Teacher Study Tours 2012 - Turkish Cultural Foundation

 Teacher Study Tours 2012 Tour Related Documents Turkish culture is unique in the world in that it has influenced and has been influenced in return by cultures and civilizations from China to Vienna, and from the Russian steppes to North Africa for over a millennium. Turkish culture reflects this unparalleled cultural richness and diversity and remains mostly shaped by its deep roots in the Middle East, Anatolia and the Balkans—the cradle of many civilizations for at least twelve thousand years. About TCF
The Turkish Cultural Foundation (TCF) was established in 2000 with the mission to support the preservation and promotion of Turkish culture and heritage worldwide through original programs and cooperation with like minded organizations. The Foundation is a US tax‐exempt public charitable organization supported entirely by private donations, with offices in Boston, Washington, DC and Istanbul, Turkey. The Foundation’s main mission is to build cultural bridges between the United States and Turkey, increase knowledge on Turkish cultural heritage and its contributions to world culture and humanity. In support of promoting Turkish art and culture in the United States and around the world, the Turkish Cultural Foundation underwrites major cultural and arts events related to Turkish culture, including festivals, exhibitions, workshops and lectures. Over the years, the Foundation has grown into the largest private grant‐
maker for projects related to Turkish culture. Supporting people to people cultural exchanges between the United States and Turkey, the Turkish Cultural Foundation organizes teacher study tours, cultural tours and provides visiting fellowships to Turkish artists and museum staff. In line of its mission to increase research on and the preservation of Turkish art and culture, the Turkish Cultural Foundation has established an academic level Fellowship program. The "TCF Who’s Who in Turkish Culture and Art" online database currently features over 2,000 living Turkish artists, artisans and experts. In 2010, the Turkish Cultural Foundation launched the “Image Archive of Turkish Art,” an online digitalized slide repository that contains over 12,000 images on Turkish art and culture. In 2010, TCF established the Natural Dye Research and Development Laboratory – DATU (Doğal Boya Araştırma ve Geliştirme Laboratuvarı ‐ www.tcfdatu.org) in Istanbul. The mission of DATU is to help preserve and promote Turkey’s textile heritage by creating a scientific inventory of natural dyes. In 2011, the Culinary Arts Center – YESAM (Yemek Sanatları Merkezi – www.yemeksanatlari.org) was formed in Istanbul at Armaggan Nuruosmaniye to help preserve and promote Turkey’s culinary culture and heritage. The Foundation’s main public educational effort on Turkish culture takes place through the internet. The Foundation maintains the most visited websites on Turkish culture, www.turkishculture.org, Turkish music, at www.turkishmusicportal.org and Turkish culinary culture at www.turkish‐cuisine.org. For more information on the Turkish Cultural Foundation’s activities, please visit www.turkishculturalfoundation.org 1 TCF Officers and Staff
Founders and Trustees: Dr. Yalcin Ayasli Dr. Serpil Ayasli Staff: Guler Koknar, Executive Director Yalcin Doruk: Web Project Manager Mustafa Firat: Software Specialist Dr. Sumiyo Okumura: Art Historian Gulhan Ozkan: Executive Assistant Carol Ann Jackson: Project Assistant Louette Ragusa: Project Assistant Dr. Nurhan Atasoy : Senior Scholar in Residence Vedat Basaran : TCF Culinary Arts Center ‐ YESAM Dr. Recep Karadag: TCF Natural Dye Research and Development Lab. ‐ DATU Bonnie Joy Kaslan: TCF Educational Consultant Basak Kizildemir : Consultant Dr. Ozanay Omur: TCF Natural Dye Research and Development Lab. ‐ DATU Dr. Sahin Yuksel Yagan: TCF Natural Dye Research and Development Lab. ‐ DATU Teacher Study Tour Organization
Ms. Guler Koknar ‐ Executive Director. Cell Phone: 538‐982‐2669 Ms. Bonnie Joy Kaslan – Educational Consultant to TCF. Cell phone: 553‐340‐7785 Ms. Gulhan Ozkan ‐ TCF Istanbul Office. Office phone: 212‐297‐4038, Cell phone : 533‐280‐1189 Mr. Orhan Sezener ‐ Tour Guide. Cell phone: 532‐432‐9450 Ms. Burcu Sahin ‐ Bora Travel Coordinator. Cell Phone: 532‐642‐4265 1 Itinerary Overview Notes TEACH
HER STUD
DY TOUR
RS 2012 PROGRAM
P
M
G
GROUP
1 JUNE 25
2 – JULY
Y 08
G
GROUP
2 JUNE 29
2 – JULY
Y 12
G
GROUP
3 JULY 11
1 – JULY
Y 24
INTE
ERNATIONAL
L FLIGHT INFORMATION
N FOR ARRIV
VAL
Departure
2
24 June 2012
Departure
2
24 June 2012
Departure
2
24 June 2012
Departure
2
24 June 2012
John F. Kennedy
(JFK)
TK
K2
6.25
5 PM
Washingtton Dulles
(IA
AD)
TK
K8
11:2
25 PM
Chic
cago
Ohare
e(ORD)
TK
K6
10:2
20PM
Los Ange
eles (LAX)
TK
K 10
6.20
0 PM
Arrival
Isttanbul
((IST)
11.15 PM
25 June 2012
2
Arrival
Isttanbul
((IST)
4:40 PM
25 June 2012
2
Arrival
Isttanbul
((IST)
5:0
05 PM
25 June 2012
2
Arrival
Isttanbul
((IST)
5:10 PM
25 June 2012
2
DOMEST
TIC FLIGHT INFORMATIO
I
ON
Departure
0
08 July 2012
Ankkara
(ESB)
TK 2113
2
7.30
0 AM
Arrival
Isstanbul
((IST)
8.30 AM
08 July 2012
INTE
ERNATIONAL
L FLIGHT INFORMATION
N FOR DEPAR
RTURE
Departure
0 July 2012
08
Departure
0 July 2012
08
Departure
0 July 2012
08
Departure
0 July 2012
08
Ista
anbul
(IS
ST)
TK
K1
1.05
5 PM
Ista
anbul
(IS
ST)
TK
K7
1.10
0 PM
Ista
anbul
(IS
ST)
TK
K5
1.15
5 PM
Ista
anbul
(IS
ST)
TK
K9
12.4
45 PM
Arrival
08 July 2012
2
Arrival
08 July 2012
2
Arrival
John F.
F Kennedy
((JFK)
4.3
30 PM
Was
shington
Dulle
es (IAD)
5.4
45 PM
08 July 2012
2
Ch
hicago
Ohare(ORD)
5.1
10 PM
Arrival
Los Ang
geles (LAX)
08 July 2012
2
4.3
30 PM
June 24 (Sunday) GROUPS DEPART FROM USA TO ISTANBUL 1st day / June 25 (Monday) GROUPS ARRIVE FROM USA TO ISTANBUL •
11.15 am TK2 JFKIST ‐ Arrive at Istanbul Airport •
4.40 pm TK8 IADIST ‐ Arrive at Istanbul Airport •
5.05 pm TK6 ORDIST ‐ Arrive at Istanbul Airport •
5.10 pm TK10 LAXIST ‐ Arrive at Istanbul Airport •
Check in to Opera Hotel , Gumussuyu.(www.operahotel.com.tr ) İnönü Street No:26 Gümüşsuyu / Taksim / Istanbul Phone : +90 212 372 45 00 •
Welcome and tour briefing by your tour guide at Opera Hotel ,Gumussuyu. •
Dinner at Pitti Restaurant, Anemon Galata Hotel 2nd day / June 26 (Tuesday) •
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Ayasofya (Hagia Sophia) Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum Departure for Bosphorus cruise Lunch at Villa Bosphorus fish restaurant (Cengelkoy, Asian side) 'Ebru' demonstration by marbling artist Hikmet Barutcugil in Uskudar (Asian side) Dinner at Matbah Restaurant,Sultanahmet. 3rd day / June 27 (Wednesday) •
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Spice Bazaar Hippodrome : Obelisk from Egypt,Serpentine Column from Delphi and Fountain of Wilhelm II. Blue Mosque (Sultanahmet Camii) Topkapi Palace and lunch at Konyali restaurant. Istanbul Museum of Modern Art Hosted dinner at Nar Restaurant at Armaggan. 4th day / June 28 (Thursday) • Darussafaka Schools (www.darussafaka.k12.tr) •
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Visit to Sisli Terakki High School Visit to Turkish Cultural Foundation Istanbul Office & Lunch Briefings about TCF and TCA sister organisations. Turkish civil society organisations and reception at the Turkish Cultural Foundation. Return to hotel & Free evening. 5th day / June 29 (Friday) CANAKKALE ‐ GALLIPOLI ‐ TROY •
Departure for Gallipoli •
Visit the Anzac Cove, 57th Infantry Regiment Cemetery and Memorial, Chunuk Bair, Canakkale Martyrs Memorial and the Lone Pine Cemetery & Memorial in Gallipoli. •
Lunch at Maydos Restaurant,Eceabat (www.maydos.com.tr) •
Visit Troy •
Check in to Tusan Hotel in Canakkale (www.tusanhotel.com) •
Dinner at hotel 6th day / June 30 (Saturday) CANAKKALE ‐ BURSA •
Departure for Bursa •
Lunch at Kebabci Iskender at Botanik Park(www.kebabciiskender.com.tr) •
Bursa Koza Han •
"Karagoz" Turkish Shadow Theater performance •
Check in to Kervansaray Hotel,Bursa (www.kervansarayhotels.com.tr) •
Dinner at Hotel 7th day / July 01 (Sunday) BURSA ‐ KUSADASI •
Departure from Hotel •
Bursa Ulucami •
Lunch at Ramiz Restaurant, Akhisar •
Isa Bey Mosque, Selcuk •
Check in to Charisma Hotel Kusadasi (www.charismahotel.com) •
Dinner at Hotel 8th day / July 02 (Monday) KUSADASI • Visit Ephesus • Basilica of St.John • Ephesus Archeological Museum, Selcuk • Lunch at Bizimev Hanimeli Restaurant (https://bizimevhanimeli.com/ ) • Visit to Sirince Village • Dinner & Overnight at hotel. 9th day / July 03 (Tuesday) KUSADASI – APHRODISIAS GEYRE – PAMUKKALE • Depart hotel from Aphrodisias, Geyre • Visit to a village school,Atakoy Primary School, Karacasu – Geyre • Lunch at Anatolia Restaurant , Karacasu – Geyre • Aphrodisias • Pamukkale springs and travertine, Denizli • Check in to Richmond Hotel,Pamukkale (www.richmondhotels.com.tr) • Dinner at hotel. 10th day / July 04 (Wednesday) PAMUKKALE – CATALHOYUK – KONYA • Depart for Konya • Lunch on route to Sapci Restaurant , Konya • Museum and Tomb of Rumi • Neolithic site of Catalhoyuk • Check in to Dedeman Hotel , Konya (www.dedeman.com) • Dinner at hotel 11th day / July 05 (Thursday) KONYA – CAPPADOCIA • After breakfast , depart for Cappadocia • Sultanhan Caravanserai • Lunch at Bizimev Restaurant • Whirling Dervishes Ceremony at the Saruhan Caravanserai • Check in to Lykia Lodge Hotel, Cappadocia (www.lykialodge.com) • Dinner at hotel 12th day / July 06 (Friday) CAPPADOCIA • Kaymakli underground city • Lunch at Capetium, a local carpet workshop followed by a lecture on Turkish nomadic rugs • Goreme Open Air Museum • Scenic views of Uchisar,Pasabag (Monks Valley) and Pigeon Valley • Dinner and overnight at hotel. 13th day / July 07 (Saturday) CAPPADOCIA – ANKARA • Depart for Ankara • Mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal ATATURK and Museum •
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Lunch at Washington Restaurant at Ankara Castle(www.washingtonrestaurant.com.tr ) Museum of Anatolian Civilizations (www.anadolumedeniyetlerimuzesi.gov.tr) Briefing on domestic / foreign policy issues Check in to Gordion Hotel , Ankara (www.gordionhotel.com) Farewell dinner and overnight 14th day / July 08 (Sunday) ANKARA – ISTANBUL – HOMEBOUND FLIGHT TO USA • 5.30 am departure from hotel & transfer to Ankara Esenboga Airport • 7.30 am TK 2113 ESBIST, arrive in Istanbul at 8.35 am • Homebound flights through Istanbul • 1.05 pm TK1 ISTJFK, arrive in New York 4.30 pm • 1.10 pm TK7 ISTIAD, arrive in Dulles 5.45 pm • 1.15 pm TK5 ISTORD, arrive in Chicago 5.10 pm • 12.45pmTK9 ISTLAX, arrive in Los Angeles 4.30 pm City
O/N
Hotel
Web
ISTANBUL
4 nights
Opera Hotel (4*)
www.operahotel.com.tr CANAKKALE
1 night
Tusan Hotel (4*)
www.tusanhotel.com
BURSA
1 night
Kervansaray Hotel (5*)
www.kervansarayhotels.com.tr KUSADASI
2 nights
Charisma Hotel (5*)
www.charismahotel.com
PAMUKKALE
1 night
Richmond Hotel (4*)
www.richmondhotels.com.tr KONYA
1 night
Dedeman Hotel (5*)
www.dedeman.com Lykia Lodge Hotel (4*)
www.lykialodge.com CAPPADOCIA 2 nights
ANKARA
1 night
Gordion Hotel (Boutique)
www.gordionhotel.com TEACHER STUDY TOURS 2012 ITINERARY NOTES GROUP 1 Day 1, June 25 ( Monday) ISTANBUL: Istanbul embraces two continents—one arm reaches out to Asia, the other to Europe. In the city's heart, the Bosphorus Strait connects the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara and creates the famous Golden Horn. The former capital of three successive empires—the Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman empires— today Istanbul honors and preserves the legacy of its past while looking forward to its modern future. For an Istanbul map, quick information about the city, and recent events please see: http://www.lonelyplanet.com/worldguide/destinations/europe/turkey/istanbul Day 2, June 26 ( Tuesday) ISTANBUL: St. Sophia (Ayasofya): St. Sophia church was built during the reign of Emperor Theodosius and was burned down in the fire of theNika Revolt in 532 A.D. during the reign of Justinian. The same year, Justinian ordered to build a new basilica, which is the one we can see today, and only five years later, in 537 AD, it was opened to the public. St. Sophia was the seat of the Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople and a principal setting for Byzantine imperial ceremonies. It was converted to a mosque after the conquest of Istanbul under Sultan Mehmed II in 1453. To strengthen the building, the great Ottoman Sinan did significant work on St. Sophia in the Turkish period. During the reign of Sultan Abdülmecid (1839 – 1861) the Fossati brothers made various restorations in the building. In 1935, St. Sophia was turned into a museum by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, the first President of the Republic of Turkey. St. Sophia is listed under the UNESCO List of World Heritage. Istanbul Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum: The Palace of Ibrahim Pasha (16th century) and the Ottoman Grand Vizier is situated on the west side of Sultanahmet Square and now functions as the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art. It is the only extant private palace, except for the imperial palaces. The museum houses Turkish art and artifacts from Islamic countries. It is also home to the oldest and most precious examples of handmade Turkish carpets, manuscripts, and ceramics. The Turkish Cultural Foundation sponsored the conservation of 118 antique carpets at this Museum, which were exhibited at the International Conference on Oriental Carpets in Istanbul in April 2007. 1
Bosphorus: The Bosphorus is a narrow, navigable strait between Europe and Asia connecting the Black Sea to Marmara Sea. It is about 31 km long and varies between 1 and 2.5km in width. The name Bosphorus means “ford of the calf” in ancient Greek. With the shores rising to heights up to 200m (650ft) lined with palaces, historical ruins, water‐side mansions (called “yali” in Turkish) villages,and lush gardens, the Bosphorusis one of the most beautiful stretches of scenery in Turkey. Two bridges cross the Bosphorus. Another crossing, Marmaray, is a 13.7 kilometer‐long undersea railway tunnel currently under construction and is expected to be completed in 2012. Ebru (Marbling): Paper marbling is a technique for producing colorful patterns on paper (or, rarely, on other surfaces) by swirls of traditionally water‐based paint floating on water. The marbling style developed in Turkey and Persia is called Ebru (Turkish for "two‐toned marbling") and is now known as "Turkish marbling". The web address of Hikmet Barutçugil’s Ebru atelier ishttp://www.ebristan.com/ Day 3,June 27 ( Wednesday) ISTANBUL Spice Market (MısırÇarşısı‐ Egyptian Bazaar): The Spice Market is Istanbul’s second largest bazaar built for the mother of Mehmet III, Safiye Sultan, and completed by the order of Hatice Turan Sultan, the mother of Mehmed IV, in 1664. The Spice Market has six gates, which make for its attractive exterior. It was the prime spice trading area of the city in Ottoman times and continues today to be the market for all kinds of spices, welcoming the visitor with the aroma of ginger, cardamom, pepper, and saffron from the piles of spices sold from many stalls. These days the market is also popular for great varieties of Turkish delight, small souvenirs, and flavored teas. Hippodrome: The Hippodrome of Constantinople was a horse‐racing track that was the sporting and social centre of Constantinople during the days of the Byzantine Empire. Today, the square is named SultanahmetMeydanıl, with only a few fragments of the original structure surviving. The Hippodrome has never been systematically excavated by archaeologists and it is possible that much more of the Hippodrome's remains still lie beneath the park of Sultanahmet. Blue Mosque (Sultanahmet Mosque): The Blue Mosque was built by order of Sultan Ahmet I between 1609 and 1616 in the square carrying his name in İstanbul. He is buried in the mosque's precincts. It is the only mosque in Turkey with six minarets. The mosque became known in the West as the Blue Mosque because of the predominantly blue coloring of paintwork of the interior. The mosque was built by the Ottoman Sultanto face St. Sophiain a demonstration of Ottoman architectural genius and aesthetics to rival those of the Byzantines. Together they comprise a unique historical and architectural precinct that put its mark on these two successive Eastern Empires. 2
Topkapı Palace: Topkapı Palace was the administrative center of the Ottoman Empire from 1465 to 1853. It is located on the promontory of the historical peninsula in Istanbul which overlooks both the Marmara Sea and the Bosphorus. Topkapı Palace consists of many small buildings built together and surrounded by four courts. The main gate is called Bab‐ıHümayun, the Imperial Gate. Apart from the Topkapı Palace, the First Court also contains the old imperial mint, the church of HagiaEirene, the Istanbul Archeological Museum, and various fountains, pavilions, and gardens. The impressive Gate of Greeting (Babüsselam) leads into the palace and the Second Court (Divan Meydanı). This court is a park surrounded by the palace hospital, bakery, military quarters, stables, the imperial Harem and Divan to the north, and the kitchens to the south. Through the Gate of Felicity (Babüssaade) is the Third Court, which is the heart of the palace. It includes a lush garden surrounded by the Hall of the Privy Chamber (Has Oda) occupied by the palace offices, the treasury, the Harem and some pavilions, with the library of Sultan Ahmed III in the center. The Fourth Court was more of a private garden of the Sultan and consists of a number of pavilions, gardens, and terraces. Other notable structures in the Topkapı Palace are the Tower of Justice, the Pavilion of the Holy Mantle containing relics of the Prophet Muhammad and the first caliphs, the Throne Room in the Harem where the Sultan received his guests and envoys, and the Baghdad Pavilion in the Fourth Court built by Murat IV. The official web site of Topkapı Palace Museum is: http://www.topkapisarayimuzesi.com/ Istanbul Archeological Museum: The museum was founded by painter and archeologist Osman Hamdi on June 13, 1891. At the time, it was called the Imperial Museum. Two side wings were added in 1902 and 1908, and on its centenary in 1991 the museum was enlarged with a new section and reorganized. The Istanbul Archaeological Museum actually consists of three museums. Those are the main Archeological Museum, the Old Eastern Works Museum, and the Enameled Kiosk Museum. It houses over one million objects that represent almost all of the eras and civilizations in world history. Istanbul Modern ‐ Museum of Modern Art Overview In a city that prides itself on its history, Istanbul Modern is a refreshing alternative for those who want to see a piece of the ‘new Istanbul.’ Founded in 2004 and housing a decent collection from both Turkish and international artists, Istanbul’s largest contemporary art museum is the first of its kind in the city and is well worth a visit. Istanbul Modern’s location along the banks of the Bosphorous inside old shipping containers makes for a cutting‐edge break from the ancient mosque and scores of Nargile (Turkish water pipe) houses in Karakoy which line either side of the Museum. The Museum also boasts an arts library, gift shop and café/restaurant where visitors can enjoy a glass of wine or Turkish coffee while watching passing boats or see the sun set over the old town of Sultanahmet and the Asian side of Istanbul. (http://www.istanbulmodern.org/en) ARMAGGAN ARMAGGAN is a design and manufacturing brand that produces limited edition hand‐crafted objects with modern designs inspired by Anatolia. All objects in ARMAGGAN’s collection are one of a kind unique designs brought to life through the meticulous application of traditional manufacturing techniques. At their ateliers in Nisantasi, ARMAGGAN designs and produces unique artistic objects, textiles, and jewelry in limited quantities that will only appreciate as time passes because of their high level of workmanship and their timeless beauty. ARMAGGAN’s naturally dyed textile products are made with 100% natural fiber and organic dyes. (www.armaggan.com) 3
DATU‐Natural Dyes Research Design and Practice Center at ARMAGGAN Supported by the Turkish Cultural Foundation, DATU is a research center and laboratory that researches historical sources, natural dyes, weaving and printing techniques of Anatolia. Turkey’s flora is one of the most diverse in the world, and it is also one of the richest countries for dye plants. The Seljuks and the Ottomans used this rich source of dye plants to provide the colors in all fields of the textile they produced. These unique natural dyes and their production techniques make Turkish textiles outstanding and worthy of collection and exhibition all over the world. DATU aims to identify the formula of the regional recipes of natural dyes in Turkey. It supports and promotes revitalization of historical weaving and textile heritage of different regions in Turkey—particularly the rugs and kilims from Anatolian Seljuk and Ottoman eras. DATU creates modern designs using technical and aesthetic features of historical sources and Turkish cultural heritage. Brief History of Dye Plants as Pigments: The use of plant roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and pigments is as old as the history of mankind. The utilization of dye plants as pigments for wall paintings and dyeing textile fibers goes back as far as 4000 BC. However, with the discovery of synthetic dyestuff at the beginning of the 20th century, the use of dye plants first declined and then nearly came to an end. In the 1980’s, with the determination that most of the synthetic dyes being used were established as toxic, carcinogenic, and the cause of environmental pollution, natural dyeing methods regained their importance. (www.tcfdatu.org) Turkish Classical Music: Within the Ottoman Empire, a musical culture developed among the urban ruling class who lived separately from the common people in the environment of the palace and in mansions and yalis (luxurious waterside mansions on the shores of the Bosphorus). This musical culture was a high tradition, nourished by divan literature. The mystical orders of Islam that existed within Ottoman culture also contributed to the development of this music. Within such an elite atmosphere, this urban upper‐class music developed and from the 16th century on produced musical masterpieces becoming one of the greatest musical cultures of its time. Founding a close relationship with the Arabic and Iranian music that existed close by and within the same cultural realm and especially the musical techniques practiced in the Byzantine churches of Istanbul, this music continued its developmentbringing the surrounding cultures increasingly under its influence. This music is known today as "Turkish Classical Music" or "Turkish Art Music." Greek, Armenian, and Jewish musicians who were also part of the Ottoman system of "millets" (ethnic/religious classifications) contributed to this music as well. (www.turkishmusicportal.org/page.php?id=18) Day 4, June 28 ( Thursday) ISTANBUL: Darüşşafaka Schools The Darüşşafaka Education Institution is a co‐educational boarding school for needy orphanchildren. It has been a meeting point for the country’s best teachers and brightest students. Making valuable contributions to the Turkish culture and education over a century, Darüşşafaka was founded by an Ottoman Imperial Edict on March 30, 1863. 4
Day 5, June 29 (Friday) CANAKKALE – GALLIPOLI – TROY Gelibolu (Gallipoli) Peninsula in Çanakkale: Çanakkale is a seaside town in Turkey on the southern (Asiatic) coast of the Dardanelles (or Hellespont). Çanakkale is the second province (the first is Istanbul) in Turkey that has land on two different continents (Europe and Asia). There are ferries to cross to the northern (European) side of the strait. Çanakkale is the most popular base for visiting the Gallipoli as well as the ruins at Troy. Gelibolu (Gallipoli): Gallipoli or Gelibolu is the principal town at the northern end of the Dardanelles. The splended peninsula that forms the northwestern side of the Dardanelles is called Gelibolu (Gallipoli). For millenia it has been the key to İstanbul: any navy that could break through the straits had a good chance of capturing it. Many have tried to force the straits, but most, including the mighty Allied fleet mustered in WWI, have failed. The battles fought in Gallipoli battlefields nearly a century ago are still alive in many memories, both Turkish and foreign. Anzac Cove: This is a small cove on the Gallipoli peninsula in Turkey made famous as the site of the First World War landing of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) on April 25, 1915. The cove is a mere 600 meters long, bounded by the headlands of Ari Burnu to the north and Little Ari Burnu, known as Hell Spit, to the south. Following the landing at Anzac Cove, the beach became the main base for the Australian and New Zealand troops for the eight months of the Battle of Gallipoli. On Anzac Day in 1985, the name "Anzac Cove" was officially recognized by the Turkish government. The Anzac Day dawn service was held at Ari Burnu Cemetery within the cove until 1999 when the number of people attending outgrew the site. A purposefully built "Anzac Commemorative Site" was constructed nearby on North Beach in time for the 2000 service. 57th Infantry Regiment Cemetery Memorial: This cemetery was built in 1992. Troops of the 57th Infantry Regiment of the 19th Division were the first Turkish soldiers to resist the ANZACs, and no troops survived from the regiment. The memorial represents a mosque. Outside the memorial is a bronze sculpture of Turkey's oldest war veteran who died in 1994, at the age of 108. Opposite is an enormous sculpture of a Turkish soldier erected in 1992 in memory of those who lost their lives for their country. Chunuk Bair: The Battle of Chunuk Bair was a World War I battle fought between the Turkish defenders and troops of New Zealand and Britain on Turkey's Gallipoli peninsula in August 1915. The capture of Chunuk Bair, "Conk Slope (ÇanakBayırı)" in Turkish —the secondary peak of the Sari Bair range—was one of the two objectives of the Allied August offensive that was launched at Anzac and Suvla to try and break the stalemate that the campaign had become. The capture of Chunuk Bair was the only success for the Allies of the campaign. The success was fleeting, however, as the position proved untenable. The Turks recaptured the peak after a few days and were never to relinquish it again. Çanakkale Martyrs’ Memorial: It overlooks Morto Bay on the south of the Peninsula. It is over 40m high and commemorates Turkish losses in the Battle of Canakkale, as the campaign is known there. 5
Lone Pine Cemetery and Memorial: The Battle of Lone Pine, which took place during the Gallipoli campaign, was the only successful Australian attack against the Turkish trenches within the original perimeter of the Anzac battlefield, and yet it was merely a diversion to draw attention from the main assaults of August 6 against the Sari Bair peaks of Chunuk Bair and Hill 971. On the Lone Pine Memorial, the names of 4,934 Australian and New Zealander soldiers who died at Gallipoli are engraved. On Anzac Day, after the dawn service, Australian visitors congregate at the Lone Pine cemetery for a memorial service to remember all their countrymen who fought and died at Gallipoli. Memorial "Lone Pine" trees have been planted in Australia , New Zealand, and Gallipoli to commemorate the battle and the Gallipoli campaign in general Truva (Troy): Truva (Troy) is the legendary city and center of the Trojan War, as described in the Epic Cycle and especially in the Iliad, one of the two epic poems attributed to Homer. Today, it is the name of an archaeological site and the traditional location of Homeric Troy in Hisarlık in Anatolia, and it is close to the seacoast in what is now Çanakkale province in northwest Turkey, southwest of the Dardanelles under Mount Ida. A new city of Ilium was founded on the site in the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus. It flourished until the establishment of Constantinople and declined gradually during Byzantine times. In the 1870s the German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann excavated the area. Later excavations revealed several cities built in succession to each other. One of the earlier cities (Troy VII) is often identified with Homeric Troy. While such an identity is still under scholarly debate, the site has been successfully identified with the city called Wilusa in Hittite texts; Ilion (which goes back to earlier Wilion with a digamma) is thought to be the Greek rendition of that name. The archaeological site of Troy was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 1998. Day 6, June 30 (Saturday) CANAKKALE – BURSA: BURSA: Bursa is rich in religious monuments, mosques, tombs (turbes), traditional Turkish baths, and was a center of Ottoman silks—a tradition still enduring—as well as a home to the famous “Turkish towel.” It is also the hometown of the famous Turkish folklore figuresKaragöz and Hacivat. Koza Han: The Koza (Cocoon) Han was commissioned by Bayezid II and built in 1490 in the market neighborhood betweenUlu (Great) Cami and Orhaniye to provide income for the Sultan's mosque in Istanbul. It was both used as a caravanseraiand a silk market because Bursa was the last stop on the great silk road from China. The han has two stories of rooms with galleries around a courtyard. A classical Ottoman mescid stands on eight piers in the center of the courtyard clear of the path of pack animals with an octagonal ablution basin underneath. The cells around a smaller courtyard to the east of the han contain the stables and storage rooms. Koza Han remains the center of the silk industry and trade. Each year in June or early July, silkworm farmers who have nurtured the silkworms for 6 weeks bring sacks of white cocoons which are ready for spinning. At this time of the year the atmosphere in the Koza Han is vividly hectic. 6
Karagöz House: Karagöz and Hacivat are the famous Turkish folklore figures who are also the main characters of traditional Turkish shadow theatre ‘’Karagöz ve Hacivat’’ performances. For further information please visit Karagöz House’s web site: http://www.karagoztravel.com/en/sayfa.asp?ContentID=Icerik&id=karagoz_evi
Day 7, July 01 (Sunday) BURSA – EPHESUS (EFES)‐ KUŞADASI: Ulu Mosque: Ulu Mosque belongs to the early Islamic style of mosque building with a multi domed roof supported by numerous piers and columns and a covered court. This mosque was built by the architect Ali Neccar for Yıldırım Bayezid in 1399. Inside there are 192 inscriptions written by celebrated calligraphers executed on the walls and on panels. Celsus Library: This library is one of the most beautiful structures in Ephesus. It was built in 117 A.D. It was a monumental tomb for Gaius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus, the governor of the province of Asia, and was constructed by his son Galius Julius Aquila. The grave of Celsus was beneath the ground floor, and across the entrance perched above was a statue of Athena, the Goddess of Wisdom. The scrolls of the manuscripts were kept in cupboards in niches on the walls. There were double walls behind the bookcases to prevent them from the extremes of temperature and humidity. The library was built to hold more than 12,000 scrolls. It was the third richest library in ancient times after the libraries of Alexandra and Pergamum. Isa Bey Mosque: The Isa Bey Mosque in Selçuk (near Ephesus) is a beautiful example of Seljuk Turkish architecture. It is the oldest known example of a Turkish mosque with a courtyard. It was built in 1375 at the direction of the Emir of Aydin. Columns and stones from the ruins of the city of Ephesus and the Temple of Artemis were incorporated into the building. The mosque was restored in 1934. It measures 51m (153 feet) by 57m (171 feet) including a large courtyard. The mosque itself consists of two lateral aisles covered with two domes in the center. The surviving brick minaret on the north side has an octagonal base. The west facade is covered in marble, carved with beautiful geometric designs and calligraphy inscriptions. Inside are a mihrab and pulpit, both made of marble, and painted turquoise tiles in the domes. The columns of the interior are Classical from local ruins. Day 8, July 02 ( Monday) EPHESUS ‐ SELCUK ‐ KUSADASI: Basilica of St. John: It is widely believed that the evangelist Saint John had spent his last years in the region around Ephesus and was buried in the southern slope of Ayasoluk Hill. Three hundred years after the death of Saint John, a small chapel was constructed over his grave in the 4th century. The church of Saint John was changed into a marvelous basilica during the reign of Emperor Justinian (527 ‐565 AD). The monumental basilica was in the shape of a cross and was covered with six domes. Its construction, being of stone and brick, is an extremely rare find amongst the architecture of its time. Raised by two steps and covered with marble, the tomb of Saint John was under the central dome that was once carried by the four columns at the corners. The columns in the courtyard reveal the monograms of Emperor Justinian and his wife Theodora. Constructed in the 5th century AD, the baptistery is north of the nave with its keyhole shape. Rampart walls around the church were constructed for protection from the 7
