
10
2. 2001 FIELD SURVEY (DAVID YOON)
to determine the location and extent of the site
more precisely and to look for additional
diagnostic artifacts. It is located on the western
face of M. Grappidà , just below the summit.
The site consists of a concentrated scatter of
pottery and burnt mudbrick, found between an
eroded area and a cut bank. The presence of
burnt mudbrick suggests the presence of a
structure destroyed by fire; no roof tile was
collected, indicating that this structure did not
have a tile roof. The pottery assemblage
collected from this site contains few diagnostics,
but it would be compatible with a date in the
fifth or fourth century BC and with an ordinary
domestic context. One block of worked stone,
probably an architectural element such as part of
a door frame or lintel, was also found. If this site
has not been too completely disturbed by
erosion and agriculture, it may be able to
provide significant information when excavated,
especially if the structure burned down while in
use.
2.1. Background and methods
In accordance with the research design
used in previous years, our two main goals were
to expand our coverage in higher elevations
around Bova Superiore and to continue efforts
at building up larger zones of continuous
coverage. To this end we concentrated our
efforts in four zones: near the cemetery for Bova
Superiore, northeast of the town of Bova
Superiore, on M. Brigha west of Bova
Superiore, and in a portion of the San Pasquale
valley, in Bova Marina, between zones we had
previously surveyed.
The methods used in 2001 were the
same as those used in previous years. We
worked in crews of four to nine persons,
carrying out survey in fields or arbitrarily
defined tracts called “areas”, ranging in size
from 0.2 to 8.2 hectares. All areas were walked
in parallel transects 10 meters apart, except for a
few areas where the combination of steep slopes
and dense vegetation made regular spacing
impracticable. We also revisited some areas first
surveyed in 2000, to reexamine areas where
significant numbers of premodern artifacts had
been collected in 2000 but a site had not yet
been identified.
Site 46 (L’Annunziata A, Area 197).
Site, ca. 0.09 ha. Prehistoric, Roman. Area 197,
located immediately south of the Bova
Superiore cemetery, contained a small scatter of
Roman tile and pottery, about 30 meters in
diameter. The collections from this site include
three fragments of African amphora or
coarseware but no easily dated finewares. There
were few diagnostics. In addition to the Roman
artifacts, other periods were represented by
several prehistoric sherds and one fragment of a
medieval graffito ware. The prehistoric sherds
are not diagnostic, but the fabrics appear likely
to be relatively late, perhaps dating to the
Bronze Age.
The 2001 survey was conducted from 2
to 13 July. This included 2.5 days with one
crew, 6 days with two crews, and 1.5 days with
a double-size crew, for a total of 73 person-days
of work. We defined 53 new “areas” and
revisited 8 areas previously surveyed in 2000. In
all, we surveyed approximately 100 hectares in
2001, of which 9 ha had been surveyed
previously and 91 were new. This brings the
cumulative total surveyed since 1997 to
approximately 5.3 km2.
Site 47 (Filiciana, Area 237). Site, 0.1
ha. Roman. This area yielded numerous
fragments of Roman tile or pottery when walked
in 2000, but the site was not identified or
defined at that time. Therefore, we revisited the
area in 2001 in order to locate the site,
determine its size, and make additional
collections. We found a narrow scatter
extending diagonally across the slope of a
recently plowed olive grove. Limited collections
included several diagnostic pieces of Roman
tile, a fragment of an African amphora, and a
base sherd in local fabric which may belong to a
flat-bottomed amphora such as Keay 52.
2.2. Sites investigated in 2001
We assigned four new site numbers in
2001 (51 to 54), and also revisited four sites that
had been visited in 2000 but were either not
recorded completely or not recognized at the
time. For an updated summary of all the sites
found so far, see Table 1.
Site 44 (Grappidà A, Area 240). Site,
area approximately .08ha. Greek. This site, first
examined by us in 2000, was revisited in order
11
few others may be medieval or early modern,
including one red fabric with a thick green glaze
(also paralleled at Site 25). This site is therefore
likely to be contemporary with that at Sant’
Aniceto, probably medieval or early modern.
Site 48 (Grisaca? [or possibly M.
Trigoni?], Area 231?). Scatter? Roman. One
area walked in 2000 yielded several fragments
of Roman tile and pottery; this was recorded as
being from Area 231. We revisited Area 231 in
2001, in order to determine the size and nature
of the site, but found no site, only one piece of
Roman tile. The site could have been a very
small scatter that was almost completely
collected without noticing it in 2000, but
because there were several numbering problems
in 2000, it is also possible that the site is located
elsewhere, perhaps on M. Trigoni.
Site 53 (Limaccaria, Area 285). Site,
0.05 ha. Roman. This site is a small, low-density
scatter of Roman tile and pottery found in a flat
field just to the east of the floodplain of the
Fiumara di S. Pasquale. There was no associated
pre-modern background scatter in the remainder
of the field, causing this site to stand out
sharply. The finds consist of roof tile and local
coarsewares; the only pre-modern diagnostic
was an amphora spike in a local fabric.
Site 51 (San Precopio, Areas 201 and
203). Site, 0.15 ha. Prehistoric?, Greek, Roman.
This site is located about 200 meters southeast
of Site 46. In the report for 2000, these two
areas were included in the discussion of Site 46,
because it was not known whether the artifacts
came from separate locations or a continuous
scatter. On revisiting these areas in 2001, it
became clear that there was one discrete cluster
of artifacts in Area 197 (Site 46), and a second
cluster on the boundary between Areas 201 and
203: this latter is now designated Site 51. Most
of the artifacts appear to be Roman, including
roof tile, local coarsewares, African and Italian
amphoras, a small fragment of Italian sigillata,
and a small fragment of a thin-walled cup. As
with Site 46, other periods are also represented
in low density, including a few prehistoric
sherds (again non-diagnostic but probably
Bronze Age or later), one piece of Greek blackgloss, a Greek cover tile, a flanged bowl of
Hellenistic or early Roman form, and a small
tin-glazed fragment with green decoration,
possibly medieval or early modern in date.
Several fragments of burnt mudbrick were also
found; these could potentially be associated with
any of the periods of use but are most likely to
belong to the Greek or Roman occupation, when
a building with a tile roof is likely to have been
present.
Site 54 (Feliciana B, Area 235). Site,
0.01 ha. Medieval? This site consists of a
findspot of 17 fragments of a large storage jar of
uncertain date. It is dark gray with pinkish
surfaces, coarse, and partly fiber-tempered. All
fragments were found within a small area
several meters in diameter within a recently
plowed olive grove. The only other artifacts
found in the field were some fragments of roof
tile, mostly modern but some possibly medieval.
2.3. Discussion
None of the sites visited in 2001 appear
to be in immediate danger of destruction by
human activity. Some of them are clearly
undergoing or have undergone severe erosion,
particularly Sites 51 and 52, but this situation is
likely to be a long-term problem. None of the
sites have visible architectural features, and
none show clear evidence of looting.
With the exception of the small scatter
designated Site 53, all of the sites examined in
2001 are in the interior, at relatively high
elevations. The evidence emerging from survey
in the interior shows that the previously
identified pattern in which the intensive land use
of the nineteenth century is most closely
paralleled in the Roman period continues to
hold true. Also, as predicted, medieval evidence
is appearing more frequently in the interior than
it did in Bova Marina.
Site 52 (Grappidà B, Area 258). Site,
0.2 ha. Prehistoric?, Medieval. This site, a welldefined scatter of roof tile and pottery located
on the western face of M. Grappidà , in a low
area on a fairly steep slope, directly upslope
from a spring, was reported to us by L. Saccˆ .
The tile, which comprises most of the artifacts
collected, closely resembles that from Site 25
(Sant’ Aniceto). Two pieces of brick or thick,
flat tile with a grooved surface closely resemble
those of the Castello at Bova Superiore. Very
little pottery was found; several fragments
appear to be prehistoric (non-diagnostic), the
Because so many sites have few or no
diagnostic artifacts, a detailed study and
seriation analysis of pottery and tile fabrics will
clearly be necessary for the final analysis of the
results of this project. The emerging patterns
suggest that spatial variation is probably low
except for modern roof tile, which differs
12
considerably between Bova Marina and Bova
Superiore, but even this may reflect
chronological differences, since relatively little
modern settlement existed near the coast until
the eighteenth or nineteenth century. Low
spatially determined variability will make
seriation for chronology considerably less
difficult than it would be otherwise.
for survey to improve sample coverage there.
This may require either longer work days or
overnight stays in Bova Superiore, as well as a
vehicle with four-wheel drive. Also, the survey
continues to consist of small, unconnected
parcels that do not permit analysis of settlement
patterns. The one part of the study area where a
complete survey is feasible, the eastern side of
the San Pasquale valley and the adjoining higher
ground, is already the location of our largest
blocks of survey coverage. Completion of the
spaces between these blocks would give a
valuable look at spatial patterning in a Roman
landscape.
The survey to date remains incomplete
in several respects. Despite a concentration on
interior zones this year, survey coverage in the
comune of Bova is much less than that in Bova
Marina. Although to some degree this is an
unavoidable consequence of the rugged terrain
and lack of good roads in the interior, additional
zones around Bova Superiore should be targeted
13
Table 1. Sites included in field survey to date.
Site
Area
Type
Size
Date
1
2
site
ca. 1 ha?
P
2
2,3,50
site
ca. 2 ha?
R
3
5
site
ca. 0.5 ha
P
4
6
site
R
5
7
site
0.4 ha
P
6
9,10,83
site
ca. 4 ha
R
7
10,84
site
ca. 1 ha
P
8
13
scatter
—
P,R
9
16
site
ca. 0.15 ha
P
10
26
site
ca. 0.5 ha
Med,Mod
11
28,29
site (2 sites?)
?
P?,R,Med?
12
30–37etc.
site
ca. 8 ha
P,G,R,Mod
13
47
site
ca. 0.5 ha
R
14
51,55,206
site
ca. 1.0 ha
R
15
52
site
?
P
16
58
site
0.4 ha
P
17
66
scatter
—
P
18
24
site
0.2 ha
G
19
72
scatter?
?
G?
20
76
scatter
—
R
21
79
scatter
—
P
22
88,89
site
> 1.5 ha
R,Med
23
91
scatter
—
P
24
96,158
site
ca. 0.15 ha
R
25
98
site
ca. 0.6 ha
P,Med?,Mod
26
99
site
?
R
27
100
site
< 0.01 ha
R?/Med?
28
101
site
?
P
29
8,81,82,87
scatter
—
R
30
130
site
ca. 0.35 ha
P
31
133
site
ca. 0.15 ha
P
32
136
site
?
P,R
33
117
site
ca. 0.01 ha?
G
34
123
site
< 0.1 ha
R
35
104
scatter
—
R
36
143
scatter
—
R
37
145,196
scatter
—
G?,R?
38
6
site?
?
R
39
165
site?
?
P
40
169
site?
?
P
41
137,214
site
?
R
42
198,208
site
ca. 0.5 ha
R
43
224
site
ca. 0.2 ha?
R
44
240
site
0.08?
G
45
241–246
site
> 1.9 ha
P,Med,Mod
46
197
site?
