Firetube Boiler Design and Engineering - Cleaver

FALL 2015
T R E N D S, T E C H N O L O G I E S & I N N O VAT I O N S
AVOIDING THE
BIG FREEZE
T
ffi
f
As cold weather kicks in, consider heat tracing
and other temporary boiler tips.
Supplement to Engineered Systems Magazine. ES is a member of ABMA.
CHP Success
Considering Special Fuels
Firetube Boiler Design
PAGE 8
PAGE 10
PAGE 16
hot water
Steam Boilers
AHR
16
EXPO 20
booth
#5014
Hurst Boiler & Welding Company
has been designing, engineering and
servicing a complete line of solid fuel,
solid waste, biomass, gas, coal and
oil-fired steam and hot water boilers
since 1967, for thousands of satisfied
customers. Hurst
also manufactures
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boiler room
peripherals such as
blowdown separator surge tanks, and
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feed water tanks.
e
Real-Tim
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Optimize the boiler lead/lag operation by continually
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allows multiple boilers to efficiently work together to
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Integration has become essential for efficient operation and shared duty load. Hurst
developed and offers a full line of processor based smart controls fully compatible with
all Hurst designs including alternative fuel models.
Precise control of fuel and combustion air can result in very high efficiencies. Hurst
intelligence control systems allow you to harness these savings while increasing over
all boiler plant productivity.
PRESIDENT’S MESSAGE
BY SCOTT LYNCH
PREPARING FOR THE
SHIFTING WORKFORCE
I
f you search newsfeeds for manufacturing skills gap, you will
find the following article titles.
• Report: Manufacturing Skills Gap Could Hit 2M Jobs By
2025
• Experts: Manufacturing Skills Gap Is Growing Worse
• Skills Gap Stifling Manufacturing Growth
• Help Wanted: Shortage of Skilled Workers is Unsettling
These issues are prevalent throughout the manufacturing,
and the boiler industry is no exception.
ABMA members have stated it continues to be difficult to
recruit qualified employees, and they are concerned about the
upcoming retirements of many long-term baby boomers. ABMA
is exploring ways to work with its members to address these issues, but there are some strong headwinds.
David DeLong, president of Smart Workforce Strategies, author, and a research fellow at the MIT AgeLab, was the keynote
presenter at ABMA’s 2015 Manufacturers Conference. He shared
his insights on today’s realities but also offered some practical
solutions.
He stated there are six drivers shaping this issue.
• Lack of pipeline to train new workers
• Increased skill levels to work with new technologies
• Lack of young talent interest
• Millennials learning differently
• Cherry picking of talent
• Aging workforce
Companies and industries that take action in this area will be
able to set themselves apart from their competitors.
Many of the areas above focus on the recruitment side, which
continues to get a lot of publicity. I would like to address the
AD INDEX
other (and possibly more important side) dealing with the aging workforce and knowledge transfer. There are individuals
throughout the workforce who are less than five years from
retirement and are key knowledge resources in the workforce.
How are these people transferring their knowledge within your
organization? Do you have someone ready to step into each
critical role?
In DeLong’s book, Lost Knowledge: Confronting the Threat of
an Aging Workforce, he addresses how losing critical knowledge
threatens the performance of organizations and offers ideas to
reduce the risks and leverage opportunities posed by changing
workforce demographics.
DeLong recommends that companies complete a Knowledge
Silo Matrix exercise. This addresses each functional area and
each employee’s capabilities to determine if you have a backup,
mentor, and someone who is ready to take over the function/
knowledge area. Through this process, you can get a clearer
picture of where your company’s gaps exist in order to begin addressing them. This should also allow you prioritize your efforts
based on the results.
I encourage you to think about how your company is
addressing this issue and to visit DeLong’s website at www.
smartworkforcestrategies.com for further insights on this topic.
For more information on ABMA’s current activities, including
a full recap of the Manufacturers Conference, please visit our
website at www.abma.com. TB
Scott Lynch is president and chief executive officer of the American Boiler Manufacturers Association (ABMA). Contact him at
[email protected].
AERCO ........................................................................................11
Penn Separator Corp. ............................................................. 23
Bradford White ................................................................... 14-15
Power Flame...........................................................................9
Cleaver-Brooks ..........................................................Back Cover
Goodway ..................................................................................... 7
Rentech ........................................................................................ 5
Hurst Boiler ................................................Inside Front Cover
Topog-E ..................................................................................... 25
Miura Boiler ...............................................................................13
Victaulic ......................................................................................17
3
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T O D AY ’ S B O I L E R
INSIDE
26
THE ABMA 2015 MANUFACTURERS CONFERENCE HOSTED BY MICHIGAN SEAMLESS TUBE. MORE PHOTOS AND FOLLOW-UP ON PAGE 26.
3 President’s Message
16 Firetube Boiler Design and Engineering
Cleaver-Brooks
By Scott Lynch
6 Freeze Damage Prevention: Temporary Boilers
Nationwide Boiler
8 Using the Right Boiler to Make Power Plant
Economics Work
Rentech
10 Special Considerations for Special Fuels
Preferred Utilities Manufacturing Corporation
20 Combustion Solutions for Meeting Ultra-Low
NOx Emissions
Power Flame
22 COe Control: Closed Loop Burner Efficiency &
Enhanced Safety
Hays Cleveland
24 Wiping the Slate Clean
Autoflame
SCOTT LYNCH
President and Chief Executive Officer, ABMA // [email protected]
www.bnpmedia.com
2401 W. Big Beaver Rd., Ste. 700,
Troy, MI 48084
248/244-8264
IN PARTNERSHIP WITH
„ MELANIE KUCHMA
Publisher // [email protected]
Project Manager // [email protected]
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Senior Editor // [email protected]
Production Manager // [email protected]
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Editor // [email protected]
Art Director // [email protected]
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Midwest Advertising Manager // [email protected]
Eastern Advertising Manager // [email protected]
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www.abma.com
West Coast Advertising Manager // [email protected]
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FREEZE DAMAGE
PREVENTION:
TEMPORARY BOILERS
U
nplanned boiler outages are unpredictable, and temporary equipment can be required at any moment. A
shutdown can happen in the midst of a hot summer
day or in the middle of a blustery winter night when
temperatures are below zero.
