H.E. Boediono

Transcription

H.E. Boediono

The Opening Speech
H.E. Boediono
Vice President of the Republic of Indonesia
Excellencies, Cabinet Ministers of the Republic of Indonesia
Excellencies, Ministers and Senior Officials from Participating Countries
Distinguished Speakers and Experts,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
Assalamu alaikum warahmatullahi wabarakatuh.
First and foremost, I would like to praise Almighty Allah for His blessings
bestowed upon all of us to assemble here in Jakarta to convene the Second
International Conference on Islamic Media, the theme of which is 'The Impact of
New Media and Communication Technology on the Muslim World: Responses
and Regulations.' I welcome you all to this conference and hope you will have
productive deliberations as also an enjoyable stay here.
Excellencies, Ladies and Gentlemen,
Today the world is experiencing a revolution; a revolution in information
and communication technology (ICT) that eliminates obstacles in space and
time making communication borderless. Among these rapid changes, one of
the most remarkable features has been the emergence of global social
networking media with its far-reaching consequences, both positive and
negative.
The emergence of social networking media has created new social
institutions in the forms of new social networking that bypass social borders
and strata, creating virtual horizontal relationships. This new media also helps
to strengthen civil society and allows everyone with access to it, greater
freedom of expression and freedom of speech, including direct and open
criticism of the government.
Governments that have not been willing to allow greater democratic
participation; that have failed to respond adequately and in a timely manner to
democratic voices, have found themselves in difficulties or even been forced
The Second International Conference on Islamic Media
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out of power by popular movements, or the people‘s power. Government‘s
control over media is no longer effective. Gadgets, small yet very high-tech
devices that could provide any information at any time, are easily available
everywhere. Information has become a public domain. This is the new reality
that we all have to adjust and live with.
The social networking media could produce enormous benefits for the
society. This is the experience in this country. The practice of democracy in
Indonesia has been enriched by the development of social networking media.
As you may be aware, Indonesians are avid users of social networking
media. Indonesians now form the world‘s second largest users of Facebook and
Twitter after the United States of America. Through Facebook status and chats,
pithy tweets and blogs, more and more of our citizens now play increasingly
active roles in fighting corruption, pushing for law enforcement, bureaucratic
reforms, safeguarding the process of democracy and general elections as well as
ensuring good governance. With this new media we are unmistakably moving
toward the open government.
Social networking media can anywhere promote online businesses, enhance
fund raising for the poor, and bring together donors of rare blood-types and so
on. From the perspective of the religions, social networking media provide
room for the establishment of new religious authorities. The flip side is that it
may create fragmentation in religious authority. Islamic scholars, thinkers and
Muslim parents need to pay attention to the possible negative impacts of social
networking media, especially on our youth and children, the hopes of
future generations.
In my view, there are at least three main potential threats to our young
generation:
-First, extremist views and radicalism lead to destructive behavior such as
suicide bombing and other violent acts in the name of religion;
-Second, drugs abuses; and
-Third, pornography and free sex
These potential threats can easily be accessed through social networking media,
in massive quantities every hour and every day, and they influence our children.
So it is important that parents, guardians, teachers and religious leaders are fully
informed about the working of the new social networking media so that there is
no information gap between the older and younger generations.
Instead of trying to ban or control the new social networking media, which
in reality is not an easy thing to do, we as responsible adults need to educate
ourselves about the new media and be in a position to use it effectively for the
benefits of our children. I think Ulema also need to respond wisely, such as by
issuing contextual fatwa, especially to the youth, so that they are not easily led
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astray by negative examples or easily provoked by extremist views spread
through the new media.
For the State, the existence of social networking media has given
opportunities to the people to access information easily and widely. Yet at the
same time, as mentioned earlier, governments in the Muslim countries also
need to find the effective way to protect our younger generation and the society
at large from the potential negative influences of social media. All these have to
be done without impinging on the fundamental freedoms that form the pillars
of a democratic society, such as free media and freedom of expression.
Almighty Allah has created intelligent human beings with their capabilities to
improve their lives. Let us therefore work together to ensure that this new
invention of human ingenuity – modern media network – works to benefit all
humanity, not least Muslims all over the world.
Finally, by saying Bismillahirrahmaanirrahim, I declare the Second International
Conference on Islamic Media is officially opened.
Thank you.
Wassalamu alaikum warahmatullahi wabarakatuh.
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Speech of
H.E. Abdullah Abdul Mohsin Al-Turki
Secretary General, Muslim World League
In the name of Allah,
Most Gracious, Most Merciful
Praise be to Allah, the Lord of worlds.
Blessing and peace be upon Prophet Muhammad,
Seal of Prophets and Messengers, and his family and companions
H.E. Mr. Suryadharma Ali, Minister for Religious Affairs of Indonesia,
All the participants of the conference,
Assalamu alaikum warahmatullahi wabarakatuh.
The Muslim World League (MWL) has given due attention to Islamic media
from the very beginning, as it understood its significance as a major means in
communicating with the people and interacting with them as individuals and
groups in order to achieve the Islamic objectives for which MWL was
established.
We had organized the First International Conference on Islamic media in
Jakarta, Indonesia, three decades ago. This was a follow-up action on the
resolutions adopted by a preliminary meeting that MWL had organized in
Cyprus a year earlier. Despite many great changes since then, the resolutions
adopted at that meeting still warrant attention.
One important recommendation we had resolved was to urge Muslim media
persons to abide by the Islamic Media Charter. The Charter was meant to
consolidate faith in the values of Islam and its ethical principles; to unify the
ranks within Muslims; strengthen Islamic fraternity; counter anti-Islamic
propaganda; and defend Islamic causes.
Three decades on and world has undergone a great transformation
witnessing developments that affected the course of international relations as
well as general conditions in the Muslim countries. A substantial and rapid
development has since taken place in media and communication that has
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made a profound impact on the lives of human beings.
The MWL kept a tab on these developments, taking up suitable stands. It
founded the International Islamic Organization of Media (IIOOM), besides
participating in international conferences and events and organizing a number
of symposia and conferences on media, focusing on developments that have
had an impact on the Muslim Ummah.
During the last two decades, when changes began taking place in rapid pace
including propounding of theories like clash of civilizations, the MWL took
care of refuting such notions and concentrating on its media discourse over
dialogue on common human values between the followers of religions, cultures
and civilizations. It organized a series of conferences in this area with the
support and encouragement from Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King
Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz al-Saud.
The MWL has given special attention to common Islamic media work and
sought to enhance the cooperation between governmental and nongovernmental Islamic organizations and institutions. It also worked for
coordination between the efforts of media persons and exchange of their
experiments and experiences. In view of its objectives of introducing the
Islamic message, its universality and comprehensiveness; its ability to provide
solutions to the problems of mankind; its keen desire to explore ways for
promoting Islamic media in a manner that conforms to ethos of Islam and
contributes effectively toward addressing the problems of Muslim Ummah and
serving its causes, the MWL considered it appropriate to hold the Second
International Conference on Islamic media.
The conference aims at following up the resolutions and recommendations
of the MWL's previous media conferences, and studying the great
developments that the world witnessed in recent years in information and
communication technology as well as transformations caused by new
technology in media, transaction and relationship. It also aims at studying their
subsequent effects on ethics, values and manners of human interaction.
It is hoped that the conference will have a new impetus to strengthen
cooperation in the Muslim world in the field of media and communication
technology, and promote communication networks among the organizations and
institutions which are working for Islamic media.
It is also hoped that the conference will find out new mechanisms for
Islamic media that help the Muslim Ummah to preserve its identity in the face
of current challenges and serve the common causes of Muslims as well as to
extend the media support to Islamic scholars and to the programs of Islamic
organizations in unifying the voice of Muslims and highlight the sublime
Islamic values that must be reflected in the performance of Islamic
media and its message.
Experiences have shown that taking advantage of contemporary knowledge
about mass communication is a need that can be accomplished and an ambition
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that can be transformed into a reality if the resources of Muslims are invested in
purposeful Islamic media, and if the efforts of Islamic organizations and
personalities in the area of Islamic media continue to effectively utilize the
media technology. Then the Muslim Ummah will Insha Allah be able to
introduce its culture and defend its civilization as well as deal with its affairs and
issues at the required level in the shadow of global competition that has no
place for those who are neither creative nor strong.
If Muslims are able to benefit effectively from contemporary media and
communication means, Islamic organizations will become capable of making
their voice loud in the world and also capable of expressing their views and
stands on the issues of mankind at the international media forums. Since
dialogue among different parties, especially among the followers of religions
and civilizations, is based on contacting each other through various means and
ways, and following up what other presents via media technology, it is expected
that Islamic media would reach an advanced level and one of its positive results
would be reflected on supporting the activities of correct and objective dialogue
which the Muslim Ummah has substantially contributed through its leaders and
organizations as well as its influential and sincere personalities.
The MWL hopes that the conference will bring about practical results and
guide to policies and mechanisms that would uplift Muslims' media to a good
professional and technological level in dealing with information whether
receiving, processing or publishing so that this media reaches to the world
space. The Islamic media will earn great value if it preserves its cultural
characteristics by producing a distinct media discourse that reflects the
ideological position of Muslim Ummah as well as its message and outlook.
It is my pleasure to commend the cooperation extended by the government of
Indonesia to the Muslim World League in hosting this conference. I extend my
profound gratitude to His Excellency the President of the Republic for his kind
patronage of the conference. Thanks are also due for H. E. Minister for
Religious Affairs of Indonesia and his ministry for cooperation in preparation
and arrangement of the conference as well as their participation in its
proceedings.
Thank you.
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Speech Of
H.E. Suryadharma Ali
Minister of Religious Affairs,
Republic of Indonesia
H.E. Vice President, Republic of Indonesia;
H.E. Chairman of People Representative Assembly;
H.E. Chairman of the House of Representatives;;
H.E. All Ministers in the Indonesian Cabinet,
H.E. Secretary General of the Muslim World League, Abdullah bin Abdul
Mohsin AlTurki;
H.E. All the Ambassadors / Heads of State Representatives;
The honorable leaders of Islamic organizations in Indonesia;
And all the conference participants.
Assalamu‟alaikum warahmatullahi wabarakatuh.
Let us first praise and thank to the blessing of Almighty Allah for His grace
and guidance to all of us. Prayers and peace be to the last of all Prophets and
Messengers, Prophet Muhammad and his family as well as his faithful
companions and followers until the day of judgment
Today we together attend the opening ceremony of the Second
International Conference on Islamic Media in Jakarta, therefore let me extend
my warmest welcome to all guests, speakers and participants from all over the
world. The presence and contributions from all of you are paramount to
produce expected outcomes from the conference as well as to the progress of
our nations and to the future of humanity and civilization.
The conference is jointly organized by the Ministry of Religious Affairs of
the Republic of Indonesia and the Muslim World League (MWL). This
cooperation has special value for Indonesia, particularly, if we could remember
the reputation and dedication of Indonesian national heroes such as the late Dr.
Mohammad Natsir, who was also a member of the MWL Constituent Council.
His role undoubtedly cannot be separated from the history and organization of
the Muslim World League since last few decades.
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We are excited and grateful that Indonesia has again the opportunity to host
the Second International Conference on Islamic Media, after the first
conference was also held here in Jakarta in 1980. On this occasion too, we
would like to inform to the Vice President and all audiences that this
conference is attended by approximately 400 participants from 33 different
countries from all over the world.
The conference is expected to be an international forum of cooperation in
the field of Islamic media in the era of globalization and information. Muslims
around the world are now a quarter of the world's population, hence it is
necessary to establish a more robust Islamic brotherhood, which is manifested
not only in ideals and thoughts, but also in actions and real works in the
contemporary realities.
Almost all Muslim countries nowadays face challenges in various areas of
life for instance, good education, economy, social, political, and security issues,
all of which may presumably affect the qualitative role of Muslim Ummah.
Therefore it is necessary that our Ummah has an aspiration for quality of life
that is proportionate to its large population. And now, it is the responsibility of
Muslims to realize all abilities and potencies that we have. In this conference, we
expect to foster the dissemination of Islamic teachings that stake the principles
of peace and justice.
As it is often expressed in various forums by scholars, national and
international figures that Indonesia is the largest democratic Muslim country in
the world, the cultural roots of democracy was in fact influenced by Islamic
values that emphasize deliberations. There is no doubt that Islam plays a role in
promoting democracy in Indonesia, and will be a determinant factor for the
future of democracy in Indonesia.
It should also be underlined that the mainstream of Indonesian Muslims
regard the values of Islam compatible with democracy so that it can go hand in
hand and reinforce each other. Moreover, Islam needs to take a role as the
driving force as well as the guidance of democracy, as Islam had been playing
roles in the struggle of independence in Indonesia and all the Muslim nations
around the world.
The future of Islam in Indonesia and in other countries is not only
characterized by the development at the level of religious symbols and physical
progress per se, but also the extent to which Islamic values such as justice,
peace, equality, cooperation, and mutual help become part of the national
character. Indonesian Muslims as part of the Muslim world will have constantly
to initiate and support the greater mutual collaboration including cooperation in
the use of communication and information technology that has now become a
trend-setter development of modern civilization.
Nowadays, the development of new media in the Muslim world had many
consequences in the cultural, social, economic and political life. Thus, social
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media networks have created a new social order in the form of networks and
new social relations that embody the freedom of expression and opinion. Social
media networks are increasingly expanding and accelerating access for Muslim
community to media information. The response of the Muslim countries will
also determine the development of global life today. While the development of
information and communication technologies has encouraged and facilitated
the emergence and development of new media with a wider impact.
In such maelstrom, Muslims are supposed to be more intense in use of
information and communication technology in the context of religious as well
as other aspects of life. In the regional and global context, the development of
information and communication technology can be used as a strategic tool for
synergy and modernity of Islam, Islam and democracy, Islam and
multiculturalism, as well as Islam and alleviation of poverty.
In a situation like that, we now see the importance of this international
conference on Islamic media with the theme ―The Impact of New Media and
Communication Technology on The Muslim World: Challenges and
Opportunities.‖ Through this conference we hope to find a new paradigm in
addressing the development of new information and communication media
that can provide benefits to the lives of Muslims as well as to the peaceful
civilization of Muslim Ummah.
Once again we would like to thank the national and international
participants of the conference, and special thanks to the Muslim World League
for its continuous cooperation in organizing this conference. That would be all
we can report so far, and we would like H.E Vice President to deliver the
speech and to officially open the conference, as well as to sign a
commemorative stamp cover of the Second International Conference on
Islamic
Media.
Thank you.
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Keynote Speech
H.E. Tifatul Sembiring
Minister of Communication & Information
Bismillahirrahmanirrahim
Assalamu allaikum warohmatullahi wabarokatuh.
His Excellency Secretary General of Muslim World League,
His Excellencies all the Ministers and Heads of delegations,
Distinguished delegates, ladies and gentlemen, and friends,
Alhamdulillah, I am pleased to be here at the Second International
Conference on Islamic Media in Jakarta this morning on ―Media in the Current
Era: Components and Influences‖. Three decades after a similar conference in
Jakarta, we are here again in absolutely different political circumstances. Not
only have many developments occurred in many Islamic countries, including in
Indonesia, but also across the world. This conference is being held not under
the shadow of the cold war era that dominated the eighties; and the conference
is also not dominated by conventional media.
Today's conference occurs in the globalization era in which the current
international problems tend to increase under various themes such as energy
supply, climate change, poverty, monetary crisis in European region, political
problems in few Islamic countries, political turmoil in Middle East and North
African region and other international multi-dimensional development.
Indonesia is actually a unique and even the largest archipelago country in the
world, with over 17,500 islands stretching for more than 5,000 kilometers from
west to east (and including three of the world‘s six largest islands—New
Guinea (the western half of which is the Indonesian province of Irian Jaya),
Borneo (where the southern two-thirds belonging to Indonesia is known as
Kalimantan), and Sumatra. Indonesia is one of the most seismically active
regions of the world, containing numerous active volcanoes and subject to
frequent earthquakes and associated tsunamis.
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These geographic features provide an overwhelming problem of connecting
each other and distributing products and services across the country. As a
result, these span the entire continuum of development. Airplane
manufacturers and computer programers work in cities like Bandung and
Jakarta, while traditional hunters, farmers, and fishermen in some of the more
remote parts of the islands continue a lifestyle that has remained basically
unchanged for millennia — in places almost completely untouched by the
outside world. Thus, one can find ultramodern factories producing a range of
products: from shoes to such sophisticated items as computers, helicopters and
telecommunication products.
At the same time, one can also find traditional industries using blindfolded
water buffalo walking around in circles squeezing out juice from sugarcane
which is then boiled to make brown sugar; using fast-flowing stream water to
turn water wheels to husk rice and grind cinnamon; and using human labor to
run traditional back-strap and fixed looms to produce exquisite fabrics. Batik
and tie-dye techniques are also used in different ways to create beautiful cloth.
Indonesia thus combines the exotic and the contemporary, as well as the
traditional and the modern.
Indonesia has a number of interesting unequal distribution patterns too.
One of the most obvious is its very uneven population distribution whereby 62
percent of the population lives on just 7 percent of the country‘s territory —
the islands of Java, Madura, and Bali. Not only is population density far greater
there than anywhere else in Indonesia, but these islands are also the most
developed in terms of industry and infrastructure. They contain the most fertile
areas and are also the most highly urbanized. These inequalities led in times
past to the characterization of Java as the core of Indonesia in contrast to the
periphery of the outer islands. Such a designation has been modified in some
respects by a newer paradigm of development which emphasizes the
differences between more developed western Indonesia and the less developed
eastern part of the country.
Based on such complicated condition, the Ministry of Communication and
Information Technology is the only government institution which has a direct
obligation and goals to accelerate and to evenly distribute the development of
telecommunication infrastructures across the country. The ministry has been
actually doing the best efforts to achieve the goals since 2005 when the ministry
was politically established based on the Presidential Decree of No. 9 on the
Year of 2005 concerning the Existence, Job, Function and Organizational
Structure of the State Ministry.
In fact, the dominating real actions remain on formulating regulations and
policy, settling the various disputes, and redesigning the grand framework of
the ICT development in Indonesia. For instance, in 2005 the first minister
proposed the previous program of Palapa Ring to the domestic and foreign
investors on various forums. The successor one showed the better, more
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realistic performance on Palapa Ring and the minister succeeded in inviting
interested telecommunication operators to join the Palapa Ring‘s consortium
although few of them withdrew from the group.
Palapa Ring is only one of the products provided by the ministry and related
institutions. Among other things is USO.
In the first 100 days of my term, I announced that at least 25,000 villages
could be reached by telephone services and 100 districts could be connected by
internet services. The targets were finally achieved. The packages also offer
specialized tariff schemes for low-income people with fixed network
connections, internet access and public call boxes. Moreover, USO will affect
the cultural, economical, social and political conditions of the people living in
the areas. The Indonesian government is targeting to connect 32,000 remote
villages by the end of 2011, including for providing the internet services for
around 5,000 districts.
I am quite aware that USO is a potentially revolutionary means of
empowering the poor. Realizing this potential will require investments that
increase access to ICTs in remote low productivity areas and the development
of innovative applications that cater to the needs of the poor and small firms.
Besides, there is so called ―desa informasi‖ (14 informatic villages), namely
the development program in remote areas of Indonesia in particular in border
with neighboring countries. This program is taken based on the circumstances
that there is still a gap in information and telecommunication access between
urban people and those who live in the borders. The objective of the program
is the effort to improve and optimizing information and telecommunication
access to citizens who live in the outer regions and border area. Compared to
USO, this program of desa informasi consists of providing telephone services,
internet services, broadcasting services including television and radio
community services. The target is to establish 500 desa informasi until the end
of 2014.
The other policy I have to let you know is related to the broadband wireless
access. After being disputed by domestic and even foreign investors since the
middle of 2009, then on Sept. 14, 2011, I issued the Ministerial Decree
concerning the Usage of Radio Frequency Band of 2.3 GHz for Broadband
Wireless Services on the Basis of Neutral Technology. The regulation is very
important, because it would accelerate the possible low-price internet
penetration across the country. Such regulation enables the operator utilizing
the chosen technology while the domestic technology remains strongly be
recommended to be applied. Indonesia is the fourth most populous country in
the world with 245 million people and a mobile penetration rate of 39%.
Indonesia has potential internet networks—deployed by Indosat, XL Axiata,
Telkomsel, and HCPT and competition among operators to offer broadband
services is intense.
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Those I mentioned are mostly related to the information technology. For
the press itself, I am very pleased to present that Indonesia has become a
country in which press is totally free since 1999. The government has no
authority to limit, cancel, and even remind the press, even though the contents
might be against the government policy or public interest. The only institution
having such authority is the Press Council for the general press, and the
Indonesian Broadcasting Commission for the broadcasting media. It is fact that
there are overwhelming dispute of such free press, however we have no
intention to go back to the past era. What we have to do is to encourage the
press community to have more sense of belonging to contribute for national
character building.
I also want to share with all of my beloved Muslim brothers and sisters, that
Indonesia has the Information Access Act of Number 14 of 2008. This Act
enables the people to have access to know all of the information collected by
the public body provided that these do not include the specific information
which are prohibited to be obtained. At the beginning of the Act validity, there
are slightly doubtful perceptions among the government officers, because they
worry to be disturbed by the public. In fact, they finally could be persuaded that
the purpose of the Act is to encourage the government body in particular to be
more transparent to the public.
The year of 2011 has almost come to end, in which during this year there
have been few Muslim countries which have become political news due to
political change. All of the international media from the west such as CNN,
BBC, NBC, AFP, Reuters and from the Arab countries such as Al-Jazeera, put
on news from the political developments in that region. The coverage of such
news has been triggered by the accelerating social media such as facebook,
twitter, youtube and others. Such circumstances enabled the people all over the
world to know the current dynamic developments occurring in the newsmaking countries, and to provide critics even on the contrary sympathy to
those being victims of the political change.
The question I would like to raise is that 'are we satisfied enough to be the
audience only to follow and have a look at the such political change through
the media?‘ Or another question is that if we are aware or not that any media
coverage used to have its special political agenda set by the media owner. And
the last question is how we should respond to the current media developments
without leaving our Muslim identity but keeping up our critical attitude. Based
on such anxious cares I am very pleased to invite you to share in this
conference to be aware that we actually -Alhamdulillah -have everything from
natural resources, potential market, capital and human resources, and for
instance most of the APEC members are the Muslim countries.
As far as we can utilize our media properly and optimally, we can promote
our capacity, mutual cooperation and understanding to enhance our people as
well as even share and help the others. This enabled Indonesia and a number of
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other Muslim countries to rebound from the recent global crises. Hundreds of
millions have also been lifted out of poverty, and the size of the middle class is
growing remarkably, changing the face of the region.
Today, the Muslim world which connects Africa, Middle East, part of
Europe, Central Asia and the Far East Asia, and covers both the Pacific and
Indian oceans, is fast emerging to be the strategic and economic pivot of the
world. If we can identify the way forward, what we do to ensure peace and
progress in the region will also redefine the future of the world. While things
are looking up, we must keep in mind that the bright Muslim countries are not
preordained. We must earn it every step of the way. We must build it brick by
brick by utilizing the media among other things.