0.09
P,R
47
237
site
0.1
R
48
231?
scatter?
?
R
49
212
scatter
—
Med?
50
211
scatter
?
R,Med?
51
201,203
site
0.15
P?,G,R
52
258
site
0.2 ha
P?,Med
53
285
site
0.05 ha
R
54
235
site?
0.01 ha
Med?
P = prehistoric; G = Greek; R = Roman; Med = medieval; Mod = modern.
14
Name
Canturatta a/San Pasquale
Canturatta b
Pisciotta a
Pisciotta b
Pisciotta c
Deri a/San Pasquale
Deri b
Pisciotta d
Umbro a
Torre Crisafi
Cimitero
Mazza
Pisciotta e
Panaghia a
Agrillei
Umbro b/Limaca
Limaca
Umbro c/Umbro Greek
Penitenzeria
Buccisa a
Buccisa b
Sideroni/Amigdala
Carusena
Zaccaria
Sant’Aniceto
Climarda
Vadicamo
Papagallo
Pisciotta f
Umbro d
Umbro e/Penitenzeria
Marcasita a
Cromidi
Vunemo
Cecilia
Panaghia b
Panaghia c
Pisciotta g
Agrillei b
Agrillei c
Marcasita b
Panaghia d
Turdari
Grappidà a
Bova castello
L’Annunziata a
Filiciana a
?
Agrillei d
L’Annunziata b
San Precopio
Grappidà b
Limaccaria
Filiciana b
Figure 3a. Map of sites (eastern section). Shaded areas are areas newly surveyed in
2001; sites are marked by numbers in circles and (for very small scatters of material) by
numbers without circles.
15
Figure 3b. Map of sites (western section). Shaded areas are areas newly surveyed in
16
Figure 3c. Map of sites (northern section). Shaded areas are areas newly surveyed in
17
3. PREHISTORIC EXCAVATIONS AT UMBRO
ceramic production at the site. Secondly, for the
sake of completeness, we wanted to excavate a
small area of about half a meter squared which
had been left unexcavated in previous years for
reasons of convenience. Third, we wanted to
clean the excavated area westwards back to the
cliff wall, which involved excavating a small
column of sediments. In all, as events unfolded,
these limited excavations took a crew of three
people no more than a week of digging.
3.1. Introduction
Umbro presents many riddles. In the
Neolithic area (Trench 1) we have a site which
is poorly defined archaeologically, with no
extant structures, but whose function we can
understand reasonably well. Paradoxically, in
the Bronze Age area (Trench 4) we have the
converse, a very clearly defined structure whose
function remains nevertheless a mystery.
Surrounding these is a halo of poorly defined
points: Neolithic slopewash with Late Roman
human bone in Trench 3, and a clifftop scatter
of Bronze Age pottery in Trench 4. There may
well be other sites which we will never be able
to fathom. Here one suspects particularly the
presence of ancient human occupations in nowcollapsed caves just below the crest of the cliffs
above Trenches 3 and 7.
In the Bronze Age area of the site
(Trench 6), we also had limited, well-defined
goals. In 1999, we had located a cobbled surface
with a deposition of three Bronze Age pots in
situ upon it. In 2000, we expanded this
excavation to show that the pot deposition near
the west end of a long, probably oval structure
roughly 4 meters wide and at least 6 meters
long. This structure had a well-defined border
and living surface, but we found no clear
evidence of a superstructure (e.g. walls, postholes, etc.) and were unable to say whether it
was a ritual area, an open area, or part of a
house with an ephemeral superstructure. In
2001, we wanted primarily to excavate the
northwest corner, where the edge of the
structure ran diagonally under a 2 meter by 2
meter unexcavated area. If time permitted, we
also wanted to excavate below the living surface
of the structure to see whether there were any
sub-floor depositions and to look for clues to its
construction. Although we perhaps could have
done this by excavating simultaneously the
corner of the structure and beneath its floor, we
felt this was inadvisable; it would be better to
excavate the floor entirely and record it in maps
and photographs before destroying it through
further digging. In the event, we finished
excavating the floor but did not have time to dig
below it.
In our fourth season of excavation at
Umbro, we had relatively limited goals and we
encountered few surprises. By now, we have
excavated perhaps 25% of the small, more or
less level area below the cliff face where the
densest concentration of finds is (Trench 1, with
10 m2 excavated out of an area perhaps 10 by 4
meters at the most). While one never makes
absolute statements about what remains to be
found, it is becoming clear that there are
unlikely to be distinct architectural or spatial
features in this area. The sediments, while
stratified, show a complex and highly reworked
pattern more similar to small cave sites rather
than to stereotypical Neolithic open-air villages.
In this situation, opening larger area excavations
here would probably serve primarily to recover
a larger sample of Neolithic material culture. In
some ways, this would be desirable. One never
achieves adequate sample size for some kinds of
statistical analysis, and low-frequency finds such
as stone axes are often the most interesting. But
this information might not outweigh the
information which would be gained instead by
digging in completely unexplored sites such as
Penitenzeria instead.
No other formal research at Umbro was
undertaken. However, it should be noted that
summer 2001 was the culmination of an
especially dry year, and more of the ground
surface all around the Umbro site was visible
than previously, due to lack of vegetation,
erosion and the development of soil fissures. We
looked assiduously for archaeological traces in
unexcavated areas, particularly around the
slopes below the cliffs and on the flanks of the
high knob of bedrock surmounting the cliffs and
towering above Trench 6. None were found,
In 2001, we wanted to accomplish
three tasks in Trench 1. First, we wanted to
excavate a small lense of pure clay which had
been found in a section at the end of the last
season. This lense appeared to be of pure
whitish clay, and as such had no natural
geological origin in this place; it seemed a likely
human-made feature, having perhaps to do with
18
confirming the highly localized nature of the
preserved deposits.
Below this, the next 40 cm were dominated by a
single large rock, wedged in diagonally, almost
vertically. 200-240 cm below datum were
therefore excavated as a single unit as well.
Here, too, the rocks were jumbled slabs, with
loose fill clearly filtered in among them. There
were few artifacts. Through this level, the soil
near the rocky cliff wall was distinctly looser,
darker brown and chunkier.
3.2. Trench 1 (the Neolithic site)
Before excavation, several days were
spent in cleaning up the trench and removing
collapse. The sediments are loose and the trench
has been open for three years, with annual
cycles of heavy rain and extreme draught; every
year some collapse of the walls occurs, and the
trench is probably nearing the end of its lifespan
as a useful, well-maintained archaeological
feature.
At about 240 cm below datum, about
10 cm below the large rock, white clay began
coming up. The center of it was clearly defined,
but at the edges it was harder to trace. Upon
excavation, this clay area turned out to be a clay
lense about 5 cm thick and only about 15 cm in
diameter, distinctly higher than the main clay
lense which was a few centimeters below. Since
this small upper lense coincided directly with
the border of the lower lense below and with the
edge of the rock which overlay it, it probably
represents the zone of the clay lense which was
not crushed by a rock falling upon it.
3.2.1. Clay lenses (-7.5N/-38E)
At the end of the 2000 season, while
drawing the northern profile of newly excavated
areas of Trench 1, we noticed a thin lense of
clay. This lense appeared to be pure white clay.
It was about a centimeter thick. It extended
about 30 cm horizontally, and was higher at
each end than in the middle, giving it a basinshaped appearance. What was striking was that,
while there are clay deposits immediately east of
the site, and elsewhere in the area, there is no
pure clay on the site itself. The sediments in
Trench 1 contain a fair amount of quantities of
sand, and where they are clayey the clay is of a
different color and consistency. This suggests
that the clay in this lense was brought into the
site, whether through some natural or cultural
agent. Since we knew that pottery had been done
on site, it was important to investigate whether
or not this lense might represent the raw
materials or a feature for potting.
The main clay lense was highest at the
north and sloped downwards steeply towards the
southeast. As we excavated further it became
clear that the clay lense was sandwiched
between two large rocks, and in places was
resting directly on the lower one. The lense was
apparent over an area of about 30 cm by 30 cm.
Its maximum thickness was about 25 mm, with a
minimum of 5 mm. The clay seemed purest at
the top of the lense. The surrounding matrix
varied in sand content (in this trench, this
usually reflects the amount of decomposed
sandstone it contains) but otherwise was
identical with sediments elsewhere in this trench
for the lower reaches of Stratum III. All the way
to the bottom of the excavated area, the 15-20
cm nearest the cliff wall continued to be looser,
darker, and clearly infiltrated more recently.
The location in question was the north
wall of the westward extension of the trench (8n/-38e). We therefore decided to extend the
trench northwards half a meter. In this area, the
upper part of the stratigraphy is dominated by
heavy rock fall from the cliffs above in the postNeolithic era; an especially large boulder lay
just to the north, and it seemed both logistically
very difficult to excavate very far north and
probably unnecessary, as the clay deposits
looked likely to be very localized.
No finds were found directly associated
with the clay lense, with the exception of one
vertical rim of a plain burnished cup, which is
not diagnostically either Stentinello or Diana. It
is probably earlier than or contemporary with
the lense.
Following excavation of the clay lense,
which finished at about 260 cm below datum,
the square was excavated down to the same
level as the rest of the trench (320 cm below
datum) in 10 cm levels. The sediments were
similar to those in surrounding squares at these
depths.
The surface in this half square was at
about 160 cm below the trench datum, but the
upper soil was very loose and unconsolidated,
with a lot of rock fall of various sizes. It was
clearly recent fall. From the surface to 200 cm
was therefore excavated as a single large unit.
To summarize, the clay in this lense
19
seems to have been introduced by humans, and
probably was no more than about 30 cm by 30
cm in extent. However, due to heavy rock fall
above and below it, it is impossible to determine
its original shape and hence to understand
whether it is simply a raw material deposit or a
feature of some kind.
excavations for fortuitous reasons, and were
excavated this year for the sake of completeness.
The square –8n/-36e had been excavated in
1998 as the eastern half of the original 1x2
meter sondage. At about 200 cm below trench
datum, gaping fissures had
Figure 6. North profile of –7.5n/-8e after
excavation.
The clay from this lense was excavated
in blocks and stored as geological samples.
Through analysis of its geological composition,
and comparison with clay from local sources
and prehistoric sherds, it is hoped to ascertain
whether this deposit is related to pottery making
at the site.
Figure 4. Clay lense,, -7.5n/-38e.
opened in its eastern wall, and by 250 cm below
datum, these appeared to open onto serious
cavities potentially extending beneath the floor
of the square. We therefore suspended
excavation out of concern for safety lest the
floor of the square collapse. However, in 1999
and 2000 all the adjacent squares had been
excavated to bedrock and it was clear the
remaining sediments could be excavated without
problem. The bedrock was steeply sloping, and
was encountered throughout the square by about
320 cm below datum. The soil contained
relatively few finds and the stratigraphy was
identical with that found in neighboring squares.
The second small area was in –9n/-36e. Here
about .2 cubic meters of earth had been left
adhering to the steeply sloping bedrock in a thin
layer. This was excavated in one block. The soil
contained a few artifacts, and was identical with
that termed Stratum 6 in the adjacent square to
the west: a hard, compact sandy sediment
covering bedrock.