Arabian attacks in the 7th and 8th centuries AD. The impressive 10th century AD frescoes representing Saint John, Jesus, and a Saint ornament the chapel. The chapel was used as a mosque in the 14th century; unfortunately the Basilica of Saint John became unusable due to a severe earthquake in the same century. Ephesus Archeological Museum: The Ephesus Archaeological Museum is located in Selçuk, which is 70km from Izmir, where the ancient city of Ephesus is located. Many artifacts excavated in Ephesus during the Ottoman reign were taken to the British Museum and museums in Vienna and are on display there. The Turkish Republic forbade taking antiquities out of the country and founded a museum in Selçuk near Ephesus where remaining artifacts are housed. The Ephesus Museum is different from other many museums in that it features themed rooms, rather than chronological collections. Sirince Village: The Charming mountain village of Sirince was originally a Rum village. As part of the peace settlement after the Greeks were defeated in Turkey in 1922, a formal exchange of populations was agreed upon. As a result Turkey received about 500,000 Moslem Turks from Greece in exchange for nearly 2 million Rums who had been displaced since 1912. The Rum population of the Sirince village migrated to Greece as part of this exchange program. Today the village is under conservation to retain its authentic appearance. Day 9, July 03 ( Tuesday) KUŞADASI – APHRODISIAS (GEYRE) – PAMUKKALE: Aphrodisias (Geyre): The ancient city of Aphrodisias is one of the most important archaeological sites of the Greek and Roman periods in Turkey. Aphrodisias lies in the Maeander River basin in a fertile valley 100 miles southeast of the port of Izmir. Famous for its sanctuary of Aphrodite, the city's patron goddess, Aphrodisias enjoyed a long and prosperous existence from the first century B.C. through the sixth century A.D. This site has been excavated since 1961 by Prof. Kenan Erim under the auspices of New York University. Aphrodisias was one of the several ancient cities dedicated to the goddess of love, Aphrodite. Within the borders of Caria, during the Roman period, Aphrodisias became an artistic center with a famous school of sculpture. It was home to several renowned scholars, writers, and philosophers—most notably Xenocrates. Today, many of the city's ancient monuments remain standing and excavations have unearthed numerous fine marble statues and other artifacts. The great beauty and extraordinary preservation of this site brings the civic culture of the Greco‐Roman world vividly to life. PAMUKKALE Hierapolis (Pamukkale): Deriving from springs in a cliff almost 200 m high overlooking the plain, the calcite‐laden waters have created an unreal landscape made up of mineral forests, petrified waterfalls, and a series of terraced basins at Pamukkale (Cotton Palace). At the end of the 2nd century B.C., the dynasty of the Attalids, the kings of Pergamon, established the thermal spa of Hierapolis. The ruins of the baths, temples, and other Greek monuments can be seen at the site. Day 10, July 04 ( Wednesday) PAMUKKALE – ÇATALHÖYÜK – KONYA KONYA: Konya is one of the first inhabited cities in the history of mankind, and it still contains traces of many ancient civilizations which give it the atmosphere of a museum city. The city used to be one of the most important trading centers on the Silk Road. The fertile land around the city is the heart of Turkey’s grain and farming industry. Steeped in tradition, it is one of the more conservative and religious cities in the country and best known as the adopted home of Mevlana Celaleddin Rumi, the Sufi mystic who founded the Whirling Dervish order. Today it is still a centre of Sufi practice and teaching and is one of the highlights for visitors is the Mevlana Museum, the former lodge of the dervishes. 8
Mevlana (Rumi) Tomb & Museum: The green‐domed mausoleum of Rumi (1207‐1273) known in Turkey as Mevlana is at the heart of the convent in Konya that includes a mosque, a ritual hall (semahane), dervish rooms, and kitchens in addition to numerous other tombs and cemeteries. The site with a royal Rose garden to the east of the walled city, was a gift in 1228 from the Seljuk sultan to Mevlana's father, Islamic theologian Baha al‐Din Walad of Balkh (d. 1231). Mevlana died in 1273 and was buried next to his father in the Rose garden. His successors, and in particular his son Sultan Walad (or Velid), established and developed the Mevlevi order of whirling dervishes based on the philosophy outlined in his masterpiece, the Mesnevi. Konya functioned as the center of Mevlevi teaching until 1927 when it was closed down by a new Turkish law banning the operation of all religious sects and dervish lodges. It was re‐opened two years later as the Konya Museum of Antiquities, and renamed Mevlana Museum in 1964 with the introduction of new exhibits conveying the daily life of dervishes. Çatalhöyük: Çatalhöyük, one of the most ancient and prominent of the archeological sites in Turkey going back to the prehistoric period, is located near the town of Çumra and Konya. This Neolithic site was first discovered in the late 1950s and excavated by James Mellaart between 1961 and 1965. The site rapidly became famous internationally due to the large size and dense occupation of the settlement, as well as the spectacular wall paintings and other art that was uncovered inside the houses. Since 1993, an international team of archaeologists, led by Professor Ian Hodder of Stanford University, has been carrying out new excavations and research, in order to shed more light on the people that inhabited the site. Çatalhöyük has also been nominated for the UNESCO World Heritage List. The Turkish Cultural Foundation is a sponsor of the Çatalhöyük excavation project. Day 11, July 05 ( Thursday) KONYA ‐ CAPPADOCIA: Caravanserais: The caravanserais (also called “Han” in Turkish) are an architectural design developed in Central Asia by the Karakhanid and Ghaznavid tribes and passed into Anatolian Turkish architecture. The institution of caravanserais has its most variations in Seljuk‐era Anatolia, developing the art of Anatolian stone architecture and stone carving. These buildings would offer travelers in rough terrains all the comforts they needed and effectively provided a social foundation at a time when Anatolia was a transit for numerous trade routes and a destination for migration of people from its surrounding geography. The organization of a caravanserai offers many clues about the typical characteristics of Turkish society at the time. They were havens in which caravans and individual travelers could take shelter and reflect the needs of a culture that finds its origins in the nomadic lifestyles of the Turkish tribes of Central Asia. The Denizli ‐ Dogubeyazlt Route consists of about 40 Hans of which ten are very well preserved. Some of these are Akhan, Ertokus Han, Saadettin Han, Obruk Han, Agzikarahan, Sultan Han (2), Oresin Han, Sikre Han, MamahatunCaravenseria and Hacibekir Han. Sultan Han Caravanserais: Sultan Han (literally "sultanis khan") caravanserai is located in the village Sultan Han about 40 km west of Aksaray and was built in 1229 during the reign of the Seljuk sultan Kayqubad I. It features a standard plan of a courtyard and enclosed arena covering the same amount of ground. Covering 3,900 square meters, it is the second largest building in the group. The massive walls and supporting turret‐towers give the building the appearance of a fortress. It is one of the best examples of Anatolian Seljuk architecture. Sema (Mevlevi Worship Ceremony): The Mevlevi order of whirling dervishes is a mystic group whose members are followers of Mevlana Celaleddin Rumi, a great Turkish poet and mystic. 9
The Sema is a rite of communal recitation practiced by the Mevlevis. It symbolized the attainment of the various levels of mystical union with God and of absolute perfection through spiritual fervor and controlled ecstasy. The dervishes dress in long white robes with full skirts that represent their shrouds. Their voluminous black cloaks symbolize their worldly tombs, and their conical felt hats symbolize their tombstones. The ceremony begins when the hafız, a scholar who has committed the entire Quran to memory, intones a prayer for Mevlana and a verse from the Quran. A kettledrum booms out followed by the plaintive sound of the ney (reed flute). Then the şeyh (master) bows and leads the dervishes in a circle around the hall. After three circuits, the dervishes drop their black cloaks to symbolize their deliverance from worldly attachments. Then one by one, arms folded on their breasts, they spin out onto the floor as they relinquish the earthly life to be reborn in mystical union with God. By holding their right arms up they receive the blessings of heaven, which are communicated to earth by holding their left arms turned down. As they whirl, they form a ‘constellation’ of revolving bodies, which itself slowly rotates. The şeyh walks among them to check that each dervish is performing the ritual properly. The dance is repeated over and over again. Finally, the hafız again chants passages from the Quran, thus sealing the mystical union with God. Day 12, July 06 ( Friday) CAPPADOCIA: Cappadocia is the place where nature and history conjoin to create an out‐of‐this‐
world experience. About three million years ago, the volcanoes of Mt. Erciyes and Mt. Hasan covered the surrounding plateau with volcanic tuff as a result of their violent eruptions. The natural effects of wind, water, and rain eroded this area into a spectacular, surrealist landscape of rock caves, capped pinnacles, and fretted ravines in colors ranging from warm tones of red and gold to cool tones of green and gray. 15 kilometers east of Nevşehir and 6 west of Ürgüplie the Open‐air museum of Cappadocia. From Avcılar to Ürgüp, Göreme, Avanos, Zelve and Ihlara, more than 300 churches hewn in the rock are to be found. Already an ideal place where hermits would retire in search of an ascetic life closer to God, it developed as a monastic centre in the fourth century after Saint Basil the Great wrote the Rule of the Monastic Life. The richly decorated churches, depicting the life of the Lord and figures of Saints, are the cradle of Christian monastic art which inspired Byzantine art that embellished the famous churches of the cities. Cappadocia also contains several underground cities, which were largely used by early Christians as hiding places. Day 13, July 07 ( Saturday) CAPPADOCIA ‐ ANKARA: Ankara, which became the capital of the new Republic in 1923, has welcomed Hittites, Phrygians, Galatians, Byzantines, Seljuks, and Ottomans throughout history. 10
Mausoleum of Atatürk (Anıtkabir): Anıtkabir is the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the leader of the Turkish War of Liberation and the founder and first president of the Republic of Turkey. It was designed by Turkish architects Emin Onat and Orhan Arda who won the competition held by the Turkish Government in 1941 for a "monumental mausoleum" for Ataturk. The competition included 45 international proposals. The site is also the final resting place of İsmet İnönü, the second President of Turkey, who was interred there after he died in 1973. The Mausoleum now houses a Museum dedicated to the final years of World War I and the Turkish War of Liberation that followed the War and resulted in the founding of the Republic of Turkey as well as the monumental reforms led by Ataturk that transformed Turkish society. http://www.tsk.mil.tr/eng/Anitkabir/index.html Ankara Castle and Mansions: The castle, which has guarded the city for centuries, is now a symbol of Ankara and its history and is as old as the city itself. Although it is not exactly known when the castle was built, it is commonly believed to have been built by the Romans, then repaired and expanded by the Seljuks. Today within the castle walls there are a number of Ottoman‐style houses dating as far back as the 17th century. Museum of Anatolian Civilizations: The Museum of Anatolian Civilizations is probably the most visited tourist destination in the city. A restored Ottoman caravanserai, it houses an excellent collection of artifacts from the Palaeolithic Age, the Old Hittite Kingdom, the Assyrian Trade Colonies, the Late Hittite kingdoms, and the Phrygian, Urartian, and other Anatolian civilization, making the Museum one of the most exceptional in the world. The Turkish Cultural Foundation supports a special educational project of the Museum to teach children Anatolian history. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D3130239EEA0FCDF038B4D36EEC7DB5A1F52 http://www.anadolumedeniyetlerimuzesi.gov.tr/Default.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFF32CB65736F5E0D5E2747D9FFFE
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Turkish Volunteer Teachers Accompanying TST 2012 Tour
Ms. Simin Demir – Group 1 Simin Demir was born in Duzce in 1978. She holds her BA in English Language and Literature from Istanbul University and her MA in English Language Education from Yeditepe University. She completed ICELT programme in 2011 and she became a CAMBRIDGE ESOL Oral Examiner in 2012. She is a full‐time English Teacher and also the team leader for Grades 1‐3 at Terakki Foundation Schools. Ms. Birim Bademli – Group 1 Birim Bademli was born in Istanbul in 1980. She holds her BA in Classroom Teaching from Canakkale 18 Mart University and her Masters in Psychology from Istanbul Commerce University. She is still continuing her education in Film and Animation at Sydney Audio Engineering School in Istanbul. She works as a homeroom teacher in a private primary school in Istanbul. Apart from teaching, she likes to draw and she has an interest in animation. She is single and an only child. She is very open to exploring new things and ideas and has a very outgoing personality. Ms. Sebnem Oral – Group 2 Sebnem Oral was born in England and grew up in Germany. She holds her BA in Translation and Interpretation from Hacettepe University and her CIM (Certificate of International Management) from Istanbul University. She received her Teaching Certificate from Bogaziçi University. She teaches English in a primary school in Istanbul. Apart from her teaching, she travels in Turkey and tells bilingual stories to young learners. Her story books were published as Musical Tales of the World I & II in 2009, and Musical Story Basket I & II in 2010/2011. Ms. Ipek Iptes – Group 2 Ipek Iptes was born in Turkey. She holds her BA in English Linguistics from Hacettepe University. She received her Teaching Certificate from the same university. She teaches English in a private primary school in Istanbul. She lived in Washington DC in her junior year of high school. She also lived in Poland for 6 months as an Erasmus exchange student. She is interested in travelling, meeting people and learning about other cultures. Ms. Başak Aslı Sener – Group 3 Istanbul Portion B. Aslı P. Sener was born in Istanbul. She graduated from Istanbul University with a degree in Turkish Literature. She teaches Turkish literature in a private school in Istanbul to 4‐8th grades. She is interested in theatre and cinema. She played in amateur theatre plays and a professional Turkish movie about homeless children. She is also working with children in the field of drama. She's adapted and directed childrens’ plays. She's been attending creative drama seminars for a year. Ms. Zeynep Kivilcim Zeynep Kivilcim was born in Istanbul in 1983. She graduated from Istanbul Kultur University with a degree in English Language And Literature. The cost of her education was covered entirely by scholarships. She teaches English in a private primary school in Istanbul. Her interests include literature, theatre and music. Zeynep performs as an amateur actress and she is also a scuba diving instructor. Study Tour Reading Enhancements Various Aspects of Turkish Culture
The great bulk of Turkey's territory is located on the Anatolian peninsula where some of mankind's earliest settlements were established as early as 10000 BC. Indeed, Anatolia's rich geography and varied climate have been favorable to the development of numerous urban civilizations and great empires throughout the flow of centuries. Few other areas have witnessed such a rich succession of civilizations. From prehistoric man to the Hittites, Anatolian Kingdoms of Caria, Lydia, Phrygia, and Troy, from Homer to Saint Paul, from Alexander to Justinian, Süleyman the Magnificent, and Atatürk, Anatolia is also the land from which Turkish civilization acquired some of its strongest roots, and most prestigious works of art and literature. Thus, this long history of successive civilizations has deeply influenced the social and cultural fabric of modern Turkey. Actually, Turkish culture of today is the amalgamation of all these civilizations that have enriched this land over the centuries. Anatolia bears a living witness to a very long history. Archeologists can trace this region's past as far back as the Paleolithic or the Mesolithic periods. Traces of human occupation may be found in shelters and caves like the Karain Cave near Antalya in southwestern Turkey, occupied by nomadic tribes between 10,500 and 7,000 BC. After the Paleolithic or the Mesolithic periods, two exceptional cities, Çatalhöyük and Hacìlar evolved in the Neolithic period as brilliant examples of man's transition to a settled lifestyle, and of what may be considered the oldest model of an urban civilization. Around 3200 BC, the blossoming of metallurgy in the Near East helped bring about many changes. Rich in gold, silver and copper, Anatolia became one of the most "civilized" areas of the world, especially with Troy and Alacahöyük. In the following millennia, civilizations such as the Assyrians, the Sumerians and the Hittites rose and fell as invaders from abroad continued to leave their mark in Anatolia. The major upheaval around 1200 BC, is attributed to the arrival of a new stock of people from the Balkans who brought with them a more effective social organization and more highly evolved techniques. This event shook Anatolia and most of the eastern Mediterranean. This was also to be the end of the age of great Anatolian empires, which then split into a multitude of small, independent kingdoms. Midas, the King with the golden touch and Croesus, the inventor of coinage, were rulers of small but important Anatolian kingdoms during the first millennium BC. Many of the great accomplishments of classical and Hellenistic civilization in the realms of art, architecture, philosophy, medicine and science came to light in Ionia, the region around present‐day Izmir and Bergama. 1
Rome took over Anatolia in the last century BC and called it Asia Minor. The Roman provincial capital of Ephesus was among the largest and finest cities of its time. St. Paul preached there and Virgin Mary died in a small house in the outskirts of the city. The seven churches of Asia, whom St. Paul addressed as Epistles, are all in Anatolia. St. Nicholas, Santa Claus himself, lived on Anatolia's south coast. In 330 AD, Constantine the Great established the eastern capital of the Roman Empire in Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople. By the time of Emperor Justinian, Rome had fallen and Constantinople remained the sole capital of the vast empire. For centuries, the Byzantine and Arabic Empires struggled for the domination of Anatolia, but both were swept aside by the coming of the Turks from Central Asia. The westward movement of Turkic peoples headed by the Seljuks led to permanent Turkish settlement in Anatolia. Meanwhile, people of different ethnicities remained there. The Seljuks left their descendants a rich cultural legacy: Omer Khayyam, the mystic poet renowned throughout the world for his Rubaiyat, was a subject of the Seljuks of Persia; and Mevlana, the spiritual leader of the humanist philosophy of tolerance of Sufism, and founder of the Mevlevi order of the Whirling Dervishes, lived in Konya, the capital of the Anatolian Seljuk Empire, and the order he founded flourished there. Then came the Ottoman Empire which made an impact on the course of world history. This empire came to life in the late 13th century as a small Turkish principality near Bursa on the northwestern frontier of the Anatolian Seljuk Empire and gradually found its place in history as one of the great empires of Renaissance Europe. The Ottoman Empire reached its zenith in the 17th century. By that time it covered Asia Minor, the Crimea, the Caucasus, Mesopotamia, the Middle East, North Africa, and the Balkans. The Ottoman Empire followed in the footsteps of its ancestors and set up a system based on tolerance for the many differences among its subjects. This cultural and religious tolerance and goodwill is best manifested in the reception of Jews fleeing the Inquisition in the 15th century. It was due to this exceptional system assuring stability and tolerance, and freedom of conscience that the Empire was able to hold together people of different religions, languages and races, and also succeeded in protecting and preserving different cultures and languages. Today, that tradition of tolerance and harmony lives on in modern Turkey, being enriched as time passes. The Republic of Turkey was built on the ashes of the Ottoman Empire which ceased to exist at about the same time the Austro‐Hungarian and Russian empires ended in the wake of the First World War. The Republic of Turkey was founded by and on the inspiring ideals of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, one of the greatest leaders of this century. After the Republic was proclaimed in 1923, a program of far‐reaching structural reforms was put into motion, aiming to better meet the challenges of the modern world. Despite the more immediate tasks at hand related to this social reorganization, the Republic did not neglect Anatolia's heritage and worked towards a synthesis of the cultures of different civilizations and peoples, adhering to the principle stated by Atatürk, "culture is the foundation of the Turkish Republic". At present, Turkey spares no effort in order to protect and enhance the treasures of past civilizations that grew on its land. Another reflection of this cultural synthesis can be observed in the rich social structure of Turkey. Indeed, Turkey considers itself both European and Asian, and cherishes this diversity as an asset. The Turks have lived seven centuries of their history in Europe, and as a European power. Thus, not only have they shared and contributed to the contemporary culture of the West, but also have been influenced by it. Turkey can 2
be regarded as a cultural bridge between the East and the West, enjoying a unique characteristic in this regard. This uniqueness is even more evident today in the social, cultural and political domains. Turkey has the longest‐running democracy in its widening region, a secular system, and Turkish artists and artisans have developed styles of art that are uniquely Turkish and universal at once, blending together the traditional styles of the East with the practices of the West. Artistically, in earlier times, Turkish craftsmen and artists showed their creative talents in architecture, music, poetry, textiles, wood and metal working, ceramics, glass making, jewelry, manuscript illumination, miniatures and calligraphy. The Ottoman Empire rapidly became the center of the Islamic artistic tradition because of its cultural endowment, constant contact with all the branches of oriental art, and exposure to the occident. The early years of the Republic witnessed a rapid flourishing of fine arts. Classical music, opera, theater and ballet, as well as plastic arts and painting took impressive strides. Literature attained new forms of expression. The film industry started to grow. Indeed, continuous progress was witnessed in all walks of cultural life. Today, this development has attained a certain maturity in art and culture. Turkish painters and sculptors exhibit at home and abroad, and participate in many international festivals. Architects put their art to work throughout the world. Many Turkish musicians have gained international acclaim and record on world‐wide labels. Turkish cinema too has acquired international recognition, and promises a bright future. Works of Turkish writers are increasingly translated into other languages and appreciated for their distinct character. Turkey now holds more than a dozen international art and culture festivals each year, featuring prominent international artists and performers, attracting an audience from all over the world. Now that cultural, social and economic issues are becoming increasingly important in international relations, Turkey, with this rich cultural heritage and potential, is prepared to play its role in the exciting journey that humanity will embark upon in the new millennium. 3
The Turkish Art of Marbling (Ebru)
Marbling is the art of creating colorful patterns by sprinkling and brushing color pigments on a pan of oily water and then transforming this pattern to paper. The special tools of the trade are brushes of horsehair bound to straight rose twigs, a deep tray made of unknotted pinewood, natural earth pigments, cattle gall, and tragacanth. It is believed to have been invented in thirteenth century Turkistan. This decorative art then spread to China, India and Persia, and Anatolia. Seljuk and Ottoman calligraphers and artists used marbling to decorate books, imperial decrees, official correspondences, and documents. New forms and techniques were perfected in the process and Turkey remained the center of marbling for many centuries. Up until the 1920's, marblers had workshops in the Beyazit district of Istanbul, creating for both the local and European markets, where it is known as Turkish marble paper. The Art of Marbling Following its acceptance of Islam, the Turkish nation so bound itself to that religion that there was not another on earth which had so devoted its blood in the name of God. Becoming on the one hand the Sword of Islam and conquering countries in God's name, on the other hand it dedicated nearly all of its art to the most beautiful expression of the pine; for the most part in its music, in its architecture, in its calligraphy, and in its decorative arts, the Turkish nation dealt with that which was mystical. Indeed, quite a few branches of the arts were developed in religious lodges, yet out of the humbleness afforded by dervish training, no signatures are to be seen below them. Just as in the case of the development of the art of Turkish architecture, where the primary element was the architecture of the mosque, this art gave life to a great number of other branches of the arts such as tile making, marble working, glass making, wood carving, and mother of pearl inlaying. The Turks also accepted the Arabic alphabet (which gained importance with the Koran) as another main branch of the arts, and they developed six separate styles. Together with these six styles of writing developed under the heading of the art of calligraphy, holy verses and traditions were worked into all media from paper to cardboard and from large cloth panels to marble, wood, tile, and metal. Decorators framed these writings with beautiful figures, and gilders gilded them, decorated them, and adorned them. It was in this way that subsidiary branches of art arose which embellished the art of calligraphy, and at the head of these are the arts of illumination, ornamentation, marbling, and bookbinding. The art of marbling, our subject here, is the art of obtaining the paper dyed in a myriad of colors which was used for decoration in the art known as calligraphy. Coming over the Silk Road to Anatolia from the Turks ancient homeland, the art set out from Bukhara in Turkistan, picked up its name (ebru) in Iran, and settled in Anatolia. Was the name it acquired from Farsi (ebri) on account of its cloud‐like appearance? Or was it ab‐ru because it was created on water in a vessel? This is not very clear. In the West, however, this art is referred to as "Turkish marbled Paper". 1
In our museums and in private collections one finds examples of paper marbling which go back as far as 450 years from the present day. A determination of date is possible in the case of marbled paper on which something has been written, and for this reason one may perhaps be able to determine the name of the calligrapher. The name of the artist doing the marbling however remains unknown. The earliest marbling artist whose name has been determined to date is one with the by‐name of "Sebek," mention of which is made in the Tertib‐I Risale‐i Ebri ("Organised Treatise on Marbling"), which is the oldest document relating the methods and constituents of marbling, as published by Mr. Ugur Derman in his book on the art of marbling. In this treatise, which was written in A.H. 1017 (1608), mention is made of this artist with the entreaty "God Grant Him Rest," and it is not even known how long it was before the treatise was written that this artist lived. In a manuscript copy of the work of the poet Fuzuli titled Hadikat‐üs Süeda ("Garden of Delights"), which came into my possession through the offices of Mr. Kemal Elker, a little more light is thrown on the subject in three aspects: First, on the title page of the book the phrase Ma Sebek Mehmed Ebrisi is added in red ink after the designation of Hadikat‐üs Süeda as the title of the work. From this formulation, the meaning of which is "With Marbling by Sebek Mehmet," we learn that the calligrapher employed this marbled paper among the pages when copying the book and, more importantly, that the name of this artist with the by‐name "Sebek" was "Mehmet". Second, the final page of the book ends "Katib‐ül harf Ahmet Hasan yeniçer‐i korucuyan‐i dergâh‐i âli fi beldet ül Trablus Sam fi zeman defterdar Mehmet efendi. Sene 1004. "This volume was written by Ahmed son of Hasan. Gaurd in the Janissary corps when Mehmet Efendi was Director of Finance in Trablus Syria. Year: 1004." The importance of the date here is the fact that it indicates that the marblings of Sebek Mehmet Efendi were in use in A.H. 1004 (1595). Most likely the artist himself was still alive at that time. Third, three marblings by Sebek Mehmed Efendi were used in the book, and it is these which are most important because of the light they cast on the history of art and of marbling. These are of the grayish‐white type known as "Porphyry Marbling," and they resemble veined marble. It may be regarded as the grandfather of the so‐called "Floral Marbling," which is a grayish‐yellow. The red and blue marbling on the other hand is of a type which is intermediary to the "Passion Flower" and "Tidal" types of marbling. All three examples show that Mehmet Efendi was a marbler of advanced skill. Indeed, the "Light Marbling," which used to be written upon is the type requiring the greatest skill in this art. The first person whose name was given to his style of marbling in this art was Mehmed Efendi, a preacher at Ayasofya Mosque who lived around 1770. By means of a few nested motifs done in the form of flowers or stars, a new style was born in the art of marbling. This style, called Hatip Ebrusu ("Preacher's Marbling") was the next advance after Sebek Mehmed Efendi in the search for flowers in the art of marbling, and we may regard this as the father of "Floral Marbling". The Chain of Tradition Like all the classical Ottoman arts, the art of marbling was one which was not taught by writing or explanation, but by training students by means of the "master/apprentice" system. The ability to turn out marbling which was truly beautiful was something of which only artists who had devoted years ‐and even their lives‐ to this art could be worthy. 2
