Archaeological Monitoring Plan for Septic System Restoration at

T. S. Dye & Colleagues, Archaeologists, Inc.
735 Bishop St., Suite 315, Honolulu, Hawai‘i 96813
Archaeological Monitoring Plan for Septic System
Restoration at Bellows Air Force Station, Hawai‘i
Thomas S. Dye, Ph.D.
March 11, 2009
Contents
1
2
Introduction
1.1 Nature and Location of the Undertaking
1.2 The Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Federal Historic Preservation Law . . . .
1.4 Report Organization . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2
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3
3
4
Background
2.1 Physical Environment . . . . . . . .
2.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Historic Properties . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1
Archaeological Sites . . . .
2.3.2 Surface Structural Remains
2.3.3 Sensitivity Maps . . . . . .
2.4 Archaeological Implications . . . .
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3
Project Design
10
3.1 Anticipated Archaeological Remains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2 Field Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3 Research Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4
Fieldwork
12
4.1 Project Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2 Field Recording and Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.3 Inadvertent Discovery of Human Remains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1
1
2
5
Post-Field Actions
5.1 Laboratory Analyses . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1
Historic Artifacts . . . . . .
5.1.2
Lithic Artifacts . . . . . . .
5.1.3
Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.4
Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.5
Bulk Feature Fill . . . . . .
5.1.6
Wood Charcoal . . . . . . .
5.2 Curation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Report Preparation and Scheduling
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INTRODUCTION
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14
15
15
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16
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16
16
Glossary
16
Bibliography
17
Illustrations
1
2
1
undertaking
project
Location of septic system restoration sites at Bellows AFS . . . . . . . . .
Archaeological sensitivity map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
9
Introduction
At the request of Shaw Environmental, Inc., T. S. Dye & Colleagues, Archaeologists, Inc.
has prepared an archaeological monitoring plan (AMP) for a proposed undertaking1
at Bellows Air Force Station (BAFS), O‘ahu (fig. 1). The proposed undertaking is a
restoration of septic systems at BAFS. The project proposed by the AMP is designed to
identify historic properties that might be exposed during the undertaking and to treat
them appropriately.
The AMP is revised and updated from McElroy [18]. It is written within the general
framework of The Treatment of Archaeological Properties [1] and the Cultural Resources
Management Plans for BAFS [14]. It conforms to the State Historic Preservation Division
(SHPD) Rules Governing Standards for Archaeological Monitoring Studies and Reports
(§13–279–4). The AMP reflects the research design developed for BAFS by Dye [10] based
on the settlement pattern model of Tuggle [25] and implemented subsequently [9; 19].
1.1
Nature and Location of the Undertaking
Four work sites for the proposed undertaking are located at BAFS. They are distributed
along the strip of land adjacent to the coast, north of Puhā Stream (fig. 1). The work sites
are all located fairly close to the coastline.
The undertaking will consist of excavation and preparation of absorption trenches
for the leach fields, installation of pipelines, septic tanks, distribution boxes, and system
tie-ins, and the abandonment of UIC points. Backhoes, excavators, and hand shovels
will be utilized for the excavations.
1 Words
that appear in the glossary are added to the margin where they first appear.
1.2
The Project
3
Figure 1. Location of the sites proposed for septic system restoration in relation to
traditional Hawaiian and historic-period sites at Bellows Air Force Station, O‘ahu.
1.2
The Project
T. S. Dye & Colleagues, Archaeologists, Inc. will conduct archaeological monitoring of
all ground disturbing activities of the undertaking at BAFS. The primary focus of the
monitoring is on the discovery and appropriate treatment of historic properties during
the undertaking.
1.3
Federal Historic Preservation Law
The undertaking is located near traditional Hawaiian sites that have been evaluated as
significant and eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places. The project
is thus carried out pursuant to Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act, as
well as other applicable laws and U.S. Air Force regulations [14].
2
4
1.4
BACKGROUND
Report Organization
The remainder of the report is organized into four sections. The first section begins with
an historical overview of the natural, cultural, and archaeological history in the general
vicinity of the specific project areas. A project design, which includes a predictive model
for the discovery of archaeological sites in the area and field and research problems, is
presented in the subsequent section. The final two sections outline the field methods and
post-field actions projected for the archaeological work conducted at BAFS.
2
Background
The physical environment, historic properties, and history of BAFS have been described in
detail by several authors [12; 13; 25]. Recent intensive studies include Dye [10], Desilets and
Dye [9], and McElroy et al. [19]. The following information on the physical environment,
history, and historic properties of Bellows AFS, taken primarily from Tuggle [25], is a
brief review that provides context for the project.