Figure 5. Detail of clay lense.
Proceeding westwards, in –9n/-38e, we
had excavated the southwestern quarter of the
square to 350 cm below datum as a minisondage in 2000. In 2001, we excavated the
3.2.2. Other miscellaneous excavations
Trench
Two small blocks of sediment in
1 were left isolated by earlier
20
remaining areas of the square to this depth and
then took the remaining sediments down to 390
cm. By 390 cm below datum, no soil remained
in the square except for a strip along the western
edge; elsewhere, bedrock was exposed. The
slope of bedrock suggested that the remaining
soil would not prove deep. However, finds were
still coming up down to –380 cm; the last level
contained no finds, but since it contained little
volume of soil, this does not necessarily imply a
sterile level.
the site, or at least the Stentinello occupation
reflected in Strata V and IV. This is, however, a
very indirect hypothesis.
Stratigraphically, the sediments in both
–9n/-38e and –9n/-39e belong to the system of
layers along the cliff wall whose status is
unclear; they contain evident internal horizontal
stratigraphy, but their layering seems
discontinuous with the Strata I-VI system to the
east. One possibility was suggested by the south
profile and accommodates the late radiocarbon
date from –9n/-38e. This is that, after the
formation of Strata V-IV, the boulders
underlying the trench collapsed or settled
outwards from the rock face, leaving a fissure of
a meter or so which then filled in with later,
stratified sediments.
As we excavated –9n/-38e, the cliff
wall receded to the west, so that by the bottom
of the trench, there was about 40 cm of soil
between the edge of the square and the cliff
face. This was excavated at –9n/-39e to a depth
of 320 cm below trench datum. The surface lay
around 200 cm below datum; we excavated from
the surface to 240 cm in one layer, as it clearly
consisted of loose, recently infiltrated soil.
Below this, the square was taken out in 10cm
levels. Throughout, the soil immediately
adjacent to the cliff face was less compact,
darker brown, and looser in texture, suggesting
active recent infiltration. However, the thickness
of the disturbed band was irregular rather than
constant.
At the close of the 2001 season, the
situation in Trench 1 was as follows. Clean
bedrock was exposed in everywhere in the
trench except for in –8n/-37e, -8n/-38e, -7.5n/38e, and –9n/-38e (excavated to 320 cm), and
Figure 7. South profile of western end, Trench 1
(-9n/-37-38 e): eastern half and western half
in the mini-sondage –9n/-38e (excavated to 390
The most striking feature of this square
was several clay lenses
contained in the level 240-250
cm below datum. This was at
approximately the same depth
as the clay lense in –7.5n/-38e
(see above). As there, the lense
consisted of very clean whitish
clay with little or no admixture.
The
lenses
were
lying
horizontally. The largest extent
was 10 cm east-west by 15 cm
north-south, with a minimum
thickness of 1 cm and a
maximum of 2 cm. They were
located about 10-20 cm from
the cliff wall, and extended
into the southern profile of the
trench, so that their original
extent is unknown. In one or
two places, there clearly appeared to be two clay
lenses separated by a gap of soil 2 cm thick. One
non-diagnostic plain black/brown body sherd
was associated directly with it. The presence of
these lenses suggests that the one elsewhere is
not an isolated occurrence; if we are correct in
supposing these strata to be relatively late (see
below), this might suggest that the clay lenses
post-date the principal Neolithic occupation of
cm). One potential goal for the future might be
to excavate all open areas down to bedrock.
This would allow verification of the date and
nature of the earliest occupation. It would be
useful to know, for instance, if the earliest
Neolithic occupation of the site took place upon
bare rock; areas excavated to present suggest
that there were 20-30 cm of soil when people
first started living here.
21
Further excavations are limited by a
number of considerations. To the east of the
trench, there is thin strip of soil half a meter
deep at most above the high point of the
underlying boulder. To the northwest of the
trench, a very large slab of fallen rock overlies
the archaeological deposits. While this might
seal the strata from recent disturbance, digging
safely here would require removing this slab,
which probably weighs several tons. There are
probably intact archaeological deposits to the
south, and this would be the best possibility for
a large area excavation if one were wanted.
Perhaps 6-8 m2 could be dug here.
which were denser at its western end, where a
deposition of three Rodì-Tindari-Vallelunga
vessels was found in situ. There was no sign of a
superstructure, and it was not clear whether the
structure was an open constructed area or a
house with an ephemeral superstructure.
Our principal goal this year was to
excavate the northwestern corner of the
structure, which had remained unexcavated. We
laid out a two meter by two meter extension to
the trench in –4 to –5n/ -59 to –60e. Within each
square, this extension was excavated in 10 cm
levels; when we reached to edge of the structure,
the inside and outside of it was excavated
separately within each square. The stratigraphy
was essentially similar to that observed
elsewhere at the western end of this trench.
Below the topsoil (Stratum I), an abbreviated
(20-30 cm) layer of soil with rock fall (Stratum
II) overlay the structure (occupation surface
Stratum III), with sterile subsoil outside it to the
north. The southern part of the trench contained
more rock fall of all sizes.
To the west, we could excavate the thin
layer of soil along the cliff’s rock face. From
Trench 5 at the base of the boulder underlying
Trench 1, we estimate that there is a sterile clay
level about 1-2 meters below the present floor of
the trench. Hence, we would effectively be
excavating an increasingly deep, narrow
crevasse between a cliff and a boulder. This
would probably not yield intact structures or
deposits, and the stratigraphy is likely to be very
complicated. However, it would be useful for
understanding the process by which this area of
the site formed (and hence for interpreting the
stratigraphy of the overall trench). However, if it
is true, as suggested above, that the sediments
infiltrated along the cliff face are likely to be
later in date than the rest of the stratigraphy,
digging here even at great depths probably will
not shed light on the earliest occupation.
At about 170 cm below datum, the
edge of the structure turned up perfectly as
predicted from its direction in the excavated
floor and in the profile to the west. It consisted
of a straight, clear border between lightish
brown soil to the south and mostly sterile,
yellowish clay to the north. The border was
marked by flattish, shallowly sloping stones
about 10-20 cm across. These stones were not
laid in a well-organized pavement, nor in a wall,
but rather seemed to consist of a loose level with
sometimes overlapping stones. The soil inside
them was light brown and contained a few
scattered sherds and small chunky rock fall.
There was no sign of postholes or
superstructure, and no depositions which
appeared to be undisturbed on this surface.
3.3. Trench 6 (the Early Bronze Age
site)
In 2000, we had excavated most of the
long, oval Bronze Age structure down to its
occupation level. The structure was about 4
meters wide and at least 6 meters long (its
western end was cut off by erosion and
historical terrace construction, but it was
probably originally not too much longer). Its
edges were clear both horizontally and in the
western profiles of the trench. The occupation
surface was characterized by a scatter of flattish
stones and horizontally lying sherds, both of
Interestingly, though the yellowish soil
outside the structure was generally sterile and
hard, it contained a dense concentration of
pottery in its northeastern corner, including
some large fragments. This somewhat jumbled
cluster of sherds may represent material washed
down the slope from deposits originally above
and to the east.
22
stopped after removal of the large rock fall;
these were taken down to the same level as the
rest of the trench (ca. 180 cm below datum).
Although the edge of the structure cut across the
corner of –6n/-58e, we were slightly below it at
this depth, and the soil quickly became sterile.
Virtually no finds came up in –6n/-57e, where
deposits were clean sterile light brownish clay.
Interestingly, in this square, in the far
northeastern corner of the trench, pure white
deposits of clay came up at around –180 cm.
This formed a discrete whitish lump occupying
ca. 30 cm in the corner of the square. Its center
was bright white, with a slightly mixed halo
surrounding it and extending horizontally. It
contained no visible cultural inclusions, and
seems to be a sterile clay subsoil turning up.
Figure 8. Bronze Age structure, from above and
east. The southern edge is marked by bedrock,
the eastern by a horseshoe of stones, and the
north by soil color change.
Figure 9. Northwestern edge of Bronze Age
structure, from west; note difference in soil
color, layer of flat stones, and curving bottom of
structure visible in section.
We also excavated down to the same
level in areas east of the structure, whose end we
took to be defined by the horseshoe of stones.
Sediments were removed in the squares –7n/57e, -7n/-58e, -8n/-58e, which had previously
been excavated, and in a narrow strip
undercutting the rock wall in –8n/-56e. The soil
consisted of the same light brownish sterile
sandy clay as in the squares to the north, and
contained almost no finds; it clearly differed
from that on the other side of the horseshoe,
suggesting that these stones did indeed form part
of the structure. We noted more of the scatter of
charcoal fragments, one or two up to 15 cm in
size, which was previously observed here and to
the south. These charcoal fragments seem to
occur both inside and outside the structure and
hence probably postdate it, and perhaps
originate in its destruction. They are, however,
not dense enough or well enough contextualized
to consider a clear destruction horizon. One
fragment was samples for radiocarbon dating.
Excavation around the base of the horseshoe of
stones revealed that its base lies at the excavated
surface, approximately at the occupation surface
here. It is thus only 1-2 stones high.
Trench 6 still may yield important
information. We need to excavate below the
occupation surface in at least some areas of the
structure, to obtain information about how it was
constructed and perhaps about its uses. It may
also be useful to excavate outside the structure
to the north, to understand its immediate
context, and to investigate possible sources for
the abundant pottery found in the fill overlying
the occupation levels, which must have
collapsed into the trench from somewhere above
Figure 10. Trench 6, east wall, after excavation
of all areas to level of base of structure
In other areas of Trench 6, we
excavated several small areas outside the eastern
end of the structure where we had not reached
the depth of the occupation surface. In two
squares (-6n/-57e and –6n/-58e) excavation had
23
end like an axe blade. It is 42 mm high, 31 mm
wide, and 57 mm long (though this is the length
of the broken fragment). It is slightly
asymmetrical along all three axes. Were it of
pottery instead of terracotta, it might perhaps be
considered a large horizontal lug. It may
represent an axe replica in terracotta, or perhaps
a very atypical example of the corni fittili
known in some Sicilian Early and Middle
and northeast of it. Further, major excavation at
this point seems something of a gamble; we
could well uncover important information by
excavating to the south or to the north, but we
could equally well turn up completely sterile
areas, and since there is about two meters of
rocky overburden here, the cost of finding out
could be high.
3.4. Finds
There is relatively little to report on
finds from Umbro this season, as the limited
scope of excavation means that few finds were
recovered compared to the abundant collections
in previous years.
In Trench 1, no flotation sampling was
carried out, no radiocarbon samples were
collected, and the very small number of faunal
remains were almost all fragments beyond
identification. No pottery was found of types
different from the familiar Impressed,
Stentinello, and Diana wares described
previously (see Michelaki and Robb, in Robb
2000). Lithics were similar to those found in
other years (see below). One human tooth was
found, as was a possible fragment of a human
phalange.
Bronze Age cultures.
Figure 11. Bronze Age diagnostics from Umbro
Trench 6
One radiocarbon sample was taken, a
charcoal sample from the area between the
horseshoe-shaped concentration of stones at the
east end of the structure and the cliff wall; this
represents the scatter of charcoal probably
marking or post-dating the abandonment of the
structure.