With the winter season right around the corner, it is a good
time to remind boiler owners about proper preparations for
rental equipment operating in freezing weather conditions.
Although most rental equipment is designed for outdoor installation and includes features such as TEFC motors, NEMA
4 enclosures, and all seal-tite conduit, there are still a number
of precautionary steps that can be taken to avoid boiler operational difficulties and/or equipment damage caused by freezing temperatures.
Nationwide Boiler offers mobile boiler rooms up to 1,000 hp,
the largest mobile firetube unit in the market today. Mobile
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T O D AY ’ S B O I L E R
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boiler rooms feature a firetube boiler/burner package and auxiliary equipment installed inside an enclosed trailer. These rental
units are already partially protected from freezing conditions.
However, trailer-mounted and skid-mounted watertube and
firetube boilers are typically exposed to the environment and
require additional freeze protection. Unless the rental unit will
be placed inside a building, you will need to build a temporary
enclosure to protect the front and rear of the boiler area and
utilize an external heat source. This will shield the boiler and
piping from potential freeze damage.
HEAT TRACING A PATH TO SUCCESS
Regardless of the type of rental boiler in use, heat tracing with
insulation should be installed to protect exposed static water
lines, as well as all main lines and piping components. This includes control sensing lines, water cut-offs, water column, and
NATIONWIDE BOILER
level control blowdown. Depending on the
length of the piping runs, the main and
continuous blowdown should also be heat
traced. Under freezing conditions, all of
these lines should be heat traced whether
the boiler is in operation or not.
Heat tracing is used to maintain or raise
the temperature of pipes or valves to prevent boiler water from freezing, expanding, and damaging the piping. The two
most common types of heat tracing used
are electric tracing and steam tracing.
In electric trace heating, an electrical
heating element runs the length of the
pipe. Heat generated by the element
then maintains the temperature of the
pipe as well as the liquid inside the pipe.
This type of heat tracing can be very
cost-effective and energy-efficient, and
is less maintenance intensive and easier
to control than steam tracing. In addition, electricity is easier to move to a
remote location if needed. However, with
electric tracing you are unable to achieve
the high temperatures that you can with
steam tracing, and if not monitored carefully, electric cables can overheat and
cause damage to the system.
Steam tracing heats the piping by circulating low-pressure steam around the
pipes, generally through a stainless steel
or copper tubing. Heating the pipes with
the steam will also maintain the temperature and state of the liquid inside
them. In many rental boiler
cases, steam tracing has been
found to be the less expensive and preferred method
for maintaining appropriate
pipe line temperatures since
the steam is readily available. Further savings can be
achieved through this method
by capturing the condensate
produced in the tracers with
steam traps and returning it
to the boiler feedwater system. However, electric tracing
can be more dependable if the
steam source is not constant,
is not from the rental unit
which might cycle, or in worst
case, the unit supplying the steam goes
out of service.
In addition to heat tracing on static
sensing lines when the boiler is in operation, the lines should be drained completely, disconnected, and filled with a
50/50 solution of water and glycol prior
to re-connecting. The solution is a safe
antifreeze mixture, which has a lower
freezing point than that of water and
will protect the lines for a longer period
of time. When an extended boiler down
time is expected, or if the rental equipment is in transit from a customer’s
jobsite, the boiler and static water lines
should be drained completely.
THE TIME IS NOW
The importance of being prepared is unquantifiable. Through a proactive evaluation of freeze potential and by utilizing
these freeze protection techniques, damage to the boiler, system piping, and devices can be avoided or mitigated to a large
extent. This prior planning can help avoid
costly repairs and downtime. Take advantage of the tips outlined above, but also use
sound engineering judgment calls when
there are concerns of possible freeze damage to the equipment. TB
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T O D AY ’ S B O I L E R
RENTECH >
Using The Right Boiler
To Make Power Plant
Economics Work
I
t’s tough to make the economics of a power plant work these
days. Coal plants are largely out of the question due to regulatory restrictions that require the installation of very expensive equipment to reduce emissions. Even gas-fired plants
can be a tough sell despite the low cost of natural gas in the USA.
But the financial equation becomes viable once gas turbines are
harnessed in combined cycle mode along with a heat recovery
steam generator (HRSG). Waste heat from the exhaust can then
be captured in the HRSG and used to make steam to drive a steam
turbine that generates more electricity. This results in some of
the highest levels of efficiency of any form of generation. Alternatively, the steam produced in the HRSG can be used as part of
industrial processes, as well as for heating and cooling. When the
steam is used in ways other than to produce more power, this is
known as combined heat and power (CHP) or cogeneration.
FLORIDA: A SUNNY FORECAST FOR CHP
One such CHP facility is under construction on Amelia Island,
Northeast Florida, to service Rayonier Performance Fibers. Rayonier, a supplier of cellulose specialty products, is partnering with
Florida Power Utilities Co. (FPU) to create Eight Flags Energy. It
will twin up a 20 MW Titan 250 gas turbine by Solar Turbines and
an HRSG by Rentech Boiler Systems to provide the options of either operating solely as a combined cycle power plant or as a CHP
plant to serve the steam and hot water needs of Rayonier. Eight
Flags Energy is expected to come online in the second half of 2016.
This new facility will augment two biomass boilers on Rayonier’s
current site on the island that burns bark, wood chips, and other
material to satisfy existing steam and power requirements. However, with that plant running at close to its steam limits, expansion plans called for more power and more steam. Additionally,
this new building offers the company the ability to take a boiler
down for maintenance and switch the HRSG from supplying power to a steam turbine to providing steam to the factory.
This is made possible due to the fact that the HRSG is built to
recover 70,000 lbs of steam per hour. But it has the capability to
increase that amount when needed by turning on duct burners.
“Rentech duct burners between the gas turbine and the
HRSG can increase production to 125,000 pounds per hour of
process steam,” said CA McDonald, general manager of Eight
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T O D AY ’ S B O I L E R
FA L L 2 015
Flags Energy Center. “We can take advantage of these additional
steam capabilities whenever we have a boiler down.”
