Degrees of Continuity Comparing Procedural and Serial Story

Degrees of Continuity
Comparing Procedural and Serial Story Continuity in Television Animation
A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the Animation Department
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Fine Arts
Savannah College of Art and Design
By
Dana Elizabeth Corrigan
Savannah Georgia
March 2011
Table of Contents
Abstract
1
Introduction
2
Chapter 1: Previous Studies on Story Continuity in Televised Animation
5
1.1 Scholastic Animation Publications
1.2 Literature Reflecting on the Developmental Process of Popular Shows
1.3 Objective Research Pertaining to the Target Audience’s Response to Continuity
5
7
9
Chapter 2: Methodology
2.1 Defining Key Terms
2.2 Direct Observation of Serial and Procedural Television Programs
2.3 Internet Search Methods
2.4 Assessment of Interviews with Industry Professionals
2.5 Professional Reviews on Animated Programs that Comment on the Story
2.6 Informal Discussions with Television Enthusiasts
2.7 The General Public’s Reaction to a Series’ Story Continuity
2.8 Visual Component as Documentation of Developing an Animated Series
2.9 Limitations
Chapter 3: The History of Serialization
11
11
12
13
14
16
17
18
18
19
21
3.1 Presenting a Story in Installments from Writing to Film
3.2 Serialization in Television
3.3 Overabundance of Commercialization in Televised Animation During the 1980s
3.4 The Children’s Television Act Puts an End to Commercial-Based Cartoons
3.5 American Television Industry Influenced by Anime’s Surge in Popularity
3.6 Heavy Censorship and ‘Americanization’
3.7 The Restoration of Classic Cartoon Shows
3.8 Contemporary Animation
21
22
22
25
26
27
29
30
Chapter 4: Comparing the Benefits and Risks of Procedurals and Serials
33
4.1 Procedural
4.1.1 Advantages
4.1.1a Procedurals are more flexible than serials
4.1.1b Viewers can leave and come back without missing plot points
4.1.1c Procedurals are less risky for studios
4.1.1d Programs that benefit most from the procedural format
4.1.2 Disadvantages
4.1.2a Formulaic nature of procedurals make them predictable
4.1.2b Suspension of Disbelief/Discontinuity
4.1.2c Quick introduction and resolution of conflict derives shallow storytelling
4.1.2d Viewers may lose interest if there’s no intellectual stimulation
4.2 Serial
4.2.1 Advantages
4.2.1a The series has its own dramatic structure
4.2.1b Viewer commitment
4.2.1c Longevity: Fan Support Extends the Life of a Series
4.2.1d Programs that benefit from a serial format
4.2.2 Disadvantages
4.2.2a Plot must be thoroughly planned during preproduction
4.2.2b Creators must be aware of pacing in series along with each episode
33
33
33
35
37
38
39
39
41
42
43
43
43
43
44
46
47
48
48
49
4.2.2c costly in time and preproduction makes serials a risky investment
4.2.2d Viewers won’t overlook mistakes as easily with serials
4.2.2e Cannot always account for unexpected changes
4.3 Combining Elements of Serial and Procedural Continuity
4.3.1 Fillers
4.3.2 Procedural Beginning/Epic Ending
4.3.3 Serial Introduction
4.3.4 Threaded Plot, Isolated stories lasting more than one episode
4.3.5 Padded Plot, Revealing story in small increments
Conclusion
Appendix I: Visual Component
A.1 Statement of Purpose
A.2 Target Audience
A.3 Synopsis
A.4 Outline of the Plot for the Pilot Episode
A.5 Examine the Challenges of Writing a Serial Plot
A.6 Pitch Package
A.6.1 Proposal
A.6.2 DVD
A.7 Proposal Book
Figures
References
Articles
Definitions
General Information
Interviews
Literature
Public Speeches
Reviews
49
50
50
54
55
56
57
57
58
60
62
62
63
64
66
67
68
68
68
69
95
103
103
106
107
111
112
114
114
Abstract
This thesis will compare Epic and Episodic story continuity in television
animation. The term continuity will be used to describe the story structure of a series on
a per-episode and per-season basis.
Research will be conducted by studying various television series. With
information gathered, this thesis will compare patterns in series with different levels of
continuity.
Continuity will be measured by five factors: Character Consistency, Story
Consistency, Character Development, Story Development and Degree of Commitment
(How much dedication is required from the viewer to enjoy the series)
Continuity will be measured as a spectrum, with Epic and Episodic as the
extremes. Epic describes a series as one large story, with each episode being like a page
of a book, and each season a chapter. Episodic describes a series where episodes are
treated independently from each other.
The thesis project is a pilot for an action-adventure animated series, which boasts
an Epic continuity. The story takes place in a steam-punk medieval world, and has a
theme of fate vs. free will.
The animation will be hand-drawn in Flash and composited in 3D environments.
Preproduction is complete. 3D models are in progress and will be finished by Winter
2011. Animation, ink and paint are in progress and will be completed by March 2011.
Compositing, editing and sound are integrated throughout the production process.
Ultimately, the knowledge acquired by both the paper and the project will be used
to develop and promote an original animated series.
1
Introduction
The purpose of this thesis is to examine narrative structure in televised animation.
The term narrative structure refers primarily to story continuity across episodes, and to
what degree each installment connects. Serial and procedural programs oppose each
other in their approach to continuity. The former treats each episode as a chapter of a
long tale, while the latter views each installment as its own self-contained short story.
This study compares procedurals and serials as points of reference, in order to examine
the benefits and risks of either extreme and how elements of both can be combined.
The relevance of continuity in an animated program is not always apparent.
However, close investigation reveals that poorly planned narrative can damage the
content and disengage the audience. There is little in the literature that directly attends to
this need for dramatic structure between episodes. What little there is, addresses the issue
in conjunction with other research, and seldom studied for its own merit. The intent of
this paper is to examine the reasons behind the degree of continuity used for various
programs, as well as to determine if either approach significantly influences the show’s
success.
This study consists of two components, theoretical and practical. The theoretical
element reviews the process studios undertake in story development. First using current
and historical examples, procedurals and serials are scrutinized to ascertain how they
impact success. Applying the knowledge from the research into the decision-making
process of developing an original series is imperative in order to give young creators a
means of comparing their own ideas. The second constituent reflects the development of
the pitch package and pilot episode of a series titled Fate Saga. A copy of the pitch
2
package, including a proposal book and production material that was presented during
Fate Saga’s official pitch to Warner Brothers, was included as appendices. A fully
animated trailer and the current state of the pilot episode can be found on the included
DVD.
The study’s first chapter is devoted to a summary of current literature relating to
continuity. Although most books barely talk about narrative structure across episodes by
itself, many refer to important points of consideration when deciding how to tell the
story. This thesis examines each text and scrutinizes the tone for any underlying
preference towards procedurals or serials.
The second chapter involves thoroughly defining the key words used in this
research. In opposition to the previous section that reviews publications that takes a
supposedly objective approach to their research, this part inspects openly subjective
articles such as reviews and interviews. This thesis analyzes opposing viewpoints to add
three-dimensionality to the study and takes into account indisputable information – such
as events that directly correlate to the resurrection or destruction of a series. The case
studies are merely referred to in this section, and later discussed in detail in the following
two chapters.
In the third section, the history of serialization is reviewed. The chapter starts
with literature and later integrating with television and finally animation. It is important
to understand the original motivation of telling a story in installments and its change over
time to determine what approach may be most efficient now. The study concludes with
the state of animation and serialization today, and its expansion from television to other
mediums. Using Nancy Spears, the executive producer of the non-theatrical department
3
of Warner Brothers as a primary resource 1 , this thesis reviews the famous company’s
future in direct-to-video movies and the multimedia.
The fourth chapter employs the information gathered in the previous sections as
filters to break down the benefits and risks to procedural and serial narrative. Using
historical examples of successful and failed projects, this study scrutinizes the prior
research to determine how the narrative structure played into the story’s reception. The
section concludes with examples of programs that use elements of episodic and epic
continuity to achieve the benefits of both.
Chapter five is a re-evaluation of the concepts and dramatic structure’s
importance in the animation industry. The study concludes with the statement that there
is no perfect way to tell a story, and rather it is imperative to consider continuity in
conjunction with other factors. A determined target audience along with the overall
story, tone, message, and outside influences are necessary before considering the proper
degree of continuity.
Ultimately, this thesis seeks to provide a reference for creating an original
animated series. It is the intent for both professional and student animators to use this
research scholastically, to help decide the narrative structure for their projects.
1
Nancy Spears came to Savannah College of Art and Design to give advice to students and review pitches.
On March 10, 2011, she attended the Sequential Art class, The Pitch, and explained what Warner Brothers
looked for in a program and their plans for the future. On March 11, 2011, Fate Saga was officially
pitched to Warner Brothers. The presentation was well-received though whether or not the series will be
recruited into the studio is yet to be determined by the conclusion of this paper.
4
Chapter 1: Previous Studies on Story Continuity in Televised Animation
Introduction
This section will examine literature that relates to story continuity in television.
Little in-depth literature or literature devoted entirely to the topic exist. However,
publications exist that briefly mention, or relate other topics to the subject of continuity.
The majority of these involve documentation by television scriptwriters about the process
of writing for a series.
1.1 Scholastic Animation Publications
Two notable publications that offer practical insight into animation are Jean Ann
Wright’s Animation Writing and Development (2005) and Jeffrey Scott’s How to Write
for Animation (2003).
Jean Anne Wright’s work is renowned for its literary approach to animation
scholarship. Her corpus includes articles for the notable website, Animation World
Network, and her 2005 publication, Animation Writing and Development 2 . Wright’s
writing draws from her experience in the capacities of assistant animator (HannaBarbera) and pre-production consulting for writing, design, storyboards, casting and
voice-overs (Barnes and Noble Online, 2011). She describes story continuity and
character development as factors that contribute more to some programs than others,
depending on the genre and demographic. In her study, she explains “…differences in
the length of your story make a difference in the complexity and style. …structure may
2
She has another book published called Voice Acting for Animators (2009). The book is a notable
contribution to the subject of voice acting, but is irrelevant for the topic of continuity.
5
get in the way of gags. Generally, action/adventure shows require more plot than gagdriven comedy shows. Prime-time animated shows generally use a sitcom structure with
more clever dialogue and less action.” (Wright 2005, pg. 111)
Wright’s book rarely mentions the subject of continuity, however when she does,
it is in conjunction with another topic. For example, during an overview of the needs of
different age groups, she characterizes thirteen-year-olds as preferring “characters with
more depth, but they will still watch some of the more classic cartoon characters with
edge like Bugs Bunny, Garfield and the Simpsons. Most girls have outgrown animation
long before thirteen, and many boys have outgrown most cartoons by now as well.”
(Wright 2005, pg. 53-54)
Jeffrey Scott’s practical approach, as reflected in How to Write for Animation
(2003), draws from his experience gained from work produced for children’s television.
Although Scott’s book barely mentions continuity, his preference for procedurals reflects
in his writing. He advises readers to develop and submit scripts for procedurals already
in syndication as the most reliable way of breaking into the industry. Scott’s examples,
such as Looney Tunes and Toy Story, are predominantly self-contained stories.
However, Scott’s publication does address the difference between a complex and
cartoony character, though neither are addressed in terms of continuity. Instead, he
describes them in terms of motivation. Scott states that realistic characters have a
contrast between needs and wants, while a cartoony character’s wants and needs are the
same.
“With respect to characters, need is usually represented as something the
characters requires in order to become a better person. For example, an alcoholic needs
6
to be sober; a greedy person needs to learn to be more giving. Want is usually expressed
as something the character desires, which he thinks will make him happier. In fact, it is
always the need which, if fulfilled, will truly make the character happier… Cartoon
characters, unlike real characters, do not necessarily have a conflict between their needs
and wants. Take Wile E. Coyote again. He wants only one thing- the roadrunner. The
thing he needs is brains, but this is simply an excuse to create humor, not a real character
flaw that is going to be explored.” (Scott 2003, pg 146.)
Ultimately, neither Scott nor Wright talk in-depth about continuity outside of the
scope of a single episode. It was necessary to interpret their literature and piece together
what little information regarding narrative structure they had, to evaluate any potential
bias they had towards or against serialization.
1.2 Literature Reflecting on the Developmental Process of Popular Shows
This section reviews publications that focus on the developmental process of
successful programs from the perspective of the creators. The research is informed by
interviews the author had with those involved.
Allen Neuwirth’s Makin’ Toons: Inside the Most Popular Animated TV Shows
and Movies (2003) analyzes the preproduction, pitch and developmental process of
lucrative programs. His methodology involves interviews with famous creators such as
Genndy Tartakovsky 3 and John Kricfalusi 4 . The book gives insight into the unique
3
Genndy Tartakovsky is the creator of Dexter’s Laboratory, Samurai Jack, Sym-Bionic Titan, directed Star
Wars: The Clone Wars and helped to produce The Powerpuff Girls, amongst other achievements.
4
John Kricfalusi is known for his tendency to insert adult material in his cartoons. His work includes Ren
and Stimpy, The New Adventures of Beany and Cecil and Mighty Mouse
7
development of each series, and creator’s reflections of their work reveal what factors
they consider as contributors to their program’s success. Often the creators determine the
success to be the visual aesthetic, premise or characters. For example, Eric Radomski’s
recount of the success of Batman: The Animated Series focuses almost entirely on the
Noir-inspired aesthetic and general dark tone of the series (Neuwirth 2003, pg 125). John
Kricfalusi’s Ren and Stimpy’s success was considered a surprise by some critics, and was
attributed to its uniqueness. Neuwirth states,
“The Ren and Stimpy Show begot a number of television trends. For one
thing, it was the first animated series made for TV that gave director and story
credit at the head of each cartoon. Now it’s commonplace to see, but back then, it
was considered revolutionary. For another, you never saw that much grotesquerie
on the tube before…Kricfalusi also adored messing with the visual continuity of
the story...” (pg 62)
Although continuity is rarely taken into account, an earlier chapter the book does
describe “long-form, more dramatic cartoon shows, such as Justice League and Batman”
as being programs where “structure and storytelling are paramount-absolutely
necessitating a strong script.” (pg. 94)
Neuwirth’s study compels this paper to acknowledge that story continuity is one
of many determining factors of a series’ success. Consequently, while researching
successful and unsuccessful programs, it was imperative to use only shows that had
strong evidence that the reasons for its ratings correlated to its narrative structure.