In Trench 6, as in other years, virtually
all finds consisted of pottery. Here all
diagnostics were of the same Bronze Age style
found elsewhere in the trench, with its
characteristic easily eroded red, orange or
brown fabric. Surfaces were almost always plain
surfaces. As noted in past years, the typical
shapes here include curved everted rims, strap
handles, and flat horizontal lugs or tabs.
Occasionally plastic decoration such as raised
cordons is used. Three pieces merit particular
note. One is a fragment of the tall raised handle
of a dipper (attingitoio), a form characteristic of
the Rodì-Tindari-Vallelunga facies. The second
is a carinated bowl with an everted lip, executed
in a highly burnished glossy black ware. Other
sherds of this ware have been found here in past
years, and it may be akin to Appenine wares,
though decorated pieces in the past have borne
deep grooves with rounded sides rather than the
incised geometrical designs most commonly
found on Appenine wares. The third piece is
most enigmatic. This is piece of pinkish-brown
baked terracotta with a smoothed surface, not
pottery, and somewhat resembles an axe. It is
oblong and comes to a thin edge at the unbroken
3.4.1. The Neolithic lithic assemblage (Helen
Farr and John Robb)
The prehistoric lithics from Umbro and
other sites are being analyzed by Helen Farr as
part of a M.A. thesis at the University of
Southampton. During the 2001 season, the lithic
analysis from Umbro was completed. Since this
work is still in progress, we will make only a
few general comments on the lithic assemblage
here.
757 pieces of chipped stone were
recovered and analyzed (Table 2); this
represents all the lithics larger than ca. 4 mm
(the size of the mesh used in screening) plus
some smaller lithics recovered by hand or found
in wet-screening flotation samples. The Umbro
lithics are predominantly made from obsidian
(92.9%), with chert accounting for 6.1% and
quartzite for 1.1%. It is likely that all the
24
obsidian here came from Lipari (this is true, at
least, for all of 14 samples sourced chemically
through trace elements by Dr. R. Tykot,
University of South Florida (R. Tykot, pers.
comm., 1999)).
smashing to produce angular fragments (22.8%
of all obsidian) and small, thin and irregular
flakes (53.2%). Cores account for 3% of the
assemblage; all are very small.
The lithic assemblage thus represents at
least four modes of procurement and use: local
flint used for flakes and tools, imported chert
used for formal blade-based tools, Lipari
obsidian used for blades, and obsidian
byproducts of blade production used for
expedient flakes.
These raw materials were used for
different purposes. Quartzite is found only in a
few angular fragments, some or all of which
may be natural; there are quartzite cobbles in a
sandstone conglomerate formation a few
hundred meters to the north of the site. Chert
was used in two ways. Grey flint from the
nearest known source, about 4 km away at
Contrada Saraceni in Condofuri, was used for
flakes and tools. In contrast, a variety of pink,
red, honey and brown cherts were used almost
exclusively for blades, often retouched into
formal tools such as scrapers, burins and
denticulates. Interestingly, these varicolored
cherts were apparently brought to the site as
tools, as virtually no debitage of these materials
was found. Chert would have been prized as it is
tougher and less brittle than obsidian, and would
have been useful for working hard materials
such as antler, bone, and wood, especially with
scraping motions using relatively blunt edges
produced by retouch.
The overall assemblage gives the
impression that lithics were used sparingly and
not discarded until they were close to exhausted.
For instance, few pieces are larger than 2 cm,
and the total weight of lithics recovered is less
than a kilogram, with perhaps half a kilogram of
obsidian in all. If we suppose that between 10%
and 25% of the total site area around Trench 1
has been excavated, we might imagine a total
volume of perhaps 5-10 kilos of obsidian
consumed and deposited at the site throughout
its occupation. Depending on how one estimates
the duration of site occupation, this might equal
between 10 and 100 grams per year: a handful
of blades perhaps, or a small core or two. This is
not a lot of raw material.
Obsidian was reduced through two
technological pathways. One was as blades
produced from carefully prepared prismatic
cores, a common Neolithic technique. Obsidian
was apparently brought to the site either as
prepared blade cores or as blades; while
obsidian blades were common, no blade cores
were found, and nor were flakes created by
roughing out cores from nodules. However,
obsidian in some other form than blades must
have entered the site to provide raw materials
for expedient flakes, and it makes sense to
suppose that at least some of this material came
from exhausted blade cores. There were very
few large blades, and most were less than 2 cm
long and less than 2 mm thick, suggesting
production from small cores. Blades and
bladelets were used whole, or snapped
intentionally into short segments. The great
majority of these blades and blade segments
display no retouch or edge damage. Given how
brittle obsidian is, they must have been used for
slicing relatively soft materials and then
discarded. Blades and blade segments account
for 21.1% of all obsidian.
This stone was used intensively; most
pieces besides blades give the impression that
they were made from materials at the small end
of the possible range of workable material. Raw
material was used until exhausted. One
implication of this is that probably relatively few
tasks were accomplished with stone tools; lithics
may have been important more as tools for
making tools from other materials such as bone
or wood.
Yet it is clear that obsidian supply was
not a problem per se; if obtaining obsidian was a
problem, people could have readily obtained
more Condofuri flint, which was perfectly
adequate for most or all uses. Similarly,
obsidian blades could have been re-used
intensively or refashioned into flakes rather than
discarded while they still had pristine-appearing
cutting edges. Likewise, if rationally
maximizing the total cutting edge available from
a given core was the goal, we might imagine the
development of a formal microlithic technology
might have occurred. We might perhaps make
sense of the situation with a group of
hypotheses:
Exhausted blade cores, if any, and
other small lumps of obsidian were apparently
reduced through knapping and through bipolar
•
25
overall demand for lithic raw material was
low; only a small quantity was needed
only a small amount of local flint was not
needed. This presumably would be the
niche in the lithic economy where local raw
materials would be used in areas further
from obsidian sources where less bladeproduction by-products would be available.
annually.
•
obsidian
blades
were
considered
indispensible for some cultural or social
purpose, and a small amount of blades
and/or blade cores was obtained
periodically, either directly from Lipari or
via intermediaries.
•
on these or other trading journeys, small
amounts of variously colored cherts were
obtained, possibly already formed into
tools. These were used for specialized
functions, particularly where a blunted
retouched blade was useful.
•
the need for expedient cutting edges was
satisfied through intensive reduction of leftover obsidian bits and exhausted blade
cores; given the low demand for lithics and
the amount of obsidian already coming into
the site, this provided enough material that
cultural or social reasons dictated different
modes of use and deposition for obsidian
blades and expedient flakes. The former
were discarded virtually in pristine form,
and could have been reduced further but
were not; the latter represent the end point
of intensive reduction.
•
This is useful interpretation in that it provides a
point of departure for viewing lithics as part of
social and cultural institutions. However, these
are only preliminary hypotheses at this stage,
and need to be supported by extensive analysis.
Table 2. Umbro and Penitenzeria lithics
Penitenzeria
Umbro
Angular
debris
Blades and
blade
fragments
Cores
Flakes
Total
Chert
6 (24%)
5 (20%)
2 (8%)
12 (48%)
25 (14%)
Obsidian
41 (28.3%)
26 (17.9%)
5 (3.4%)
73 (50.3%)
145 (81%)
Quartzite
1 (11.1%)
0
0
8 (88.9%)
9 (5%)
Total
48 (26.8%)
31 (17.3%)
7 (3.9%)
93 (52%)
179
Chert
10 (21.7%)
16 (34.8%)
3 (6.5%)
17 (37.0%)
46 (6.1%)
Obsidian
160
(22.8%)
148
(21.1%)
21 (3.0%)
374
(53.2%)
703
(92.9%)
Quartzite
1 (12.5%)
0
0
7 (87.5%)
8 (1%)
Total
171
(22.6%)
164
(21.7%)
24 (3.2%)
398
(52.6%)
757
26
4. PREHISTORIC EXCAVATIONS AT PENITENZERIA
the pattern resulting from recent slopewash. At
the very bottom of Trench 2, excavation on the
last day of the season brought up one possible
Impressed sherd. The total evidence for a
Neolithic site here thus consisted of an undated,
highly eroded prehistoric assemblage which also
contained Bronze Age material, some obsidian
finds, and one potential diagnostic.
4.1. Introduction: previous work,
goals and methods
If Umbro was a small rock shelter
occupied sporadically or seasonally for
particular purposes, where did Neolithic groups
in this area have their primary settlements? This
question spurred us to investigate open air sites
in the area, particularly a prehistoric site found
in 1999 at Penitenzeria. This sherd scatter is
located on a small terrace 150 meters southwest
of Umbro, facing southwest with a good view of
the sea and, in clear weather, the Sicilian coast.
To the north, the site is sheltered behind a low
rib of outcropping bedrock. To the south and
west, the site overlooks cliffs between 10 and 15
meters high. Today, the site is on an agricultural
terrace about 50 meters in each direction. The
surface slopes slightly, so that the north end is
about a meter higher than the south end. The
terrace is used for pasture, with a few olive
trees, and was undoubtedly plowed in the past.
In prehistory, too, it was probably a relatively
level area, with between one and three meters of
Our goals in 2001 were thus to answer
some straightforward questions:
•
is there really
Penitenzeria?
a
Neolithic
site
at
•
how deep does the site lie, and what is its
condition of preservation?
•
what potential does it hold for major
excavation?
To answer these in the 2001 season, we planned
to excavate two small sondages in the northeast
corner of the field, with further exploration as
time allowed. The general strategy in placing
trenches was to scatter small trenches around the
area of the site which seemed to contain intact
prehistoric deposits. When we actually carried
out this fieldwork, however, for logistic reasons
(see Introduction, above) we had a larger crew
available than planned. We thus expanded
Trench 2 and excavated it much deeper,
excavated two other sondages (Trenches 3 and
5) and partially dug one long trench (Trench 4).
Figure 13. Penitenzeria excavations from the
southwest. Trench 3 is in the foreground,
Trenches 2 and 4 in th4e background.
soil overlying flat, shelving bedrock.
Figure 12. Penitenzeria: location as seen from
the east. The site of Penitenzeria is located
behind the house.
In 2000 we conducted an intensive
gridded surface pickup which revealed a higher
density of finds on the south half of the terrace
(see Robb 2000 for detailed description). We
duly excavated a test trench here, Trench 1,
which revealed about a meter of sediments
before reaching bedrock. A second sondage near
the northeastern corner of the field, Trench 2,
revealed a deeper stratigraphy richer in finds. As
this suggests, the gridded pickup showed mostly
27
Terrace wall below low bedrock ridge
Collapse
Collapse
Trench 5
Trench 2
Low terrace wall
ng
oki
erlo
ll ov
Terrace wa
Trench 3
Trench 4
Survey datum point
(48.40e/28.40n)
Trench 1
if
cl
f
s
Bedrock outcrop
and rock pile
N
5 m
be distinguished from the stratum below;
where it can be, its bottom lies at between
25 and 30 cm below the surface.
Figure 14. Penitenzeria site plan.