Let me suggest some thoughts and ideas on how to realize a better lot for
the Muslim countries. First, the Muslim world must be central to efforts to
achieve a strong, sustainable, balanced and inclusive growth for the world
economy. Here, there is no need to reinvent the wheel. We have had a
framework and action plan since three decades, but unfortunately it went
without concrete action. It is time not to repeat that after this conference and
there should be real action enabling the Muslim world to obtain the significant
role.
Second, to anticipate the world-wide development, we need to redefine the
Muslim countries architecture into an open, effective, inclusive and transparent
one. This is particularly important for all of us to keep up with the diplomatic,
political, economic and social changes that will move with great speed. We have
been fortunate to see the very positive Islamic fraternity in keeping our
solidarity in every political threat from inside and external factors. Perhaps
there will come a time when we will need to make some adjustments for a more
coherent and streamlined architecture. For the time being, however, we need to
ensure that they all blossom as pillars of the Muslim world order. We have to
be more intelligent to utilize the media to broadcast our message to the world
through more friendly content. We must now promote the Muslim countries‘
architecture in which geo-economics of cooperation is prevalent, in contrast
with the geo-politics of division of the past. This geo-economics should drive
nations to work together as mutual stakeholders on the basis of common
interests, driven by new opportunities. This new geo-economics must also
include the ability toturn potential conflict into potential cooperation.
Third, the Muslim countries will also need to evolve a dynamic equilibrium.
We are fortunate that for the first time in a long time, relations among the
major powers are marked by peace, stability and cooperation. But new power
centers are growing rapidly, and power relationships are changing, and
becoming much more fluid. It is pertinent that these evolving power
relationships do not lead to new strategic tensions, destabilizing rivalries, or
worse conflicts. Instead, we must make sure that they lead to growing
confidence, more cooperation, and even closer integration. One way to ensure
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such healthy dynamic equilibrium is to transform relationships into
partnerships. Indeed, I am heartened to see the remarkable Islamic
development in other continent such as in Europe, America and part of Pacific
region in which the population of Muslim people get higher. The problem is
that not every country welcome them, for some extend the get unfriendly and
uncooperative attitude from the non-Muslim neighbors. Through media we can
persuade them that Islam is rahmatan lil „alamin (mercy for all the worlds). There
is no reason to prejudice us, because we want to work together without
disturbing each other.
Fourth, the Muslim countries must be built on the fast-changing social
landscape that some say are even more powerful than the 20th century
revolution. We are living in the age of connectivity, the age of information and
openness. Traditional hierarchies are being matched by new networks of
individuals and organizations in a borderless world. Every individual with the
right digital tools can become his own voice in the market place of ideas. In
Indonesia alone, our people have become the largest users of facebook and
twitter in Asia. All this is fundamentally changing politics, markets and
society. We are now living in a time when connections between individuals,
peoples and organizations are much more intense than the official connections
between governments. We are yet to comprehend its long-term implications.
But surely, the Muslim countries will need to accommodate and embrace
this revolutionary change in our social landscape. As this is a short, medium
and long-term trend, Muslim nations must factor it into our politics and
economics. We must become more people-centered and recognize that greater
and faster information flows will mean transparency is no longer a choice, but a
must.
In the final analysis, to progress together, we need to adopt a win-win
mindset, and oppose the zero-sum, win-lose approach that was predominant in
the last century. In the 20th century, we witnessed proliferation of sovereignty
throughout our region. In the 21st century, we will see proliferation of
modernity across the world. Thus, we are now at a point when Muslim nations
have the great opportunity to achieve the rare condition of ‗synergized
progress‘ – all moving forward together in synergy.
Finally, If we all do that, I am confident that we will see the dawn of the
Muslim countries and have the rare opportunity to actually live it.
I thank you.
Wassalamu allaikum warohmatullahi wabarokatuh
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Keynote Speech
H.E. Haji Mohammad bin Haji Abdul Rahman
Minister of Religious Affairs
Brunei Darussalam
Assalamu allaikum warohmatullahi wabarokatuh.
My sincerest thanks to His Excellency Suryadharma Ali, Minister of Religious
Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia for the kind invitation for me to attend the
Second International Conference on Islamic Media on 'The Impact of New
Media and Communication Technology in the Muslim World: Challenge and
Opportunity', in Jakarta, Republic of Indonesia from 12-16 Dec. 2011.
I also wish to take this opportunity to congratulate the Ministry of Religious
Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia for successfully organizing this
international conference in collaboration with the Muslim World League
(MWL). It is high time that the Muslim world creates and plans appropriate
strategies through gatherings such as this international conference, in facing the
challenges of globalization and an emerging borderless world by means of
information sharing through the media and ICT (information and
communication technology). And all this without a doubt is having a huge
impact on the Muslim world.
Speaking on globalization, especially about the influence of media and ICT
on the Muslim world, I wish to quote Surah Al-Kahf, Verse 13: "We relate to thee,
their story in truth: they were youths who believed in their Lord, and We advanced them in
guidance." The verse refers to the As'habul Kahf youths who were then faced
with challenges – both to their faith as well as to their well-being. And it was
only their faith that saves them from becoming the victims of disbelievers.
I wish to point out one enormous issue brought about this era of
globalization in which our youths are becoming the primary focus for antiIslam movements. Rather, Muslim youths are subjected to be at the receiving
end of corrupted information aimed to steer them away from the rightful path.
Its sole intention is to weaken youths, leading ultimately to the destruction of
society and nation.
16
Therefore, ladies and gentleman, it is vital for all of us, to strive for Muslim
youths, armed with strong faith as this will empower them toward building
Khair Ummah. Globalization today is unavoidable. It enables us to get
information within seconds. In many ways, it affects our way of life –
religiously and nationally. Globalization affects the movement, ethics, soul and
mind of all walks of life especially our young generation. Globalization
emphasizes on freedom of life and brings with it both negative and positive
influences. Globalization disregards values of Islamic creeds, law and morals.
So often, the exploitation leads to generation of young Muslims losing their
status as a man with sound minds and politeness.
I believe this can only be prevented with a strong faith and morality just like
when the negative impacts of globalization can be prevented, self-esteem can
be strengthened and preserved. Clearly self-esteem can be maintained by
strengthening faith. This is achieved with the emphasis on proper and effective
Islamic education system. Thus I urge upon all Islamic nations to pay serious
attention to Islamic education system. This will result in strong faith of every
Muslim youth, with each practice directed to the charity and good deeds. With
the strong faith of a Muslim youth which are not stirred by any challenges, will
make a community safe, a country secure, and making the world safe for all.
The Almighty Allah guarantees in the Holy Qur'an that the enduring of a
nation is based on the consistency of its population to remain in the right faith.
He says in Surah Al-A‘raf, verse 96: "If the people of the towns had believed and feared
Allah, We should indeed have opened out to them (All kinds of) blessings from heaven and
earth." And I quote another from Surah Al-Anbiya, verse 105: "And indeed We
have written in Zabur after we have already written in Al-Lauh Al-Mahfuz, that My
righteous servants shall inherit the land."
Here Allah the Almighty has shown that a country's future depends on the
good people with superior characteristics in accordance to the Islamic
teachings. This was evident in history, such as what befell the people of Lut, Ad
and Thamud as mentioned in the Holy Qur'an in Surah Al-Ankabut, verse 49: "
Rather, the Qur'an is distinct verses [preserved] within the breasts of those who have been
given knowledge. And none reject Our verses except the wrongdoers."
The above verses give the impression that any nation would be destroyed
when it neglects sin and rewards that result in widespread disobedience.
Therefore in facing the challenges of globalization, Muslim youth need to be
educated properly. Only by implementing the balanced secular and religious
education system, the nation will achieve the well-being, prosperity and true
happiness.
This suggestion is in line with the First International Islamic Mass Media
Conference held in Jakarta 1-3 Sept., 1980 that among other things stated:
―….In keeping with our belief in Allah and His Apostle, and in implementation
of Islamic Shari'ah, and in complete awareness of the imminent dangers
17
besetting the Muslim Ummah and impeding its religious reawakening and in
appreciation of the important role of the various forms of mass media and its
worthy aims, integrity of the profession and its tradition and conscious of the
goals and aspirations of the Ummah…‖ In Article 1 of the Declaration stated:
 Consolidation of faith of the Muslim individual in Islamic values and ethical
principles
 Work towards achieving integration of the Muslim individual's Islamic
personality
Also highly relevant in our conference today is the theme: ―The Impact of New
Media and Communication Technology in the Muslim World: Challenge and Opportunity”.
I call for the contents of the New Media and Communication Technology to be
utilized wisely in the fields of Usuluddin, Shari'ah, and Islamic manners, with
methodologies and interesting features, to attract Islamic youth in line with the
implementation of high quality Islamic education system in each Islamic nation.
At the same time, it is also vital for all of us to employ new media and ICT
experts with Islamic education background to act as gatekeepers to any
information with negative impacts towards their peers.
We may need the kind assistance from developed Islamic nations whom we
hope will spread the knowledge to the least developed nations. This is, where I
think, the Muslim World League can play a proactive role.
Once again, I would like to thank the Government of the Republic of
Indonesia for hosting this conference. I have the full confident that under your
wise and able guidance, this event will achieve the desired result that we are
looking for.
I thank you.
Wassalamu allaikum warohmatullahi wabarokatuh
18
Keynote Speech
H.E. Agung Laksono
Coordinating Minister of People‘s Welfare
H.E. Suryadharma Ali, Minister for Religious Affairs of the Republic of
Indonesia;
H.E. Dr. Abdullah bin Abdul Mohsin al- Turki, Secretary General of the
Muslim World League;
Excellencies, all keynote speakers, presenters and panelists;
Excellencies, government officials; distinguished guests; ladies and gentlemen
Assalamu alaikum warahmatullahi wabarakatuh,
All praise be to Allah, the Lord of the worlds and peace be upon our
Prophet Muhammad, the Seal of prophets and messengers, and his family and
companions.
By the mercy of Allah and His blessings, we could participate in the Second
International Conference on Islamic Media. We beseech Allah to give us
strength, health, and ease to continue with our devotion and dedication to our
beloved country and nation.On behalf of the Indonesian government and its
people, I would like to express our sincere gratitude to the Minister for
Religious Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia, the Secretary-General of the
Muslim World League, keynote speakers, distinguished participants and
panelists for successfully organizing the Second International Islamic Media
Conference on "New Media and Communication Technology in the Muslim
World: Opportunity and Challenge".
The conference was held in response to contemporary developments in the
world and the main objective is to see the role of media at different levels.
Through such conferences we are able to exchange views, ideas and best
practices among Muslim countries. It is our responsibility to convince the
world and change the negative stereotyping about Muslims. We have to work
hard to defend Islam in the face of unjust campaigns, and correcting
the distorted picture portrayed by enemies about the religion of God.
19
In this era of globalization, we need to keep our faith intact so that our
values remain relevant. Islam promotes moderation, objectivity, peace,
impartiality and devoid itself from the trap of emotions and sensationalism. It is
consistent with the mission of the moderate nation, as Allah says: "Thus have We
made of you an Ummah justly balanced that ye might be witnesses over the people and the
Messenger over yourselves…" (Qur'an, 2:143)
As I mentioned above, Islamic media bears immense responsibilities; the
most prominent of which is to support and defend the causes of the Muslim
Ummah, and unite the Muslim voice and stance. We have to work hand in
hand and maximize Islam‘s greatest assets in human and cultural values to
create a distinct Islamic environment, and achieve real integration and unity
among the people of the Muslim Ummah. Allah says: "And hold fast up together,
by the rope which Allah (stretches out of you), and be not divided among yourselves…"
(Qur'an, 3:103)
The world is occupied by those who control media. Any events, values and
perceptions transfer massively across the world in the speed of light. We realize
that most of Muslim countries are little behind in the age of media. In the name
of openness, our new generations are at the risk. It is our responsibility to
ensure that the values of Islam remain and be implemented in our daily life. If
we are truly able to implement the values that Allah has taught us through our
beloved Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), we will be able to overcome
any problem related to democracy, literacy, income disparity, poverty and social
justice. Let us make ourselves role models in our families, societies, and give the
best examples.
It is not a choice whether we are ready or not, especially for every man, later
on Allah will ask ―what we have done to our wife and children?‖ In the context
of the information technology development, it is necessary for every family to
make consensus how to deal with such massive information. Parents no longer
have enough capacity to ―monitor‖ their children‘s activities. If we fail to ―plant
the seeds of Islamic values positively to the young‖ what happens with the
nation as it is composed of families. Within such massive and diverse media
contents, our challenge becomes even more difficult to maintain moral and
ethical values.
We should not give up the challenges that we are facing. There are great
opportunities as well for being able to manage the advanced information
technology. It is essential for Muslims to participate effectively in areas of
information and knowledge to avoid dependency on others. There is no reason
why we cannot share the best approach in handling any kind of humanities.
The necessary condition for success is ―managing the speed‖. Information
value is relied on the speed in which it transfers and what type of media we use.
Yes, we should not ignore the general rule for information media that ―bad
news is a good news‖.
20
Finally, regarding globalization, we should reaffirm our commitment to
enhance and strengthen collaboration among Muslim countries. We must
preserve and respect our diversity as main tools to strengthen mutual
understanding. I urge upon the media in Muslim world to bring about
understanding and solidarity. Using the advance information technology, we
should enrich the dialogue among religious leaders and build the bridges for
new Muslim civil society. Information media should be used to disseminate
peace, build mutual understanding, respect, democracy and harmony. Again,
having advanced information technology, we have to change the negative
stereotype of Muslim and convince the people.
This conference is irrefutably an important event, not only for Indonesia
and other Muslim countries, but for the world as a whole, since it gives us an
oppportunity to share and exchange experiences and ideas on issues that are of
strategic importance to the world.
To the Secretary-General of the Muslim World League and the Indonesian
Minister of Religious Affairs, all the keynote speakers, panelists, participants,
please accepts my highest gratitude for making the conference big success. I do
hope that all foreign speakers and panelists, have enough time to explore the
beauty of diverse Indonesia. After spending three days of conference, you
deserve to have nice and safe trip back home.
Assalamualaikum warahmatullahi wabarakatuh,
21
22
THE AGENDA
Opening Session
Monday: 17 – 1 – 1433 / 12 – 12 – 2011
Time: 7.30 – 8.30 pm
 Recitation of the Holy Qur'an
 Speech of His Excellency the Minister for Religious Affairs of the Republic
of Indonesia Suryadharma Ali
 Speech of His Excellency the Secretary General of the Muslim World
League Abdullah bin Abdul Mohsin Al-Turki
 Speech of His Excellency the Vice President of the Republic of Indonesia
Boediono
 Signing Postage Cover by the Vice President of the Republic of Indonesia
 Dua (Supplication)
Photo session: Only for ministers, vice ministers and heads of delegation
Dinner 20.45 at Lagoon Restaurant
Session I
Tuesday: 18 – 1 – 1433 H / 13 – 12 – 2011
Time: 9.30 – 12.00am
Media in the Current Era: Components and Impacts
Moderator: Muhammad Zuhdi
Keynote speech: Minister of Communication and Information of the Republic of
Indonesia H.E. Tifatul Sembiring
i. The New Media and Islam: Communication Characteristics and Dynamics (Alwi
Dahlan, Professor in Communication; University of Indonesia, Indonesia)
ii. Impact of Modern Media on Family and Society in the Light of Current Phenomena of
Violence and Moral Decadence: A Study of SMS Usage Among Teenagers
(Azmuddin Ibrahim, Dean of Communication and Media; University of
Selangor, Malaysia)
iii. New Media and Issues of Society: Challenges and Opportunities (Saud Saleh Katib,
Professor of Media; King Abdul Aziz University, Jeddah, KSA)
23
iv. The Role of Islamic Media in Globalization Era: Between Religious Principles and
Values of Globalization (Andi Faisal Bakti, Professor at Faculty of Da‘wah and
Communication; Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University, Jakarta /
Dean Faculty of Communication Studies, University of Pancasila, Jakarta,
Indonesia)
Session II
Tuesday: 18 – 1 – 1433 H / 13 – 12 – 2011
Time: 2.00 – 4.30 pm
Islamic Media Discourse
Moderator: Osman Abu Zeid
Keynote speech: Minister of Religious Affairs Negara Brunei Darussalam
i. Islamic Discourse and Problems Relating to Self and Others (Farhad Omar, Director
of Islamic Television Channel; Johannesberg, South Africa)
ii. Renewal of Islamic Media Discourse: Form, Style and Content (Azhar Arsyad,
Professor; Alaudin State Islamic University, Makassar, South Sulawesi,
Indonesia)
iii. Muslim Media in the Global Media System (Syed Arabi Idid, Former Rector of
International Islamic University Malaysia)
iv. Religious Boundaries to Freedom of Speech in the Age of New Media: A Dutch
Perspective (Sofjan Sauri Siregar, Rector; European Islamic University,
Rotterdam, Holland)
Dinner: 19.00 – 22.00 pm
Session III
Wednesday: 19 – 1 – 1433 H / 14 – 12 – 2011
Time: 9.30 am – 12.00 pm
Collaboration and Networking of Islamic Media in the Muslim World
Moderator: Saiful Umam
Keynote speech: Ali Shummo, Former Minister of Media, Sudan
i. Media Strategy in the Islamic Universities: Emir Abdel Kader University of Islamic
Sciences, Algeria as a Model (Nassir Bou Ali, Professor of Communication;
University of Sharjah, UAE)
ii. New Media in the Muslim World: Complexity of Culture, Technology and Utilization
(Hamdy Hassan Aboelenen, Vice President; International University, Egypt)
iii. Benefiting from Means of Technology in the Service of Islamic Media (Malik Ibrahim
Al Ahmad, Professor of Media; King Saud University, Riyadh, KSA)
iv. Developing Communication for Da‟wah Strategy: Actuating Prophetic Journalism in
Digital Era, Combining Words and Actions (Parni Hadi, Editor in Chief,
Republika Radio & Newspaper)
24
Session IV
Wednesday: 19 – 1 – 1433 H / 14 – 12 – 2011
Time: 2.00 – 4.30 pm
Practical Solutions for Promotion of Islamic Media
Moderator: Syed Qasim Rasool Ilyas
Keynote speech: Azyumardi Azra, Director of Post Graduate School, Syarif
Hidayatullah State Islamic University, Jakarta
i. Reality of Islamic Media and Electronic Web (Mohamed Gamal Arafa; Member of
the Union of Journalists, Egypt /Founder of Islam Online, Political Analyst)
ii. Media in Muslim Societies: Changing Situation between First Conference and This
Conference (Abdul Rahman Al Shobaily; Former Member of Shura Council,
Saudi Arabia / Media Specialist)
iii. Review of Pioneering Media Experiences among Muslim Minorities: Practical Solutions
for Promotion of Islamic Media (Mohamed Ali Harrath; CEO of Islam Channel,
London, UK)
iv. Successful Islamic TV Channels and Websites: A Case Study ―Iqraa TV‖
(Muhammed Sallam, Director General of Iqraa Channels, Saudi Arabia)
Session V
Thursday: 20 – 1 – 1433 H / 15 – 12 – 2011
Time: 9.30 am – 12.00 pm
Media and Dialogue with Others
Moderator: Ali Munhanif
Keynote speech: Sayed Arabi Idid, Former Rector of Islamic University Malaysia
i. Western Media and Its Stance on Issues of Muslims and Third World (Zafarul Islam
Khan, Editor of Milli Gazette, New Delhi, India)
ii. Global Media Institutions and Media in Muslim Countries: Between Cooperation and
Alienation (Muhammad Danladi Musa, Professor of Communication,
University of Canterbury, New Zealand)
iii. The Role of Media in Building A Culture of Dialogue: An Islamic Perspective
(Komaruddin Hidayat, Rector of Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic
University, Jakarta, Indonesia)
iv. Presentation of Code of Honour for Media Institutions and Practitioners
Closing Ceremony: 2.00 – 3.00 pm




Recitation from the Holy Qur'an
Final Statement and Recommendations
Speech of the Secretary General of Muslim World League
Closing Statement by the Minister of Religious Affairs of the Republic of
Indonesia
 Du‘a (Supplication)
25
26
The New Media and Islam:
Communication Characteristics and Dynamics
1
M. Alwi Dahlan
Professor, Faculty of Communication, University of Indonesia
The Arab Spring phenomenon, the chain of resistance movements which
began with the succesful Tunisian uprising in December 2010 and profilerated
to similar type of revolts in Egypt, Libya and other Arab nations, have raised
the awareness on the political impact of the new, social, communications media
– not only in Muslim countries but also in other parts of the world. Especially
in the Western civil society movements, many have become so convinced with
the strength of the new media as to believe that to liberate any society from a
non-democratic government, it is sufficient to ―just give them the Internet‖ 2
and they will be able to oppose a state power structure or overthrow a powerful
regime. This notion is popularized by international mass communication media
which easily call every resistance, actions or uprisings as a ―revolution‖ of the
dominant new media format being used at that time – regardless of the scope
and intensity of the political event. Thus, there was the time for the ―Blogging
revolution‖, the ―Twitter revolution‖, and the ―Facebook revolution‖.3
1
Paper prepared for the Second International Conference on Islamic Media, New
Media and Information Technology – Challenges and Opportunities¸ organised by the the Muslim
World League and the Ministry of Religious Affairs, Republic of Indonesia. Jakarta 1213 December 2011/17-18 Muharram 1433 H.