In normal operation, boiler feed water will be converted into
steam which will be returned to Rayonier for use in cellulose
manufacturing. In addition, de-mineralized water will be channeled through a hot water economizer in the HRSG to increase
the water temperature by approximately 70°F. This hot water
will be returned to Rayonier for use in production processes.
Rayonier accomplishes all of its power generation onsite. As it
is connected to the grid, it sells excess power to the local utility
Florida Public Utility (FPU). In the event of downtime, it can
draw power from the grid. FPU, in turn, will use the power it
produces at Eight Flags Energy to supply about half of Amelia
Island’s electric requirements.
“The cost of the plant and the pricing arrangement for excess
power we have made with FPU made it attractive to go with natural-gas fired CHP versus other incremental sources and fuels,”
said McDonald. “Operating a gas turbine in simple cycle mode
would have given us much lower efficiency so there would have
been no project without the Rentech HRSG.”
The Solar Titan 250 will run continuously (except for
maintenance outages) and supply FPU with approximately 20 MW’s of electricity for use locally on the island.
Along with Rayonier, FPU conducted an exhaustive analysis of many different types of facility including a variety of
gas turbines, reciprocating engines, boilers, and HRSGs.
“The Solar Titan 250 turbine has a proven track record of reliable and efficient performance, and when used along with a
Rentech HRSG, fit well into the plan to operate the facility for
many years to come,” said Mark Cutshaw, director of business
development and generation at FPU. “The CHP facility will produce electricity at a much lower cost than the current wholesale
power cost.” TB
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PREFERRED UTILITIES >
SPECIAL
CONSIDERATIONS
for
SPECIAL FUELS
BY DAN WALLACE
WHAT FUELS ARE GENERALLY CONSIDERED
TO BE SPECIAL?
Typical fuels that are burned in stationary fired equipment such
as boilers are natural gas, propane, #2 oil, #6 oil, and coal. Fuels that differ in composition, heating value, viscosity, etc., are
generally considered to be special and often require unique consideration when burning them in fired equipment.
Oftentimes, combustible or waste matter (gases, liquids, and
solids) is generated as a result of a process utilized in places such
as a chemical manufacturing facility, a food processing plant, or
a refinery. Some common applications where combustible gases
are generated are in landfills and digester plants where methane
(CH4 ) along with other compounds such as carbon dioxide (CO2 )
are generated during the decomposition process. Waste oil from
motor or bearing lubrication is a common combustible liquid
that is available for burning, and sawdust is an example of a solid
combustible fuel that is left over from a wood-cutting operation.
WHY DO USERS WANT TO BURN THESE
“SP ECIAL” FUELS?
In many cases, these special fuels have enough Btu content
to economically warrant the installation of a burner, piping
train, and controls for making beneficial use (e.g. burning
in a boiler) of the fuel. There are times, however, where although the Btu content may be relatively low or nonexistent,
there may be disposal and environmental considerations for a
particular substance that warrant the incineration via supplemental heat input from a fuel such as natural gas in a boiler.
HEATING VALUE OF FUELS (BTU VALUE)
When considering whether a particular substance is economical
to burn, one of the first things to consider is the heating value. A
common combustible gas, methane, has a typical higher heating
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T O D AY ’ S B O I L E R
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value (HHV) of 23,879 Btu/lbm. With many special fuels, there
are inert compounds such as CO2, blended with a combustible
gas (such as methane) that lowers the overall heating value of
the fuel. The exact constituents and percentages of compounds
within the fuel must be known in order to determine the feasibility and requirements for making beneficial use of the fuel.
WATER AND SOLIDS CONTENT IN LIQUID
FUELS
When determining the requirements of burning a special liquid fuel, knowing the water and solids contained in the fuel
is important for the handling and combustion of the fuel.
The fuel piping typically will have a strainer installed to filter
out particulate matter in the fuel so that equipment such as
flow meters, control valves, and nozzles will not get plugged
during the handling and combustion of the fuel. Water in
the fuel has a significant impact on the adiabatic flame temperature and can quench the fire. With relatively high water
content, a supplemental fuel such as natural gas may need
to be burned to sustain complete and stable combustion.
VISCOSITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, AND PARTICLE SIZE
When evaluating a liquid fuel source, it is prudent to determine
the fluid viscosity as the fuel may need to be heated in order to
be pumped and burned properly. Fuels that are similar to heavy
oil can have a kinematic viscosity of 10,000 Saybolt Universal
Seconds (SSU), where fuels that are similar to diesel fuel would
have a kinematic viscosity of roughly 50 SSU.
The specific gravity of liquid and gaseous fuels is important
as it relates the density compared to water and air, respectively.
The specific gravity has an effect on the pressure drop through
the piping and combustion system and may influence the combustion characteristics. When evaluating the interchangeabil-
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construction in the system at the design
temperatures. For example, the presence
of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in gaseous fuels
is highly corrosive with many standard
piping materials.
After the fuel is combusted, with certain temperatures, common combustion products such as CO2 and SOx can
form carbonic acid and sulfuric acid,
respectively. With certain fuels, the temperature of the combustion products
may need to be kept higher in order to
prevent the formation of such acids.
ity of gaseous fuels, a valuable metric
is the Wobbe Index, which is defined as
the Higher Heating Value divided by the
square root of the specific gravity.
WOBBE INDEX = HHV / √(S.G.)
When considering a pulverized or particulate solid fuel such as coal or sawdust,
the particle size and size distribution
are of relatively high importance. As an
example, coal particles that are larger in
diameter require higher velocity conveying air to transfer the coal without dropout or plugging in piping. Larger particle
sizes may also affect combustion and
may make the solid fuel more difficult
to burn. The particle size distribution is
also important, as the handling and combustion are different for varying sizes.
FUEL AVAILABILITY
In order to properly handle, control, and
burn a special fuel, the available pressure
and flow need to be determined in order
to properly design the system. The available pressure and flow will be used to determine the sizing of the piping and fluid
handling equipment. Ideally, the fuel
would have a relatively constant pressure
and availability, but this is not always
the case. Depending on the process or
means of production of the fuel, the pressure and availability can be unpredictable
or intermittent. In cases such as this, a
state-of-the-art control system will need
to be utilized in order to compensate for
these uncertainties.