3) Stratum 3 was essentially the same soil as in
Strata 1 and 2, but without either root
disturbance or topsoil. Its thickness varies
from about 10 cm to almost 40 cm, and
seems much less in the more northern
trenches (4 and 5).
4.2. Description of Trenches 2, 3, 4,
and 5
General stratigraphy
4) Stratum 4 is a sandy loam with few rocks. It
is yellower than the strata above (color
10YR 5/2) but at times is hard to
distinguish from it. Its thickness varies from
20 to 30 cm.
All five trenches in Penitenzeria
displayed a common stratigraphy, in which six
strata were defined. They varied primarily in the
depth and thickness of each stratum. These
strata are described generally here.
5) Stratum 5 is generally distinguished by a
darker color (10YR 4/2), a much harder
texture, and an increase in rock content,
especially with medium to large pieces. It is
a sandy clayey loam. It varies greatly in
thickness, from about 40 cm in Trench 5 to
over a meter in Trenches 2 and 3; it is not
present at all in Trench 1. It appears to
represent the Neolithic occupation.
1) Stratum 1 was defined as topsoil, a medium
brown sandy loam with some clay content.
Color in indirect light: 10yr 5/3. Contains
much small (less than 10 cm) rock content,
extensive root penetration from grasses. It
extended to about 10 cm below the surface.
2) Stratum 2 was defined as plow zone. It is
essentially the same soil as above, but
without the extensive roots. It is more
compact. Color in indirect light: 10yr 5/3.
In some places a distinct plow zone cannot
6) Beneath the Neolithic level, there is a light
brown (10YR 5/3), very sandy level. Its
consistency varies from soft to very hard,
28
and it contains very few artifacts and rocks.
A few large stones at the bottoms of Trench
2 and 3 suggest sterile soil overlying
bedrock, but we did not verify the presence
of bedrock below it as Trenches 2 and 3
were approaching the limits of safe working
depths.
surface. At this depth, access to the trench was
increasingly difficult, even with a ladder, and
there was little room to use tools to excavate the
increasingly hard sediments of Stratum 6.
The most notable feature of Trench 2
was the great thickness of Stratum 5, the
Neolithic level, which extended from about 80
cm below datum to about 185 at the bottom. It
contained substantial variation within it. An
upper layer between 80 and 120 cm began with
a color change and included a substantial level
of rocks between 110 and 120 (this may be
similar to the hard rocky soil of Trench 4 at this
depth). Between 110 and 120, just below these
rocks, the soil grades into a lighter, less rocky
zone, a hiatus. Most of the base of a large closed
plain vessel was found lying crushed in place
horizontally at around 125, perhaps suggesting
an open surface at some point in the past.
Around 160 cm an identical, dark brown stony
soil resumes, and continues to between 180 and
190 cm. After this depth, the sandier, lighter
brown sediment of Stratum 6 appears, with
increasingly few artifacts.
Trench 1 (21-22n/21e)
Trench 1 was dug in 2000 and not
further excavated in 2001 (see Robb 2000 for
details). It was a one by two meter trench
oriented north-south. The northern square,
22n/21e, was excavated to about 100 cm. The
southern square, 21n/21e, was excavated to
bedrock, which was encountered at about 115
cm below the surface. The only notable
deviation from the general stratigraphic
sequence is the absence of Stratum 5, the
Neolithic level; Stratum 4 rests directly on
bedrock.
The Bronze Age artifacts from Trench
2 all occur in the top 90 cm. Neolithic artifacts
occur below 120 cm or so. It seems possible that
the stratigraphy within Stratum 5 results from
several Neolithic occupation periods, with
darker, stonier soils representing site use and
lighter, sandier soils representing periods of less
intensive use. Below 150-160 cm the few
diagnostics mostly include stereotypical, very
geometric Stentinello wares. Between about 100
and 130 cm there is a fair amount of fine,
Figure 16. Penitenzeria, Trench 3 east wall
(view from west)
Figure 15. Penitenzeria Trench 2, east wall
(view from west)
Trench 2 (40n/39-40e)
Trench 2 was begun in 2000 as a one
meter square sondage in 40n/39e. This was
excavated to about 125 cm below the surface. In
2001, the trench was enlarged by opening the
square to the west (39n/39e). The western half
was excavated to 160 cm below the surface. The
eastern half was excavated to 230 cm below the
29
soft red, pink and buff paste which seems
related to Diana wares; a piece of Serra d’Alto
ware turned up in 120-130.
Figure 17. Penitenzeria, Trench 4, from south
Trench 3 (40n/29-30e)
Trench 3, a one by two meter trench
oriented east-west, was located 10 meters west
of Trench 2. The western square, 40n/29e, was
excavated to 110 cm below the surface; the
eastern square, 40n/30e, was excavated to 220
cm below the surface. At this point excavation
was logistically difficult and we had
encountered Stratum 6, which was increasingly
sterile.
As in Trench 2, Stratum 5 is very thick,
extending from about 80 cm below the surface
to about 200 cm. At its top, it is clearly
distinguishable by color from Stratum 4, which
is yellowish. As in Trench 2, there is a distinct
horizon of small rocks between 125 cm and 140
cm; however, this horizon does not have a level
bottom which might suggest an underlying
surface, but instead slopes downwards. Above
this, the stratum is identified by color and
texture but contains relatively few rocks. A large
rock about half a meter high and 20-30 cm
wide was lodged vertically in the upper parts
of Stratum 5. As it continues down, Stratum 5
becomes gradually a lighter brown color, but
there is no clear zonation or hiatus as in
Trench 2.
Figure 18. Penitenzeria, Trench 4, detail of
bottom and eastern wall at north end; note
contrast between sterile soil on left and dark soil
on right.
Trench 3 had considerably less
pottery than Trench 2, with very few
diagnostics of Stentinello or Diana. This may
imply a peripheral location in the site. Most
diagnostics from below about 180 cm were
Impressed wares, and fine buff and red
fabrics appeared between about 130 and 160.
trench laterally by another two meters to the
south rather than continuing downwards. The
result is that Trench 4 is the only trench at
Penitenzeria not excavated down to sterile soil.
Trench 4 (46-49n/40e)
Trench 4 was a one meter by four
meter strip, oriented north-south, located
directly north of Trench 2. Its northernmost two
squares were originally laid out as a one by two
meter trench and excavated to 80 cm. At this
point, there was a very evident soil different
between the north half of the trench (hard,
sterile Stratum 6) and the south half (rocky, dark
brown artifact-rich Stratum 5). It seemed
possible that we had cut across a feature such as
a ditch or pit. Hence, we decided to extend the
The basic stratigraphy here was
compressed, with sterile Stratum 6 coming up at
around 80 cm at the north end of the trench and
the Neolithic level (Stratum 5) coming up at
around 70 cm. As in Trench 5, the upper four
strata were difficult to untangle; here, one
problem was the existence of a set of apparent
small lenses or a discontinuous level of darker
brown soil between Stratum 2 and 3 at a depth
of approximately 30-40 cm. Stratum 5 does not
extend across the entire floor of the trench; it
30
abuts Stratum 6 which is highest at about 70 cm
at the north end of the trench and dives below
the excavated surface in 46n/40e. Stratum 5 is
very hard-packed earth with much rock content.
which looked slightly darker than either Stratum
3 above it or Stratum 4 below it, and was
characterized by a moderate level of sand and
grit. In sharp contract to Trenches 2 and 3,
Stratum 5 was slightly closer to the surface and
much less substantial, with only about 40 cm of
deposits. Stratum 6 was clearly sterile.
It is also worth noting the spatial
dispersion of remains. Vertically, Stentinello
sherds are found throughout the stratigraphy, but
Bronze Age sherds are found only down to
about 50 cm. Diana sherds are found from about
40 cm to the base of the excavations.
Both Stentinello wares and buff and
pink fine fabrics were found from close to the
surface to near the bottom of the trench. Finds
were too sparse to identify any cultural
differences between strata.
It is notable that the levels between 80
and 110 cm are particularly rich in a particular
style of pottery, the unusual variants of
Stentinello ware (see below). These are found
primarily at the northern end of the trench, just
south of the sterile Stratum 6. If there was a
small bank of sterile soil here in the Neolithic, it
may have collected sherds against its base.
4.3.Finds
The finds from Penitenzeria provide
the first real assemblage from this site. Although
not yet analyzed, they merit some description.
Later prehistoric finds at Penitenzeria
probably date to the Bronze Age. A handful of
diagnostics display attributes such as large flat
everted lips, flat horizontal lugs, strap handles,
ring bases, and carinated bowls; the dimpled
base of an attingitoio was found in these levels
in 2000. Many of these have parallels with the
materials from Umbro Trench 6. They suggest a
general Bronze Age date.
Four basic Neolithic wares are found
together at Penitenzeria: undecorated coarse
wares, Impressed Ware, Stentinello, and Diana.
With a few variations, these are like those found
at Umbro and elsewhere in Southern Calabria.
As far as we can tell from the
fragmented sherds available, these were used to
produce a typically Neolithic range of bowls and
jars. Three particular forms could be discerned:
a straight necked flask, a globular jar with a
constricted opening (or “seed jar”)(1477-1), and
a kind of large stand or vessel with a raised foot
(conjoining pieces from Bags 1642 and 1694).
The first is notable for producing rim sherds
which could easily be mistaken for pieces of
cups. The last is unusual; it reveals a vessel with
a cylindrical base raised by about 40 mm, which
is very unusual for the Neolithic, where round or
flat bases are the norm.
Figure 19. Penitenzeria, Trench 5, eastern wall
(view from west)
Trench 5 (46n/33e)
Trench 5 was a one meter square
sondage excavated west of Trench 4 and north
of Trench 3. The basic stratigraphy was similar
to elsewhere in key points such as the difference
between Strata 4, 5 and 6. Most levels sloped
down a few centimeters from north to south, and
the soils were slightly rockier in the northeast
corner. The levels within Strata 1-4 were
difficult to read. There was no clear bottom of
the plow zone (Stratum 2/3). At the base of
Stratum 3, there was a layer about 20 cm thick
The undecorated coarse wares were
used for large vessels; most of the base of one
was found lying flat in several pieces at the west
end of Trench 2 at about –125cm depth. One
plain large vessel bore at least two circular
bosses as surface ornamentation. The Impressed
Ware includes common motifs known from
31
reddish paste
other sites, such as arrays of vertical lines made
with a pointed tool, fingernail marks, and rocker
marking which may have been made with the
edge of a shell. As elsewhere, this ware seems to
have been used mostly for relatively large
vessels.
•
For all four, only the center of the shafts was
found, so we do not know the motifs produced
with them. It is striking that two of them are
made of fine fabrics not like those actually used
in Stentinello pots, but resembling those found
in Diana wares here. If so, and if these stampini
were used for pottery making rather than some
other purpose, this would provide direct
evidence of the contemporaneity of Stentinello
and Diana wares.
Diana wares at Penitenzeria are most
identifiable in small to medium sized bowls with
curved walls and the typical spool-shaped
handles. They were usually made in a fine fabric
which varied from pink to orange in color.
