THE IMPACT OF RECESSION ON EQUAL

THE IMPACT OF RECESSION ON EQUAL
OPPORTUNITIES FOR MINORITIES &
WOMEN IN THE UNITED STATES,
CANADA AND BRITAIN
by
HARISH C. JAIN, Ph.D.
Professor, Personnel & Industrial Relations Area
McMaster University
Faculty of Business, Hamilton, Canada
and
PETER J. SLOANE, Ph.D.
Professor and Head Department of Economics & Management
Paisley College
Paisley, Scotland, U.K.
tnni,s
..
H:.IB
748
I
..
· • ._:,
1.R47
no.205
c.1
FACULTY OF BUSINESS
McMASTER UNIVERSITY
Research and Working Paper Series #205, 1983
The Impact
of Recession on Equal
Opportunities for Minorities & Wc::me n in The
United States, Canada
and Britain
By
Harish c. Jain, Ph.D.
Professor
Personnel & Industrial
Relations Area
Mc:Master University
Faculty of Business
Hamilton, Canada
&
Peter J. Sloane, Ph.D.
Professor and Head
Department of Econcmics
·
-
& Management
Paisley College
Paisley, Scotland, U.K.
Research and Working Paper Series
#205, 1983
The Impact of Recession on Equal
Opportunities for Minorities and Wcmen in the
United States, Canada and Britainl
by H.C. Jain, McMaster University
and
Peter J . Sloane, Paisley College, U.K.
A number of economists such as Masters (2), Blau (3) , and Lloyd & Niemi
(4) , have stressed the importance for the welfare of the minority workforce of
maintaining high levels of aggregate demand in the economy, since employment
discrimination is lik�ly to be inversely related to the tightness of labour
markets, and affirmative action policies in particular are likely to be easier
to
implement when jobs are plentiful for majority workers.
In essence, this
means that the EEO legislation may only be effective w hen the economy is
operatin; at high levels of aggregate demand relative to the available labour
supply.
This paper attempts to examine the impact of cyclical (short- run) and
trend (long- run) effects, (with special reference to the current recession) in
three industrialized economies which have implemented detailed equal
employment opportunity (EEO) legislation to protect the interests of minority
group v.orkers, (5) .
The paper is divided into several parts.
We consider first ways in which
recessions may have adverse effects on members of minority groups, and the
forms that this disadvantage mig ht take.
Second, we examine empirical
evidence on these disadvantageous effects with respect to gross earnings
differentials, unemployment and resort to EEC legislation.
conclusions and implications based on the evidence.
Finally, we draw
2
The Effects of Recession On Minority Groups
For several reasons, trade unions and employers establish seniority and
last-in/first out (LIFO) policies.
Employers find it preferable to retain
some workers than others and union adopt principles for job protection which
safeguard certain categories of workers relative to otherso
For the employer,
given the costs of hiring and training labour, laying a worker off in the
recession implies writing off prior investments in fixed labour costs, (6) .
T hus, seniority and LIFO systems are likely to result in redundancies
affecting a disproportionate number of minority workers who possess less
experience because they have suffered discrimination in the past or in the
case of women because they have spent a proportion of their post-schcal years
out of the labour force.
Women are affected more than men because a high proportion of new
entrants into employment have l:een females which means that there are . more
women than men with shorter length of service.
•
Moreover, employers realize
that alternative job opportunities are more restricted for (married) women
than for men, so it is probable that they (employers) will be able to re­
employ a substantial number of women with specific skills in an upturn, if
they should be laid off, (7) .
This is one reason why employers tend to hoard
skilled labour (with experience) in the recession for fear of being unable to
obtain sufficient human capital for their needs in·-the recovery phase.
In the case of black workers Vroman (8) has found in the U.S. that older
workers are less affected by cyclical fluctuations than are younger employees,
presumably because, as Pfister (9) suggests, older black workers have more
seniority, thus enabling them to hold jobs which are less sensitive to
variations in the level of econanic activity.
Unions along with employers institute and perpetuate seniority and LIFO
systems because of several reasons.
The majority of union members in all
..
3
three countries are white males.
Thus, it is rational for unions to adopt
policies for protecting jobs which will satisfy the interests and thus receive
the majority votes of their members, (10) .
In recessionary periods, it seems
q uite probable that.unions will strive less to protect the interests of
minority workers than when conditions are buyont.
During recessions, access to jobs is also likely to be more difficult for
m i no r i ty gro ups r e l a t ive to the majority.
discriminatory tastes
on
In s u c h per iods, g i ven
the part of the employer, potential demand
can
be met
simply by hiring white males for preferred jobs, and sex and race may be used
as a screening device to exclude minority workers.
In tight labour markets,
however, labour shortages may force employers to hire coloured and female
workers for what have traditionally been white, male jobs.
This itself may
help to remove any erroneous beliefs that might be held concerning the
relative pr oductivity of majority and minority workers.
As Reder (11) has
t=einted out the effect of tight labour markets will l:e to eliminate the excess
supply of unskilled workers, while part of the excess demand for skilled
workers
can
be met by ui:grading.
Consequently the skill differential tends to
narrow at the peak of the cycle and to widen in the trough.
Since minority and female workers are unskilled to a disproportionate
extent relative to white male workers white/black and male/female earnings
differentials may be expected to narrow during periods of high activity and
widen during periods of low activity.
The
level of economic activity is also
likely to infl uence the
willingness of workers to use equality of opportunities legislation.
In the
recession workers in jobs are likely to be more concerned with the retention
of that jo b rather than the conditions of employment or whether there is
equality of treatment with respect to other groups of workers.
also
However, it is
possible that minority workers who are threatened with job losses may see
..
4
the leg islation as a means of protecting their jobs, so that incidence of
usage of the legislation might increase in the recession with respect to
conditions attaching to job termination.
Similarly,
more minority workers will have their applications for jobs
turned down in the recession if only for the reason that there is more
c om pe t i t i o n f o r j obs g e ne ra l l y d u r i n g such pe r iods,
so that equ a l
opportunities applications relating to access to jobs may al so increase during
the recession.
On the employer side the costs of compliance are also likely to be
related to the level of economic activ ity, particularly where affirmative
action prov isions apply.
As Beller (12) points out, in the recession the
demand for labour and voluntary turnover w ill both decline, increasing the
costs of attaining any given target or quota for minority employment..
It is
obviously harder to raise the ratio of minority workers when there
fewer
new jobs to l::::e fill ed.
are
At the same time the reduced availability of jobs is
likely to make majo rity workers and unions more resistant to the hiring of
minority workers.
Thus firms are less likely to comply with the legislation
in pericds of recession when the costs of compliance are greater.
These costs
also depend on the expected costs of violating the law which are a function Qf
the penalties imposed for such v iolation multiplied by the probability of
detection.
Reasons cited above suggest that, overall, minority workers are likely to
l::e subj ected to greater instability of employment over the cycle than is the
case for majority workers. However,
an important factor that has an effect on
employment stability is the difference in employment distribution between
minority and majority workers.
Certain sectors are more prone to employment
instability th an is generally the case.
5
As the O.E.C.D. study (13) has noted, one factor which might operate in
favour of women's employment in the recession is that business downturns tend
to be more severe in manufacturing and construction industries than in the
service industries.
Since WC?Ekingwomen-ar-e,
il1_ many countries, relatively
more eoncentrated in the service industries than men, their overall employment
may be relatively less affected during recessions for this reason; thus,
during the U.S. recession from the fourth quarter of 1973 until the fourth
quarter of 1975 it is estimated that female employment would have been half a
million less had it not been for the concentration of women in the less
However, Urquhart (14) has noted that in sharp
cyclical service sector.
contrast to the employment record, the cyclical pattern of unemployment in
services is very similar to that of manufacturing..
This paradox is explained
by the fact that women tend to r e-enter the labour force in the recession to
maintain family incomes and this affect will be proportionately greater in
services because of the very fact of their relative growth and cyclical
insensitivity.
Thus it appears that within sectors women may fare worse than
men with respect to job loss, but this is offse t by their more favourable
distribution across sectors.
be changing over time.
As
Bowers (15) notes, the situation may however
In U.S. manufacturing industries as a whole the
relative employment impact on women has tended to increas
_ e steadily while that
on men has declined.