Nevertheless, for one reason or another this deep‐rooted Turkish art has lost its historical prevalence and has only managed to survive down to the present day thanks to the last four links in the master/apprentice chain. We will mention these links now. Sadik Efendi from Bukhara (?‐1846), sheik of the Uzbek Lodge in Üsküdar, himself learned the art of marbling in Bukhara and taught it to his son Edhem Efendi who subsequently became sheik of the same lodge. This man of science, who was a master of many branches of the arts and sciences, taught the art of marbling to Necmettin Okyay, a calligrapher, gilder, and bookbinder who managed to combine a large number of arts in a single personality. Necmettin Okyay (1883‐1976) turned out a considerable number of exquisite marblings in addition to opening a new age in the style of "Floral Marbling," which until then had undergone much primitive experimentation yet had failed to achieve anything specific in form. It was he who produced marblings that resulted in near‐
depictions of tulips, daisies, hyacinths, poppies, carnations, pansies, and rosebuds. The Floral Marblings of this style began to be referred to a "Necmettin Marbling." At last, marbling was no longer a colored piece or paper adorning a piece of writing— it had now been raised to the level of a work of art in and of itself and worthy of its own study. Notwithstanding the large number of students which he trained, Mustafa Düzgünman is the sole name in the art of marbling today. He has produced exquisite works both in the floral marbling instituted by his teacher (master) Necmettin Efendi and in all the other types of marbling as well. Born in 1920, Düzgünman still pursues his art today. Performance of the Art Marbling begins first by dissolving tragacanth, a white material derived from a plant which grows in Anatolia, in water. A type of gum, tragacanth gives the water a degree of viscosity. A vessel with the approximate dimensions of the paper to be marbled is filled with this liquid to a depth of about six centimeters. At the same time, earth‐based dyes in various colors are thoroughly crushed with a specially‐shaped pestle on a marble slab and are reduced to powder. Each of these dyes is placed in a separate glass jar and mixed with a small amount of water. Into each is added five to ten drops of ox bile (previously boiled to prevent it from spoiling). When added to the water of the dyes, this material spreads on the surface (not unlike olive oil) and it ensures that the dyes superimposed on one another do not become mixed. These liquefied dyes are removed from their jars one after another by means of special coarse horsehair brushes and sprinkled onto the tragacanth solution. Each of the dyes added spread one onto the other producing attractive figures. With the marbling vessel, a sheet of an appropriate absorbent paper with exactly the same dimensions as the vessel is placed, and an image of all the dyes on the surface of the water is absorbed by the paper. Next the paper is removed and left to dry, and the vessel is ready for another marbling. In this way, hundreds of marblings may be made, but with time the dyes in the vessel slowly become grain). At this point, dyes (mostly blue ones) prepared with turbot bile rather than ox bile are added in the exact center of the vessel until they have spread over the entire surface. From this one obtains the final output of the vessel: "Sand Marbling" or "Fishbone Marbling". If no intervention is made in the dyes sprinkled into the vessel on the other hand, an antique style of marbling known as "Oversized Marbling" is obtained. Nevertheless, this may be given form by means of a thin piece of wire (or a needle), producing such types of marbling known as "Tidal," "Passion Flower," and "Nightingale's Nest". If a special comb studded with nails is dragged through the sprinkled dyes, the result is "Serrated Marbling". 3
To produce floral marbling, a light‐colored ground is prepared as "Oversized Marbling" after which the green dye that has been added is drawn and stretched by means of a needle—almost as if it were rubber—to provide the shapes of stems and leaves. The colors which will serve as the blossom on the upper end of the stem are added in drops and given shape. From here on, the beauty of the flower is dependent upon the artist's skill. Instead of marbling which decorates the edges of a piece of writing, there is also a style which assumes the form of the calligraphy itself. In this, the dyes sprinkled in the vessel are brought into harmony on the one hand, while on the other, a calligrapher writes out the work on a piece of blank marbling paper using a reed pen dipped in glue rather than in ink. Written in glue, this calligraphy is invisible when dried, but when immersed in the vessel, these parts do not absorb the dyes, and the white areas on the marbled paper are revealed. This is known as "Written Marbling". Using the same technique, a rectangular section in the center of a light‐marbled piece of paper is coated in glue, and then the paper is immersed in a vessel in which darker‐
colored dyes are predominant. This produces Akkase Ebru (literally, "two‐toned marbling") with the lighter‐
colored marbling in the center, on which something may be written. Nowadays, at a time when the art of calligraphy has lost its currency, the art of marbling, like a painting, caresses the eye all on its own in a variety of compositions. Used in the production of exquisite bookbinding, the art of marbling has also been extended to use as an element of decoration on tiles by the architect Himmi Senalp. Another artist whose work is appreciated is that of our colleague and marbler Nedim Sönmez, who has created what may be styled as a "revolution" in the art of marbling, having achieved a degree of success previously unattained in the matter of "pictorial marbling" or "pictures with marbling". This marbling work, carried out jointly with his wife Yvonne, acts as a sort of ambassador in representing our country in a great number of exhibitions abroad. Note: In the preparation of this article, use was also made of the book Türk Sanatinda Ebru, written by Mr. M. Ugur Derman and the sole work on this subject. Ebrî : cloud Abrû : water surface Source: Antika, The Turkish Journal of Collectable Art, May1986 Issue:14 By : Isik Yazan 4
The Art of Turkish Tiles and Ceramics
The art of Turkish tiles and ceramics occupies a place of prominence in the history of Islamic art. Its roots can be traced at least as far back as the Uighurs of the 8th and 9th centuries. Its subsequent development was influenced by Karakhanid, Ghaznavid, and (especially) Iranian Seljuk art. With the Seljuks' victory over the Byzantines at Malazgirt in 1071, the art followed them into Anatolia and embarked upon a new period of strong development fostered by the Anatolian Seljuk sultanate. The Anatolian Seljuks were of course influenced by the cultural heritage they encountered in their new homeland, adapting them to the techniques that they had brought with them from the Iranian plateau. This resulted in a distinctively Anatolian style of Seljuk architecture that was in full bloom by the 13th century. Seljuk mosques, medreses (theological academies), tombs, and palaces were lavishly decorated with exquisite tiles. Examples of such tile‐clad structures can still be seen in the Seljuks' capital city of Konya as well as in the cities of Sivas, Tokat, Beysehir, Kayseri, Erzurum, Malatya, and Alanya. The most frequently‐encountered type of architectural decoration during the Anatolian Seljuk period involved the use of glazed brick in which glazed (and also unglazed) bricks were arranged to produce a variety of patterns, mostly on the facades of buildings. Turquoise was the most frequently used color for glaze although cobalt blue, eggplant violet, and sometimes black were also popular. A type of architectural decoration used in conjunction with glazed brick was hexagonal, triangular, square, and rectangular monochrome tiles. Unlike brick, these were preferred for indoor applications and were suitable for a multiplicity of geometrical arrangements. Tiles were made from a paste that was harder and more yellowish than that of bricks. Turquoise, cobalt blue, violet, and (sometimes) green glazes were used. There are rare examples with traces of gilding. A third technique in which the Anatolian Seljuks were skilled was that of the mosaic tile. This was also employed in interiors, especially in mihrab niches, the interiors of domes, transitions to domes, vaults, and walls. Tile mosaic is formed by pieces of tile cut to shapes to fit the pattern intended. The unglazed surfaces of the tesserae are slightly conical. The pieces were arranged glazed‐side down after which a whitish mortar was poured over them. When it had set, the resulting plate or panel could be installed where desired. Mosaic‐tile compositions are generally geometrical but floral motifs and Kufic or Thuluth calligraphy are also found. The most popular colors were turquoise, cobalt blue, eggplant violet, and black. Examples of Anatolian Seljuk buildings decorated with mosaic tile are Karatay Medrese (Konya, 1251), Alaaddin Mosque (Konya, 1220), Gok Medrese and Mosque (Sivas, 1271), the Malatya Grand Mosque (1247), and Ince Minareli Medrese (Konya, 1264). In addition to these techniques, which, along with under glaze, appear in religious and funerary architecture, there were two techniques employed only in civil and palace architecture: minai tiles and luster tiles. The 1 forms of these tiles were also different as the favorite shapes were stars and crosses. Instead of geometric patterns, vegetal scroll and lively figurative compositions were used. The minai technique was developed in Iran in the 12th and 13th centuries mainly in ceramics. The only place in Anatolia where tiles of this type have been found is Alaeddin Kiosk in Konya. The palette of colors that this technique offers is much greater, and one finds shades of violet, blue, turquoise, green, red, brown, black, and white as well as gilding. Some colors were applied under the glaze and then fired; others were applied over the glaze which then received a secondary opaque white, transparent, or turquoise glaze and was fired again. The designs of minai tiles are lively and reminiscent of miniatures with themes taken from palace and court life. In under glaze tiles, the designs are painted onto the surface, which is then glazed before the tile is fired. This was the technique most commonly used by the Anatolian Seljuks. The preferred colors were turquoise, cobalt blue, green, violet, and black. Instances of black‐decorated tiles under a turquoise glaze are also found. Fine examples of these tiles have been discovered at the excavations of the Kubadabad Palace in Beysehir, where the tiles are decorated with plant motifs as well as with figures of human beings and animals. The luster technique first appeared in Abbasid Iraq. Later developed to a high level by the Fatimids in Egypt, it was successfully employed by the Iranian Seljuks. The only place in Anatolia where luster tiles have been found is Kubadabad. The tiles discovered at the excavations of the palace are now on display at the Karatay Medrese Museum in Konya. Luster tiles are decorated in an over glaze technique in which the design is painted with luster a mixture of metallic oxides incorporating silver and copper onto a previously glazed and fired surface. The tiles are then given a second firing at a lower temperature producing a range of lustrous, mostly brownish and yellowish tones. Seljuk palace luster tiles are decorated with plant motifs as well as with human and animal figures. Anatolian Seljuks sometimes used square, rectangular, hexagonal, and triangular tiles to cover interior walls. These tiles are plain, with turquoise, violet, or cobalt blue being the chief colors applied in the under glaze technique. Sometimes the traces of overglaze gilding are to be found; however, because the gilding was fired at a low temperature (or not fired at all), it was not durable and has mostly disappeared. Excavations carried out in 1965‐66 at Kalehisar near Alacahoyuk have revealed important evidence of the Seljuks' ceramics industry in the 13th century. Two kilns were unearthed along with a substantial quantity of kiln material and incomplete and spoiled examples of ceramics decorated with the sgraffito and slip techniques. In the sgraffito technique, the object is allowed to dry to leather‐hardness after which the design, usually plant and floral motifs, is incised into the surface, which may or may not be given a coat of slip beforehand. The resulting design is then covered with a transparent glaze of a different color and then the piece is fired. In the slip technique, the design is painted onto a red‐paste surface using diluted white slip to produce a slightly molded effect. The surface is then given a coating of transparent glaze colored blue, green, or light or dark brown and then fired. During the firing, the areas decorated with slip assume a lighter shade of the glaze color, which appears darker in the ground. Motifs are stylized plant motifs and sometimes simple rumi (arabesque scroll). Emirate‐period tiles are generally a continuation of Seljuk techniques with one important exception: the introduction of the cuerda seca technique, which was subsequently developed by the Ottomans. The earliest examples of this group are dated to the late 14th and early 15th centuries. In this technique, a red paste is given a coating of white slip. The design is stamped or carved into the surface after which colored glazes are 2 applied. The contours of the designs are picked out with a mixture of beeswax or vegetable fat and manganese oxide. During the firing, the wax or fat burns away producing contours of red or black that also prevent the differently‐colored glazes from running into one another. The cuerda seca technique permits extremely complex and detailed designs to be applied to ceramic surfaces. In addition to plant motifs, examples decorated with calligraphy and (less commonly) geometric patterns that are a continuation of Seljuk traditions are to be found. A rich and subtle palette of colors was available with colors such as turquoise, cobalt blue, lilac, yellow, black, and pistachio. Gilding was also used. Fine examples of cuerda seca tiles are to be found at the Bursa Green Mosque (1419‐1420) and Tomb (1421‐1422), the Mosque of Murad II (Edirne, 1436), the Tiled Kiosk (Istanbul), and the Tomb of Prince Mehmed (Istanbul, 1548). Sgraffito and slip‐decorated wares continuing Seljuk techniques and styles were also produced during the Emirate period. During early Ottoman times, they appear among Iznik wares reflecting the tastes of folk art. In the course of excavations at the site of ancient Miletus, the archaeologist and art historian F. Sarre came across a type of polychrome pottery that erroneously became known as 'Miletus ware'. We now know, as a result of recent excavations, that these wares were actually made in Iznik. These red‐paste ceramics appear during the second half of the 14th century. They are decorated with motifs executed in tones of blue, turquoise, and violet under a colorless or colored glaze. Examples in which the motifs have black contours are also known, as are pieces with black decorations under a turquoise glaze. The principal forms are bowls and dishes. A feature of most 'Miletus' ware is that the interiors are given a coating of slip but part of the exteriors and the bases are not. Designs tend to be plant motifs and geometrical arrangements but animal figures are also encountered. Most compositions suggest the influence of the designs found on metal wares. One, a composition of thick motifs radiating around a central motif, is identical to the grooved designs on metal bath‐bowls. The late 15th and early 16th century marks the beginning of a new period in Ottoman tile and ceramic‐
making. The most important center active at this time was Iznik. Designs prepared by artists who were employed in the studios of the Ottoman court were sent to Iznik to be executed in wares ordered for use at the palace. The court's patronage stimulated and supported the development of an artistically and technically advanced ceramic industry in Iznik. The earliest example of the new styles that emerged in the early Ottoman period are the 'blue‐and‐white' Iznik ceramics. The techniques involved in their manufacture are quite advanced as compared with anything previously done. The pastes are quite hard, pure white, and of fine quality. In an analysis that appeared in his report of the 1981‐82 excavations, Dr Ara Altun noted that these ceramics must have been fired at temperatures as high as 1,260 degrees Celsius rather than the normal 900 degrees, adding that at such temperatures one is in the realm of light porcelain. The techniques and quality employed in these ceramics were to last through various changes in style until the middle of the 17th century. During the late 15th and early 16th centuries, Iznik was producing far more in the way of blue‐and‐white wares than the wall tiles for which it was later to become famous. The styles, designs, decorations, and techniques of these ceramics are quite distinct from Seljuk traditions. These changes in the Iznik potters' production habits are attributed to attempts to imitate the 15th‐century Ming porcelains that were reaching the Ottoman court in various ways. The glazes are limpid and there is no crazing. The designs, which are given thin contours of slip, are executed and painted flawlessly. Shades of cobalt blue dominate but turquoise also appears here and there. The decorations include stylized foliage, arabesques, and Chinese clouds alone or in skillfully‐executed compositions. 3 Iznik blue‐and‐whites can be classified in a number of subgroups on the basis of their motifs and styles. One group, with motifs consisting of stylized lobed leaves with curling tips is attributed to a 'Baba Nakkas,' a chief designer at the Ottoman court studios in the 15th century, and is therefore known as the Baba Nakkas style. Cobalt blue in various tones is the principal color. Much later, small touches of turquoise also appear. Another blue‐and‐white group from Iznik is erroneously called 'Golden Horn ware' because the first examples of it were discovered at a site on the Golden Horn in Istanbul. J. Raby has proposed calling them the 'Tugrakes spiral style' instead. The motifs of tiny leaves and flowers on spirals are executed in shades of cobalt blue, turquoise, and black. Blue‐and‐white architectural tiles are rather rare but do exist. The forms are usually hexagonal. Examples are to be found in Edirne at the Mosque of Murad II (1436) and the Uc Serefli Mosque (1437‐1448); in Bursa in the tombs of Prince Ahmed (1429), Prince Mustafa (1474), and Prince Mahmud (1506); and in parts of Topkapi Sarayi in Istanbul. Iznik is also where another misnamed group of ceramics known as Damascus ware was manufactured. These ceramics are dated around the middle of the 16th century. The forerunner of the style is said to be a lamp in the Dome of the Rock that is dated 1549 and bears the signature 'Musli'. In this object we find a new palette of colors incorporating, in addition to the traditional cobalt blue and turquoise, eggplant violet and a cumin green. During this period, naturalistic elements such as tulips, roses, pomegranates, and hyacinths begin to enrich the repertoire of stylized plant motifs and arabesques. During the second half of the 16th century, the transition to polychrome wares took place. The only examples of Damascus‐ware architectural tiles that are known are those in the Mosque of Hadim Ibrahim Pasa (Silivrikapi, 1551) and in the Yeni Kaplica spa in Bursa (1552‐3). Yet another group of polychrome underglaze Iznik ceramics to be erroneously attributed to another place is the one misleadingly known as Rhodos wares, so called because of the numerous examples of them purchased from the island of Rhodes and taken into the Cluny Museum. Dr Oktay Aslanapa's excavations at Iznik have demonstrated incontrovertibly that these wares were manufactured there. These ceramics have an extensive palette and are generally decorated with naturalistic flowers. As late as the middle of the 16 century, the Ottoman ceramic industry was producing more utensils than architectural tiles. Thereafter, however, production shifted heavily in favor of the latter as there was a strong surge in the demand for tiles as decorations in the extensive building programs undertaken by Suleyman I (1520‐1566) and his successors when the Ottoman Empire was politically, economically, and culturally at its peak. Countless examples of mosques and tombs not only in Istanbul but all over the empire were adorned with the products of the Iznik potters' skill. These underglaze‐decorated ceramics and tiles were decorated with a rich palette of shades of cobalt blue, turquoise, green, black, brown, and the famous 'coral' or tomato red—the last of which appears in a slight relief resembling sealing wax. In tiles, this red appeared for the first time in Suleyman I's great mosque the Suleymaniye (1557) in Istanbul. But other tiles in the same style were to grace numerous monuments erected in Istanbul during the years that followed: the Tomb of Hurrem Sultan (1558), the Mosque of Rustem Pasa (1561), the Tomb of Suleyman I (1566), the Mosque of Sokullu Mehmed Pasa (1572), the Mosque of Piyale Pasa (1573), and the Valide Atik Mosque (Uskudar, 1583). Although the traditional designs of stylized plant motifs, arabesques, and Chinese clouds appear in the compositions, there is a shift towards a more naturalistic style in which tulips, carnations, hyacinths, roses, spring blossoms, lilies, cypress trees, and clusters of grapes and vine leaves appear. Compositions are relaxed 4 and free, offering greater scope for experimentation with new and richer arrangements (figure 10). Different styles of calligraphy adorn the tile friezes on monuments; on utensils we find images of ships, 'rock‐and‐wave' motifs, triple‐spots, animal figures, and fish‐scale patterns. There is also a proliferation in vessel forms of which deep and footed bowls, vases, ewers, dishes, lamps, candle‐holders, and mugs are but a few. Around the middle of the 17th century, the quality of the Iznik potteries began to feel the impact of the economic distress and political upheavals from which the Ottoman Empire had begun to suffer. Colors become dull, the famous tomato red turns brown and even disappears entirely. Designs become crude and are haphazardly executed. Pastes become coarse and glazes suffer from cracking. During this period the Iznik manufactories apparently turned their attentions more and more to the demands of customers who were less finicky than the Istanbul court and its circles. There is even evidence, in the form of written complaints, that orders placed by the court in Istanbul were being delayed. By the 18th century, the ceramic industry in Iznik had died out completely and Kutahya replaced it as the leading center in western Anatolia. Indeed, Kutahya had been in operation as a secondary center along with Iznik since the 14th century, but its production always paled in Iznik's brilliance. But when production at Iznik was discontinued, Kutahya plodded on. For a while, the Kutahya potters produced inferior copies of Iznik blue‐and‐whites but they also began producing ceramics whose forms, colors, and techniques are quite distinct. Among them are a group of Christian liturgical utensils and tiles with religious themes that were made by Armenian potters for their churches. 18th‐century Kutahya ceramics are made with a white paste and are usually decorated with underglaze‐
applied designs in yellow, red, green, cobalt blue, turquoise, black, and violet. The designs are freely executed. In addition to polychrome wares, examples of blue‐and‐whites are also encountered. Forms, which can be elegant, include thin‐walled small cups, saucers, bowls, ewers, pitchers, flasks, incense‐burners, lemon‐squeezers, and ornamental eggs. During the first half of the 19th century, Kutahya's ceramics industry suffered a downturn from which it slowly recovered during the second half and into the early part of this century. Thus do we find examples of Kutahya‐made tiles decorating a number of late‐Ottoman buildings. The tiles on the Tomb of Sultan Mehmed Resad V in Eyup (Istanbul, 1918), for example, were made at the manufactory of Hafiz Emin Usta, which was then operating in Kutahya. Many examples of Kutahya ceramics from this period are to be found in museum and private collections in Turkey. The difficult straits into which the Iznik industry had fallen in the 18th century inspired some in Istanbul to establish a reliable source of tiles that was closer to home and easier to control. Ibrahim Pasa, a grand vizier during the reign of Ahmed III (1703‐1730), had a tile‐making factory set up at Tekfur Sarayi in Istanbul. The output unfortunately was incomparably inferior to that of Iznik: designs were poor copies of Iznik originals, glazes had a blue cast and were flawed, and colors were dull and lifeless. Tile manufacturing at Tekfur Sarayi lasted thirty years or so and the enterprise was generally regarded as a failure. Nevertheless some of its output was used in buildings in Istanbul such as the Hekimoglu Ali Pasa Mosque (1734), the Yeni Valide Mosque (Uskudar, 1708), the Cezeri Kasim Pasa Mosque (Eyup, a restoration done in 1726 of a mosque originally built in 1515), and Kandilli Mosque (1751). There is also a hearth, now in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, whose tiles were made at Tekfur Saray. 5 There is a third important group of Turkish ceramics that are quite different from both the sublime products of Iznik and the humbler wares of Kutahya. Canakkale ceramics have begun attracting the interest and attention of researchers and collectors more and more in recent years. The earliest examples of these ceramics can be dated to the end of the 17th century. Fairly good quality wares continued to be produced up until the beginning of the 19th century. Pastes tend to be coarse‐grained and are red (sometimes beige). Designs consist of under glaze spots, simply‐drawn ships, flowers, fish, birds, and buildings that are applied free‐hand. Colors are a purplish dark brown, orange, yellow, dark blue, and white. The most common forms are dishes, plates, and jars. During the 19th century, quality dropped off sharply. Forms from this period consist of jars, ewers, jugs, vases, flower‐pots, and candle‐holders as well as animal and human figurines. Only a single‐color glaze was used in these ceramics and there are instances in which black, white, blue, red, yellow, or gilded designs were applied over the glaze. Ceramic manufacturing at Canakkale was still being carried out as late as the middle of the 20th century. To summarize, the art of Turkish tile and ceramic‐making developed over the centuries incorporating many different techniques and styles. Enriched by the arrival of the Seljuks, the ceramic industry in Anatolia achieved a deservedly worldwide reputation with the support of the Ottoman court. Today, Kutahya has been revived as an important center of tile and ceramic‐making. In addition, efforts are also being made in private workshops and educational institutions in Iznik, Istanbul, and Bursa to keep the art of traditional Turkish tiles and ceramics alive and develop it so that it can address the demands of modern‐day life. By: Associate Professor Dr. Sitare Turan Bakir, Mimar Sinan University 6 Turkish Shadow Theatre - Karagoz and Hacivat
Karagoz, literally “Black Eye,” is the hero of the Turkish shadow play or theatre. Uneducated but with plenty of native wit, he inevitably gets the better of his gentle friend Hacivat, who is no match for Karagoz despite his education. For centuries the zill‐i hayal (imaginary shadow), as the shadow play was called in the past, entertained Turkish audiences. It is believed by some that the play was first performed for the Ottoman Sultan Selim I (1512‐1520) in Egypt following his conquest of the Mamelukes. According to the 17th century Turkish chronicler Evliya Celebi, however, Karagoz was first performed at the Ottoman palace during the reign of Bayezid I (1389‐1402). Shadow play is known to have been widely performed for the public and in private houses between the 17th and 19th centuries, particularly during the month of Ramazan, when there were nightly performances (except on the 27th night of Ramazan, the most sacred night of the year for Moslems) in the coffee houses. Legend attributes the character of Karagoz to a real person who lived during the reign of Orhan Bey (1324‐1360). Karagoz derives its name from its principal player. The story is that a mosque was being built in the then Ottoman capital of Bursa, and among the laborers were Karagoz and Hacivat, who kept distracting the others from their work with their humorous repartee. As a result, construction of the mosque took longer than expected, and when the angry sultan heard about their antics he had them both executed. However, the pair of comedians were so sorely missed by the townsfolk that a man named Seyh Kusteri made images of Karagoz and Hacivat from camel hide and began to give puppet shows. Karagoz came to represent the ordinary man in the street forthright and trustworthy. He is virtually illiterate, usually unemployed, and embarks on money earning ventures that never work. He is nosy, tactless, often deceitful, and inclined to lewd talk. Like his European counterpart Punch, he frequently resorts to violence, beating Hacivat and other characters in the play. Shadow play puppets are colored and semi‐transparent with jointed limbs. Light from a lamp behind the stage reflects their images onto a muslin curtain around which is a border of floral material. This curtain is known as the ayna (mirror) and the light as a sem'a (candle). The latter consists of an oil lamp with a wick of cotton or string soaked in beeswax. The puppets are made from camel or water buffalo hide. Worked until it is semi‐transparent, the hide is then cut into the desired shape with a special knife and painted with vegetable pigments. The joints are made by threading strings of gut through perforations made with a needle. Some of the puppets have many joints and are usually 35‐40 centimeters high. Karagoz plays consist of four parts—the mukaddime, muhavere, fasil and bitis. The mukaddime or introduction always begins with Hacivat's entry, the puppet moving to the rhythm of the tambourine. He sings a song known as the semai, which is different at each performance. After reciting a prayer he declares that he is searching for a friend and noisily calls Karagoz to the stage with a speech that always ends with the words: "Oh, for some amusement." Karagoz enters on the opposite side and the story begins. There is always a fight at some point in the play. The other characters are the drunkard Tuzsuz Deli Bekir carrying a wine bottle, Uzun Efe with his long neck, Kanbur Tiryaki the opium addict with his pipe, Alti Karis Beberuhi the eccentric dwarf, the half‐witted Denyo, the spendthrift Civan, and Nigar, who spends her time chasing men. The cast of some plays may also include dancers, djins, witches, and monsters as well as nameless characters such as the Arab (a sweet‐seller or beggar who knows no Turkish), a black servant 1 woman, a Circasian servant girl, an Albanian watchman (who is noisy and insolent), a Greek (usually a doctor), an Armenian (a footman or money changer), a Jew (a goldsmith or scrap dealer), a Laz (a boatman) and a Persian (who recites poetry with an Azeri accent). There is just one puppeteer, known variously as Karagozcu, Hayali, or Hayalbaz, who is assisted by an apprentice. The puppeteer installs the curtain and brings on the puppets in order of appearance. The apprentice learns the craft from his master and eventually sets up on his own. In the past, the apprentice was assisted by the sandikkar, responsible for the chest or sandik holding the equipment. The songs were sung by another member of the team known as the yardak, and the tambourine was played by the dairezen. Before the advent of cinema and radio, the Karagoz shadow play was one of the most popular forms of entertainment in Turkey. The conclusion of each play is short and customarily consists of an argument between Karagoz and Hacivat, the latter finally shouting, "You have brought the curtain down, you have ruined it!" to which Karagoz replies, "May my transgressions be forgiven". Reference: Newspot/BYEGM 2 Gallipoli in the First World War*