Sherds in this fabric were numerous. We should
also note one diagnostic handle of Serra d’Alto
ware (Bag 1511), a small, horn-shaped piece
which probably came from an elaborate
quadruple trumpet lug.
As at Umbro, stamped impressions
were used primarily for decorating burnished
small to medium sized bowls and cups probably
used for consuming food and drink (Michelaki
and Robb, in Robb 2000). Strikingly, however,
even in the small sample available, some sherds
display differences from the Stentinello wares
known from Umbro Trench 1:
Stentinello
wares
used
the
characteristic techniques of making impressions
with stamps and filling them with encrustations
of colored paste (only white is known here so
far, though a fragment of red ochre was found
during excavation). Four fragments of stamps or
stampini were found:
•
Bag 1555, Trench 2, 160-170 cm, coarse
reddish paste
•
Bag 1575, Trench 4, 70-80 cm, in fine red
paste
•
Bag 1641, Trench 4, 90-100 cm, coarse
Bag 1670, Trench 4, 90-100 cm, fine
orange paste
Figure 20. Stentinello wares from Penitenzeria.
Note stampino in upper right photograph.
32
•
several stamped motifs are known which
are not known at Umbro, including small
dots, small curved v’s (e.g. Bag 1593),
lozenges with dots (e.g. 1642-11), and
elongated arrow-like v’s (e.g. 1694-10).
•
Umbro
Stentinello
typically
has
“connected” arrays of motifs, with no
separation between stamp impressions;
Penitenzeria sherds sometimes show spaces
between impressions (e..g 1694-12) or
between blocks of impressions (e.g. 16429).
•
arrays of motifs at Umbro are almost always
subordinated to an overarching geometrical
arrangement into horizontal bands, hanging
vertical panels, etc. Several sherds at
Penitenzeria display a much more free-form
arrangement with freely floating groups of
impressions and elements not carefully
placed along rectilinear or diagonal axes
(e.g. 1642-9, 1693-1, 1670-4).
•
Umbro Stentinello almost never combines
stamped motifs with motifs made using
other techniques, with the exception of
straight impressed lines. At Penitenzeria,
stamped motifs are sometimes combined
with motifs made through other impression
techniques.
•
Umbro Stentinello is almost always used on
small and medium vessels of fine
appearance. There is at least one example
from Penitenzeria of the use of stamped
motifs (here, large v’s) on a large, coarse
vessel (1694-7).
Umbro in raw materials, composition, and
formal characteristics (see Table 2). Few bone
fragments were collected, and most of these
were
fragmented
beyond
identification.
Virtually no daub and ground stone were found.
Because the trenches were preliminary sondages
into unknown contexts, no flotation samples
were taken; we hope to carry out flotation
during future excavations here. The same is true
of samples for radiometric dating.
4.4. Site interpretation and directions
for further work
Penitenzeria is a multi-period site. This
is suggested both by stratigraphy and by the
variety of ceramic styles found above.
The Bronze Age wares at Penitenzeria
may date to anywhere between the late third
millennium BC and the end of the second
millennium, but they are separated from the
Neolithic by several millennia. The chronology
of the Neolithic wares is less clear. Impressed
Ware was used through a very long span of
time, usually at the same time as other wares
including Stentinello. Stentinello and Diana
wares were probably used together for some
centuries in middle to late fourth millennium
BC. Hence, it is difficult to say definitively
whether the three styles were used together or
represent different periods of occupation.
Stratigraphically, the pottery sequence
differs between the two more northern trenches
(4 and 5) and the two southern trenches (2 and
3). The stratigraphic sequence in the former is
compressed into about half the depth of the
latter, and potential stratigraphic distinctions are
clearer in the deeper trenches.
It seems unlikely that different styles would
have been used at the same time at two sites
only 150 meters apart. A more probable
explanation is that the Umbro assemblage
contains Stentinello wares made at various
points over a long time, while the Penitenzeria
collection represents a much more tightly
focused group with a particular style. This
seems all the more plausible with the tight
concentration of these kind of sherds at the
northern end and upper levels of Trench 4. This
however only poses the question of why this
style should differ from preceding or following
ones. We do not know the answer, but it poses a
fascinating problem in micro-variation and
social creativity.
The biggest difference is between strata
1-4, which represent post-Neolithic periods, and
Stratum 5, which represents the Neolithic. The
finds confirm the inference to some degree. For
example, strata 1-4 contain 29.8% chert,
including a fair amount of grey Condofuri flint.
In Stratum 5, the percentage drops to 8.9%, with
the rest of the assemblage made up of obsidian.
Obsidian seems to have been used in Calabria
principally in the Neolithic and this is virtually
identical with the composition of the Neolithic
sample from Umbro. The lithic assemblage from
Penitenzeria, while numbering only about 170
pieces to date, seems very similar to that from
Umbro (see above).
Other finds were not plentiful at
Penitenzeria. As noted above, the lithic
collection seems essentially similar to that from
Interestingly, though Strata 1-4 contain
33
pottery. This may be interpreted in a number of
ways. Penitenzeria may be a small site located
primarily at the northeastern corner of the
terrace, with relatively light occupation
elsewhere. This area is slightly higher than the
rest of the terrace by perhaps 30-40 cm, and it is
tempting to suppose that this height difference
may be due to habitation deposits in some way.
However, it must be remembered that the
northwestern area of the field is entirely
unexplored, and that even large Neolithic sites
usually have patchy densities of finds. Hence,
there may be locally dense patches of
occupations elsewhere in the field which remain
to be found.
sherds of fabric similar to that used in Neolithic
pots, they are highly fragmented, with no
identifiable Neolithic diagnostics. This may
imply that residual Neolithic materials were
present on the site during its Bronze Age
occupation, possibly as redeposited slopewash,
but that they were highly fragmented and
eroded; this would explain the presence of
obsidian in these levels.
Below a meter in depth, well-preserved
diagnostic Neolithic sherds began to come up.
Sherds were also less eroded and larger,
suggesting less disturbed deposits.
In Trenches 2 and 3, Bronze Age
diagnostics are found down to about 90 cm, and
Stentinello pottery is below 120 cm.
Interestingly, there are hints that there may be
several distinct periods within the Neolithic. In
Trench 2, fine buff, pink and orange fabrics
similar to those used in Diana finewares are
found from about 90 cm below the surface, and
it seems possible that the deposits between 90
cm and about 130 cm may perhaps represent a
late Neolithic level. All the Stentinello wares
from Trench 2 seem “normal” Stentinello
designs (see discussion above). The unusual
variant Stentinello wares are found in direct
association with Diana wares in Trench 4. One
possibility, thus, is that there was a later
Neolithic occupation with Diana, a very local
late Stentinello style, and an earlier Stentinello
occupation.
The initial excavations at Penitenzeria
are thus very encouraging, revealing a
substantial Neolithic site, probably with intact
deposits. In future work, one obvious course is
to expand Trench 4 both south and west –
expansion to the east would involve damage to
the roots of a mature olive tree, which will have
already disturbed any archaeological deposits in
any case. The goals here would be to look for
spatial associations, structures, and features. The
only change from methods used to date would
be the use of mechanical excavation to remove
the top 30 cm over a large area. Since this soil
has been plowed and appears to contain
slopewash out of context, crew labor would be
better used on materials in context below.
It is also important to investigate
deposits elsewhere in the field and to reconstruct
the landscape surface of the Neolithic and
subsequent periods. This can be done by
scattering further test pits – for instance, it
would be useful to place one or two in the
northwestern quarter of the field. For systematic
data on geostratigraphy, the best option would
be coring in transects across the field. This
would enable us, for instance, to trace the extent
of Stratum 5 and its connection with actual
Neolithic occupation.
While exciting, the idea of multiple
occupations at Penitenzeria is not confirmed by
Trenches 4 and 5, where Stentinello wares are
found from the surface downwards and trench 4
was not excavated to the base of its full depth. It
needs to be explored by further work.
The five trenches excavated so far
revealed horizontal distinctions as well. The
northeastern corner of the terrace (Trench 4)
was by far richest in finds. By about 20 meters
southwest (Trench 3), there was noticeably less
34
5. TEST EXCAVATIONS AT LIMACA
The site of Limaca lies about 200
meters north of Umbro, on a small rocky point
just west of the road to Bova Superiore. A
scatter of prehistoric pottery was noted here by
Stranges (pers. comm. 1997) and confirmed by
our field survey. Sherds on the surface were
highly eroded, and no diagnostics were available
from surface collections. In 2000, we excavated
two test pits (Robb 2000) here to try to learn the
date and nature of the site. We recovered a few
pieces of pottery suggesting a Bronze Age date,
but the trenches were otherwise unproductive.
Trench 1, located on the western slope near the
top of the point, contained jumbled sherds
overlying bedrock. Trench 2, located on a
smaller plateau about 100 meters down the
slope, contained no cultural materials below the
surface; this suggests that the sherds now found
on the lower slopes are probably washed down
from above.
southwestern of the two, bedrock came up
between 40 and 50 centimeters below the
surface. None of the deposits showed any
appearance of archaeological sediments in
undisturbed contexts.
Figure 21. Limaca (view towards northwest):
general location of Trenches 3 and 4
Figure 23. Limaca, Trench 4 (view to north)
Figure 22. Limaca, Trench 3 (view to north).
Pottery was not frequent. The basic
fabric was a rough reddish paste, with no
evident decoration on the generally eroded
surfaces. It included only one or two potential
diagnostics, such as the base of a strap handle
similar to those found in Umbro Trench 6. This
suggests a Bronze Age date, confirming the
impression gained from the sparse materials
from the 2000 excavations. The only artifacts
recovered besides pottery were one flake of grey
Condofuri flint and a flat semi-circle of grey
semi-crystalline stone. This had both sides
smoothed and seemed to be a fragment of a
polished stone disk about 8 cm in diameter and
20-25 mm in diameter.
In 2001, we excavated a further two
trenches, both one meter by two meters. Both
were located on the small plateau at the summit
of the site (just northwest of the high point next
to the car parking area off the old Bova MarinaBova Superiore road). The two pits were thus
located slightly northeast and higher than
Trench 1.
Both trenches proved disappointing.
Both contained homogeneous brown sandy loam
with a fair number of rocks. In Trench 3, the
northeastern of the two trenches, irregular
bedrock was encountered between 20 and 40
centimeters below the surface. In Trench 4, the
35
The 2001 test pits added some generic
late prehistoric ceramics to our collections to the
site, some of which may prove to be diagnostic
with comparative study. But they also confirmed
that the site is either disturbed and probably
destroyed; if any in situ deposits or evidence of
architecture remain, they probably consist of
features or deposits dug into bedrock and
virtually impossible to recover without massive
excavations. It is also possible that the site was
never a “standard” site with domestic
architecture,
well-defined
archaeological
contexts, and a variety of remains. After
systematic testing, Limaca thus remains a
Bronze Age site of unknown function.
36
6. UMBRO GREEK SITE EXCAVATIONS (LIN FOXHALL AND DAVID YOON)
the fifth and fourth centuries BC, though
there were traces of earlier archaic and
prehistoric occupation. As noted in the
2000 report, if this dating proves correct,
the lifespan of the site is quite long for a
classical Greek domestic site. Most
comparable rural farmstead sites were
occupied for much shorter periods (Foxhall
forthcoming a), and the Dema House and
the Vari House in Attica are the best
documented in this regard (Jones et al.