Magazine articles and video footage containing interviews, both formal and
informal, also contribute to this study and will be further discussed in the next chapter.
8
1.3 Objective Research pertaining to the Target Audience’s Response to Continuity
Demographics are a topic of consideration for dramatic structure because different
age groups and gender have different needs and expectations. One method of storytelling
may work for one group but not for another. Consequently, it was imperative to review
prior research done for the viewer’s reaction to a program’s storytelling.
Two significant publications that direct their research to the teenage audience is
Glyn Davis and Kay Dickinson’s Teen TV (2004) and Sharon Marie Ross and Louisa
Ellen Stein’s Teen Television (2008). Both corpus gauge the success of notable programs
and examine factors that contribute to that achievement (Ross & Stein; Davis &
Dickinson; Clifford, Gunter & McAleer). Ross and Stein also investigate fandom as its
own entity, to explore how viewer fanaticism can influence a series. Fanaticism as it
relates to continuity is briefly reviewed later in this study.
Teen Television is comprised of essays divided into three sections; industry
perspective, cultural context, and fandom. The book describes the complexities and
darker nature of storytelling in teen-directed series. The studies favor serial format due to
the importance of multifaceted interpersonal relationships amongst the cast, and the
social repercussions of the characters’ actions over a span of episodes and seasons. In
opposition to Neuwirth, Ross and Stein’s research reflects only the standpoint of the
viewers, and is detached from the development and creative decisions behind the series.
Davis and Dickinson adopt a similar essay-based structure as Ross and Stein.
Their study examines the messages in teen-oriented programs and how they are
9
interpreted by their target audience. The book also favors serialization as an integral part
of developing relationships within the cast.
Story continuity was seldom the subject of discussion with either study. Instead,
they examine dramatic structure within each series’ description. While both case studies
only reference live action programs, their emphasis on story and character development is
equally applicable to animation.
Television and Children: Program Evaluation, Comprehension and Impact, by
Brian R. Clifford, Barric Gunther and Jill McAleer (1995) give scientific research on how
children of different ages retain information they see on television. The authors examine
data derived from scientific experiments performed on control groups of children. The
information used for the experiment is divided into factual knowledge, story-based
knowledge and how much attention the children give to the display. The experiment uses
live action, news broadcasts and cartoons, and compares the results to develop a
hypothesis on how different age groups respond to continuity in media.
Conclusion
Although the case studies present considerations for story continuity, none of
them address procedural or serial narrative directly. Consequently, the next chapter will
cover other research obtained for direct comparison for serial and procedural continuity.
10
Chapter 2: Methodology
Introduction
This study takes a qualitative instead of quantitative approach due to the time and
financial constraints of this Thesis. Television programs with varying degrees of
continuity are reviewed as a primary source. Documented interviews with industry
professionals are examined to obtain intimate information regarding the intentions and
decisions made during a series’ development. Casual interviews are directed with
television enthusiasts to discuss trends in narrative. The research reviews articles
pertaining to the serialization, regardless of its subjectivity. However, conflicting
evidence for any subjective data is sought for a means of comparison. Finally, the
research is informed by the first hand experience of developing the visual component.
2.1 Defining Key Terms
Continuity is defined by the New Concise Webster’s Dictionary as an
“uninterrupted advance or succession; dramatic sequence, the oneness of plot and
action.” (Webster & Teall, p. 68). The term was first used in Cinematography in 1921, to
describe the importance of keeping the shots appearing in a continuous, chronological
sequence (Continuity, 2010). While continuity can be used to describe physical or story
consistency in an episode, this thesis focuses on story continuity through the series.
In live action, the two extremes in narrative continuity are described as
“procedural” and “serial” programming. See Figure 2.1 and 2.2 for charts that outline
serial and procedural characteristics. The term “procedural” describes a program where a
problem is introduced and resolved within the same episode. Characterizations of
11
procedural episodes include a lack of character development, ending each installment the
way they began and the ability to be watched in any order without missing important
information. See Figure 2.3 for examples of procedural series.
The term “serial” describes a series as one large story broken down into smaller
installments. Each episode, season and the entire series has its own dramatic structure.
Television serial programs tend to have a higher level of character development, plot
twists, mature themes such as death and betrayal and delve deeper into the minds and
motivations of the characters. See Figure 2.4 for examples of serial programs.
This study occasionally references shows that have both procedural and serial
elements. However, the focus of this research compares the two extremes, and addresses
alternative narrative structures thoroughly in Chapter 4.
2.2 Direct Observation of Serial and Procedural Television Programs
This study examines the story continuity of chosen television programs as a
primary resource. The research reviews series with predominantly procedural or serial
structure, as well as shows that demonstrate characteristics of both. It is relevant to
reference both successful and unsuccessful examples, to determine commonalities in their
storytelling and viewer responses. Success is determined by the series’ length and
popularity in combination with reviews. 5
This thesis references successful serials, which include Gargoyles (1994), Avatar:
The Last Airbender (2005), Full Metal Alchemist (2004) and Naruto (2002), along with
5
This thesis recognizes that length is not the only determining factor in a series’ success because some
serials have a predetermined length regardless of its popularity. However, famous programs can generate
spin-offs and transgress to other mediums, which can lengthen the lifespan of the story beyond the creator’s
original intent. Thus, this study acknowledges length as a possible, but not only, contributing factor of
success.
12
successful procedurals such as Scooby Doo (1969), Spongebob Squarepants (1999),
Looney Tunes (1930) and Family Guy (1998). Notable programs that contain varying
degrees of continuity include Teen Titans (2003), Batman: The Animated Series (1992),
ReBoot (1994), GI Joe (1985) and Transformers (1984). Beast Machines (1996) and
Heroes (2006) are as case studies of problematic serials, while House (2004) and Captain
N (1989) are used to examine potential problems with procedural continuity.
2.3 Internet Search Methods
Advancements of technology have made it easier to acquire sources through
online journals, websites and videos. This section will refer to the many web sources
used as references and as portals to other, more dependable studies.
Although Wikipedia does not make for a reliable resource, it is a useful portal in
locating a wealth of related information. The site provides links to the sources used in
their descriptions, which connect to trustworthy documents.
This thesis compares articles pertaining to the history of serialization to confirm
the source’s reliability. The information is pieced together to inform the later chapters of
this study. Notable articles include Brattin’s article Dickens and Serial Publication
(2003), Butler’s The Museum of Broadcast Communications (2011), Dirk’s review of
both Film History Before 1920 (2010a) and Serial Films (2010b) and Stephen’s History
of Television (2000). Dictionaries both online and published are used by this thesis as
references for defining terms readers of this thesis may not be familiar with.
TVTropes.org is used as a reference for jargon, called “tropes”, occasionally used
in this thesis. The tropes cover all forms of storytelling, including video games, live
13
action, cartoons and literature. Tropes describe terms created from pop culture to label
common archetypes in storytelling. TVTropes defines the terms, using examples from
many applicable stories and allows viewers to contribute information.
2.4 Assessment of Interviews with Industry Professionals
This section refers to interviews with the creators of television series that cover
the topic of continuity. Sources from both live action and animation are used for
research, as their experiences are equally relevant.
In order to incorporate viewer responses to the study, this thesis examines literary
and video documentations of informal interviews held between creators and fans during
conventions. 6 Conventions referenced include Dragon Con 7 , San Diego Comic Con 8 and
New York Comic Con 9 . During the events, viewers tend to ask spontaneous, intimate
questions about the specifics of the creator’s decisions, which derive candid answers.
The documented interviews chosen as reference for this Thesis include two
separate interrogations with the creators of Avatar: The Last Airbender, Bryan Konietzko
and Michael DiMartino. One discussion is conducted in a casual atmosphere at a ComicCon panel, where fans of Avatar: The Last Airbender ask questions. Unable to witness
6
Conventions are assemblies of people meeting for a common purpose. This study uses “conventions” to
refer to annual events that focus on comics, cartoons, science fiction, video games and anime. Often, the
events span across the length of three to five days and are located in convention centers or hotels
throughout the world. Often, industry professionals will attend conventions to promote their work and
engage with the fans.
7
Dragon Con is a four day annual convention launched in 1987 and held in Atlanta, Georgia over Labor
Day weekend. Dragon Con appeals to fans of science fiction, fantasy, cartoons and video games.
8
San Diego Comic Con is an International annual convention which started in 1970. The four day event is
held during the summer and includes comic books, science fiction, fantasy and animation. It boasts one of
the largest organized fan-driven events.
9
New York Comic Con began in 2006. Due to its massive size and popularity, the convention attracts
famous artists such as Stan Lee, Frank Miller and Kevin Smith.
14
the interview first hand, this study uses a combination of YouTube videos along with a
summary of the interview recorded by Tony Ireland Mell. The Comic-Con interview is
chosen for its direct interaction between the creators and the audience.
The second interview is conducted in a more professional atmosphere, and
focuses on Avatar: The Last Airbender’s spin-off work-in-progress, Legend of Korra.
Christopher John Farley from Speakeasy Today directs the interview. The discussion is
an account of the creative process of developing a new program based on a previously
established serial. The case study reviews how the creators handled the anticipation of
predicting that Nickelodeon would be requesting more episodes for a series that ended
during the height of its success. The website allowed for reader comments, which will be
referenced later this chapter.
Walko from Titantower.com documents teen Titan’s producer Glen Murakami’s
candid reflection of the series. (Walko, 2006) Although the interview style consists of
the professional question and answer structure, Murakami’s answers are candid and
explain his intentions and decisions for the series. He also reveals the disappointments
and directions he wanted to take Teen Titans but was unable to because of time,
demographic or continuity constraints. The discussion was an important addition to the
Thesis due to the recurring theme of story and continuity.
New York Comic Con’s interview with GI Joe’s creator, Larry Hama along with
Gerard Gilbert’s interview with Law and Order’s creator Dick Wolf both boast the
benefits of a Procedural story structure. (Pulpsecret, 2008 and Gilbert, 2009) Both
creators claim satisfaction with their series’ continuity, with Wolf praising procedural
programming as “economic storytelling.” (Gilbert, 2009)
15
2.5 Professional Reviews on Animated Programs that Comment on the Story
This thesis incorporates critiques from third parties in order to determine how
viewers unfamiliar with the intentions of the creator responded. Both positive and
negative evaluations are sought to render the opinions more credible and remove
potential bias. Only those that mention continuity, even briefly, are considered.
Dramatic structure is not the only reason a series may succeed for fail. However, other
reasons behind a program’s ratings are not pertinent to this study.
Reviews selected for this Thesis include Disney’s Gargoyles conducted by
UltimateDisney.com. The review was chosen for its detailed breakdown and critique of
Gargoyle’s continuity and narrative structure as well as its viewer support and historical
contrast with other cartoons in Disney’s line-up. Although the review held some
criticism, the fact that it was written by UltimateDisney.com automatically implies bias
towards the series. Reviews conducted by unbiased third parties were sought as means of
comparison, including Doug Walker’s video review (Walker, D., 2009a).
Philip Stephen’s review of Avatar: The Last Airbender is used in conjunction with
the interviews to compare the creator’s intentions with the fans’ and critics’ reactions.
The set up for the review website allowed for anonymous reader comments, which were
examined briefly for samples of consenting and dissenting views on Avatar: The Last
Airbender from the general public.
Beast Machines is a serial program that is a spin-off of its successful predecessor,
Beast Wars. Despite the original’s popularity, the spin-off’s story received mixed
responses. Three reviews are examined for Beast Machines. Two heavily criticize the
16
slow and dark narrative and one praises it. The negative reviews help to point out where
serials can falter, and the positive review is included in acknowledgement of the
subjective nature of the research and demonstrates where Beast Machines succeeded.
Reviews for the children’s television cartoon, Captain N, exemplify how a weak
continuity becomes detrimental. Doug Walker and Drucker’s IGN article (Walker 2009b
and Drucker 2007) conduct the two Captain N’s reviews.
2.6 Informal Discussions with Television Enthusiasts
This thesis took a qualative instead of quantitive approach regarding which
programs to use as case studies. The amount of time and resources allotted for
scrutinizing the story structure of different series is finite. In order to inform the research
method of directly watching and documenting the story continuity of chosen series,
casual interviews were conducted with Ben Badger and Mark Dmuchowski.
Badger and Dmuchowski both held separate panels at Metrocon 2010, leading
round table discussions and comparing American and Japanese animated series - current
and historical. The initial meetings are held in person after their respective panels, while
the interviews were later done over email to give more time to figure questions and allow
time for their answers.
The objective of the discussions was to find samples of animated series that
would benefit the research. Through Badger and Dmuchowski’s counsel, the research
opened to include notable European and Canadian programs that also had recognition in
the United States, such as Total Drama Island.
17
2.7 The General Public’s Reaction to a Series’ Story Continuity
Casual reader comments on review and interview sites represent the standpoint of
the average watcher. Some websites do not require the user to register with the site in
order to submit responses. Consequently, there was a higher level of candid remarks due
to the lack of accountability and the degree of anonymity. Viewers come from varying
backgrounds and age groups, and their familiarity with the website and the critiqued
series was their only commonality. Including their comments in the research allows this
study to get a glimpse into the casual watcher’s opinion of various programs.
Fanaticism is a means of evaluating serial and procedural continuity in terms of
audience reactions. Enthralled viewers can become involved in a community based on
that series. This study compares research of fandom conducted by Sharon Marie Ross
and Louisa Ellen Stein (2008) with documented examples of viewer commitment.
However, fanaticism is an extreme form of subjective opinion. Consequently, the only
fanatical contributions this thesis references are those that had the most relatable
consequences. For example, the revitalization of ReBoot and the Gargoyles’ fan
conventions, which are further discussed in Chapter 4. (Giardina, 2007; Rainmaker
Animation, 2007; Reboot Revival, 2010; Gargoyles, 2004; Gargoyles, 2005)
2.8 Visual Component as Documentation of Developing an Animated Series
The practical element uses the information obtained from research in the
development of an original animated series. The Appendix will explain the process and
challenges as well as provide the resulting pitch package.