Prepared by
Prof. Dr. Recep Boztemur
Middle East Technical University
* Text and some pictures are quoted from www.canakkale.gen.tr
1
THE FIRST WORLD WAR In the beginning of the 20th century, Europe was overflowing from its frontiers. Economical rivalry, imperialism, and nationalist movements were dividing the continent into two blocs. The conflict was rising between Germany‐France and Russia‐Austria. The tension in Europe had reached its highest point on 28 June 1914 with the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, heir of the Austro‐Hungarian throne by a Serbian nationalist. On 28 July 1914, Austria had declared mobilisation then the Great War began. In Europe, two blocs had appeared: the Central Powers (Germany, Austro‐Hungary and Italy) and the Triple Alliance (Britain, France, and Russia). With the outbreak of the war, Italy had declared neutrality but one year later joined the Triple Alliance. On the other hand, the Ottoman Empire was losing its large territories in which many nations and beliefs had persisted for over 600 years. Both internal and external conflicts and wars were weakening the strength of the Ottoman Empire. Finally, the Ottoman Empire, with a series of military defeats in Tripoli and in the Balkans, lost nearly all its territories in Europe except the Trace. Moreover, it lost its power and international prestige. From then on, the death of the empire was certain and European powers were planing to share the heritage. As seen, the Twentieth Century had compelled the Turks to grant zones of influence to European powers: Britain (Egypt‐Palestine), France (Syria and the Lebanon), Austria‐Hungary (Bosnia‐Herzegovina), and Italy (Libya). Russia was interested in the Mediterranean and Italy wanted parts of the eastern Mediterranean. Following the blow of the war, under threat from within and outside its borders, Turkey sought a protective agreement from one of the two European power blocs. At first, it intended to join the Triple Alliance, but Russia's protests led it to make a defensive alliance with Germany. On 2 August 1914, Turkey and Germany had signed a secret agreement. Thereupon, the Turkish government had declared that it would remain neutral. However, to secure its borders, it introduced mobilisation. On 10 August 1914, Turkey allowed two German cruisers Goeben and Breslau, which were running from the Allied Navy, to enter the straits. Afterwards, it closed the straits to foreign ships. The Allies became increasingly alarmed with the arrival of those German ships. The Turkish government had 2
stated that they bought these battleships from Germany in place of two dreadnought battleships, which had been built in Britain for the Turkish Navy and were requisitioned by Britain although Turkey had purchased them. Thus, the German ships became a part of the Turkish Navy with the Turkish names Yavuz and Midilli. On 27 September 1914 Yavuz, under the command of German Admiral Souchon, bombarded Sivastopol and Novoroski, Russian shore establishments on the Black Sea. Thereupon, Russia passed the Caucasus border and declared war. This was the final act; the Ottoman Government was now at war. Turkey's geographical position was crucial; the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles were significant, as they were the only passages between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. Moreover, they were Russia's main contact with its allies Britain and France. In the course of history, countless wars had been fought for the straits in the name of their strategic positions and economic and cultural heritages. Even today, they still preserve their importance. The Triple Alliance's attempt to pass the straits was certainly a direct result of their strategic positions. The allies' main target was to assist Russia. Likewise, it was believed that the capture of the straits would lead the British fleet to Istanbul and this might cause the downfall of the Turkish government. Further, it was hoped that the neutral European countries would join the Alliance against the Central Powers. If the straits would be opened, this victory would intimidate all the Muslim colonies, and all the events disturbing the British would disappear. Under these circumstances, Britain had decided to declare a war on 28 January 1915, and France offered a naval squadron to serve under British command in this great enterprise against Istanbul. 3
THE NAVAL ATTACK The British, acting based on the concept "the one rules the seas, rules the world," believed that it was possible to open the Dardanelles "to ships only." Before The Naval Attack was instituted, First Lord of the Admiralty Churchill asked the officer commanding the Aegean, Vice‐Admiral Sackville Carden. Carden stated that he believed the Dardanelles could be forced, given sufficient warships and minesweepers, in a three stage plan. First, the plan involved a neutralisation of the Turkish forts guarding the entrance, then a clearing of the Turkish minefields, and finally a drive into the Sea of Marmara. This plan persuaded the War Council despite Lord Fisher's doubts. The British Navy was proud of its ammunitions, technology, and surely, its victorious history, full of uncountable successes. It was impossible for the frayed, collapsing Ottoman Empire to withstand this invincible armada supported by French warships. The Allied Armada's naval attack began on 19 February 1915. Until 13 March 1915, they continuously bombarded the Turkish forts and opened a way for the minesweeprs. However, they had confronted the Turks' tough resistance. The Turkish gunners did not bother to return the Allies' bombardment. This showed that opening the Dardanelles was not that easy and that the Allies could have cleared only the first five miles of the strait. Until 18 March, the Allied Armada destroyed Seddulbahir and Ertugrul forts located on the European shore and Kumkale and Orhaniye forts located on the Asiatic shore. It seemed that the entrance was now clear but the future was still uncertain. Nobody guessed what was going to happen on 18 March 1915. On 17 March 1915, Admiral de Robeck was in charge to proceed with the plan in place of Admiral Carden. In respect of Carden's plan, the Allied Fleet appeared in the entrance in the morning of 18 March. De Robeck himself commanded the Fleet's most powerful squadron. In bright sunshine and without the possibility of surprise, de Robeck in HMS Queen Elizabeth led the first wave up the channel at 10:30. Queen Elizabeth's target was Mecidiye fort, HMS Lord Nelson was going to bomb the Namazgah fort and HMS Inflexible's object was Hamidiye fort. This was called an "A Line," and it begun at 11:30. De Robeck's most powerful ships commenced to bombard the central forts. Meanwhile, the Allied Fleet had entered the firing line coming from Kumkale. Turkish hotwizers began to fire, but their guns could not cover the distance and the gunners failed to reach the ships. At midday, the Allied Fleet had destroyed the Cimenlik and Hamidiye forts. De Robeck signalled his second wave, which included Guepratte's French squadron, Bouvet, Charlemagne, Gaulois and Suffren with HMS Triumph and Prince George, to go in closer. 4
This step of the plan was called a "B Line". Guepratte led his squadron through the British line and subjected the shore defences. Under Turkish gunners' heavy fire, the squadron had reached the B Line. After a mutual bombardment, the Allies had succeeded to stop the middle forts but the central forts continued to fire. Two British ships, the HMS Triumph and the HMS Prince George, had taken their positions in “A Line,” and they targeted Mesudiye and Yildiz forts. Turkish forts on the European shore were under a fierce fire. Most of the bombshells had hit them and destroyed the telephone lines. Moreover, Mecidiye fort stopped with the death of its gunners. If the allies could have successfully accomplished the second step of the plan, the second squadron commanded by Colonel Hayes Sadler would have moved and replaced the third squadron. De Robeck signalled the French to retire for his third wave of advance with Ocean, Irresistible, Albion, Vengeance, Swiftsun, and Majestic. When the French ships led by Suffren made their return and wheeled away to make room for the second squadron, something unexpected happened. Around 14:00, the French ship Bouvet following immediately behind Suffren hit a mine and within two minutes had disappeared entirely and lost almost all its crew. As the steamboats immediately arrived to rescue the crew, they only could save 20 people’s lives. At 12:30, Gaulois hit a mine, but it could have left the strait with a serious stroke. At 15:30, Inflexible hit a mine not far from the grave of Bouvet. Despite severe damage, the ship could make it to the island of Imros. Shortly afterwards, Irresistible hit a mine. The ship was out of control but was near the Asiatic shore to attract the attention of Turkish gunners, and its crew was taken out. On 8 March, Turkish minelayer Nusret had surreptitiously laid a line of mines parallel to the Asiatic shore, and now these mines were unexpectedly destroying the Allied Armada. Once De Robeck had realised that the Turks had laid mines in the channel, he abandoned the attack. At 18:05, while the second squadron was withdrawing, HMS Ocean hit a mine and exploded. Despite a heavy fire, the crew was evacuated. The events on 18 March confused the Allies. Churchill's opponents like Lord Fisher had turned out to be right—it was impossible to open the strait "by ships only." Nevertheless, de Robeck and Churchill were still insisting that a renewed push would succeed. They began to renovate the plans for another naval expedition to Istanbul. 5
THE LANDINGS 25 APRIL 1915 After the 18 March blow in 1915, General Hamilton had informed Lord Kitchener that without a land operation it was impossible to defeat the strong Turkish defences. From the beginning, Kitchener and Churchill insisted that a naval attack was efficient enough to open the strait. However, after considering the failure on 18 March, they accepted Hamilton's suggestion. General Ian Hamilton had planned to disembark two British divisions, one French division, and one Indian division to Helles (Seddulbahir) and the Anzacs to Karatepe. Meanwhile, the 3rd and 16th army corpses, six divisions, the cavalry unit, and the independent battalions had styled the Turkish forces. Afterwards, with the necessary dispositions, the number of the Turkish divisions had reached sixteen. Approximately a month before the 25 April landings, German Marshall Liman von Sanders was appointed to command the Fifth Army Corps. He thought that the Allied Landing's initial point would be the Basica Gulf (Saros). Therefore, he immediately stationed most of his forces on the Basica Gulf and on Suvla beach, with a division on Seddulbahir and the 15th Corps on the Asiatic shore. In addition, he engaged observation and defensive units on the significant points of the Peninsula and he stationed his main forces at the rear. In fact, the Turkish commanders were against Sander's defence plan. They were advocating the plan, which had been designed before German Marshall's arrival. This plan's focus was to block the enemy in their weakest moment, the moment they embark. However, Sander's plan was put in practise. After the landings had begun, the Turkish commanders' additional dispositions hindered the allies' advance and they were blocked in an area 3‐4 km long. 6
THE ANZAK COVE The Anzac's main target was to land at the beach located between Kabatepe (Z Beach) and Ariburnu. Their initial subject was Conkbayiri‐Kocacimentepe line and then Maltepe to cut the Turks' connection from north to south. In the morning of 25 April, instead of landing at Z Beach, the first troops had been deposited father north at Ariburnu itself. The boats had been swept more than a mile north by an unexpected current. Although they could sweep the expected landing beaches, the area in which the Anzacs had actually landed was defended very weakly, and thus, isolated parties were able to progress a little further. In Bigali, there was maneuvering from the 19th Division commanded by Mustafa Kemal. By daylight, Mustafa Kemal heard the gunfire and he understood that the landings had begun. He immediately had informed the Army Commander but did not receive any further assignment. As soon as he was informed about the casualties of the 27th Brigade defending the shores, he comprehended the arduousness of the situation. Without an authority given by the commander, Mustafa Kemal took all the enterprise's responsibility and ordered the 57th Brigade to move to Kocacimentepe. He had gone to Conkbayiri to observe the counter‐attack. There he saw some soldiers withdrawing. He himself told that moment to Rusen Esref Unaydin as below: "In that very moment, I saw the platoon responsible to observe and protect the Battleship Hill running away. I had stopped them and asked: “Why are you running away?” “Sir, the enemy!” they said. “Where?” I asked. “Here!” they said by pointing to the Battleship Hill. 7
It was true; the enemy's skirmishers were walking through the Battleship Hill. Imagine that, I had given the forces a ten minute break and the enemy had reached the hill. It meant that the enemy was closer to me then my own army. In that moment by premonition I said: “Never run away from the enemy.” “We do not have sufficient ammunitions,” they said. “If you do not have ammunitions, you have your bayonets.” I said. By yelling, I had them fix their bayonets, and I had them lie on the floor. Meanwhile, I sent my adjutant back to take infantry. In that moment, my soldiers fixed their bayonets and laid down and the enemy did the same. We won the war in that moment. That was true, when the Turks had stabilised their positions, the Anzacs stopped and did the same. Thus, Mustafa Kemal won the time to stabilise the 57th Brigade in Conkbayiri and enabled the Turks to prevent the capture of Saribayir. The creator of this success was no doubt Mustafa Kemal. Both Turkish and foreign experts always point and emphasise this reality. The same day, Mustafa Kemal returned to the corps head quarters and by permission of Esad Pasha he took the remains of the 27th Brigade under his command for a counter‐attack. For this attack, his historical order to 57th Brigade was as follows: "I am not ordering you to attack, I am ordering you to die. Until we die, we could win the time for the arrival of new troops and commanders". On 25 April 1915, mid‐afternoon, the initial landing was completed. Nevertheless, with Turkish counter‐attacks and bayonet assaults, the Anzacs had lost many soldiers and they retreated to the shores. Despite these bitter and confused struggles, by the evening, a division of the Anzac corps could have managed to station itself on the cliffs of Ariburnu. Until August 1915, these bloody and bitter fights continued. Both sides attacked usually at nights and the soldiers fought man to man. In August, the war had completely turned out to be a trench war. As in Helles, the Anzacs could not have reached the main subject, and until the evacuation, they were blocked in a small land without any further progress. HELLES On April 25, under protective bombardments of the navy, the allied army had begun the landings on five different points of Gallipoli Peninsula. The initial task of the Indian and the British troops was to capture Alcitepe in the south and advance to Kilitbahir plateau where they could destroy the central forts and finally capture the entrance of the strait. The naval bombardment was so intense that the Turkish 26th Regiment's 10th Company's defense line had been hit by 4,650 shells. Despite the fiery bombardment, the allies had failed to destroy the Turkish artillery; moreover, they lost many soldiers. These events surely confused the allies. One of the great heroes of this war Sergeant Yahya was in the 10th company, as well. Until the end of July 1915, these bloody and hard wars had continued. The Turks—to be saved from the naval bombardments—usually attacked at night by using their bayonets. Especially, the Kirte‐X‐V‐W battle were fought man to man, bayonet to bayonet. The battles in the Y beach lasted eight nights and eight days and most likely had the most causalities. 8
KUMKALE On 25 April 1915, at 4:30, the French fleet stationed in front of Kumkale shore. The first French wave landed under protective bombardments of the navy targeting Kumkale and Orhaniye. The Turkish squad defending the castle and the region had endured for a long time but with the arrival of French reinforcements and fiery naval bombardments, they retreated to Kumkale village. Only half of the squad reinforced by 6th Division remained. In the street of Kumkale both sides began to fight. The Commander of the 6th Division had to drawback his forces to the graveyard of the Kumkale village, and they struggled to prevent the French's progress. In these bitter fights, one of the Turkish commanders had died and the ammunitions had declined. Despite all the negative conditions, the Turks continued to defend their position and prevented French progress. When the Turks made a counter‐attack to recapture Kumkale, in the village's streets a harsh war begun. The French hardened their defense. However, in the most intense moment of the Turkish attack they hoisted a white flag and wanted to surrender. One of the high ranking French officers wanted to surrender to an equal Turkish officer but because of the language difference, they could not understand each other. Thus, the French troops had gathered and returned to their positions. Both sides opened fire on each other. The French fleet began to bombard the shore by risking their own positions and the Turks retreated to the Mezarlik‐Kumkale‐Orhaniye line. On the other side, the French had secured the beachhead but failed to progress further. On the night of 26 April, General Hamilton ordered the French troops to evacuate and to reinforce the British landings. SUVLA Until the end of August, the Allies did not realise their objectives nor in Ariburnu or in Helles. At last, they decided to capture the Dardanelles by surrounding the back of the Peninsula. Hamilton's primary target was to surround the Turks from the back and destroy them. Secondly, he was planning an advance on the Suvla shores for the opening of the third front. For this purpose, on the night of 6 August, he landed 9th British division on that region. His aim was to make a surprise attack at daybreak. However, Liman von Sanders had ordered the commander of the Saros group to go to Suvla and attack the British early on the morning of 8 August. In addition, he ordered Lieutenant Colonel Wilmer to prevent British progress until the arrival of the reinforcements. 9
Liman von Sanders had appointed Colonel Mustafa Kemal to command the Anafartalar (Suvla) Forces. On the morning of 9 August, Mustafa Kemal attacked the 9th British Army Corps with his 12th Division. In addition, to cut their co‐operation with the Anzacs he made another attack towards Damakcilik. The British were confused with these unexpected attacks. This operation was named as the First Suvla War. Mustafa Kemal's interpretation was as follows: "In fact, I have defeated the enemy with my weak forces between Kirectepe and Azmak and I have followed them all the way to the Salt Lake." Thus, as it was in the other fronts, the Suvla front had turned out to be a positional advantage in the war until the evacuation. On the other hand, the 9th British Army Corps was reinforced by new landings, but it still failed in its operations, which were directed toward Suvla. However, for the Turks the situation was desperate and Liman von Sanders reinforced the 8th Division with two regiments and gave them to Mustafa Kemal. On the night of 9th August, 10
Mustafa Kemal made an attack by bayonets and this attack cost the British many casualities. After Mustafa Kemal has secured a defense line, he made necessary reinforcements and began an expanded defense. During all the landings on the Gallipoli Peninsula, the Turks had revealed their bravery, honesty, and their strong characters. In both Helles and Suvla, this was the same. For example, they have never shot the Red Cross tents, stretchers, or the hospital ships. Although the Turks dominated the hills, they had never used gas and never poisoned the fountains. They never tortured the prisoners of war. At first, the Anzacs were confused by these behaviours because the reality was completely opposite of what they had heard in Egypt. They were very prejudiced about the Turkish Soldier whom they named as "Abdul". THE EVACUATION The Allies lost their hopes after they were defeated in Suvla. Hamilton reported that he required massive reinforcements for any further progress, but his request was refused. Instead of receiving more troops, Hamilton lost two divisions. One of the French divisions and the 10th were sent to the western front. Near the end of August in 1915, the idea of an evacuation developed. Kitchener had gone to Dardanelles to give an opinion about the campaign's situation. After his inspection, he decided that the Gallipoli Peninsula was "an awful place" and that further efforts to split the Turkish defenses were useless. Kitchener recommended that Anzac and Suvla be evacuated immediately and these troops be sent to Salonica. The Allied troops evacuated Anzac and Suvla between 8 December and 20 December. From 28 December to 9 January, they withdrew Helles. The evacuation was very well planned. So that the Turks would not realise that the front line would eventually be deserted, automatically firing rifles were devised, which caused occasional shots to be directed towards the Turkish lines for half an hour after the troops had left. Mines were dug out for possible pursuits. Until the last day of the withdrawal, the allies continued to fight, and the leaving troops tied sacs on their boots so the evacuation could be made in complete silence. Were the Turks aware of the evacuation? This is the most common question being asked for the Turkish side. The Allies' success is uncontroversial; the evacuation was a triumph of organisation and discipline, and, of course, the weather conditions helped undeniably. In regard that the Turks had realised the evacuation, they did not attempt an assault. Although it was possible to give enormous causalities to the Allies in the moment of withdrawal, the Turks preferred not to attack. Turkey was at war in all sides of the country, and it needed any soldier, but there were no soldiers to lose anymore. Finally, on 9 January 1916, the Allies had completely left the Gallipoli Peninsula. This defeat had changed the outcome of the Great War and effected the fates of the participating countries. THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGN The Dardanelles failure has put an end to the British Empire's apogee. From then on, Britain's influence in its dominions gradually declined. Despondent Africa and India revolted. A period of awakening begun in the dominions with the sense of national identity. In 20‐30 years time, the British Empire came to an end. The British sailed for world sovereignty but the Dardanelles campaign misled their route. After the Dardanelles Campaign, the course of history had been changed not only for Britain but also for Russia. Russia entered a period of progress, and this progress reached its highest point during the Second World War. On the other hand, the Ottoman Government closed the straits until the end of the First World War and banned any passage through. Doubtless, this closure had very negative effects on international trading and especially on the countries neighbouring the Black Sea. 11
Military Assessment •
According to the Turkish sources, the Allies' total casualties were 187,000 soldiers. The Turkish causalities were 57,084 soldiers in the land attacks and 179,000 soldiers in The Naval Attack. •
The Allied Navy failed to open the straits and to capture Istanbul; thus, the fear of losing Istanbul disappeared. . The worthiest tribute of this war to the Turkish nation was the birth of Mustafa Kemal's military genius. Both 18 March Naval and Gallipoli landing victories restored the Turkish Army's prestige. . When the allies has decided to make an expedition to the Dardanelles, one of their objectives was to leave the Ottoman Empire off the war for an easier defeat of Germany. However, the Turkish victory in Gallipoli caused the Great War to continue two more years until Germany's withdrawal. . The closure of the straits cut Russia's connection off with her allies and deprived her from their aids. Because, more than half million allied soldiers were engaged in Gallipoli, Germany led her eastern operations easily. . Turkish soldiers showed great courage in defending the Dardanelles and they became an example for the Turkish Independence War. . In these wars, many educated, intellectual Turkish people had died. Their loss negatively affected Turkey in the following years. •
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A CLOSER LOOK ALL THE KING'S MEN AND 1/5 NORFOLK REGIMENT A film was made in Britain, in 1999. The name of the film is "All the King's Men." The scenery is based on an alleged story about a British regiment, which attacked the Turks on 12 August 1915 in the Suvla region of the Gallipoli Peninsula. The plot runs as follow: During the Gallipoli campaign, Sandringham Company, which served as part of the 54th Division 163rd Brigade 1/5 Norfolk Regiment, attacks the Turks on 12 August 1915 in the Suvla Region of the Gallipoli Peninsula. In the combat, the Turks defeat them and take them captives. The tension of the story rises when the Turks shoot all the captives in their heads and burn all the wounded soldiers in a farmhouse to "end their pains." This story is not known in Turkey, but in Britain, it has been emphasised especially in recent years. The British authorities claim that Turkey could not have given a sufficient reply when Britain asked the consequence of 1/5 Norfolk Battalion in the end of the First World War. They think that the reason was the event revealed above. However, the reality was totally different. In the battle fought in Suvla region, on 12 August 1915, the British 163rd Brigade suffered serious casualties because of the Turkish artillery and the snipers. The commander of the 54th Division was General Inglefield, the commander of 1/5 Norfolk Regiment was Lieutenant Colonel Sir Horace Beauchamp, and the commander of Sandringham Company was Captain Beck. The Turkish force, which fought against the British, was the 36th Division under command of Major Munib Bey. In War Chronicle, Munib Bey states that on the concerned day, the British attack had backfired and 35 British soldiers were taken captives. The captives gave evidence, which remain in the records. One of them was Private A. G. Brown (1/5 Norfolk Regt. 54 Div. 163 Brigade East Anglian Division) and his evidence, which he gave to the Turkish commanders, is as follow: 12
"On 10 August 1915, I went ashore to the surroundings of the Salt Lake. In the attack I made it to a hill, which I do not know the name of, and I was taken captive on 12 August. Our commander was Inglefield. I only stayed in Suvla for two days and I do not know anything." These are the words of a captive and there is other evidence similar to this one. However, the British insist that the Turks killed all the captives but they did not prove their alleged plot. It is clear that the Turkish forces stopped the Allies' on 12 August 1915. In that defense, the Turkish snipers were involved and the British Militaries agree that it is normal to die by the shots of the snipers in close combat. It was inevitable for the Turks to defend their country against the Allies’ occupation. Ataturk's words explain the situation of the Turks in the Gallipoli battles; "Unless it is indispensable, war is a slaughter." The Turkish Army defended the peninsula against the Allies and the result was heartrending. The servants of King George V formed Sandringham Company of the Norfolk Regiment and most probably, this is the reason for such a story. In addition, Aspinal Oglander states that the company was not ready for such an important mission but General Ingfield assigned them to capture a region that was strongly defended by the Turks. Unfortunately, those untrained soldiers came across Turkish snipers. Maybe this fictitious story was created to cover this fatal mistake. There were always rumours about the torments, which the Turks made to their captives. It is known that the Ally commanders, to make their soldiers fight more vividly, said, "if the Turks catch you, they will eat you." The Turks never ill‐treated their captives. Especially during the Gallipoli Battles, both armies fought fairly. If the archives are searched it would be possible to find the records about the medical services offered to the sick or wounded captives. For example, even to cure the teeth problems of the captives, dentists were designated. Did the British, French, or the Russians provide the same treatment for their captives? The Turkish captives of the Allies tell the opposite. Further research on this subject would reveal the facts and would reply to all the accusations. THE BIRTH OF A HERO: MUSTAFA KEMAL After the Turkish victory in Suvla, Mustafa Kemal became a hero. For the Turkish soldiers fighting in the Dardanelles, his name meant morale and courage. The Allied soldiers without knowing his name appreciated Mustafa Kemal, as well. Even Ian Hamilton wrote in his diary that the talents of the Turkish commander defending Gallipoli astonished him. The heroic victory of Mustafa Kemal even inspired a poet. In September, 1915, the famous poet Mehmet Emin Yurdakul published a poetry collection named The Sound of the Dawn. One of the long verses of this collection is “The Epic of the Army,” dated 15 September 1915. The first quatrain of the epic is as follows: "O! The rough cliffs witnessed that day O! The heroic trenches of Sergeant Mehmet O! The sacred site of Mustafa Kemal O! The bloody hills, burnt places." Thus, the name of Mustafa Kemal was heard nation‐wide. During the battles, the attention of both foreign and Turkish press was on Mustafa Kemal. 13