2.1
ahupua‘a
ironwood
koa haole
lantana
kiawe
Physical Environment
Bellows Air Force Station, about 635 ha (1,570 a.) in area (fig. 1), is located on the windward
coast of the island of O‘ahu. It is bounded by Waimānalo Bay on the east, Keolu Hills on
the north and northwest, and Waimānalo Town and Waimānalo Bay State Recreation
Area on the southwest and south.
There are three distinct landforms at BAFS, including unconsolidated Holocene
sands, lithified Pleistocene dunes, and volcanic hills. The coastal portion of BAFS is a
low plain formed by a series of unconsolidated calcareous sand beach ridges and swales.
Calcareous sands on the plain were deposited as the sea fell to its present level from a
high-stand of approximately +1.8 m in the mid-Holocene [9:7 ff.]. Immediately inland
of the plain is a series of lithified Pleistocene dunes that rise several meters above the
coastal plain. The volcanic Keolu Hills form the northern and northwestern boundaries
of BAFS.
Puhā Stream (now called Waimānalo Stream), which drains the traditional land
division of Waimānalo ahupua‘a, cuts through the Pleistocene dunes near the middle
of BAFS. Before it was channelized in the twentieth century, the stream meandered
across the plain depositing nutrient-rich terrestrial sediments on the relatively infertile
sands, creating environments suitable for traditional Hawaiian aquaculture and irrigated
agriculture.
Much of BAFS has been modified by military construction activities. This is especially
true of the undulating topography of the coastal plain, which was mostly flattened during
World War II for development of airfield runways and support facilities.
Rainfall at BAFS averages 890 mm a year at the coast and 1,130 mm inland. The
dominant vegetation is a complex of introduced taxa, including ironwood, koa haole,
lantana, and kiawe.
2.2
2.2
History
5
History
Archaeological and archival data from BAFS indicate a long-term Hawaiian occupation,
with development of pond-field irrigation along the inland sections of Waimānalo Stream
and habitation sites along the stream and the coast. Archaeological information indicates
use of the interior beach ridges and swales with activities that included fire-making,
cooking, lithic working, and burials. Most of this activity took place on a stable land
surface with little stratigraphic development except along the stream and near the coast,
where cultural deposits are relatively thick.
Archaeological work indicates that there are remnants of a paleosol scattered across
the entire plain. This surface existed on undulating beach ridges and swales that can
be identified on pre-WWII topographic maps, and is probably the main occupational
surface associated with Hawaiian use of the area. The paleosol is found today in a variety
of situations determined primarily by the nature and extent of modern land alterations. It
can be found wholly or partially exposed and deflated with traditional Hawaiian cultural
materials on the surface; near the surface beneath graded material, roads, or runways;
and deeply buried by fill materials in former swales.
paleosol
The Waimānalo coastal dunes were reported to contain many burials [15]. These
probably reflect a large settlement inland and south of BAFS, rather than dense settlement
along the coast of BAFS.
At the time of the māhele, the land on which BAFS was later established was in the
ahupua‘a of Waimānalo. Waimānalo was part of the Crown Lands of Kamehameha III
during the mid-nineteenth century. Records indicate that the focus of early historicera settlement in Waimānalo was inland of what is now BAFS in areas associated with
intensive development of irrigated agriculture along Waimānalo Stream inland of the
plain [24]. Land Commission Awards and claims for lands now part of BAFS are located
along either side of the stream [25].
Land use changed in 1850 when most of the region was leased to Thomas Cummins
for ranching [24]. Cummins raised high-quality breed cattle, race horses, and sheep.
Ranching activities gave way to sugarcane cultivation in the late 1870s when Waimanalo
Sugar Company was chartered. Sugarcane was cultivated on volcanic soils and on the
mixed volcanic and calcareous sands near Keolu Hills and did not extend onto the sandy
soils of the coastal plain.
Waimanalo Military Reservation was established in 1917, with boundaries nearly the
same as those of BAFS. Little military use was made of the reservation until 1933 when
the name of the reservation was changed to Waimanalo Military Reservation, Bellows
Field, and a short runway at the south end of the reservation and a target range were
constructed. New runways were under construction when the Japanese attacked on
December 7, 1941. Extensive construction took place during World War II, during which
time it was used as an airfield.