2 This expression was from Wael Ghonim, Google‘s Middle East marketing director,
who set up the Facebook Group ―Kullina Khalid Said‖ (http://www.facebook.
com/ElShaheeed) in June 2010. This group is widely recognised as one ―of the most
important public platforms mobilizing for the January 25 demonstrations that marked
the beginning of the end of the Mubarak regime‖ (Hofheinz, 2011)
3 The global media started to popularise the term ―Blogging revolution‖ to describe the
events against state crackdown on the liberal press in Iran (2005) and Egypt (2006). In
2009 came the ―Twitter revolution‖, the civil unrest against alleged fraudulent actions in
the election in Moldova; and in Iran, following presidential election protest, also known
as ―Green revolution‖ (2009-2010). This was followed by the ―Facebook revolution‖ in
Tunisia (2010-2011) which ended with the fall of Ben Ali regime), and in Egypt which
27
Actually, the latest communication technology device had always been
claimed to be playing a critical role in many revolutionary actions even before
the new social media era or the Arab Spring. In the 1986 Philippine People‘s
Power revolution, for example, the credits went to mobile handy-talkies; in the
1992 Thai ―middle-class revolution‖, it was the portable telephones, for its
mobile ability in coordinating surprise actions without being detected by
security forces. But the ultimate proof of a new technology potential before the
era of the new media was the 2001 ―SMS Revolution‖ in the Philippines: within
a few hours after the first message was sent, 700,000 demonstrators were
mobilized to gather at EDSA from the various corners of metropolitan area of
Manila, and successfully demanded the resignation of president Joseph
Estrada.4
The role of new communication technology invention and its related media
to induce dramatic political change or to overthrow the authority in power, had
been recognized even much longer in the history of states and religions. One of
the well known evidence was the impact of Johannes Gutenberg‘s invention of
the movable type printing technology in 1440, which replaced the manual hand
writing method of book production.5 Gutenberg movable metal type facilitated
faster composition of metal typefaces, and thereby, the mass printing of the
Bible. His method made it possible to meet Martin Luther‘s wishes that all
people should be able to own their personal copy of the Bible so that they
could read the words of God for themselves according to their own conscience,
and not according to the dictate or interpretation of the priesthood. This
challenged the monopoly then held by the authorities on the state of
knowledge, and was credited as the first mass media technology that played a
ended the regime of Hosni Mubarrak. See Hofheinz, 2011; Allagui & Kuebler 2011;
Morozov, 2009
4
Mercado (1986); Suwannati (1992); Adelman (2004), Downing (2006). The cellular
phone texting technology is especially suited for the 2001 Revolution, due to its
capability to automatically forward, multiply, and send the same message at once to
several addresses – each of which could also automatically forward the message to
multiple addresses, thus reaching a vast number of receivers in almost no time. The
strategic point of the meeting was at Epifano de los Santos Avenue (EDSA), a highway
that connects five cities of Metro Manila, where earlier demonstrations confronted
government troops, e.g. in the historical 1986 People‘s Power Revolution. The popular
text messag e sent that day was ―Go 2 EDSA. Wear Black.‖ The Philippines are known
as ―a country with text appeal‖, where a text costs only about three seconds of voice
calls; in most markets a text cost roughly as much as about 30 to 90 seconds of voice
(Downing, 2006)
5 The older way was manually copying the whole text by hand drawing page by page.
This was followed by the use of similarly slow text-producing technique, the hand
carving of each page by hand on wooden blocks, to be used as the master form for
making printed impression (or press) on paper.
28
strategic role in the European Renaissance movement against the church and
state in the 15th century.6
Understanding The New Media
It took almost four centuries after Gutenberg invention for the print media
to come into full bloom and daily newspapers grow to become accepted as the
mass communication media. Yet, the printed mass media which have not been
really accepted as the basic, daily necessity ingrained in the habit of people from
all walks of life, are already started declining today. The total number of media
and circulation are decreasing, and many leading news-papers publications are
either closing, switching to be one of the new media, or at least publish an
additional online edition. The total number of subscribers have been
diminishing continuously, although total number of all readers may stay
stagnant or perhaps increasing a little with those who read the papers online.7
Similar historical developments also happen with the other mass
communication media, although in an increasingly shorter time frame. Voice
broadcasting media took about 100 years to be accepted across the world as a
part of the daily comunication routine; now radio has become only a small part
among other information sources to attend – even then, only at special time
segments, inserted between other activities (e.g., on the morning drive to the
office, during traffic jams, etc.). The audiovisual broadcasting media (television)
was adapted even faster by the general population of the world; only within 25
years from the start of its introduction in any community, TV was able to be
get full acceptance in the daily household routine – it may even interrupt and
rearrange a family household time schedule. All of these mass media are now
being gradually replaced in some way or in some parts by the new media which
was introduced only toward the end of the last decade of the 20th Century (in
the 1990s) in most parts of the world.8 Yet, the influence and reach of the new
6
See: Hiebert, Ungurait, Bohn (1991, 566-567); Dominic (2009, 56-57); Rogers
(1999, 35)
7
The loyal readers are usually of the old generation, whose longlife habitual routine
include the reading of the same newspapers he had since they were of younger age; they
still read due to increasing life expectancy. Note, however, that those who attend to the
printed media through online edition can not be classified or treated as readers of the
printed edition. They are not subscribers or paying readers and do not contribute any
income to the paper. Also, since they are reading the digital version by way of new
media platforms, they may only do it in passing, partially, without full attention.
8 A possible exception in the time being is the case of the news broadcasting media,
which seem to show a trend to become the bridge of the new media. The case with
these international television media (like Aljazeera, CNN, BBC, etc.) seems to be
different. People attend to these media on unplanned schedule but for specific
information needs (e.g. on particular topic, analysts, breaking news) thus, not as a
general pattern in daily life. The content of these media are increasingly organised close
to the new media pattern: real time, linked to other new media in different parts of the
29
media has been growing at an even faster rate than what the old media could
achieved in a longer period of time.9
The above discussion shows that the speed of transition for each new
technology have been turning even faster than the previous one with the
passing of time, true to the dynamics of technological change. Each discovery
or invention would make the next process easier and faster. For a simplified
example, the theoretical part in the process of developing, testing, and finalising
the binary digit system took many years, but once the basic problems were
solved, the bit could be applied for various practical purposes which helped the
development of further digital devices in a much shorter time. This explains
why various new features of the new media could be introduced one after the
other in any country, once the basics of the new media (the internet
infrastructure) is established. The speed of growth may vary due to each
country condition, but real transition to a new media society would depend on
real understanding of the concept. Having the infrastructure alone is not
enough, there is a need for understanding the potentials; otherwise, all the BTS,
satellite, and smart phones will only be wasted for exchanging ringback tones,
funny pictures, or sexting. In the meantime the scope of new media
applications, platforms, and gadgets will keep increasing.
To understand the new media, however, is not as straightforward as it may
seem. New media is a new, very broad term, used differently by many,
encompassing a variety of meanings, concepts, technologies, and functions.
Essentially, most works on the subject have complain on the problems involved
in ―pinning down the concept of ‗new‘ media.‖10 Some views new media as the
various technologies in used while others concentrate only on a specific one,
e.g., the internet. Many even avoid defining the new media, although they claim
to focus on the subject.
In general, all new media have certain similar characteristics, which relate to
changes in the media production, distribution, and use.11 The characteristics
are: digital, interactive, hyper-textual, virtual, networked, and simulated.
Without going into technical elaboration, these characteristics made it possible
world (e.g., containing running text from tweets), may contain dynamic real-life citizen
journalism report in real-time voice, text, or pictures. In other words, this particular
media is no longer a traditional mass media, but already a mix of old-and-new media.
Hence, in a certain way, this type of media can be called also as the bridge to new
media.
9 Between 2000-2011, for example, Internet users in the Middle East grew 1,987.0%
from around 3.2 m to 68,5 million; in Africa it increased 2,527.4%; in Indonesia
1,980.0% from 2 million to 39.6 M. Indonesia is also the 3rd largest Facebook
country. Internet Usage Statistics, World Internet Usage
, www.internetworldstats.com
10 Pavlik, 1996; Axford & Huggins, 2001; Hansen, 2004
11 Lister et al., 2009, especially Chapter 1: New Media and New Technologies.
30
for a single new media to present various content forms (e.g., text, picture,
video, sound) together as one in the same media, by virtue of the digital
technology.12 It also transforms the new media audience into an independent,
autonomous user, who is free to choose or attend any specific content or topic,
in any form of presentation, from any new media site within the world-wideweb – or a combination of those, at his own time and convenience – due to the
new media interactive, hypertextual, and networked characteristics. With the
transformation to the new media, the claims on media power as argued in the
theories on gate-keeping, agenda-setting hypothesis, and framing effect, would
become outdated.13
Please note, that the comparison made here between the new media with
the old mass media, should be viewed carefully. It is done here because the
concept of media in the public mind is always related to mass media. Media
research and literature have been concentrated mostly on mass communications
media. Nevertheless, the new media is not in any way the continuation of the
mass media, or that it is mass media plus new technology, as some writers claim.
The study of mass communication originally started with newspaper effects,
developing further into public opinion on politics and social-economic matters.
It is only natural, therefore, that the use of any communications media for
political purposes are seen in the perspective of mass media.
The focus of this conference on the role of the new media in the Arab
Spring political upheavals, certainly should be examined in a wider
communications context than mass communications. The intended impact is
not limited to a mass media audience, or the users of particular new media, but
a much wider scope of public – beyond a specific media, even broader. This
means that in terms of communication levels, it can not be limited to mass
communication level, but include all levels, from interpersonal communication
to social communications and networking level. Mass media can only reach
reach their specific audience, except if communications are forwarded further
by its audience to their networks through their social media.
Works on the social media in Western countries have shown the extensive
networks of such new media, which still keeps growing fast. A comprehensive
book now much in use among business and network practitioners (Safko 2010)
list 15 social media categories which are still expanding at present time. They
are: social networking, publishing, photo sharing, audio, video, microblogging,
This is different than in the ―old‖ mass media: each content format is presented
separately in different mass communication medium according to its own analog
production process (e.g., print, voice, audiovisual, etc.). Thus, a news item on a
presidential speech, for instance, can only appear in the form of printed text and still
picture in the printed newspaper, only in the form of voice in the audio broadcast
media, or in audiovisual form in audiovisual media (television).
13 For a brief description of these theories, see for instance: McQuail, 2000, 454-455.
12
31
livecasting, virtual worlds, gaming, productivity applications, aggregators, RSS,
search engines, mobile, and interpersonal social media.
Social communications networks may be more potential in our countries,
especially where mass media have limited reach to the general population,
among others: due to low reading habit or low economic position (cannot
afford to pay subscription). Yet, in traditional societies, social networks are
much stronger. With the increase of internet users, particularly the rise of
cellphone users, the reach of social media would be most potential, as one
study on the links between traditional community network and cellphone
networks have shown (Irwansyah 2010).
At this point a question arises whether the social media also played a role in
the Arab Spring or any other upheavals around the world. Which of the various
new media are the most relevant and potential for future needs of Muslim
countries?
The New Media in Political Movement
The Middle Eastern experience inspire others on the potentials of the new
media for the civil society movement in the rest of the world, including the
Western countries, where the new social media was originated. The idea that
social media could mobilize the masses that was proven successful at Cairo‘s
Tahrir Square, for example, is adopted as the ―Arab Spring Model‖ by the
Occupy Wall Street (OWS) movement when they seize New York‘s Zuccoti
Park in New York‘s Wallstreet financial district. By the use of the Cairo model,
this informal, non-institutional, rather unorganised protest movement was able
to develop into a strong resistance movement of a broader scale through social
networking links in various cities. Starting with a single Twitter hashtag, it was
able to mobilize thousands of people in various cities within the US (e.g.,
Boston, Washington, Oakland) as well as outside (Rome, London) to join this
decentralized and leaderless movement pressing for a fundamental and
structural change to the current unjust economic system as symbolised by the
Wall Street.14 The movement slogan ―We are the 99%‖ reflects the increasing
inequality in the United States where ―1% of the total population control 40%
of the total wealth and received more than 20% of the income‖.15
So far, the model has not achieved a quick success when applied outside of
its original cultural environment, the Middle East. The OWS action at Zucotti
Park has been disbanded by the City of New York. Nevertheless, the
movement initiators are still convinced that it would expand virally to networks
of other groups with similar characteristics, and finally would become one real
worldwide movement. In Facebook, for example, Occupy Europe has more
than 369,000 who have signed a petition against corporate sponsors of the G20
14
15
Berkowitz, 2011
Stiglitz, 2011
32
November summit in Paris. There are also a variety of other ―Occupy‖ groups
in many other places, such as the Occupy the British and Celtic Islands
(together with England, Ireland, Scottland, Wales), national Occupy
movements in various countries, an Occupy the Media, Occupy Toronto
Market Exchange action, and a series of one-hour general strikes in various
cities.
Many are skeptical on the future of the Occupy movements. Yet, the Nobel
Laureate economist Joseph Stiglitz, considers the whole series of protest
actions that began with the 1999 anti-globalization protest in Seatle and started
anew with the Arab Spring movements in Tunisia in January 2011, then
spreading further into Egypt, Spain, and followed by OWS movement as ―one
global social protest movement‖, regardless of each movement stated agenda.
Modern technology enables all ―social movements to transcend borders as
rapidly as ideas can‖. Hence, whatever the name of the movement in whereever place it is located, all of the protests are essentially one, to fight rising
inequality around the world. For Stiglitz, the global ―system‖ will not set things
straight: legislation everywhere is being shaped by political influence and anticompetitive practices of the 1% rich rent seekers even in the electoral process
in a democracy. Global social protests through the new media is the future
trend to correct the rise in global inequality.16
There are also doubts that social media are genuinely effective in achieving
the movements success. Definitive research is lacking, but some studies showed
that the role of new media had been limited, and in many cases they failed to
achieve their goals. Earlier ―revolutions‖ (e.g., in Moldova) were cracked down
immediately by the regime since the government has been following the
revolution‘s new media platform continuously from the beginning.17 The
significance of the new media are also exaggerated far beyond the actual
development in some cases. The so-called 2009 Iranian Twitter revolution, for
another case, was later criticised as mostly an American made ―revolution‖,
involving tweets among people in New York cafes ―that give them the thrilled
feeling of partaking in a revolution‖, which later was overblown by their
media.18
The failure of the movement to make sure that its goals are implemented
consistently may also show the weaknesses of the new media as an effective
instrument. While it is true, for example, that new media was succesful in
For Stiglitz, the whole global protest movement is a reflection of the action of ―the
99%‖ of the world population
17 Morozov, 2009; Morozov 2011; Gilson, 2011.
18
Hofheinz, 2011. Other earlier revolutions include the ―blogging revolution‖ that
failed to topple a single regime‖; the Facebook revolution that the members themselves
were unaware of its occurence, hence called as the ―revolution without revolutionaries‖.
There was also the ―Facebook strike‖ that claimed to be able to empty Cairo streets on
April 6, 2008, while others said that people then stay inside to avoid sandstorm.
16
33
ralying Egypt population to unseat president Mubarak, the continuing success
of the revolution became doubtful when it lost touch with political
manueverings, and the second round of the Tahrir Square action has to be
urgently organise in response. Similarly, the real contribution of the new media
in other cases such as in Lybia easily became questionable when the real actions
in the field are detached from the new media and turned to be more militaristic
in nature, involving outside forces.19 Such intervention by foreign powers in an
insurgency may be a widely accepted practice although not much discussed in
the communication literature.20
A true understanding of the new media role in the movements is frequently
missing because reports are mostly one-sided, looking only from the
perspectives of the insurgency public, especially those of the activists. However,
the new media is actually a verbal weapon of action used by both sides to
achieve its own respective goal. Hence it does not have to conform to any
ethical standard and may use questionable practices, e.g., manipulation of facts
and data, deceptions, hacking, etc.) to achieve its own victory over the
adversary.21 This is only natural as in any conflicting or hostile situation
between a protest movement and the authority, in which the mind and loyalty
of the total population is being contested.
As with any other product of technology, the new media is basically neutral.
It is not developed specifically just for protest movements in order they can
overthrow governments in power, or vice versa. Both sides may, and do, use it
for each own specific needs at a given time. Any government, authoritarian or
democratic, would intuitively apply any available means to safeguard national
security, including the regime in power.22 It may start with information
19 Global news reports during the course of the Libyan revolution openly show the
intervention of various nations and their military forces. See, e.g.: the admission by US
Secretary of State Clinton during her visit to Tripoli, 18 October 2011. Although US
participation is imperceptible on the ground, its involvement turns out to be decisive in
organising NATO actions, and the use of its Predator drones or UAV (unmanned aerial
vehicles) that are controled directly from US mainland, among others in the attack
against Ghadafi convoys.
20 One example of such intervention occured during Moldova‘s Twitter Revolution,
when the US Depatment of State requested Twitter to delay scheduled maintenance to
avoid disturbing the service of protesters. See: Sean Kennedy, http://smallwarsjournalcom
/node/11414
21 The use of such questionable or unethical tactics is not only possible but is
commonly facilitated by the technology in use. Various computer programs and devices
have been developed for the purpose of cyber attacks on websites or their contents,
including hacking, defacing, fake websites to distribute rumors, piracy, distributed
denial of service attacks (DDOS), etc. See, e.g., nationalsecuritylawbrief.com/2011/03/
14/cyber-attacks.in.the.media
22 The means may include covert actions or intelligence operations, e.g. cyber warfare,
clandestine operations, information deception, etc. Non-democratic countries are said
to have such agencies operate domestically as well as in foreign countries. Supposedly,
34
gathering by monitoring the dissidents media, followed by stronger actions. At
the beginning of the Arab Spring, the Tunisian Internet Agency assigned 2,000
online police officers to enforce censorship by massively blocking media
websites, in addition to curbing the distribution of videos and photos.23 With
the change of regime following the victory of the revolution, censorship was
lifted.
Obviously, a clear explanation or analysis for the failure or success of the
new media in relations to such political movement, should take the government
factor into account. The revolution movement is directed at the government in
power; for the insurgents the media technology is only an instrument they use
to achieve the goal. The position of technology or media is neutral in the fight
between the parties in conflict. Although the way the media is used by the
insurgents is important, actually it is the reaction of the government in power
that play a determining role.
The challenges faced by an authoritarian government to make the best use of
the new media, including to control its content are overwhelming. The growth
of the media now are fast, more complex in organization, form and production.
Control can no longer be done just by erasing banned keywords like old-time
censor of pornographic or provocative matters.
The case of China can best illustrate the complex problems faced by such a
country in managing the new media environment. In the one hand, the
government needs to facilitate the fast growth of its internet industry (including
the new media) to meet the rising market, the demand for better living,
education, and the necessity to stimulate the overall economy. To safeguard
political stability, however, there is a contradictory need to manage and prevent
potentially negative impact of the flood of information brought in by the
internet, which may include potential discontent among younger generations,
conflict between the national ideology and the wider global awareness,
dissatisfaction with the lagging progress in the rural area when compared to the
material living exposed by the media, and the wide diversity of its population
(which in China also comprise of the Uighur Muslims ethnic group which were
in democratic countries like the US, such agencies (e.g., the CIA) are prohibited to act
against its own citizens domestically; they are specifially directed at foreign countries.
Nevertheless, since 9/11 and terrorist attacks, however, US establishes the Department
of Homeland Security to coordinate actions against security threats, including cyber
attacks.
23 Allagui & Kuebler, 2011. Surprisingly, however, this is not understood by many
protest movements which keep using open new media platforms for action planning,
thus practically insuring that their actions would not likely to succeed. The earliest
example on record was the planning of flash-mobs action in Belarus in 2006; it used the
online blog LiveJournal, ignoring the obvious risk that the Russian intelligence agency
KGB was also reading the same messages online at the same time. A similar case
occured in Iran, where mobile apps favored by Iranian dissidents were also used by the
Ahmadenijad government apparatus to track them (Morozov, 2009)
35
involved in the 2009 Urumqi riots). In addition, the size and the reach of the
new media is such that has to be very careful in its handling of the new
media.24
Faced with that kind of challenge, China has several options to control the
content and influence the impact of new media. Based on its ideology and
revolutionary experience, however, the instinctive temptation was in favor of a
harsh or forceful action. Hence, when an ethnic conflict involving Muslim
ethnic group errupted in Urumqi, Xinjiang, in July 2009, China immediately
imposed total communication blackout which turned out to last for six
months.25 Some information did seeped out of Xinjiang due to computer-savvy
young generation of internet users, but not for long. The censor removed all of
the comments on Xinjiang in various websites within a few hours.26 This
method of censorhip is still enforced now across the country today, and even
expanded to include the filtering of cell phone text messages. 27 In addition, the
authorities apply some of the insurgent‘s strategy: to make original internet sites
24
From China total population, estimated in 2011 to be more than 1.3 billion persons,
36.3 % of which, or 485 million are internet users. This is a 463 times increase from the
year 2000, when internet users in China totaled 22.5 million (―Asia Internet Usage and
Population‖, Internet Usage Statistics, www.internetworldstats.com). In 2007, Chinese
users sent 700 billions text messages from their personal mobile phones, more than the
rest of the world combined. This figure was before cellphone penetration topped 50%
in
the
country.
See:
http://shanghailist.com/20010/01/20/okay so that
sexting_ban_in_china.php
25 When the riot began, communications were immediately cut off, mosques were
temporarily closed and Jumu‟ah Friday prayers were canceled (although Muslims
gathered for prayer anyway), and Internet access in the city were immediately cut off.
The shut down of communications in Urumqi occured only for the third time;
previously it was implemented in parts of Tibet, where ethnic unrest was feared, and
ahead of the 20th anniversary of the Tiananmen crackdown. Source:
news.xinhua.com/englsh, www.reuters.com,
26
The comment are replaced with the line ―This posting does not exist‖. The same
method is also applied to prevent searches on topics related to the subject. Searches for
certain key words as ―Urumqi‖, ―Uighur‖, ―7.5‖ (for July 5, the date the riots begin) or
―Xinjiang‖ were blocked and gave no results,
27 In the case of text messages, when any user types a banned word on any mobile
phone, the screen goes blank, and the message will not be transmitted corectly. The
government identifies 13 different types of ―vulgar content‖ that are not allowed which
may be expanded with clear reasoning. When the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to
the jailed Chinese writer Liu Xiaobo, the words ―Nobel‖, ―Oslo‖ and ―Norway‖
become forbidden. Critics then post pictures of various empty chairs through the new
media to draw attention to Liu‘s absence in the ceremony; this, too, was deleted by the
censors after they caught on to the joke. Each phone is permitted to send only 20
messages per day to prevent it from being used to organised events. See: Larmer, 2010;
http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2010/01/20/;
http://www.upiasia.com/Politics/2010/01/22/
_
36
(such as microblogs) to develop community-based social networks which are
not against the government, run by paid ―net commentators‖.28
The control of new media is becoming more difficult with increasing
sophistication of the activists in their application of media technology –
frequently with the involvement of foreign experts, sympathisers, even foreign
power. As descibed in Foreign PolicyNet.Effect, the new media networks make
it ―suddenly possible to transcend the rigid structures of media control erected
by the authoritarian regimes‖: messages can now travel via these new
networked public sphere in a ―peer-to-peer manner, bypassing traditional
platforms of distribution‖ (Morozov, 2009). The opposition also use hackers to
attack government web sites, and fax bridges to keep news spreading in the face
of online censorship (Allagui & Kuebler, 2011). New media communications
become even more complex, when more anti-censorship and anonymity
services sprang up to circumvent censors, not necessarily due to political or
ideological purposes but even more for business and industrial security needs.
On the other hand, such actions may not necessarily stops the censors, who
feel challenged to escalate to a more complicated cyberwar.29
The political uses of new media as public communication is not only limited
to freedom of speech. The previous pages have shown that new media have
been used sucessfuly in certain cases of ―revolutions‖ – real revolutions which
come from the clash between population and their authoritarian regimes – but
in other cases the new media have been used more for PR or political
communication purposes, to paint the revolution as more authentic or genuine,
even when it was not. In other words, some of the credits that are supposedly
for ―revolution‖ that have been won by the new media, may only be a form an
image resulted by the the uses of old mass media.