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T O D AY ’ S B O I L E R
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EMISSIONS CONSIDERATIONS
When gathering information on a specialty fuel application, an ultimate analysis of the fuel will identify compounds
with the fuel that can contribute to EPA
regulated emissions. For instance, fuel
bound nitrogen (FBN) or nitrogen content in the fuel has a direct relationship
to the amount of nitric oxides and nitrogen dioxides that are together commonly
known as NOx. Similarly, the presence of
sulfur in the fuel has a direct relationship
to SOx emissions. For solid fuels such as
coal, metals such as mercury (Hg) are of
concern. Additionally, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) can be of particular
concern with waste fuels. Because many
special fuels are relatively more difficult
to burn than traditional fuels, it is important that the burner is able to completely combust the fuel so that carbon
monoxide (CO) emissions can be minimized. The presence of ash could result
in particulate matter (PM) emissions
and deposits in the fired equipment that
would need to get periodically removed.
CORROSION: PRE- AND
POST-COMBUSTION
One indicator of a fuel’s propensity to
cause corrosion is the pH number. With a
pH of 7 being neutral, a pH of 2 is considerably more acidic as the pH scale is logarithmic. With each integer change lower
than 7, the fuel is 10 times more acidic.
One must also know the reactivity of the
fuels constituents with the materials of
COMBUSTION
CONSIDERATIONS
When available, combustion characteristics such as flammability limits,
flame speed, and ignition temperature
should be known. The design of the
burner may need to be tweaked to burn
a fuel such as hydrogen (H2 ) which has
a flame speed roughly six times that of
natural gas. Burning hydrogen without
sufficient velocity in the burner nozzle
could result in flashback and a possible explosion. Continuing with the H2
example, the upper flammability limit
of H2 is roughly five times larger than
that of natural gas making it more likely to ignite under fuel rich conditions.
CONCLUSION
With proper analysis, planning, and system design, there are many fuel sources
available to be burned for either energy
conversion or incineration. Energy prices and environmental restrictions have
proven to be drivers of the burning of
these special fuels. While there are many
possible sources for fuels, the evaluation
of Btu content, water and solids content,
viscosity, specific gravity, particle size,
fuel availability, emissions, corrosion,
and combustion requirements should be
considered for a special fuel application.
Wallace is a mechanical engineer at
Preferred Utilities Manufacturing
Corporation (www.preferred-mfg.
com).
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CLEAVER-BROOKS
FIRETUBE BOILER DESIGN
AND ENGINEERING
BY STEVE CONNOR
T
he firetube boiler has been around
for more than a century, powering
the steamboats and steam locomotives that played a major role in the
industrialization of America. Today, a broad
range of industries count on the firetube boiler
to provide comfort heating and process heating where both lower and higher temperatures
and pressures are required.
A firetube boiler is called such because the
flame and hot gases are inside the furnace and
tubes, which are surrounded by water. This
is the reverse of a watertube boiler design in
which water circulates inside the tubes that
are heated externally by the flame.
THE CLEAVER-BROOKS CBEX ELITE FIRETUBE BOILER WITH INTEGRAL BURNER
REQUIRES LESS SQUARE FOOTAGE OF HEATING SURFACE TO ACHIEVE THE SAME
BTU OUTPUT AS A TRADITIONAL FIRETUBE.
DRYBACK VS. WETBACK DESIGN
There are different types of firetube boiler designs, including
dryback and wetback with an integral or gun burner.
A dryback firetube boiler includes a refractory-filled rear door
that can be opened to expose the entire rear tube sheet and affixed tubes. A dryback boiler with integral burner enables an
operator to swing open the front door to easily gain access to
the front tube sheet.
A wetback firetube boiler has a water-leg located between the
turnaround plate and the rear tube sheet. This design element
eliminates the heavy refractory rear door found in the dryback
boiler and replaces it with a much smaller refractory-filled plug
or access way.
With regard to the benefits of each design, the dryback firetube boiler has the distinct advantage of providing easy accessibility to the rear tube sheet for inspections, cleanings, and
tube/furnace repair. It reveals all passes in a boiler, including
the second pass, which is the most critical in all types of firetube
boilers. In a wetback boiler, access to the second pass is very
confined, which is challenging during inspections and repairs,
especially in smaller-horsepower models.
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T O D AY ’ S B O I L E R
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The main advantage of the wetback boiler is the elimination
of the heavy rear refractory-filled door. This door is sometimes
cumbersome to open and reseal, and it can be an ongoing inspection and possible maintenance issue as well.
The size range for horizontal firetube boilers is broad, between
100 and 2,500 BHP, which equates to between 3,450 and 86,250
pounds of steam per hour. At the top end of the range, firetube
boilers can compete with smaller industrial watertube boilers.
The design pressure for firetube boilers can go as high as 350
psig, but typically these boilers are in the 150- to 250-psig range.
In sizes exceeding 800 to 900 BH P, the wetback design is used
because at this size, the refractory rear door on a dryback boiler
is too big and heavy to manually maneuver.
Firetube boilers can have either an integral burner or a guntype burner. An integral burner is a complete unit that includes
a pressurized wind box, blower/fan assembly and burner assembly, all integrated together and mounted on the front of the
pressure vessel.
The gun burner uses a different concept for air delivery.
Rather than using a pressurized wind box and discharge fan
DESIGNED FOR USE ON COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL STEAM APPLICATIONS
Eliminate the need to
weld steam systems
•
Available in 2 – 8" | 50 – 200 mm sizes
•
Pressures up to 150 psi | 1034 kPa | 10 bar
•
Components designed in accordance
with ASME B31.1, ASME B31.3 and
ASME B31.9 codes to ensure technical
confidence and reliability
For more information visit
victaulicsteam.com/boiler
9135 REV A 10/2015
Victaulic and all other Victaulic marks are the trademarks or registered trademarks of Victaulic Company,
and/or its affiliated entities, in the U.S. and/or other countries. The terms “Patented” or “Patent Pending”
refer to design or utility patents or patent applications for articles and/or methods of use in the
United States and/or other countries.
© 2015 VICTAULIC COMPANY. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
CLEAVER-BROOKS
as is the case with the integral burner, the gun burner draws
the room air in and delivers it to a blast tube before the air is
straightened and discharged across the fuel/air mixing device
(called the diffuser).