18
2.9 Limitations
The objective of this research was to determine continuity’s influence over a
series’ level of success, to gauge its importance in the developmental process. Due to the
subjective nature of storytelling, it is essential to examine as many opinions from varying
sources as possible. Series’ creators have the benefit of an intimate recount of all
considerations and decisions made for a program – many of which the public will never
know about. However, they have a natural bias that renders it important to also consider
more objective sources. While the series’ length is a telling factor, it is also important to
review networks, television viewers, critics and examine data regarding the number of
viewers watching programs across time.
Due to constraints with time and finances, it is impossible to undertake every task
originally desired for this thesis. This paper was constructed in accordance to the partial
fulfillment of the Master of Fine Arts degree, and had to be completed during a finite
length of time. Direct access to primary sources was limited to speakers such as Bill
Plympton and Merrill Hagan, who presented at Savannah College of Art and Design.
Consequently, this study takes a qualative instead of quantative approach to selecting the
television shows used as reference. The research briefly reviews a broad range of
programs as means of comparison, and narrows the focus to examples which best
demonstrate the key points of the argument.
As a result of the subjective nature of the study, opposing viewpoints are sought
to ensure the three-dimensionality and objectivity of the discussion. This thesis combines
19
the subjective elements in conjunction with facts such as the series’ length and history 10
to inform the research.
Conclusion
Storytelling in animated television programs has been an area of little prior
research. Comparisons between procedural and serial storytelling have primarily been
subjective, with little data other than personal opinion. This thesis seeks to objectify the
study by acknowledging and comparing dissenting opinions, information and prior
research from manifold sources.
10
This includes undisputable events such as the cancellation or renewal of a series.
20
Chapter 3: The History of Serialization
This chapter reviews the background of continuous narrative. It begins with
serialization in literature and follows with film and television. This section explores the
original motivations behind serialization and reflects how they developed across time.
The Online Dictionary for Library and Information Science describes a serial as
“a publication in any medium under the same title in a succession of discrete
parts, usually numbered (or dated) and appearing at regular or irregular intervals
with no predetermined conclusion. In AACR2 2002, serials are classified as a
type of continuing resource. Serial publications include print periodicals and
newspapers, electronic magazines and journals, annuals (reports, yearbooks, etc.),
continuing directories, proceedings and transactions, and numbered monographic
series cataloged separately. When serials split, merge, or are absorbed, a title
change may occur” (Reitz, 2004).
3.1 Presenting a Story in Installments from Writing to Film
The concept of telling a long story in short installments started in the 18th century,
when novels first appeared in magazines as serial publications. 11 Serial storytelling made
its first transition to film in 1912, with Edison Company’s What Happened to Mary? The
serial films were large stories broken down into 12-15 episode segments. Most
installments were 15-20 minutes and were included with other short films, news and
11
In the 18th century, novels were Most of Charles Dicken’s novels were first published in a serial format.
Back then, it was cheaper and easier for novels to be published as a serial, because the audience could
purchase a monthly magazine for one shilling, instead of purchasing the entire novel for 21 shillings. The
magazine also allowed for advertising, and the cheaper costs made it more widely affordable and, thus,
brought more readers. Charles Dickens wrote each installment of his novel carefully, keeping in mind the
needs of his serial readers and those who would later read the books in volume form. (Brattin, 2003)
21
cartoons preceding the feature film. Serials often contained a simplistic, melodramatic
action story which would end in a cliffhanger, prompting the viewer to buy the ticket and
come back to see what will happen next (Dirks, 2010a).
3.2 Serialization in Television
The first televised serials were soap operas adapted from radio networks 12 , along
with movies aired in installments. However, serialized storytelling in television began
with the famous sitcom I Love Lucy. While sitcoms are currently considered procedural,
in the 1950’s they introduced the concept of “sustaining a familiar set of characters week
after week” (Stephens, 2000). 13
The earliest cartoons on American television were theatrical shorts, due to the
price of producing new animation. However, in the late 1950’s Hanna-Barbera
introduced cost-efficient means of animating 14 . Their contribution to the industry
brought popularity and feasibility to cartoons. Hanna-Barbera’s sitcom, The Flintstones,
was the first animation placed in a primetime time slot (Butler, 2011).
3.3 Overabundance of Commercialization in Televised Animation during the 1980s
Merchandising was realized as a monetary route for animation since Disney’s first
feature length film, Snow White. However, it was Star Wars that informed producers of
12
Guiding Light premiered as the first soap opera on radio in 1937, and later transferred to television. The
series continued until September 18, 2009, making it the longest drama played out (Warta, 2006).
13
The success of I Love Lucy began the trend of maintaining a consistent cast of characters in a television
show (Stephens, 2000). Although I Love Lucy is a procedural sitcom, it was one of the first steps in the
direction of serialization.
14
Hanna-Barbera’s time and cost saving style, which they called ‘planned animation’, allowed cartoons to
be made with the limited television budgets. As a result, Hanna-Barbera is considered to be the father of
television cartoons.
22
the value of merchandise (Furniss, 2008). 15 As a result, new cartoons began to focus on
marketing value and planned their stories accordingly. The narrative structure of
animated programs revolved around a large cast of characters and focused the story on
those whose toys were currently in production. The 1980s became known for using serial
television as an extended commercial (Butler, 2011).
The toy company Hasbro produced cartoons based off their products, and
marketing had a direct correlation to the plot development. 16 As companies develop new
sets of toys, new characters would be introduced in the show and older characters, no
longer relevant for the story, were abruptly killed. In fact, the 1986 Transformers movie
dramatically killed most of the cast, on both the side of the heroes and villains. The
action figures for the established characters had already been purchased, and they wanted
to introduce an entire new lineup of heroes and villains for children to buy (Teletranan,
2010). 17
Another similar example was Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. Originally, the
turtles starred in an underground comic book series created by Kevin Eastman and Peter
Laird. Despite the growing fame of the Ninja Turtles, marketing them to toy companies
like Playmates was a difficult process. Playmates was uncomfortable with the idea of
15
George Lucas pre-empted the power of merchandising when he sacrificed a percentage of his payment as
the director in favor of a higher percentage in merchandise revenue. It ultimately earned him far more
money than anyone would have expected at the time (Furniss, 2008). According to Gary Kurtz, who
worked with Lucas during the original films, upon realizing the marketing potential of Star Wars, Lucas
began to alter the plot of his films in accordance to what he believed would instigate more toy sales
(Boucher 2010).
16
The first few episodes of popular programs from the 80s and 90s, such as Transformers, Street Sharks
and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles would be set up as a serial in order to introduce the characters and story.
The rest of the plot was procedural.
17
Although released later, G.I. Joe was intended to begin the trend by removing the main villain and
incapacitating their protagonist, Duke. According to G.I. Joe writer Buzz Dixon, Duke was supposed to die
in the movie and be replaced by a new character whose toy was newly released. However, they deviated
from the original script and refrained from killing Duke due to the backlash caused by the death of
Transformer’s protagonist, Optimus Prime (White).
23
making a toy line for a gritty comic series, especially during a time period when action
figures were not popular. Eventually, Playmates accepted under the condition that they
would develop an animated series with it. The show did not follow the comic’s story,
and instead catered to the toy line which funded it (McGill, 1988; Simpson, 1990). 18
Trendsetting series such as Pokemon and Power Rangers would inspire the
development of other programs which would follow the formula of the original success.
Digimon and Monster Rancher followed Pokemon, while Power Rangers led to the
development of VR Troopers and Beetleborgs. The troll doll marketing trend inspired
Stone Protectors (1993), designed to market an action figure version of the trolls to boys.
It was unsuccessful, met with much criticism and was, ultimately, short lived (Josh,
2010). Trend-following programs often had stories which were restricted to follow the
rules of the formula established by the trend.
Writers for toy-based animated programs struggle to balance advertising with
decent plot development. Some programs such as G.I. Joe (1985) kept to a
predominantly procedural structure while others, such as Beast Wars, try to account for
the cast changes while maintaining a serial elements (Powers, 1988). As GI Joe creator
Larry Hama expresses in his interview during New York Comic Con 2008, procedural
storytelling is efficient for merchandise-based cartoons because viewers learn not to have
expectations for the story, characters or what will happen next. 19
18
In 2003, a new Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles animated series was created by 4Kids and Mirage Studios.
The new series followed the dark, original comic books more closely and boasted similar fame in sales of
video games, toys and other merchandise. According to Eric Goldman, Nickelodeon acquired the rights to
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and is currently developing a third animated series for it. Nickelodeon is
working with Playmate Toys in anticipation of releasing a toy line with the show. (Goldman, 2009)
19
While working on GI Joe, Hama was handed the action figure designs and assigned to try and create
stories for these characters in order to increase their appeal – and marketability – to children. He expressed
during the interview that he would be given the character’s look, stats and status in the team by Hasbro and
would create a story using that character.
24
On the other hand, Beast Wars struggled with the sometimes abrupt changes to
the cast ordered by Hasbro. Due to the CGI design of the series and the difficulty
maintaining and animating each character, each new addition to the cast (and,
subsequently, the toy line) meant that an old character had to leave. Two of the series’
major characters had to be removed in short notice, to the disappointment and
aggravation of both the writers and the fans. The writers later pre-empted the changes by
writing character deaths into the script to open slots for new additions (Powers, 1998). 20
3.4 The Children’s Television Act puts an end to Commercial-Based Cartoons
In 1990, parental disapproval with the quality of television programming directed
to children compelled Congress to pass “The Children’s Television Act.” The law
obligates shows aimed at a young audience to be educational and informational, and
limits the amount of commercialization to “10.5 minutes per hour on weekends and 12
minutes per hour on weekdays.” (Federal Communications Commission 2010)
Forcibly turned away from commercialized storytelling, television animation
began to aim towards comedy. Animaniacs (1993), Tiny Toon Adventures (1990),
Spongebob Squarepants, Rugrats (1991) and The Tick (1994) were some of the wellknown children’s cartoons from that era. Cartoons also began to have an adult undertone,
such as Ren and Stimpy (1991), Rocko’s Modern Life (1993), Simpsons, King of the Hill
According to Hama, he never used foreshadowing or previews because he never knew how
anything he was writing was going to end. By remaining in the moment, and refusing to look ahead, Hama
could better incorporate Hasbro’s requests without disturbing the plot he had going on. He felt that if he
was working towards a specific ending, the writing would then feel contrived and forced. He preferred to
place the characters in terrible situations and figure out how they would escape once they were in it
(PulpSecret, 2008).
20
To better incorporate anticipatory changes to the cast while giving one of their most well developed and
popular characters a deserving death, the writers at Mainframe wrote the character Dinobot’s death into the
script as a major event, before Hasbro had even ordered his removal. Code of Hero remains as one of the
most well known and well respected episodes in Beast Wars (Powers, 1998)
25
(1997), Family Guy and Futurama (1999). Many of the comedies emulate sitcoms and
rely on gags, jokes and witty dialogue instead of story or character development.
The 90s also began to introduce darker, dramatic cartoons, which held a more
continuous narrative. Some of the programs that leaned towards serial continuity were
cartoons based on the well known Marvel and DC comic books - Spider-Man (1994), XMen: The Animated Series (1992), Batman: The Animated Series (1992), Batman Beyond
(1999) and later Justice League (2001). Along with the comic book-inspired programs,
Disney’s original drama series, Gargoyles, surfaced in 1994 21 .
3.5 American Television Industry Influenced by Anime’s Surge in Popularity
Along with other cartoons produced in America during the 90s, anime 22 also
gained popularity and presented animation as a viable means of serialized storytelling.
While anime had bouts of popularity in America with Osamu Tezuka’s Astro Boy and
Tatsuo Yoshida’s Speed Racer, it was Akira’s widely successful release in American
theaters in 1988-1989 that adults were introduced as a possible target audience. (Speed
Racer, 2008) Akira was later followed by the success of Pokemon (1997), Dragon Ball Z
(1989) and Sailor Moon (1992). Pokemon targets to both genders, Dragon Ball Z aims at
boys and Sailor Moon markets to girls (The popularity of Anime in America, 2009).
The three programs contain different combinations of procedural and serial story
elements. Each season of Pokemon revolves around Ash fighting different gym leaders
and winning badges. Each episode has its own self-contained story, along with a plot
21
According to Ultimate Disney, when Gargoyles entered the Disney afternoon lineup in 1994, it was the
company’s first foray into animated serial narrative. Gargoyles’ intricate story and character development
existed not only with the main cast of heroes, but even the villains and side characters (Gargoyles, 2005).
22
Anime is the short name for Japanese Animation. Often anime refers to Japanese titles that have been
subtitled or dubbed with an English audio track and aired for American viewers.
26
thread that weaves through the duration of the season. Dragon Ball Z’s story structure is
nearly an extreme serial. The end of one episode indicates the beginning of the next,
though each season’s dramatic structure follows a specific formula which renders it more
predictable than most serials. 23 Sailor Moon’s story set up consists of procedural
episodes, with small elements of a serial story which would slowly weave throughout the
season and end with several episodes of serial, dramatic narrative. Their blends of serial
and procedural narrative will be discussed thoroughly in the next chapter.
3.6 Heavy Censorship and ‘Americanization’ of Anime
During the 80s and 90s, despite its popularity and gaining attraction to older
viewers, anime was heavily ‘Americanized’. 24 Plots containing a semi-continuous
narrative, such as Voltron (1984) and Battle of the Planets (1978), were dissected by
censors until the story made no sense at all. For example, Japan’s Gatchaman (1972)
was presented in America twice, as Battle of the Planets and G-Force (1986). According
to BBC Online, Battle of the Planets censored anything that was not considered suitable
for a young, North American audience or used dialogue to reinterpret the visuals.
“No deaths. When the program was re-edited, it was made clear that no-one was
to die. So, during seemingly deadly attacks, 7-Zark-7 would add in reassuring
comments. While it may look like a bunch of villains have had their throats
removed by Mark's flying dart, 7-Zark-7's soothing tones will point out that ‘the
23
Every season of Dragon Ball Z has the same format; A powerful evil arrives, the main hero is unable to
attend the fight for the first half of the battle and the rest of the cast have to survive until the hero returns.
24
Censorship is stricter in America than in Japan. American programs had to pass through the censors in
order to be shown on television, but because Japanese programs were already finished by the time they
reached the West, dubbing companies such as Funimation and 4Kids had to make changes to the visuals
and dialogue in order to sugarcoat or remove material that parents would find offensive for their children to
watch.