This may be a consequence of female employment gains in
manufacturing being concentrated in the m::> re cyclically sensitive industries.
The data by race are less ambiguous. Black workers in manufacturing, as
elsewhere, are more likely than whites to experience loss of employment in the
recession.
Thus in 1973-1975 16% of the employment loss in manufacturing was
l:orne by black workers, who in the previous peak had comprised only 11% of the
labour force.
all
Unfortunately we lack sufficiently detailed data to estimate at
precisely the probability of job loss for the various groups in the labour
6
market.
Methcdol03Y:
Based upon the adverse effects of recession on minorities and
women as outlined above, three hypotheses are tested in the light of empirical
evidence in the three countries.
These hypotheses are:
1)
Gross earnings dif f erntials between minorities and non-minorities,
and females and males are related to the state of the labour market, that is,
such differentials tend to widen during recessions and narrow during buyont
economic conditions.
2)
Employability of minorities and women is related to the state of the
labour market, that is, minorities and women are less employable during
recession than during prosperity.
3)
Minorities and women tend to have less propensity to utilize anti­
discrimination legislation during recession than during b uyont economic
conditions.
3a)
Type of EEO complaints by minorities and women are influenced by the
level of econanic activity.
In this study, models proposed in earlier studies have t:een utilized; and
whereas none of these studies extends beyond 1975 (and indeed in several of
them the data finish earlier), in this study data on earnings and unemployment
have been utilized for a very long peria:l, 31 years in some cases, and data up
to 1980 have been incl uded.
Since there are no time series of earnings or
incomes by race for Canada and Britain, analysis for these countries have of
necessity to l::e focussed upon the relative p::lSition of women, though race is
also considered where data are available such as with respect to unemployment
in Britain.
In the case of anti-discrimination legislation, the available data from
the three countries is analyzed.
·'
7
Empirical Evidence
1)
Gross Earnings Differential:
Earlier U.S. studies by Rasmussen (16)
covering a period up to 1964 , Masters (2} and Vroman (8}, both up to 1971
found that aggregate labour market tightness assisted the realtive earnings
position of minority workers.
Ashenfelter (17) found, in analyzing the 1950-
1966 data that while there was
no
clear evidence that aggregate lal:our ·market
tightness had an appreciable effect, relative extent of unemployment depressed
non-white earnings.
However, a further U.S. study by Freeman (1 8) over the
period 194 8-1975 produced rather mixed results.
Gunderson (19) in Canada
(194 6 to 1971 in Ontario) and Chiplin et al (20) in Britain (1949 to 1975)
cculd find no supr;:ort for the hypothesis.
analyz:ed based
on
data up to 1980
Relevant evidence was collected and
which provided" regression results for each
of the three countries using several of the models in the studies referred to
above (21) .
Ann outline of these results presented in Table 1 for the U.S.
suggests that there is no clear relationship between the gross earnings
differential and the state of the labour market.
For canada, using data by
sex only, the results show that there is supp::>r t for the hypothesis over the
pericd 1950 to 1964, but not
so
over the pericd 1965 - 1979 when women appear
to fare better in the recession.
there_ is
no
In Britain, also using data by sex only,
evidence to support the view that recession weakens the earnings
position of women relative to men.
In general then the evidence suggests that
slower economic growth and rising unemployment will not necessarily worsen the
earnings position of minority workers relative to that of white male employees
despite the fact that evidence from North America suggest that this may have
l:een
so
earlier in the p::>st-war pericd.
It should be re-emphasised that these
results are based on simple aggregate models and they do not tell us how far
the results have l:een influenced, for example, by changes in the structure of
employment.
8
If indeed the effect of the recession is to drive out of employment,
disproportionately,
low paid minority and female workers relative to
comparable white males the relative earnings of minority workers will rise in
a g gr e g at e.
Alternat i ve l y,
the e f f ects o f recession may
b e felt
disproportionately by w hite male w orkers if they have under normal
circumstances
an
undue share of overtime working or if women are sheltered
from short-time working because they are employed predominantly in service
occupations.
To the extent that either of these situations applies the
relative earnings position of minority or female employees may have improved
in the recession but members of these groups in employment will almost
certainly be worse off in absolute terms compared with periods of high
economic activity.
One would hardly therefore recommend slower growth and
higher unemployment as a means of improving the welfare of minority workers!
This emphasises tco the need to
examine
relative employment opportunities as
well as relative earnings.
2.
Relative Employability
·'
As
the level of economic activity declines we might expect the numl::er of
employees in employment to decline, the numl:er of unemployed to increase and
i;:ossibly labour force participation rates to dimish.
Here we are particularly
concerned to establish the extent to which minority workers are more adversely
affected in these respects than are mem.!:ers of the majority group.
Absolute unemployment rates for racial minorities are significantly
higher than those of white employees l:::oth in the U.S. and in Britain, and the
same is true for wanen in North America.
In the U.S. Gilman (22) found that standardizing for differences in
education, age, occupation, industry and region only accounted for about half
the racial differential in unemployment and he goes on to suggest that part of
the residual difference is to be explained by wage rigidities.
That is, if
9
employers are unable to satisfy their hiring preferences (which may in part be
themselves discriminatory) by offering lower wages to minority workersy
because either equality of opportunity or minimum wage laws apply, then we
would expect employment opportunities to decline more in the recession for
minority workers than for the majority.
The implication is, then, that a more
favourable position for minority workers within the labour market may be
bought at the cost of greater unemployment.
More recently Bergmann's simulation resuits (23) suggest that al::out half
the difference in unemployment rates between white women and white men in 1976
was due to a difference in demand deficiency rates between the two groups,
with the remainder being explained by the higher rates of separation from
employment of white women.
For black men and women a very high proportion of
the excess of their unemployment rates oover those of white males is to be
explained by a shortage of jobs in the areas in which they search.
In Britain there have been studies of even more immediate relevance to
the purpose of this paper.
A Home Office study of ethnic minorities (24)
found that 'the figures show unmistakably that when unemployment generally is
rising, the number of unemployed among ethnic minorities increase more rapidly
than in the case of the rest of the population.'
This result is not negated
by the difficulty in estimating accurate unemployment rates for ethnic
··
minorities in the absence of accurate figures of the size of the ethnic
minority i:opulation at work or seeking work.
The report notes that between
August 1979 and August 1980 the number of unemployed ethnic minority workers
rose by 48% compared with a 38% rise in the total number. unemployed.
Within
these figures it appears that West Indian men and Asian women are more
vulnerable to unemployment than are West Indian women and Asian men, who in
turn are more vulnera ble than whites (2 5) .
Reasons put forward for this
vulnera bility of ethnic minority workers to unemployment include, the
IO
concentration of ethnic minority workers in younger age groups, lack of
occupational skills and qualifications, their concentration in certain sectors
of employment, types of firm and occupation, and direct racial discrimination.
In particular they are over-represented in the declining manufacturing sector.
In the case of women Rubery and Tarling (7) note that there has been a
sharp reduction in female employment since 1979 accompanied by a rapid rise in
female unemployment rates beginning earlier, in 1976, {an increase of 150%
compared with 75% for men), and a decline in the participation rate of married
women between 1977 and 1979 which they attribute to the inability of married
women to re-enter the labour force subsequent to child birth.
regress the
annual
They proceed to
:i;:ercentage change in female employment on the percentage
change in total employment in the U.K. over the period 1960-1980.
In
manufacturing they find that the fluctuation in female employment is greater
than for men (26), but that there is no significant difference in other
employment sectors.
They report
a
similar result for the U.S. manufacturing
sector over the period 1971-197ff, where women are also subjec t to greater
-·
cyclical employment fluctuation in the finance sector.
In this study, the relationship between changes in employment and
unemployment for both racial minorities and women rela tive to majority
employees is
examined
by regression analysis and the results are rei:orted for
the three countries in tabl-e 2.
For the USA, it appears that employment is
subject to markedly greater swings for non-white males than is the case for
white males, but this is not the case for women in general, rela::.ive to men,
or for non-white females relative to non-white males.
These analyses cover
larger pericds than most earlier studies, 25 years in the case of the racial
analyses and 31 years in the case of the analyses by sex.
unemployment rather than levels were
Since changes in
examined these results are not
necessarily explained by differences in the propensity to register.
.