As far as firing modulation for firetube boilers, in many cases
smaller sizes (100 – 150 BHP) offer hi-lo-off firing in addition to
full modulation. For boilers greater than 150 BH P, it is typical
that a modulating burner is standard. Turndown capability also
varies among the burner types (integral or gun) with 4:1 being
the most common, but 10:1 is often offered, too, especially in
the larger sizes (over 200 BHP) when an application requires
it. In facilities where large loads can vary, this broader range
modulating control is necessary to avoid excessive cycling.
With regard to fuel firing, the firetube boiler is quite versatile.
It can handle an array of fuels, including natural gas, propane,
light and heavy oil, and bio-fuels such as landfill and digester
gas, fats, oils, and greases coming off the various processes.
Depending on the boiler capacity, fuel, firing rate, and operating pressure/temperature, firetube boilers are very efficient.
Properly designed firetube boilers average between 81 to 87%
efficiency. Note that if FGR is used to reduce NOx emissions to
below 20 ppm, this will likely impact the turndown of the burner, which may increase cycling. Frequent cycling can reduce
efficiency by a significant amount so this needs to be closely
considered before deciding on the final horsepower requirement
in an effort to mitigate the cycling problem.
All boilers are built in accordance with specific ASME standards. This code is very detailed as to how boilers are constructed. It includes parameters about boiler plate thicknesses, the
type of welding to be applied, when stress relieving is necessary,
when and what to X-ray, hydrostatic testing, etc. It also requires
an independent inspector to be in the plant at all times to oversee specific boiler construction operations and ensure that the
plant’s quality procedures are closely followed.
TYPES OF HEAT TRANSFER
In a firetube boiler, both radiant and convective forces work to
transfer heat from the burner to the water within the vessel.
Radiant heat transfer occurs in the furnace and includes the
surfaces that surround the flame. To maximize radiant heat
transfer, it is imperative that the burner and the furnace be
matched precisely so combustion can be fully completed. This
ensures that there is very low to no CO and zero hydrocarbon
and the heat is delivered within its confines to maximize radiant
heat absorption conductively.
Convective heat transfer in the boiler is the amount of surface
that does not see the flame, but is only exposed to the hot combustion gases. This is the area of design where the heat transfer engineer is looking very closely to maximize the Reynolds
number, which is the ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces.
To a large extent, this dynamic is dependent on the turbulent
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T O D AY ’ S B O I L E R
FA L L 2 015
velocity of the gas passing through the heat transfer surfaces.
Engineers also want to maximize the heat transfer coefficient, which is the proportionality between heat flow per unit
area and the significant temperature difference between the
fireside and waterside surfaces.
OPTIMIZED DESIGNS REQUIRE LESS HEATING
SURFACE
It used to be that 5 sq ft of heating surface in the boiler was required to maximize efficiency and extend the life of the pressure
vessel. Some manufacturer designs and many specs continue to
use this old, but still valid, engineering principle.
In today’s optimized firetube boiler design, highly engineered
spiral tubes are used instead of bare tubes. A bare tube only utilizes a portion of its diameter for heat transfer because of the hot
gas boundary layer that forms as the velocity slows during its
travel through the tube, reducing the heat transfer. As a result,
more surface area is needed to exchange the heat of the gas before
it exits the stack. On the other hand, an advanced heat transfer
spiral tube uses its entire inner tube diameter surface, increasing
the heat transfer by as much as 85% compared to a bare tube.
Due to this efficiency, fewer tubes and passes are required
in today’s newer design, thereby reducing the fan motor horsepower, which saves electrical energy. This also facilitates a more
compact boiler design that has a smaller footprint and weighs
less than the traditional firetube.
By optimizing the convective heat transfer surface of the
spiral tube, engineers were afforded the space to geometrically
optimize the size and shape of the furnace. Utilizing advanced
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling techniques, engineers also maximized the heat transfer in the radiant zone,
achieving the overall optimum Reynolds number and heat
transfer coefficients while significantly lowering the flue gas
pressure drop through the unit.
In today’s optimized boilers, the heating surface is approximately 3 sq ft per boiler horsepower versus 5 sq ft. This is due to
the heat exchanger now more effectively extracting heat in both
the radiant and convective sides.
Engineers use CFD and Finite Element Analysis to design
better firetube boiler packages. These analytical design techniques enable them to achieve optimal radiant and convective
heat transfer outcomes and also properly match burner characteristics to the furnace to maximize efficiency and ensure a
long asset life. TB
Steve Connor is an industry expert in steam and hot water
generation with more than 50 years of experience. He recently
retired from Cleaver-Brooks as Director of Technical and Marketing Services. To learn more, visit www.cleaverbrooks.com/
firetubedesign to watch a webinar titled Firetube Boiler Design,
Construction and Engineering.
FIND
THE
RIGHT
SUPPLIER
DON’T WASTE PRECIOUS TIME SEARCHING FOR SUPPLIERS
Turn to the Mechanical Products Sourcebook for companies in the
building HVAC industry.
GO TO:
http://sourcebook.esmagazine.com
or SCAN THE CODE:
POWER FLAME >
COMBUSTION SOLUTIONS
FOR MEETING ULTRA-LOW
NOx EMISSIONS
E
PA non-attainment areas are
constantly under pressure to
meet the Clean Air Standards
of 1990. While there are a number of non-attainment areas throughout
the country, California has been dealing
with this issue for decades and as costeffective combustion solutions have been
developed, the Air Resource Boards have
responded accordingly by lowering the
NOx emissions on commercial and industrial stationary sources. The most recent
round of emission reductions focused on
units with heat inputs of 2 million Btuh
heat input or larger. The South Coast Air
Quality Management District (SCAQMD)
and the San Joaquin Valley Air Pollution
Control District (SJVAPCD) mandated
NOx emission on gas-fired stationary
sources not to exceed 9 ppm corrected to
3% excess oxygen.