27
sound of Mark's sonic boomerang caused slight, temporary concussions among
the enemy - but they will be up again shortly’” (BBC Online, 2005).
Although Akira is famous as one of the first anime to attract the attention of adult
American viewers, it was the introduction of Sailor Moon and Dragon Ball Z that
made networks aware of adults as a demographic for television and recognize the
importance of withdrawing the censorship to preserve the original story. However,
easing censorship was not possible during the conventional timeframes children would be
expected to watch television, which inspired Cartoon Network to air anime with less
censorship during later timeslots.
In 1997, Cartoon Network created a time slot specifically for anime and other
action/adventure cartoons, called Toonami (Toonami, 2006). Toonami still adhered to
standard censorship, as it was aired during a time children would be expected to watch
television. However, since 1994 the station had been experimenting with airing ageappropriate animation during later timeslots, which eventually gained popularity and
became what is now known as Adult Swim. (The History of Adult Swim, 2010). Adult
Swim allows for more adult-oriented programs such as the procedurals Space Ghost:
Coast to Coast (1994), Aqua Teen Hunger Force (2000), Sealab 2021 (2000), Harvey
Birdman (2000), Home Movies (1999), Family Guy (1998) and Robot Chicken (2005),
and the serials Gundam Wing (1995), Blue Gender (1999), Cowboy Bebop (1998), Tenchi
Muyo (1992), Outlaw Star (1998), Full Metal Alchemist (2003), Bleach (2004) and Soul
Eater (2008) to receive televised spotlight.
28
3.7 The Restoration of Classic Cartoon Shows
Currently, some of the most famous cartoons of the 80s and 90s are being reimagined to revitalize the franchise, including Ninja Turtles, Garfield and GI Joe. Some
programs, such as Transformers Armada, Cybertron, Robots in Disguise, Beast Wars,
Beast Machines and Animate are either reinterpretations or spin-offs of the original 80s
cartoon. Some newer adaptations retell the story of founding series, placing the
characters in an alternate universe or changing major plot points to take the series in a
new direction. X-Men: The Animated Series (1992) followed the comic books the most
faithfully. X-Men Evolution (2000) has the same cast and references some of the major
plot points from the original comics, but takes place in a high school with a teenage
incarnation of the main cast. Wolverine and the X-Men (2008) assumes that the viewers
already know about the X-Men and the main characters and places the viewers directly
into the plot.
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and Transformers: Animated both acknowledge
their older, original series within their stories. Although Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles
was a retelling of the comic, it had a special that combined the new continuity with the
old series from the 1980s. Beast Wars was meant to take place centuries after the
original Transformers: Generation One. Transformers: Animated was an alternate
universe from either Beast Wars or the original Transformers: Generation One, but
brought in characters from both, such as the original Transformer’s Omega Supreme,
Ultra Magnus and Optimus Prime with Beast Wars’ Black Arachnia. Transformers:
Animated also recreated some of the interpersonal character bonds from the original
29
series such as Megatron and Starscream’s volatile commander and subordinate
relationship.
The creator’s decision to increase the level of continuity in the newer productions
while tying elements of the newer series with the old entices audiences who had watched
the originals, keeping in mind that those viewers have aged since then. Thus, their target
audience is both viewers who are new to the story and older fans of the original.
3.8 Contemporary Animation
Although television remains a popular medium and the multitude of new channels
such as G4 25 and the Hubb 26 allow for special interest viewing, other avenues such as
direct-to-home movies, multimedia platforms and the internet are integrating into the
future of animated programs.
The first direct-to-video film released is the virtually unknown horror Blood Cult
(1985). Disney has reaped the benefits of the direct-to-home movie industry since their
sequel to Aladdin, The Return of Jafar (1994). However, until recently films that bypass
the movie theater endure the stigma of being judged as low quality, with the marketing
often costing more than the production. Currently, a surge of successful video releases
such as The Animatrix (2003) and Warner Brother’s DC videos have encouraged some
respect from the viewers and the medium remains strong. Video rentals are transferring
to the internet, and the recent integration of social networks into the process have made
the avenue even more promising.
25
G4 is a channel devoted to video games.
The Hubb is Hasbro’s new station, which features cartoons directed to younger children based off of the
company’s property such as Transformers and My Little Pony
26
30
In early March, WB made a deal with Facebook to allow their audience to rent
and watch movies through the social network. 27 Viewers can pay three dollars to watch
the movie as often as they want for two days. Nancy Spears, the Executive Director,
Content Acquisitions and Product Manager of Warner Brothers, came to the Savannah
College of Art and Design campus in order to review pitches and give advice to the
students. She stated the company was interested in stories and ideas involving
multimedia platforms such as the iPhone, online games and short episodes, which would
allow for a “soft launch?” 28
Along with corporations utilizing the internet, the cheap and available resources
also allow for amateurs to have a means to present themselves and their work. Jeffrey
Scott predicted the internet as the next direction for storytelling in his 2003 scholastic
publication, How to Write for Animation.
“Although it’s virgin territory and, as of this writing, unmapped and in a constant
state of flux, it seems pretty clear that animation on the Internet is going to be booming
over the next several years. Thus, there may be opportunities to get in on the ground
floor of animation writing by doing some spec toons for the Internet...” (Scott 2003, pg.
184)
Since then, many popular cartoon and comics websites have developed. Some
websites allow any artists to post their material such as Newgrounds, YouTube and
DeviantART. Others have hosted their own original material and obtained fame through
27
Nancy Spears mentioned the news during her visit to Savannah College of Art and Design. However, the
information is also documented in Cohren’s 2011 article, Warner Brothers Now Renting Movies on
Facebook (Cohren 2011).
28
The term “soft launch” in this paper pertains to a less expensive, smaller-scale release of a new product
to a more limited audience. In opposition to the “hard launch,” soft launches have generally less funds
dedicated to promoting the material and are used as a testing ground to see how the product does before
spending the time and resources in marketing.
31
it, including Bitey Castle (2010), Penny Arcade (1998), Red vs. Blue (2004) and
Homestar Runner (2000). The internet provides a cheap way for young artists to present
their work to the world without enduring the process of getting it published or approved.
Most successful online programs are short films with duration of roughly five
minutes. The stories tend to have varying degrees of continuity, keeping a consistent cast
and occasional story elements while still maintaining an otherwise procedural set up.
32
Chapter 4: Comparing the Benefits and Risks of Procedurals and Serials
This section focuses on the advantages and disadvantages of using a procedural or
serial-based narrative and reviews genres and target audiences that work well with it.
The study later reviews alternative narrative structures that use combinations of
procedural and serial elements. See Figure 4.1 for an overview of comparing procedural
and serial continuity.
4.1 Procedural
4.1.1 Advantages
4.1.1a Procedurals are more flexible than serials
Writers only need a general understanding of the characters and overall premise,
as the characters do not change or develop. The audience can accept any alterations to
the show or cast with less criticism. The malleability makes it more adaptable for shows
to account for changes in the toy lines and fan reactions.
As discussed in Chapter 3, the writers for Hasbro’s cartoons, including
Transformers, G.I. Joe, Jem (1985) and Beast Wars had to account for the whims of the
toy company. Whenever a new product was released, the character was required to be
inserted into the series regardless of the current plot. The writers would be handed a brief
description of the character’s stats and were expected to create a viable reason for that
character to enter the show. 29 Inevitably, any character whose toys were no longer
selling was expected to lose their importance in the plot, or be removed altogether.
While some serials handled the same issue, they suffered when having to explain why
29
As stated in the History section, Larry Hama – the writer for G.I. Joe’s comic series – used a procedural
set up as a means to easily incorporate Hasbro’s wishes into the plot without causing much disruption
(PulpSecret, 2008).
33
characters previously vital to the story suddenly become unimportant or die, and why
new characters are suddenly imposed upon the audience. Procedural cartoons require
less explanation because the viewers tend to have fewer expectations regarding
continuity, and thus handle the changes more easily.
Warner Brothers used procedural continuity in Looney Tunes as a means to play
with ideas. Famous characters such as Bugs Bunny, Elmer Fudd and Daffy Duck went
through numerous changes throughout their development. The viewers were introduced
and reintroduced to these characters in every new installment, and their creators at
Warner Brothers tweaked them in accordance to the results of their creative experiments.
Such a trick would not have worked in serials such as Avatar: The Last Airbender or Full
Metal Alchemist, where the personalities, history and physical design of the characters are
an integral part of the plot and cannot be altered without the risk of breaking continuity.
Flexibility in story telling is also effective when an idea is not working. Merrill
Hagan, during his speech on Balancing Story at Savannah College of Art and Design
(February 25, 2011), describes how he and the other writers for Harvey Birdman:
Attorney at Law dramatically changed the character and tone at the start of the second
season because they anticipated that their previous format was going to become stale.
Although fans were angry with the dramatic change in Harvey’s character, the series
continued on for three more seasons. In contrast, Bill Plympton mentioned during his
speech at Savannah College of Art and Design that the main character from his short
film, Guard Dog, was such an unexpected success that he created more shorts featuring
34
him. 30 Since his short films had no connection between them, it was easy to insert the
character into various situations without explanation.
4.1.1b Viewers can leave and come back without missing plot points
If a watcher of a serial program misses a few episodes, they may lose their place
in the story and become confused. Their frustration may provoke them into losing
interest in the program. However, procedurals have the benefit that viewers will not have
the feeling of losing something should they miss an episode. The audience can enjoy the
program regardless of what order the segments are witnessed.
Such is the case of the longest running live action drama series, Law and Order.
Despite being a plot-centric show, Law and Order is a procedural. Instead of focusing on
the plot in terms of how it affects the main characters, it centers on the individual plots
within each episode and treat them as simply snapshots into the character’s lives. Dick
Wolf, the creator of the series, describes the narrative structure of Law and Order as
“economical storytelling,” which he picked up from his advertising background.
‘They're totally self-contained stories; there are no serialized elements – if
you have not seen the show for a month, a year or three years, when you come
back you do not have to know anything that's happened in between; nobody's
been sleeping with anybody, nobody's got married or divorced... it's just a
workplace show, which is refreshingly unencumbered.’ – Wolf (Gilbert, 2009).
30
Bill Plympton’s spoke at Savannah College of Art and Design after the 2009 Savannah International Film
Festival. His speech was titled “Plympton’s Dogma for Making Money as an Animator” and he talked
about how to make money through short films. During the speech, he mentioned that the popularity of the
main character of Guard Dog inspired him to make more short films featuring the same character. Each
film in the series is entirely procedural, and places the dog in different situations.
35
During an interview with Gerard Gilbert from The Independent, Wolf continued
on to describe the benefit of Law and Order’s procedural set up.
“For uncommitted viewers who struggle to keep up with the fashionably
complex and involved story arcs of US dramas like Lost, 24 or Heroes, this
weekly closure can come as a relief. ‘You get a complete hour of television that's
very satisfying,’ says Wolf. ‘It's like eating a three-course meal, you do not need
anything else and it gives you the ability not to get caught up in the cult of
personality. It's a six-person ensemble – Anthony Anderson, who came in to the
show last spring, is the 27th principal actor to be in the US show; some of the
main characters have rolled over five times.’” (Gilbert, 2009)
Wolf claimed to have picked up his taste for “economical” storytelling during his
formative years in advertising.
“‘The wonderful thing about advertising is that you have to tell a complete story
in 30 seconds or it does not work,’ he says. ‘The thing I've said to directors and
editors over the years is: 'When was the last time you saw a movie that moved too
fast?' The wonderful thing about Law & Order is that there are no transition
scenes; there are no people driving in a car or walking up to a building... you do
not have enough time. Each half has enough information for most hour-long
shows. When you do that it has to move fast, it cannot be boring, there cannot be
fat in the scenes.’” (Gilbert, 2009)
36
For animation, the point is similarly relevant. Adult and children’s television
alike, such as Spongebob Squarepants, Fairly Odd Parents, Chowder, Dexter’s
Laboratory, Ren and Stimpy, Rocko’s Modern Life and Power Puff Girls, The Simpsons,
Family Guy, South Park and American Dad does not require expository and simply
focuses on entertaining the viewers.
Procedurals boast a broader appeal especially with pre-teens, young children and
those with short attention spans, because viewers can sit and watch at any time without
losing a part of the story. The lack of commitment also means that the reruns can be
shown in any order without confusing new viewers, which leads into the next benefit.
.
4.1.1c Procedurals are less risky for studios
Procedurals are easier to watch, write for and pitch. There is less time spent in
preproduction for the story development, which also means less time, money and
commitment required by the viewer. Studios are not required to keep track of their
overall story. Jeffrey Scott recommends pitching procedural series over serial because
their ease and cheaper production makes them less of a risk for studios (Scott, 2005).
Along with less money being spent on the writing, procedurals also allow viewers
to engage with the story regardless of what episode they first start. The question of what
the series is about is never a problem with procedurals, as the premise never changes.
Consequently, there is less of a risk of new viewers being turned away from a
complicated story or commitment they are unwilling or unable to give.
37
4.1.1d Programs that benefit from the procedural format
According to the research derived for this Thesis, the benefits of procedural
structure appear to be most prevalent in a program where the plot overall is not the focus.
Sitcoms such as Third Rock from the Sun (1996), That 70’s Show (1998), Rosanne
(1988), Simpsons and Family Guy rely on witty dialogue, gags and the fact that their
characters never learn from their mistakes. Comedies in general tend to be episodic,
especially those which rely on being both random and predictable. Robot Chicken, Ren
and Stimpy, Rocko’s Modern Life, Chowder, Flapjack (2008) and Adventure Time (2010)
are examples of shows which are predictably random – the viewer knows not to expect a
deep story and can enjoy the quirky characters and random events at face value.
Merchandise and learning-based programs also benefit from a less structured
narrative. The purpose of shows like Dora the Explorer (2000), Barney (1992), Blues
Clues (1996), Sesame Street (1969) and Eureka’s Castle (1989) is not to tell a compelling
story or even to sell products – although the latter is definitely a motivation – but to teach
children a lesson, skill or moral. For young viewers, it is imperative that the message be
as clear as possible, which could get muddled if mixed with issues that are too complex
for children to comprehend. Children also have short attention spans, inspiring some
procedurals to divide their episodes into two 11-minute short stories instead of one 22minute episode.