After the Second Suvla Battle, on 21 August, a Polish journalist came to interview him. She felt the enthusiasm of the victory with Mustafa Kemal. On 2 September, a German journalist came. On 8 September, the first movie producer of Turkey Necati Bey came to see Mustafa Kemal and he filmed the Dardanelles for three days. On 10 September, famous writer of Tanin Newspaper, Ekrem Bey has visited Mustafa Kemal. On October 21, a board of Syrian writers interviewed him. Henceforth, all the interviews and interpretations made Mustafa Kemal a national hero. Famous writer, Yakup Kadri, in his work Ataturk, tells his impressions about those days as follow: "This young commander, and a small group of soldiers with bayonets beside him, has been defending the nation against the rain of bombs, shells, and gunfire. This man was not burnt by fire; it was as if the bullets did not shoot him. The bombs of the battleships were like birds of prey flying without touching him." This expression reveals Mustafa Kemal as if he was a tale‐hero. The first sentence of Yakub Kadri's Ataturk, describes the reason: "First years of our youth have gone with expectations of a national hero." The fame of Ataturk has shown its effects in the Headquarters as well. After the battles, Mustafa Kemal was promoted to colonel rank, and he was awarded with three medals and two decorations. In addition, he was asked for two significant duties. One was to be assigned for Tripoli with brigadier general rank and the other was to be the Commander of the Army Corps in Iraq. The second duty was more important. All these events reflect Ottoman administration's opinion about Mustafa Kemal. Before the conclusion of the war, the Ottoman government awarded Mustafa Kemal. After the war, Mustafa Kemal became a legendary hero. From then on, he was remembered as the "Saviour of Istanbul." Journalists and writers have interviewed him. The people desired to see him. In January 1916, when he was assigned as the Commander of 16th Army Corps, crowds in Edirne welcomed him on the streets. 14
Staff Commander of Canakkale General Izettin Calislar explains this welcoming as fallow in his diary. "28 January 1916 ...Streets were filled with people; all the students were positioned to welcome him. The city was decorated with triumphal arches. There were Aktuels on which "Long live Mustafa Kemal" and "Hero of Suvla" were written. All the notables of Edirne, city administrators, and the consulates were there... All the people welcomed him with great enthusiasm. They gave bunches of flowers to him. Applause and demonstrations were unbelievable..." Neither Mustafa Kemal was the conqueror of Edirne nor he was the saviour of the city. people of Edirne admired him because of his victory at Suvla, a victory of his own creation. After a two hundred year break, Mustafa Kemal gave a victory to the Turkish nation. Thus, he won all his titles. First Turkish Aeroplane The Ottoman government ordered two aeroplanes to Rep (French factory) and requested them to be finished before the celebration of the Sultan, which was to be held on 27 April 1912. The aeroplane came to Istanbul on 26 April, and French pilot Gordonbel made a test flight for 45 minutes. That day, a military ceremony was going to be held on Hurriyet‐i Ebediyye hill. When Sultan Mehmet Reshad arrived, he would fly above the cortege and join the parade. The cortege and people gathered around the memorial located on Hurriyet‐i Ebediyye hill. Everybody was joyful and excited to see the first flight of the first Turkish plane. Meanwhile, the first Turkish dreadnought Reshadiye's (which was a building in Britain) painting was exhibited and this painting was put in an auction to support the navy. While the plane was approaching Hurriyet‐i Ebediyye hill, the President of the Navy Societiy Ismail Hakkı Pasha and other high government officials gave speeches. After the speeches, the mufti of Bakirkoy prayed. The first Turkish plane arrived at 13:30. The cost of this plane was 30,000 franks, and its speed was 90‐100 km per an hour. Its length was 12 mm, and its width was 12.5 m. 15
Muavenet and Goliath Muavenet‐i Milliye is the Turkish torpedo boat, which sunk the British battleship Goliath. During the night of May 12, Muavenet‐i Milliye had skilfully slipped down from Chanak and torpedoed Goliath. After this heroic success, General Hamilton noted on his diary that "The Turks deserve a medal." The sinking of the Goliath was the most disastrous event the Allies faced during the Canakkale Wars. The Allies' causality was enormous. Five hundred and seventy sailors drowned, and only one hundred and eighty of its crew survived. The Allies failed to achieve their expectations with the landings. Thus, the British began to make plans for resumption of The Naval Attack. However, the torpedoing of the Goliath had proven that it was impossible to open the straits by a naval attack. Admiral Fisher, the commander of the British Naval Forces and the most feverish opponent of another naval attack, resigned two days after the sinking of the battleship on 15 May 1915. The resignation of Churchill First Lord of Admiralty came next. A small Turkish torpedo boat raised a crisis in the British cabinet by sinking the Goliath. The Turkish resources reveal the event as follows: "In the history of the Canakkale Wars, the sinking of the Goliath has a significant place. The French had asked the assistance of the battleships against the Turkish counterattacks targeting to recapture Kerevizdere. Thus, every night two battleships began to bombard the Turkish positions. The Turkish side, to eliminate damages caused by these battleships, assigned the Muavent‐i Milliye. Captain Ahmet Saffet was commanding the boat and he immediately sailed through Canakkale from the Marmara Sea where he had been patrolling. On 10 May at 13:30, the Muavenet‐i Milliye arrived at the strait and the preparations for its new assignment had begun. It was on 12 May at 18:40 that Muavenet had gone into action. Between 19:00 and 19:30 it passed the mines, and at 19:40 it anchored in Soganlidere and waited until midnight. The projectors of the allied battleships were closed down at 23:30. Muavenet weighed anchor at 00:30 and skipped through the European side of the strait. The Allied destroyers failed to notice its advance. At 01:00 on the line astern of the Muavenet, two destroyers were seen. On the forehead was the Goliath. The Goliath had asked the password, and the Muavenet without losing time sent three torpedoes. The first torpedo hit the bridge, the second hit the funnel, and the third the stern. In a very short time, the huge battleship with its five hundred and seventy sailors including the captain had sunk. Muavenet returned to Canakkale at 05:00 and was welcomed with joy. On the same day, it sailed to Istanbul where it was welcomed with a ceremony. Enver Pasha awarded the crew on 16 May. Most importantly, this successful operation boosted the morales of the Turkish soldiers. However, the news about the sinking of the Goliath created a crisis in the War Council in London. 16
Nusret Minelayer and Victory of 18 March For the Turkish side, Nusret is the symbol of the Wars of Dardanelles. With its twenty‐six mines, it stopped the Allied Fleet, puzzled the allied commanders, boosted the morales of the Turkish soldiers, and brought joy to the Turkish nation. After the wars ended, the heroic story of Nusret became a legend. Today, it has a place in books of legends. "The night of 17 March" in most of the records is when the venture of Nusret begins. Although the date is incorrect, to emphasise the dramatic sides the mission it achieved, this date is commonly mentioned. In fact, the venture of Nusret begins beforehand with its arrival to the strait on 3 September 1914. It was constructed in Germany and it was able to maneuver in the narrows skilfully. Thus, it was able to pass the minefields safely. Identification of Nusret is as follows: Type : Minelayer Built in : Germany Tonnage : 360T Date of Arrival : 1912 Length : 40 m. Width : 7.4 m. Guns : 7.5/40‐battery (1), 4.7‐battery (2), and 2 mk. 5b.
Speed : 15 miles Taken out of Service : 16.06.1957 17
Consequence: From February 1915 until March, the strongest fleet of the world came to the Dardanelles and began to bombard the forts positioned on both sides of the strait. Reconnaissance planes determined the mines and minesweepers neutralised the strait for a safe passage through . The mines that Nusret had previously laid were cleared as well. All these preparations showed that the most powerful armada of the world would be forcing the Dardanelles in a short period. Thereupon, with a German officer's advice, Turkish headquarters decided to lay the last twenty‐
six mines of Nusret parallel to the Asiatic shore. Commander of the Fortified Area Selahattin Adil in his memories says: "It was obvious the enemy would be attacking within few days. Therefore, German Admiral Menter Pasha advised Nusret to lay the last spared mines. He was responsible of Navigation. He was an experienced soldier and a nice person. We assigned Nusret to lay those mines." Henceforth, Commander of the Fortified Area Cevat Pasha assigned Captain Hakki Bey in command of Nusret. On the night of 7 March, he sailed for this significant task. Captain Hafiz Nazmi (Akpinar) was also in Nusret that night for the pilotage. On the night of 7 March a few minutes after midnight, Nusret left Canakkale. In complete silence and darkness, it slipped down through the previously laid mines. With the help of pilot Captain Nazmi, it advanced through Karanlik Liman and laid its only twenty‐six mines parallel to the Asiatic shore. After it had completed the mission, within the same silence and darkness it returned to Canakkale. That night, Nusret drew the fate of the war. The next day, the Ally planes reconnoitred the strait, but somehow they did not see the mines. They reported that the strait was neutral. The pilot who gave that report was executed by shooting on the day after The Naval Attack. March 18 is one of the most significant victory days in Turkish history. The success of Nusret Minelayer in this victory is evident. Winston Churchill defines those twenty‐six mines as the reason for the prolonging of the war and the enormous casualties in the interview he made with "Revue de Paris" in 1930. By the year 2000, Nusret was anchored in Mersin. Many volunteers and societies are trying to save it from sinking. It desperately needs any donation to be saved from the destinies of Yavuz and Midilli. Why The Turks Never Used Chemical Warfare? The Gallipoli War is evaluated as the last "gentleman war" of the twentieth century. This evaluation is correct in terms of the techniques used during the battles and the war conditions. A comparison between the battles of the Gallipoli and the other fronts of the First World War would reveal why it was considered a "gentleman war." When the Allied soldiers first landed on the Gallipoli Peninsula, they thought they would be confronted with barbaric, cannibal Turks. The day of 25 April 1915 was the beginning of their venture that lasted for eight and a half months. Each day, both sides became increasingly acquainted with each other. Both the Turks and the Allies realised that the enemy they were fighting was human. There was no difference between their pains, sufferings, or deaths. In the beginning, the Allies thought being captives of the Turks would be a nightmare. They could not imagine the torments that they would experience. As time passed, the care the Turks showed to wounded Ally soldiers and their treatment of the captives erased those thoughts. Another fear of the Allies was the chemical warfare. Turkish trenches were mainly positioned on the high points of the peninsula and the natural winds of the region were very convenient for the use of poison gases. The Germans released chlorine gas against the French in the western front. They could be using it here as well. The British were especially anxious about this possibility. They have given gas masks to the soldiers and trained them 18
against the detriments of the chemical gases. The Turkish officers and commanders refused the German offer of chemical warfare. "Usage of such a fatal instrument was not fair and just," they said. Moreover, such an action was out of the "War Law." They rejected to release poison gas until the end of the war. During the wars, the Australian and New Zealand press often mentioned that the Turkish Army had not been using any chemical warfare and there was nothing to worry about. For example, "Otago Times" published an article on 01 November 1915. In this article about the Turkish Warriors, the frankness of the Turks was emphasised as, "the Turks never fire at a hospital; they never use chemical warfare. They ceased fire when Triumph had been hit. The Turks are not hypocrites." Another Australian Newspaper that dealt with this subject was The Age. On 11 December 1915, it published an article titled "no tread of gas bombs." The source of the article was the reports from the Gallipoli front. In the article, Australians confessed that they despised the Turks until they saw the Turkish decency in war. They said that they found the Turks were not “Germanized” so much that they would use chemical warfare. Another reason the Turkish did not use poison gases was the location of the Turkish forces. The Turks were mainly positioned on the slopes of the peninsula. Explosion of a gas bomb especially in the Anzac Cove with the help of the rough winds would have affected the Turkish soldiers as well. Moreover, such an explosion would affect the entire peninsula considering the famous winds of the region. The Turks did not have gas masks and they could not take such a risk. Did the Turks have chemical warfare capabilities? This question has not been answered yet. However, it is clear that if they had, they would not have used chemical warfare. As the Allied soldiers said, "the Turks are fair soldiers, they never use poison gas." In contrast of the war's unpleasant aspects, the Turkish army has created such a nice image. This image made the Gallipoli War the last "gentleman war" of the century. 19
Women Warriors in the Dardanelles It is obvious that, there are many unknown aspects of the Dardanelles campaign. For example, that Turkish women warriors fought side by side with Mehmets is a fact that had never been revealed. In New Zealand and Australian archives and in the Anzac letters, it is possible to trace the hints of this subject. Here is the Australian newspaper The Ages' headline dated 8 September 1915: "A woman sniper had been shot in first action. A soldier called J.C. Davies in his letter addressed to his mother says, ‘.... On 18 May when I was shot, there was a sniper Turkish girl. She was beautiful, huge, and aged 19 or 20. Throughout the day, she continuously fired her gun. Although she shot many of us, I felt sorry when an Australian shot her. As we caught her dead body, we found a man's body by her side. There were 52 bullets in her body. This war is horrible.’” In the archives, there are some other letters and diaries about this subject. At this point, it is possible to think that the women snipers could be illusions the soldiers dreamed up because of the long‐term nature of the wars. However, the comparisons between the letters mentioning the "Turkish Women Snipers" or the "Turkish Women Warriors" show that they were most probably real. In short, there are many concealed points in the Dardanelles Campaign waiting to be illuminated. . 20
A Brief Outline of Turkish History
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The history of the Turks covers a time frame of more than 4000 years. Turks first lived in Central Asia around 2000 BC. Later, some of them left Central Asia and spread around, establishing many states and empires independent from each other within a vast area of Asia and Europe. These empires included The Great Hun Empire (established during the 3rd Century B.C.), the Göktürk Empire (552‐ 740), the Uygur Empire (741‐ 840), the Avar Empire (6‐9 Century A.D.), the Hazar Empire (5‐10 Century A.D), the Great Seljuk Empire (1040‐ 1157), and many others. Turks in Anatolia: The Turks started to settle in Anatolia in the early 11th century by way of continual migrations and incursions. The Malazgirt victory in 1071 against the Byzantines literally opened up the gates of Anatolia to the Turks. It is following this date that the Turks fully conquered the whole of Anatolia and established the Anatolian Seljuk State there (1080‐1308).This was the first Turkish State in Anatolia and was sometimes called, after its capital city of many years, the Konya Sultanate. OTTOMAN AGE 1299–1923: The Seljuk State rapidly declined with the Mongol invasion of Anatolia which started in 1243. During the period of the decline of the Anatolian Seljuk state and after its disappearance, many Turcoman principalities were established in Anatolia towards the end of the thirteenth century. One of these was the Ottoman (in Turkish Osmanli) Beylik (similar to a Principality) named after its founder, a Turkish ruler named Osman in 1299 in the environs of Söğüt in Eskişehir in the northwestern corner of the peninsula. The Ottoman Beylik rapidly expanded throughout the fourteenth century and thus arose the Ottoman Empire, which ruled over a vast territory on three continents and lasted for 623 years until the end of the First World War. The Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453, during the reign of Sultan Mehmet II (1451‐1481), and the Byzantine Empire fell, which also marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the New Age. During the reign of Sultan Mehmet II, who assumed the title of “The Conqueror,” the Ottoman state entered into an era of rapid development which would last until the end of the sixteenth century. At its height, the Ottomans ruled over what is today Greece, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Albania and Romania in the Balkans, over all the islands in the Eastern Mediterranean, and over what is today the Middle East. The borders of the Empire extended from the Crimea in the North to Yemen and Sudan in the South and from Iran and the Caspian Sea in the East to Vienna in the Northwest and Spain in the Southwest. Starting in the 16th century, however, the Ottoman Empire incrementally lost its economic and military superiority in comparison to Europe, which had developed rapidly with the Renaissance, with its conquest of new territories and its access to raw materials, and with the Industrial Revolution. The Ottoman Empire failed to adapt to these new developments. Thus, the balance of power shifted in favor of the European States. The nationalist movements that started in the nineteenth century and the self‐determination movements and rebellions of the Balkan nations, supported by the European powers and Russia, slowly brought the Ottoman Empire to a decline. 1 •
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WORLD WAR I 1914 –1918: The weakening of the Empire continued until World War I. The Ottoman Empire entered the First World War in 1914 on the side of the allied powers and emerged defeated from the war in 1918, compelled to sign the Mondros Armistice on October 30, 1918. Under the terms of this Armistice, the territories of the Ottoman Empire were occupied by Britain, France, Russia, and Greece. This was the actual end of the Ottoman Empire. A national resistance and liberation movement emerged as a reaction to this occupation under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal, an Ottoman military commander who mobilized Anatolia in a quest for Turkish self‐determination and national independence. He united sporadic and disorganized resistance groups in Anatolia and organized them into a structured army. Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal—
later given the last name Ataturk or “Father of Turks”—the resistance became cohesive, and the Turks were capable of fighting the war for national liberation. The Turkish National Liberation War was an effort to create a new state from the ruins of an Empire, which had completed its life. It lasted four years (1919‐1922) wherein a small army of volunteers fought and won a war against the leading powers of this time. Ataturk’s victory was not only military, but it was also diplomatic. The Turkish military victory was sealed with a diplomatic success with the signing of the Lausanne Peace Treaty on July 24, 1923. Signed with Great Britain, France, Greece, Italy and others, the Treaty recognized the creation and international borders of a Turkish State and guaranteed its complete independence. REPUBLIC OF TURKEY: The Republic was proclaimed on October 29, 1923. For the first time in centuries, the Turkish people enjoyed self‐rule. Mustafa Kemal was elected as the first president of the Republic of Turkey. As president for 15 years, until his death in 1938, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk introduced a broad range of reforms in the political, social, legal, economic, and cultural spheres that were virtually unparalleled in any other country. The first Grand National Assembly under the leadership of Ataturk created a new political and legal system based on the principles of parliamentary democracy, human rights, national sovereignty and division of powers, private ownership and secularism, and the separation of religion and state affairs. A new, secular education system was established, the Arabic alphabet was changed into the Latin alphabet, and new civil and criminal codes were adapted from European models. Turkish women received equal rights under the law such as the right to vote and be elected to public office, which put Turkey ahead of many Western nations in terms of women’s rights. It was a revolution, unparalleled at its time and even today, to bring a predominantly Muslim nation in line with Western civilization and universal values. 2 History of Anatolia
Turkey’s history is everyone’s history. One trip through this remarkable land, Anatolia, makes it clear that this is, indeed, the cradle of civilization. The excavations have revealed that Anatolia was the birthplace of some of the most important ancient civilizations. The world’s first known settlement Çayönü 7000‐4000 BC, a Neolithic city at Çatalhöyük near Konya, dates back to 6500 B.C. It was here that man created one of his first great works of art ‐ mural paintings and painted relief sculptures that adorned the walls of the houses and domestic shrines. In the thousands of years since, the region has been home to the world’s major civilizations including the Hittites, Phrygians, Urartians, Lycians, Ionians, Lydians, Persians, Macedonians, Romans, Byzantines, Seljuks, and Ottomans. The Hittites established the first state in Anatolia run by central authority in 1750 B.C. Indo‐European in origin, the Hittites entered Anatolia through the Caucasus during the great migrations which began towards the end of the 3rd millennium and probably continued until the beginning of the 2nd millennium over a vast territory extending from Western Europe to India. They founded a federative feudal state which was one of the two superpowers of the age, the other being Egypt. Excavations uncovered many impressive ruins of Hittite settlements in Anatolia and fascinating artifacts dating from this period. A magnificent collection is on display at the Anatolian Civilizations Museum in Ankara. The empire was contemporary with Troy on the western coast of Anatolia. The power of the Trojans, which had been an outpost against invasions from the Balkans throughout the 2nd millennium, ended with the Trojan War at about 1250 B.C. As we first read in the Odyssey, it was only through the ploy of the Wooden Horse that the impenetrable fortress was eventually conquered. Archeological excavations have revealed nine separate periods of settlement at this site including ruins of city walls, house foundations, a temple, and a theater. A symbolic wooden Trojan horse commemorates this legendary war. Following the destruction of Troy, the Hittite Empire collapsed around 1240 BC. The Phrygians occupied parts of Anatolia, but they first appear on the scene as a political entity after the year 750 B.C., when King Midas founded the Phrygian Empire. The Hellenic world knew of the Phrygian King. The most important remains from the Phrygians have been found in Gordion, the Phrygian capital near Ankara, which is still under excavation. The Lycian, Lydian, and Carian civilizations in West Central Anatolia also lived their golden age during the 7th—6th centuries B.C. The Lydians, who established a state in the Aegean region towards 700 B.C. with Sardes as their capital, produced the first gold and silver coins in history. The most important architectural works to be discovered during excavations at Sardes include the Temple of Artemis, a restored gymnasium, and a 3rd century A.D. Synagogue. Xantos, the Lycian capital, is one of the most beautiful ruins of Anatolia. Anatolia was occupied by Persians during 546‐334 B.C. followed by the Hellenistic period (330‐30 B.C.) with Alexander the Great’s conquest of the region. Throughout these centuries, Miletus, Priene, Ephesus. and Teos were among the finest cities in the world and the Anatolian architecture of this era greatly influenced Rome. 1 THE PERSIANS (546 ‐ 331 B.C.) The sovereignty of the Persians over the people of Anatolia began In 547 B.C. when Persian King Cyrus defeated the Lydian king Croesus and began to conquer all the cities of Anatolia. This domination was to last a full two hundred years. Alexander the Great ended this rule In 331 BC at the Battle of Gavgamela which was fought near present‐day Erbil. THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD (330 ‐ 30 B.C.) After the death of Alexander the Great, as a result of the internal struggles between his generals, this powerful kingdom was shared by them, and most of Anatolia entered the rule of the Pergamon King. Western Anatolia entered the rule of the Romans. THE ROMAN AGE (30 B.C. ‐ 395 A.D.) Romans took Anatolia in the last century B.C. and called it Asia Minor. The Roman Age (30 B.C.‐395 A.D.) brought new building techniques and engineering methods to Anatolian architecture. Marble became the principal material for building. The newly invented building material of bricks bound with mortar was used for the first time in the construction of functional buildings. By producing arches, vaults, and domes of large volume, Roman engineers created masterpieces of architecture throughout Anatolia. The invention of central heating by means of hot air circulating under the floors and through hollow bricks in the wall encouraged the erection of huge thermal buildings. Large baths, often combined with gymnasia, were built in all the cities of Asia Minor. The colonnaded street, which protected people from sun and rain, was a remarkable invention of Roman architecture. The imposing remains of colonnaded streets have survived in several Anatolian cities. Stone bridges and aqueducts should also be mentioned as further examples of outstanding functional architecture and engineering. Hence, Anatolian cities prospered more than ever before during this era. Many of these structures continue to fill visitors with awe. This period also witnessed the spread of Christianity in Anatolia. St. Paul established a number of churches—the most important of which were in Pergamum, Thyatira, Smyrna, Sardis, Philadelphia, Laodicea, and Ephesus. These are known in the Bible as the Seven Churches of Asia Minor. It was here, in a small cave in Antioch in southeastern Anatolia, that Saint Peter first used the word Christian. THE BYZANTINES The era of Byzantines, inaugurated in 330 A.D. when Constantine moved his capital to Byzantium (now Istanbul), naming it first New Rome then Constantinople. Constantinople served as the capital of the Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire for nearly a thousand years after the fall of Rome in 476 A.D. During this era, in parallel to the spreading of Christianity, we see great development in religious buildings and works of art. The most impressive of all was Justinian’s Church Hagia Sophia, the masterpiece of Byzantine art and one of the most famous works in the entire world with its tremendous dome and colorful mosaics of the interior. The Byzantine period came to an end with the conquest of Istanbul in 1453 by the Turks. TURKS ARRIVE IN ANATOLIA The history of Turks covers a time frame of more than 4000 years. Turks first lived in Central Asia around 2000 B.C. Later, some of them left Central Asia and spread around, establishing many states and empires independent from each other within a vast area spanning Asia and Europe. The Turks started to settle in Anatolia during the period of the Great Selçuk Empire in the early 11th century. The Malazgirt victory in 1071 against the Byzantines opened the way to Anatolia for the Turks. Over a span of nearly a hundred years, the 2 Turks fully conquered the Anatolian heartland and established the Anatolian Seljuk State as a part of the Great Seljuk Empire (1075‐1318). The Seljuk Empire was the first Turkish Empire in Anatolia. The Seljuks have left us a rich cultural legacy. The Anatolian Seljuk State enriched the country from one end to the other with monumental mosques, universities, hospitals, fortresses, tombs, and caravanserais. These works, many of which are still standing, present us with the finest in stone and carving as well as woven art and tile decoration. Mevlana Celaleddin Rumi, the mystic poet and philosopher and founder of the Whirling Dervish order flourished in Konya—the capital of the Anatolian Seljuk Empire during the 13th century. When the Turkish Seljuk State collapsed as a result of repeated Mongolian attacks, several beyliks from various Turkish tribes emerged in Anatolia towards the end of the thirteenth century. One of these beyliks was the Ottoman—Osmanli—Beylik. The Ottoman Beylik succeeded in establishing the union of the Turkish beyliks in Anatolia and thus arose the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453 during the reign of Sultan Mehmet II (1451‐1481), and this capture ended the reign of the Byzantine Empire. During the reign of Sultan Mehmet II “The Conqueror,” the Ottoman State entered into an era of rapid development that would last until the end of the sixteenth century. The borders of the Empire extended from the Crimea in the North to Yemen and Sudan in the South and from Iran and the Caspian Sea in the East to Vienna in the Northwest and Spain in the Southwest. The Ottomans made great additions to the already existing rich heritage of Istanbul and Anatolia. The works of the Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan are still admired today by visitors. The Süleymaniye and Sultanahmet Mosques (The Blue Mosque) in Istanbul and the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne are the finest examples of this architecture. Several palaces, which now serve as museums, were also built during this time such as the Topkapi, Beylerbeyi, and Dolmabahçe palaces. The Grand Bazaar—the ancestor of the mall—with its 4000 shops also dates from that time. Traditional Turkish art forms such as miniatures, tiles and ceramics, illumination, calligraphy, and weaving flourished under the patronage of the Sultans and reached worldwide acclaim. The Ottoman Empire lost its economic and military superiority vis‐à‐vis Europe, however, and began its steep decline in the 17th century. By the end of World War I, the Ottoman Empire had shrunk to the Anatolian heartland, torn and depleted by war and overburdened by mass migrations of hundreds of thousands of persecuted Muslims from the Balkans, the Crimea, Central Asia and the Caucasus, and under occupation by the winners of the War. It took four more years of war to liberate Anatolia from foreign occupation under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. The Republic of Turkey was established on October 29, 1923. 3 HISTORICALTIMELINEOFANATOLIA
EPOCH
ERA
400,00014,000BC
THEPALEOLITHICAGE
(OldStoneAge)
14,00010,000BC
PREHISTORICPERIOD
10,0005,000BC
5,0003,000BC
3,0002,000BC
2,0001,900BC
HISTORICALPERIOD
19001700BC
1600700BC
THEMESOLITHICAGE
(MiddleStoneAge)
PIVOTALEVENTS
SITESINTURKEY
YarimburgazCave(nearIstanbul),
Huntergatherersusedtools.Theyshelteredincavesandinotherrock
KarainCave(Antalya
formationsas'extendedfamilygroups'.Firewasusedtomanipulate
Mediterraneanregion),Beldibi,
rawfoodsincookingandheating,andalsoservedasprotectionfrom
Belbasi,Okuzini,Kumbucagiand
predatorywildlife.