FORMATION OF NOx
NOx is produced from the nitrogen present in the combustion air and in the fuel
being burned. The generation of NOx is
in large part governed through chemical kinetics, resulting from high flame
temperatures in the presence of oxygen
over a period of time commonly referred
to as resident time. The two main components when burning gaseous fuels are
thermal and prompt NOx. Thermal NOx
results when the nitrogen and oxygen in
the air combine at the elevated temperatures of the combustion process (the air
we breathe consists of approximately 21%
oxygen and 79% nitrogen). Prompt NOx
is formed in the early, low-temperature
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T O D AY ’ S B O I L E R
FA L L 2 015
and fuel-rich stages of combustion. Hydrocarbon fragments can react with nitrogen to form fixed nitrogen species such
and CN, NH3, HCN, H2CN, etc. These, in
turn, can be oxidized in the leaner zones
of the flame forming NO. While promptNOx is usually a relatively small part of
the total NOx produced, it can be a significant portion of the total amount for
ultra-low NOx combustion systems (sub9 ppm or lower).
stage high in excess air (resulting in lower peak flame temperatures in this zone),
while the secondary flame zone operates
at lower oxygen concentrations, which
retards NOx formation. NOx emissions
are further reduced by the quenching effect of inert products of combustion from
the first stage which lowers second stage
flame temperatures.
REDUCING NOx EMISSIONS
This well-known method uses cooled
flue gases from the boiler stack as a
source of dilution. They are very low
in oxygen content and are composed of
inert compounds like nitrogen, water
vapor, and carbon dioxide which are an
excellent heat sink. These inert compounds reduce the peak flame temperature in the combustion process and can
effectively reduce the formation of thermal NOx by 80%.
The burner combustion air blower
induces a flow of recirculated flue gas,
which is mixed with the combustion
air within the burner. Flue gas enters
the burner through an IFGR adapter,
which prevents recirculation during
purge periods and controls the volume
of flue gas flow during burner operation.
Maintaining stable combustion when inducing FGR is critical to the success of
this method of NOx reduction; however,
sub-30 ppm can be easily achieved in
most applications and sub-20 ppm NOx
levels are achievable in favorable furnace
designs. Since the combustion air fan
delivers both the necessary air for com-
In general, the reduction of NOx in the
combustion process involves three methods: the reduction of the peak flame
temperatures which drive the chemical
kinetics, controlling stoichiometry (the
amount of oxygen present during these
critical reactions), and reduction of nitrogen in the fuel (which generally pertains to fuel oils). Burners can be classified as diffusion flame (nozzle-mix) type,
premix, or a hybrid of both types.
LOW EXCESS AIR
OPERATION – NOZZLE MIX
TYPE BURNERS
Low excess air operation, while it generally results in a higher flame temperature, does reduce the amount of free
oxygen and nitrogen available for the
formation of NOx. For every percentage point of reduction of the flue gas
oxygen level, the NOx level is generally
reduced by 2 to 8 ppm of NOx.
STAGED COMBUSTION
Staged air and fuel burners use a first
INDUCED FLUE GAS
RECIRCULATION (IFGR)
FIGURE 1 – TYPICAL BURNER
INSTALLATION WITH IFGR
LOW-NOx BURNERS.
FIGURE 3 – SURFACESTABILIZED ULTRA-LOW
NOX BURNER.
bustion and the recirculated flue gases, additional fan capacity
must be planned, and in some instances burner model size
may increase for a given application. In general, Induced Flue
Gas Recirculation (IFGR) is a very cost-effective and proven
method for reducing NOx to sub-30 ppm levels. The addition of
flue gas recirculation piping to deliver the FGR to the burner
needs to be considered in the total installation cost of this low
NOx burner system.
FULL PREMIX BURNER (NON-SURFACE TYPE)
Premix low NOx burners reduce NOx emissions by controlling
the fuel air mix and temperature in each combustion zone.
These burners do not require any external flue gas piping and
utilize normal (unfiltered) boiler room combustion air. Burner
maximum sizes are generally limited due to increased pressure
drop requirements across the burner head and relatively large
diffuser openings (for premix technology) to ensure no flashback conditions. Similar NOx reductions can be obtained if the
premix strategy is combined with flue gas recirculation. This
approach will reduce the higher excess air levels normally required with the full premix strategy allowing for more efficient
operation.
FULL PREMIX SURFACE COMBUSTION
BURNERS
These are surface burning, radiant type burners usually constructed of metal, ceramic, or fiber metal mesh surfaces and
utilize a premix gas/air arrangement. The flame burns at
temperatures just below the threshold where thermal NOx is
formed and the rapid combustion of the fuel minimizes the
formation of prompt NOx. The premix strategy alone can
achieve as much as 90% NOx reduction. NOx levels are reduced with increased oxygen (O2) operating levels. Typically,
stack O2 levels in the 4 to 5.5% range will produce sub-30 ppm
NOx (corrected to 3% O2) levels. With O2 in the 5.5 to 6.5%
FIGURE 2 – TYPICAL NONSURFACE STABILIZED PREMIX
LOW NOX BURNER.
FIGURE 4 – TYPICAL HIGH
IFGR, STAGED COMBUSTION
BURNER.
range, sub-20 ppm NOx levels can be achieved. Sub-9 ppm and
lower NOx levels can be achieved with even higher excess oxygen levels in the 7.5 to 9% range.
ULTRA-LOW NOx SOLUTIONS
The two most proven combustion approaches for achieving single digit NOx emissions are: 100% premix, surface stabilized, or
high IFGR with staged combustion.
A typical 100% premix surface stabilized burner is shown in
Figure 3, fitted with burner control panel, an air filter assembly, flame safeguard controls, Venturi mixing chamber, and a
woven fiber mesh element. Additional safety devices are advised
to monitor the filter condition — typically differential pressure
switches to warn when the filter is getting dirty and to shut
the burner down when the filter is too dirty to maintain proper
air fuel ratios. The ease with which premix burners can achieve
single-digit NOx emissions offsets the small loss in system efficiency due to operating at high excess oxygen levels.
Figure 4 shows a typical high IFGR, staged-combustion
burner in which two proven technologies are combined to effectively reduce thermal and prompt NOx while operating at
lower excess oxygen levels than the fully premixed burners. To
closely monitor the amount of flue gas being introduced into
the burner and the effective control of the staged air/fuel ratios,
these types of burners require more sophisticated safety and
combustion controls. Minimally, a parallel positioning control
system is required and oxygen trim is recommended. Fully metered combustion controls are sometimes required due to the
level of staged combustion being utilized and the rapid mixing
of the air and fuel in combination with the IFGR.