1962, 1973).
6.1. Introduction: previous work and
research questions
The Umbro Greek Site (site 18, area
24) is located on a small, steep irregular hill
adjacent to the cobbled mediaeval road leading
from the coast up to Umbro and ultimately to
Bova Superiore. The hill is one of the steeeply
sloping outcrops of calcareous sandstone which
forms the series of cliffs bounding the Umbro
plateau on the east. The lower end of the
northern section of the hill has been bulldozed
in recent years to level the area for the
installation of an electrical pylon.
•
During the 2001 field season (14-24
July), excavations on the Umbro Greek Site
were expanded in the two areas first opened in
the 2000 season. Trench 2 is located on a steep
west-facing slope on the west side of the hill,
south of the electrical pylon. Trench 3 sits near
the summit of the hill on the southern end,
facing south.
The main objectives of the excavation
programme remained remained substantially the
same, and represented developments of, those of
the previous (2000) season. These aims were:
•
•
to explore the main structures on the site,
and their location. In the 2000 season a
stone wall with proper footings was
revealed in Trench 2. The upright tiles
found directly in front of it were thought to
represent a possible drain (i.e. with this
interpretation the wall visible in Trench 2
would have been an exterior face). A major
aim this season was to understand the
construction of this wall and any features
associated with it to determine whether it
was part of a building, and if so what part,
or whether it was simply some kind of
terrace wall. In Trench 3, large numbers of
artefacts, including fragments of mud brick
had been discovered. The aim here was to
determine whether this deposit was
associated with a structure, and whether this
structure was still preserved, or whether
they simply represented the remains of a
trash dump.
to understand overall site function, and its
place in the Greek settlement hierarchy of
the region. The location of the wall in
Trench 2, facing the road, suggested that
the mediaeval road may follow the route of
a road many centuries older. Our working
hypothesis at the beginning of the season
was that we were dealing with a small,
isolated rural ‘farmstead’ site, of the Vari
House type, though the political/communal
affiliation of the inhabitants remained
unclear. This became less secure as the
season progressed, and an alternative
hypothesis, that the site might represent a
small
rural
sanctuary,
is
under
consideration. Neither of these hypotheses
can as yet be definitively supported.
6.2. Extension of Trench 2 and
Trench 3
The methodology of excavation was
the same as that used in the 2000 season.
Trenches were laid out in 1x1 m square units.
They were excavated in arbitrary 10 cm levels,
measured from a local trench datum point. The
two new sub-points added this year (one in
Trench 2 and one in Trench 3) were calculated
in relation to the original datum points
established
in
the
2000
season.
‘Natural’/cultural strata (contexts) were
simultaneously observed, numbered and
recorded. Finds were bagged by square and
level,
and,
where
appropriate,
by
context/stratum.
to understand the dating and the ‘lifespan’
of the site. The overwhelming bulk of the
material excavated in the 2000 season
proved to be classical in date, largely from
6.2.1. Trench 2
37
Trench 2 is located about 10-20 metres
south and above the electricity pylon, on a west
facing slope. In the 2000 season this was
established as a 1x3 m trench, oriented east-west
and consisting of three squares (71n/43e,
71n/44e, 71n/45e). The trench is situated on a
very steep slope running east-west, with the
highest part on the eastern side. This season a
fourth square was added to the eastern end
(71n/46e), above the three previous suqares,
creating a 1x4 m trench. Because of the steep
slope, a new datum point at the ground surface
of the southeast corner of the new square
(71n/46e) was necessary. This new sub-point is
34 cm above the main datum point established
in 2000, located at the ground surface of the
southeastern corner of square 71n/45e.
Excavation was also continued in the lowers
squares, especially the two lowest (71n/44e,
71n/43e).
Figure 24. Umbro Greek site Trench 2 wall and
tile scatter (view from west)
Context 201 (US3): Dry, greyish brown
silt, fairly hard and compact where not loosened
by roots. Few finds were associated with this
stratum and most were very eroded. It appears
as the topsoil level in all squares, and runs to a
maximum depth of 38 cm. (See also Bova
Marina Archaeological Project 2000 Report.)
Context 202 (US2): A small area
(maximum depth 8 cm) of probable colluvial
slope wash in the northwest corner of the lowest
square (71n/43e), located at the foot of a recent
cut made during the construction of the
electrical pylon. (This stratum is fully described
in the Bova Marina Archaeological Project 2000
Report.)
Context 203 (US5): Hard, dark greyish
brown silty clay/clay loam, mottled with lighter
greyish areas, more compacted than Context
201. It was identified in squares 71n/46e,
71n/45e, 71n/43e, with a maximum depth of 78
cm (See also Bova Marina Archaeological
Project 2000 Report.). It appears to be a layer
deposited after the structure went out of use:
more artefacts and some fragments of mud brick
were found in the lower part of this stratum. The
upper parts of the Greek tiles embedded upright
in front of the wall in squares 71n/45e and
71n/44e appeared in this context, and were
interpreted in the 2000 report as a drain: that
interpretation is now shown to be incorrect (see
below, Context 206, US9). In the new square,
71n/46e, this level sits directly on bedrock in the
upper (eastern) third of the square.
During the 2000 season a west-facing
stone wall had been revealed in Trench 2,
squares 71n/453 and 71n/44e. The strategic
reason for the addition of the new square was
first, to clarify the construction of this wall, and
its relationship to any possible structure, and
second, to clarify any surviving stratigraphy
behind (to the east) of the wall. Excavaton in the
squares below (to the west) of the wall was also
undertaken with the aim of clarifying the
stratigraphic sequence.
In addition to the four natural
strata/contexts excavated last year (contexts
201-204, US3-6), six further strata/contexts
were distinguished (contexts 205-210, US8-13).
The full range of strata/contexts is summarised
below, and strata/contexts which are new this
year, or for which there is much new
information, are discussed in detail.
Context 204 (US6): A small area of
silty clay behind (to the east of) the wall in
squares 71n/45e and 71n/46e. Many rocks,
including some chalky rocks, but only a few
artefacts, were found. (See Bova Marina
Archaeological Project 2000 Report for full
details.)
Context 205 (US8): A lighter coloured,
yellowish, clayey deposit (Munsell 10YR6/410YR5/4), revealed in squares n71/e43, n71/e44
and the lower (western) part of 71n/45e. A
significant number of sherds and fragments of
tile apppeared embedded this level, some of
which were lying flat on the surface. This level
seems to consist of melted mud brick, and
discernable chunks of mudbrick were recovered.
It surrounds but does not cover Context 206
(US9), the later of the two layers of fallen tile. It
38
was somewhat disturbed by disturbance of the
backfill over the winter after the 2000 season,
but the maximum depth has been established at
about 25 cm.
bronze arrowhead, with fragments of charcoal
was found lying flat at the start of this stratum.
The bulk of the stratum seems to consist of
small rocks and silty/clayey, grey-brown soil
packed behind the wall, between it and the
bedrock in the upper (eastern) half of square
71n/46e. In the lowermost 10 cm of this packed
fill, close to the stones of the wall, the fill
consists entirely of grey-brown silty/clayey soil
(Munsell 10YR4/3) with no rocks. It seems
likely that the earth and stones of this stratum
represent fill carefully and deliberately placed
behind the wall for stability, as part of the
construction process. Few artefacts appear in
this stratum. The stratum begins at -26 (main
datum), and continues to a maximum depth of
about 30 cm.
Context 206 (US9): The later of the
two distinguishable episodes of tile fall in
squares 71n/433, 71n/44e and the lowest
(northwestern) corner of 71n/45e (the other
episode of tile fall is Context 209, US12). This
stratum includes the tiles erroneously thought to
be a drain in 2000 and a number of other
substantial fragments of tile. These appear to
have originated from the collapse of a tile roof
on the structure to which the wall (Context 207,
US10) belongs. Though tile was lying flat in this
context, pottery here and in the related stratum
Context 205 (US8) was usually positioned at
random angles. In this context, however,some
very substantial and well preserved pottery
fragments were found among the tiles, including
a complete pair of cooking pot handles found
together on the southern side of square 71n/44e.
Underneath this level in square 71n/44e was a
large flat rock, below which was the earlier
episode of tile fall (Context 209, US12). the
maximum depth of this level was 10 cm.
Context 209 (US12): The earlier of the
two distinguishable episodes of tile fall in
squares 71n/433, 71n/44e and the lowest
(northwestern) corner of 71n/45e (the other
episode of tile fall is Context 206, US9). This
stratum, which includes several nearly complete
tiles is covered by, as well as partially
surrounded by the melted mudbrick of context
205 (US8), and several large flat rocks resting at
about -81. This stratum runs to a maximum
depth of 10 cm. Although tile was lying flat,
some pottery was not. A few sizeable fragments
of pottery emerged from this level, though the
bulk of the finds were tiles. This stratum sits
directly on top of the distinctive grey, schisty
clay of Context 210 (US13).
Context 207 (US10): The stone wall
with its footings in squares 71n/45e and
71n/44e. This wall consisted of two unmortared
courses of large, roughly shaped sandstone
blocks with one regular face (along the western
side). A lower, third course of sandstone pieces,
roughly shaped, serves as a footing. The wall
appears to have been built as a construction
terrace, set into the hillside close to an outcrop
of bedrock to the east, and built so that the
western face formed the interior side of the back
wall of a roofed building. The top of the
surviving courses projected about 60 cm above
the ancient ground level to the east (the top of
Context 208, US11). It is unlikely that more
than one additional course of stone formed the
original wall, to judge from the relatively small
number of stones apparently belonging to the
wall located nearby, but no longer in situ. The
main construction material, demonstrated by
Context 205 (US8), was mud brick.
Context 210 (US13): This stratum has
so far been found only in the two lowest squares
(71n/44e, 71n/43e). It is distinguished by the
many small (1-4 mm) chunks of grey schist
mixed in with the compacted, grey clay soil
(Munsell 2.5YN4/). Fewer sherds and almost no
tile appeared within this stratum, but virtually all
pottery found has been near the top of the
stratum and was lying flat. So far this stratum
has been excavated to a maximum depth of 10
cm, but excavation is not yet complete. Hence,
final depth is uncertain. It is possible that this
stratum represents a floor, or, perhaps, a
deliberate deposit of schisty clay intended to
level the site before building.
Context 208 (US11): Underneath
Context 204 (US6), directly behind the wall, in
the lower (western) half of square 71n/46e and
the upper (eastern) edge of square 71n/45e. The
top of this stratum appears to be the ancient
ground surface behind (to the east) of the wall
(Context 207, US10), at an elevation of about
60 cm below the surviving top of the wall. A
This season’s excavation in Trench 2
demonstrated that the wall discovered in 2000
was a west-facing construction terrace forming
the back wall of a stone and mud brick structure,
with a tiled roof. Behind this wall of the
building, constructed close to an outcrop of
bedrock in a fashion typical of classical Greek
39
expanded Trench 3 and was thus no longer
viable. Elevations in the original square
(53n/55e) have been calibrated to the new datum
point.
structures, the eastern side of the wall had been
stabilised by deliberately packing the space
between the wall and the bedrock first with
earth, then a mixture of earth and small stones.