The new media offer certain advantages for political communication,
compared to the old mass media. By virtue of its interactive characteristics, for
China‘s high internet penetration shows that the new media is becoming an
increasingly important part of the general public or common people‘s life, hence
opening more channels of social communication in the communities. The existence of
net commentators and their websites, however, create new competition for antigovernment activists. This may explain why they are seldom discussed in Western
reports, and if so, always with an unfavorable image. Even the most objective report
from BBC News call them as China‘s Internet ‗spin doctors‘ (http://news.bbc.co.
uk/2/hi/7783640.stm). Most reports calls them as ―China‘s 50-cent party‖ for the
payment they received for each posting. See, e.g.: http://www.interlocals.net/?q=node/
367 and http://blog.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/03/01/china_50_cents_party_
take_on_the_jasmine_revolutions
29 The contest between Chinese censor vs. Internet users is a good example, where
both sides are said to be involved in a cat-and-mouse game, where the government
keeps developing better mousetraps. See, e.g.,
http://www.forbes.com/sites/andygreenberg/2011/11/17/chinas-great-firewall-testsmysterious-scans-on-encrypted-communications
28
37
example, one type of new media could follow and get involved with the
dynamics of realtime politics, 24/7, and offer a virtual public space where
politicians and public could interact. There are also other types of new media,
to fulfill different types of interactions useful for various players in the arena of
political communication. Yet, it is not the only forum for political manuevers;
public political communication also use the new media in combination with
old mass media.
Global links. Note, however, that the new media has a built-in disadvantage
in political communication, i.e. the problem of identification of participants or the
political source of media content, particularly if media is used for discussion
groups, interactive debates, and the like. The stated source, for instance, may be
misleading. This explain why the issue of media content and censorship
become serious and complicated, involving new technologies and counter
actions, cyberwarfare, and the like. Without awareness on such development,
countries may fall into the trap of foreign interests in their media policy.
The New Media of Islam, Social Network
With basic understanding on the characteristics and dynamics of the New
Media, many questions could be asked about today‘s social media in the Muslim
world. This paper will not attempt to ask questions and provide answers, but
offer some basic observation from the social media along the line of this paper:
First. Just like past communication technology discovery (e.g., Guternberg
invention), today‘s new media is a break through orthodox scholars control on
interpretation of Islam, thus providing exposure to diversity and freedom.
While older generations are not internet minded, their basis for awareness is
already high by their use of religious-oriented daily applications of new
technology. By virtue of technological skills from early age, new media and
social networks promise a better future for younger generations.
Second, the Internet brought Muslims across geographies and ideologies
around the world, transcend national boundaries and cultures to develop an
extensive number of social networkings, which could become the basic
fundamentals for new cooperation in various fields, locations, levels of
government in the future; free and open online discussions have made
individual conversion to Islam based on deep conviction instead of pressure
Third, the new media have opened opportunities for women to break up
traditional constraints, through virtual social media relationship in still closed
societies, and more open network forms in the rest of the Muslim world.
However, the problem of doctrines, policy restriction, censorship, and the like,
are still need to find solution.=
_______________________
M. Alwi Dahlan, professor emeritus in Communication, University of Indonesia. Minister of
Information, Republic of Indonesia 1998. PhD Communication, University of Illinois, 196
38
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40
Impact of Modern Media on Family and Society
in the Light of Current Phenomena of
Violenceand Moral Decadence:
A Study of SMS Usage among Teenagers
Azmuddin Ibrahim
Dean, Faculty of Communication and Media,
University of Selangor, Malaysia
Summary
The impact of modern media and information technology is far-reaching. It
is not only creeping into family institution but influencing the society at large.
For this reason, the public has always been concerned about media effects
toward society. Concerns on the effect of media violence toward people, for
instance, has prompted studies on media violence for more than five decades.
However, media effects on society have both been positive and negative which
is dependent upon what variables are involved in any such study. The leaning
however has generally been more negative than otherwise.
The National Cultural Values Survey commissioned by the Culture and
Media Institute (CMI) of the US shows that 64 percent of Americans agree that
media are an important factor in shaping moral values. Only 7 percent differ.
Sixty-eight percent of Americans say media have a negative impact on moral
values in the country and only 9 percent say it is positive.
The survey shows that the news and entertainment media contribute to the
corruption of the nation‘s moral values. According to the survey large
majorities of every significant demographic category of American adults believe
the media are harming the nation‘s moral values. It was found that 74 percent
of Americans believe the nation‘s moral values have declined over the past
twenty years, and the large majority holds the media responsible for
contributing to that decline.
The CMI survey found that 73 percent of Americans believe ―the
entertainment industry is having a negative impact on moral values in this
41
country. Only 7 percent say the entertainment industry is having a positive
impact. Fifty-four percent of Americans believe the news media have a negative
impact on moral values in this country. Only 11 percent say the news media
have a positive impact.‖ Clearly, ―the widespread American belief that the news
and entertainment media are damaging the nation‘s moral values is justified by
the results,‖ the National Cultural Values survey added.
The nation deserves more edifying entertainment and news and less
unseemly and corrupting material from the media. The media can do better.
Society needs the appropriate support from the media to promote basic family
values, and inculcate in our youth the virtues they need to live responsible lives.
We have to accept the fact that there are a wide number of variables that will be
involved in trying to determine the effects of media towards society. For
example, we don't receive media messages in a social vacuum, because we are
not exposed to or similarly select media messages without certain values and
beliefs behind us.
On top of that, those values and beliefs may themselves have been shaped
partly by the media in the first place. Hence, media effects are not so simple to
happen, nor are they usually direct. Most media effects are cumulative and
subtle, even when they are designed to influence. Anyway, public concern over
the role of media usage in shaping values and attitude continue to increase
every year. Therefore, in trying to respond to such concern, the intention of
this research is to trace the public‘s media usage of the currently most popular
and widespread media phenomenon that is the social networking sites (SNS).
The exceptionally popular SNS have become a significant factor in shaping
cultural, political, economic and family values of contemporary society.
Although some see SNS as creating new opportunities for business and
entertainment, others consider them as risk that will destroy family values,
culture and society. SNS is spreading so fast for example; it took only two years
for Facebook to reach a market of 50 million, while it took 38 years for radio to
reach a market of the same size. The exceptional growth in popularity is also
experienced in this part of the world (South East Asia). Though far behind the
leading user US, Indonesia is currently the second largest home to Facebook
users in the world, with over 40.8 million users. The Philippines is at number 8
with 26.7 million users.
The explosive growth in the popularity of SNS has generated concerns
among different parties, such as the potential risks posed when personal
information is made available in such a public setting. Hence, there is deep
concern towards how these sites transform society and social relations. SNS are
so popular that in the 2011 list of world top 100 websites, a list based on a
combination of Alexa Rank, content richness, users‘ reviews and freshness, 3
SNS are listed in the top 10 websites. Top among them are Facebook which is
now at number 2, Myspace at number 9 and Twitter at number 10.
42
According to a new national survey of teenagers conducted by the Pew
Internet & American Life Project, more than half (55%) of all online American
youths ages 12-17 use online social networking sites. Almost half of them
(48%) visit social networking websites daily or more often; 26% once a day, and
22% several times a day. The rising amount of academic studies and discussions
on SNS indicates that there is a large and growing interest in this area in the
global Internet public. However, while there are a huge number of users,
concern on its uses and implications seems lacking. Hence, the major research
questions addressed in this study include what are the public‘s attitudes towards
new media such as social networking sites.
How do they use these sites and for what reasons? Does the Internet detach
people from others? Do the media change consumer behavior? These are
some of the questions which this paper tries to answer. However, within the
time constraint, this study will only focus on teenagers because of the
popularity of SNS among this group. This paper outlines the outcome of a
study that analyzed the usage.
Methodology
With the main intention of looking at the effect of the new media on its
users, it is felt that a longitudinal research would be most relevant for this
purpose. While not forgetting the fact that there are so many factors that may
influence behavioral changes, as a starting point for this study, a small sample
size is deemed relevant for the purpose of closer observation on the changes
that may take place. Hence, this study is intended to be preliminary, paving the
way to further research that would be carried out periodically in the future.
A study of this nature requires a high level of honesty otherwise the validity
of the research is questionable. For the purpose of a study of this study, this
particular point has been taken very seriously. Under normal circumstances, for
example, not many people would want to admit that they have been wasting
valuable time chatting on unfounded string of events or what more admitting
that they have been visiting pornographic sites. To promise anonymity, the
questionnaire prepared does not require respondents to put their names or id
other than gender and ethnicity. Questions that require respondents to handwrite their answers are also reduced to the minimum to avoid the feeling that
their handwriting may be recognized.
To increase the level of accuracy, a sample of 71 students was taken from
two classes of compulsory courses, in which the researcher is teaching. This
was a very practical thing to do because for example, to check the regularity of
e-mail usage, the researcher sends messages with delivery option such as ―mail
opened‖. This allows the researcher to record the frequency in which the
respondents check their inbox. Having samples from two regular classes is also
helpful, allowing for follow-up research.
43
Data were collected through group interviews carried out with the help of a
structured questionnaire. A face-to-face interview is purposely avoided to
reduce the feeling of uneasiness in admitting weaknesses. To ensure the smooth
running of the fieldwork, the researcher was assisted by field assistants.
Preliminary findings
Almost all (95.4%) respondents are engaged in SNS with close to a third
(29.6%) logging-in to the sites several times a day. Though less frequent, more
than a third (36.5%) are hooked to SNS at least several times a week. Large
majority (84.8%) of those on SNS are Facebook subscribers and trailing far at
the second place is Friendster which managed to attract less than one-tenth
(8.2%) of the users. In general e-mail tops the list of the most popular online
activities. The top five are: e-mail, general Web surfing, reading news, searching
and reading entertainment news, followed by seeking information about
hobbies.
Similar to the findings of the Digital Future Project, the Internet has a solid
position as the most important source of information for the vast majority of
users in this study. Majority (70.4 percent) considers the Internet to be a very
important or extremely important source of information for them. The Internet
generally has no influence on the amount of time spent with family, but contact
increased among friends. Majority (73.2 percent) of the respondents say that the
Internet has no influence on the amount of time they spend with their family.
On the positive side, respondents generally believe that the Internet plays a
major role in their schoolwork. More than 70 percent (71.8 percent) say that
going online is very important or extremely important. The modern media
generally gave rise to positive outcome. However, there are a number of other
aspects that need to be looked at which are probably negative in values.
Among these is the rise in plagiarism and the increase on pornography. But
how many would admit to practicing plagiarism or visiting pornographic
websites. This is one of the big, untouched research areas, and for many
reasons, it is incredibly difficult to get an accurate reading.
An analysis of the percentage of porn site visits versus search engines,
including top portals Google (Nasdaq: GOOG), Yahoo (Nasdaq: YHOO) and
MSN, and other less provocative Internet content indicates that porn is atop
the other areas, including other entertainment and e-commerce destinations.
44
New Media and Issues of Society:
Challenges and Opportunities
Saud Saleh Kateb
Assistant Professor, Department of Media,
King Abdul Aziz University, Jeddah, KSA
Abstract
Until the recent past, there were many theories and writings which took up
likely effects of social networks, including their capability to push the wheel of
democracy ahead, and widen the opportunities of popular participation as well
as the freedom of expression of opinion, in addition to their expected effects
on social movement, apart from opening the new opportunities for commercial
organizations and different ways for performance of works.
These opinions differed in their estimates about the extents of this likely
effect, in spite of the fact that there was obvious interest in these networks at all
academic, media, government, commercial and other levels, at a time when
view about social networks by these sectors in the Arab region inclined towards
ignorance, fear or caution for political or social reasons, or to underestimate
their significance as a temporary phenomenon.
Early months of year 2011created a great change due to the happenings
which enhanced the hands of those who believed in the prospect of change
that these social networks may bring in. Today, these social networks have
emerged as an important and controversial player in essential changes that
swept the Arab region. The governments and commercial organizations began
taking interest in potentials of these social networks in the Arab region in
creation of new patterns for governments as well as ways of business
performance.
This study tries to examine the role played by new media, in particular social
networks on issues of the society in different forms and ways. In spite of the
fact that first thought which comes to mind these days about the effect of
social networks is their political effect and role these networks played in
mobilizing the revolutions of Arab Spring, however, this study also aims at
45
focusing on other roles these networks play in the Arab societies and also, their
various effects on commercial, social or educational levels.
Major social networks like Facebook, Twitter and personal bloggers have
emerged as very effective channels providing people of the region with
opportunities which they were not used previously to express their opinions
and organize their ranks for revolution not only against authoritarian regimes,
but also against other things that concern their life like rising prices, family
violence, human rights, fight against corruption and other issues that these
networks contributed to mobilize and succeed in changing them on many
occasions.
The use of social networks was not limited to popular demands for change,
rather these networks turned to important and essential stages utilized by the
companies to market their products and services, as well as to interact with
customers instantly and effectively with little cost.
Similarly, no-profit charity organizations have used these networks to reach
out to beneficiaries and donors, apart from their various and effective uses in
areas of education at schools, universities, libraries and institutions of distanceeducation. In addition to taking up the important roles of social networks, this
study also discusses different negative aspects caused by them, and presents a
number of recommendations to realize maximum benefit from these very
effective means which no longer cannot be ignored or underestimated.
Introduction
Since long time, traditional information media such as newspapers,
magazines, radios and televisions have been the focus of social media and
communication means used to reach out to the public and convey different
messages to them whether these messages are of political, social, commercial or
other nature. In spite of the important role that these media means were
playing, however, new media means which are characterized by global outreach,
fast access and low cost, have re-designed the map of media and
communication work in contemporary societies.
Traditional information media remained for quite some time, dominant on
communication scene in the contemporary human societies. It was the
traditional view about information media that it is a central unit for interaction
inside the society and this unit cannot be ignored. Whosoever wants to interact
socially (with individuals and institutions), he must reach these institutions so
that he can have access through these institutions to general public. In this way,
many social institutions often faced difficulty in reaching out to their targeted
public through these gates, due to certain requirements associated with policies,
material costs and style of work in these institutions. New information media
came to replace the central position of traditional information media and now it
46
was possible for individuals and institutions to address all directly and with
reasonable cost. (1)
Strength of new information media is not confined to mere property of
interaction that it provides and allows to every sender and receiver to exchange
the roles of communication process. On the other hand, this media created also
a quality revolution in multi-media communication content that includes texts,
pictures, audio files and video clips. These specifics and others – which will be
explained in this study – pushed all (individuals, companies, non-profit
organizations and governments to jump on to this new information media
which within a short period of time could create many amazing effects on
political, social, commercial and technical levels whereas social networks such
as Facebook, Twitter, Bloggers, YouTube and others, in addition to the wide
spread of smart phones like Iphone, Black Berry, and also the pads like I Pad,
Galaxy Tab, which have great effects which cannot be ignored.
This study is trying to present a description about the nature of this new
information media and its various effects on issues of the society with the aim
of achieving maximum possible benefit from this media and avoid negative
effects produced by it. The study aims specifically to discuss the following
subjects:
1. Definition of new information media, its nature, techniques, characteristics
and differences between techniques of new and traditional informational
media.
2. Social networks – invention that changed the world.
3. Arab world and social networks.
4. Political effects of social networks.
5. Commercial effects of social networks.
6. Social effects of social networks.
7. Recommendations for achieving maximum possible benefit from social
networks and avoiding any negative effects produced by them.
Definition of new media
New media or digital media is a terminology that includes all digital
communication and information technologies which enabled the production,
distribution, consumption and exchange of information that we want at the
time of our choice and in the way that we want through electronic gadgets
linked directly or indirectly to the Internet, and interaction with other users
whoever they may be and wherever they may be. There are other different
definitions including B.C. Magazine's definition that new media means "ways of
communication in the digital world, including the publication on CDs, DVDs
and more significantly on the Internet. (2)
The "Webpedia" on the other hand, defines the new media as it is a
terminology that includes various forms of electronic communication which are
47
now possible through the use of computer technologies. While viewing the
relationship of this terminology with old media like printed newspapers and
magazines characterized by their instant texts and images, new media includes
websites, live transmission of sound and video, chat rooms, electronic mail,
Internet communities, Internet advertisements, CDs, DVDs, link the digital
data to phone, digital cameras and mobile phones. (3)
Characteristics of new media
The present changes witnessed by media technologies are main changes
fourth of their kinds in modern age after the invention of printer mainly fast
steam printer that made distribution of newspapers, magazines and books to
the public an obvious reality (1833) and after this, invention of radio (1920)
then invention of television (1939). The change that we witness today depends
on the use of computer in production, storing and distribution of information
and entertainment. This characteristic which is a process of providing
information and entertainment resources to the general public easily at low
prices is indeed a common characteristic between old and new media persons.
The difference here is that new media is capable of adding a new
characteristic which cannot be provided by old media and that is interactivity
and post-interactivity. The interactivity is capability of new communication
means to respond fully to the user's speech as it happens in the process of
conversation between two persons. This characteristic added a new important
dimension to present patterns of information media which normally comprise
one-side products sent by one central source like newspaper, radio or television
to the consumer with the possibility of choosing sources of information and
entertainment that he wants and when he wants and at the way he wants. In the
past, capability of users to interact was limited to the circle of response to
printed content on the websites through addition of comments and recording
of observations on visitors' register for example.
Then, this relationship turned relatively to more freedom with the existence
of forums, news groups and e-mail directories. However, the public did not
have absolute freedom of media practices that was available to them only after
appearance of bloggers followed by social networks, website of video sharing
like YouTube and free encyclopedias like Wikipedia as these websites represent
the elements of transformation to the phase of post-interactivity. This phase is
considered a revolution on traditional communication model, whereas it
became possible for an ordinary individual to convey his message to a person
whom he wants at a time he wants in a multi-fold way, not only from up to
down as per the old communication model. (4)
In addition to that, new media is also characterized by following features:
1. Technologies of new media have also basically changed the behaviour
patterns associated with communication means in a way that requires a high
level of caution. Hence, the user must be very active in selecting the content
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that he wants to have. Many researches which study the behaviour patterns
of those who use mass media, explain that most of these users do not pay
much attention to information media that they watch, hear or read and also
they do not learn much from these information media. In fact, they only
pass through these media means superficially without a concentration on
their contents. So the viewers of television for example, spend hours in
watching television programmes, however, this may be a passive follow-up,
because if you ask them after a few hours about the content that they have
watched, then only a few of them would be able to remember this. On the
other hand, new media has changed these behaviours and realized a high
level of interactivity between the user and the means.
2. New media technology has also led to linking of various media means which
were in the past independent means having no relationship with each other
in a way that different barriers between these media means were removed.
For example, New York Times has become an e-paper in every sense, so it
uses satellites to transmit its pages to several printing centres at same time.
Computer is used in all of its processes, even it is now possible to read it
directly on its website:(www.nytimes.com) Television and the Internet have
also been linked and the television set is now used for watching the TV
programmes, and at the same time, for browsing the Internet as well as for
sending and receiving e-mail messages. Similarly, computer can now be used
for receiving TV and radio programmes. The TV cable companies now
depend on satellites in broadcast of their programs. Therefore, we find that
all the present means of mass media have become electronic means in one
way or other.
3. Another important feature of new media technology is that it has made
freedom of media an evitable reality. The Internet has made possible for any
person who has connection with the Internet to become a publisher and
convey his message to all parts of the world at a nominal cost. Also, there
are tens of thousands of online news groups whose users can discuss any
issue of their choice with unlimited numbers of other users in different parts
of the world.
The social networks like Facebook, Twitter and bloggers, in addition to
spread of smart mobile phones equipped with digital cameras as well as
capability of connecting with the Internet from any place, have led to raising
the level of freedom of expression and getting information as well as
capacity of communication in an unprecedented way.
4. New media is a multimedia, as it has created a quality revolution in the
communication content that includes a mixture of texts, images, audio files
and video clips. This multi-media content has spread tremendously during
the last years in particular, through what is known to be "the citizen's press"
49
and it has great social, political and commercial effects that require study
and reflection.
5. The media fragmentation is intended to increase and diversify options in
front of consumers of information media, whose time is now distributed
between several media means such as websites, social networks, smart
phones and electronic video games, besides the traditional information
media such as press, radio and television.
6. Absence of time factor: it is meant for having no need for presence of
sender and receiver at the same time, so the receiver can have the content at
a time when he wants.
7. Universality of access: means that the media can access almost all sections
of the society, in addition to the universality of access and its ability to
exceed the geographic borders.
8. Capability of communication regardless of specifications and standards of
those who produce the content.
Bait al-Maal talked about the features of new media in relation to the
elements of basic media process(5): source, message, means, recipient, response
in an attempt to understand the process of new media process in the light of:
1. Centralization of preparation (source)
Traditional information media represented the focus of social
communication process for individuals and institutions. For individuals,
information media enabled them to achieve their objectives of getting
information that was not possible to get from other places. For institutions,
information media enabled them to realize their aim of distributing the content
and their need of a means that delivers the content to the public.
This phenomenon is known in some of the media literature as centralization
of media or gate-keeping. The theory of "gatekeeper" was first presented by
Kurt Lewin, a psychologist and US citizen to mean that entire media process
that a media material has to go through until it reaches the targeted public.
There are certain points (gates) where decisions are taken about how this
material would move without or with some changes and those who manage
these gates are very influential in the movement of information. At every gate,
there is a person who has the right to decide whether the message he received
would move to the next gates as it is or it would move ahead with an addition
or deduction or it will be abolished at all.
There are four factors which influence the work of media gatekeepers.
These are the criteria of society as well as its value and traditions, the personal
criteria of communication in-charge, the professional criteria of communication
in-charge, and the criteria of public. New information media has created a
revolution in centralization of social media and it is now possible for all to
address anybody directly and away from the central or vocal media.
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2. The content (message)
New media has also created a revolution in the media content through
reducing the required level of professionalism in preparation whereas it is now
possible for hobbyists to prepare the content without a need for delicate
professionalism required by traditional media institutions and at a very low cost.
This led to surpass what is called "elites' control on preparation of media
content".
3. The distribution (means)
At a time when traditional information media needs high-cost
infrastructures such as radio and TV stations as well as printing press in case of
print media, we find that new information media does not require these high
costs as the Internet provides a low-cost distribution means capable of reaching
out easily to all parts of the world. In addition to that, the present expansion of
communication through wireless means and especially through the use of
mobile phones provides great opportunities in this regard, due to high rates of
penetration in some countries like Saudi Arabia reaching up to 184%, beside
continuous and huge developments in the capabilities of these phones and in
the wide-range services of the Internet.
4. The reception
In the shadow of new information media, it is now possible for the user to
retrieve the message at any time, as it is safe in a place on the Internet where he
can enter any time and from any place in the world even when he is on
roaming. This feature is not available to old information media, whereas if the
recipient missed a part, he cannot retrieve it easily.
5. The response
In case of traditional media, we find that process of communication takes
place in one direction from the source to the recipient with very simple or slow
potential of interaction with the source, while the phenomenon of new media is
characterized with a high level of interactivity and post-interactivity. As
mentioned earlier, the recipient's contribution in the information media was
confined in the beginning in echo circle of the content which is published
through writing the comments and observations on that content. Then, with
the emergence of forums, news groups and e-mail directories, the recipient has
relatively more freedom of expression till that recipient has absolute freedom
today in the practice of media especially after the appearance of bloggers, social
networking websites, video sharing websites and free encyclopedias like
Wikipedia, as these websites represented the transition period towards postinteractivity.