Dramas can benefit from a formulaic set up depending on the story’s focus.
Many of the live action procedural medical and crime programs are about the process of
38
solving a mystery. House (2004) solves medical mysteries; CSI (2000) solves crime
mysteries as does The Mentalist (2008) and Without a Trace (2002).
Procedurals falter when the plot involves problems that cannot be resolved in one
episode, or when the idea becomes stale or too predictable.
4.1.2 Disadvantages
4.1.2a Formulaic nature of procedurals makes them predictable
Because procedurals always end the way they began, there is no sense of
permanence. None of the characters can die, and no event can be dramatic enough to
change a character’s personality beyond the span of a single episode. It can be difficult
for the viewer to truly believe the emotions of the characters, much less feel empathy
towards them. If Adam West’s Batman and Robin are tied to a rock and slowly being
lowered into a vault of acid, the question is not whether or not they will survive, but
simply how are they going to escape.
For example, House’s season premiere episode, “Broken” (2009), deviated from
the show’s procedural set up and focused on the main character’s mental state. Jonathan
Toomey and Jason Hughes praised the change with Hughes adding that the season
premiere “broke the procedural formula completely. Not only did we not see House cure
any medical ailments, we did not see the rest of the cast at all, save a quick cameo by
Wilson. Instead, we got a character study and a major breakthrough for House”
(Toomey, 2009. Hughes, 2009).
Hughes’ review also contained an online poll which prompted viewers to voice
whether they would watch House if it became a serial. At the time this Thesis was
39
written, the poll indicated that 32.4% would prefer it to become a serial drama, 19.7%
want it to stay a procedural, with the rest having no preference. Inspection of reader
comments for both of House’s reviews discovered that some viewers found it difficult to
bond with the characters or story because of its predictability. 31 One of the reader
comments connected to Jason Hughes’ review, made by Margaret on September 23,
2009, states:
“The biggest problem I have with the procedural formula is that it has
gotten too predictable. My friends and I can look at the clock and know that the
team hasn't solved it yet. It's gotten to the point where we just say ‘oh, it's 9:48,
this must be the right one.’ Maybe if they just changed up the way they present
each medical mystery, it would be more interesting” (Hughes, 2009).
The comment was followed with a reply from Den on September 23, 2009, “I do
that too. Even when it looks like everything is fine, when there is 20 minutes to go or
something you know they do not have the answer yet. It does get very predictable and
well I hardly care about the diagnosis or the patients” (Hughes, 2009).
The season premiere also met with criticism from fans that did not care about the
new characters featured in “Broken” because they would never be seen again. Little
Willy comments in Toomey’s critical review that Broken as “Possibly the worst episode
of the entire series. I knew there is no way any of the patients/doctors in the asylum will
be recurring and hence I could not care less about any of them. They are just supporting
players for House to toy around.” (Toomey, 2009)
31
Reader comments were examined to obtain an overview as to the general public’s reaction to the change
in House’s story structure.
40
4.1.2b Suspension of disbelief/discontinuity
Regardless of whether the episodes connect, it is imperative not to break
consistency in the rules of that story’s world. Even if the plot is random, viewers are
looking for the few key commonalities that define the series.
Continuity could include the expectation (or lack thereof) of a cast. Programs like
Twilight Zone (1959), Beyond Belief (1997) and Tales from the Crypt (1989) are not
expected to have recurring characters other than the host. Shows like Looney Tunes
make it clear early on that the characters featured will be random, although when those
iconic characters do appear, they are expected to have their core personality traits. Bugs
Bunny is meant to be a rascal. Porky Pig would not be the same without his stutter. The
same rule of continuity applies to their world. In Looney Tunes, there is an expectation
of invulnerability. If an anvil falls on Wile E. Coyote and the injury is treated seriously,
it would jar the viewer.
Captain N: The Game Master (1989) had a problem with discontinuity. Captain
N was created by Nintendo to advertise their products, by featuring characters from
different video games and presenting gaming systems and equipment as weapons and
power. As mentioned by Doug Walker during his Nostalgia Critic review of Captain N,
“…aside from lame lines, nonsensical stories and completely misunderstood
character development, what specifically is wrong with this show? Well, how
about the fact that nothing in this world is consistent. For example, we clearly see
that pretty much anytime he wants, Kevin can use his Nintendo pad to pause
reality. Well, why the hell does not he just do that all the time? Would not that
make everything a lot easier?” (Walker, 2009b)
41
The lack of continuity in the world’s rules or character abilities is often the result
of lazy writing. The rules apply when it would be most convenient for the writers, in
order to get the characters out of an otherwise inescapable situation - which is often
called deus ex machina 32 and can cause viewers to feel annoyed or insulted.
4.1.2c Quick introduction and resolution of conflict derives shallow storytelling
Procedurals have the disadvantage that each episode must introduce and resolve
the problem within the same 30-60 minute timeslot and wrap up all loose ends. As a
result, the problems have to be shallow and often do not have a lasting impact on the plot
or characters. Time restraints can be a problem when the episode attempts to present a
more compelling story.
For example, in the Ruby-Spear’s version of the Megaman animated series there
is an episode titled “Bro Bots” where Protoman, the villain’s subordinate and Megaman’s
older brother, decided to leave the villains and become a hero. It becomes obvious
almost immediately that it is a ploy to bring Protoman closer access to the heroes and
allow the villains to place a trap. The episode tries to show the bond between Protoman
and Megaman growing, in order to magnify the feeling of betrayal. However, due to its
time constraints, the pacing of the episode is very rushed and their relationship is
unbelievable and ultimately unchanged. Although “Bro Bots” is one of the most
complex episodes of the otherwise shallow series, it calls to question how much that story
would have benefited from a two or three part series.
32
“a person or thing (as in fiction or drama) that appears or is introduced suddenly and unexpectedly and
provides a contrived solution to an apparently insoluble difficulty.” – Deus ex machina as defined by the
online Merriam-Webster dictionary (Deus ex Machina, n.d.).
42
4.1.2d Viewers may lose interest if there is no intellectual stimulation
Although it is advantageous that viewers can watch procedurals infrequently
without missing important information, it can also be detrimental. Procedurals lack the
intellectual stimulation of anticipating the next chapter. If viewers miss an episode, it is
expected that they did not miss anything important, and thus they are less inclined to
make time in their schedules or put forth effort to watch the whole series.
Procedurals catering to a younger audience have a higher tendency to become
‘outgrown’ by the audience, as some viewers may become disillusioned in the shallow
storytelling and flat characters.
During the break in between seasons, viewers might forget about or lose interest
in the program. Serials have the advantage of keeping the viewers wondering about what
will happen in future episodes, which can keep them entertained in between seasons.
4.2 Serial
4.2.1 Advantages
4.2.1a The Series has its own Dramatic Structure
One significant difference between a procedural and a serial is that the latter’s
episodes not only tell their own story, but serve as chapters under the grand plot of the
series. This provides the audience with that “What’s going to happen next?” factor, often
shared by soap operas. This allows programs to keep their viewers, even during slower
or less developed (or budgeted) episodes. They are waiting to see what will happen later.
43
It is important for viewers to be excited for future episodes, especially in between
seasons. Serials may have threads of the story unfinished by the end of the prior season –
or, even worse, leave at a cliffhanger – which may entice viewers to flood the message
boards, fan art and fan fiction websites with their predictions, hopes and wishes for the
cast and plot. The fan’s dedication will help to maintain their interest in the series, and
return for its continuation.
For example, Avatar: The Last Airbender’s second season ended with a cliff
hanger, with the main hero seriously injured and with a betrayal of one of the supporting
characters. Some viewers were genuinely angry with the traitor, and expressed concern
for the hero. Ultimately, word about the plot twist spread and even more viewers were
attracted to the highly successful third season. The series ended at the story’s
predetermined length of three seasons, at the height of its success, and inspired both a
live action film and the spin-off series, The Legend of Korra.
4.2.1b Viewer Commitment
Although viewers do not have to watch every episode in sequence to enjoy the
series, often they will lose out on part of the story or risk confusion if they begin halfway. However, reruns and technology such as DVD box sets and the internet make this
less of an issue because often the means of accessing the earlier episodes are readily
available. If viewers are intrigued, they may be enticed to locate the prior episodes and
even purchase the box sets in order to see what had happened.
When frequent watchers become attached to the characters or involved with the
story, it creates the “What’s going to happen next?!” appeal that will draw them back to
44
the television week after week. The curiosity of what is going to happen next creates a
loyal fan base that may not only enjoy the series itself, but seeks out other avenues for
keeping their fire of interest alive. One example of a story that is kept alive due to its
extensive serialization is Star Wars. What was originally a 3-part epic has grown to
include additional movies, novels, comic books, video games and a television series to
add onto George Lucas’ story. Star Wars’ success was what originally made the industry
aware of merchandising as being the most profitable area of a production (Furniss, 2008).
Every new installment and revitalization of the franchise also brings more merchandising
to the studio. Even with so many avenues of storytelling that Star Wars provides, fans
continue to contribute their own passions through the use of fan sites, films, parodies,
fiction, art, roleplay forums and message boards.
Viewer commitment can also attract financial commitment. As expressed by fans
during the Comic-Con panel discussion with the creators of Avatar: The Last Airbender,
interest in the story also generated more interest in the merchandise. 33 The willingness of
viewers to financially contribute to the series also extends to Disney’s Gargoyles.
The last episode of Disney’s three season hit Gargoyles aired on February 15,
1997. The Gargoyles fan convention “The Gathering of the Gargoyles” continued once a
33
Avatar: The Last Airbender Comic Con interview allowed fans to ask questions directly to the voice
actors and creators. Some of their questions revolved around the story, from what is going to happen next
to the rules of Avatar’s world, to whether or not certain foreshadowing elements in the story are later going
to be addressed. Fans of the series expressed a clear interest and desire to find out more details about the
story. In the same discussion, questions regarding marketing such as whether a soundtrack was going to be
produced, or other products that they could buy would become available. This implies a direct correlation
between the viewer’s commitment to watching the series, and their receptiveness and willingness to
purchase artifacts from the series. It is possible to derive that fans who put in the effort required by an epic
series may continue their commitment even beyond the limitations of the series and will actively seek out
merchandise or other ways to fuel their desire for the product even after each season’s completion.
The viewers expressed a desire to find out more about the story, which implies that the Epic continuity
structure piques the viewer’s curiosity and genuine interest in the fate of the characters and the story –
which can also seep into the marketing aspect.
45
year to attract fans and vendors who sold Gargoyles merchandise until 2009 – over ten
years after the series had finished.
The investment viewers make in a story can keep a series alive long after its last
episode, which leads into the next benefit, longevity.
4.2.1c Longevity: Fan Support Extends the Life of a Series
Fans can help support a series that is losing funding, or revitalize a series long
after its official end. For example, the first foray into CG television animation was
Mainframe’s ReBoot. ReBoot began in 1994 and ended in 2001, and began its first two
seasons as a procedural but increased the age group of its target audience and changed the
narrative structure into a serial at the start of the third season. The series ended abruptly
with a cliff hanger during its fourth season. Viewers who wanted to see the story
complete continued their support through numerous fan sites.
Their continued support later inspired Mainframe, now Rainmaker Animation, to
revive ReBoot as a web comic series and a film trilogy. In fact, in order to please the
fans, Rainmaker has incorporated their support into the development of the comic and
films themselves, by creating a website through which the producers can directly interact
with the fans (Guiardina, 2007).
" 'ReBoot's' legions of fans have been incredibly loyal and continue to keep the
property alive on dozens of fan sites,’ Gertz said. ‘We're very enthusiastic about
how we're reconceiving this classic series by creating an innovative way for those
46
fans -- who were kids when the series started -- to use new technology to help
guide us’" (Giardina, 2007).
One of the fan-driven websites, Rebootrevival.com, has a section which explains
the commitment viewers have for the revitalization of ReBoot.
“On May 29th, 2006 a long time fan got very tired of the lack of ReBoot over the
nearly 6 years since the cliffhanger of season 4. He thought up the idea to contact
the voice actors for help, which then expanded into contacting the staff. From
then on the idea grew and grew. By late June, a MySpace page was created to
gather fans from that online community. A month later, the group had over 200
fans to help support the cause, and later on a Facebook group was created as well.
Once the word had been spread a central website was created…Fans were
completely in the dark about Mainframe Entertainment’s interest in continuing the
series until an anonymous MFE employee stated that (un-officially) MFE was
interested in making more, yet needs the funding from a network to do so. The
overall goal of this “Revival of ReBoot” is to find a television network that will
fund Mainframe Entertainment in creating that long sought after ending to season
4, and possibly new episodes after that” (Reboot Revival, n.d.).
4.2.1d Programs That Benefit from a Serial Format
Serials work well for older children and teenagers who still watch television and
viewers who are looking for characters they can relate to on a deeper level. Connecting
47
episodes allows for character growth and relationship development, which can appeal to
female viewers. 34 Soap operas maintain their viewership because of their continuous
story development and drama within the interpersonal character relationships. Popular
science fiction, such as Dune, Harry Potter, Lord of the Rings, Ender’s Game series,
Dragonlance, Star Wars, Babylon 5 also have serial narrative. In addition, many popular
anime are serials.
4.2.2 Disadvantages
4.2.2a Inflexibility
For an epic story, more time must be spent in preproduction in order to make sure
that the story threads weave together throughout the series properly. Creators must be
conscious not only of the pacing of each episode, but the pacing of the series overall.
Serials anchor the story and characters. Viewers expect to see all plot threads
resolved by the end of the series, which can be problematic if the plot is not properly
structured. In television and movies, a great build up can lead to a poor and
disappointing conclusion.
The anime series, Soul Eater, spends much of the story foreshadowing and
building up to what was predicted to be a climatic plot twist and final battle between the
heroes and the villain. The last episode disperses the tension, weakens the plot and the
final battle ends suddenly and anticlimactically. As expressed by Nayrael’s review, fans
of Soul Eater lament for the wasted potential of the last episodes.
34
Informal discussion with Anna Glanton during the development of her thesis focuses on the female target
audience. Glanton’s study describes how women are not impartial to violence so long as there is a reason
for it, and are attracted to interpersonal relationships and character development within the cast.