In front of the wall the remains of a tiled roof
which collapsed in two phases was surrounded
by and embedded in the decomposed mudbrick
of the walls. Some of the tiles are nearly
complete, and it would appear that a variety of
tile types was used in the construction of this
roof.
The refined contexts are described
below:
Context 301 (US7): Loose, grey-brown
friable topsoil with few rocks. Only a very few
artefacts were recovered in this level, and these
were for the most part relatively small and
eroded sherds. This level included many plant
roots especially of Pistacia lentiscus, Genista
acanthoclada,
Urginea
maratima
and
Pennisetum sp. The maximum depth of this
level was 30 cm., though in most parts of the
trench it was considerably shallower than this
because of the slope of the trench.
The well preserved pottery and tile
found show that, without doubt, this is a
classical building (see below). Most finds
clearly associated with the structure would
appear to fit comfortably within the 4th century
BC, though there are earlier and later finds from
the site. Therefore it is likely that the building
was approximately contemporary with the Attic
Vari House, though the material cultural remains
appear to be much richer in terms of both
quantity and variety. The expansion of Trench 2
and further excavation will be essential to
determine the fully preserved extent of this
building and to identify its function more
precisely.
Context
302
(US14):
This
context/stratum is distinguished mainly by the
very large numbers of sizeable and well
preserved artefacts, mostly pottery, which
appeared. The soil is little different in colour or
character from that of Context 301 (US7),
perhaps slightly more compacted, though this
may be largely due to the decrease in root
disturbance in this level. The maximum depth of
this stratum is 30 cm, though in many places the
depth is less than this because of the bedrock
outcrops. The largest quantities of sherds and
the best preserved artefacts were found nestled
into crevices and niches in the bedrock. Despite
the finds of some substantial ( greater than 2
cm) chunks of mud brick, and very large
numbers of artefacts, there appears to be no
internal stratigraphy within this stratum, nor
does the deposit appear to be associated directly
with a structure. It was clear by the end of this
stratum that the flat rocks between squares
53n/55e and 52n/55e, which were considered to
be part of a possible wall at the end of the 2000
season, were not a wall, but merely large, flat,
naturally placed rocks sitting on the bedrock. No
evidence of any structure or
6.2.2. Trench 3
During the 2000 season Trench 3
consisted of a 1x1 m square (53n/55e) near the
summit of the hill on the southern end. Because
of the large number of artefacts discovered,
three squares were added to expand the trench to
the east and south to form a 2x2 m trench
(53n/56e, 52n/56e, 52n/55e). The aim was to
see if the dense, unstratified deposit of pottery
and mud brick fragments could be located in a
clearer archaeological context, especially to
determine whether they could be associated with
a structure. During the excavation of the single
square (53n/55e) in 2000 the deposit was
believed to be unstratified, and the single
context/stratum was called Context 301 (US7).
Working in a larger area we have been able to
refine the stratigraphy somewhat. It now appears
that a thin, relatively barren level (Context 301,
US7) covers the artefact-packed layer (Context
302, US14) nestled around large boulders and
bedrock. Cultural material is absent from the
area underneath the large boulders, defined as a
third (Context 303, US15). It was necessary to
establish a new datum point at the northeast
corner of square 53n/56e, since the datum point
used in 2000, the northeast corner of the original
square 53n/55e was excavated out from the
Figure 25. Umbro Greek site, Trench 3 (view
40
from west).
fifth-fourth centuries BC. Although one archaic
(seventh-early sixth century BC) sherd was
found last year (Bova Marina Archaeological
Report 2000), no others have been identified in
this season’s finds. Virtually all of the pottery
fabrics appear to be local, though one or two
possible examples of Corinthian fabric were
found in Trench 3 (cup handle1697-322, large
body sherd, possible from an amphora 1697366). A few amphora fabrics also remain
unidentified in origin.
worked rock emerged.
Context 303 (US15): This very small
context/stratum was defined as the grainy, paler
grey-brown compated soil underneath the large
flat boulders sitting on the bedrock. Only a very
small amount of soil was present. Few artefacts
were found and these were all very small. This
suggests that the large flat boulders had been in
place when the deliberate dumping and/or
natural displacement and deposition of artefacts
from their original source occurred.
Most of the fine ware black glazed
sherds are from cups and bowls, some of which
are very small, if not quite technically
miniatures. A number of larger cups were also
found. Skyphoi and kotylai-type cups are the
most common, but the foot of a kylix or
kantharos (1674-252-21) and a curved handle
probably from a kantharos or possibly from an
oinochoe (1697-306-5, 1697-307-6)-were also
found. Several large flat lids decorated with
black glazed concentric circles on a reserved
background were found, some almost complete
(e.g.,1674-237-1, 1674-238-2, 1674-239-3,
1674-240-5, 1674-241-6, 1674-242-7, 1674243-10, 1674-244-15, 1674-245-16, which are
all part of the same lid) . Other unusual shapes
include a pyxis (1623-67-3), oinochoe 1652-9410, 1652-95-11, 1652-96-12), and askos (165298-14), several lamps (1652-145-23, 1652-155,
1654-196, and 1652-145-23/1652-146-24/1652146-25, a lamp in an unknown fabric), small
perfume jar (1701-390, alabastron: 1652-85-1
1652-86-2, 1652-87-3, all part of the same
vessel), and a probable lekythos (1674-264).
Few fineware table amphorae or large jars, and
no hydriae were identified. Though the general
character of the coarse and plain wares
(including pithoi, amphorae, chytrai and
cooking pots, casseroles, serving and storage
vessels) is consistent with domestic occupation,
the range of fine ware shapes is somewhat
wider than one might expect on an isolated
farmstead site. However, is it significant that no
moulded, impresed or figured wares appeared.
Nor was there evidence of any burning, except
for occasional small fragments of charcoal. No
animal bones or shells were found.
At the end of the 2001 season Trench 1
was fully backfilled. It is possible that the rich
artefact deposit in this area was simply a
garbage dump. However the presence of
substantial chunks of mudbrick, small fragments
of charcoal, and a coin might suggest that the
material originated elswhere, in or associated
with a structure, before its final deposition by
natural erosional processes or by some
combination of deliberate dumping and natural
processes. If these remains originated from a
structure its location has not been discovered
despite intensive searching. Given the
geomorphological and seismic instability of the
region, it is possible that any structure which
existed on the summit of the hill in this part of
the site has either been eroded out or has
dropped off the steep southeastern side of the
hill.
Despite the limitations of the
archaeological context, the material from
Trench 3 serves the important purpose of
helping to date the lifespan of the site and to
pinpoint the range of activities and functions.
Preliminary analysis suggests that the material is
more or less coterminous with the finds from
Trench 2, dating largely to the later fifth and
fourth centuries BC, though some individual
artefacts fall outside this chronological period.
6.3. Finds
As in the 2000 season, the large
majority of the finds were ceramic: pottery
sherds and tile. A small but significant number
of impasto sherds which are likely to be
prehistoric. The few fragments of obsidian
found could be either prehistoric or classical
Greek: further study and more finds may clarify
to which period they belong. As in the 2000
season, nothing is clearly Roman or mediaeval.
The bulk of the finds fit comfortably into the
Metal finds in Trench 3 consisted of a
piece of poorly preserved iron, possibly a blade,
and a small bronze coin. The latter when
cleaned and conserved may well prove to be of
considerable importance for dating the site.
Certainly it is unlikely to be earlier than the later
fifth-fourth century in date. The only metal find
in Trench 2 was the classical arrowhead at the
41
top of Context 208 (US11), which was probably
sitting on the ancient ground surface,
42
Figure 26. Finds from Umbro Greek site: tile,
metal objects (coin, knife, arrowhead), and
pottery (photographs not to a common scale).
43
which can be roughly dated to the fifth-fourth
century BC.
bones, figurines or high-quality finewares
(impressed, moulded and figured wares). There
are also more lamps than usual on rural sites:
these appear to turn up in largest numbers in
ritual settings and in ‘tavernas’ (e.g. Halieis
House 7: Foxhall forthcoming b) . The question
of site function cannot be fully resolved without
further excavation. However, it seems somewhat
more likely at present that the site represents a
well-appointed domestic site.
6.4. Interpretations and future
research
It is now certain that we have
discovered a building with a tiled roof in Trench
2. However the function of this building is still
unclear. The top priority for work in the 2002
season will be to explore the full extent of this
building, in so far as it is preserved. The
alternative possibilities, that it represents either
a domestic structure or a small rural shrine, have
been fully considered, and neither interpretation
is fully supported on the available evidence. The
main support for the rural shrine hypothesis
rests on the presence of shapes rarely found in
domestic contexts, especially rural sites.
However this is countered by the lack of animal
The relationship of Trench 2 to the material in
Trench 3 also remains unclear. Unless this site
was simply a trash dump for a domestic house
located in the area of Trench 2, which seems a
little odd if trash could have simply been tipped
over the precipice, the probability is that the
original source of the artefacts on the summit
has long since disappeared.
44
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Project: Survey and Excavations at
Umbro. Department of Archaeology,
University
of
Southampton,
Southampton.
Foxhall, L.
forthcoming a. Small rural farmstead
sites in ancient Greece: a material
cultural analysis, in F. Kold (ed.)
Chora und Polis: Methoden und
Ergebnisse
der
historische
Landeskunde, Munich: Historischen
Kolleg.
1999 Bova Marina Archaeological
Project: Survey and Excavations at
Umbro. Preliminary Report, 1999
Season. Department of Archaeology,
University
of
Southampton,
Southampton.
forthcoming b. House clearence:
unpacking the ‘kitchen’ in classical
Greece, in N. Fisher, J. Whitley and R.
Westgate (eds) Building Communities:
House, Settlement and Society in the
Aegean and Beyond, London: British
School at Athens.
2000 Bova Marina Archaeological
Project: Survey and Excavations.
Preliminary Report, 2000 Season.
Department of Archaeology, University
of Southampton, Southampton.
Jones, J.E., L.H. Sackett and A.J. Graham
Stranges, S.
1962. ‘The Dema House in Attica’
Annual of the British School at Athens
57: 75-114.
1992
Importante
ritrovamento
stentinelliano a Bova Marina. Calabria
Sconosciuta 15:51-52.
Jones, J.E., A.J. Graham and L.H. Sackett
Stranges, S., and L. Saccà
1973. ‘An Attic country house below
the Cave of Pan at Vari’ Annual of the
British School at Athens 68: 355-452.
1994
Nuove acquisizioni sulla
preistoria nella Jonica Reggina.
Calabria Sconosciuta 17:19-22.
Robb, J.
Tinè, S.
1997
Bova Marina Field Survey:
Preliminary Report, 1997 Season.
Department of Archaeology, University
of Southampton, Southampton.
1998
1992
Bova Survey 1992. Istituto
Italiano di Archeologia Sperimentale,
Genova.
Bova Marina Archaeological
45

Bova Marina Archaeological Project Survey and Excavations

Transcription

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