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In brief, the Internet today with all its merits and characteristics mentioned
earlier, has occupied top of the communication pyramid. The Internet has
transformed the world not only to a global village but also to a small electronic
village whose citizens can carry out many things while they are in their places or
on roaming through various uses of the Internet. This unique feature having
the capacity of surpassing the borders of time and place and opening the door
of participation in knowledge and information for all has given the Internet a
human dimension of interaction through what is known today as the social
networking websites.
Social networking websites: an invention that changed the world
The mankind has witnessed across the history emergence of several
inventions which have radically influenced the human life. The last century, for
example has witnessed the appearance of very effective technological
inventions like car, television, radio and computer which have great effects,
however, these effects cannot match the effects of the Internet today in view of
speed, depth, spread and other potentials that did not appear so far except the
tip of iceberg.
Significance of the Internet lies in its capacity to change the concepts of
communication and circulation of knowledge. This significance has increased
with the appearance and spread of social networking websites like Facebook
and Twitter, which could immensely change the way of people's
communication and interaction, the way of products' marketing and sale, the
way of governments' communication with their people, the way of companies'
performance of their works. It also changed the concept of voluntary works as
well as the methods adopted by political, social and legal activists to carry out
their activities. As we observe these days, these social networks have begun to
influence the democratic process itself. (6)
These social networks have also begun to work as the tools of revolutionary
influence as well as other potentials which did not appear so far except very
little. These social networks, as we have seen, not only ignited the revolution in
Egypt, but also ignited the revolution of inspired thinking in the whole world.
Definition of social networks
The term of social networks is meant by those websites which are known as
Web2 and provide communication between their users in an environment of
supposed community that combines them according to their interests and
affiliations (university, city, press, company, etc.) where interaction takes place
through direct communication services like sending the messages, sharing the
personal files of others, knowing their news and information that is available
for all. The forms and aims of these social networks are different. Some of
them are of general nature and available for general communications and
relations all over the world. Others are focused on forming the social networks
52
in a limited circle and confined area such as the networks of professionals,
photographers and media persons. The "Webpedia" defines social networks as
a term used to describe any website which provides its user to make a personal
page generally presentable and establish personal relations with other users who
visit this personal page. Social networking websites can be used to describe the
websites of social nature, live discussion groups, chat-rooms and other live
social sites. (7)
At present, there are more than 400 social networking sites on the Internet
(Hinson & Wright, 2009). The most important of these social networks are
represented by bloggers and forums, in addition to several other websites like
Wiki, Facebook, Twitter, as well as the applications presented by some major
companies to support the social concept in thinking and sharing with users of
the websites like Google and Yahoo which have taken interest in collective
editing and writing as well as providing common presentations, besides sites of
services, storage of images, representation and transmission like Flickr, and
broadcast of video clips like YouTube and other services and techniques that
receive an individual interest with interaction and transmission among the
users. This invention has created great effects on the rules and regulations of
publication and expression as well as on support of democratic thinking,
human rights and political, social and commercial concepts which have spread
and created groups using the facility of utilization and participation without
technical experience or material expenses that – as some people think – would
lead to a beginning of a "global thinking" to change the world. (8)
Indication of Statistics
Studies indicate that number of the Internet users in the world has this year
crossed two billion users or nearly one-third of the world population. In other
words, one person out of every three persons in the world uses the Internet.
This number represents an increase of 480.4% on what was in year 2000. As it
is clear from the following table, the largest ratio of growth during this period
was in the continent of Africa where the increase in the Internet use was about
2527.4% followed by the Middle East where the ratio was around 1987%
Largest number of the Internet users is found in China with nearly 389
million users followed by the United States of America with 245 million users.
Egypt comes in 20th rank globally and the first in the Arab world with nearly
20,163,000 users followed by Morocco with around 13,213,000 users, then,
Saudi Arabia with about 9,774,000 users. The website "Internet World Stats"
has published a survey about the first ten most commonly used languages on
the Internet in year 2010, and the English was the first most commonly used
language with the number of users exceeding 536 million representing 27.3% of
the total number of the Internet users, followed by the Chinese language in
second place with a number of its users that exceeded 444 million, or 22.6% of
the total users. The third place was for the Spanish language with a number of
53
its users reaching around 153 million users or about 7.8% of the total number
of users. While the French fell from fifth to eighth place.
Table-1: Statistics about use of the internet in the world
http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm
The ranking of Arabic language was 13th in 2004, but in 2010, it recorded a
significant progress and got the seventh rank with a number of users that
exceeded 65 million users representing 3.3% of the total Internet users in the
world, with a growth rate that is the highest, as it is estimated to be at more
than 2500% during 2000 and 2010, which indicates the exposure of Arab user
to the Internet and shows that there are efforts to enrich and spread the Arabic
content. (9)
There are billions of sites on the Internet. Some have a limited number of
users, while others have large numbers of users. In 2011, Google has issued a
list of the largest 100 sites in terms of the number of users (visits) in the world.
Facebook was in the first place with about 880,000,000 users, followed by
YouTube in the second place with about 800,000,000 visitors, then Yahoo in
the third place with a number of about 660,000,000 visitors (see the following
table for more than 100 commonly used sites on the Internet site).
Facebook
Facebook is a social networking website. Though its age is not more than
ten years, but its sites became the most known, influential and used website in
the world. Facebook was created in February 2004 by a 19-year old Mark E.
Zuckerberg in his room at Harvard University. The website was available
initially only to the Harvard students and then it was open for other university
students, then to high school students and a limited number of companies,
finally it was open for any person who wants to open an account with it (Locke,
2007) and the website has about 880 million users. In other words, one person
out of every 13 persons in the world has an account on Facebook with about
75 languages. All these users spend about 700 billion minutes on the website
54
every month (Grossman, 2010).
Other statistics about Facebook published by digitalbuzzblog in January
2011 as follows:
• The average number of friends for every user is 130 friends.
• 48% of the website users have an age of 18-34 years, and they visit it after
waking up from sleep, among them 28% are doing it even before they stand
up from the bed.
• Percentage of users aged over 35 year old increases steadily, and their
number currently represents more than 30% of the total users.
• Users aged between 18-24 years are the fastest growing by 74% annually.
• 72% of the Internet users in the United States are on Facebook, and the
website users from outside the United States represent 70% of the total
users.
• 20 million applications are installed every day.
• More than 200 million people access the site of Facebook through their
mobile phones.
• 48% of the youth reported that Facebook has become their source for
receiving news.
• In every 20 minutes a million links are shared on Facebook, and friendship
of 2 million people is accepted, and about 3 million messages are sent.
According to the inventor of Facebook Mark E. Zuckerberg, Facebook is a
social movement and not only a tool or means of communication, and it will
displace e-mail and replace it, and will control all aspects of human activity on
the Internet. Consequently, it may be described as a "directory of the world's
people" and it is a site where ordinary people can make a public entity for
themselves through delivering and sharing information about themselves as
well as their interests, feelings, photographs and video clips, so the aim of this
invention is to make the world a more open place. (10)
Although Facebook is the most popular social networking site, however
there are many other social networking sites such as Twitter, LinkdIn, MySpace
and Bing. The website that is coming forth strongly to the world of social
networking is Google Plus, which within less than two months of its
inauguration has the access of more than 30 million subscribers, despite the fact
that it was partially open through invitations to subscribers and not for all.
Some specialists think that existing war between Google Plus and Facebook is
very healthy and it is a most important event witnessed by the sector of digital
marketing these days, especially after the website "Alexa" in its recent
classification placed Facebook in second place after Google Plus as a result of
additional services provided by Google Plus such as e-mail service "Gmail",
Google Maps, search engine and the like.
While Facebook and Twitter are most commonly-used social networking sites
in the Arab region, but initial signs for the use of Google Plus suggest that it is
on its way to compete with these sites and get a part of social networking's
market cake in the region quickly.
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Twitter
Twitter is a mini social networking site which allows its user to send and
read comments of not more 140 letters or characters and these comments are
known as tweets. Twitter was created in March 2006 by Jack Dorsey, an
American, and it was launched in the month of July that year. According to
Wikipedia, the number of Twitter users reached nearly 200 million users in
March 2006. Twitter became famous globally in a fast way till the number of its
tweets reached 200 million tweets. Some people have described it as a site for
the Internet SMS. (11)
Twitter continued its rapid growth and in 2007, the number of tweets in
each quarter of that year reached 400 thousand published tweets its note, and it
further increased to 100 million tweets for each quarter of 2008. In February
2010, the number of users' tweets reached 50 million a day and it rose to 65
million in the month of June in the same year, which means that 750 tweets are
sent every second.
With this growth, Twitter turned into a micro-blogging means which is
highly powerful and has multiple uses ranging from marketing to admiring the
celebrities as well as publishing and distributing the news, and even assisting in
the rescue and relief operations, as happened during the tsunami disaster in
Japan.
The users' acceptability of Twitter is growing significantly during the
important events as illustrated by the following examples:
• 2940 tweets in a second after Japan's goal in its match against Cameroon in
the Football World Cup 2010
• 3085 tweets in a second after the Los Angeles Lakers' winning of the
Basketball Cup on June 17, 2010
• 3282 tweets in a second after Japan's victory over Denmark in the Football
World Cup on 25 June 2010
• The present record number was registered during the final of Women's
Football World Cup 2011 between the United States and Japan on 18 July
2011 by 7196 tweets in a second
• In year 2010 alone, the average number of daily tweets tripled from 50
million tweets in a day to 140 million tweets
• March 11, 2011 was the day when earthquake and tsunami struck Japan and
the usual daily average of 37 million tweets rose to 177 million tweets that
were sent in a single day
• Growth was not confined to tweets only, but the number of subscribers in
the website also increased
On 12 March 2011 alone, the next day of Japan earthquake, the website
added 572 thousand new subscribers, and in the month of July 2011, the
average of daily new subscriptions in the website was 460 thousand new
accounts. Also in this month, Twitter announced that number of tweets
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through mobile phones increased by 182% over the number that was in
previous year.
It is worth mentioning that among 200 million Twitter users only 30-40
million are considered active users. In other words, most of the information
circulating on Twitter is disseminated by a minority of users, while the
remaining majority is mere consumer of that information only. Social
networking sites like Facebook and Twitter are not just tools that allow the
users to publish their personal comments and share them with others, but also
they have become platforms for many users to publish news, for example,
Twitter was one of the first means that published reports about terrorist attacks
on Mumbai in November 2008.
Arab world and social networking sites
The Internet service entered the Arab world at a later stage than many other
countries of the world. Kuwait was one of the first countries that introduced
the Internet in 1992 followed by Egypt and the United Arab Emirates in 1993,
then Algeria and Morocco in 1994 (Katib, Saud 1997).
The Internet did not enter the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia except in 1988
only. This year and the previous year witnessed an increasing growth in the
number of Internet users in the Arab world, whereas the number of users from
150 thousand users in the beginning of 1977 increased to more than 356
thousand users at the end of that year, at a growth rate of 237%. At the end of
1998, number of the Internet users in the Arab countries exceeded 700
thousand users, with a growing rate of 197% from the previous year. In 2009, a
report from the Arab Network for Human Rights indicated that the number of
Internet users in the Arab world has reached 58 million users, most of them are
youth, and that the number of mobile phones is around 176 million, and the
number of landline telephones is about 34 million.
The report said that Egypt is the largest Arab country in terms of the
number of Internet users that is about 15 million users, and that the number of
Arabic blogs reached about 600 thousand blogs, including 150 thousand active
blogs. According to the report, the section of the society which mostly used
these blogs is the age group of 25-35 years at the rate of 45% and those Arabs
who are over the age of 35 years and use the blogs represents 9%.
The report also pointed out that females represent 34% of Arabs using the
blogs. The largest proportion of females in comparison to males bloggers in
Egypt and Saudi Arabia from the age-group of 18-24 years, whereas females in
Egypt represent 47% followed by Saudi Arabia with 46% of female bloggers.
The report, which was issued in 2009, indicated that the number of Facebook
users in the Arab world is around 12 million. This figure rose to 27,711,503
users by the end of spring 2011, according to the report of Dubai College for
Government Administration. (13)
57
Table-2: Use of the Internet and communications in the Arab region in
2009
Uses
Number of Arab Internet users
Number of mobile phones in Arab world
Number of landline phones in Arab world
Number of Facebook users in Arab world
Number of Arabic blogs
Country with largest number of cyber café
Country with largest number of Internet users
Country with lowest number of Internet users
The largest number of Facebook users
The largest number of mobile phones
Highest percent of Internet users vis-à-vis
the number of population
Most strict countries in Internet censorship
Most repressive countries for Internet activists
The best countries for Internet users
The best country for online services
The most eavesdropping countries for users
of communication sector
The most strict countries for websites
Countries with largest secular broadcasting
websites
Country with best experiences of bloggers'
groups and online activists
Most user country of YouTube
Quantities and countries
58 million
176 million
34 million
12 million
600,000 and 150,000 are active
Algeria with 16,000 Internet
café
Egypt: 15 million users
Mauritania : 60,000 users
Egypt, Lebanon and Algeria
UAE: 7.5 million lines
UAE: 2.86 million users (more
than 50% of total population)
Saudi Arabia and Tunisia
Egypt
Lebanon and Algeria
Morocco
Lebanon and Egypt
Saudi Arabia
Morocco, Lebanon and Egypt
Morocco
Egypt
Dubai College for Government Administration has issued first and second
series of its quarterly reports that highlight and analyze the uses and sites of
social networking in the Arab region. According to that report, the penetration
ratio of social networks and Web 2.0 technologies are in the steady growth in
the Arab region, where its younger generation from the age-group of 15-29
years represents nearly a third of the total population. This segment of the
population will become in the next few years active citizens, entrepreneurs,
employees in the private or government sectors. It is expected that social
networking websites will increase the citizens' desire in the Arab region to
participate and reduce the exclusion meted out to some of them. It will also
open new horizons and opportunities at the commercial and developmental levels.
According to the report of Dubai College of Government Administration,
the revolutions in Tunisia (December 2010) and Egypt (January 2011) are two
basic examples of growth in the use of social networking between citizens, and
change in the patterns of those uses. For example, the use of Facebook in
Tunisia during the first two weeks of January 2011 increased by 8% and also,
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the kind of use changed significantly from its use merely for social purposes to
political purposes.
At the global level, the United Arab Emirates is the Arab country which
maximum uses Facebook as a ratio of its population, and it is also among the
top ten countries in the world that use Facebook with a penetration ratio of 45%.
Figure-1: Top ten countries using Facebook (December 2010)
Source: www.dsg.ae
The use of Facebook and other social networking websites is growing
rapidly in the Arab region, due to the growing segment of youth that show a
great interest in dealing with these networks. Accordingly, there is a large scope
for further growth in the use of social networks in the Arab region in the
foreseeable future. The segment of youth from the age-group of (15-29 years) is
about 75% of Facebook users in the Arab world.
Figure-2: Demographic distribution of Facebook users in the Arab
world (December 2011)
Source: www.dsg.ae
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The ratio of male and female users of Facebook in the Arab world is 2:1 and
it is different from the global situation, in which the ratio of females is more
than males in the use of Facebook.
Twitter in the Arab world
The report from Dubai College of Government Administration has
estimated the number of Twitter users in the Arab world by the end of March
2011, approximately 6,567,280 million users, of whom 1,150,292 users are
active. These active users have published during the first quarter of 2011
approximately 22,750,000 tweets; about 252,000 tweets per day; 175 tweets in a
minute, equivalent to about three tweets every second. The ratio of tweets per
user active during that period is about 81 tweets per day. On 21/08/2011, the
day of Libyan rebels' storming of Tripoli under the operation of "Dawn of the
Sea Bride", the number of tweets reached 228 in a minute, and within two
hours, there were about 31,600 tweets.
Turkey has the largest number of Twitter users in the region, followed by
the United Arab Emirates (the first in the Arab region) with the number of
users reaching around 201,060 users, followed by Qatar, then Egypt and then
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. But while calculating the number of Twitter
users as a percentage of the population, Qatar comes first with 8.46%, followed
by Bahrain with 7.53%.
Figure-3: Male-Female distribution of Facebook users in the Arab
world (December)
Source: www.dsg.ae
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Figure-4: Ratio of Twitter penetration in Arab world
(First quarter of 2011)
Source: www.dsg.ae
Volume of tweets for every country during the first quarter of 2011 is
illustrated by the figure-9.
This has been calculated as a percentage of total tweets in the Arab world
during this period. It is noted from the figure that the largest number of tweets
in the Arab world were from Kuwait, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia and Egypt.
Figure-5: Number of tweets in the Arab world (in comparison with
Turkey and Israel) during first quarter of 2011
Source: www.dsg.ae
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Political effects of social networks
While talking about the political effects of social networks, the first thing
that comes to mind is the role that these networks have played about the Arab
revolutions, and there has been a lot of debate about this by specialists. Since
the beginning of 2011, many articles and studies have been published and
several conferences and events have been organized to discuss the importance
of these social networking websites and their potentials to mobilize the people's
participation, as well as their impact on models of participatory government
and new social mechanisms. The huge and fast growth of social networking
sites as well as evolutions in the patterns and approaches of their utilization
have played an important role in formulation and mobilization of public
opinion among youth in the Arab region. This period has witnessed clear shift
in directions of their use from social and commercial purposes to political
purposes at the regional level.
Blogs
It is worth to mention here that use of new media tools to achieve political
purposes started several years before the Arab revolutions. In 2002, for
example, several bloggers had written constantly about the controversial
statement made by U.S. Senator Trent Lott during a ceremony held to honour
Strom Thurmond on his 100th birthday anniversary and he praised him in it. He
said that the United States would have been in a better situation if Thurmond
had won the U.S. presidency for which he was a candidate in 1948. Although all
the print and electronic media was present during the ceremony, however, this
statement did not raise any attention until the blogs began writing about it.
These blogs accused Senator Lott that his statement showed his implicit
support and approval to the policy of racial separation which Thurmond
supported and called for it at that time. This issue was raised by the bloggers
and there was a growing pressure on Lott until he resigned from his post.
Similarly in 2004, bloggers raised the issue of so-called "Rather gate"
referring to the media scandal which affected Dan Rather famous American
broadcaster Dan Rather in his programme known as "60 Minutes" presented
six documents and said that these documents are original and sensitive, due to
their link with President George W. Bush and his military services that could
have affected his opportunity in the presidential election, which was scheduled
just two months after Rather's programme. Several bloggers claimed that those
documents were forged and they presented the evidence to support their point
of view. Consequently, CBS had to apologize and admit its mistake. Many
bloggers considered this event as recognition of blogs by the mass media as a
source of news and views as well as an effective mean of exerting political
pressure. (14)
Since 2004, the interest of U.S. politicians and others in the blogs began
dramatically to increase as a means to express their opinions and communicate
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with the public as well as attract more votes for them. For instance, during the
campaign of U.S. presidential election in 2004, four out of total nine
Democratic Party candidates had official blogs. Moreover, Democratic
National Committee (DNC) set up its own blog and mentioned in its
introduction the reasons behind resorting to this means by saying: (15)
"Blogs have provided a wide scope for all aspects of politics. All candidates
competing for U.S. presidency have blogs today. Why and what is the addition
provided by these blogs which are approached by people as a source of news
and communication? One of the most common complaints of people about
politicians and political parties is the lack of communication between these
politicians in Washington and rest of the public in America. We publish
newsletters and send e-mails and ads, and you write messages and volunteer
and donate for us but there is still a missing link which is direct personal
contact. Blogs make this contact possible. Through our blog, you will be able to
communicate with real people in the Democratic National Committee. You will
hear from us and find a real interest from us. Also, we will listen to you." Blogs
have spread today in a way that these have become an essential tool to be
utilized by most of U.S. politicians and government institutions in order to
cover their news and communicate through them with the people closely and
directly. For example, there is a blog for White House (Whitehouse.gov/blog)
and also there is another blog for the U.S. President, Barack Obama
(Obamabarack.blogspot.com) through which, he communicates with people
and provides details of his election campaign and other activities.
Israel was among the first countries which used blogs, whereas Israeli
Ministry of Defence realized that its success in neutralizing the Hamas
Movement is through the use of new media tools including the multimedia
blogging. David Saranga, Director of Media Relations at the Israeli Consulate in
New York said: "As the definition of war changed, the definition of diplomatic
relations should also change simultaneously." David Saranga held his first
official news conference on Twitter and did not hesitate in using abbreviations
that are common to the Internet users. He commented on this by saying: "I'm
talking to all segments of people and to different age groups in a language they
understand." (16)
In the Arab region, we find that interest of governments in blogs is very
weak in terms of number, content or benefiting from many features provided
by these blogs such as features of fast access, interaction and multimedia
facilities. It seems that Arab government agencies are content to have their
official websites on the Internet. In spite of this, it is significant that their
presence is felt through blogs, as the U.S. White House, for example, has a
website on the Internet and the same time it has an official blog. One of the
few official Arab blogs is the official blog of Roads and Transport Commission
in Dubai, which has comprehensive information on the Commission's activities
such as shipping, public transport, Dubai Taxi and issuance of licenses, in
addition to latest news of the Commission. Similarly, the King Saud University
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has set up a platform for blogging that includes many blogs of students as well
as the faculty members.
Arab blogs started to emerge in 2004 and soon they spread and became
effective in 2005, when the region witnessed political movement and there were
increasing demands for reform and change. Bloggers played an important role
in this movement and contributed to pushing the wheel of change and raising
the level of political awareness in their countries. According to the report issued
by the Arab Network for Human Rights Information in 2009, the number of
Arab blogs reached around 600 thousand blogs. The active blogs among those
were about 150 thousand blogs representing 25% of total Arab blogs.
The largest number of blogs is in Egypt, which owns about one-third of
Arab blogs, followed by Saudi Arabia, then Kuwait, and Morocco. The age
group that used blogs most frequently is between 25-35 years which is about
45%, while the bloggers over the age of 35 years are about 9%. Females
represent 34% of total Arab bloggers.
Regarding the capability of blogs to play role of change in the political arena,
there are two different opinions. One sees that blogging is not more than an
activity carried out by a small group of writers and intellectuals, who address a
minority of the Arab public, and then it does not produce any deep political
change, while the other opinion thinks that blogs play an increasing role in
generating the public opinion, especially in the light of positive role played by
bloggers in some Arab countries, with their contribution in disseminating the
culture of protest and enhancing the level of political activism. (Al-Fatafta,
2011, p 24)
Arab bloggers have succeeded in playing a key role in the political area and
putting pressure on governments to act against a number of issues including,
for example, cases of torture and sexual harassment in Egypt in 2006, and
issues of bribes received by some elements in the police in 2007. The Arab
region is considered as one of the worst areas in the world, when it comes to
the practice of internet censorship and arrests of bloggers. Moreover, Arab
countries are always present on the list of Internet enemies which is issued
annually by Reporters without Borders.
The bottom line is that despite all the measures of Internet censorship,
repression and intimidation to bloggers in the Arab countries, the phenomenon
of blogs proved practically difficult to stop or control, neither through
censorship techniques and strict laws nor through repressive measures against
bloggers. The easy set-up of blog and its low cost, in addition to other features
such as easy utilization, quick updates, interactivity, multi-media feature and
global outreach are proved scientifically to provide great opportunities to
politicians and various governmental agencies to express their opinions and
plans, to communicate with citizens and offer them different services they have.