Following the war, use of BAFS changed gradually from an airfield to other military
functions, including training, recreation, and communications. During the Cold War, a
Nike/Hercules missile site was constructed at the south end of BAFS. Interior areas were
leased for cattle ranching.
māhele
2
6
2.3
BACKGROUND
Historic Properties
Information on the known historic properties of BAFS was compiled in the 1990s. Tuggle
[25] inventoried archaeological sites dating to the traditional Hawaiian and early historic periods. Surface structural remains from the historic period prior to 1950 were
inventoried by Yoklavich and Leineweber [26].
2.3.1
Archaeological Sites
Eleven archaeological sites at BAFS are currently recognized as historic properties (see
fig. 1, pg. 3). The eleven sites do not include site 50–80–15–511, a property on the National
Register of Historic Places. The boundaries of this site were drawn when the distribution
of archaeological remains at BAFS was poorly known. Over the years, as information
on historic sites has accumulated, it became apparent that the boundaries of site 50–80–
15–511 bore little relation to the distribution of archaeological remains. Consequently,
site boundaries were redefined and the significance of the sites were evaluated without
reference to site 50–80–15–511. For these reasons, site 50–80–15–511 is no longer included
in the inventory of archaeological sites recognized as historic properties.
The sites proposed for restoration of the BAFS septic system are close to three traditional Hawaiian archaeological sites: 50–80–15–4852, –4854, and –4855 (fig. 1). Information on these sites is adapted from Tuggle [25] unless otherwise noted.
50–80–15–4852 Located just north of the mouth of Puhā Stream, on the southern edge
of the project area (fig. 1), the archaeological remains consist of stratified cultural
deposits and burials. Work site BAFS-10 is close to the archaeological site, which
consists of three locales.
in-built age
lei niho palaoa
midden
Locale 1 Formerly known as the O18 site, this locale is near the coast at the southeastern corner of site 50–80–15–4852. The BAFS-10 work site is approximately
20 m east of the 018 dune. The locale is a stratified sand dune deposit that
contains burials, hearths, post-molds, and a variety of artifacts. The uppermost cultural layer occurs from 20 cm below surface at the base of the
dune to greater than 1 m below surface at the dune crest. Major excavations
were conducted in 1967 and 1975. The locale is renowned for its early 14 C
dates, and was once considered one of the earliest occupation sites in the
Hawaiian Islands. It was proposed that occupation began as early as ad 300,
but in recent years these dates have been seriously challenged [11]. The 14 C
samples that produced the early dates were not securely associated with a
cultural event and may have been affected by problems of in-built age. Recent
research controls for these problems, and dates now consistently point to
occupation after ad 1150, 800 years later than originally proposed [11]. The
locale has yielded an abundance of material culture nonetheless. Fishhooks,
adzes, abrading tools, and ornaments are among the items recovered, and
one of the burials housed the remains of a female child adorned with a pigtusk anklet and lei niho palaoa. Stone architecture and midden were scarce,
however, and this suggests a series of temporary occupations, as opposed to
continuous habitation of the locale.
2.3
Historic Properties
7
Locale 2 Near the north end of the Puhā Stream bridge, 15 m south of the O18
dune and approximately 25 m southwest of work site BAFS-10, archaeological
monitoring for repairs to the bridge revealed two to three buried cultural
deposits.
Locale 3 Located on the coastal flat just east of the O18 dune, in the immediate
vicinity of the BAFS-10 work site, archaeological testing near the base of the
dune, just west of BAFS-10, yielded cultural deposits that contained postholes, hearths, volcanic glass fragments, basalt flakes, and midden [8]. Buried
cultural deposits were recognized across the street to the east, where BAFS-10
is located, but they were reported to be in poor condition. These deposits are
highly disturbed and not comparable to those of the 018 dune.
50–80–15–4854 Located 250 m northeast of site 50–80–15–4852 in a 500 m long, narrow
strip along the coast (fig. 1) are three archaeological locales that contain human
burials and a cultural deposit. Work site BAFS-6 is close to the northwest boundary.
The boundaries of the site, which were drawn to encompass the three archaeological
locales, demarcate an area where further burials or remnant cultural deposits are
likely to occur.
Locale 1 Remnants of a cultural deposit consisting of charcoal and basalt fragments yielded one 14 C date with a calibrated age of ad 1292–1455. The species
of wood from which the sample was taken was not identified; thus in-built
age may be a factor, and there is a possibility that the deposit dates to a later
time.
Locale 2 250 m north of locale 1, human remains were discovered during a monitoring project. The remains were removed and reburied in an undisclosed
location. Work site BAFS-6 is northwest of this locale, just outside the site
boundary, between locales 2 and 3.