'
11
The results for Canada by sex are rather similar.
Examining changes in
employment and unemployment using ann ual data for the whole of Canada over the
period 1951-1980 and monthly data for Ontario over the period January 1953 to
Decem ber 1980 it appears that the cyclical amplitude of employment and
unemployment is less for women than it is for men.
As in
the U.S. there is no
significant time trend.
In the British regression analysis, the relative unemployment experience
of minority �rkers is �rsening over t:ime (27)
•
For women both quarterly data over the period 19.59 (3) to 1981 (3) and
annual data over the period 1950 to 1980 are in line with North American
findings.
That is, changes in both employment and unemployment are more
volatile for men than for women and there is no significant time trend.:. In
summary it appears that both in the U.S. and Britain non-white workers may
suffer disproportionately to white workers in terms of employment experience
when economic conditions worsen, but there is
no
clear evidence that this is
also true for women in any of the three. countries. examined,
(28).
In
addition, in each of the th ree countries, female larour force participation
rates have held up better than for men .
Examination o f unemployment rates as opposed t o changes in such rates
points clearly however to the absolute disadvantage of minority groups in t."le
workforce.
In the U.S.A. total unemployment reached a post-war peak in 1975,
in Canada in 1978 and in the U.K. in 1980 as far as the period analyzed is
concerned.
In the U.S.A. female unemployment rates J:oth ior white and black
and other workers consistently exceed their male equivalents.
In Canada male
unemployment was consistently higher than that of females up to 1968 but since
then the situation has been reversed.
In the U.K. female unemployment matched
that of males in the early 1950s, fell sharply relatively to that of males up
to the mid 1970s and has since risen.
Rising absolute levels of unemployment
12
for women and minor ity workers have implications for the use of equality of
opportunities legislation considered in the next sectione
(c}
Use of the legislation
Attempts
to
tes t the relationshi p between the
use
made
of
equa l
opportunities legislation and the level of economic activity ar e beset by data
problemse
In the U.S. the EEOC has changed the way in which the deta i led
statistics are reported; in Canada statistics are maintained separately by the
provincial Human Rights Commissions and are not always comparable;
while in
Britain the legislation has only recently be€n introduced which provides few
observations for time series analysis.
Beller (12) has, however, attempted to
asce rta in how far the effects of the enforcement of sex d iscr imination
prov isions
activ i ty .
in the U.S.A.
have be e n influenced by the level of economic
S pecifically, she f inds that women's e arn ings would have been
higher in 1974 and the sex differential smaller had the unemployment rate been
lower.
The downward influence of Title VII on male earnings would also have
been reduced had the unemployment rate been less.
Indeed, if the unemployment
rate can be ma inta ined at a suffici ently low level it a p pe ars from this
analys i s that leg islation is a relatively costless tool (as far as male
workers are concerned) for narrowing the sex differential in earnings.
Beller
proxies the prol::ability of detection if in violation of the law by the ratio
of the number of investigations of sex discrimination charges completed by the
EECC or by the state or local Fair Employment Commission to which a charge has
been deferred - to the number of women in each sta�e or class of worker.
She
a lso proxies the probab ili ty of pay ing a penalty by the ratio of successful
settlements of sex discr imination charges (successful conciliations plus
successful predecis ion settlements) to attempted settlements. It should l:e
noted that in these models incidence of the use of legislation is included as
an independent variable.
It could equally l:e argued that use of legislation
13
will itslef be influenced by. the state of the economy and hence appropri ate
estimating procedures for problems of simultaniety
squares) is required.
(such as two stage least
We make no attempt to construct an econometric model
such as that of Beller here, but simply analyze some relevant statistics on
the use of the legislation in each of the three countr ies including more
recent experience
(Belier's data ends in 1974 when unemployment was ·somewhat
lower than it is tcday).
The U.S. statistics on charges by basis of employment discrimination
(table 3) reveal a very rap id growth in number since 1967 , and a level of
activity far greater than in Canada and even more so than in the cas e of
Britain.
In the U.S. about half the number of cases concern race, and this
number is substantially greater than that relating to sex.
In Britain, too,
with its much smaller coloured pop.ilation, cases under the Race Relations Act
have exceeded those under the Sex Discrimination Act (table 5)_.
In canada in
contrast it appears on the basis of somewhat fragmentary evidence that cases
concerning sex and marital status discrimination are more common than those
relatin g
to· race,
colo u r,
n a tion al i ty
and
a n c e stry
(ta ble
4b).
Notwithstanding this it is clear that when allowance is made for the relative
sizes of the minority and female work ing populations in each of the three
countries that the probability of race rather than sex discrimination charges
is substantially greater.
Although discrimination complaints are nowhere near
as substantial in Canada (table 4a) as in the U.S.A. where the figure was
112, 700 in 1979 they comfortably exceed those in Britain.
In Ontario alone
(747 in 1980) complaints exceeded the British total in 1980. Indeed, the
infrequency with which recourse is had to the law is the most striking feature
of the British experience - the total of less than 700 cases in 1980 compared
with a total approaching
dismissal.
29, 000 with respect to allega tions of unf air
In the present state of knowledge it is difficult to say whether
14
the low utilization rate o f the legislation owes more to lac k of know ledge
concerning the rights of individuals, knowledge that prospects of a successful
outcome for the individual are rather low relative to other forms of employee
protection legislation, or a reaction to the depressed state of the labour
market and fear of retaliation by the employer.
It seems necessary, however, to examine types of charge brought forward
in relation to the level of economic activity.
Statistics for the U.S.A.
indicate there have been some substantial shifts in the proportions of types
o f c harge brought.
For exa m ple in 1967 there were slightly more cases
concerning hiring than discharge, while in 1980 when unemployment rates were
nearly twice as great as in 1967 there were nearly four times as many cases
relating to discharges as to hiring.
Of cour se in the recession there will J::e
fewer job hires and more job discharges, so these figures in themselves may
not tell us how the probability of charge J:::eing brought alters with economic
c ircumstances.
In addition, over the period 1973 to 1979 issues relating to
treatment within employment such as wages, promotion (though not demotion) ,
seniority, job c lassification and training and apprenticeship decreased in
significance, perhaps reflecting the importance attached to holding any job in
a period of rising unemployment, rather than the relative treatment of women
and minorities within jobs.
In Britain, too, both in the case of sex and race
applications, questions relating to dismissal or other unfavourable treatment
have increased in relative importance with respect to those relating to
recruitment and treatment within tha job.
Willingness to make use of legislative provisions will J:::e conditioned by
probability of success as well as by the general economic envirorunent..
In the
U.S.A. in an average year only about half the total charges made to the EEOC
are rec ommended for investigation.
Further, of the muc h sma ller number o f
completed c onciliations more are unsuccess ful than are suc cessful in a
15
majority of years.
In Ontario a
In Canada experience· seems to be varied.
high proportion of formal cases were settled over the period 1978 to 1980, but
the figure declined from 87% to 51% over this short period with an increasing
This is even more
pr<JFOrtion of cases dismissed or withdrawn.
Colum bia and Manito ba.
so
for British
Thus overall, the success rate appears to have
diminished in recent years in Canada.
·
In Britain 60% or more of sex
discrimination cases and 50% or more of race discrimination cases are settled
by conciliation or withdrawn before they come before an industrial triburial.
Of the remainder a tribunal is fo ur times more likely to dismiss a sex
discrimination case as to uphold it and the ratio is even higher in race
discrimination cases.
S urprising ly a quarter of
the B r i tish sex
discrimination cases are brought by men, who over the period analysed were
even less likely than women to have their application upheld by an industrial
tribunal.
Given the generally low pro bability of success of an aggrieved
wor.ker who has recourse to the law, we might anticipate that those in
employment will be particularly reluctant to bring forward their grievances
when economic conditions are depressed.
To
concl ude
this section there is
a
suggestion that
use of the
legislation is infl uenced by the general economic climate, particularly in
relation to the types of charges brought.
The hypothesis that changes in the
level of unemployment will infl uence the num ber of cases in the opposite
direction is not clearly substantiated by the admittedly fragmentary evidence
available.
O bviously much more research is required in this area before
firmer conclusions
4.
can
be drawn.
conclusions and !mplications
The effects of recession have been analysed in relation to three as-p:cts
of equality of opportunity in employment for racial minorities and women the gross earning differentials, relative employability and the propensity to
16
utilize the anti-discrimination legislation and machinery.