KadiiniCaves.
Microlithictoolswereused.Earliestevidenceofreligiouspractices:
fertilitycults,goddessfigures.
MediterraneancoastofAnatolia,
ThraceandwesternBlackSea
region.Sarklimagaracave
(Gaziantep),Baradizcave(Burdur)
andcemeteriesofSogutTariasi,
BirisnearBozova,Urfa,Catal
Huyuk,Tekeköy,Belbas,Beldi.
Transitionfromhuntergathererstocropandfarmingcultivation
techniques,abandoningnomadiclifeorsemisettledcommunitiesand Cayönu(Diyabakir),CaferHöyuk
THENEOLITHICAGE(New societiesforpermanentsettlements.Thecultivationofplants,the
(Malatya),AsikliHöyuk(Aksaray),
StoneAge)
domesticationofwildanimals,villagelife,religion,art,architecture, Kurucay(Burdur),Catalhöyuk
farming,advancedtoolsandweapons,etc.FemaledeitytheMother (Konya)andHacilar(Burdur).
GoddessofAnatolia.
BaklaTepe(Izmir),LimanTepe
(Izmir),Hacilar(Burdur),
Beycesultan(Denizli),Kurucay
Thediscoveryofmetal,thedevelopmentoftrade,theintroductionof (Burdur),Ikiztepe(Samsun),Alisar
THECHALCOLITHICAGE
copperalongsidestoneintoolproduction,anincreaseinpermanent (Yozgat),Domuztepe(Adana),
(CopperStoneAge)
settlementsandtextileproduction.
Yumuktepe(Icel),Arslantepe
(Malatya),Degirmentepe
(Malatya),Tilkitepe(Van)and
Girikihaciyan(Diyarbakir).
Theinventionofbronze,refininggold,silverandothermetals,high
THEEARLYBRONZEAGE levelinmetalproduction.EvidenceofMesopotamianinfluencesin
urbanism.TroymaybethemostfamousEarlyBronzeAgecity.
HATTIANPEOPLE
ASSYRIANTRADING
COLONIES
HITITEPERIOD
Highlevelofmetalcrafting,nowriting,theircultureispartiallyknown
fromsucceedingperiods,AssyrianTradingColoniesandtheHittites.
BurialcustomsdetectedinAlaca.
EstablishedaverysophisticatedtradingsystemwithAnatolia.Traded
tin,perfumes,ornamentsandclothesinexchangeforgoodsmadeof
silverandgold.WritingandwrittenhistorybeganinAnatoliawiththe
introductionofcuneiformwriting.UseofAssyriancuneiformwriting
andMesopotamiancylinderseals.Firstuseofenvelopesmadeofclay
intheworld.
Aslantepe(Malatya),Alacahöyuk
(Corum),Acemhöyuk(Aksaray),
Troy(Canakkale),Karaoglan
(Ankara),Alisar(Yozgat),
Karahöyuk(Konya),Kultepe
(Kayseri),Demircihöyuk
(Eskisehir),Mahmatlar(Amasya),
Horoztepe(Tokak),Ikiztepe
(Samsun),Gözlukule(Tarsus),
Beycesultan(Denizli),Semsiyetepe
(Elazig)andKulluoba(Eskisehir).
Mahmatlar,Horoztepe,
AlacahoyukandHattusas.
KaneshKharum(nearKultepein
Kayseri)andKharumHattush
(Bogazköy)inCorum,Acemhoyuk
(Aksaray),Aslantepe,Elazig,
Malatya.
Hittites(thefirstIndoEuropeancultureinhistory)wonthestruggleto
establishagreatkingdomincentralAnatolia,makingHattusastheir
capital.Hittites'firstuseofironforweapons,ironproductionunder
kingdommonopoly.Builtthethreemanchariot.Becamethemain
Alisar,Hattusas(Bogazköy),
powerintheMiddleEast.Concentrationonwarssimultaneouswith Corum,Aslantepe,Malatya,
veryhighlevelofculture.AssyriancuneiformtabletsinHititearchives. Buyukkale,Yazilikaya,Meliddu
Establishmentofsmallkingdomswhichweretheinheritorsofthe
andKummuhinearMalatya,
HittiteEmpire.DilutionofclearHittitecharacteristics.Luwians
Gurgum(Maras),Kargamis
dominantgroupintheLateHittiteculture.Inthe1200s,SeaPeoples (Gaziantep),Samal/Zincirli
attackedAnatolia,destroyedTroyandmovedsouth.TheHittite
(Gaziantep),Sakcagozu,Karatepe.
EmpirebrokeintosmallcitystatesinsoutheasternAnatoliaandnorth
Syria.HighlevelreliefarthavingHittite,Luwian,Phonecianand
Aramianinfluencesdoneonorthostatsinbuildings.
860580BC
750600BC
URARTIANKINGDOM
PHRYGIANKINGDOM
Midas,Ayazini,Aslantas,
Yazlkaya,Gordion,Pazarl,Alisar,
PhrygiansmigratedfromtheBalkansin1200BC,butestablishedtheir Alacahöyuk,Cappadocia,
firstpoliticalentityasakingdomin750BC.Theywereincorporated Eskisehir,Afyor,Yassihoyuk
intolocalculturesandbecameAnatolianaccordingtotheirorigin.
(Gordion),Ballihisar(Pessinus),
TheywereinfluencedbytheLateHittiteCitystatesandHellenic
Ankara,Sinop,Pazarli,Hattusas,
groups.
Malatya,Manisa,thenorthern
KizilirmakandSakaryarivers
(SangariusRiver),Aslankaya.
TheLydiansaresaidtohavebeenthefirstpeopletocoinmoney.
Sardis,thecapitalofLydia.
Izmir(Smyrna),Miletus,Aydin,
Manisa(MagnesiaadSipylum),
Usak,Afyon,Denizli,Gygaean
Lake,Bintepe,Isparta,Sardis,
Assos,Caria,Halicarnassus,
Aphrodisias.
Ephesus,Milet,Trabzon
(Trebizond),Adiyaman(Mt
Nemrud),River(Granicus),Caria,
Halicarnassus.
680546BC
LYDIANKINGDOM
546334BC
PERSIANPERIOD
ConquestofthewholeareaofpresentdayTurkeybythePersians.
ContinuouswarswiththeGreekshamperedthewelfareofPersians.
DefeatedattheBattleofGaugamela.
LYCIANPERIOD
TheLycianshadafiercedesireforfreedomandindependenceandthis
founditsexpressionintheirsenseofunityandfederation.The
institutionsofthedemocraticLycianFederation(thefirstdemocratic
unionknown)werestudiedandenviedbymostclassicalwriters.The
Antalya,Demre,Phaselis,Fethiye.
writersoftheconstitutionoftheUnitedStatesstudiedtheLycian
federalsystemofgovernmentwithproportionalrepresentationasa
possiblemodelfortheirowngovernment.TheLyciansspokea
languageoftheirown,withitsownuniquealphabet,anIndo
EuropeanlanguagecloselyrelatedtoLuwianandHittite.
395BCE1176AD
HISTORICALPERIOD
EasternAnatolia,VanBasin,
Gokcegol,CildirLake,Toprakkale,
Cavustepe,Ayanis,Malatya,
Altintepe,Erzincan.
ThepeopleofUrartianKingdomspokealanguagethatunlikeIndo
EuropeanHittitelanguagewhichwascommoninpreviousperiodin
Anatolia.Urartianwerenotknowntobeveryskillfulatironand
bronzeworkmanship.
334133BC
HELLENISTICPERIOD
133BC395AD
ROMANPERIOD
3951453AD
BYZANTINEPERIOD
10711409AD
MacedoniankingAlexandertheGreatconqueredGreece,thecrossed
intoAsiaatGallipolitotakethewholeofPersia.Ruledregionsfrom
westernGreecetotheborderofpresentdayPakistan.Strongtown
development.Townshaveownlaws,autonomy,defenseandliveon
agriculture.Somecitystates.
MediterraneanAlexandria,
Antioch,Pergamum,Ephesus,
Priene,Miletus,Teos,Magnesia,
Bithynia,Cappadocia,Pontus.
CitiesincludingEphesus,
Magnesia,Assos,Bergama,
OutofPergamum,theRomansformedtheprovinceofAsia.Roman Tralleis,MiletosandDidyma
EmpireabsorbedAnatolia.BroughtPaxRomana,theperiodofpeace. dominatedtheregion.Thrace,
SpreadofChristianityintheregionbyJesus'apostlePaul.
Istanbul,Ankara,Antalya,
Constantinopolis,thenewcapitaloftheRomanEmpirein330AD.
Afrodisias,Efes,Bergama,zmir,
Christianity,theofficialreligion.TheCouncilofNicaea(Izmit),which ManisaSide,DenizliPamukkale
establishedakeydoctrine,tookplacein325AD.
(Hierapolis),KonyaBeysehir,
Aksaray(Garsaura),Viransehir
(Nora) Malatya
Byzantium,builtbyEmperorConstantine,becameamajorartsand
Istanbul,Cappadocia,Bolu,Izmit
culturalcenter.UnderJustinian,innovativearchitecturewasusedto
(Nicomedia),Trabzon(Trebizond),
buildlargestcathedralintheworld,HagiaSophia,5327.Inspires
Iznik(Nicaea),Ephesus,Demre,
ChristianandMuslimarchitectsforcenturies.In1071,TurkishSeljuks
Kilikya,Mardin,Nusaybin,
conqueredByzantium.ConstantinopleoccupiedduringtheCrusades.
AlexandriaTroas,Guzelyurt,
ByzantiumcollapsedtotallywhenOttomanFatihSultanMehmet
Akhirsar,Tire(Thyrra),Malatya.
(MehmettheConqueror)conqueredConstantinoplein1453.
AtthesametimethattheGreatSeljuks(Iran,Iraq,Syria)weregaining
power,othertribesofTurkomentribesoftheDanishmendids(1071
1178)incentralandnortheasternAnatolia(Tokat,Amasya,
Kastamonu,Sivas,KayseriandMalatya),theSaltuqids(10711202)in
Erzurum,Kars,Bayburt,theMengujukids(10711228)ontheUpper
Tokat,Amasya,Kastamonu,Sivas,
TURKOMENDYNASTIES Euphrates(ErzincanandDivrii),werecarvingoutsmallprincipalities.
Kayseri,Malatya,Erzurum,Kars,
OfallthedynastiesfoundedbythemembersoftheSeljuktribes,the
PRESELJUK
Bayburt,ErzincanandDivrii.
onethathadthegreatestsuccessandthelongestreign,andwhich
managedtoconstituteasolidandorganizedstate,wastheAnatolian
SeljuksofAsiaMinor,otherwiseknownastheSeljuksofRum(ofthe
"Roman"empire,thecountryof"Rum",astheWestwascalledbythe
easternIranianTurks).
10711299AD
HISTORICALPERIOD
13181453AD
SELJUKPERIOD
SeljukTurksenteredAnatoliaandestablishedastatein1358.They
enlightenedAnatoliaviatheirtolerantgovernment.Governeda
populationthatwasmostlyGreekspeakingAnatolianChristian,witha Konya,Eskisehir,NigdeUluksla,
significantJewishminority.Konya(Iconium)wasthecapital.Turkish Krsehir,Tokat,Ankara,Elazg,
languageandIslamicreligion.TheCrusades,Latinarmiesentered
Van,Erzurum,Erzincan,Malatya,
Anatoliaforthefirsttime.Sophisticatedarchitecture.TheGothicstyle Mus,Bitlis,Kars,Ankara,Usak,
brickbuildingsthatweseeinsomeEuropeancitiestodaywere
Denizli,AntalyaAlanya,Sinop,
influencedbySeljuks.Muslimmystic,theologianandpoetJelaleddin Amasya,Sivas,Kayseri.
Rumi(12071273)isthesultanate'smostfamousandenduringfigure.
Mongolianinvasion(12431308).
THEPERIODOF
TURKOMEN
PRINCIPALITIES
Ahlatshahs(Ahlat)andArtuquids(EasternAnatolia,Diyarbakir,
Harput,Hasankeyf,MardinandSilvan)reignedinAnatoliainthesame
periodastheAnatolianSeljuks.Alongwiththeweakeningof
Mongolianrule,theTurkomengroupsfoundedmanybeylics
(principalities)ofvaryingsizesinAnatolia.TheKaraman,Germiyan,
Esref,Hamid,Mentese,Candar,Pervane,SahibAta,Karesi,Saruhan,
Aydin,Inanc,Alaiye,Dulkadir,Eretna,Kadburhanettin,Ramazan,
TacettinandOsmanogullariwereamongtheTurkomanbeylics.Allof
AnatoliacameunderTurkishrule.TheOttomanstatewasfounded.
Amongtheseprincipalities,theOttomanPrincipalityrestoredthe
politicalunityinAnatolia.OsmanIdeclaresindependenceofthe
principalityin1299.
AntalyaBurdur,Konya,Kayseri
Bünyan,Sivas,Karaman,Milas,
Bilecik,Malatya,zmirUrla,
Manisa,Bursa,NideBor,
Trabzon,Ordu,Samsun,Giresun,
Adana,Tokat,Amasya,Çorum,
Yozgat,Gümühane,Bitlis,
Mardin,Diyarbakir.
TheKarakoyunluState,establishedinMosul,betweenIrbiland
Nakhchivan,intheenvironsofVanLakeandErzurum.Itwasdefeated
byAkkoyunluUzanHasanandthecountrycameunderthehegemony
Van,Erzurum,Diyarbakir,Ahlat,
13651469AD THEKARAKOYUNLUAND oftheAkkoyunluState(13511469).TheAkkoyunluStatewasfounded
Malatya,Bayburt,Tercan,Harput,
intheenvironsofDiyarbakir,Malatya.DefeatedbySultanMehmet
13501502AD
AKKOYUNLUSTATES
Erzincan,Urfa.
theConquerorattheBattleofOtlukbeliin1473(13401514).In1473,
withthedefeatoftheAkkoyunlustate,easternAnatoliawas
incorporatedintotheOttomanEmpire.
12991923AD
1923Present
OTTOMANPERIOD
Bursa,EdirneandIstanbul,capitals.Atitswidest,OttomanEmpire
coveredavastareafromtheCaspianSeaandIranintheeast,to
ViennainthewestandfromRussiansteppesinthenorth,toArabian
Peninsula,Egypt,SudanandAlgeriainthesouth.GoldenAgeunder
SuleymantheMagnificentin16thcentury:controloverthe
MediterraneanandtheRedSea,innovativearchitectMimarSinan
AlloverAnatolia,Turkey,Thrace.
(SelimiyeMosque,Edirne;SuleymaniyeMosque,Istanbul).Multi
ethnicinnature,religiousandethniccommunitiesenjoytoleranceand
someindependencefromcentralpower.Riseofnationalisminthe
19thcenturycontributestoterritoriallossesandinternalconflict.
Internaladministrativereforms.
MODERNTURKEY
OttomanEmpireisonlosingsideofWorldWarI.Carvedupand
occupiedbyEuropeanpowersasaresult.Nationalliberationstruggle
ledbyMustafaKemalAtaturkresultsinTurkishnationalindependence AlloverAnatolia,Turkey,Thrace.
andTurkeybecomesaparliamentariandemocracywithwesternstyle
institutions,basedonreformsbyMustafaKemalAtaturk.
Recommended Reading List and Other Resources on Turkey Recommended Reading List and Other Resources on Turkey
* May be requested from the Turkish Cultural Foundation free of charge for libraries and classroom use by sending a request to [email protected]. ** May be requested from the Turkish Coalition of America free of charge for libraries and classroom use by sending a request to info@tc‐america.org. Essential Reading List on Turkish history: FINDLEY, Carter Vaughn. The Turks in World History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. LEWIS, Bernard. The Emergence of Modern Turkey. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001 (3rd edition). LEWY, Guenter. The Armenian Massacres in Ottoman Turkey: A Disputed Genocide. Utah Series in Turkish and Islamic Study, November 2005.** MANGO, Andrew. ATATURK: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey. Overlook Press, August 2002 (reprint edition). MANGO, Andrew. The Turks Today. London: John Murray, November 2004. MCCARTHY, Justin. Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821‐1922. Darwin Press, March 1996.** MCCARTHY, Justin. Forced Migration and Mortality in the Ottoman Empire, an Annotated Map. ** Turkish Coalition of America, 2010. Essential Curriculum Guides and other Teaching Material on Turkey Turkey and the Turks: Educational Resource Guide: Justin McCarthy and Carolyn McCarthy, 2010.* Turkish Cultural Foundation Memphis in May Festival’s Salute to Turkey, Educational Programs http://www.memphisinmay.org/edu_resources.htm 1
Further Reading list: History/Politics: AKSIN, Sina. Turkey from Empire to Revolutionary Republic: The Emergence of the Turkish Nation from 1789 to the Present. New York University Press, October 2006. CAHEN, Claude. The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukit Sultanat of Rum: Eleventh to Fourteenth Century. New York, 2001. FINKEL, Caroline. Osman’s Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire 1300‐1923. London: John Murray, 2006. MCCARTHY, Justin. The Ottoman Peoples and the End of Empire. Hodder Arnold, April 2001. MCCARTHY, Justin. The Turk in America: The Creation of an Enduring Prejudice. The University of Utah Press, 2010. ** POPE, Hugh. Sons of the Conquerors: The Rise of the Turkic World. Overlook Press, May 2005. SALT, Jeremy. The Unmaking of the Middle East. University of California Press, 2008. SHAW, Stanford J., KURAL, Ezel. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Volume II: Reform, Revolution and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey 1808‐1975. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1977. Art & Culture: ATASOY, Nurhan, ULUC, Lale. Impressions of Ottoman Culture in Europe: 1453‐1699. Istanbul, 2012. ATASOY, Nurhan, DENNY, Walter B, MACKIE, Louise, TEZCAN, Hülya. Ipek: The Crescent & the Rose: Imperial Ottoman Silks and Velvets. London: Azimuth Editions, 2002. BRANNING, Katherine Yes I Would Like Another Glass of Tea. Blue Dome Press, 2010. BROSNAHAN, Tom. Turkey: Bright Sun, Strong Tea: On the Road with a Travel Writer. Istanbul, 2004. DENNY, Walter B, Iznik: The Artistry of Ottoman Ceramics. London: Thames and Hudson, 2005 DENNY, Walter B. Anatolian Carpets. Washington, D.C.: The Textile Museum, 2002. GLASSIE, Henry. Turkish Traditional Art Today. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1993. 2
ILKIN, Nur. KAUFMAN, Sheilah. A Taste of Turkish Cuisine. Hippocrene Books. 2002. WALKER, Barbara. The Turkish Tale. Texas Tech University Press, 1993. WHITTEN, M. A. An Island in Istanbul: At Home on Heybeliada. Adali, Islander Editions, 2006 Documentaries: Broad Horizon. Documentary on Turkish Cultural Foundation Teacher Study Tours, Orhan Ayasli, 2010* Rumi Returning. Heaven on Earth Productions.** Desperate Hours: The Role of Turkish Diplomats during the Holocaust. Shenandoah Films.** Journey of Faith: On the Trails of Early Christianity in Turkey. Shenandoah Films.** The Armenian Revolt. Third Coast Productions Callaghan.** Voices Unveiled: Turkish Women Who Dare, Voices Unveiled Films, Binnur Karaevli, 2010
Online Resources on Turkey: Turkish Cultural Foundation Resources: 1. Turkish Cultural Foundation – www.turkishculturalfoundation.org 2. TCF Natural Dyes Research and Development Laboratory – www.tcfdatu.org 3. Culinary Arts Center (YESAM) – www.culinaryartcenter.org 4. Turkish Culture Portal – www.turkishculture.org 5. Turkish Music Portal – www.turkishmusicportal.org 6. Turkish Cuisine Portal – www.turkish‐cuisine.org 7. Turkish Culture Shop ‐ www.turkishcultureshop.org 8. Share Turkish Culture ‐ www.shareturkishculture.org 9. Blog on Share Turkish Culture ‐ http://blog.shareturkishculture.org Other Resources: 1. The Turkish Coalition of America – www.tc‐america.org 2. Blog on Armenian Issue ‐ www.armenianissueblog.org 3. Blog on European Union ‐ www.europeanunionplatform.org 4. Blog on Cyprus ‐ www.cyprusblog.org 5. Blog on Aegean Crisis ‐ www.aegeancrisis.org 6. Blog on Karabag Issue ‐ www.karabagconflict.org 7. Blog on PKK Terrorism ‐ www.pkkterrorism.org 8. Blog on Turkmen of Iraq ‐ www.turkmenofiraq.org 9. The Turkish American Business Council of DEIK – www.turkey‐now.org 10. Who are Turks: www.goldenhorn‐rotary.com/ercu/ERCU_FLASH_eng.html Note: This list is prepared to help create an overview of resources on Turkish history, contemporary issues, culture, and art. Information listed and views expressed in these resources, except on the online resources by the Turkish Cultural Foundation, are solely those of their authors and do not represent the Turkish Cultural Foundation. Revised 06/21/2012 3
Thee Amerrican Friendds of Turkey
T ey, Incc.
“OKU
UMANIN, ÖĞRE
ENMENİN SONU
U YOKTUR”.
“READING AND
D LEARNING NEVER
N
END”.
-KEMAL ATAT
TÜRK
1111 14th St NW, Suitte 1050
Washhington, DC 200005
Ph 20
02.783.0483
Fx 20
02.783.0511
www.afot.us
info@
@afot.us
Amb.. Alan W. Luken
ns (Ret.)
Presiddent
Dr. Elizabeth
E
W. Sheelton
Execuutive Director
Louiss E. Kahn
Treassurer
Williaam Rau
Secretary
Doreeen Edelman, Esq
q.
Generral Counsel
Board
d Members:
Dr. Essma Akın
Kaya Arıkoğlu
Enginn Artemel
Tijen Aybar
Oya Bain
B
Dr. Siinan Ciddi
Amb. C. Edward Dilleery (Ret.)
Ercu Ackman
A
Richaard Gregory
Amb. James H. Holmees (Ret.)
COL Jerry L. Kaffka (USAF,
(
Ret.)
June 19,
1 2012
Dear Turkkey Study Tour
T
Teacheer:
:
Coongratulatioons on your selection foor this wondderful educaational proggram
offered byy the Turkissh Cultural Foundation
F
, in conjuncction with thhe World
Affairs Coouncils. I know
k
that yoou will havee an amazinng experiencce getting
acquaintedd with Turkkey.
In collaboration with the Turkish Cuultural Founndation, the American
ffers you an interesting opportunityy to share th
he results off
Friends off Turkey off
your trip with
w civic organization
o
ns in your toown, or in a nearby tow
wn. Our
program matches
m
retuurning teachhers with sppeaking enggagements with
w Rotary
Clubs, Lioons, Kiwaniis, Soroptim
mists, Ameriican Associiation of Un
niversity
Women, and
a other ciivic organizzations. Wee make the aarrangementts, you show
w up
and speakk, using whaatever of yoour own visuual materialls you wish.. We can su
upply
a short viddeo/powerppoint on the history of Turkey,
T
if yyou wish, bu
ut your entirre
speech is based on yoour own reaactions to yoour summerr experiencee and your
T
We pay a modeest honorariium of $1000 per speakiing
observatioons about Turkey.
engagemeent to help defray
d
the coosts of gasooline and prresentation materials.
m
We will be co
W
ontacting yoou as soon as
a you returnn from yourr trip to see if
you wouldd be interested in offeriing yourself as a speakker in your own
o town. We
hope you will be enthhusiastic about this proogram, and w
we urge youu to particippate.
Thhe Americann Friends off Turkey is a non-profiit organizatiion dedicateed to
strengthenning people-to-people ties
t betweenn Americann and Turkissh societies
through edducational, cultural andd philanthroopic program
ms. Either Bonnie Kasslan
or Guler Koknar
K
can tell you moore about ouur organizattion, which has been baased
in Washin
ngton for ovver 30 yearss.
Edwaard Kane
Sıtkı Kazancı
K
Azer Kehnemui
K
Işın Ludlow
L
Ennjoy your trip! We willl be back inn touch withh you with more
m
detailss
when youu return.
Cordially,
Davidd Saltzman, Esq.