Locale 3 on the northern margins of site 50–80–15–4854, 200 m north of locale
2 and approximately 150 m northeast of the BAFS-6 work site, two burials
were found then later removed and buried elsewhere.
50–80–15–4855 Located 50 m west of the northern portion of site 50–80–15–4854, along
part of Tinker Road, buried cultural deposits are recorded in this area, and it is
possible that human burials occur as well. Work sites BAFS-5 and Building 250
lie along the eastern boundary of the archaeological site. The cultural deposits
are disturbed and discontinuous, and further testing is needed to clarify the site
boundaries and identify any deeply buried deposits. The site covers approximately
300 m2 and contains two locales.
Locale 1 Comprising the southern portion of the site, this locale is located at the
northeastern end of the driving range. Work site BAFS-5 is adjacent to the
locale on the east. A paleosol and a stratified cultural deposit containing
hearths, charcoal, fire-cracked rock, marine shell, bird bone, land snails, and
a basalt flake were found here. The paleosol is shallowly buried at 10 cm
below the surface, while the cultural deposit extends from 50–100 cm below
paleosol
2
8
BACKGROUND
the surface. Four 14 C dates were obtained from the uppermost portion of
the cultural deposit. Two range from ad 1281–1644 and two fall between ad
1420 and 1954. The charcoal from which the dates were obtained was not
identified to species, thus in-built age may factor into these dates. The locale
was interpreted as a series of temporary camps. Remnants of military activity
were noted in the area as well.
Locale 2 Located 200 m north of locale 1, on the northern margin of the site, a
paleosol, a hearth, and a single unassociated human bone were found. The
paleosol was deeply buried at 1.8–2.4 m below the surface. Samples for 14 C
dating were taken from the hearth, but no dates have been published.
2.3.2
makai
Surface Structural Remains
Yoklavich and Leineweber [26] provide an initial listing and evaluation of the known
military resources at BAFS that pre-date 1950. Their list contains a total of 160 facilities
or resources. Cold war (post-1950) resources at BAFS are not significant [5].
The work sites proposed for the restoration of septic systems are located makai of
runways 3L-21R and 18–36, which were completed in 1943 (see fig. 1, pg. 3). The runways
are eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) under criterion
A because they were built in response to the December 7, 1941 Japanese attack [13], but
there are no plans to nominate them to the NRHP (V. Curtis pers. com. 2004). None of
the BAFS work sites are in the immediate vicinity of either runway.
Approximately 2,500 ft. south of work site BAFS-10 is the location of the first enemy
vessel capture of World War II, a midget submarine involved in the December 7 attack.
The midget submarine was hauled away soon after it was captured and nothing marks
the location today. The site of the midget submarine capture is probably not eligible for
listing on the NRHP because the location lacks integrity [26:F-34].
The only significant surface structural remains in the vicinity of the undertaking
are those described for site 50–80–15–4863, existing and remnant WWII housing. No
inventory of these structures has been taken, thus it is uncertain what structures remain
today and what condition they are in. The work sites are all located well south of the site.
2.3.3
Sensitivity Maps
The first sensitivity map that portrays the probability of encountering unrecorded traditional Hawaiian cultural remains at BAFS was produced by Eidsness [12]. This map
was modified by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and later by Farrell and Spear [13]
to incorporate new information on the distribution of cultural resources at BAFS. The
AMP uses the most recent of these sensitivity maps [14].
The BAFS work sites for the septic system restoration are all located in areas of low
probability along the coast (fig. 2). Nevertheless, all four are located close to archaeological
sites whose boundaries are poorly known and cultural remains may be encountered.
2.4
Archaeological Implications
9
Figure 2. Archaeological sensitivity map with BAFS work sites superimposed. Source:
Farrell and Spear [14].
2.4
Archaeological Implications
Historical and archaeological data have several implications for the potential archaeological remains in the undertaking’s area of potential effect:
1. The project area has been modified extensively but there is evidence of traditional
Hawaiian cultural deposits at sites 50–80–15–4852, –4854, and –4855.
2. Remnant deposits can be expected at all work sites. These remnants might be
located at varying depths including near the present land surface, and some might
be buried and sealed by secondary deposits and fill materials.
3. Because of modern activity in the project area some secondarily deposited traditional Hawaiian cultural material can be anticipated.
4. Evidence of a paleosol, even in the apparent absence of cultural materials, should
be considered a likely cultural feature. A productive goal for archaeological inves-
3
10
PROJECT DESIGN
tigation at BAFS is documentation of variability in traditional Hawaiian use of
the region [9:56 ff.]. This goal requires documentation of low intensity use areas
as well as the high intensity use areas traditionally identified by archaeologists as
“sites.”