There is partial evidence that racial minorities are adversely affected
relatively to white workers in the recession, but
is also true for women.
no
clear evidence that this
Nevertheless, there is no doubt tl;lat the absolute
position of all groups deterioriates in the recession and this may have long­
run consequences that are detrimental both to m inority workers and women.
T h i s is l ikely to be the case where internal labour markets tend to exclude
workers with intermittant job experience from primary markets.
For women
there is the further problem that the micro-electronics revolution threatens
most those occupations where women predominate, such as those in off ices.. Thus
women' s favo urable occupational distribution in the past, f�vo urable that is
in so far as cushioning the effects of recession is concerned, may
no
longer
be so.
Gro w in g u n e m pl oyment al s o w o r s e n s t h e c l imate in w h i c h equal
opp::>rtunities policies
ar e
secondary importance.
implemented and may relegate them to matters of
Th is is particularly so where majority workers fear
·'
that minority workers and women pose a threat to their own jobs.
(29}
Adverse
economic circumstances may also be used as an argument against broadening the
legislation to allow, for instance, equal pay comparisons to J:e made for work
of equal value or for dissimilar jobs, to move the burden of proof away from
the c om plainant towards the defendant or to extend a f firmative ac t ion
prov i s i o n s
in
t h e legis la t io n.
In Br i ta in pol i tic ians have become
increasingly critical of the operation of the Equal Opi:ortunities Commission
and Commission for Rac ial Equality (30}.
Administration has announced
its
In the United States the Reagan
intention
to
shif t pol icy away from
a f f irmative action towards a case by case approach, that is more on British
and canadian lines (31).
Th us it may be the general climate of depressed
economic conditions rather than short-run changes in the level of unemployment
• •;
17
that :i;::ose the greatest threat to the relative position of minority workers and
wanen.
18
Footnotes
(1)
This paper is adapted from a larger study "The Challenge of Unemployment
to Equal Opportunities in The U.S.A., Canada and Britain," prepared for
presentation at the Sixth World Cong�ess of The International Industrial
Relations Association, in Kyoto, JaJ?8ll, Marctr-28-31, 19?�·
(2)
S.H. Ma.Ster-s, Black:.white Income Differences: Empirical. Studies and
Policy Implications, Academ ic Press, New Y ork, 1975.
(3)
Francine, D. Blau, Equal Pay in the Office, Lexington Books, Lexington,
Mass-. , 1977.
( 4)
Cynthia b. Lloyd and Beth T. N iemi, The Economics of Sex Differntials,
Columbia University Press, New York, 1979.
(5)
In the U.S.A. equal employment opportunity leg islation is ensh rined in
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as amended in 1972, while the
the Canadian equal employment
Equal Pay Act was passed in 1963.
p r o v i s ions a r e contained in the h uman ri g h ts s ta tu t e s in all
jurisdictions, federal and provincial.
App roximately 10 i;:ercent of the
labour force i s covered by federal statutes; the remaining 90% of the
work-force come under provincial jurisdiction. In Ontario, for instance,
the human rights commission was introduced in 1962 to administer the
human rights code of the same year. The cede consolidated the previously
existing Racial Discrimination legislation, first introduced in 1944, as
well as the Female Employees Fair Remuneration Act of 1951.
In Britain
the Equal Pay Act, introduced in 1970, became fully operational. at the
end of 1975, while the Sex Discrimination Act was passed in 1975, and the
Race relations Act in 1976._
-
�
.'
(6)
As P. M organ, "Short-term employment functions and the quasifixity
labour: a note11, Applied Economics, Vol. 12, 1980 points out, s ince a
substantial number of women are secondary workers female labour w ill
possess a lower degree of fixity than is the case for males and firms
will thus tend to invest less in their specific training. His empirical
results for U.K. manufacturing 1963 to 1976, using quarterly data show
significant differences, as i:osited, between the short-term . employment
output elasticities of men and women and those of manual females and non­
manual females.
( 7)
Jill Rubery and R. Tarling "women in the recession", a paper prepared for
the socialist Econanic Review Conference, September, 198L
(8)
W. Vroman, "Changes in Black Workers' Relative Earnings: Ev idence from
the 19601s11, in G. Von Furstenberg, Ann Horow itz and Bennett Harrison,
editors, Patterns of Racial Discrimination, VoL II "Employment and
Incanes11, Lexington Books, d.C. Heath and co. Lexington, Mass. 1974.
(9)
Comment on Vroman, ibid.
It is generally true that job mobil ity is
greater for younger than for older �rkers.
(10) Harish C. Jain and Peter J. Sloane, Equal Employment Issues: Race and
Sex Discrimination in the United States, canada and Britain, Praeger, New
York, 19 8 1 .
-
-�
--
19
(11) M. Reder, "The Theory of Occu patinal Wage Differentials," American
econanic Review, 65, Decernl:er, 1955.
(12) Andrea H. Beller, "The Ef feet of Economic Condi tioons on the Success of
An A p p l ication to the S e x
Equ al E m p loym e n t O p portu n i ty L aws:
Differential in Earnings", Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. LXII,
No. 3, August, 1980.
--
(13) The 1974-75 Recession and the Employment of wanen, O .E .C.D. , Paris 1976.
(14) Michael Urquhart, "The Services Industry:
Is it Recession Proof?"
Monthly Labour Review, Vol. 104, No.2� February 1981.
(15) Norman Bowers, ''Have Employment Patterns in Recessions Changed'?"
Labour Review, vol. 104, No.2, February 1981.
Monthly
(16) David w. Rasmussen, "A Note on the Relative Income of Non-white Men,
1948-1964", Quarterly Journal of Econanics, 84, February, 1970.
(17) O. Ashenfelter, "changes in Lai::our Market Discrimination over Time, The
Journal of Human Resources, 5, Fall, 1970.
-
(18) R.B. Fre eman, "Black Economic Progress after 1964� Who has Gained and
in S. Rosen, editor, Studies in Labour Markets, N.B.E.R.,
Why?"
University of Chicago Press, 1981.
(19) Morley Gunderson "Time Patterns of Male-Female Earnings Differentials,
Ontario 1946-71", Relations Industrielles/Industrial Relations, Vol. 31,
No.l, 1976.
(20) B. chi plin, M. curran and C.J. Parsley, "Relative Female Earnings in
Great Britain and the Impact of Legislation", in P.J. sloane (editor),
wanen and LcM Pay, Macmillan Press, 1980.
(21) Tables for each of the three countries s pecifying models used and
providing regression results are available on request fran the authors.
(22) H.J. Gilman, 'Economic Discrimination and Unemployment•,
Econanic Review, vol. 55, Decernl:er 1965.
Amer ican
(23) Barbara R. Bergmann, 'Discrimination and Unemployment•, in E. Malinvaud
and J.P. F ito u s s i, editors, Unemplo y me n t in W e s tern C o u n tri e s,
Proceedings of a Confer e n c e he ld by the Intern a ti o n a l Eco n o m i c
Association at Bischenberg, France, The Macmillan Press, London, 1980.
(24) S. F ield, G. Mair, T. Rees and P. Stevens, Ethnic Minor ities in Britain:
� Study of Trends in the Position since 1961, Home Office Research Study
No. 68, HMSO, 1981.
(25) It also appears that differences between minority and white unemployment
r a t e s are gre a ter for wome n than for men, w hile A s i an women's
unemployment rates are much higher than those for West Indian women from
abroad.
20
(26) However when a similar analysis was conducted at industry order levels
for U.K. manufacturing significant differences were found in only 5 out
of 14 order levels, empha sising the imp ortance o f o c c upatio nal
distribution.
(27) The ethnic unemployment minority data used in the British regressio n
analysis are different t o those used i n the U.S. and Canadian analysisa
Ethnic minority unemployment is measured as a p ercentage of total
unemployment. Hence a tendency for minority unemployment to increase
faster than that of the majority in the recession is in this case
reflected in· a coefficient on the majority
A. U explanatory variable > O
rather than > 1. The results over the period since 1971 when such data
first became available support earlier finding s that minority workers
will gain prq;::ortionately more from a recovery in economic activity than
white male and female workers, and suffer more correspondingly in a
period of declining economic activity. When a time trend is introduced
the AU term loses its significance, but the time trend is positively
significant.