48
“Corny ending - the ending is, for me at least, show's weakest point. It is
cliché, senseless and did not end as a cool fight as I hoped it would. I understand
that Bones wanted to leave a message (‘Courage’), but it could have been handled
better” (Nayrael, 2009).
4.2.2b Slow, Boring Build Up
Viewers may not wish to invest the amount of energy required to notice every
detail or follow every plot thread. It becomes a balance of progressing the plot while
keeping each episode entertaining.
Transformers: Beast Machines has mixed reviews due to its slow story structure.
Beast Machines is both praised for its darker story and higher quality visuals, and
criticized for its slow narrative and drastic changes in the characters’ personalities.
According to Gord Lacey’s review of the Beast Machines DVD Box set,
“I'm glad this series is over. I enjoyed the series for the most part, but the end
seemed very dragged out. I wanted the final disc to hurry up and end; I was a bit
sick of characters being gone, then coming back. I mean, come on...this is not
Transformers: The Soap Opera, but it felt like it” (Lacey, 2006).
4.2.2c Costly in Time and Preproduction = Risky Investment
Serialized stories require a better understanding of not only the characters, but
also their world and the rules that pertain to it. The writers must coordinate with the
visual development and the creators must be more hands on with the production. More
time spent on preproduction means more money, which equates to more risk. Networks
49
may be less inclined to accept a riskier proposal, or allot the budget necessary to give it
the quality production needed to properly tell the story.
4.2.2d Viewers will not overlook mistakes as easily with serials
Creators have to be cautious of what has happened in prior episodes, down to the
last detail. If a random or unexpected event happens in the series which would be
deemed “out of character,” it is often met with anger from fans and referred to as
“jumping the shark”. 35 As was the case with Teen Titans, the writers may not have
enough time to solidify the story and thus the quality of the plot can raise or lower.
Viewers may become disappointed with the direction the story is heading or with
problems left unresolved (or resolved poorly) and boycott the series altogether.
4.2.2e Cannot always account for unexpected changes
Seasonal contracts are renewed each year. Whether or not a station decides to
renew the contract depends primarily on its current ratings. It is impossible to foretell
how well a series will do, and thus it is difficult to plot a story without knowing how
many episodes will be used to tell it.
For example, the live action series Birds of Prey (2002) was canceled and forced
into an abrupt wrap-up of the story after just thirteen episodes. However, Gargoyles and
Buffy the Vampire Slayer had the opposite problem. Despite having an official end, the
35
According to TVTropes.org, “Jumping the Shark” refers to a “moment when an established show
changes in a significant manner in an attempt to stay fresh. Ironically, that moment makes the viewers
realize that the show has finally run out of ideas. It has reached its peak, it will never be the same again,
and from now on it’s all downhill”.
The term “Jump the Shark,” which originates from an episode of Happy Days where the character Fonzie
literally jumps over a shark, is very subjective. What separates a “jump the shark” moment or an
acceptable change in the direction of a show’s plot is usually based on the viewer’s opinion. (Jumping the
Shark, 2010).
50
television network extended both series to include one more season. Extending a series
past its official end can be problematic because the original plot had been resolved and
never accounted for a continuation.
What makes the issue of story length especially hard is the fact that studios
seldom know the length of their stories when the series is first pitched. And there is no
guarantee how long the series will be allowed to continue, as at times there is little to no
forewarning for when the show has been canceled.
Factors that can dictate the content of a show include censorship and network
involvement. Ren and Stimpy struggled with censorship and would be sent to air as close
to the last minute as possible to give censors little time to critique the episode.
Writers also struggle with time constraints both in terms of the show’s length and
the time allotted to develop each episode from concept to completion. Television
production provides little time to rework the plot into perfection. According to Glen
Murakami during his interview with Titanstower.com 36 , time was an issue in Teen Titans.
Although Murakami wanted to incorporate plot elements into the random episodes, there
was not enough available time to spend on the story. For example, during his interview
Glen recalls an issue they had with introducing a new character, Terra, and incorporating
her into the plot in the second season:
“We did want to play the character out longer in the series. But we ended up
getting crunched for time and we could not do that in the series. We wanted to
show her being part of the group more. The in-between episodes were supposed to
36
During the interview, Murakami talked about his perceived successes and failures during the
development of Teen Titans. The discussion includes his research in the comic series, the storylines as he
had wanted to present them in the show, his response to fan reactions and how time constraints and
demographic influenced the story development.
51
have Terra in them. So she felt like part of the group. That way, when the betrayal
happened, it would have been more of a shock. It would have been nice to
incorporate her into the title sequence. It would have been nice to put her in more
episodes. But you run out of time. And I know that's what the fans wanted. And
we wanted it too. In the comic, the story just had more time to play it out” – Glen
Murakami (Walko, 2006).
Availability and contract renewal of the cast is more of an issue with live action
than with animation, but the latter still applies. A series can switch networks, lose their
voice actors or lose their writers. The instability can make it difficult to maintain the
story continuity. Shows like Dragon Ball Z, which had a complete overhaul of all of the
dub 37 voice actors back in 1999 when the dubbing company switched from Ocean Group
to FUNimation, have the additional challenge of maintaining the characterization.
Changes in voice acting do not tend to inhibit a cartoon series or influence their
storytelling as severely as losing an actor does for a live action series, because the
character’s visual appearance does not change.
For the live action program Heroes, external circumstances were a large issue
with trying to maintain the serial storytelling. Heroes’ creator Tim Kring said during the
Heroes panel at the Creative Screenwriting’s 2008 Screenwriting Expo that a serialized
show is “an absolute bear to do” (Goldman, 2008).
Unlike the set up of most serials, Tim Kring had originally intended to cycle
through characters, replacing most of the cast with each new season:
37
Dub – “to furnish (a film or tape) with a new sound track, as one recorded in the language of the country
of import.” This thesis uses “dub” to refer to the English translation and voice acting in a Japanese
animated series.
52
"I was primarily fascinated by the original story. Once the original story is over,
and the character has no more questions about what's happening or existential
drama, then the questions become just about plot, and then it becomes harder for
me personally to connect to’. However, Kring continued that, ‘The problem is you
run into a whole series of issues, where show and business run into each other.
The network falls in love with characters, the audience falls in love with
characters, the press falls in love with characters. And it's contractually hard to get
people onboard for a brief period’. As a result, Kring said, ‘You find yourself
writing for characters you thought would be gone’." (Goldman, 2008)
Heroes’ storyline had been drastically affected by the Writer’s Strike during the
second season. The strike forced the decision to drop the original ending of the second
season and reshoot it, inevitably causing one of the story threads to fall into a plot hole.
“An audience member asked about Caitlin, Peter Petrelli's love interest from
Season 2, who was last seen left behind in a plague-stricken future – a future that
thanks to the re-shot end of ‘Generations,’ does not exist. Kring revealed that if
the strike had not cut Season 2 short, the plan was, ‘to get to [Caitlin] around
episode 14 or 15, during 'Exodus'. She was a casualty of that storyline never being
told’. After the long hiatus during which Heroes was off the air, Kring said, ‘We
realized that going back to [Caitlin] nine and a half months later would have been
insanity’. He felt that while there would ‘be some people asking about it, for most
people it would have been a hard left [in the story].’ When the fan asked if Peter
would ever acknowledge Caitlin or express any grief over what seems to be her
dire fate, Kring replied, ‘No, we passed it. We leapfrogged it.’ He added that
53
when the idea of returning to Caitlin was brought up, they asked, ‘Really? Are we
going to risk that? We have enough stuff to [deal with]’” (Goldman, 2008).
4.3 Combining Elements of Serial and Procedural Continuity
While the benefits and risks described in this paper apply to the extreme samples
of procedurals and serials, elements of both can be used. Many adult and children’s
shows have a combination of the two. Sailor Moon has story threads which begin and
end in the span of a single episode, but each season has its own plot. Trigun, ReBoot and
Chrono Crusade start off as a procedural, and become serial later.
Although Transformers: Generation 1 is treated as a procedural in this study, it
also has elements of serialization. Important episodes for Transformers include where
new characters are introduced, a small amount of plot develops, someone obtains a new
ability or someone dies. Consequently, Transformers boasts some of the best benefits of
both worlds – such as a passionate fan base and flexible storytelling while still sometimes
giving viewers excitement over what might happen next. However, Transformers also
suffers from some of the problems prevalent in both sections of storytelling, such as
discontinuity and unpopular story arcs/plot twists.
Transformer’s later series, Beast Wars, also has a combination of procedural and
serial narrative. With Beast Wars, most of the episodes within each season are
predominantly procedural. However, if an important episode is missed there may be a
new character, power, personality development or a change in the relationship between
two characters that might go unnoticed. Beast Wars’ plot becomes epic as the series
54
progresses. It eventually leads into the spin off series, Beast Machines, a serial program
that concludes the story.
Other variations of serial/procedural combinations that have been used in popular
television shows are labeled by this study as: Filler, Procedural Beginning/Epic Ending,
Epic Introduction, Threaded Plot and Padded Plot.
4.3.1 Filler
Serials such as Full Metal Alchemist, Naruto, and Bleach can have episodes that
do not follow the story, often called “fillers.” According to TV Tropes.com, Filler is
defined as “entries in a continuity based serial that have no bearing on the main plot, do
not significantly alter the relations between the characters, and generally serve only to
knock off another entry” (Filler, 2010).
Fillers are most prevalent in long series. While some programs can have as few
as 13 episodes per season, others can have over 30 with the same budget. The plot may
only need to take up a fraction of the whole series. One option a show has is to contain
the plot in a few integral episodes and leave the rest of the series procedural. Anime with
contractual obligations for multiple seasons run into the issue of filler, when the
television series is being produced at the same time as its manga 38 counterpart. As with
the case of Sailor Moon, Bleach and Dragon Ball Z, the anime’s plot will pass the manga,
and the series will have to slow down in order for the books to catch up. The “Bounto
Arc” (2006) in Bleach and the “Doom Tree Arc” (1993) in Sailor Moon are entire
seasons of filler.
38
Manga is defined by Dictionary.com as “a Japanese graphic novel, typically intended for adults,
characterized by highly stylized art” (Manga, n.d.).
55
Teen Titans also contains a mix of serial and filler episodes. Season 2’s (2004)
plot does not begin until the third episode of the season, “Terra”, with the introduction of
the character from which the episode is named. The plot continues on “Titan Rising,”
followed by “Betrayal” and concluded in the two-part season ending, “After Shock.” If
the viewer watched only those episodes, he or she would see the entire plot without
missing anything. The rest of the season is procedural. In the fourth season (2005), the
entire plot can be watched by only viewing episodes “Birthmark”, “The Prophecy” and
concluded with the three-part seasonal ending, “The End.”
4.3.2 Procedural Beginning/Epic Ending
A procedural series can become a serial later, to spend the beginning of the series
introducing the characters, story premise and any other important information without
clogging the viewers with too much detail. Trigun’s first few episodes are also
procedural; in order to introduce the western-style world, characters and the plot begins
in the episode “Lost July.”
Beginning the series with procedural episodes can be used to attract viewers and
determine if there is a large enough audience to continue the series. Teen Titans began as
a light hearted procedural. At the end of the first season, they introduced the plot.
At times the change between procedural and serial narrative may not have been
foreseen, and instead exists as a result in a change in the target audience. ReBoot’s first
two seasons were procedural, and in between the end of the second season and beginning
of the third season Mainframe switched channels and switched their target to an older
audience. The series became dark and epic.
56
4.3.3 Serial Intro
1980s series, particularly toy-based programs, would begin with a several part
introduction and would afterwards become a procedural. The beginning exists to
introduce the characters and story, and treats the first few episodes like a film. Programs
that fall under this category include Transformers Generation 1, Street Sharks, Gargoyles
and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles.
4.3.4 Threaded Plot
This thesis uses the term “threaded plot” to define programs which have several
threads of storyline which are occasionally visited and revisited, but are otherwise
forgotten. One episode can introduce a new character and then that character can
disappear for half the season, only to return without explanation when the plot requires it.
A major event could happen in another episode, but the repercussions may not be felt for
several episodes after.
Batman: The Animated Series cycles through storylines featuring different
villains. The Joker, Batman’s arch enemy, first appears in the second, fourth and nineth
episodes – “Christmas with the Joker”, “The Last Laugh” and “Be a Clown.” Harvey
Dent’s story begins on “Pretty Poison” and continues in two part serial, “Two Face.”
He does not appear again until over twenty episodes later, “The Strange Secret of Bruce
Wayne.” Outside of the episodes that pertain to that particular story, the rest of the
episodes behave as if that story thread never happened. As described by Ben Badger
during a casual interview through email, “Batman and shows like it from the USA
57
created a style of storytelling that create a consistent universe while not having a real plot
objective. Instead the creators gave us snap shots into the lives of these characters…”
Gargoyles follows a threaded plot format. Although Gargoyles has a more
intricate plot and more direct continuity than Batman: The Animated Series, the villains
shift in and out of the plot’s focus as needed. The episode “Reawakening”, introduces
Goliath’s rookery brother, Cold Stone. Cold Stone is thought to die at the end of the
episode; there is no further mention of the events from Reawakening, no mourning on
behalf of Goliath, nothing to hint that Cold Stone had ever existed or that his death had
any meaning. “Legion” continues Cold Stone’s story and, despite taking place several
episodes later, behaves as if the episodes in between never happened.
Other programs which follow a threaded plot set up include Batman Beyond,
Spider-Man: The Animated Series (1994) and X-Men: The Animated Series.
4.3.5 Padded Plot
Padded Plot involves a series where most of the episodes have their own problem,
with a small thread of the real plot weaving through the series. Series that distribute their
plot in small increments throughout the season have the most episodes that can be missed
without losing any important information, except for one or two facts that may be
important. One example of a program that has a serial/procedural set up similar to the
“padded plot” is Total Drama Island.
Total Drama Island is a Canadian 2D animated television series that emulates the
reality program Survivor. The cartoon follows the same format of the players living in
the wild and voting each other off every week. The important information for Total
58
Drama Island are the interpersonal character relationships, and who gets voted off of the
island in each episode. The rest of the program is a procedural comedy.
Other programs that follow a similar format of distributing pieces of plot
throughout each episode in the series include Sailor Moon and Power Rangers.