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The Arab countries have to look at blogs, not with doubt, caution and
suspicion, due to what bloggers publish on it, but as a tool that can be utilized
to serve the citizens and bridge the gap with them, and also as an open area
where citizens can express their opinions and views.
Government 2.0
The use of social networking websites by Western governments and
politicians is not something new. Israeli government as mentioned earlier was
one of the first countries to use blogs in addition to the utilization of Twitter
and Facebook to the extent that it considered them as inevitable tools of war.
Even, David Saranga, Director of Media Relations at the Israeli Consulate in
New York said in a meeting after the first kind of a press conference he held
through Twitter: "As the definition of war has changed, the definition of
diplomatic relations should also change."
The Israeli government also uses social networking sites continuously like
Facebook and Twitter to monitor those who come to the West Bank in order
to show sympathy and support the Palestinian issue, as it keeps a watch on
those activists and prepares a black list of their names to address airlines in
order to prevent them from travelling on their planes. (17)
Government 2.0 is a term that refers to the government which applies
second-generation technologies for Web 2.0, such as blogs, Wikis, Facebook,
Twitter, YouTube, etc. The easiest way to describe the term is that any
technique used to help citizens and institutions to communicate with various
governmental agencies, and enable governments to perform their work more
effectively. (18)
For example, we find that U.S. State Department, although it has its own
website, it utilizes as much as possible new media tools so it has a blog, a page
on Facebook, and an account on Twitter and publishes through them a huge
quantity of information and uses them to communicate and answer the
questions of those who visit these sites.
One example of using these tools by U.S. State Department was during the
attempted revolution in Madagascar in November 2010, when there was a
rumour about the president's refuge to the U.S. embassy, and this was refuted
by Twitter. Daniel Shop, Director of Digital Communications in the State
Department says, "Once we published the tweets that refuted the rumour, we
started receiving a lot of responses that thank and appreciate us for providing
correct information. Nearly one hour, after this the traditional media began
publishing the news. Quick response by Twitter helped in calming the situation
down after the rumour could have put the embassy staff in danger." (19)
On the other hand, S. Goodstein, one of the managers for Barack Obama's
U.S. Presidency Campaign said that his team was able to attract nearly two
million supporters on MySpace, about 6.5 million supporters on Facebook, and
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around 1.7 million followers on Twitter. He adds, "Victory of Obama in
elections couldn't have happened if we didn't have the correct message and
correct means to convey. The echo volume of Obama's message was clear and
people were emotional and kept talking about us on Facebook and MySpace."
(20)
These were merely some examples of utilizing social networking
websites by politicians and institutions of Western governments and how these
networking sites have become an indispensable means to communicate with
people and provide services to them more effectively, efficiently and easily. In
the Arab countries, use of social networks in governmental institutions is still
very weak and in many cases if it exists, it is done due to individual efforts of
certain persons or officials in those institutions, not on an organized and
professional basis.
In Saudi Arabia, for example, we find that Dr. Abdulaziz Khoja, the
Minister of Information, was the first senior Saudi official who had an account
in Facebook and Twitter. He was followed by Minister of Justice and Minister
of Work on Facebook, and more recently General President of Youth Welfare,
Prince Nawaf bin Faisal has an account in Twitter. Despite the importance of
personal presence, it, however, lacks the ability to interact effectively in an
organized and professional way. More importantly, it lacks the element of
continuity if any of such officials leaves his position some day. More important
than this personal presence is that governmental institutions which have direct
dealings with citizens should have official sites on social networks so as to
interact with them, answer their questions and provide them with easy access to
services.
At the level of Arab region, we find that United Arab Emirates (UAE) is the
country which benefits from social networks in an organized and professional
way and with a continuous development and improvement. The official portal
of Dubai Government, for example, (www.dubai.ae) has adopted its logo on
the site by saying ''Working together to facilitate your life.'' It has provided links
which enable communication with officials, starting from the top to any
governmental official. Also, there are official sites and pages of UAE eGovernment on Facebook and on Twitter @ EmiratesEgov which is
characterized by interactivity, rich information and continuous updating.
Other governmental institutions which utilized social networks in UAE
include, General Directorate of Residency and Foreigners' Affairs, Ministry of
Work, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Education, Institution of
Telecommunications, Emirates News Agency and others. Moreover, Dr.
Mohamed El Baradei, Egypt's presidential candidate, is very active on social
networks though his page on Facebook as well as his account on Twitter, which
has about 234,000 followers. He continuously updates information but lacks
interaction with these followers.
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Digital revolutions of Arab world
Amazing revolution in the world of digital technology with consequent
developments in new media led to its transformation from an area of
information providing the freedom of expression into a means of interaction,
communication and participation. This technological revolution has not only
allowed the world to enter into the age of participation with near end of
censorship and reduced the control of information, but it also allowed another
kind of revolution; a political revolution against all kinds and forms of control,
domination and despotism. Participation is a concept that reflects in some of its
aspects, rejection of many existing conditions that are based on principle of
domination in many aspects of life, starting from family planning in many
societies to labour relations in the economic field as well as to human
dimension in controlled political system and other situations that concentrate
the authority of decision-making about the life and fate of others in the hands
of a few persons. (21)
These developments in new media have transformed it into a field of
collaboration over recent Arab revolutions that embodied the concept of
collaboration as one of key factors contributing to the overthrow of three
authoritarian regimes during first eight months of year 2011. These are the
regimes of Tunisia, Egypt and Libya, whose overthrown presidents had ruled
their countries respectively for the past 23 years, 30 years, and 42 years. In Syria
and Yemen, the revolution is still going on and there are other countries which
are waiting for their turn to come, when their masses cry loud in one voice on
the ground and on the social networks, saying: "Peoples want to overthrow the
regime."
It is not fair to say that it were Facebook and Twitter which removed those
Arab regimes, because it will be injustice to those revolutionaries who sacrificed
their lives for the sake of freedom. Technology is all about means and tools to
push the wheel of popular movements, and not the cause of popular movement
itself, which indeed resulted, due to several social, political and economic
factors and circumstances that altogether led to anger of the people in those
countries and prepared the ground for explosion.
Facebook and Twitter did not create these revolutions rather they helped in
igniting the spark of these revolutions in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Yemen, Syria
and other countries around the world. Surely, Facebook and Twitter enabled
the peoples in these countries to unify their voice and cooperate on basic issues
of their concern through placing them on a common ground in a way that was
not possible earlier.
The first step to achieve the element of "collaboration" is by creating a
common awareness about the issue, and this is what social networks are doing,
by letting people see how much support they have and how many supporters
are sharing the same feeling with them. This common awareness encourages
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the people to take steps that they could not dare to do earlier like going out for
protests or strikes.
The numbers of such protests and strikes increase steadily as more people
know about them, and with the increasing number of people, the strength of
protesting masses grows. "It is now possible for young protesters in Egypt,
Tunisia and elsewhere in the region by using the means of social networks to
publish their demands and invite others to join the protests as well as get more
support from other segments of the society." (22)
One of the protesters in Cairo said: "We use Facebook to organize protests
and fix the timings as well as use Twitter for coordination, and use YouTube to
inform the world and let it see what is happening." This statement summarizes
the uses of social networks in the protests. (23)
At a time when the means of social networks have made the process of
gathering and organizing the protests easier, they on the other hand, have made
the task of authoritarian governments to control the people more difficult. In
the past, all that the governments had to do was to put their hands on print and
electronic media and this was easy to control the size and nature of information
reaching out and then control their actions. But with the advent and advance of
the internet being a tool of interaction, communication and collaboration, the
control of governments is almost impossible, as all the attempts of Egyptian,
Libyan or Syrian governments to control the Internet via blocking, preventing
or disconnecting, failed, as people always found one way or another to
overcome such practices.
The bottom line is that social networks are no more only tools for social
networking as their names suggest, but they have also become a powerful tool
in the hands of people looking for freedom, reform and political change. It may
be true that social networks are not the cause behind the revolutions of Arab
Spring, but they have made these revolutions possible and expedited them.
They have also given these revolutions capacity to grow and gain more support
and sympathy both at the domestic and international levels.
Since the beginning of year 2011, Arab revolutions have succeeded so far in
overthrowing three presidents ruled their countries with iron hand: Zain AlAbidine Bin Ali, Hosni Mubarak and Muammar Qaddafi. They are now shaking
the thrones of Yemeni President Ali Abdullah Saleh and Syrian President
Bashar al-Assad and no one can predict who will be the next. As all forms of
violence and repression could not stop these revolutions, also, all attempts of
censorship, blocking and breaking the Internet services exercised by the
authoritarian regimes in those countries could not stop the flow of information
whether among angry masses or outside world to keep the world aware of what
is going on.
The time has now come for Arab countries to stop saying that these
revolutions are foreign plots or due to armed criminal gangs, and that the
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solution lies in more repression, more censorship and control over the means
of communication. Instead, they should look for solutions to the problems of
inflation, poverty, unemployment and corruption. Meanwhile, they should find
out appropriate solution to a bigger problem that their citizens have got the
tasted of freedom and are asking for freedom seriously. The recent happenings
have proved that they are prepared to sacrifice their lives for the sake of
freedom. These governments should realize that it is impossible to close the
window opened for the people to express their views in a way that whole world
listens to them, and instead of thinking how to close this window, the
governments should take advantage of it to achieve greater transparency and
make the lives of citizens easier and purposeful.
Earlier, we have mentioned how the Western politicians used social
networks not only to support their campaigns, but also to provide various
services to citizens, to communicate with them and receive their complaints
and opinions. Their governmental institutions did the same thing. This is the
need of today from Arab politicians and governmental institutions to change
their views about social networks as opportunities that should be utilized, but
not as a danger that must be fought and suppressed.
Commercial effects of social networks
In the past, the only way to communicate with customers was through
traditional advertisements in newspapers, magazines, radio and television. It is
difficult for all these means of media to reach out to a certain segment of
customers who are targeted specifically by personal letters sent to them only.
But with the advent of social networking tools, this has changed drastically, as
these tools are playing a key role in influencing the behaviours of customers
including: attention, definition, acquisition, opinion, purchase decision, in
addition to evaluation process and communication with the customer after the
purchase (Mangold & Faulds, 2009).
Before the Internet, there was no way for commercial organizations to
attract the attention of customers except through expensive advertising
campaigns. Today, the Internet has changed it with its features which enabled
the commercial organizations to convey their messages to targeted customers
with more outreach and less cost.
The internet's great expansion in developed countries has encouraged the
process of improvement and use of various digital sources such as mobile
phones and social networks including blogs, Wikis as well as other social
networking websites and multimedia services. These digital patterns not only
changed the customers' ways of interaction with a website or organization, but
also changed the method of marketing in the digital space. (Baines et al 2011,
P.627).
The marketing communication combines a set of tools that can be used in
different ways and various degrees of intensity in order to communicate with
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target audience. In addition to these tools, there is media that conveys the
message. There are five key tools of communication, namely: advertising, sales
promotion, public relations, direct marketing and personal selling.
The internet and aftermath developments of digital technologies led to a
new form of interactive communication that gave the message-recipient a
greater role in communication process.
This further led to the evolution of a concept for mixed marketing
communication in a way that turned the main interest in mass contact campaign
to direct communication activities through the use of direct marketing. Social
networks are considered essential part of mixed marketing in which its role is
integrated with traditional marketing tools of mixed marketing communication
whereas companies can use social networks to communicate with their
customers through blogs, Facebook and Twitter. (Fridelf & Alem, 2011.P.17)
Figure-6: Tools of mixed marketing communication
Marketing through social media
Marketing through social media can be defined as the use of social networks
including, blogs, Wikis and other similar tools on the Internet for marketing,
selling, public relations and customers service. These tools provide the
customers with prospect of interaction with commercial organizations, instead
of simply becoming targets of one-side communication of theses organizations.
It also provides the organizations with the prospect of opening the channels of
communication with customers.
The growing popularity of social networks in the world have given the
companies unprecedented opportunities to convey their marketing messages
directly to their targeted customers. Findings of the conferences organized by eMatrix Foundation for Marketing in 2009 have shown that 42% of marketing
companies in the world are planning to increase its marketing expenses on
social networking sites. The findings indicated that international advertising
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expenses on social networks will grow at a rate of 10% annually to reach $ 3.5
billion in 2013, an increase of 9.6% from expected expenses in the previous
year.
The findings pointed out that the companies' main objective of marketing in
social networks is to:




Support the branding by 29%
Increase movement to their websites as well as their introduction by 26%
Meet the desires of new generation by 18%
Direct slaes by 11%
According to the findings, the most commonly used social networking
websites for marketing by companies are: Facebook at the rate of 65%, Twitter
at 49%, YouTube at 39%, LinkedIn at 38%, and Delicious at 31%.
Figure-7: Main reasons of marketing on social networks
Benefits of using the social networks







Access to new customers
Introduce your site on the Internet and increase its visitors
Correct misconceptions about the organization
Build and improve the customers' impression about organization
Increase the sales
Introduce the product and build a brand name
Develop new competencies and know the employees through their sites
and pages
 Make it an effective tool for public relations and company news
 Reduce the cost
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 Reach out broadly and without obstructions and diversify the segments of
users
 Flexibility of use: you can choose the right tool according to you need, such
as Facebook, Twitter, Linkdln or other.
 Social networks are environment-friendly: marketing through it does not
require destruction of trees, pollution of environment or use of fuels as is
the case in traditional marketing.
Some misconceptions about social networks: (24)
1. Social networks are free: Registration and placement of information in social
networks may be free. Companies have to invest and bear the costs of
employees or advisers who will manage the work on these networks.
2. Youth are at best to deal with social networks: The reality is that use of
social networks for social interaction is different from their use as a strategic
tool of marketing, as it requires great experience, knowledge and innovation.
3. Social networks are easy to use: An access to social networks may be easy,
but their utilization in a proper way may not be that easy. There are many
cases of failure encountered by companies on their blogs or social
networking sites. Success in attracting customers, keeping them on the site
and making the site a tool of improving the organization's image in the
customers' eyes needs a lot of effort and planning.
4. Social networks are fast: In fact, social networks require time to listen and
understand the society with whom they are dealing as well as they need time
to know about the ideal way to use it properly.
5. Social networks are not measurable: social networks are not only measured
by the number of their followers and fans, but also through the number of
visitors to the website and similarly through the number of influential
people who are associated with the site, as well as the number of retweets
for your comments.
6. Social networks are great means for you to speak and express your opinion:
Indeed, social networks are great means for communication and then,
deliberation. Many people ask themselves when they enter the social
networks: "What should I say?" while they should ask themselves "whom
should I listen to"?
Examples of success for some international companies on social
networks
1. Dell
• Dell page on Twitter is Dell Outlet @ is followed by about 1,600,000
persons, and it is promoting its site on the internet. This page is also used
to distribute coupons and rewarding discounts to the customers. It also
does same thing through its page on Facebook
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• The company's pages on Twitter and Facebook are used to interact with
customers and answer their questions as well as solve their problems
• The company utilizes its presence on Twitter and Facebook to gather
maximum possible ideas and proposals delivered by clients in order to
upgrade products or services offered to customers
 The company merged its followers on Twitter with supporters on
Facebook and was able to attract many people
Figure-8: Dell's site on Twitter
2. IBM Company
The company has allowed its employees who have high skills and experience to
show these skills and experiences through their blogs that contain a large
amount of information about the company and its activities.
The company has also its intense presence on Twitter and Facebook in
order to achieve multiple purposes, including for example, a page on Twitter
about the educational services of [email protected] and it is a collection of
multimedia educational models designed to help customers to understand the
company's products and programmes.
3. IKEA
IKEA site on Facebook presents new products to customers and uses the
feature of "Tagging" which enables them to identify the product in the image
and put their name on it. First person who puts his name on a product gets it
for free. This innovative way of marketing has attracted thousands of users to
the company's page on Facebook.
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4. FORD
Ford's legal department sent some groups letters which were distorted or
manipulated in a way that angered the customers. The incident could have
caused a lot of embarrassment to the company and its reputation unless the
public relations manager promptly informed the administration and corrected
the information through social networks.
Presence of Arab companies on social networks
Earlier, we have pointed out to immense and continuous growth in the
number of Internet users in Arab countries, which rose from only 150
thousand users in 1997 to more than 58 million users in 2009, according to a
report issued by the Arabic Network for Human Rights. This report also
pointed out that number of Arabic blogs in 2009 was about 600 thousand blogs
in which 150 thousand blogs were active.
Social networks also witnessed a substantial growth in all the Arab countries
where the number of Facebook users in the Arab world was about 27,711,503
users by the end of spring 2011, according to the report of Dubai College for
Government Administration. This report also stated that use of social network
is growing rapidly in the Arab world, because of high growth of youth
population that showed great interest in dealing with these networks. So there is
a large scope for further growth in use of social networks in the Arab region in
near future.
On the other hand, a study of media group "Omnicom Media" mentioned
that electronic media is on its way to change the map of advertising market in
the Gulf and other Arab countries with the growing interest of companies to
present the content of advertising for commodities and services electronically.
The study also mentioned that total value of electronic ads will reach $ 170
million in 2011 in that region which represents 9% of advertising market that
has a volume of $ 2 billion annually. However, rate of electronic expense per
person in the region is considered to be one of the lowest in the world. The
Arab Media Outlook report (2009-2013) indicates that the rate of spending per
person is $ 22 compared with $ 462 per person in North America and $ 273 in
Western Europe. These numbers mean for experts in this sector that spending
in electronic advertising needs a dramatic growth and upgrading policies in the
field of advertisement by companies. (25)
This growth in use of the Internet and social networks is not matched by
same level of interest by Arab companies through their presence on the
Internet in spite of many benefits offered by these networks as we already
mentioned, including introduction of the company and its products, making of
a brand name, introduction of the company website, increase of its activities,
correction of misconceptions about the company and improvement of the
organization's reputation among the public, in addition to low cost, fast
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outreach and variety of users. Some examples of Arab companies' presence on
social networks are in the following:
1. STC
STC has a good presence on Twitter @STC_KSA, and on Facebook along
with its site on the Internet. Every one of these tools introduces the other. On
Twitter, the company officials answer the customers' questions and
observations, and receive their complaints and try to resolve them, immediately
or by a promise to the customer that the concerned official in the company will
contact him. Here, interaction and its speed is very important. The company
also on Twitter comes out with different offers and publishes latest news. The
company has until September 7, 2011 about 37,314 participants, and this is a
small number compared with a large number of subscribers in company.
Presence of the company on Facebook also is considered good and it uses
this presence for several purposes, such as introduction of the company and its
products and try to get closer to younger generation through the page called
STC Sport, which focuses on the news of Saudi team and some news about the
sports of Saudi clubs in a careful way without bias to any team, and this is a
smart step. Presence of the company came after the emergence of several
groups on Facebook that were attacking and complaining about its poor
services and in this way, the company is trying to correct some negative
perceptions of the company and improve its reputation.
2. Mobily
Mobily, the main rival of STC also has a presence on both Twitter @ Mobily
and Facebook. It is present on Facebook with more than one page, one of
them is a page named Mobily - Twitter, linked to the company's account on
Twitter so that all things which are published on the company's Twitter
account, are automatically published on this page.
3. Vodafone-Egypt
Vodafone Egypt is also utilizing social networks well either on Twitter,
Facebook or YouTube. The company had unpleasant experience with Twitter
when it presented an advertisement entitled "Shokran" raised the ire of activists
on Twitter who did "Hash Tag" entitled "Vodafone Shokran" to ridicule the ad
and condemn the fact that the company broke communications to the citizens
on Jan. 28 during the revolution and denied them an opportunity of asking for
each other's goodwill. The company's handling during the campaign was
negative as it did not make any effort to comment on this campaign through its
account on Twitter. But it continued to publish messages and posts from its
customers who follow it on Twitter.
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Figure-9: Reactions to campaign "Vodafone Shokran" on Twitter
4. Saudi Airlines
Saudi Airlines is an example of negative presence on social networking
websites. It has a page on Twitter and another on Facebook but these pages
lack any interaction. There are pages which are opposed to the company, and
some of them bear its name or it has been done on behalf of the company staff
like @ SV_Staff.
Figure-10: Site of Saudi Airlines
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Such a page has been created -as it is claimed- by a group of company
employees. It publishes the company's negative aspects and its mismanagement.
Besides that, these days the Saudi Arabian Airlines faces a lot of media criticism
on traditional and electronic media, due to delay or cancellation of flights of
Egyptian, Algerian and other pilgrims and in some cases there were acts of
violence by the pilgrims. In spite of that, we do not find any attempts on the
company pages on Twitter or Facebook to justify these events or improve the
company's image in the eyes of customers. A little comparison of the British
Airways page on twitter @ British_airways with Saudi Arabian Airlines page on
Twitter @ saudi_airlines shows great difference in the style of taking advantage
of the features on Twitter to interact with customers and solve their problems
as well as improve the company's reputation and promote their services.
Social effects of social networking
In addition to the big role played by social networking websites at the
political and commercial levels which were discussed in the earlier part of this
study, these networks have shown great capabilities in other areas at the social
level, such as education, healthcare, coordination of social voluntary operations,
price control and fighting against fraud. Also, non-profit charity organizations
have utilized them in performance of their work to reach out to donors and
beneficiaries at the same time and publicize their activities. In the next section,
we will address the effects of social networks on some of those sectors and the
changes that were caused by them.
Education and social networks
Revolution in the field of communications imposed on governments to
keep pace with development, and transform their electronic systems under the
name of E-Government which affected all areas of society, and education is not
isolated from society so it has been influenced by this revolution greatly but it is
considered to be the most affected area. These new technologies have imposed
a new reality on the educational system and its management, and made us more
ambitious and increased our need to bring in new changes which earlier did not
have any role in the educational field, but their role became important with this
advancement.
Besides our serious need to modify the methods of teaching and style of
presentation along with changing the systems of instructional design, we also
need a new school management system that includes the new responses of
teaching staff and management and encourages a good and effective
relationship with parents and guardians. This goal has become one of the new
responsibilities of management in the age of information, because parents' role
has become important in educational system as it helps the management to
accomplish its tasks quickly for the success of educational system itself. This
requires more time to be spent by teaching staff and management together, and
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it also requires more skills which must be learned and possessed by both of
them.
With the beginning of third millennium, many nations began serious review
of their life where they can assess their performance, analyze the point of their
strength and weakness, and renew the opportunities and options of
improvement in order to work for strengthening the positive aspects and
avoiding the negative aspects, as this is the way of vibrant nations which want
to have a place on the map of human civilization. This explains the interest of
many countries in the world to review their systems of education and training
radically and continuously to check their capabilities to prepare generations for
a society of the twenty-first century. All this has led to the trend of e-learning,
which faced great criticism recently, because it ignored the role of human
element in the educational process and there was much talk about isolation
witnessed in the pattern of e-learning and its distance from social aspect until
the revolution of Web 2.0 came and changed many concepts of e-learning. It
added to it many concepts that restored its confidence and encouraged the
dealing with it. The most important of these additions is to be known as social
networking services, which answered many questions (Amasha, Mohammed,
2011).