(28) These results by sex differ from those of Rubery and Tarling for Britain
and the U.S.A. But there are differences in time peric:d, s ectors and the
employment variable analysed. Moreover, Rubery & Tarlirig reg.ress the
percentage change of female employment on the percentage change in total
employment rather than the percentage change in male employment.
(29) That there may well be substance in these fears is indicated by a recent
U.S. study by J.H. Grant and D.S. Hamermesh , 'Labour Market Competition
among Youths White Women and Others', The Review of Economics and
. Statistics, Vol. LXIII, No. 3, August 198L The1.r estlmates of white
female youth substitutability imply strongly that the growth in white
female labour force participation has harmed the earnings prospects of
young TM:>rkers.
(30)
In December 19.81 a Home Affairs Select Committee reported that the
commi:?sion for Racial Equality had an incoherent policy with a degree of
incompatibility between its functions as a law enforcement agency and a
promoter of racial harmony. It was suggested that promotional activities
should be de-emphasised. First Report of the Home Affairs Committee,
1981-81� Commission for Racial Equality, Vol. I, Report with Minutes of
Proceedings.
(31) Under the prq;::osed changes in the regulations governing the OFCCP with
regard to affirmative action programmes required of federal government
contractors, the size threshold of convered companies could l:e reduced
from its present level of $50,000 and 50 or more employees to $1 million
or more and 250 or more employees, effectively reducing the number o f
covered companies b y a quarter.
Also recovery of back pay or lost
promotion opportunities would be far more difficult since under the
proposed rules only identifiable victims would be eligible for a limited
period of time.
·'
.,
TABLE l
REGRESSION RESULTS FOR INCOME OR EARNINGS RATIOS BY RACE AND SEX, u.s.A,, CANADA AND BRITAIN
+1.31 +18.32 . 0.95
(5.20)
(4.33)
+0.62
(2,95)
0.88
0.84
2
R
0.86
0.94
0.80
-2
R
1.91
1.38
0.89
1.81
D.W.
26
26
26
26
N
D
+0.33
(0.95)
-7.45
(8.84)
0.81
Independent Variables
TT
TT
2
1
Dependent variable Constant 6GNP
+0.33
(0.44)
+1.11
(2.19)
-0.01
(0.18)
0.85
-
-0.49
(l.53)
+1.94
(1.81)
-0.82
(6.48)
+5.93
( 2.16)
t 1
Time Period
non-white/white
male income ratio
-1.24
(2.69)
+0.25
(0.98)
+0.48
(2 .04)
u
Country
48.88
non-white/white
female income ratio
-O.i4
(1. 26)
+0.06
(0.16)
Race
1953-80
64.8�
+1.59
(1.19)
--
U.S.A.
1955-80
female/male white
income ratio
(2 ;09)
+4.70
(1.92)
1. Males
u.s.A.
1955-80
-o. 75
60.15
2. Females
U. S.A.
53.87
Sex
3. Whites
female/male nonwhite income ratio
13
1955-80
0.68
u.s.A.
0.55
4. Non-whites
0.66
-0.0003
(0.09)
11
-0.38
(4.01)
2.06
-0.003
(0.39)
0.97
61.84
-2.75
(2.55)
0.98
ratio of female to
male hourly wages
+l.06
(9.46)
+l.50
(5.82)
-0.06
(0.18)
1950-64
-0.31
(6.38)
-0.46
(0.88)
31
Canada
55.36
+0.11
(0.70)
0.92
5. All Workers
62.12
0.90
1967-79
female/male hourly
earnings ratio
0.91
Canada
1950-80
-0.11
(1.92)
6. All Workers
Great
Britain
ratio of female to
male average wages
and salaries
7. All Workers
Key
t statistic in parentheses
For the USA income figures are median incomes of year round full-time workers in current dollars from US Department of Commerce,
�ureau of the Census Current Population Reports; For Canada average hourly earnings of wage earners 1960-64 (excluding 1961 and
1962 when no data were available) are taken from Earnings and Hours of Work in Manufacturing, 1960-69, Department of Labor, Ottowa,
Canada, and average wages and salaries for 1967-1979 (excluding 1968 and 1970) are taken from Earnings of Men and Women: Selected
Years 1967-79, Statistics Canada, Ottowa, December 1981; For Great Britain average hourly earnings are for manual workers, all
industries, October figures, taken from the Employment Gazette, Department of Employment; London.
ror the USA, GNP figures are in 1972 dollars from the Economic Report of the President; for Canada GNP is in constant 1971 dollars
Erom the Canadian Statistical Review Annual Supplement; for the UK, GNP is at factor cost, 1970 prices, taken from National Income
md Expenditure
�or the USA percentage unemployment is obtained from Employment and Earnings/household data; for Canada unemployment rates are fron
Jabor Force Statistics, OECD; for Britain unemployment rates are registered unemployment, annual averages, Employment Gazette.
inrl
1
from
1 Q70.
:or the USA, TT1 is a time trend taking the value of 1 in 1955 up to 9 in 1963 and TT 2 a time trend taking the value of 1 in 1964
•P to 17 in 1980; for Canada TT1 takes a value of 1 in 1950 up to 15 in 1964 and TT2 takes a value of 1 in 1967 up to 13 in 1979;
:or Britain TT1 takes a value of 1 for 1950 up to 20 in 1969 and TTz takes a value of 1 in 1970 up to 11 in 1980.
�or the USA D is a dummy variable taking the value of 0 prior to 1964 and thereafter; for Britain D takes a value of 0 up to 1969
•,
-
TABLE 2
REGRESSION RESULTS FOR CHANGES IN EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT BY RACE AND SEX - U.S.A., CANADA and BRITAIN
DeEendent Variable
0.33
(0.67)
+0.84
(13.13)
+l.46
(8.59)
Inde2endent Variables
l'iu .
Constant l'iE AJ
M
MAJ
+0.04· 0.90
(1.96)
+0.01 0.79
(0.39)
0.89
o. 77
R
1. 86 25
2.21 25
DW
·l. 37
(4.02)
0.52
(0.16)
+0.08
(1.10)
+0.26
(5.32)
+O. 76
(9.52)
+0.87
(22.60)
+0.05 0.51
(2.96)
0.40
+0.02 0.81
(0.10)
+0.15 0.96
(0.95)
0.48
0.39
o. 79
(j. 96
1.79 44
1. 42 44
2.06 25
2.03 25
"
1971-81
1.48
(4.67)
1. 60 31
1.61 44
0.62
2.25 31
0.37
+0.02 0.64
(0.75-)
0.87
1.84 30
0.38
-0.14 0.88
(0.87)
0.13
2.20 30
+0.35
(5.12)
male minority workers unemployment as 1. of total
·male ·unemployment
ii
1971-81
+0.03 0.19
(0.91)
0.65
2.26 31
female minority workers
1.91
unemployment as 7. of total (7 . 17)
female unemployment
+0.69
(14.31)
+0.15 0.67
(0.59)
0.03
1.80 44
+0.57
(2.12)
+0.75
(7.41)
+0.50 0.09
(1.55)
0.43
1. 71
(4.07)
"
Change in female
employment
2.05
(1.41)
II
1950-80
change in female
unemployment
2.81
(3. 84)
Canada
"
N
non-white male change
in employment
0 . 67
(2.14)
-2
19.55-80
non-white female change
in employment
-2.13
(0.93)
2
R
U.S.A.
1955-80
non-white male change
in unemployment
TT
Males
U. S.A.
1955-80
Time Period
l.
Females
U.S.A.
1955-80
Country
2.
Adult males
u.s.A.
Race
3
Adult females
Ii
Britain
Ii
Britain
4.
Males
"
Females
ii
"
change in female
employment
2,90
(0.64)
(0.69)
+o. 79
1. 83 31
+0.06 0.48
(2.34)
1951-80
change iri female
unemployment
-10. 62
(l.77)
0.30
+0.04
(0.26)
ii
change in female
employment
+0.87
(3.83)
= the change in unemployment for white or male workers
+0.13 0.35
(0.23)
1. 70
(6.33)
1950-80
u.s.A.
Britain
ii
II
n
+0.96
(6.76)
non-white female change
in unemployment
5.