59
Conclusion
This section recapitulates the topics covered in previous chapters. It begins with a
re-clarification of the difference between procedural and serial continuity, then
summarizes the benefits and risks of both. Ultimately, this study concludes with the
validity of continuity in the industry.
Procedurals and serials differ in their approach to the level of continuity in their
narrative. Procedurals approach each episode as its own, self-contained short story, while
serials treat episodes like chapters of a book.
Currently, procedurals and serials are both popular avenues in television and
exhibit strengths and weaknesses. Simplicity is the benefit of procedurals, requiring less
commitment from both the viewers and the studios and thus making it less of a risky
investment. The flaw of procedurals is that its predictability can lead to boredom and
dissatisfaction. Serials have the advantage of committing the audience to a story and
compelling them to continue with it until its official end. However, viewers can become
bored with a long tale, or become disengaged with the level of commitment required to
understand the developing plot.
The objective of this research is to present future creators with options for their
storytelling methods. While this thesis studies the polarization of serial and procedural
continuity as a means of comparison, it is imperative to consider how the two can be
combined to reap the benefits of both.
In conjunction with this study is the development of an original animated series,
which is discussed in more detail in the Appendix. The original intent for the program
was to use a predominantly serial plot. However, as the two components develop and
60
inform each other, the show’s continuity changed to include procedural elements.
Consequently, the approach of developing the original series concurrently with this study
reiterated the value of using both procedural and serial elements.
The research demonstrates that there is no perfect way to tell a story. Continuity
is the last ingredient in a stew of plot, theme, characters and demographic. Once the
creator has a thorough understanding of the message they wish to convey or what story
they plan to tell, then it is a matter of determining what degree of continuity would best
communicate those ideas.
While the subjective nature of storytelling renders the importance of narrative
continuity a debatable issue, this study reveals that the most successful programs have a
balance of serial and procedural elements. “Balance” is not to be mistaken with
“symmetrical,” as the needs of the program dictate how much continuity would benefit.
So long as creators are aware of the choices they make regarding continuity, their story
would become that much more satisfying.
61
Appendix I: The Visual Component
A.1: Statement of Purpose:
The practical component of this thesis applies the results of the research into the
development of an original animated series, currently titled Fate Saga. This section
focuses on the conceptual development of Fate Saga as it pertains to story continuity.
Throughout the concurrent development of the written and visual components,
special attention was made to the presentation of the plot. Originally, the story was
designed to be purely serial. However, by the conclusion of this research, the structure
was altered. The first half of the first season is procedural, in order to give viewers a
better understanding of the characters, the premise and their world. The second half
introduces the antagonist, plot and the characters begin to develop. The episode
descriptions will be further discussed in the proposal book, attached to this document.
In order to present the characters and story to networks and the target audience, a
pitch package was developed along with an animatic and trailer to the pilot episode. The
goal of the visual component is to have Fate Saga ready to pitch upon completion.
62
A.2: Target Audience
Fate Saga is an action/fantasy series directed to men, ages 14-24. The protagonist
appeals as both a strong, heroic figure while flawed and realistic. Fate Saga’s medieval
setting contains mythical creatures, magic and middle age weaponry that will push the
boundaries of imagination while retaining physics and rules of the magic system. The
use of monsters and otherworldly creatures also allows for violence that will be less
prone to censorship.
The deeper meanings behind the fighting along with character and relationship
development have the potential to attract a female audience. The protagonist, Cain, and
his love interest, Larkspur, develop their relationship from awkward acquaintances to
romance throughout the course of the series. Other characters develop close friendships
and familial bonds. Larkspur develops from a nervous, average girl to a strong female
lead, providing both a positive role model as well as someone to whom girls can relate.
The age group covers high school and college, where viewers may appreciate the
adult undertones, complex story and detailed research applied to Fate Saga’s technology,
magic system and geography. The demographics include the average convention
attendant 39 . Marketability extends to merchandise located in most conventions, such as
figurines, art books, shirts, messenger bags and video games.
39
Since conventions are held for special interests, they tend to attract fanatics. Although conventions can
be held for any subject, this thesis uses “conventions” to describe cartoons, anime, video games and science
fiction. Fate Saga’s target audience, genre and aesthetic combination of anime and western comics is
similar to programs that tend to be popular in conventions. Commonly, merchandise sold in conventions
include DVD box sets, costumes, art books, comics, shirts, messenger bags, figurines and video games.
63
A.3: Synopsis
Fate Saga is about fate versus free will and tells the story of Cain, a traveling
knight who can see the future.
The premise does not derive from any previously developed entity, such as a toy
line or comic series. Like ReBoot or Avatar: The Last Airbender, Fate Saga is an
original story set in its own universe. Also, like Avatar, the primary objective of the
series is to tell that story. In order for the characters and plot to develop to the level of
intricacy that the story requires, a serial continuity is necessary.
The setting is based in an original, medieval world consisting of a Pangaea based
off medieval Europe. Technology is based on the Middle Ages but incorporates alchemy
and steam punk 40 to allow flexibility. Their world is comprised of well-known
fantastical creature races such as dragons, were-wolves, elves and gargoyles, along with
several new races created for the series, such as Draken and Archsaurians.
During the course of Fate Saga, the Pangaea is starting to break apart. Most of
the inhabitants believe their world to be flat and fear that if the land splits, they will all
float away into oblivion or fall off the edge of the world. Consequently, wars constantly
wage off and on as the different countries fight for land.
Duero, where the first season of Fate Saga takes place, is thought to be run by
humans. However, Duero is actually run by the Draken, led by Drax. Some of the
town’s citizens are suspicious, and form a resistance to expose the truth.
40
Steampunk is a genre in science fiction which also commonly crosses over with fantasy, and is
characterized by being set in a Victorian era when steam was the main source of machine power. The
concept of steampunk usually assumes that generally electricity and modern technology is never obtained.
Aesthetically, steampunk is represented through brass and copper with large, intricate gears (Steampunk,
n.d.;Simpson, 1990).
64
The first half of the first season will be procedural, in order to introduce the
characters to the audience and develop their relationships with it other. The second half
will introduce the plot.
Each chapter of the series, called ‘sagas’ and each the length of a season, contain
their own dramatic structure. The first saga is Cain’s attempt to stop his visions from
happening and being caught in the civil war. During his quest, Cain’s heroics make him
friends and enemies along the way. It ends with Cain becoming disillusioned with his
failures and reinterpreting his visions as being events he is supposed to cause, rather than
stop. The second saga is Cain’s role as a villain, Duero’s destruction and the remaining
heroes pursuing and, ultimately, rescuing Cain. The third saga is the apocalypse caused
by the main villain, Armand, and the heroes’ fight to stop it. The sagas will be played out
in chronological order, and the events of one saga will feed into the others.
65
A.4 Outline of the Plot for the Pilot Episode:
In order to give an impression of what an episode would be like, a television pilot
provides a snapshot of the series. Because the pilot does not replace an actual episode, it
follows a procedural structure in the sense that the problem is introduced and resolved
within the events of the episode.
It was important to focus on the story of the series overall, before the story of the
pilot could be considered. In order to imply the serial structure of the series, the pilot
introduces both Cain and his antagonist, Cyrus, as well as gives a brief view of their
personalities, motivations and powers. The pilot episode is meant to take place during
the first season, to display the characters before their personalities would have had time
to develop.
The story is about Cain receiving a vision of the Crystalin burning down, trying to
stop it and, through his own actions, almost causing his vision to happen first hand. The
viewer is meant to follow Cain through his journey of preventing his vision, and it is
intended for the audience to realize that Cain is causing his vision at the same time that
the hero himself discovers it. The reason behind using the discovery of Cain possibly
causing his own vision is to provide a simple version of a similar, but far more
complicated discovery of the same nature that would happen in the series.
66
A.5 Examine the Challenges of Writing a Serial Plot:
During construction of Fate Saga’s scriptwriting and character development,
certain challenges had to be addressed. Throughout the series, pacing had to be
structured so as to avoid overexposure of the story detail and the risk of alienation (of the
audience).
Although Fate Saga takes place in its own, original world, it was imperative to
ensure that the rules of that world make sense and remain consistent. Otherwise, it risks
appearing eclectic. As a result, it was important to base Fate Saga on something factual.
Europe during the Middles Ages visually converged with the integration of mythical
beings such as gargoyles and dragons. Research was conducted on Medieval European
history, architecture, geography, technology and of the general public’s beliefs at the time
in order to inform Fate Saga’s world.
In conclusion, the first-hand process of developing Fate Saga confirms the
intensive commitment required by the creators to carefully examine each aspect of the
story to make sure it retains continuity, clarity and viewer interest. It is an important and
daunting process to keep the information digestible for the viewer, though its degree of
success cannot be determined until the final product is presented to an audience.
67
A.6 Pitch Package:
A.6.1 Proposal
Included with this paper is a book that proposes the premise and characters of
Fate Saga. The book is designed to be presented to a studio or television station. The
proposal includes the logline, story synopsis, character information, a list of the episodes
and artwork.
A.6.2 DVD
Accompanying the proposal is a DVD with the animatic of the 5-minute
television pilot and a fully rendered, animated trailer consisting of shots from the pilot.
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
Figures Figure 2.1: Characteristics of Serials The end of one
episode informs
the beginning of
another.
The existence of a dramatic structure across episodes, across seasons and across the series. Higher level of character development, plot twists, mature themes Figure 2.2 Characteristics of Procedurals
Each episode is its own self‐
contained story Randomness. Deus ex Machina Simplistic character personalities and stories, placing characters in random situations
95
Figure 2.3 Examples of Procedurals
Literature
Live Action Television
Animation
Goosebumps
Castle
Spongebob Squarepants
Aesop’s Fables
Cold Case
Adventure Time
Grimm’s Fairy Tales
CSI
Ren and Stimpy
Legend of Drizzt
Law & Order
Rocco’s Modern Life
Touched by an Angel
Scooby Doo
Lie to Me
Mega Man
Murder, She Wrote
G.I Joe
Golden Girls
Jem
Married with Children,
He-Man
Two and a Half Men
Swat Katz
I Love Lucy
Spider-Man (1967-1970)
96
Figure 2.4 Examples of Serials
Literature
Live Action Television
Animation
Harry Potter
Melrose Place
Avatar: The Last Airbender
Maximum Ride
All My Children
Gargoyles
Lord of the Ring
Guiding Light
Naruto
Animorphs
Dawson’s Creek
Full Metal Alchemist
Twilight
Buffy: The Vampire Slayer
Bleach
Chronicles of Narnia
Passions
Soul Eater
24
Gantz
Heroes
Gundam Wing
Lost
Code Geass
97
4.1 Procedurals Benefits and Risks
Benefits
Flexibility
- Writers only need general understanding of
characters and premise.
- Audience is more accepting to abrupt or
unexplained changes to the show.
- Easier for programs created from
merchandise.
- Easier to account for changes in the toy
industry. -- Can more easily make changes in a
show if something isn’t working or take
advantage of an idea that is working.
Viewers can leave and come back
- Uncommitted viewers can leave and come
back, and still enjoy the show
- Viewers can leave it on as background noise
if they’re too busy to watch carefully.
- People have short attention spans
- Episodes are fast-paced because the conflict
has to be introduced, built up and resolved
quickly.
Less risky
Best Suited for
-Cheaper
-Can be shown in any order.
-Easier to attract new viewers regardless of
what season the show is on
-Broader appeal with young viewers
-Sitcoms
-Comedies
-Shows that rely on being random
-Merchandise-based programs
Risks
Predictability
- No sense of permanence.
- No one can die.
- Characters don’t change.
- Story can become unbelievable.
Viewers already know how it’ll end.
- No sense of real danger.
98
- Hard to believe the emotions of the
characters/feel empathy for them.
Suspension of Disbelief/Discontinuity
- Sometimes writers break consistency of
the rules in that story’s world.
- Character’s personality suddenly
changes to fit the story of that episode,
even if it conflicts with the character’s
beliefs as described in a previous episode.
- Failure to establish or adhere to the
physics of that story’s world.
- Failure to remember what powers or
traits a character has can cause those
abilities to become a deus ex machina
Shallow Storytelling
- All conflict must be introduced and
resolved within one episode.
- Episode must be wrapped up by the end
- Event can never be revisited
- Events that should cause change in the
characters don’t.
- Regardless of the severity of the
problem, viewers know everything will
become “back to normal again”
- Hard to take it seriously.
- Can’t explore the problem deeply
because of the short timeframe.
Lack of Viewer Commitment
- No anticipation for the next episode.
- Audience is less inclined to put forth any
effort to watch the series
- Procedurals for younger audiences tend
to be ‘outgrown’ by viewers
- Viewers may forget about the program
in between seasons.
99
4.2 Serial Benefits and Risks
Benefits
Series has its own Dramatic Structure
Viewer Commitment
Longevity
Best Suited for
- Episodes have a dramatic structure
- The season has its own dramatic structure
- The series overall has a dramatic
structure.
- Rising action throughout the series
creates stronger climatic scenes later.
Draws viewers to continue watching to see
how it will end.
- Unpredictable – the tone of the series can
change and the characters can change
depending on the events.
- Foreshadowing
- Watchers are more willing to go through
extra effort to watch the entire series.
- Viewer Commitment = Financial
Commitment. Viewers may be more
inclined to buy merchandise in support of
their favorite characters.
- Fandom
- Fans can help support a series that’s
losing funding.
- Can keep a series alive after its last
episode, through conventions and fandom.
- Fan support can keep a series on the
minds of companies and inspire them to
revive or restore the series
- Remakes or movies based off of older
stories are very popular now
- Studios can make money from the series
after the show is over.
- Older children/teenagers
- Soap operas
- Drama
- Complex original stories
100
- Romance
- Character-driven shows
Risks
Inflexibility
- More time must be spent on
preproduction.
- Difficult to change the series or characters
part of the way through even if the story
isn’t working.
- Must be conscious of the pacing of both
the episodes and the series overall.
- More plot threads to keep track of.
- How does it end?
Slow/Boring Build Up
- Viewers may not care enough to notice
every foreshadowing element, or may not
watch the episodes close together enough to
remember.
- Story might become too convoluted.
- Viewers might get bored.
- Can be challenging to balance the plot
while keeping each episode and scene
interesting.