Both types of systems have been effectively applied in boiler,
process heater, and steam generator installations within California and other non-attainment areas throughout the country.
As combustion technology continues to advance, the development of efficient, even lower emission burners are possible. TB
21
W W W. ABM A .COM
T O D AY ’ S B O I L E R
HAYS CLEVELAND >
COe CONTROL:
CLOSED LOOP BURNER EFFICIENCY
& ENHANCED SAFETY
O
xygen trim (O2 trim) is widely
acknowledged as an essential element of burner control that allows
boiler operators to reduce both energy costs and associated harmful emissions.
Over the past two decades O 2 trim has evolved
from basic systems that adjusted mechanical
linkages using Bowden cables through to today’s sophisticated microprocessor-controlled
electronic linkageless burner management
systems that employ highly accurate and repeatable servo motors to position air dampers
and fuel drives.
The concept of O 2 trim was the result of
the development of in-situ zirconia-based flue
gas measuring technology. Efficient and safe
combustion requires a precise mixture of fuel
and air. Too much air results in energy being
wasted up the chimney; too little air results in incomplete combustion. Incomplete combustion is particularly undesirable and
results in the formation of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), and hydrogen in the form of H 2 .
To combat the chances of incomplete combustion, burners are always commissioned with an element of “excess air.”
Combustion is complex and there are many variables such as
air temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, and fuel quality that affect the whole process. Excess air ensures that, even
if the combustion variables change detrimentally, the combustion process remains safe.
O2 sensors allow combustion systems to become “closed
loop.” This means that any changes in combustion variables are
detected and can be corrected accordingly.
So, how does O2 trim work? The answer is fairly simple in that
it adds or reduces either fuel or air to compensate for changes in
these combustion variables. For each point on the combustion
profile there is an O2 setpoint. If the O2 reading for any point
increases, then air is reduced, or fuel added, to bring the process
variable back to the setpoint. If the O2 decreases the opposite
happens. Most systems work by adding or subtracting air as this
22
T O D AY ’ S B O I L E R
FA L L 2 015
has less effect on the power output. Decreasing air will reduce
costs whilst adding air will increase costs. However, in the latter
case, systems will ensure the combustion process remains safe
and CO/H2 is not produced.
In an ideal world, combustion, without excess air, would result
in the best efficiency possible; this is called stoichiometric combustion and is a theoretical state where exactly the right amount
of oxygen molecules reacts with fuel molecules to complete the
combustion reaction. In simple terms, e.g. for methane:
CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2 H2O + Heat
COe Control takes a more empirical approach that allows
combustion systems to get closer to stoichiometric conditions,
whilst remaining safe. COe sensors use a modified version of
zirconia O2 sensors that enable them to detect the products of
incomplete combustion. These include CO, H2, and HC. This is
why the term COe is used instead of CO; COe is effectively a
CO equivalent.
COe Control produces savings over that of O2 trim by enabling
the burner to operate a fuel/air mixture on the edge of stoi-
chiometric conditions. One important
aspect that allows this level of control is
the rapid response of the COe sensor to
the detection of the products of incomplete combustion. COe Control is a selfadapting algorithm that “learns” each
point on the programmed combustion
curve by reducing air to the point where
COe is detected and then “backing-off”
to a safe setpoint. After the learning process has been completed, if at any time
incombustibles are detected, the system
simply readapts by ”backing off” to the
next safe position. Each “learned” point
has a lifetime of eight hours after which
it is “learned” again. This ensures that if
external conditions have improved then
the COe Control will readapt to compensate for this and increase efficiency. It is
not uncommon for systems employing
COe Control to run at 1% O2 .
In order to ensure systems employing
COe Control remain safe, a failsafe oxygen sensor is required. An oxygen level
of about 0.4% is typically set as a safety
threshold and if the flue gas oxygen level
reaches this level then the COe Control
is switched off and an alarm produced.
The KS1D is the latest version of LAMTEC’s combination zirconia-based probe
that detects both O2 and COe. By using
the KS1D with the latest LT3-F failsafe
transmitter, COe Control can be implemented using a single probe located in
the flue. The LT3-F uses two separate
processors to cross-check the zirconia
cell’s signal reading.
Quantifying cost savings when employing O2 trim and COe Control is always difficult as the starting point, i.e. the base
profile set by the commissioning engineer is somewhat subjective. However, as
a rule of thumb, COe Control can generate an additional saving of up to 50% over
conventional O2 trim systems.
COe Control has been widely adopted
in Europe, but its benefits have not yet
been recognized in the UK/US. LAMTEC
has extensive experience of COe Control
and introduced the first systems back
in 2004. Since then, over 2,500 systems
have been installed. COe Control is available as an option on all of LAMTEC combustion control systems from the new
BT300 through to the well-established
Etamatic and FMS/VMS.
COe Control takes a
more empirical
approach that allows
combustion systems
to get closer to stoichiometric conditions,
whilst remaining safe.
COe sensors use a
modified version of
zirconia O2 sensors that
enable them to detect
the products of incomplete combustion.
What about the enhanced safety? One
of the inherent problems with O2 trim is
that if ingress air “leaks” into the system,
then the oxygen level in the chimney or
exhaust will increase. The response of
an O2 trim systems is to reduce the air,
which has a negative effect on the combustion process and causes incomplete
combustion, and the resultant COe. COe
Control is a much safer option as it is not
affected by ingress air. Incomplete combustion is the only source of COe, so if it
is detected, then the operator can be sure
there is a problem.
For further details, contact Mick Barstow — Regional Sales Manager at mick.
[email protected], or the U.S. office at
Salescombustion@ unicontrolinc.com
(www.hayscleveland.com/Products).
23
W W W. ABM A .COM
T O D AY ’ S B O I L E R
AUTOFLAME >
WIPING THE
SLATE CLEAN
S
implify operation with all-in-one touchscreen boiler
controllers.