6.
7.
8.
Ii
Sex
9. All females
10.
II
11. All females
12.
n
13. All females
14.
l'iU.MAJ
2.35
(0.22)
change in female
unemployment
Key t statistic in parentheses.
l'iE
= the change in employment for white or male workers.
M AJ
= time trend.
TT
·-------·-
TABLE 3
U . S .A.
DETAILED STATI STICS ON CHARGES BY BAS I S OF DISCRIMINATION
BASIS OF DISCRIMINATION
:FISCAL
RACE
YEAR
COLOUR
RELI G IO N
SEX
NATIONAL
ORIGIN
UNSPEClFI.ED
AND OTHER
NO
BAS I S
**
TOTAL
TOTAL NO .
OF CHARGES
ANALYSED
1 9 67
4786
13
169
2003
478
1063
N.S.
8512
N.S.
1 9 68
6650
N.S.
291
2410
721
1 1 00
N.S.
1 1172
N.S.
1 96 9
9562
N.S.
330
2689
1 0 93
797
N.S.
14471
N.S.
1 9 70
1180 6
N.S.
3 92
357 2
1032
978
N.S.
i 7780
N.S.
1971
15394
N.S.
677
5820
3043
3675
N.S.
28 609
N.S.
1 97 2
274 68
N.S.
1176
104 3 6
5321
2 9 30
N.S.
4 7 331
N.S.
1973
53732
1371
2255
3 3 965
12377
4146
N.S.
107846
N.S.
1974
62099
2738
27 7 1
3 9 28 9
1 1 6 64
3 7 90
N .S.
122351
508 7 9
1975
68487
2215
2252
4 1 65 0
1 47 15
244 2
1252 133313
577 7 9
1 9 7 6*
88262
274 2
3639
4 8 613
1 67 5 9
2048
1002 1 63065
. 72567
1977
84140
1889
2997
4 6 9 66
1 6 963
956
237 6 1 5 6287
74 951
1 97 8
53731
1069
1 943
30239
10882
N.S.
5 8 9 6 103 7 60
633 6 6
1979
54179
1324
6022
3 3026
11291
6858
N.S.
70886
*
1 12700
figures only provided far 15 month period have been scal ed do� to provide
an appro�riate comparison.
N.S.
Means i t em not separa tely categorised in that part icular year .
**
The data are broken down by basis and is sue of the charges recommend ed
for inve s ti gation, deferred for s tate or l o cal action, or returDed for
additional information .
charg e s ,
Sourc e :
Because there are multipl e bas es and issues for most
the totals vill not a�d up to the number of actionable charges .
Annual Reports of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commi ssion.
for 1 9 68 ,
1 969 and 1 9 7 0 were obtained from Arvil V . Adams
Data
' Toward
Fair Empl oyment and tbe EEO C ; A S tudy of Compl iance Proc edures under Titl e
VII of
the Civil Rights Act of 1 9 64 ' , Report submit ted to the Research
U . S . Equal Emp loyment Opportunity Commis s ion , �ashington D � C . ,
Divis ion,
undated .
I______ _
TABLE 4 (a )
1978
1977
1 97 6
1975
YEAR
174
176
i'e 2
141
ALBERTA*
379
238
3 73
442
BRITISH
COLUMBIA
97
82
73 .
86
MANITOBA
71
69
. 62
94
NEW
BRUNSWICK
-
-
181
1 64
382
482
182
-
These figures are Apr i l l i t to March 3 l n t
1980
1919
•
-
347
-
QUEBEC
568
-
638
70
�JS
ONTARIO
2.
l.
Rel igion o r Creed
Sex and Mar i ta l S t a tu s
Race , Colour , National i ty and Ances try
�04
197
2 180
1 69 6
No .
9 0
8 .2
4 .0
M .3
JI L 5
%
62 ....
526
318
FEDERAL
-
256**
SAsltATCltEWAN
FORMAL EMPLOYMENT D ISCRIHINATION COMPLAINTS IN SELECTED JURISDICTIONS IN CANADA 1 97 5 - 1 980
*
.
This figure covers t h e period Augu s t 7 th 1 97 9 to March J l n t 1 980
* * This f igure covers the per iod Apri l i s t 1 9 7 5 t o March 3 l b t 1 97 7
+
TABLE 4 (b )
J.
Age
��2
ioo . o
.
4919
EMPLOYMENT DISCRIHINATION BY PROHIBITED GROUNDS IN SELECTED PROVINCES * CANADA
4.
O ther
PROHIBITED GROUND
5.
TOTAL
1979
tchevan , Feb 1 9 7 3 -Au p,u s t
* Alberta 1975- 1 9 7 8 , Brl t l s h Co lumb lA 1 9 7 8- 1 9 8 0 , Mn n l toba 1 9 7 5- 1 9 8 0 , Onta r io i 9 7 9- 1 980 and Saska
_.J
-
TABLE 5
Period
Sex D i s c rimi n a t ion
O I SC R IMINATION APPL ICAT IONS - GREAT BRITAIN
E9ua1 Pal ·
59 . l
12. 1
12 . 2
16. 3
26 . 2
28.5
171
229
243
66 1
60 . 8
66 . 4
5 1 .0
8.3
8.9
8.2
7.4
9.9
30 . 4
2 5 .0
31 . 0
26 . 2
39 . 1
l 11 e t t le d by
Numb e r o f
conc i l i a t ion
% uph e l d
% d i smi s s ed
App l l c a t l on e and/o r w i th d rawn � t r i b una l by t ri b una l
1 , 742
Sl. 7
1 .0
178
61 . 3
l s e t t l e d by
N umb e r of
con c i l i a t ion
l u p he l d
% d h mh a e d
Appl i c a t i ons and/or w i thd rawn by t r i b un a l by t ri b u n a l
751
76 . 7
24 8
1 80
to 3 1 / 1 2 / 7 6
1977
34 3
4 .9
24 . 2
29 / 1 2 / 7 3
1978
70 . 3
4.4
39 . 9
256
64 . S
7.3
28.2
.
263
71.4
11 . l
. •
1 9 79
91
50 . 0
to "J0 / 6 / 79
426
364
146
.5 8 . 5
52 . 4
48. l
54 . 7
5.1
.5 . 2
16 . 0
3.4
36 . 4
42.4
35 . 7
4 1 .9
X d hmi ued
by t r i b un a l
t o 'J0 / 6 / 80
ll2
l s e t t l e d by
% uphe l d
conc i l i a t i on
.
Numb e r o f
App l i c a t lona and/o r w i thd rawn hl t r i b una l
54
••
1 9 80
1 9 8 1.
R a c e Re l a t lons
P e r iod
l /7/78
30/6/dt
'30/6/78
i / 1 / 79
to
1 3/6/77 to
1 / 7 / 80
Faculty of Bus ines s
McMas ter Univers i ty
WORKING PAPER SERIES
101 .
Torrance ,
George W . ,
"A Generali z ed Cost-effec tivenes s Model for the
Evaluation of Health Programs , " Novemb er ,
102 .
Isbes ter , A .
Fraser and Sandra C .
Cas tle ,
1970.
" Teachers and Co llective
Bargaining in Ontari o : A Means to What End ? " November ,
103 .
Thomas , Art hur L . ,
" Trans fer Pri ces o f the Multinational Firm : When
Will They be Arbi trary ? "
June ,
104 .
1971 .
( Reprinted from :
Abacus , Vo l .
7 , No .
S z endrovits ,
Andrew Z . ,
"An Economic Production Quan ti ty Mo del with
Holding Time and Cos t s of Work-in-process Inventory , " March ,
111 .
Basu ,
S. ,
1,
1971) .
" Investment Performanc e of
1974 .
Common S tocks in Relation t o
their Price-earnings Ratios : A Text o f the E f f i c ient Market
Hypo thes is , " March ,
112 .
Trus co t t , William G . ,
1975 .
" Some Dynami c Extens ions of a Dis crete Location­
Allocation P roblem , " March ,
113 .
Bas u ,
S.
and J . R . Hanna ,
1976 .
"Accounting for Changes in the General
Purchas ing P ower of Money :
The Impact on Financial S ta t ements o f
Canadian Corporations for the Period 1 9 6 7- 7 4 , " Ap ril 19 7 6 .