5. Intact cultural deposits found elsewhere at BAFS are commonly characterized by
some combination of midden, shallow hearths, post-holes, charcoal concentrations,
lithics, and/or human burial remains. Some or all of these types of cultural remains
might be expected in the general area of the undertaking, especially in the vicinity
of sites 50–80–15–4852, 50–80–15–4854, and 50–80–15–4855.
6. There appear to be two types of basalt deposited in traditional Hawaiian times
at BAFS. A relatively fine-grained dike stone, often with one or more patinated
surfaces, was used as raw material for the production of stone tools by flaking
and grinding. The debitage from these activities is found in small concentrations
widely scattered across BAFS. A coarser-grained stone was imported to the sandy
plain in large quantities, apparently for use as oven stones [9:78 ff.]. Discovery of
lithic deposits needs to take this variability into account to distinguish debitage
associated with stone tool production from thermally altered rock used in fire
features.
3
Project Design
Archaeological monitoring will be conducted for all undertaking activities at BAFS.
Identified archaeological remains will be recorded and appropriate archaeological samples collected. If cultural materials indicating the presence of undisturbed deposits are
discovered, then archaeological sub-surface test excavations may be conducted as an
optional task.
3.1
ecofact
Anticipated Archaeological Remains
The work sites are close to known archaeological sites even though they are located in an
area of low sensitivity (fig. 2). Nevertheless, remnants of subsurface traditional Hawaiian
cultural deposits may be encountered at all work sites. These deposits may contain
charcoal, lithic tools and debitage, volcanic glass fragments, fishhooks and fishhook
manufacturing tools and debris, ornaments, midden, fire-cracked rock, and ecofacts.
Hearths, earth ovens, post holes, and human burials may also be encountered. Nineteenth
and twentieth century cultural remains are likely to be encountered as well.
3.2
Field Problems
The field problem is defined as a phase of sub-surface inventory survey for traditional
Hawaiian archaeological sites and human burial remains on the sandy coastal plain.
Given the extensive modern disturbance to this portion of BAFS, traditional Hawaiian
deposits are likely to exist as discontinuous remnants. The primary field problem of the
monitoring is identification of paleosols and cultural remains appropriate or suitable
3.3
Research Problems
11
for data collection through a program of limited test excavation and sampling. The field
problem is explicitly constrained to the undertaking’s area of potential effect.
Cultural remains that might be found during undertaking activities include paleosols
with little apparent cultural material, mixed secondary deposits containing traditional
Hawaiian material laid down during military construction, and primary traditional
Hawaiian cultural deposits. Primary traditional Hawaiian cultural deposits might be
intact or truncated to varying degrees. In some instances these deposits might be truncated so that all that remains are features, such as fire pits and post-holes, excavated into
the otherwise culturally-sterile basal sand.
3.3
Research Problems
The problems of archaeological monitoring can be separated into two general categories:
cultural deposit identification and cultural deposit characterization. Cultural deposit
identification refers to the location of intact cultural deposits, and the estimation of their
extent and depth. Cultural deposit characterization problems refer to the determination
of the nature and significance of the deposits, and their potential to address questions
of Hawaiian cultural history and settlement. This set of research problems concerns
elements of stratigraphic interpretation, the historical sequence, and the larger problems
of Hawaiian archaeology. In general, archaeological remains at BAFS are important for
their potential contribution to the knowledge of Hawaiian settlement [21; 23] and to
agricultural expansion, pond-field development, and landscape change [3; 4; 16]. The
archaeological monitoring will be carried out to determine the potential of the cultural
remains to address these problems.
1. The nature of stratification and the depositional history.
(a) Modern development of BAFS has left discontinuous remnants of the traditional Hawaiian land surface and associated archaeological sites. Some of
these are found today near the surface and others are deeply buried beneath
fill material. The first problem of the field investigation is recognition and
preliminary identification of these deposits.
(b) There is evidence that the coastal plain at BAFS had a long-term stable surface. This means that cultural activities, particularly short-term occupations,
could have taken place several times in one locale with little evident stratigraphic development. Identification of possible re-occupation sequences is a
critical concern in the stratigraphic interpretation of deposits. A comparable
problem is occupations of widely separated time periods occurring on the
same general occupational surface.
2. Episodes of occupational history.
(a) Archaeological and archival evidence indicates that the region has a long
sequence of occupation. Investigation of the deposits seeks to establish
the occupational history. This involves a clear recognition of the possible
presence of nineteenth century habitation, as well as pre-contact Hawaiian
habitation.