Commercial and industrial boiler controls have
typically been characterized by either manual linkage or multiple control modules joined together and then
managed through a small LCD HMI. Those wanting to incorporate more of the process control could opt for a much more
elaborate PLC (Programmable Logic Controller), although
with this comes a hefty price tag. You could, however, go with
the “keep it simple” approach of an all-in-one touchscreen
controller. Design engineers who go this route will find a wide
variety of financial and environmental benefits while simplifying their combustion application without limiting themselves
24
T O D AY ’ S B O I L E R
FA L L 2 015
on control variables.
An all-in-one touchscreen control combines the controller
and all ancillary modules and puts them in a single box with
a touchscreen interface on the exterior. Flame safeguard, VPS,
fuel/air ratio control, VSD, reporting and graphing, FGR, scheduling, lead-lag, blowdown, TDS, draft control — all of these features and more can be controlled from the single touchscreen.
Autoflame, who invented all-in-one boiler controls in the early
1980s, were again pioneers to incorporate the touchscreen
technology to all-in-one control with the release of the Mk7 MM
Controller in 2007. The latest product, the Mini Mk8 Controller,
arrived earlier this year. It wipes the slate clean with a whole
new approach to compact touchscreen burner controls.
AUTOFLAME
of oversight are needed for day-to-day operations. Additionally,
because the Mini Mk8 operates precise servomotors, one can go
years without significant adjustment. When there is a problem
with the boiler, the Mini Mk8’s numerous reporting features
and error logging allow technicians to quickly resolve issues,
reducing downtime. The 1,000-entry boiler log historically records every event and startup.
COMPACT FIT
AUTOFLAME CONTROLS SUPPORT A WIDE VARIETY OF LANGUAGES,
INCLUDING CHINESE.
INTUITIVE, SAFE OPERATION
Programming and viewing settings of a complex boiler system
using multi-functional push buttons and a 3-in LCD screen
can be difficult and confusing. By building a touchscreen system around a boiler schematic, the end user can intuitively
navigate the process and quickly get to answers without having in-depth training on the controller. Want to know the historical fuel line pressure? Simply tap on the fuel line pressure
gauge part of the schematic and immediately you have your
answer. Of course, the burner commissioning engineer still
needs the proper training to install and commission the systems. But the Autoflame touchscreen systems are inherently
safer because they take out guesswork and confusion.
By allowing users to quickly access information via the touchscreen, it is much more likely that a dangerous situation in the
boiler room is identified and resolved. This is especially the case
when product is exported to non-native English speakers; taking the guesswork out of the commissioning and operation creates a much safer delivered product. Autoflame’s touchscreens
can be set up to display in almost any language.
EMISSION REDUCTION & FUEL SAVINGS
The Mini Mk8 is capable of reducing boiler emissions by 15%.
This can be much greater if the boiler has not been regularly
maintained, as linkage systems are subject to hysteresis (linkage slop) over time. The Mini Mk8 ensures burner temperature
is accurate to within 1°F and pressure to 1 PSI, not only at the
time of commissioning, but for years afterward. Thus, ideal
combustion with the most minimal emissions is achieved over
the long term. It is not unusual to see a 10-15% fuel savings.
One recent customer reported savings in excess of 31%, with
the findings certified by a third party.
REDUCED MAINTENANCE/DOWNTIME
All-in-one controls are inherently more compact. All of the
sprawling wiring and module functions are contained in a single fully-enclosed control. The Autoflame MM controls are fully
encased in IP20 enclosures (IP65 front), requiring as little as
6.6-in by 5.3-in surface, and fitting in areas as small as 2.9 in
deep. This compact size makes it ideal for the small packaged
burner applications, avoiding large and costly control panels.
Boiler controls have greatly evolved over the past decade, as
have expectations. Both users and manufacturers are looking
for great simplicity in setup and operation, and many are finding all-in-one touchscreen controllers the perfect fit for their
boiler room. TB
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25
W W W. ABM A .COM
T O D AY ’ S B O I L E R
2
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MANUFACTURERS
CONFERENCE
TRENDS AND A TOUR DRAW ATTENDEES TO CONFERENCE
ABMA RECENTLY WRAPPED UP A SUCCESSFUL MANUFACTURERS
CONFERENCE AT THE MARRIOTT ANN ARBOR AT EAGLE CREST
IN YPSILANTI, MI. THE CONFERENCE FOCUSED ON NETWORKING, EDUCATING AND DEVELOPING BOILER INDUSTRY LEADERS,
AND SHARING KEY TRENDS IN OUR SECTOR.
SPEAKERS CAME TO DISCUSS ISSUES SUCH AS CLOSING THE SKILLS GAP, EMBRACING THE DIGITAL AGE,
RECOGNIZING TRANSPORTATION TRENDS AND
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WITH REGARD TO THE BOILER INDUSTRY.
THE CONFERENCE WAS
HOSTED BY MICHIGAN
SEAMLESS TUBE AND FEATURED A TOUR OF THEIR
FACILITY AND NEW COLD
PILGER MILL. TOUR PARTICIPANTS LEARNED ABOUT
SEAMLESS TUBES FIRST
HAND AND SAW THE STATE
OF THE ART EXPANSION OF
THEIR CAPABILITIES.
26
T O D AY ’ S B O I L E R
FA L L 2 015
ABMA WOULD LIKE TO RECOGNIZE THE
DETROIT STOKER COMPANY AND ITR
ECONOMICS FOR THEIR SPONSORSHIP
OF THE CONFERENCE AND SEND A SPECIAL THANK YOU TO TED FAIRLEY, MIKE
PERLMAN, AND THE ENTIRE TEAM AT
MICHIGAN SEAMLESS TUBE FOR THEIR
SUPPORT OF THE CONFERENCE.
INTRODUCING:
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Your Industry Information Available
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AVAILABLE FOR DOWNLOAD
How a pharmaceutical company
met emissions regulations with
unexpected fuel savings.
Completely integrated boiler solutions can generate results for you, too.
To make NOx levels compliant with stringent standards, a biopharmaceutical company
in San Francisco installed nine Cleaver-Brooks ClearFire®-C condensing boilers and a
hybrid boiler management system, lowering fuel expenses by 30%. Read about this case
study at cleaverbrooks.com/pharma or call 1-800-250-5883 to locate your local rep.
©2015 Cleaver-Brooks, Inc.