( Reprinted from Cos t and Management , January-February ,
114 .
Deal ,
K.R. ,
"Verification of the Theoreti cal Cons i s tency of a
Dif ferential Game in Advert i s ing , " March ,
114a .
Deal ,
K.R. ,
March ,
115 .
Adams ,
19 76) .
19 7 6 .
"Op timizing Advertising Expenditures in a Dynamic Duo p o ly , "
19 76 .
Roy J . ,
"The Canada-United S tates Lab our Link Under S t res s , "
[1976 ] .
11 6 .
Thomas , Arthur L . ,
"The Extended Appro ach to Joint- Cos t Allocation :
Relaxation o f Simplifying As sump tions , " June ,
11 7 .
Adams ,
Roy J .
and C . H .
in Wes t Germany :
S zendrovi t s ,
''Worker ' s Participati on in Management
Impact on the Work ,
Unions , " Sep tember ,
118 .
Rummel ,
Andrew Z . ,
1976 .
19 76 .
"A Comment on
the Ent erpris e and the Trade
:
' Op t imal and Sys t em M¥opic
P olicies for Multi-echelon Produc tion/ Inventory Ass emb ly Sys t ems ' , "
[1976 ] .
119 .
Meadows ,
Ian S . G . ,
"Organic S tructure and Innovation in Small Work
Groups , " Oc tober ,
1976 .
Continued on Page 2
•
•
.
- 2 -
120 .
Basu,
S. ,
"The E f f e c t o f Earnings Yield on As s es sments o f the
Ass o ciation B etween Annual Accounting Income Numbers and Security
Prices , " O c t ob e r ,
12L
Agarwal , Naresh C . ,
1976 .
"Labour Supply Behaviour of Marri e d Women - A
Model wi th P e rman ent and Transi tory Variab les , " Oc tober ,
12 2 .
Meadows ,
Ian S . G . ,
O c t ober ,
12 3 .
"Organic S tructure ,
Ban t ing , P eter M . ,
"Cus t omer Servi ce in Indu s t r ial Marketing : A
Journal o f Marke t ing , Vol .
Aivazian ,
V. ,
Augus t ,
Satis faction and P ersonali ty , "
1 9 76 .
Comparative S tudy , " O c tob er ,
124 .
19 76 .
19 7 6 .
10 , No .
( Reprinted from : Europ ean
Sunnne r , 1 9 7 6 ) .
3,
the Comp arative- S tatics o f As s e t Demand , "
"On
1976.
1 25 .
Aivazian , V . ,
12 6 .
S z endrovi t s ,
" Contamina tion by Risk Recons idered , " Octob er ,
Andrew z .
and George O . Wesolowsky ,
19 7 6 .
"Variat i on in
Op timizing S e rial Multi-S tate Produc tion/ Inventory Sys t ems ,
March ,
1 27 .
1977 .
Agarwal , Naresh C . ,
" S i ze-S tructure Relationship :
Elaboration , " Marc h ,
12 8 .
Jain , Haris h C . ,
"Minority Workers ,
the S t ructure o f Labour Market s
and Anti-Discriminat i on Le gislation , " March ,
12 9 .
Adams ,
Roy J . ,
130 .
Goul d , Lawrence I .
"Employer S o lidar i ty , " March ,
and S tanley N.
Laiken ,
Taxat ion and Inves tment Priori ties :
131 .
Callen ,
Jeffrey L . ,
132 .
Jain ,
Harish C . ,
Hayashi ,
Kichiro .
"The Ef fect o f Income
The RRSP , " March ,
1977 .
A Game-Theoretic
1977 .
"Race and Sex Dis crimination Legis lation in North
Ameri ca and Britain :
133 .
1977 .
19 7 7 .
" Financial Cos t Allocations :
Approach , " March ,
A Further
19 7 7 .
S ome Lessons for Canada , " May ,
1977 .
" Corporate Planning Practi ces in Japanese
Mul tinationals . " Accep t ed for publication in the Academy o f
Management Journal in 1 9 7 8 .
134 .
Jain , Harish C . , Neil Hood and S t eve Young ,
Personnel Policies in Mul ti-Nationals :
June ,
135 .
19 7 7 .
Aivazian , V .
and J . L .
Co s t o f Capi tal " ,
Callen ,
July ,
" Cro s s - Cultural Asp e c t s o f
A Cas e S tudy o f chrys ler UK" ,
"Inves tment , Market S tructure and the
19 7 7 .
Continued on Page 3
•
•
•
- 3 -
136 .
Adams ,
R. J . ,
October ,
13 7 .
Callen ,
" Canadian Indus trial Relations and the German Examp le " ,
1977 .
J.L. ,
"Production , E f f i c iency and Welfare in the U . S . Natural
Gas Transmi s sion Industry " ,
138 .
Richardson ,
October ,
19 7 7 .
A . W . and Wesolowsky , G . O . ,
" Co s t-Volume-Pr o f i t Analy s is
and the Value o f Information " , November ,
139 .
Jain , Harish C . ,
December ,
140 .
"Labour Market Prob lems o f Native People in Ontari o " ,
197 7 .
Gordon , M . J . and L . I .
eration " ,
141 .
January ,
Gordon , M . J .
Gould ,
"The Cos t o f Equi ty Cap i tal : A Reconsid­
1978 .
and L . I . Gould ,
"The Cos t o f Equi ty Cap i t al with Personal
Income Taxes and Flo tation Co s t s " ,
142 .
Adams ,
197 7 .
R.J . ,
January ,
" Dunlop Af t er Two Decades :
1978.
Systems Theory a s a Framework
For Organizing the Field of Indus trial Relations " ,
143 .
Agarwal , N . C .
Canada :
144 .
Jain ,
and Jain ,
H. C. ,
and Sloane ,
P.J. ,
February , 1 9 7 8 .
"Race ,
Sex and Minority Group Dis crimination
Legislation in North America and Britain " , March ,
14 5 .
Agarwal , N . C . ,
June ,
146 .
1978.
" A Labour Marke t Analysis o f Executive Earnings " ,
1978 .
Jain , H . C .
and Youn g , A . ,
"Racial Dis crimination in the U . K . Labo ur
Marke t : Theory and Eviden ce " , June ,
147 .
Yagil , J . ,
148 .
Jain , H . C . ,
19 7 8 .
" On Alterna tive Methods o f Treating Ris k , " S ep t emb er ,
"At t i tudes
toward Communication Sys tem :
Ros s ,
R. ,
1978 .
Gould , Lawrenc e I .
and S t anley N . Laiken ,
Gould , Lawrence I .
and S tanley N .
Under Share Redemp ti ons , " Decemb er ,
15 1 .
19 7 8 .
"Marke t ing Through , the Japanes e Dis tribution Sys t em" ,
November ,
15 0 .
1978.
A Comparison o f
Anglophone and Francophone Hospital Emp loyees , " S ep t emb er ,
149 .
1978.
" P ay Dis cr imination Agains t Women in
I s s ues and Policies " ,
H. C .
January ,
"Dividends vs .
Cap ital Gains
19 7 8 .
Laiken ,
"The Impac t o f General
Averaging on Income Realizat i on De cis ions : A Caveat on Tax
Deferral , " December ,
152 .
w
1978.
Jain , Hari sh C . , Jacques Normand and Rabindra N .
Kanungo ,
J
" ob Motivation
o f Canadian Anglophone and Francophone Hos p i tal Emp loyees , Ap ril ,
15 3 .
S t idsen , Bent ,
15 4 .
S z endrovi ts , A . Z .
" Communi cat ions Relat ions " , Apri l ,
and Drezner ,
Zvi ,
1979 .
1 9 79 .
" Op timizing N- S tage Production/
Invent ory Sys tems by Transporting Dif ferent Numbers o f Equal- S i z ed
Batches at Various S tages " , April ,
1979 .
Continued on Page 4 . . .
- 4 -
155 .
Trus c o t t , W . G . ,
"Allocation Analysis of a Dynamic Dis tribution
Problem" , June ,
156 .
Hanna ,
J . R. ,
15 7 .
Deal , K . R . ,
1979 .
"Measuring Capi tal and Income " ,
November ,
"Numerical So lution and Mul t iple S cenario Inves tigation o f
Linear Quadrat i c Dif ferential Game s " , Novemb e r ,
158 .