3. Larger problems of Hawaiian archaeology.
(a) Long-term environmental change is an issue of Hawaiian archaeology that
can be addressed with information from the identification of wood taxa from
pre-contact
4
12
FIELDWORK
charcoal recovered at BAFS. These identifications provide a record of the
local flora, which is now almost completely changed from the flora that was
present during traditional Hawaiian times [9].
(b) The problem of agricultural expansion in dry land conditions might be
examined secondarily through the evaluation of possible agricultural use of
soils and dating of associated deposits.
(c) The question of early occupation in the Waimānalo region is one of the most
important issues in the larger picture of Hawaiian archaeology. Early 14 C
dates have been obtained from charcoal recovered from stream banks and
coastal deposits [21; 23], but most of these dates have an associated set of
problems regarding stratigraphic position, context, and interpretation. At
the same time, it is recognized that inland Waimānalo, along the eastern
boundary of BAFS and farther inland, is an ideal location for early Polynesian
settlement. Consequently, particular attention needs to be placed on this
issue during the recording, sampling, and analysis phases of the project.
Materials submitted for dating will meet the definitional criteria for “suitable
dating material” [10:22].
suitable dating material
4
Fieldwork
Archaeological monitoring for the restoration of septic systems at BAFS will take place
within the context of a hazardous waste operation. Each day prior to fieldwork, the
archaeological monitor and other field crew members will attend a safety and work plan
meeting with the engineers involved with the undertaking. At the first of these meetings
and subsequent meetings as necessary, the archaeological monitor shall explain the
purpose of the archaeological monitoring, the authority of the archaeological monitor
to halt remediation activities, and the conditions under which such a decision would
be made. The field procedures and organization will be discussed at these meetings so
agreement can be reached on coordination, communication, and scheduling.
Archaeologists at the Base Historic Preservation Office, 15th Airlift Wing will be
regularly informed of work progress and archaeological findings in the form of verbal or
written progress reports. Frequency of reporting will be determined in consultation with
the Base Historic Preservation Office.
4.1
Project Personnel
A senior archaeologist will serve as principal investigator for the project. The principal
investigator will be responsible for overall project organization and management, will
establish and ensure high standards for field sampling and laboratory analyses, may
conduct field visits and direct supervision of field personnel as appropriate, and will
review content of draft and final monitoring reports. The principal investigator will
also be responsible for directing archaeological sub-surface test excavations in the event
cultural materials indicating the presence of undisturbed deposits are discovered and
test excavations are performed.
4.2
Field Recording and Sampling
13
An archaeological monitor will be present during the ground disturbing activities
associated with the undertaking as set out in section 3, and will implement the field
and laboratory methodologies detailed below. The archaeological monitor will be an
archaeologist with experience in Hawai‘i and shall be certified for hazardous waste
operations. The archaeological monitor shall have the authority to halt any undertaking
activities in any area where cultural materials have been tentatively identified and are
threatened by continuation of the activities. The archaeological monitor will prepare the
draft and final monitoring reports.
4.2
Field Recording and Sampling
Field recording and sampling will be directed toward the research problems outlined
above (subsections 3.3 and 3.2). They are intended to mitigate any potentially adverse
effects to historic properties. Standards of documentation, recording, and analysis of
features, soil and sediment profiles, and artifacts shall accord with the Secretary of the
Interior’s Standards and Guidelines for Archaeological Documentation. Accurate map
locations of test units, stratigraphic profiles, and archaeological features, deposits, and
artifacts shall be maintained.
The first three items in the following list are intended to provide basic stratigraphic
data relevant to the reconstruction of land surfaces in the project area in sufficient detail to
make possible correlation of land surfaces with information from early topographic maps
and with information from past or future archaeological projects. Items four through
eleven are intended to address the problem of long-term use of a stable surface and the
associated difficulties of inferring use and occupational history.
1. The archaeological monitor or the staff archaeologist will be responsible for recording all stratigraphic profiles with cultural remains or features; stratigraphic profiles
where samples have been taken; and profiles where there is a sedimentary change
or unconformity that, in the professional judgment of the archaeological monitor
or staff archaeologist, contains information important for the research problems
itemized above (see pg. 11).
2. The archaeological monitor or staff archaeologist will make notes on exposures
whose stratigraphic profiles are not drawn.
3. Locations of all stratigraphic profile drawings and photographs will be recorded,
and an elevation above sea level will be established by an appropriate means.