Costly in Time and Preproduction
- Takes time and effort on the writers to
keep everyone in character and the story
consistent.
- Creators must be more hands-on in
production
- Networks may be less inclined to pick up
a story they find risky.
Mistakes Are Less Forgivable
- Studios must be cautious of everything
that has happened in prior episodes, down
to the last detail. If a random or
unexpected event happens, viewers can
become angry.
- There may not be enough time allotted to
make sure there are no mistakes in the story
before it has to be sent into production
Cannot Always Account for Unexpected
101
Changes
- Yearly contract makes it impossible to
tell how long the series will stay on the air.
- Censorship
- Network interference
- Time constraints
- Losing your cast/changes in staff
- Writer’s Strike
102
References
Articles
Buffy’s creator makes his Valley of the Dolls. (2009, May 15). The Independent.
Retrieved from http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/features/buffyscreator-makes-his-valley-of-the-dolls-1684993.html
Carter, B. (2008). No mystery: Ratings heat up for ‘NCIS’. The New York Times.
Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/17/arts/television/17ncis.html?_r=2
Cbarney. (2009). Review: Fox’s “Lie to Me” mostly a formulaic procedural. In A+E
Interactive: Bay Area Arts and Entertainment Blog. Retrieved from
http://blogs.mercurynews.com/aei/2009/01/21/review-foxs-lie-to-me-mostly-a-formulaicprocedural/
Cohren, Jackie. (2011). Warner Brothers Now Renting Movies on Facebook. All
Facebook: The Unofficial Facebook Resource. Retrieved from
http://www.allfacebook.com/warner-brothers-now-renting-movies-on-facebook-2011-03
on March 14, 2011
Dehnart, A. (2008). ‘Mentalist’ follows CBS formula, with a twist. TODAY Television.
Retrieved from http://today.msnbc.msn.com/id/27829441
103
Giardina, C. (2007). Early CG TV gets ‘ReBoot’: Rainmaker to develop feature films.
Retrieved from
http://web.archive.org/web/20070914165638/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/cont
ent_display/film/news/e3i9a352772046b5f139781428f87532dad
Gilbert, G. (2009, Feb. 20). American law…British order. The Independent. Retrieved
from http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/features/american-law--britishorder-1626849.html
Goldman, E. (2008, Nov. 17). Could heroes move away from serialization? IGN
Entertainment Games. Retrieved from http://tv.ign.com/articles/931/931067p1.html
Goldman, E. (2009, Oct. 21). New ninja turtles tv series and film coming. IGN
Entertainment Games. Retrieved from http://tv.ign.com/articles/103/1037171p1.html
Grossman, L. (2009 December 14). Steampunk: Reclaiming tech for the masses. Time.
Retrieved from http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1945343,00.html
Hibberd, J. (2009, February 6). Networks’ new pilots favor formula over experiment.
Reuters. Retrieved from http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE5160IN20090207
104
Hughes, J. (2009, September 23). What if House stopped being a procedural? In
TVSquad. Retrieved from http://www.tvsquad.com/2009/09/23/what-if-house-stoppedbeing-a-procedural/
McGill, D.C. (1988, December 25). Dynamic duo: Kevin Eastman and Peter Laird;
Turning Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles into a monster. The New York Times. Retrieved
from http://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/25/business/dynamic-duo-kevin-eastman-peterlaird-turning-teenage-mutant-ninja-turtlesinto.html?scp=1&sq=ninja%20turtles&st=cse&pagewanted=2
Poniewozik, J. (2008 December 4). I have seen Dollhouse. Time. Retrieved from
http://tunedin.blogs.time.com/2008/12/04/i-have-seen-dollhouse/
Rainmaker Animation. (2007). Rainmaker to reboot ReBoot. In ComingSoon.net.
Retrieved from http://www.comingsoon.net/news/movienews.php?id=22558
Reboot Revival. (n.d.) About the revival. Retrieved from
http://rebootrevival.com/?page_id=2 on December 29, 2010.
Simpson, J.C. (1990). Show business: Lean, Green and on the screen. Time. Retrieved
from http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,9697272,00.html#ixzz0h91fnBrj
105
Soggy serials: Drawn-out dramas did not bowl over viewers this TV season. (2007). Star
News Online. Retrieved from
http://www.starnewsonline.com/article/20070524/COLUMNIST11/705240442/-1/ae03
The popularity of Anime in America. (2009, February 11). In Anime-Wiki.org. Retrieved
from http://en.anime-wiki.org/wiki/The_popularity_of_Anime_in_America
Toomey, J. (2009). House: Broken (Season Premiere). In TVSquad. Retrieved from
http://www.tvsquad.com/2009/09/21/house-broken-season-premiere/
Definitions
Continuity. (2010). Dictionary.com Unabridged. Retrieved from Dictionary.com website:
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/continuity
Deus ex machina. (n.d.). Merriam-Webster.com. Retrieved from http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/deus+ex+machina
Jumping the shark. (2010). In Television Tropes & Idioms. Retrieved from
http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/JumpingTheShark
106
Manga. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged. Retrieved from
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/manga
Pollick, M. (2011). What is a Penny Dreadful? In WiseGeek. Retrieved from
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-penny-dreadful.htm
Retcon. (2010). In Television Tropes & Idioms. Retrieved from
http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/Retcon
Steampunk. (n.d.). Dictionary.com's 21st Century Lexicon. Retrieved from
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/steampunk
Webster, N., & Teall, E. N. (1984). New concise Webster’s dictionary: Specially
designed for home, school and office. New York: Modern Publishing.
General Information
Barnes and Noble Online. (2011). Voice-Over for Animation. Retrieved from
http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Voice-Over-for-Animation/Jean-AnnWright/e/9780240810157#TABS
107
BBC Online. (2005). Battle of the Planets. Retrieved from
http://www.bbc.co.uk/cult/classic/battle/index.shtml
Brattin, J.J. (2003). Dickens and Serial Publication. In PBS.org. Retrieved from
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/dickens/life_publication.html
Butler, J.G. (2011). Cartoons: The museum of broadcast communications. Retrieved from
http://www.museum.tv/eotvsection.php?entrycode=cartoons
Federal Communications Commission (2010). Children’s Educational Television.
Retrieved from http://www.fcc.gov/cgb/consumerfacts/childtv.html on Feb 6, 2011
Dirks, T. (2010a). Film history before 1920. In AMC Filmsite. Retrieved from
http://www.filmsite.org/pre20sintro4.html
Dirks, T. (2010b). Serial films. In AMC Filmsite. Retrieved from
http://www.filmsite.org/serialfilms.html
Filler.(2010). In Television Tropes & Idioms. Retrieved from
http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/Filler
Gathering of the Gargoyles (March 10, 2010). Retrieved from
http://www.gatheringofthegargoyles.com/ on February 7, 2011
108
G.I. Joe – A Real American F.A.Q. (2002). In YoJoe! Retrieved from
http://yojoe.com/faq/gifaq.shtml#g3
Powers, R. (1998). Manic ramblings: BOTCON 98. In Rob’s Pile of Transformer’s.
Retrieved from http://www.builtstlouis.net/tf/manic/m-botcon.html
ReBoot Seasons 1 & 2 (2011). In The Official ReBoot Fansite. Retrieved from
http://www.reboot.com/content/index/view/id/3
Reitz, J.M. (2004). Online dictionary for Library and Information Science. Retrieved
from http://lu.com/odlis/odlis_s.cfm
Scott, J. (2006). Complete credits of Emmy-Winning animation writer Jeffrey Scott.
Retrieved from http://www.jeffreyscott.tv/FullCredits.htm
Shathley, Q. (2009). The History of Comic Conventions. Retrieved on March 1, 2011
from http://www.popmatters.com/pm/feature/95236-the-history-of-comic-conventions/
Speed Racer. (2008). In Anime-Wiki.org. Retrieved from http://en.animewiki.org/wiki/Speed_Racer
109
Stephens, M. (2000). History of Television. In Grolier Encyclopedia. Retrieved from
http://www.nyu.edu/classes/stephens/History%20of%20Television%20page.htm
Swanson, M. (2010). How to define Serial Publications. In eHow. Retrieved from
http://www.ehow.com/how_7343900_define-serial-publications.html
Teletraan 1: The Transformers Wiki. (2010). In Wikia. Retrieved from
http://transformers.wikia.com/wiki/To_sell_toys
The history of Adult Swim. (2010, July 23). In Tv Iv. Retrieved from
http://tviv.org/Adult_Swim
The history of American TV shows. (2002) In eSSORTMENT. Retrieved from
http://www.essortment.com/all/historyamerican_rjvj.htm
Toonami history 101. (2006). In Toonami: Absolution Next. Retrieved from
http://www.anxtoonami.com/toonami.php
Warta, T. (2006). Soap Opera history. In Love To Know. Retrieved from http://soapoperas.lovetoknow.com/Soap_Opera_History
110
Interviews
Angelfacade. (2008, July 29). Comic Con 2008: Avatar Panel Q&A. [Video File].
Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7SLiN6yXeZs&NR=1
Boucher, Geoff. (2010, August 12). Did Star Wars become a toy story? Producer Gary
Kurtz looks back. In Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from
http://herocomplex.latimes.com/2010/08/12/star-wars-was-born-a-long-time-ago-but-notall-that-far-far-away-in-1972-filmmakers-george-lucas-and-gary-kurtz-wer/ on Feb 6,
2011.
Farley, John. (2010, July 21). Legend of Korra: The Avatar Creators on the New Spinoff.
In Speakeasy. Retrieved from http://blogs.wsj.com/speakeasy/2010/07/21/legend-ofkorra-the-creators-of-avatar-the-last-airbender-on-the-new-spinoff/
Goodman, M. (2003). Talkin’ Teen Titans: Glen Murakami raps about his latest
superhero series. In Animation World Network. Retrieved from
http://www.awn.com/articles/drtoon/talkin-iteen-titans-i-glen-murakami-raps-about-hislatest-superhero-series
Mell, Tory Ireland. (2008, July 26). SDCC 08: Avatar: The Last Airbender. IGN
Entertainment Games. Retrieved from http://tv.ign.com/articles/892/892988p1.html
111
PulpSecret. (2008, May 20). NYCC interview with GI Joe Creator Larry Hama. [Video
File]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oir75fZMLy0
Superstarseven. (2007, July 16). Avatar at Comic Con. [Video File]. Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cy_J2n78xWY
Walko, B. (2006). Five seasons of Murakanime: An interview with Teen Titans Producer,
Glen Murakami. In Teen Titans: Behind the Scenes. Retrieved from
http://www.titanstower.com/source/animated/behindglens12345.html
White, J. (n.d.) G.I. Joe interview – Buzz Dixon. In Joe Headquarters. Retrieved from
http://www.joeheadquarters.com/interviews_dixon.shtml
Literature
Brasch, W. (2000). Cartoon Monickers: An Insight into the Animation Industry. United
States: iUniversity Inc.
Clifford, B. R., Gunter, B., & McAleer, J. (1995). Television and children: Program
evaluation, comprehension, and impact. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
112
Davis, L., & Dickinson, K. (2004). Teen TV: Genre, consumption and identity. London:
British Film Institute.
Furniss, Maureen. (2008). Art in Motion: Animation Aesthetics. Eastleigh, UK: John
Libbey Publishing; Revised Edition edition.
Maltin, L. & Beck, J. (1987). Of Mice and magic: A history of American animated
cartoons. New York: Penguin Books.
Marc, D. (1984). Demographic vistas: Television in American culture revised edition.
Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Neuwirth, A. (2003). Makin’ Toons: Inside the most popular animated TV shows and
movies. New York, NY: Allworth Press.
Ragussis, M. (1986). Acts of naming: The family plot in fiction. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Ross, S. M., & Stein, L. E. (2008). Teen television: Essays on programming and fandom.
London: McFarland & Company.
Scott, J. (2003). How to write for animation. Woodstock, NY: The Overlook Press, Peter
Mayer Publishers.
113
Wright, J. A. (2005). Animation writing and development: From script development to
pitch. Burlington, MA: Focal Press.
Public Speeches
Plympton, B. (2009). Plympton’s dogma for making money as an Animator. Speech
presented at Savannah College of Art and Design, Savannah, GA
Reviews
Batman Reviews: Buying Guides & Consumer Product Reviews. (2010). In Epinion.
Retrieved from http://www0.epinions.com/reviews/kifm-Network-Cartoon_NetworkBatman
Drucker, M. (2007, Feb. 1). Captain N the Game Master – The complete series. In IGN
Entertainment Games. Retrieved from http://dvd.ign.com/articles/760/760506p1.html
Gargoyles: The complete first season DVD review. (2004). In Ultimate Disney. Retrieved
from http://www.ultimatedisney.com/gargoyles-season1.html.
114
Gargoyles: The complete second season DVD review. (2005). In Ultimate Disney.
Retrieved from http://www.ultimatedisney.com/gargoyles-season2-volume1.html
Josh. (2010, March 3). Wacky comic Wednesday: Stone protectors. In Comic Attack.net.
Retrieved from http://comicattack.net/2010/03/wcwsp/
Lacey, G. (2006, February 25). Beast machines: Transformers – the complete series
review. Retrieved from http://www.tvshowsondvd.com/reviews/Beast-MachinesTransformers-Complete-Series/5178
Martell, D. (2006, March 13). Beast Machines Transformers DVD review. Retrieved
from http://www.gameshark.com/entertainment/reviews/2309/Beast-MachinesTransformers-DVD-Review.htm
Nayrael. (2009, April 2). Soul Eater – Ultimate Review. Retrieved on February 13,
2011 from http://www.narutoforums.com/blog.php?b=8311
Speers, P. (2006, April 3). Transformers Beast Machines: The complete series review.
Retrieved from http://www.hollywoodnorthreport.com/review.php?Review=2814
Walker, D. (2009a). That guy with the glasses: Nostalgia critic: Gargoyles review.
[Video File]. Retrieved from
115
http://thatguywiththeglasses.com/videolinks/thatguywiththeglasses/nostalgia-critic/8726gargoyles
Walker, D. (2009b). That guy with the glasses: Nostalgia critic: Captain N review.
[Video File]. Retrieved from
http://thatguywiththeglasses.com/videolinks/thatguywiththeglasses/nostalgiacritic/10213-captainn
116