Hanna , J . R . ,
Adams ,
R. J . ,
Jain ,
H. C . ,
" Towards a More Competent Lab o r Forc e :
Wensley ,
1 9 80 .
A. ,
"The Efficiency of Canadian Foreign Exchange Marke ts " ,
February ,
1 98 0 .
162 .
Tihany i ,
E. ,
163 .
Meadows ,
I .S . ,
" The Market Valuation o f Deferred Taxes " , March ,
S z endrovit s ,
A.Z . ,
Laiken ,
S .N. ,
"The E f f e c t of Numbers of S tages on Mul ti-S tage
Love ,
R. F . ,
167 .
Jain , H . C . ,
168 .
Adams ,
" Disadvantaged Groups on the Labour Market " ,
" Training in Canadian Indus try :
Poli cy Implications " ,
169 ,
Joyner ,
R. C . ,
June ,
Love ,
R. F . ,
Abad ,
R. J . ,
October ,
1980 .
"An Op timal Con trol Approach t o Marke ting "- Produc tion
Oct ober ,
Abad , Prakash L . ,
Adams ,
Res earch Theory and
1980.
1 9 80 .
"Decentralized Planning With An J:nt erdep endent
Marketing-Production Sys tem" ,
173 .
1 9 80 .
"App lica tion o f Process Theories to Teaching Uns tructured
Prakash L . ,
Plannin g " ,
172.
May ,
" A S t opping Rul e for Facili ties Location Algorithms " ,
S ep t ember ,
171.
1980 .
1 9 80 .
Managerial Decis ion Making " , Augus t ,
170.
1980 .
"Hull Properties in Location Prob lems " , Apri l ,
R.J . ,
1980 .
" Current Act i on to Lower Future Taxes : General Averaging
and An t i c ipated Income Models " , April ,
166 .
I
1 980 .
Produc t ion/ Invent ory Models - An Empirical S tudy " , Ap ril ,
165 .
1 9 80 .
"Quality o f Working Life : P ro gres s , Problems and
Prospec ts " , March ,
164 .
A Training Levy
1979 .
"Management o f Human Resources and Produc tivity" ,
February ,
161 .
Problems
197 9 .
S cheme for Canada" , December ,
160.
1979 .
"Professional Ac count ing Education in Canada :
and Prospec t s " , Novemb er ,
15 9 .
19 79 .
Oc tober ,
1980 .
" Indus trial Relati ons Systems in Europe and North Amer ica" ,
1980.
Continued on Page 5
.
.
•
- 5 -
174.
Gaa ,
James C . ,
175 .
Adams ,
176 .
Love ,
" The Role o f Central Rulemaking In Corp o ra t e Financial
Rep orting" ,
February ,
Roy J . ,
1981 .
"A Theory of Employer At t i tudes and Behaviour Towards
Trade Unions In Wes t ern Europe and North America" ,
Rob ert F .
and Jsun Y . Won g ,
Evidence and Poli cies " ,
178.
Bas u ,
179 .
Bas u ,
June ,
s. ,
"Ri s k Information and Financial Leas e Dis closures :
Basu ,
Jun e ,
The
S ome
1 9 81 .
S . , "The Relationship be tween Earnings ' Yield , Market Value and
Return for NYSE C ommon S to cks :
18 1 .
Theories ,
1981 .
S . , "Market Reac tion to Accoun ting Po licy Delibera t i on :
Infla t ion Accounting Case Revis ited" , June , 1 9 8 1 .
Empirical Evidence" ,
180 .
1981 .
" Employment and Pay Dis crimina t ion in Canada :
Jain , Harish ,
1 98 1 .
"A 0-1 Linear Program To Minimize
Interaction Cos t In S cheduling" , May ,
177 .
February ,
Jain , H . C . ,
Further Evidence " ,
Sep t ember ,
19 8 1
"Race and S e x Dis crimination in Emp loyment i n Canada :
Theorie s ,. evidence and policies " , July 19 81 .
182 .
Jain , H . C . ,
" Cross Cultural Management of Human Resources and the
Multinational Corp orat i ons " , O c t ober 1 9 8 1 .
183 .
Meadows ,
Ian ,
"Work System Characteri st i cs and Emp loyee Responses :
An Exploratory S tudy " , O c t ober ,
18 4 .
Svi Drezner ,
1981 .
S z endrovi t s , Andrew Z . , We s olowsky , George 0 .
"Mul ti-s t age
Produ c t i on with Variable Lot S izes and Transp o rt at ion o f P artial Lots ,. ,
January ,
185 .
Bas u ,
S. ,
1982 .
"Re s idual Ris k ,
Firm S i z e and Returns
Some Emp irical Evidence " ,
February ,
for NY S E Common S to cks :
1982 .
186 .
Jain , Harish C . and Muthuchidambram , S . "The Ontario Human Rights Code :
An Analys is o f the Public Policy Through Selected Cases o f
Discriminat ion In Emp loyment " , March , 1 9 8 2 .
187 .
Lo ve Robert F . , Dowling ,
188 .
S teiner , G . ,
Norm Parame ters
Paul D . , "Ou timal Wei ghted Q,
P
For Facilities Layout Dis t ance Charac t eri z ations " , Apri l , 1 9 8 2 ,
" S ingle Machine Scheduling wi th Precedence Constraint s
of Dimens ion 2 " , June ,
189 .
To rrance , G . W .
1982 .
"Application Of Mul t i -At tribute Utility Theory To
Measure S o c ial Preferences For Health S ta t es " , June ,
1982 .
- 6 -
190 .
Adams ,
Roy J . ,
April ,
19 1 .
" Competing Paradigms in Indus trial Relations " ,
19 8 2 .
Callen , J . L . ,
Kwan ,
C . C .Y . ,
Exchange Marke t s :
Spectral Analy s is . "
192 .
Kwan , C . C .Y . ,
and Yip ,
P . C .Y . ,
"Efficiency o f Foreign
An Empirical S tudy U s ing Maximum Entropy
July , 1 9 8 2 .
"Port folio Analysis Using S ingle Index , Multi-Index ,
A Unif i ed Treatment . "
July , 1 9 8 2
and Cons t ant Correlation Models :
19 3 .
Ros e ,
Joseph B . ,
Dispute" ,
194 .
"The Building Trades
S ep t emb er ,
Gould , Lawrence I . ,
=
Canadian Lab our Congress
19 82
and Laiken ,
S tanley N . ,
"Inves tment Considerations
in a Depreciat ion-Base d Tax Shelter : A Comparative Approach " .
Novembe r 19 8 2 .
195 .
Gould , Lawrence I . ,
and Laiken , S tanley N . ,
"An Analysis o f
Multi-Period After-Tax Rates o f Return o n Inves tment 1 1 •
Novemb er 19 82 .
196 .
Gould , Lawrence I . ,
and Laiken ,
S tanley N . ,
"Effects o f the
Inve s tment Income Deduct ion on the Comparison o f Inves tment
Returns " .
19 7 .
G.
Novemb er 19 82 .
John Miltenbur g ,
o f I t ems " ,
"Al locating a Replenishment Order Among a Family
January 1 9 8 3·.
Elko J . Kleins chmidt and Rob ert G .
Cooper ,
"The Imp ac t of Export
S trategy on Export S al es Performance " . · January 19 8 3 .
199 .
Elko J . Kleinschmidt ,
"Explanat o ry Factors in the Exp o rt P erfo rmance
o f Canadian Electroni cs Firms :
An Empirical Analysis " .
January 1 9 8 3 .
"Growth Patt erns of Public Sector Unions " ,
February 19 8 3 .
200 .
J o s eph B .
Ro se ,
201 .
Adams ,
J. ,
202.
J ack S . K .
20 3 .
N . P . Archer , "Efficiency , Effec tiveness and Pro f i tab il i ty :
Interaction Model " , May 1 9 8 3 .
204 .
Harish Jain and Victor Murray , "Why The Human Resources Management
R.
"The Uno r gani ze d :
A Ris ing
!o rce ? " ,
Ap ril 19 8 3 .
Chang , "Op tion Pricing - Valuing Derived Claims in
Incomp lete S ecurity Markets " , April 19 8 3 .
An
Funct ion Fails " , June 19 8 3 .
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