Web 2.0 technologies have contributed to the emergence of many
interactive activities which were not possible to be performed in the shade of
Web 1.0 due to its characteristics and capabilities of interactivity and
personalization. The property of collaboration is considered to be one of the
basic and important characteristics in the field of education, where Kear (2004)
found that basic goal of students' participation in the activities of collaboration
is to seek help and guidance from others. As Macconell (1999) sees that
collaborative learning is an activity where learners meet online in the form of
educational groups and share between each other, knowledge, sources,
expertise and responsibilities.
As earlier mentioned, various tools of new media provided by Web 2.0
technologies have opened broad prospects which are capable to meet the
different needs of collaborative learning, so these tools have provided the
possibility of adding the social aspect to educational process and partnership
between all parties which include school management, teachers, students,
parents and any other concerned parties, instead of merely providing the
courses to students. And there are many tools and social networking sites that
can be utilized effectively in the educational process, including for example,
Twitter and Facebook:
MynoteIt (www.mynoteIT.com) is a useful website for students in all stages
of education to organize and save their notes and follow up the grades which
they have received in every subject, and research in the works of students who
have already taken the subject in order to benefit from their experiences, in
addition to the possibility of making study groups very easily.
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Teacherly (www.teacherly.com) is a website which allows the teacher to
monitor students' grades and organize the grades of various assignments and
assemble them, and also every student can access and keep track of his grades,
in addition to providing a place for teachers to exchange views and experiences
and ask questions.
Blogs are one of the new media tools which are the most common and utilized
for educational purposes. These blogs, for instance, are used by faculty
members at universities to communicate with their students and put forth the
subject vocabulary, academic calendar, assignments and grades.
For example, Dr. Faur Collins from the University of Colorado uses his
blog to teach the subject of "Online Writing and Journalism" which includes
vocabulary, objects, references, fees and their due dates. Blog is also linked with
his page on Twitter which he uses as a means to communicate with his students
and remind them of their assignments besides provide them with useful links of
relevant articles or video clips on YouTube or Podcast.
Facebook
This researcher uses the feature of Groups on Facebook to communicate
round the clock with his students in some of the subjects that he teaches at the
King Abdul-Aziz University like computer science, information technology and
subject of technology in public relations.
Figure-11: Virtual class of computer and information technology on
Facebook
On the page "Virtual Class for the Subject of Computer and Information
Technology 312", for example, the communication with students is available
round the clock so that they can raise questions to their teacher and add
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comments, links, relevant articles and video clips. This virtual site is also used
to break the barrier of reluctance and fear among students for a live discussion
and expression of opinion in addition to meeting a very large number of famed
media persons who are present on one of the groups set up by this researcher
as "New Saudi Media" whose members includes more than 2000 Saudi and
Arab media persons.
This site of virtual class is also used to give assignments and date of their
delivery as it is a very useful tool for teacher of the subject to be closely
acquainted with his students and face them through their images, and have an
online dialogue with them and know of their performance and interaction
especially when the number of students in the class is large.
Also a study conducted by the National School Boards Association has
several findings that include some necessary tips for officials in the schools, and
which aim to help them achieve a balance between their responsibility to
protect their students from any damages during their presence on the Internet
and their responsibility to give them an education that is commensurate with
the level attained by science and technology in the 21st century. Some of these
tips include:
1. Use social networks for communication between faculty members and
develop their professional capabilities: The study concluded that knowledge
and satisfaction of teachers and administrators at the school in dealing with
social networks contributed positively to encourage them to use these social
networks with their students for useful educational purposes.
2. Search for educational capacities in social networks and utilize them in
educational process: The study found that there are many schools and
teachers who have successfully utilized the chat rooms, direct messages,
blogs, wikis and the like in providing assistance to students outside the
school time to solve their school homework and participatory assignments.
It was obvious that these activities contributed to encourage students to
participate, including those students who don't tend to participate in the
classroom.
3. Be keen for just provision of service: Exactly as there is a need for justice in
availability of the Internet service, it is important to take justice into account
when capability is available to access social networking among students and
take this into consideration while giving them duties and assignments.
4. Re-evaluate policies for using social networking sites: Some schools prevent
or restrict access of their students to the Internet except for educational
purposes. This balance is also required when talking about social networks.
Safety of students should always be an important consideration and there
should be keen interest to teach students about how to deal with social
networks, and it can be achieved more effectively while they are using the
social networks practically.
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Use of social networks to provide advanced services for libraries
The website of "Accelerated Bachelor Degree" has mentioned one hundred
methods that libraries can use through Twitter, but these uses can be
generalized on many social networking sites that have same features and
capabilities, and some of those methods are as the following: (26)
First: References
1. Reading the latest news: Several websites have pages on Twitter like
MSNBC and this makes it easy to access to the latest information and news.
2. Reaching out to experts and specialists in a particular area and then follow
up with them.
3. Knowing about what other libraries do around the world and benefiting
from their experiences.
4. Customers can ask about specific references and their easy availability in the
library.
Second: Services of discussion
1. Try to hold sessions for asking questions and giving answers, through which
you can get quick answers from your followers. It is also a good method to
help customers and answer their questions.
2. Get quick responses to any changes in the library policy and regulations.
3. Do not tweet more than specified number of tweets.
Third: Announcements and updates
1. To get information about conferences and events related to libraries,
including names of participants and speakers as well as registration and
conference dates.
2. To remain informed about the dates of internal meetings.
3. To inform the library customers about the arrival of new references or
change in working hours.
4. To send notices to customers about the arrival of ordered references as an
alternative instead of using the phone or e-mail.
Non-profit organizations and new media technology
According to Kurdi (2011), there are several benefits produced by the
modern technology in improving the work of charity organizations and that
include: (27)
1. Improve the quality of internal operations by managing the charity and
voluntary work and providing the effective information systems that help in
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efficient process of planning, organizing and monitoring through traditional
and electronic methods.
2. Take advantage of technology in marketing the charitable work
electronically, as it is useful in spreading and reaching out to various
segments of civil society, and also in receiving complaints and cases of need
electronically to study and verify the credibility of such cases.
3. Attract volunteers and manage them electronically.
4. Benefit from technology in developing the civil society through providing
training courses on how to deal with computer and the Internet.
5. Take advantage of information technology for charitable organizations
through collecting, delivering, storing, retrieving and analyzing information
related to charity and voluntary work, whereas the use of computer in
administering the information systems makes information available in right
time and effective way according to available information.
6. Benefit from the information available in databases to compare available
investment alternatives.
7. Take advantage of communication technology to discuss and examine all
related issues, on the basis of global communications and more scientific
and objective foundations consistent with the changes faced by local and
international organizations of civil society, beside tackling the economic
problems and obstacles of development as well as improving the charity
institutions and organizations, and supporting them to learn from cultures
and thoughts of different societies, countries and governments and explore
the sources and channels of information in order to support database and
improve decision-making opportunities.
The study conducted by the Centre of Marketing Studies at the University of
Massachusetts Dartmouth (28) on uses of social networks in non-profit
organizations in the United States concluded that these networks became an
essential part of communication strategies for these charity organizations. The
study also pointed out that major U.S. non-profit organizations continued their
supremacy over commercial organizations and educational institutions in terms
of people's awareness of these organizations, as they could find out and utilize
new attractive ways to reach out to hearts and pockets of givers and donors.
The study found that 89% of charity organizations are using some form of social
networks such as blogs, podcasts, wikis and other forms of social networks.
The growing use of social networks by non-profit organizations continued
during 2009 and in the beginning of 2010, according to a study shared by Nonprofit Technology Network. (29) The study showed that Facebook and Twitter
are the most preferred networks to non-profit organizations, while YouTube
and LinkdIn are remained unchanged. On the other hand, MySpace lost much
interest of non-profit organizations.
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Figure-12: Social networks used by charity organizations
Figure-13: Importance of social networks for fundraising strategies
in charity organizations
The organizations covered by the study mentioned that the most important
aim of using the social networks is marketing for non-profit organization's
name and programmes, events and services with a ratio of 92.5%. Fundraising
comes the second with a ratio of 45.9%, then comes the distribution of
programmes with a ratio of 34.5%, then came marketing research with a ratio
of 24.3%.
Examples for use of social networks by some non-profit
organizations Amnesty International
While visiting the Amnesty International's website (www.amnesty.org) it is
observed that the organization uses a number of social networks and placed
their links on its website. These social networks are Facebook, Twitter,
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YouTube, and Flickr, in addition to blogs, RSS service and iPhone apps for
mobile users.
Figure-14: Non-profit organizations' use of social networks
Figure-15: Objectives of non-profit organizations' use of social
networks
On Facebook, there are many like pages for several countries which use them
to spread news and information, and receive comments, beside features of
discussion, record of observations and announcement of events. On
Twitter@Amnestyonline which has about 37.327 followers, announcement is
made about events and campaigns and there is possibility of interaction with
users. The organization's channel on YouTube, which has 10.202 subscribers,
has more than 368 different video clips that have been viewed 2,207,093 times.
This suggests the importance of this means and its capability to deliver the
message of such organizations effectively.
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SOS Children's Village
SOS Children's Village is the largest charity organization in the world to take
care of orphans and neglected children. It uses Facebook, Twitter, blogs and
YouTube to deliver its message and collect donations. Through blogs of its
employees in different parts of the world, it informs of its activities and events
that take place in each country and reaches out to donors for fundraising. Same
thing is done through pages of likes on Facebook, and its site on Twitter, as
well as its channel on YouTube.
The Salvation Army
According to the evaluation of Forbes magazine, this organization is one of
the ten largest and most famous charity organizations in the world. The
organization uses blogs, Facebook, Twitter, Flickr and YouTube to introduce
its activities and achievements as well as to provide news, reach out to donors
and communicate with beneficiaries around the world.
Islamic Relief
In addition to its site on the Internet, it has pages on Facebook, Twitter and
a channel on YouTube to introduce its activities, reach out to donors and
beneficiaries and improve its image, especially after the events of 9/11. It is
observed from the wording that appears on its pages that it introduces itself as:
"Islamic Relief is an international aid and development charity, which aims to alleviate the
suffering of the world's poorest people."
Figure-16: Page of Islamic Relief on Twitter
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Even though it bears the name of Islamic Relief, however, it made it clear from
the above wording that its work is directed to alleviate the human suffering,
without any distinction whosoever it may be. Its channel on YouTube contains
91 video clips and 267 subscribers with total of 81.372 views.
Albr Organization
With mere an access to its website (www.albr.org.sa), it becomes clear that
here is a great weakness in its use of technology, starting from the website's
design and content to its use of different features of modern media. It has a
traditional style of collecting donations through the bank account numbers and
it lacks any interaction. Also, there is no independent site for each of its
branches with no form of coordination or linkage, therefore a search for its
page on Twitter will only show a page for one of its branches in Mohael, which
has only 16 followers and 11 tweets, beside the lack of information, interaction
and constant update. Similarly, on Facebook there are several pages with the
name of Albr which are devoid of coordination and coherence even in writing
its name in English.
Figure-17: Website of Albr Organization
The use of social networks to serve the issues of society includes many other
aspects. This researcher is concerned for example, with the issues of violence
against children. He has a group on Facebook "Facing the phenomenon of
violence against children in Saudi society" which has more than 12,000
members. He uses the group to create awareness and raise the issues of
violence against children for their documentation as well as to have discussion
about the issues related to children and ask the concerned authorities to issue
or activate the necessary laws to protect the children. This group was one of the
first means that had discussions on "the marriage of younger girls" and
demanded to fix the age of their marriage.
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Figure-18: Site of Anti-Child Abuses in Saudi Arabia
Presence of religious vigilance on the Internet
There are several pages of religious vigilance on Facebook, which for
example, include the page of like with the name of "Diary of Religious
Vigilance for Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice". The founders of
this page say about it: "Page was set up to be a forum for those who have
common concern to discuss the ideas of religious vigilance and find out realistic
solutions to remove evils or prevent them before their happening as well as to
discuss comprehensive solutions to the critical issues which proved to be
difficult for many members of religious vigilance force. These issues – if left
without any solution – would cause dangerous effects, God forbid."
Isa Al-Ghaith, a Saudi writer, in his article published in Al-Madinah
newspaper, says (30): "The electronic Ihtisab (promotion of virtue and
prevention of vice) is not – as some people want – an interference in the
people's rights or an intervention in the state's jurisdiction but we've seen it on
screens of the Internet in a mature and civilized way, as it has appeared to
promote the human virtue and prevent the human vice towards the individual
and society. The individual has an entity, though he may be a child but he want
to achieve the level of real vigilance that can realize the interests and rights, and
accomplish the tasks, as well as ward off evil and injustice in the life.
Today's generation has learned to respect the other, rather than despise him,
so dialogue and persuasion have come anew. As we have seen dialogue between
Almighty God and His creation in the Holy Qur'an, then, how it should be
between the creatures? The new generation has freedom not only from the
authority of parents, but also has got freedom from the authority of all, whether
he is a religious scholar who leads others and they follow him without thinking
or discussion, or a business man who handles the people's livelihoods and
rights as he wants, or an official who dominates those who are below him and
exploits his authority according to his whim, or even others who were leading a
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humble generation, unlike today, when we see our children and feel shy of their
courage, awareness, conviction, way of dialogue and style of life. I am sure,
God willing, that this generation would be more outstanding of their
predecessors, instead of being a burden on them."
Findings and results
The study led to following results:
1. New information media reshaped the map of communication in
contemporary societies with its features such as global proliferation, speedy
access and interaction, multimedia characteristic and low cost.
2. Social networks caused significant impact on rules of freedom of publication
and expression as well as support of democratic thinking, human rights and
other political, social, academic and commercial concepts that led to
formation of groups taking advantage of easy use and participation without
any need for technical expertise or material cost to the extent that some
believes, it will lead to the emergence of a global thinking to work for
change of the world.
3. The perception about social networks in the Arab region inclined to ignore,
fear or caution against them, due to political or social considerations or their
underestimation as mere a temporary phenomenon. However, the role
played by these networks, particularly Facebook, Twitter and YouTube in
political events in the region at the beginning of 2011 made the
governments, businesses and educational institutions show great interest in
these networks. However, their utilization in the government, commercial,
educational and social sectors remains weak compared to their potentials
and applications used in other developed countries.
4. The Western governments pay great attention at all levels to social networks
through employing them for access and interaction with the public, and
providing them with better government services smoothly and efficiently.
As regard the Arab countries, the use of these networks in government
institutions is still very weak, with the exception of a few cases. If such use
is found, it is due to the individual efforts of persons or officials in those
government agencies and not in a professional manner and according to a
strategic planning. This personal attention in spite of its importance
however, lacks the ability to interact adequately and utilize effectively the
features of these tools, as it lacks the element of continuity and
documentation.
5. The essential role played by social networks in the Arab revolutions
increased fear and suspicion of Arab governments and even some have
resorted to block or restrain it despite difficulty.
6. The great spread of social networks with their features of sharing and
interactivity as well as low cost make an integral part of the Western
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commercial companies' marketing with all sizes. For the Arab world,
popularity and growth of these networks are considered the fastest globally
especially among youth with the expectations of great scope for further
growth. However, this growth has not been accompanied by the same
degree of attention from Arab companies in order to utilize them and take
advantage of their features and avoid their negative aspects.
7. Social networks showed great potential in the areas of social service issues
such as education, healthcare and coordination of charity operations, as
non-profit charitable organizations in the world have utilized them
In spite of great potential offered by these networks, however, their
utilization in the Arab region is still weak and did not live up to the
optimum use of their potential features and characteristics, whether in areas
of education or in other areas.
Recommendations
1. Arab governments have to look at social networking sites as opportunities
that carry a lot of features and benefits, instead of looking at them with
suspicion and caution. These networks are an effective means for
governments to communicate and interact with citizens in order to
understand their issues. Arab governments also have to move towards
utilizing these social networks in all their institutions in a planned and
studied way with the aim of facilitating the provision of government services
to citizens in order to interact with them and know their complaints and
observations. All of this should take place in an institutionalized and
organized way and not in a personal way.
2. Arab businesses and trade companies have to make various social networks
an integral part of their marketing process, and it is done according to wellstudied plans and strategies. These networks provide an opportunity for
companies of all sizes to access the present and targeted customers at a
lowest cost and with a direct interactivity and global outreach.
3. Participatory and interactive capabilities of social networks have restored
confidence to e-learning and found solutions to criticism directed to it for
ignoring the human element in educational process. The features of social
networks, specially their interactive and participatory capabilities as well as
their low cost have provided great opportunities to Arab educational
institutions, like schools, colleges, universities and libraries. These networks
should be maximum utilized by students, teachers and members of the
administration staff, provided that this utilization takes place in a wellstudied and planned way in order to avoid all the risks and negative effects
of social networks on students. To realize this, it is necessary to start the
education of computer and the Internet for students from the primary level,
beside their education on merits and risks of the computer and internet. For
universities and colleges, the use of these networks yields great benefits in
any area of study, as it is a means of allowing the constant interactivity
between student and professor of subject. It also allows the establishment of
89
students group and gives them a chance to communicate and interact with
many experts and specialists, which was not easy to reach out to them
before. There are also many other benefits that make these social networks
an integral part of the educational process.
4. Social activists and non-profit charitable organizations in the Arab region
have to take advantage of social networks and use them to achieve their
goals, whether to spread the awareness and define goals of social work or
with the aim of communication and interaction with donors and
beneficiaries, and to improve the image of Arab charity institutions that was
tarnished badly after the events of September 11.
90
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Goodman, Sarah (2011). Social Media: «Use of Facebook and Twitter to
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Friday, 15/7/2011, www.al-madina.com/node/315538 retrieved on
15/9/2011
92
The Role of Islamic Media in the Globalization Era:
Between Religious Principles and Values of Globalization
Andi Faisal Bakti
Professor, Faculty of Da’wah and Communication Studies,
Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University, Jakarta
Abstract
Islam is a religion of principles, stemming from ethical, legal, and
philosophical teachings, with more than 1.5 billion followers across the globe.
Muslims believe that Muhammad (peace be upon him) received God‘s final and
complete revelation to mankind and that they have a universal message and
mission to call the whole mankind to worship the one true God. However,
these principles sometimes collide with modern principles, including the values
brought along in the era of globalization.
Islamic principles were initially introduced by Prophet Muhammad (peace be
upon him) in the seventh century and have passed through a 14-century long
process of (re)interpretations, based on new localities, systems, and context of
lives, encountered by Islam. These interpretations are not always welcomed by
the proponents of the so-called Islamic traditions. But the proponents of
Islamic modernism have no problem adopting the new meanings, as they
believe that Muslims should experience modernity or new life.
The question is how can Islamic media play a role in the era of globalization
for dakwah? In other words, how do Muslim leaders or scholars perceive the
role of Islamic media in the globalization era, and how do they bridge the gulf
between the Islamic religious principles and globalization principles? What are
the challenges and the opportunities for the Muslim world, in order to grasp the
principles of globalization? What is the role of Islamic media in the era of
digitalization?
The role of Islamic media in the era of globalization appears to be weak, as
the concept is still debatable among the Muslims, and among the antiglobalization movements. While only few Muslims accept media as part of the
93
Islamic tools for dakwah, some believe it is incongruent with Islamic values, as
media is seen to be channeling the messages of globalization (Westernization).
Even if they accept the concept, Muslims have a limited capability to
maximize media for their own dakwah purpose. Some are lacking in facilities
and others are low in the know-how. Most websites on Islam are limited, and
there are websites that post negative information about Islam. Furthermore,
many Muslims have not realized the important and far-reaching effects of the
media for dakwah.
Traditional and conventional dakwah remains the rule of conduct. Face-toface dakwah is commonly and widely practiced by Muslims. Only a small
number of Muslims, mostly among the elites, have access to the Internet.
External or global dakwah through webs has not been the main target of
Muslims. Muslims seem to identify three roles for Islamic media:
First, modern media associated with globalization is dangerous as it will
destroy the morality of Muslims, so one should keep away from it. The media
can never be Islamized. Islam as a teaching of high dignity can never be
associated with evil teachings. There is no such thing as Islamic media. Islam is
sacred, while media is profane. It seems that the majority have the same belief
as Billig: That the processes of globalization are dealt in a heavily ideological
structure. The hegemonic version stresses globalization as being; such an
enormous process has to be irresistible; associated with instantaneous, global
technologies which are simply baffling and therefore beyond most people‘s
control; related to theories which anyway urge that the world cannot be
rationally and morally accounted for; implicitly an Americanizing process, for
example in the ways that the word's ‗new world order‘ or ‗modernity‘ are
managed (see Billig, 1995).
Such emphasis encourages the (admittedly complex) processes of
globalization to be seen as utterly beyond the control of human beings, as a
force which renders us powerless. This, of course, is convenient for the
corporate multinational companies benefitting from global power, since it tends
to dampen down enthusiasm for attempts to direct, or regulate them differently
(Branston and Stafford, 2003, 119).
For many, ―globalization means Westernization; for others it means
Americanization. In both cases the globalization process is seen as
acculturation; that is, the adopting of a new culture (Western or US culture)‖
(Roy, 2004, 258n).
Second, Islam is a message that can use any kind of media to deliver its
message across the globe. The most important point is that media can deliver
the message of Islam to a receiver in every nook and cranny of the world; and
Third, Muslims should be able to establish their own media, comparable to
the secular media of the West today. Muslims should be able to compete and
win the competition against the media that covers and disseminates non-Islamic
(evil) messages from non-Muslim countries. Through this Islamic media,
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Muslims can control the content of messages to be sent through the channels
created by Muslims.
In Esposito‘s words, ―amidst increasing globalization,
Muslims strive to survive and compete, often with limited resources, and to
preserve their identity in a world dominated (culturally, as well as politically and
economically) by the West.‖
Islam is more than a religion. It is a system of life (Esposito 2002). However,
Islam contains rich traditions and heritages which need to be protected (Hanafi,
1990).
In order to be able to understand the sacred texts of Islam, one should
engage in a process of reinterpretation, as the texts are culturally bound to
where it was revealed. These interpretations might be incompatible with other
localities (Zayd, 1992). Fazlur Rahman (1982) believes that the texts should be
understood according to a textual approach, examining the reason behind their
revelation, the structure of the words, and texts, and grammar. This should be
coupled with a contextual approach, looking and relating them with the
condition and situation of Muslims according to the time and era.
The role of Islamic media in the era of digitalization is very crucial as it
processes technologically the data on Islam, preserves it, and serves as a
channel of information from the sender (dai) to the receiver (mad‟u). Thus
seekers of knowledge do not necessarily engage in face-to-face encounters
anymore with their source of knowledge (ulama). Other questions can also be
addressed to the providers or website owners. The principles of Islamic dakwah
are clear and well documented in the Qur‘anic verses and the Prophet‘s
traditions, along with the works of authoritative scholars uploaded on the web
or the latter‘s answers to questions about certain issues.