4. All cultural deposits will be examined in the field for
(a) evidence of micro-stratification and other data relevant to evaluation of
depositional history, and
(b) evidence of disturbance, irregularity, or boundary conditions that might
indicate cultural activities;
such evidence will be recorded in the profile description.
5. All deposits will be examined for cultural items and the stratigraphic positions of
these items will be noted. Notation shall include reference to the age of the artifact
and how this age might indicate either disturbance to a deposit of different age, or
the age of the deposit. In particular, evidence for nineteenth century traditional
Hawaiian occupation will be noted, as well as evidence for early twentieth century
military or other uses of the land.
5
14
POST-FIELD ACTIONS
6. Features will be recorded with attention to stratigraphic positioning, particularly
their position of origin.
7. Profile descriptions will include appropriate technical information, in conformance
with standards established by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service, as well as fieldbased interpretation of depositional history.
8. The stratigraphic positions of samples collected from profiles, including artifacts,
feature contents, soil samples, and dating materials will be recorded.
9. Sediment and feature content samples will be collected as total units without
screening for laboratory processing.
10. Samples for dating and paleoenvironmental analysis shall be collected from the
smallest stratigraphic units practicable.
11. Archaeological test excavations, if they occur, will follow the Secretary of the
Interior’s Standards and Guidelines for Archaeological Documentation. They will
be designed to yield information applicable to the research and field problems set
out in subsection 3.
4.3
Inadvertent Discovery of Human Remains
The project area was inhabited and used by native Hawaiians and more recently by diverse
ethnic groups primarily associated with sugar plantations. Inadvertently discovered
human remains might belong to one of several ethnic groups. If human remains are
discovered, the archaeological monitor will notify the appropriate on-site official, all
excavation work in the vicinity will stop, and the Base Historic Preservation Officer,
15th Airlift Wing will be notified. It is understood that undertaking activities can be
performed in other areas. The archaeological monitor will protect any exposed bones in
an appropriate fashion, such as covering them with a shallow layer of sediment, and will
secure the area.
The archaeological monitor will provide the senior archaeologist and the Base Historic Preservation Officer, 15th Airlift Wing with any observed data relevant to the cultural
affiliation of the human remains. The observation will be made only on the exposed
and/or disturbed deposits and will not involve additional excavation. The Base Historic
Preservation Officer, 15th Airlift Wing will make decisions regarding notification and consultation under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA),
as appropriate.
The AMP does not propose any additional treatment of human remains, other than
documentation of archaeological context. Upon consultation with native Hawaiian
parties in accordance with NAGPRA, or with another ethnic group as appropriate, the
Base Historic Preservation Officer, 15th Airlift Wing shall specify the archaeological
procedures, if any, required to treat the remains.
5
Post-Field Actions
The nature and scope of post-field actions will vary depending upon the results of field
investigations. At a minimum, if no cultural remains are discovered, a report will be
produced to document the negative findings of the field investigations. If cultural remains
5.1
Laboratory Analyses
15
are discovered, analyses appropriate to the research questions presented in subsection 3
will be carried out and reported.
5.1
Laboratory Analyses
Laboratory processing of recovered cultural remains and sediments will meet or exceed
the Secretary of the Interior’s Standards and Guidelines for Archaeological Documentation
and will follow the State Historic Preservation Division’s draft Rules Governing Standards
for Archaeological Monitoring Studies and Reports. Specific analyses will be performed in
accordance with the goals of the research design. All data will be recorded on standardized
laboratory forms and entered into a project database.
It should be understood that not all samples collected in the course of fieldwork are of
equal analytic value. Samples which are determined to have the potential to contribute to
the goals of the research design will be sent to specialists for intensive analysis. Materials
which are considered to have a low information value will also be reported and described,
but may not be analyzed intensively or sent to a specialist.
Generally speaking, artifacts will be photographed, sketched, and identified as appropriate; relevant metric attributes will be measured and recorded. Mathematical
manipulations of laboratory data will be carried out for summary descriptions and comparisons with other collections, as appropriate. As appropriate, a concentration index
will be calculated for each relevant archaeological context related to occupational history
and will not be calculated in an interpretive vacuum.
The specific procedures employed in laboratory analysis will vary depending on the
type of remains involved. Procedures for the most common types of remains likely to be
recovered from BAFS and/or Hickam AFB are described below.
5.1.1
Historic Artifacts
Historic artifacts will be sorted into sub-classes as appropriate. Examples of sub-classes
include bottles and bottle glass, ceramics, nails, other metals, and buttons. Materials
which are amenable to “in-house” analysis will be so treated. Other materials will be
sent out for analysis by a qualified specialist. All data will be recorded on standardized
laboratory forms.