Nina Solarz
Dr. Henry
H
Phillips Willliams III
Amb. Ross Wilson (Reet.) Elizabbeth W. Sheelton
Execuutive Directoor Turkish Coalition of America Current Affairs: Supplemental Reading Mission
The Turkish Coalition of America (TCA) is an educational, charitable organization incorporated in February 2007. Based in the nation’s capital, TCA’s objective is to • Educate the general public about Turkey and Turkish Americans and voice their opinion on critical issues to interested parties. • Engage and cultivate a new generation of young Turkish American leaders. • Promote and advance the interests of the Turkish American community and Turks. • Foster friendship, understanding, and cooperation between the United States and Turkey. • Protect the character and ensure a realistic portrayal of Turkey and Turkish Americans in the media and the arts. • Serve as a think tank of expertise and a clearinghouse of information on Turkey and Americans of Turkish descent. • Identify and recognize the achievements of Turkish Americans in academia, arts, business, education, government, public service, and science. Activities
In carrying out its mission, TCA is committed to building coalitions and working with all like minded organizations, based on shared values and goals, on the local, state, and national levels in the sponsorship and organization of • Educational programs on Turkish American issues, Turkish heritage, and Turkey. • Civic consciousness seminars on issues affecting Turkish Americans and the importance for Turkish Americans being involved in the political process. • Scholarships and internship programs for Turkish Americans interested in political science, public administration and communication. • News dissemination about the Turkish American perspective on critical issues and the activities and achievements of Turkish Americans. • Educational and cultural tours between Turkey and the United States. • Sister city relationships between Turkish and American cities. Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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Issue Papers The following papers are a small selection of issues related to Turkey and addressed by the Turkish Coalition of America through occasional issue papers. A wide selection of material on a variety of issues related to Turkey, US‐Turkey relations, and Turkish Americans may be found at www.tc‐america.org under “Issues and Information”. TCA ISSUE PAPER Number 198 | May 28, 2012 Spanish Senate Committee Rejects Labeling Ottoman‐Armenian Tragedy as Genocide The Senate Foreign Affairs Committee of Spain rejected a draft bill characterizing the Ottoman Armenian tragedy of World War I as genocide. The Senate Committee rejected the bill by 36 to three votes. It was proposed by two deputies from Amaiur, a left‐wing Basque nationalist coalition. José María Beneyto, spokesman for the ruling People’s Party (PP), is reported to have said that the party was opposed to the measure as it was against “a revision of history” by parliament. Beneyto expressed that the party prefers to focus on the normalization of Armenian‐Turkish relations. The example of France shows that such decisions have a negative impact on bilateral relations between Armenia and Turkey, Beneyto reportedly said. Earlier this year, the French Constitutional Court struck down a draft bill that sought to criminalize speech which did not endorse the view that the Ottoman‐Armenian tragedy of 1915 constituted genocide. The Council had ruled that “the legislature did unconstitutional harm to the exercise of freedom of expression and communication”. Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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TCA ISSUE PAPER Number 195 | May 7, 2012 Commemorating the Centenary of 1915: Learning from Gallipoli Last week, Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan and his Australian counterpart, Julia Gillard met in Ankara, Turkey and agreed to work closely together to commemorate the centenary of the Gallipoli campaign. The two leaders announced that 2015 would be proclaimed the Year of Turkey in Australia and the Year of Australia in Turkey. Both countries have an established practice of paying national tributes to each other to honor the memory of the 1915 campaign, which claimed tens of thousands of lives. For the Australians, Turks and New Zealanders, in particular, the Gallipoli campaign is not just one of many battles fought during World War I. Rather, it occupies a special place in the national memories of these countries. In fact, Ms. Gillard referred to April 25 ‐or Anzac Day‐ as “Australia’s most emotional day” while attending commemorations in Gallipoli, Turkey last week. It was on this day that the newly formed Australian and New Zealand army corps (ANZACs) landed on the peninsula joining the effort of Commonwealth and French forces to open the Dardanelles and capture Istanbul‐ the capital of the crumbling Ottoman Empire. After great hardships, and heavy casualties suffered on all sides, the allied forces were finally evacuated after eight months towards the end of 1915. During the Gallipoli campaign, the Turkish forces were inspired by the leadership of their commander who, after World War I, became the founder and first President of the Republic of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. Despite having fought against one another, when the last surviving soldier from Gallipoli, Alec Campell passed away in 2002, his death was mourned together by Australians and Turks alike. How was it that these peoples, adversaries during the war, were to then come to embrace one another? The Turks, as well as the Australians and New Zealanders, have shown the ability to understand the realities of war, the strength to set aside animosity, and the humanity to empathize with the experience and suffering of the other. When memories of the battle were still fresh, Ataturk stated the following: “Those heroes that shed their blood and lost their lives …rest in peace. There is no difference between the Johnnies and the Mehmets to us where they lie side by side here in this country of ours. You, the mothers, who sent their sons from away countries, wipe away your tears; your sons are now lying in our bosom and are in peace. After having lost their lives on this land they have become our sons as well.” All too often enmity is passed down to future generations in the wake of conflict. Turks and Australians, however, have sought peace and displayed the ability to familiarize themselves with Gallipoli beyond their own experiences. On the centenary of 1915, the Turks and Australians alike will solemnly remember the bravery and sacrifice of all those who died at Gallipoli, but they will also draw strength and pride from the example they have set: the quality of building a unique bond and friendship from the ashes of war. Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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TCA ISSUE PAPER TCA Commemorates the Khojaly Massacre The TCA commemorates the twentieth anniversary of the Khojaly massacre, which occurred on February 25‐26, 1992 in the town of Khojaly located in the Nagorno‐Karabakh region of Azerbaijan. As a result of this tragedy, approximately 2,000 innocent Azerbaijani civilians were deliberately killed and taken hostage by Armenian armed forces in what is known to be the worst atrocity of modern times in the South Caucasus region. It is a sad reality that Khojaly was only the first of seven additional Azerbaijani territories overrun by Armenian forces. As a result of Armenia’s expansionist policies, it is estimated that nearly one million Azerbaijanis were forcibly displaced from their homes. While the active hostilities that ensued during the course of these criminal acts have subsided, separatist Armenian forces continue to occupy roughly 20% of the territory of Azerbaijan. The United Nations, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference have all passed resolutions condemning Armenian aggression in the Nagorno‐Karabakh region. The aggressive policies of Armenia continue to be the biggest obstacle to regional prosperity and stability. The TCA stands together with the peoples and friends of Azerbaijan and Azerbaijani Americans in solemnly commemorating the Khojaly massacre and stresses the need of Armenia to respect the territorial integrity of its neighbors and to withdraw its troops from the illegally occupied territories of Azerbaijan. Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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TCA ISSUE PAPER Number 189 | January 10, 2012 Chairwoman Ros‐Lehtinen Meets Turkish Relatives in Istanbul On January 7, House Foreign Affairs Committee Chairwoman Ileana Ros‐Lehtinen visited Turkey for the first time, and met, also for the first time, her Turkish relatives in an Istanbul reunion organized by the Turkish Coalition of America. During the lively and sentimental gathering, TCA President G. Lincoln McCurdy introduced Chairwomen Ros‐Lehtinen to 15 members of her extended family and two leaders of the Jewish community in Turkey. “I am very happy to find my roots and to meet my family,” said Rep. Ros‐Lehtinen, who expressed her appreciation to TCA for organizing the unique gathering. In 1913, Ros‐Lehtinen's Jewish maternal grandfather, Celebi Adato, left the city of Kirklareli (in what is now northwestern Turkey) for Cuba, fleeing the devastation and economic collapse caused by the First Balkan War, which began in October 1912 when the Balkan League—comprised of Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro—declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Ros‐Lehtinen’s grandfather and his family belonged to one of the Balkans’ thriving Jewish communities. During the Balkan Wars, these communities were almost completely destroyed, and her relatives who did not flee to Cuba were forced to spend the winter of 1913 in a refugee camp. During the reunion, McCurdy recognized the unique historical connection that exists between Turkish and Jewish peoples. He noted that the history of Ros‐Lehtinen’s relatives parallels that of numerous Turks, who suffered greatly during the Balkan Wars. During those conflicts, approximately 1.5 million Ottoman Muslims in the Balkans died, and another 400,000 became refugees. Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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TCA ISSUE PAPER Number 188 | January 3, 2012 Turkey Renovates Armenian Church An opening ceremony was held on December 28 at the recently renovated Vordvots Vorotman Armenian Church in Istanbul, Turkey. The ceremony was conducted by Deputy Armenian Patriarch of Turkey, Archbishop Aram Ateshyan. The renovation work of the Church, which was part of the “Istanbul: European Capital of Culture 2010” Project, roughly cost $1.5 million. 70 percent of the renovation expenses were reportedly covered by the Turkish government and 30 percent by the Armenian Church Foundation in Istanbul. The Church is now expected to be open to regular religious services under the direction of the Armenian Patriarchate of Turkey. It will also serve as a cultural center. Built in the early 19th century, the Church of Vorvotz Vorotman is one of many Christian heritage sites that Turkey has renovated in recent years. Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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TCA ISSUE PAPER Number 185 | December 13, 2011 Turkey’s Growth Ranks Second Worldwide The Turkish economy expanded 8.2% in the third quarter, dramatically exceeding market forecasts and following an 8.8% expansion in the second quarter. Turkey’s growth was surpassed by China which scored 9.1 % in the same quarter. Turkey's stellar gross domestic product figures confirmed the economy's 10th consecutive quarterly expansion and a 9.6% expansion in the first nine months of the year. Turkey's current‐account deficit, narrowed to $4.2 billion in October, after a $6.8 billion expansion in September, according to the Turkish Central Bank. Turkey's Deputy Prime Minister Ali Babacan said that the data suggested 2011 growth would expand more rapidly than the government's expectation of 7.5% and that Turkey would be one of the "world's fastest‐growing economies in 2012." A breakdown of the third‐quarter GDP figures showed broad‐based rises in output, with construction expanding 10.6%, manufacturing 8.9% and financial institutions 15.8%. Turkey received $600 million in foreign direct investment (FDI) in October according to Turkey’s Economy Minister Zafer Çağlayan, who stated that the October performance brought the total amount of FDI the country attracted in the first 10 months of this year to $11.5 billion. The most attractive sectors for foreigners to invest in were banking and insurance, with $5.4 billion, followed by the energy and manufacturing sectors, which received $2.7 billion and $1.8 billion, respectively. 86 percent of all the FDI received in the first 10 months of this year came from European countries. Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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TCA ISSUE PAPER Number 184 | December 9, 2011 Squinting at Religious Discrimination The following are excerpts from an article by Bruce Fein, TCA Resident Scholar, published in the Huffington Post on December 2, 2011. “Is the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom squinting at a transparent Turkish Muslim injustice perpetrated by a Christian Greek government? “Article 19 of the Greek Nationality Code was brandished by the Government of Greece from 1959‐1998 to strip approximately 50,000 Greek citizens of Turkish descent in Western Thrace of citizenship. The now‐repealed article provided: "A person of non‐Greek ethnic origin leaving Greece without the intent of returning may be declared to have lost his or her nationality." Nazi Germany's Nuremburg Laws similarly deprived German Jews of citizenship. “Circumstantial evidence is convincing that Greece deprived Turkish Muslim citizens of Greek citizenship based on religion or ethnicity. Greece's population is 98 percent Eastern Orthodox, but is less than 1 percent Muslim; and, Turkish Muslims were the overwhelming percentage of persons of non‐Greek ethnic origin who were deprived of citizenship during Article 19's lifetime. It speaks further volumes that Athens is barren of even a single mosque. “The International Religious Freedom Act of 1998 created a 10‐Member Commission on International Religious Freedom to identify religious persecution or discrimination abroad. The Commission is directed to publish an annual report on international religious freedom; and, to designate "Countries of Particular Concern." Sunshine is the best disinfectant. “But the Commission has ignored the continuing plight of stateless Turkish Muslims arbitrarily stripped of citizenship by the Greek government. “Moreover, the Report neglected Greece's notorious prohibition on Turkish Muslims identifying themselves and associating under a Turkish emblem. Greece banned the "Turkish Union of Xanthi", the "Rodopi Turkish Women's Cultural Association" and the "Evros Minority Youth Association." The European Court of Human Rights unanimously denounced the proscriptions as affronts to the right of freedom of assembly and of association. The International Religious Freedom Report's entry on Cyprus similarly overlooked the nineteen sites of Christian worship open in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, compared with but three mosques in Greek Cyprus. “Restoring Greek citizenship to all persons of non‐ethnic Greek origin who were arbitrarily stripped of their citizenship would be no novelty. The Commission on International Religious Freedom should urge Greece to restore citizenship to non‐ethnic Greeks who were deprived of citizenship under Article 19. This is no time for the United States to create even an appearance that while all religions are equal, some are more.” Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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TCA ISSUE PAPER Number 156 | March 15, 2011 Turks Will Train Afghan Police Force in Turkey Senior representatives of Turkey, Afghanistan, Japan, and the NATO Training Mission‐Afghanistan concluded a groundbreaking agreement for the training of Afghan police officers in Turkey. Bismullah Khan Mohammedi, Afghanistan’s Interior Minister, signed a bilateral agreement establishing joint procedures for the Police Officer Candidate School in Sivas, Turkey along with Turkish Ambassador Basat Ozturk. Ambassador Reiichiro Takahashi, Ambassador of Japan, and Army Lt. Gen. William B. Caldwell, IV, commander of NATO Training Mission‐
Afghanistan, joined Minister Mohammedi and Ambassador Ozturk in signing a four‐party declaration announcing the formation of this unique program. The agreement establishes a training program for Afghan National Police officers located in Turkey. The governments of Japan and Turkey, along with Combined Security Transition Command‐Afghanistan will provide support to the multi‐million dollar program. Afghan and Turkish instructors in Sivas will provide professional instruction during a six‐month course to 500 Afghan police officer candidates drawn from all regions of the country. The Turkey‐hosted training was created in part to provide additional training opportunities to Afghan police officer candidates as the Afghan National Police continues a significant expansion in number of officers. Upon graduation, officers will be assigned to units of the Afghan National Police throughout Afghanistan. Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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TCA ISSUE PAPER Number 154 | February 16, 2011 A Voice of Common Sense in Armenian Diaspora? The following is excerpted from an opinion article posted on Armenian Weekly on January 17, 2011 titled “Changing Strategy: On the Survival of Armenia and its Diaspora” by Berge Minasian. “I’m afraid our national identity in this country is mainly one of victimhood over events that occurred almost a century ago. What I’m referring to is our national obsession with getting a genocide resolution adopted in Congress. “In my opinion, the greatest minds in our diaspora need to begin placing a higher priority on making sure that Armenia survives as a free and independent democracy. “Our enemies have a bigger population, more funds, and more weapons, and they can no doubt withstand massive depletion of those resources and still survive. But I fear that the tiny nation of Armenia cannot withstand serious loss of human life, military assets, and national treasure. If a war erupts with Azerbaijan, it could very well be the final straw for our fledgling nation. Armenia is too fragile to allow itself to be dragged into a mindless shooting war again. It’s time to convene an impartial panel of some renowned world leaders and let them craft a binding win/win resolution that both protagonists must accept, or face international condemnation. “The poverty that is presently endured by no less than 50 percent of the children in Armenia today is unconscionable. The urgent need for economic relief in Armenia is almost as great today as it was in 1921. “How can any of us, including the billionaires and multimillionaires living in Armenia, ever have another peaceful night’s sleep knowing that vast numbers of our children are going to bed cold and hungry every night? For whom are we trying to save that tiny country of less than three million inhabitants if not for those children who survive each day knowing that no one cares? And then we have the unabated brain drain as large numbers of our brightest and best leave in a steady exodus that began almost 20 years ago. These are urgent issues and we cannot afford to go on with business as usual in Armenia. “In closing let me reiterate my concerns: It’s time to redefine our priorities in the diaspora with 21st‐century goals and visions. We can’t keep doing what we have been doing and expect to get different results.” Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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TCA ISSUE PAPER Number 150 | February 7, 2011 Return of the Turks as Middle East Kingmaker The following are excerpts from an article by Dr. Joshua W. Walker, post‐doctoral fellow at the Crown Center for Middle Eastern Studies at Brandeis University, published on Foreign Policy online on February 3, 2011. “At no time since their days at the helm of the Ottoman Empire have the Turks been as actively involved diplomatically (record number of visits bilaterally to Arab world in the last month alone with multiple visits to Lebanon and Syria for the foreign minister), economically (greatest increase in trade volume over any two year period), or politically (inclusion of Turkey into the Arab League and head of the Organization of Islamic Conference) as they are in the Arab world today. “As seen from the region, Turkey's strategy of diplomatic and economic engagement has been a welcome one. With its non‐
sectarian and pragmatic focus, Ankara offers the greatest economic incentives to find a political and sustainable as opposed to violent solutions to the problems of the Middle East today. On the whole, the Turks have been embraced by both the Arab states and street that welcome the pragmatic and business‐savvy nature of Turkish diplomacy. As a gateway to both Europe and America, Turkey has already established itself an important player and convening spot for the actors of the region. “With the fastest growing and largest economy in the Middle East, Turkey is uniquely placed to play a decisive role in providing alternatives models for the newly emerging governments of the region. As a longtime ally of the West and new partner of Iran and Syria, Turkey has been seeking the role of mediator and model in every available arena including Egypt, Lebanon, and Tunisia. As a G‐20 founding member, holder of a seat on the UN Security Council, European Union aspirant, and head of the OIC, Ankara has transformed itself into an international actor, capable of bringing considerable clout and influence to its regions. Turkey did not transform itself from a defeated post‐Ottoman state led by Ataturk's military to a flourishing market‐
democracy overnight, it has been almost a century in the making; however, the lessons learned and the opportunities offered by Turkey to Egypt and the rest of the Arab world should be cautiously heeded. The Turks are poised to return as the Middle East's most important and influential kingmaker.” Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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TCA ISSUE PAPER Number 149 | February 4, 2011 A Stirring Moment in Jazz History to Echo in Turkish Embassy The following are excerpts from an article by J. Freedom du Lac, published in the Washington Post on February 3, 2011. “The ghosts are jamming again. They're playing that hot jazz in the Turkish Embassy's old Sheridan Circle mansion, just as they did in the 1930s and '40s, when the ambassador's boys Ahmet and Nesuhi Ertegun were always inviting their favorite musicians over to hang and blow and thump. The informal, integrated gatherings achieved near‐mythic status ‐ "Washington's most famous private jam sessions," jazz journalist Bill Gottlieb called them in The Washington Post in 1943 ‐ and then they evaporated into history. “On Friday, in a nod to Black History Month, Tan will announce a series of six invitation‐only concerts at his palatial residence just off Embassy Row. The first, March 1, will feature pianist Orrin Evans. Jazz at Lincoln Center, on whose board Ahmet Ertegun served, is curating the series, which Tan conceived to highlight the mansion's past as one of Washington's most exclusive ‐ and unlikely ‐ jazz venues. “These will be much more formal affairs than the jam sessions hosted by the brothers: Ahmet, who founded Atlantic Records and produced some of R&B's greatest sides, and Nesuhi, who ran the jazz department at Atlantic and produced classic records for John Coltrane, Ray Charles, Bobby Darin, and Roberta Flack. "I thought it would be wise to rebuild the historical image of the Turkish Embassy residence as a center for jazz and jazz fans," Tan said. "People should be aware of the historical significance of this house and of Ahmet and Nesuhi Ertegun. They made a good place for Turkey in the hearts and minds of the black community here and in the music community around the United States and elsewhere." “The Ertegun boys were already hard‐core swing buffs by the time their father was named Turkey's ambassador to Washington in 1934, when Nesuhi was 17 and Ahmet was 11. Upon landing in America, the young Turks dived headlong into the heart of the District's hopping jazz scene, frequenting the Howard Theatre, a mecca of black entertainment, to hear Ellington and other favorites. The Erteguns began promoting concerts, too ‐ at the Jewish Community Center, the National Press Club, and elsewhere ‐ partly because they so loved the music but also out of a sense of social responsibility. " Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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TCA ISSUE PAPER Number 147 | January 7, 2011 Turkey’s Rising Regional Power The following are excerpts from an article by J. Freedom du Lac, published in the Washington Post on February 3, 2011. “The ghosts are jamming again. They're playing that hot jazz in the Turkish Embassy's old Sheridan Circle mansion, just as they did in the 1930s and '40s, when the ambassador's boys, Ahmet and NesuhiErtegun, were always inviting their favorite musicians over to hang and blow and thump. The informal, integrated gatherings achieved near‐mythic status ‐ "Washington's most famous private jam sessions," jazz journalist Bill Gottlieb called them in The Washington Post in 1943 ‐ and then they evaporated into history. “On Friday, in a nod to Black History Month, Tan will announce a series of six invitation‐only concerts at his palatial residence just off Embassy Row. The first, March 1, will feature pianist Orrin Evans. Jazz at Lincoln Center, on whose board AhmetErtegun served, is curating the series, which Tan conceived to highlight the mansion's past as one of Washington's most exclusive ‐ and unlikely ‐ jazz venues. “These will be much more formal affairs than the jam sessions hosted by the brothers: Ahmet, who founded Atlantic Records and produced some of R&B's greatest sides; and Nesuhi, who ran the jazz department at Atlantic and produced classic records for John Coltrane, Ray Charles, Bobby Darin and Roberta Flack. "I thought it would be wise to rebuild the historical image of the Turkish Embassy residence as a center for jazz and jazz fans," Tan said. "People should be aware of the historical significance of this house and of Ahmet and NesuhiErtegun. They made a good place for Turkey in the hearts and minds of the black community here and in the music community around the United States and elsewhere." “The Ertegun boys were already hard‐core swing buffs by the time their father was named Turkey's ambassador to Washington in 1934, when Nesuhi was 17 and Ahmet was 11. Upon landing in America, the young Turks dived headlong into the heart of the District's hopping jazz scene, frequenting the Howard Theatre, a mecca of black entertainment, to hear Ellington and other favorites. The Erteguns began promoting concerts, too ‐ at the Jewish Community Center, the National Press Club and elsewhere ‐ partly because they so loved the music but also out of a sense of social responsibility. " Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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TCA ISSUE PAPER Number 132 | September 20, 2010 TCA Voices Support for Mass at Akdamar The Turkish Coalition of America (TCA) expresses its support for the Turkish Government's decision to open the historical Armenian church of Akdamar in Van, Turkey for a religious service on September 19. "The invitation to the Armenian community worldwide to hold service at Akdamar is an important gesture by Turkey to advance reconciliation and rekindle the bonds of friendship between the Turkish and Armenian people which lasted for centuries in Anatolia," said Lincoln McCurdy, TCA President. "We salute this decision and are encouraged that Armenians worldwide take this as an opportunity to visit Turkey and see how Armenian cultural heritage continues to enrich this country today," he added. The mass was attended by thousands of Armenian worshippers from different countries. It was led by Archbishop Aram Ateshian of the Armenian Patriarchate of Turkey. ''This church, which is a valuable piece of art, is a cultural monument that belongs to the whole of humanity,'' the Archbishop said during his service. The Ministry of Culture of Turkey had financed the renovation of the church in 2006 and it was inaugurated as a museum in 2007. Regarded as a leading example of Armenian architecture, particularly for its stone workmanship and reliefs, the church was built by Bishop Manuel between 915‐921. To introduce young Armenians to Turkey, TCA launched an Armenian American Scholarship program in October 2009. The program is designed to support up to 100 students of Armenian heritage per year, who choose Turkey as their study abroad destination. To learn more about the program, please visit www.tc‐america.org. Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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TCA ISSUE PAPER Number 125 | July 20, 2010 36th Anniversary of the Cyprus Peace Operation Today marks the 36th anniversary of the Turkish rescue and peace operation on Cyprus on July 20, 1974 to protect the lives and liberty of the island’s Turkish community. The Cyprus question is one of the longest‐running ethnic conflicts in the world dating back to the mid‐1950’s. It is the result of the Greek Cypriot armed campaign to annex the island to mainland Greece – an irredentist ambition known by the Greek term enosis ‐‐ against the will of Turkish Cypriots, one of the two ethnic peoples of Cyprus for over four centuries, and against the internationally established legal status of the state of Cyprus. The independent Republic of Cyprus was born as a compromise solution in 1960. The Republic of Cyprus was a partnership state based on the political equality of the co‐founding Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot peoples. It had a Greek Cypriot president and a Turkish Cypriot vice‐president, each with veto powers to ensure political equality at the executive level. The legislature reflected the demographic balance between the two communities, on the one hand with a 70/30 per cent ratio and with their political equality and effective participation in the legislative process on the other. The judiciary was composed of one judge from each side with a “neutral” judge from a third country as its president. This partnership Republic was guaranteed by the three “Guarantor” powers – Turkey, Greece, and the United Kingdom – under a special international treaty—the Treaty of Guarantee. The “state of affairs” thus created by the Zurich and London Agreements of 1960 was based on an internal balance between the Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot communities as well as an external balance between Turkey and Greece as the respective “motherlands” of the two ethnic peoples of the island. This seemingly perfect system of checks and balances, however, faced a serious challenge within three years of its inception when the Greek Cypriot side attempted to amend the Constitution by removing all provisions that gave the Turkish Cypriots a meaningful say in the affairs of the State. Failing that, they launched an all‐out armed attack on the Turkish Cypriots throughout the island, killing and wounding thousands, driving one‐quarter of the Turkish Cypriot population out of their homes and properties in 103 villages, and causing widespread destruction. The ferocity of this onslaught was described by former Undersecretary of the US State Department, George Ball, in his memories titled “The Past Has Another Pattern” by observing that Makarios, the then Greek Cypriot leader, had “turn(ed) this beautiful island into his private abattoir.” He further stated that “Makarios’ central interest was to block off any Turkish intervention so that he and his Greek Cypriotes could go on happily massacring the Turkish Cypriots.” The Turkish rescue operation undoubtedly saved the Turkish Cypriot community from mass‐extermination; prevented the annexation of Cyprus to Greece, and thus saved the independence of the island. Turkey’s legitimate and timely action has kept the peace on the island since 1974. Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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Today, the Constitution of the Republic is dead and the “Cyprus” government has been completely usurped and monopolized by the Greek Cypriots. Turkish Cypriots and successive Turkish Governments have worked for the achievement of a settlement and have either initiated or accepted all major United Nations documents aimed at such just and lasting solution. The latest and most elaborate document in this respect was the “Annan Plan” named after former United Nations Secretary‐General Kofi Annan who was the architect of the plan. The Annan Plan was put to separate and simultaneous referenda of Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots on April 24, 2004. It was overwhelmingly accepted by the Turkish Cypriot people by a 65% majority; but was rejected by the Greek Cypriot people, at the behest of their leadership, by an even greater margin of 76%. Although the United States, the European Union, and other members of the international community have joined in the call for the lifting of the isolation of the Turkish Cypriots, little has been done to put words into action in this regard. What is at stake is not only the long‐overdue and well deserved restoration of the human rights of the Turkish Cypriots through their integration with the international community, but also the credibility of those who have made promises and took decisions to end this isolation. Concrete and meaningful steps in that direction will not only put an end to this untenable situation but will also help the unification efforts on the island by motivating the Greek Cypriot side to come to a just and lasting settlement. Despite the absence of an international solution to unify the island of Cyprus, Turkish Cypriots have been enjoying peace and tranquility and have developed strong democratic institutions, world class universities, tourism facilities and able entrepreneurs. In fact, Turkish Cyprus can be a model for other nations in that region on how to cope with hardship within the framework of democracy and respect for human rights. A beautiful country with its unspoiled nature and famous for its warm Turkish hospitality, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus is a place worth visiting year around. For more information on travel and other issues related to the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, please visit www.trncinfo.com. Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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Turkey Moves Far Beyond Europe The Turks are selling pasta to the Italians, educating Papua‐New Guineans in their universities, building airports in Egypt, running schools in Nigeria and establishing diplomatic missions in Latin America. Turkey has not felt and acted like the confident global player it is today since the heyday of the Ottoman Empire in the sixteenth century. After the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the eighteenth century, the Turks tried to belong to Europe in hopes of eventually becoming an ordinary country subsumed by it. That dream has passed. In the past decade, a new Turkey was born, shaped by unprecedented political stability, domestic growth and new‐found commercial and political clout overseas. This has instilled a sense of global confidence in the Turkish people, not seen since Suleiman the Magnificent ruled in Constantinople. "And the new Turkey is here to stay," says Namik Tan, the Turkish ambassador to Washington. Like a Eurasian China, the new Turkey is interested in building influence across the globe and is no longer confined by a regional, European rubric. Recently, visiting Istanbul, I attended a conference on the Arab Spring organized by Abant Platform, a local NGO that gathers Turkish intellectuals of different stripes for policy debates. The conference ‐‐ this time with attendees from Washington, Tel Aviv, London, St. Petersburg and Arab capitals in addition to Turks ‐‐ debated Turkey's leadership role in the Arab Spring. The venue was Ciragan Palace, a former Ottoman residence on the Bosporus and an apt selection for the new Turkey. Over Turkish coffee served a la Ottoman with double‐roasted Turkish delight on the side, Ali Aslan, a Turkish journalist, summed up the new Turkey for me: "Ten years ago, the Turks would not have organized a conference on the Middle East lest this made them look non‐European. And if such a conference were ever conceived, it would be run by the government and staged in Ankara, with all the participants making arguments in favor of following Europe's footsteps." The new Turkey looks beyond Europe and thinks globally for a variety of reasons. Turks feel confident as the world around them suffers from economic meltdown while Turkey booms: In the third quarter of 2011, the Turkish economy grew by a record 8.2 percent, outpacing not only the county's neighbors, but also all of Europe. Furthermore, since 2002, the Turkish economy has nearly tripled in size, experiencing the longest spurt of prosperity in modern Turkish history. The Turkish daily Sabah wrote that in 2011 alone, another 9,755 millionaires joined the country's wealthy. Just as the sudden spread of middle‐class prosperity in 1950s United States instilled a can‐do attitude in American sentiments towards the world, the same is now happening in Turkey. A young cab driver I spoke with in Istanbul said: "Europe is too small an arena for Turkey; we need to be a global player." Turkish trade is already heading away from Europe. The continent's economic doldrums coupled with Turkey's new trans‐
European vision means that the country's traditional commercial bonds with Europe are eroding while its trade links with the non‐European world flourish. In 1999, for instance, the European Union accounted for over fifty‐six percent of Turkish trade. In 2011, this number went down to forty‐one percent, while the share of members of the Organization of Islamic Countries in Turkish trade climbed from twelve percent to twenty percent in the same period. Paralleling this trend, Turkey's ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP) has pursued a foreign policy that transcends Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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Turkey's European vocation, irreversibly re‐molding Turkey's identity. "After suffering through eight coalition governments and four economic crises, the Turkish people have welcomed ten years of a stable AKP government even if it has meant entrenched single‐party rule" says Asli Aydintasbas, a columnist with mainstream Turkish daily Milliyet. Elected in 2002 and slated to pick the country's next president in 2014, the AKP has already run Turkey longer than any other party since Ankara became a democracy in 1946. As it is likely to outlive even Ataturk's fifteen‐year domination of Turkish politics in the early twentieth century, the AKP's global vision will continue to prevail. Buoyed by economic dynamism, political stability, and a new supra‐European vision, the Turks have accordingly reached far and abroad to build soft power in places they had earlier ignored, such as the Middle East, Africa and even far‐flung countries such as Vietnam and Mongolia. The private sector, universities and NGOs are driving this agenda, shaping the new Turkish supra‐European identity. This trend can best be observed in cities dominated by the middle class: in Gaziantep, the country's sixth largest town, as well as other middle‐sized towns such as Kayseri, Konya, Malatya, and Denizli. Dubbed "the Anatolian Tigers" for driving the country's record‐breaking growth rate, these towns have also provided solid support to the AKP while linking Turkey to the Middle East, Africa and beyond. Gaziantep, near the Syrian border, has factories that manufacture almost everything, selling goods to over 70 countries. The town's pasta ends up on Italian dinner plates. In this sense, Gaziantep is like an Anatolian Guangzhou, the Chinese hub famous for selling its wares to the most distant and unlikely places. But unlike Guangzhou, Gaziantep is also building soft power for Turkey. Zirve University in Gaziantep is a testimony to this. Funded by the local billionaire Nakiboglu family, which made its wealth recently in international commerce, the university has a gleaming campus that rises amid Gaziantep's famous pistachio groves. Visiting this campus is like visiting the new Turkey. Gokhan Bacik, a professor of international relations who studies Turkey's new active Middle East policy, told me that already, over ten percent of the university's student body is foreign despite the fact that the university opened only two years ago. Many students hail from the Middle East, especially nearby Syria, as well as the Balkans, Africa, the former Soviet Union, and even Europe. "We have students from Austria and Papua New Guinea," he added. Gaziantep is the epitome of the new Turkey. For years, it was known in Turkey for its heavenly pistachio nut‐filled baklavas. Today, shops in the town's gentrified medieval old city and along tram‐lined streets in leafy middle‐class districts proudly display the "world's best baklava," making a culinary claim to Turkey's new global identity. Additionally, businesspeople from Gaziantep and other Anatolian Tigers are busy financing and managing construction projects across the world, including Cairo's new airport terminal and major projects from Russia to Mongolia. Others are launching schools to educate future elites in countries around the globe, including Nigeria, Morocco, Brazil, and Vietnam, demonstrating further soft power in the making. Most of these businessmen and schools belong to the Sufi‐inspired Gulen Movement, a force to be reckoned with in the new Turkey. Mustafa Sungur, who sympathizes with the movement, says that the "Movement has Turkish schools in almost all countries of the world with the exception of authoritarian places such as North Korea, Iran and Saudi Arabia." In the end, it all comes down to Istanbul. By securing itself in the Middle East, the former Soviet Union, Asia, and Africa, the new Turkey is anchoring these regions in Istanbul. The city was the center of the Ottoman, Byzantine, and Roman empires for 1,700 years, and it is once again reclaiming its dominance as a global capital. Accounting for one‐third of Turkey's 1.1 trillion dollar economy, Istanbul's wealth already dwarfs all of Turkey's neighbors, expect for oil‐rich Iran. Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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Yet, the city reaches even beyond Turkey's immediate neighbors. Ten years ago, you could fly direct from Istanbul to a mere seventy‐five international destinations, most of them in Europe, on Turkish Airlines, the country's flagship carrier. Today, Turkish Airlines offers direct flights from Istanbul to over 150 international destinations. The majority of the new destinations are in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, including Dhaka, Dar es Salam, and Damman. In Iraq alone, the airline serves six cities, providing the most connections between that country and the outside world, and in December, the company provided the first international connection to Misrata, Libya, beating the competition to reach Libya's oil capital. Turkey's new global identity is increasingly shaping its foreign policy, as well. Like the country's national airlines, its diplomats seem to be following Turkey's businesspeople and reaching even further beyond. In the past decade, Turkey has opened up over forty new diplomatic missions, most of them in Africa and Asia, including Basra, Maputo, Accra, Juba and Yaounde. It has also set up posts in Latin America and now has diplomatic reach in Bogota and Santiago. This posturing suggests that Turkey's new supra‐European identity and global confidence is here to stay. That, of course, requires the Turkish economy to keep humming and the country to remain stable. If Turkey plays its hand well, the same economic factors responsible for facilitating its rise beyond Europe will continue to help it maintain its confident global outlook. Take, for instance, Turkey's current accounts deficit, which stands at a whopping 9.8 percent, the highest figure among the forty‐two developed economies recently reviewed by The Economist. Most economies cannot sustain such a high deficit, but it is likely that Turkey can due to its position of stability amongst its neighbors, causing a steady flow of money into the country. My brother Ali Cagatay, Bloomberg Turkey's news editor, told me that as much as six billion dollars have flowed into Turkey from Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and the former Soviet Union in the first ten months of 2011 alone, helping the country's economy to finance its deficit. In Hatay province, which borders Syria, bank deposits have increased by 1.1 billion dollars in the past year, thanks to wealthy Syrians who are putting their money into Turkey for safeguarding. "In addition to money coming in from its non‐European neighbors, Turkey also attracts massive inflows from European and other Western banks which see Turkish markets as a rare safe haven in these tumultuous times," adds a Turkish banker based in London. This is why it is essential that the new Turkey is a responsible global player. The need for continued stability is the very reason Turkey cannot afford to be a bully. Take, for instance, Ankara's threats to Israel over the flotilla incident. After Israel refused to apologize, some officials threatened to send the Turkish navy to confront the Israelis. It is in Turkey's best interest to avoid conflict, which is the reason Ankara stepped away from confrontation with Israel. Turkey is confident and can afford to look beyond Europe because it continues to grow. And Turkey grows because it is deemed stable and investment grade while the world around it goes through economic and political convulsions. A belligerent foreign policy and political instability would almost certainly usher in economic instability, ending Turkey's run for global influence. In short, the new Turkey's soft power rests on Turkey being a soft country. Soner Cagaptay is director of the Turkish Research Program at The Washington Institute. TURKEY MOVES FAR BEYOND EUROPE By Soner Cagaptay CNN Global Public Square December 22, 2011 Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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National Sovereignty and Children’s Day On April 23, 1920 the Turkish Grand National Assembly (TGNA) was inaugurated in Ankara. It was the first step toward the creation of the Republic of Turkey, the roots of which were laid during the Turkish National War of Liberation led by Mustafa Kemal‐ later to be given the name Atatürk (father of Turks). The Turkish national liberation struggle began on May 19, 1919 and culminated in the liberation of Anatolia from foreign occupation, the international recognition of modern Turkey’s borders by the Treaty of Lausanne, and the founding of the Republic of Turkey on October 29, 1923. When the TGNA held its first session in 1920, virtually every corner of the Ottoman Empire was under the occupation of the Allied powers. Exasperated by the Ottoman government’s inability to fight the occupation, patriotic movements began springing up all around Anatolia. The occupation of Izmir by invading Greek armies and the atrocities they committed against the Turkish population was the final outrage that sparked a nationwide resistance movement. This resistance soon turned into a war of independence under Mustafa Kemal, a young Ottoman military officer at the time. With the Allied occupation of Istanbul, and the dissolving of the Ottoman Parliament, Mustafa Kemal’s justification for opening the resistance movement’s new legislative body was created. With the opening of the Assembly, Ankara became the center of the Turkish national struggle and was declared as the capital of the new Turkish Republic on October 13, 1923. On the opening day of the Assembly, Mustafa Kemal was elected as its first president. His opening speech includes clues of what he envisioned this Assembly to achieve. Stating that “there will not be any power above the assembly,” Atatürk set the stage for the founding of the Republic of Turkey to replace the Ottoman monarchy. The Assembly, as the representative body of the Turkish people, established a national army and defeated the Allied Powers. Under the visionary leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, it created a secular, democratic Republic. On April 23, 1929, upon Atatürk’s proposal, the Turkish Grand National Assembly decreed April 23 as a national holiday dedicated to children. Thus Turkey became the first country in the world that celebrates an official Children’s Day. Today this national holiday is celebrated in Turkey with children from all over the world in a spirit of peace and harmony. Turkish Coalition of America - TCA
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TCA Issue Papers The TCA Issue Papers are sent to each member of Congress and designed to inform lawmakers and policy‐
makers on pertinent issues related to US‐Turkish relations, Turkey and the Turkish American community. •
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Spanish Senate Committee Rejects Labeling Ottoman‐Armenian Tragedy as Genocide Remembering the Circassian Deportations and Massacres 68th Anniversary of Sürgün, the Mass Deportation of the Crimean Tatars Commemorating the Centenary of 1915: Learning from Gallipoli Greek Supreme Court Denies “Turkish” Identity TCA Statement on 20th Anniversary of Khojaly Massacre Russian Expat Invasion of Cyprus Has Sinister Overtones Gloomy Greeks Forget Woes with Turkish TV Chairwoman Ros‐Lehtinen Meets Turkish Relatives in Istanbul Turkey Renovates Armenian Church When Special Interests Block National Interest TCA Denounces Passage of H.Res.306 Turkey’s Growth Ranks Second Worldwide Squinting at Religious Discrimination Turkish‐Native American Investment Bill Passes House Committee Istanbul Conference on Afghanistan Commences TCA Congratulates U.S. Ambassador to Turkey Religious Ceremony Held at Historical Armenian Church in Turkey Senate Committee Supports U.S. Ambassador to Turkey Libya Contact Group Meets in Istanbul to Discuss Transition 10th TCA Congressional Delegation Completes Visit to Turkey TCA Protests Statements by Senators Kyl and Kirk Against Turkey Turkey Sends Humanitarian Aid to Somalia Turkish Cypriots Celebrate Anniversary of Cyprus Peace Operation US Interests in Iraq: Like a Good Neighbor, Turkey is There Secretary Clinton To Visit Turkey State Department Commends Turkey on Syria Crisis Turkey Recognizes Libya's Transitional National Council Major TCA Grant Supports Iraqi Christian Refugees in Turkey American Educators Embark on Study Tours to Turkey Turkey Provides Safe Haven to Syrian Refugees TCA Congressional Delegation Visits Turkey Turkey Launches Restoration of Armenian Historical Site April 23 Celebrated by Turkish Americans Across the US State Department Commends Turkey For Keeping Syria Border Open Turkey Provides Safe Haven to Syrian Refugees Turkey Evacuates Hundreds of Wounded from Libya 1 •
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France Spoiled Turkey's Peace Plan on Libya Turkish Parliament Authorizes Libya Action Turkey Assumes Diplomatic Functions for United States in Libya Turks Will Train Afghan Police Force in Turkey President Calls Turkish Prime Minister Over Libya A Voice of Common Sense in Armenian Diaspora? TCA Donates $100,000 to Help Haiti Earthquake Victims In Turkey's Example, Some See a Map for Egypt EU Officials: Turkey of Crucial Importance to EU Return of the Turks as Middle East Kingmaker A Stirring Moment in Jazz History to Echo in Turkish Embassy Turkey Leverages Economy for Global Soft Power Turkey's Rising Regional Power President Obama: Relationship with Turkey More Important Than Ever European Foreign Ministers Issue Strong Support for Turkey's EU Membership Armenia Sent Arms to Iran, Used in Attacks Against U.S.Troops Turkey Helps Israel Combat Fire Turkey's Big Ambitions Turkish American Legal Defense Fund Triumph: Federal Court Affirms David Krikorian Maliciously... "Israel must overcome the obsession of prestige and make every effort to revive from the ruins its ties... U.S. Praises Turkish Trainers of Afghan Security Forces DCCC Should Return Illicit Donation TCA Ranks Third in Groups Sponsoring International Congressional Travel UN Probe Finds Gaza Flotilla Raid Unlawful TCA Voices Support for Mass at Akdamar TCA Congressional Delegation Completes Turkey Visit TCA Congressional Delegation Completes Macedonia Visit Israel Accepts UN Investigation on Gaza Flotilla Raid British Prime Minister Speakson Gaza Situation, Turkey‐Israel Relations British Prime Minister Backs Turkey's EU Accession The Treaty of Lausanne: Turkey's International Recognition 36th Anniversary of the Cyprus Peace Organization TCA Mourns Senator Byrd ‐ Champion of US‐Turkey Relations Congressional Delegation Visits Turkey The Mavi Marmara Tragedy Nagorno‐Karabakh Elections Deemed Illegal Turkey – Russia Strengthen Bilateral Ties Rep. Edwards Pays Tribute to Turkey's First Jazz Department Turkey Convinces Iran on New Nuclear Talks Remembering Orhan Gunduz: A Victim of Armenian Terrorism Armenian NGO's and Religious Leaders Seek Normalization with Turkey and Azerbaijan TCA Responds to President Obama's Statement April 23 Celebrated by Turkish Americans Across the US Sino‐Turkish Economic Cooperation has broad perspective Turkish Projects in Wardak, Afghanistan Worth $37 Million Members of Congress Participate in Opening of Turkey's First Jazz Department TCA Concludes Congressional Visit to Turkey 2 •
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British House of Lords Refuses Vote on Armenian Measure Human Rights Groups Raise Concerns about Refugees in Greece Turkish President Awarded by Chatham House Re‐Assessing the "Genocide Resolution" IDF Chief of Staff Visits Turkey Top Commanders in Afghanistan: Turkish Presence is a Model State Department Praises Turkey's Regional Role Turkish Red Crescent Aids Haiti Victims Turkey Hosts Trilateral Summit with Afghanistan and Pakistan Armenian Historical Church to be Opened for Worship Obama Needs Turkey: An Explanation Israel Thanks Turkey for Preventing Attack Obama's Ideal Partner: Turkey Triumph of the Turks TCA calls on Congress to dismiss radical ANCA Agenda Turkey to Lead ISAF for Third Time Turkey and Pakistan Sign Protocol to Bolster Relations TCA Calls Upon Congress to Support Turkey – Armenia Dialogue 35th Anniversary Of Turkish Peace Operation On Cyprus Recommendations for the Armenian Diaspora Remembering Orhan Gunduz: A Victim of Armenian Terrorism The Birth of the Turkish Republic Turkish American Welcome President Obama's Visit Greek Independence Day: The Cost to Ottoman Turks How to End a Genocide Debate Key Developments in US‐Turkey Relations Armenian Issue: Moving Forward TCA Exposes Senator Menendez for Catering to Ethnic Lobbies Educators from American Minorities Visit Turkey Turkey Hosts Summit with Afghanistan and Pakistan Germany's Green Party Elects First Turkish German as Leader Congressional Turkish Caucus Holds Up Strong in Election Turkish American Legal Defense Fund Requests Criminal Investigation Against Armenian American... Top U.S. Official Says Karakbakh Deal "Possible" by Year's End Turkey Elected to United Nations Security Council TCA and ATAA underscore importance of US‐Turkey alliance in framework of confirmation hearings... Turkish President Says Opportunities Emerge to Solve Karabakh Conflict Turkish President to visit Armenia The Treaty of Lausanne: Turkey's International Recognition OSCE Supports Joint Historic Commission on Armenian Allegations Invigorating the US‐Turkish Strategic Partnership Russian Document refutes Armenian "genocide" claims Provides evidence of mass killings by Armenians Swedish Parliament Rejects Armenian Genocide Legislation Turkey and Georgia renovate historic church in Turkey Turkey offers Armenian Diaspora $20 million to open its Archives Armenia Needs Real – Not Symbolic – Help China's Battle Against the Uighurs 3 •
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Reuniting Cyprus United Nations Calls for Removal of Armenian Forces from the Nagorno‐Karabakh Region of Azerbaijan Michael Rubin: Turkey's Terror Problem is Ours Unveiling the PKK Turkey Spearheads Major Regional Energy and Transportation Projects Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus Celebrates 24th Anniversary President Bush and Turkish Prime Minister Discuss Global War on Terror The Times: Stirring up the past, jeopardizing the future Historian Norman Stone in the Chicago Tribune Worse Than Irrelevant The Future of the U.S. ‐ Turkey Relationship ADL should not redefine genocide Turkey is vital to Europe's future Turkey and Armenia: What Jews should do Losing Turkey PKK Terrorists kill Villager for Denying Food The Treaty of Lausanne: Turkey's International Recognition July 20: Anniversary of Cyprus Peace Operation Why America Should Build Bridges to Turkey Turkish company Invests Heavily in North Carolina and Tennessee American Teachers Visit Turkey The Real Billy Hayes Regrets Midnight Express, Apologizes to Turks Turkey's Contributions in Iraq and Afghanistan Review: The Armenian Massacres in Ottoman Turkey: A Disputed Genocide Turkish Troops in Northern Iraq? The Lycian Confederation and the American Constitution PKK Terrorism and Northern Iraq May 19: Turkish National Liberation begins Remembering Orhan Gunduz: A Victim of Armenian Terrorism Cyprus and the Annan Plan April 23: The Birth of the Turkish Republic Turkey, Iraq and PKK Terrorism Turkey and the United States Enabling Kurdish Illusion 4 ORGANIZATIONS Organizations Representing Turkish Americans and the U.S.‐Turkey Relationship in the U.S. TCA prepared this list to reflect the multitude of organizations that represent Turkish Americans and the U.S.‐
Turkey relationship throughout the United States. This list is for informational purposes only. It does not constitute TCA's endorsement of these entities. Furthermore, TCA has no affiliation with the political action committees listed. This list has been prepared to the best of TCA's knowledge. Our goal is to list all organizations representing Turkish Americans and the U.S.‐Turkey relationship. If your organization is not listed, please send us its name along with its website address. For organizations that are listed but do not have their websites included, we would appreciate receiving website and contact information. Please forward information to [email protected] Alabama • Turkish American Association of Alabama Arizona • Bosphorus Art Project • Turkish American Association of Arizona (TAAAZ) California • Association of Turkish Americans of Southern California (ATASC) • ATASC San Diego Chapter • Daughters of Ataturk • Friends of Anatolia • Los Angeles Turkish American Association Chapter (LATAA) • Orange County Turkish American Association Chapter (OCTAA) • Pacifica Institute in Los Angeles • TAAC East Bay Chapter • TAAC Monterey Chapter • TAAC Sacramento Chapter • TAAC San Francisco Chapter • Turkish American Alliance for Fairness (TAAF) • Turkish American Association of California (TAAC) • Turkish American Business Connection (TABCON) • Turkish American Ladies League (TALL) • Turkish Educational Foundation Colorado • Turkish American Cultural Society of Colorado (TACSCO) 1 Connecticut • Connecticut Turkish Islamic Cultural Association • Turkish American Cultural Association of S. New England (TACA‐SNE) • Turkish American Medical Association (TAMA) • Turkish American Physicians Association (TAPA) Florida • Anatolia Cultural Center (Coral Springs Foundation, Inc.) • Florida Turkish American Association (FTAA) • Florida Turkish American Association, Women's Club • Florida Turkish American Chamber of Commerce • North Florida Turkish American Cultural Association (NFTACA) • Turkish American Cultural Association of Florida (TACAF) Georgia • Georgia Turkish American Advocacy Group • Istanbul Center • The American Turkish Friendship Council (ATFC) • Turkish American Cultural Association of Georgia (TACA‐GA) • Turkish American Society of Augusta&Aiken • Turkish American Society of Georgia Hawaii • Turkish American Friendship Association of Hawaii Illinois • Turkish American Association for Cultural Exchange (TAACE) • Turkish American Cultural Alliance of Chicago (TACA‐Chicago) • Turkish American Doctors Association of Midwest (TADAM) • Turkish American Society of Chicago Indiana • Turkish American Association of Indiana (ATA‐IN) Louisiana • Turkish American Association of Louisiana (TAAL) Maryland • Anatolian Artisans • Maryland American Turkish Association (MATA) • Turk Kultur Merkezi • Turkish American Community Center • Turkish American Islamic Foundation • Turkish Children Foster Care • Washington Turkish Women's Association (WTWA) Massachusetts • Istanbul Technical University Alumni Association Int'l, Inc. • Turkish American Cultural Society of New England (TACS‐NE) • Turkish Cultural Foundation (TCF) 2 Michigan • Turkish American Cultural Association of Michigan (TACAM) • Turkish American Neuropsychiatric Association (TANPA) Minnesota • Turkish American Association of Minnesota (TAAM) Missouri • Turkish American Association of Greater Kansas City (TAA‐Kansas City) • Turkish American Cultural Alliance of St. Louis (TACA‐St. Louis) Montana • Turkish American Cultural Association of Montana (TACA‐MT) Nevada • Association of Turkish Americans in Nevada (ATA‐NV) • Nevada Turkish American Association (NVTAA) New Jersey • American Turkish Islamic and Cultural Center • Anadolu Club • Delaware Valley Muslim Association – Selimiye Mosque • Galatasaray Fan Club (Soccer) • Hazelnut Council • Hudson Turkish American Cultural Association (HUTACA) • Istanbul Sports, Cultural and Education Association • Istanbul University Alumni Association of USA (IMEZUSA) • Karacay Turks Moslem Mosque • Middle East Technical University Alumni Association • Turk Ocagi • Turkish American Association of New Jersey, Inc. • Turkish American Community Center, NJ • Turkish American Muslims Cultural Association • Turkish American Youth Association • Turkish Cypriot Cultural and Educational Association of NJ • Young Turks Cultural Aid Society New York • American Turkish Society (ATS) • Besiktas Fan Club (Soccer) • Bridges of Hope Project • Brooklyn Amity School • Federation of Turkish American Associations (FTAA) • Fenerbahce Fan Club (Soccer) • Intercollegiate Turkish Students Society (ITSS) • Istanbul Technical University Alumni Association • Istanbul University Alumni Association of USA • ITKIB • Moon&Stars Project • Mustafa Kemal Ataturk Turkish American Association 3 •
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Robert College Alumni Office Society of Turkish American Architects, Engineers&Scientists, Inc. (MIM) Syracuse Turkish Association Turkish American Business Forum Turkish American Chamber of Commerce&Industry (TACCI) Turkish American Cultural Association of Long Island (TACA‐LI) Turkish American Eyup Sultan Islamic Center, Inc. Turkish American Heritage Association (TAHA) Turkish Cultural Center Turkish Cypriot Aid Society, NY Turkish Hars Society Turkish Philanthropic Fund Turkish Restaurants Association (being established) Turkish Society of Rochester Turkish Women's League of America United American Muslim Association North Carolina • American Turkish Association of North Carolina (ATA‐NC) • Bridge to Turkiye Fund • Turkish Americans for Informed Policy (TAFIP) Ohio • Tristate Turkish American Association (TTAA) • Turkish American Association of Central Ohio (TAACO) • Turkish American Association of Northeastern Ohio (TASNO) Oklahoma • Turkish American Association of Oklahoma (TAA‐OK) Online and Printed Publications • FORUM • Mavi Boncuk • Radyo Turkum • RadyoTVOnline • Turk North America • Turk of America • TurkaMagazine • Turkish Cinema Newsletter • Turkish Gazete • Turkish Life News • Turkish NY • TurkLA • Turkuaz Pennsylvania • Pittsburgh Turkish American Association (PTAA) • Red Rose Intercultural&Educational Foundation • Turkish American Friendship Society of the United States (TAFSUS) 4 Rhode Island • Turkish American Cultural Center of Rhode Island Texas • American Turkish Association of Houston (ATA‐Houston) • Turkish American Association for Business • Turkish American Association of Northern Texas (TURANT) • Turkish American Association of San Antonio (TAA‐San Antonio) • Turkish American Political Action Committee Turkic Organizations (not including business groups) • American Association of Crimean Turks, Inc. (New York) • Azerbaijan Society of America, Inc. (New Jersey) • Azerbaijani‐American Council (California, Texas) • Balkan Turks of America Association of New York (New Jersey) • Houston Azerbaijanis (TX) • Solidarity of Balkan Turks of America (New Jersey) • Turkestanian American Association (New Jersey) • US Azerbaijan Council (Washington, DC) • US Azeris Network (Washington, DC) Virginia • American Turkish Friendship Association (ATFA) • Melungeon Heritage Association • Rumi Forum Washington • Turkish American Cultural Association of Washington (TACAWA) Washington, DC • American Friends of Turkey (AFOT) • American Turkish Association of Washington, DC (ATA‐DC) • Assembly of Turkish American Associations (ATAA) Website Forums and Services • TurkishNY.com Wisconsin • Turkish American Association of Milwaukee (TAAM) 5 Notes
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