5.1.2
Lithic Artifacts
Lithic artifacts will be sorted into the sub-classes of “lithic tools” and “lithic debitage.”
Further distinctions will be made between material types (i.e. basalt, volcanic glass, chert).
Lithic tools will be photographed, weighed, measured, and assigned to a functional class
(i.e. scraper, adze, hammerstone, etc.). Lithic debitage will be weighed and examined
for use-wear. For potentially important debitage assemblages, a formal attribute-based
analysis will be performed. All data will be recorded on standardized laboratory forms.
5.1.3
Shell
Shell identified as traditional Hawaiian food remains will be identified to the lowest
possible taxonomic level. Each taxon will be weighed in bulk by provenience. Modified
concentration index
GLOSSARY
16
shell will be photographed, weighed, measured, and described separately. Shell identified
as dating to the historic period will be weighed in bulk by provenience and a representative
sample analyzed to establish the range and relative abundance of taxa present. All data
will be recorded on standardized laboratory forms.
5.1.4
Bone
Bone identified as possible food remains will be identified to the lowest possible taxonomic level. Individual taxa from each provenience will be weighed in bulk. All bone
will be examined for intentional modification, processing marks, or other distinguishing features. Bone tools or ornaments will be photographed, weighed, measured, and
described separately. All data will be recorded on standardized laboratory forms.
5.1.5
Bulk Feature Fill
Bulk sediment collected from sub-surface features will be screened through 0.125 in.
mesh screen. A technical sediment description will be recorded for the matrix. Lag
captured in the screen will be sorted by material type. Individual material classes will
receive the appropriate specialized analyses described in this chapter.
5.1.6
Wood Charcoal
Carbonized plant material submitted for 14 C analyses will be identified to the lowest possible taxonomic level and selected to minimize in-built age. Wood charcoal identification
also provides useful information on the occupational history of a region and on changes
to the environment [9; 10].
5.2
Curation
Curation of research documents and archaeological samples shall be undertaken on a
temporary basis at facilities provided by T. S. Dye & Colleagues, Archaeologists, Inc. until
the State of Hawaii or an appropriate federal agency establishes permanent facilities.
5.3
Report Preparation and Scheduling
Preparation of a final technical report shall conform to the Secretary of the Interior’s
Standards and Guidelines for Archaeological Documentation. A draft technical report
shall be prepared and submitted in a timely manner, within four months following the
end of fieldwork. The revised and corrected final report will be submitted within one
month following receipt of review comments on the draft report.
Glossary
Entries for Hawaiian words are excerpted or paraphrased, where possible, from the
Hawaiian Dictionary [22], or from Lucas [17]. Geological and geographical terms are
BIBLIOGRAPHY
17
from American Geological Institute [2] and Clark [7]. Archaeological terms are from
Bray and Trump [6] and Mignon [20].
ahupua‘a Traditional Hawaiian land division usually extending from the uplands to the
sea.
concentration index A measure, such as weight or count, of cultural material per unit
excavated sediment.
ecofact An ecological artifact; an organic object that provides information about plant
or animal use, but which has not been otherwise modified.
in-built age The age of a material when it was incorporated into the archaeological
record. In-built age has the potential to skew 14 C dating results.
ironwood An historically introduced large tree, Casuarina equisetifolia.
kiawe The algaroba tree, Prosopis sp., a legume from tropical America, first planted in
1828 in Hawaii.
koa haole An historically introduced small tree, Leucaena glauca.
lantana An historically introduced shrub, Lantana camara.
lei niho palaoa Ivory pendant, originally probably whale’s tooth, also of stone, shell or
wood, later also of walrus tusk.
māhele Land division of 1848.
makai Seaward.
midden A heap or stratum of refuse normally found on the site of an ancient settlement.
In Hawai‘i, the term generally refers to food remains, whether or not they appear
as a heap or stratum.
paleosol A soil of the past, often buried.
pre-contact Prior to a.d. 1778 and the first written records of the Hawaiian Islands made
by Captain James Cook and his crew.
project The archaeological monitoring and related actions, including laboratory analyses
and report preparation. See also undertaking.
suitable dating material An identified sample of wood charcoal, selected to include
short-lived species, twigs, or sapwood collected from a context that is in a clearly
defined association with a confidently identified traditional Hawaiian cultural
feature.
undertaking The proposed site inspection activities. See also project.
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