The main values in Islam are the importance of worshipping the true one
God, who has revealed His last message (the Qur‘an) to His last Prophet
(Muhammad), who showed the ideal behavior in his words and deeds (Hadith).
Islam teaches the five principles of faith (belief in one God, His angels,
messengers, scriptures, and the day of judgment), and encourages humankind
to do good, to donate to the poor, orphans, and the needy, and to pray, fast in
the month of Ramadan, pay almsgivings, go for Hajj, keep one‘s promises, be
patient, not to commit crimes, adultery, fornication, not to steal, lie, commit
slender, cheat; to respect human beings, care for one‘s parents and elders,
neighbors, family members, and others; not to destroy the environment, and to
perform good and stay away from bad deeds. These are, among others, what a
Muslim should do and not do. By respecting this teaching, a Muslim will be
rewarded paradise in the hereafter. The deeds are precisely recorded by angels.
Anything that prevents a Muslim from the above is seen as Satan‘s, the enemy
of God‘s, work, which should be avoided.
As Islam contains principles, globalization also includes values. It links
power structures and activities which go beyond the national boundaries that
have existed for centuries, such as the Chinese, Arab, Indian, Persian worlds,
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and Roman Empire, as well as the Roman church across medieval Europe and
beyond. Globalization is rather different, and distinctively modern. It grew
from the expansion of trade in late Middle Ages which itself was accompanied
and followed by the growth of Western imperialist and the post-imperialist
powers throughout the world.
Globalization has been said to occur when activities are taking place in the
following conditions. First, they take place not on a national and regional arena
but beyond. Second, they are deliberately organized on a global scale. Third,
they involve some interdependency, so that local activities in different parts of
the world are shaped by each other. Forth, they often involve technology which
make possible instantaneous as opposed to simply speedy communications.
Both Islamic values and globalization principles need to be combined. As
Islam is basically a universal religion, which needs to be addressed and delivered
to all human beings, it is absolutely crucial to employ the media. Muslims need
to use this significantly for dakwah, and not see it as an evil tool. This is indeed
just a tool which is neutral and can be used for negative or positive purposes.
By using media, the message of Islam can reach the remotest areas. They enable
the message to cross the borders of countries without visas, passports or exit
permits. The new media, such as ―television… now escorts children across the
globe even before they have the permission to cross the street,‖ says Meyrowitz
(1985, 238).
Globalization era and Islamic values
Globalization occurs when:
1. Activities take place in a global, beyond the national and regional arena.
Technology of communications is responsible for this process that led to an
international economy. It started with the introduction of printing on papers in
China, sold in Europe, where books and texts were distributed to wider areas
between China and Europe. Underwater cable systems were invented in
Europe and used by European imperial powers and companies such as Cable
and Wireless, which have continued to be the main tools of communication
today. Telegraph systems were land-based and quite useful. By 1870s,
submarine cables had been laid in Southeast Asia and were linked to the
African coast. Later on the link went beyond China and Europe, as far as
Australia and South America. This first global communication system
successfully separated the sending and the need to ship them physically
These local and national boundaries, religions, laws, media institutions,
taxation structures, etc., still exist, and have huge economic and ideological
impact. National identities seem transformed, but not obliterated, by
globalization. This crossing-over of national and regional boundaries seems to
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have created global inequality. World economy is not global but is centered on
regions and networks (see Tomlinson 1999) which can be categorized as
follows: by areas of advanced consumer-capitalist power (North America,
Europe, and East Asia), by language used (Spanish in Latin America, English in
many countries), by religions and cultures (the Islamic Middle East), and by
technological factors, such as the ‗footprint‘ of a satellite (MTV in Europe, and
Star TV in Asia) (Branston and Stafford, 2003, 417-8).
The areas in the Middle East and Southeast Asia as well as South Asia where
Muslims live seem to have been enjoying globalization in terms of religion and
cultures, which more often than not tend to be referring to the temporal (past)
elements, as opposed to spatial (present and future) creativities. As a result
people in these areas entertain themselves with an exclusive understanding of
human relations, as opposed to an inclusive comprehension of human
communication. They would not struggle for advanced power, or an advance in
technological factors as was the case in Europe. According to Roy (2004, 24),
―globalization has blurred the connection between a religion, a pristine culture,
a specific society and a territory.‖ For him, ―this objectification of Islam is not
only a result of political pressure and events: it is also a mechanical
consequence of delinking of religion and culture.‖ Furthermore, he believes
that ―globalization is a good opportunity to dissociate Islam from any given
culture and to provide a model that could work beyond any culture‖ (ibid, 25).
2. Activities are deliberately organized on a global scale.
These systems were coupled with the news agencies‘ establishment (see
Thompson 1997, 152-9). The four media giants; Reuters, UPI, AP and AFP
soon became the main source of print media in the world. These news agencies
likewise disseminated news well beyond the continents of America and Europe,
and at last in 1869 agreed to split the world into mutually exclusive spheres of
operation. These more or less related to the spheres of influence of the major
European imperial powers.
Media studies on their own cannot alter these inequalities—but they can point
out the images and words which help sustain them.
On the outset, the global spread of media corporations has been intimately
related to the imperialist past. Furthermore, there is adequate evidence of a
significantly profitable, mostly one-way flow of news, information and
entertainment from the major Western counties, led by the United States, to the
rest of the world. Significantly, now there exist more regional flows often
dependent on the global spread of imperial languages such as Spanish, English,
French, and Arabic. For example, Mexico and Chili become important as
producers and exporters of tele-novels or soap operas to the rest of Latin
America, as well as parts of Europe and Southeast Asia (Branston and Stafford,
2003, 407-8).
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In the case of language, Muslims throughout history have experienced some
forms of globalization, though travel, pilgrimage or the widespread role of
Arabic and of a common teaching curriculum. A ‗community of the learned‘
existed, which transcended all linguistic and ethnic divides, using Arabic as its
lingua franca, and traveling from Morocco to India to learn and teach in a
network of comparable and homogenous institutions (akin to medieval
European clerks, using Latin and traveling from universities to monasteries).
―This pre-modern globalization was effectively connected with the attempt to
revive, through the medium of Arabic, a common Muslim culture, although it is
an elite phenomenon.
The Muslim ‗community of the learned‘ no longer circulates in a purely
Arabo-Muslim context, and English is as important as Arabic, if not more so,
outside the Arabic speaking world. In short, the earlier form of globalization
did not borrow its linguistic and technical tools from another culture, as is the
case nowadays‖ (Roy, 2004, 108). Arabic too seems to become further
localized, as local Arabic as opposed to standard Arabic seems to be more
commonly practiced in schools and university as is the case in Egypt. Let alone
the Southeast Asia, South Asia and the Indian sub-continent. ―Contemporary
globalization is not an elite phenomenon but a mass one, and it has a backlash
at the core of the countries of origin, while traditional society was left
unchanged by medieval globalization‖ (Roy, 2004, 108).
To theorize the media in fully political ways, the political economy
approaches of Armand and Michelle Matelart, Janet Wasco, Toby Miller and in
particular Herbert Schiller have argued that much of the globalization of
communication has been driven since World War II by the commercial
interests of the large US-based corporations, in particular those based on oil
and arms manufacture. These often in collaboration with the US state as
political and military interests, which have replaced the British, French, Dutch
and other older empires. It is not a giant leap, then, to argue that US media
power is a form of cultural or media imperialism. Traditional local cultures are
argued to be destroyed in this process, and new forms of cultural dependency
and colonialism are shaped which mirror older imperialist relations of power
Media conglomerates operate as oligopolies - a few large organizations
together dominating the market. They often work together (like cartels) to
cooperate on perpetuating ‗free trade‘ treaties which will further their interests
(see Klein 2001). (Though far from being ‗free‘ or ‗deregulated‘, these depend
on thousands of pages of regulations, and the cooperation of nation states to
implement them.) (Branston and Stafford, 2003, 411)
The media corporations that control the market are mostly owned by
American, European and Japanese capital, though they are usually based in the
US and, importantly, tend to use US stars, highly-paid personnel and
consumerist imagery (Australian Rupert Murdoch has had to take on US
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citizenship to be able to acquire larger US interests). It is also worth pointing
out that the term ‗globalization‘ makes the process seem like a force of nature,
spread right over the planet. In fact the multinational corporations divide the
world into series of regional markets or territories: North America (US and
Canada); Western Europe, Japan and Australia; developing economies and
regional producers (India, China, and Brazil, and Eastern Europe), the rest of
the world (Branston and Stafford, 2003, 412).
The media in the Islamic world has been initiated by establishing IINA
(International Islamic News Agency) and the Isnet (Islamic Network), but by
these, Muslims also are not able to create their media giants to counterbalance
the four media giants in the West, as planned initially. Al-Jazeera quite shocked
the Western media for its capability to provide a perception and coverage of the
Gulf war, different from that of the Western media such as CNN. According to
Esposito (2002, 135-136), ―globalization of communications has created a
situation in which Arabs and Muslims around the world often see more than
we see.
Unlike in the past, today‘s international Arab and Muslim media are no
longer solely dependent on Western reporters and channels. While America‘s
overseas media presence (reporters and overseas posts) and coverage have
waned over the past decade, television stations like Al-Jazeera and others
provide daily coverage of the violence and acts of terror committed by both
sides as well as the disproportionate firepower used against Palestinians by
Israelis armed with American-supplied weapons, F-16s, and Apache
helicopters.‖ However, despite all these, finally Al-Jazeera was weakened by the
establishment of an Arabic language channel called Al-Arabiya.
In a different sphere, ―the rise of a business-minded Muslim middle-class,
quite at home with free market and globalization (having benefited from
economic protectionism), but unhappy with the monopolization by nonproductive ruling elites of access to international markets, is also a by-product
of this new modern and devout middle class, while legitimizing its wealth‖
(Roy, 2004, 142).Using a sociological approach would be to consider the
religious market, where the commodities are, above all, meanings and symbols,
such as: Halal meat, travel agencies for Hajj and Umra, Islamic fashion, banks,
tourism, even swimming pools, private schools, sports clubs, charities and
undertakers. This religious market is globalized‖ (Roy, 2004, 172).
3. Activities are interdependent so that local activities in different
parts of the world are shaped by each other
Some reports of globalization classify it as a homogenizing process, ―leading to
McWorld‖ (see Herman and McChesney, 1997; Barber, 1995). Others believe
that ―local characteristics persist, sometimes in the form of fierce religious and
ethnic loyalties; sometimes in the form of local foods (McDonald‘s), costumes,
customs and versions of history‖ (Branston and Stafford, 2003, 406). More
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often than not, there is an inter-play of ‗global‘ and ‗local‘, especially given ―the
abiding importance of nation states and their legislation which is needed to help
manage global capitalism. It is true that very often US money and imagery are
dominant, and increasingly taken for granted as part of the ‗local‘‖ (Branston
and Stafford, 2003, 407).
The film industry is a good example of interplay within globalized media. To
get a big co-production financed, there will usually need to be complex preproduction negotiations with television, video, cable, etc., funders sometimes
based in the overseas market where the film will have to sell to recoup its
profits. This means that the resulting film may have unexpected elements in it
which are far from being local, even local to the US.However, this limited
degree of diversity will tend to go along with the need for at least one US star,
though again, this may be someone like Catherine Zeta Jones, or Sean Connery,
originally coming from outside the US.
Then in production, the global-local logic of selling big-budget blockbusters
tends to mean that films, however local the subject matter, are shot and made
globally, across the world. But this is far from a global uniform process: the
global locations of such movies are often used at the cost of some damage to
local environments; damage which is unlikely done at a First World location
like Time Square, New York, for example (see Branston 2000, Chapter 3, and
Miller et al. 2001, 197).
Muslim food seems to be unable to become a globally enjoyed meal. Some
Arab food, such as shawarma, baklawa and shish taouk, but these types of food
cannot be as popular as McDonald‘s hamburger, Pizza Hut‘s pizzas, KFC‘s
chicken, etc. These Western foods, though originally local, are unique, and
children and adults alike enjoy them throughout the world. Similarly, Chinese
food, and Chinese noodles are found everywhere, more so than Arab food.
The movie industry in the Muslim world is also poor and weak compared to
Hollywood. In fact Bollywood is becoming more popular in some parts of the
world as opposed to Arab or Iranian films. The music industry is also in the
same situation. CD‘s of Maria Carey, Celine Dion, Brian Adams are preferred
by youths in Southeast Asia as opposed to Arab singers, such as Umm
Kulthum, etc. In fact, after the latter artist, no Arab singer is probably as widely
known in the music industry.
4. Activities often involve technologies which make possible
instantaneous, as opposed to simply speedy communications.
The electronic demands of supermarket shoppers are scanned instantaneously
at checkouts and relayed to the shop‘s storerooms. This has abolished the
independence of local growth and harvesting circle—for some people. For
others, agribusiness means near constant labor, oppressive contracts with
supermarket chains, and water dependency. Salads picked and washed in
100
Kenya, on estates using huge amount of precious water, are air-freighted in
forty-eight hours to save time for British consumers.
Big news items are now broadcast instantaneously, twenty-four hours each
day, globally. They often have direct, international effects on jobs and
sometimes governments, e.g. news of the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the US led
to stock market collapses, huge job losses, especially in the air travel and
tourism industries, and so on (Branston and Stafford, 2003, 405).
The electronic demands of supermarket shoppers and chains have been
dominated by Western businessmen, as opposed to Muslim traders. Products
might be from the Muslim world, as in Southeast Asia or in Pakistan, or North
Africa or Turkey, but the electronic demands and the supermarket chains are
owned by the advanced consumer capitalist countries. In fact they set prices for
the benefits of the wealthy countries.
Debates about globalization
Debates on the issue of globalization revolve around the following:
First, in addition to the media imperialism model, its ownership emphasis
can imply that all US television, for example, unavoidably express only
consumerist values, both in programs themselves and via the advertizing which
finances them. This ignores image, theme, and information diversities. How can
the US television also express production values and Islamic teaching, or how
can the Muslim world create their own programs—which are in accordance
with Islamic values and also are interesting for the West, and finance them?
This the fist challenge for Muslims.
Second, the very power of global media is actually centralized. Branding can
work against the interest of their owners. Global branding of sports people
wearing Nike shoes and others, but simultaneously ‗high news profile‘ of the
stories of child labor in Indonesia and Pakistan by the same corporations (see
Klein, 2001). How can the global media cover Islamic issues positively, and
remain decentralized? How can branding of Muslim products be liked globally
as with Nike, but not exploit child labor, among others? This is the second
challenge for Muslims.
Third, it is widely believed that consumers make purchases simply as a
result of watching such programs. But Roger Silverstone‘s metaphor of
translation: ‗globalization is a process of translation.‘ We believe that Disney
and the news of the world are the same everywhere. ‗But we know that it is not‘
(Silverstone, 1999, 109). How can Muslims become active receivers, so that
they can make their own translation? Thus the meanings are created by the
watchers, spectators, and the listeners and the readers. According to Thayer
(1987), the audiences are active; the source cannot control the meanings it
intends to impart. This is supported by Barker, while global television is a form
101
of cultural power it was suggested that audiences are active creators of
meanings and not ‗cultural dopes.‘ … ―Television does not operate as a
hypodermic injection of meaning (because audiences are active) and global
television is not best thought of as a form of cultural imperialism. Rather, in
contributing to the dislocation of cultural identities from specific places,
television is a source for increasingly complex multiple identities and competing
discourses of power‖ (Barker, 1999, 171).
Thus, McLuhan‘s Global Village (1964), which ‗we‘ are now living in, is only
rhetoric, as who is the ‗we‘ that has access to literacy, telephones, let alone the
Internet.
One, this inequality applies to part of the First World versus the majority
worlds. Thus, how can Muslims play the role of the ‗we‘ as well? How can the
Muslim world struggle to become the first world, in order to create the best
technology and develop science?
Two, who controls the agenda of which entries come up first when one
types a particular category into a search engine, for example? Of course it is the
Western world. Thus, how can Muslims control their own Islamic values
agenda, so that which pops up first is about Islamic teachings? So Muslims
should create their own search engine, similar to yahoo.com or google.com.
Three, active audiences across the world are argued to be able to construct
resistant meanings no matter what is on their screens. But what about
audiences which seem to be influenced by unexpected news images, or their
favorite fiction? So, Muslims are challenged to make their own news images, or
their favorite stories.
Four, local and national boundaries, religions, laws, media institutions,
taxation structures etc., still exist, and have a huge economic and ideological
power. National identities seem transformed, but not obliterated, by
globalization. Then, the challenge for Muslim countries is to embody this truly
global yet great economic and ideological power, without limiting it to the
West, but including also the Muslim world.
Five, some critics of globalization call the third world underdeveloped, i. e.
deliberately starved of investment, and exploited for few materials (food, oil,
minerals which are now key to information technologies) needed by Western
powers. Most development always means a move towards Western capitalist
standards of inequality, stress, competiveness, damage to the planet, job
insecurity? How then can the Muslim world exploit/use its own natural
resources for its own benefit, so that development can mean progress towards
the Muslim world as well?
Reflection
According to Biddle and Thomas (1996), the role theory deals with actors,
action/behavior, the position of the actors, the relation between actors and
102
behavior. In relation to this issue of globalization and Islamic values, there are
four possibilities:
First, the actors are Muslims who serve as recipients, and Westerners as the
sources of globalization.
Second, however, it can also be the reverse, whereas Muslims become the
senders, and Westerners are the receivers of Islamic values.
Third, another probability: Muslims are sending the message of
globalization, and Westerners are sending the message of Islamic tenets.
Fourth possibility is that Muslims and Westerners can serve both the issue
of globalization and the Islamic teachings at the same time.
Based on the discussion above, we can conclude that the first possibility is
the most commonly practiced now in the global world. This means that
Muslims become ‗victims‘ of the message, when we refer to the dependency
theory approach to development, and they become colonized by the imperial
rulers, when we refer to cultural imperialism theory (Schiller, 1996). Muslims
serve as targets of domination, when we refer to the theory of dominated code
of Hall (1981).
The second possibility seems to be rare, as the messages of Islam are related
to religion in the narrow sense, despite the fact that some non-Muslims have
converted to Islam, after reading the website on Islam.
The third possibility seems to be in fact not yet touched, despite the fact
that Islam is a global religion, and that, from seventh to the 14th century,
Muslims contributed to the development of science and philosophy. But this
remains a thing of the past. In addition, some Westerners are sending the
message of Islam on the web. However, some convey a negative interpretation
of Islam or basically an academic critical work on Islam, including some
reference work, which are not intended for dakwah.
The fourth possibility seems to be the ideal role of both actors. This is what
Lee Thayer (1987) calls an interactivity of the senders-receivers. Each can play
both roles. The world then will experience an equilibrium. In terms of behavior,
using Biddle and Thomas (1996), there are five elements: expectation, norm,
performance, evaluation, and sanction. These elements can be seen from the
following understanding about the issue of their reaction to globalization:
First, those who believe that globalization is dangerous for Muslims: it will
destroy Islamic values. They seem to be controlled by the opinion that
globalization is a Western attack on Muslims and Islam. Since Muslims are
weak, they are just victims of globalization. These groups cannot do anything,
but admit they are defeated. They are sometimes victims of globalization. They
have no expectation and admit the norm brought along by Western principles
of globalization. They admire the performance of globalization, do no evaluate
let alone sanction it. These are lay persons.
103
Second, those are from academics who tend to react critically to
globalization, by trying to express their opinions through writing or speaking.
Of course they are not violent, as they are also using an academic approach to
criticism, using data and evidence to back up their arguments. They expect that
the Western globalization should be fair to Muslims, and that Muslims should
be selective in receiving the Western media messages. They are critical about
the Western norm and performance that come along with globalization. They
are also worried about the first above. They see (evaluate) the West being
central in destroying the belief of Muslims. And warn Muslims to be critical and
creative of their own media. They call for a sanction of Western domination
over Muslims and the rest of the world.
In Roy‘s words, what is new in the current wave of globalization is that the
making of Muslim minorities is carried out through a process of deculturation,
in which none of the previous cultural markers is retained‖ (Roy, 2004, 108).
More specifically, ―they fear forces of a globalization will lead to greater
Western economic penetration of Muslim countries. The result, they fear, will
be continued in a Muslim dependence on the West and a free market economy
that is geared only toward maximizing profits, which may increase the growing
gap between rich and poor. Finally, they fear a contagious Western culture
whose retail stores, advertising, music, media, and dress can erode traditional
Muslim religious ideals and threaten the identity and values of Muslim youth‖
(Esposito, 2002, 162).
Third, those who are trying to react to globalization by demonstrating,
bringing groups of people to gather in front of Western embassies, or the
World Bank, IMF, WTO, APEC conference, and UN offices. They expect
globalization to be stopped, as the norms and principles are not fair to the rest
of the world. They judge (evaluate) the performance of globalization to be
enriching themselves while the rest of the world is getting poorer. They see
―globalization as de-ethnicizing Islam.‖ … ―The endeavor to build a
community whose sole criterion is religious faith presupposes the negation of
any specific culture and ethnicity‖ (Roy, 2004, 146). These are usually from
among activists of the civil society organization.
Fourth, small number of people who claim to be representing Muslims but
they are basically hijacking the Muslims, by attacking the Western center of
power and economy, such as the World Trade Centre, the Pentagon. The same
norm is believed as in the third above, but adding it a fierce sanction with
violence and with a narrow interpretation of Islamic norms, different from the
mainstream majority on the beliefs of Muslims. These minority groups are from
Al-Qaeda and the like (see Williams, 2002). For Roy, ―these discourses and
targets often overlap those of the leftist anti-globalization movement.
A sheikh called for attacks on major symbols of US interests —
McDonald‘s, a favorite target of anti-globalization militants.‖ The means are
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different but the target — anti imperialism are similar. Halal McDonald‘s is fine
but not otherwise (Roy, 2004, 46; Barber, 1995). In addition, for Roy, ―neofundamentalism, which goes along with a distrust of state and nationalism, is
better adapted to economic globalization and the free market.
Fifth, there is also a group of people who try to compete with the West by
trying to master science and technology, including ICT and nuclear power for
human welfare. They act very peacefully and expect to be able to compete with
the West in making another alternative of globalization that brings along
Islamic values. The norm they are struggling for is science and technology.
They believe that they have to perform well. They tend to adopt self-criticism,
by sanctioning themselves to invent and search for new science.
In Roy‘s words (2004, 26), ―globalization can be accommodated through a
liberal reformist view of Islam, a charismatic and spiritual approach, or a neofundamentalist stress on law and rituals.‖ For this group, he continues,
―globalization is an opportunity, not a loss. It may also provide an antidote
against cultural Westernization, because when Muslims are cut off from pristine
cultures that were for them largely influenced by non-Islamic customs and
traditions, an opportunity presents itself to reconstruct a Muslim community
based solely on Islamic tenets. … The quest for an explicit formulation is part
of individualization‖ (Ibid, 2002, 29-30). These people are mostly scientists and
researchers (see Ramadan, 1999).
Regarding the position of the actors of Islamic values and globalization
principles, there are three factors: first are the characteristics, such as sex, tribe,
and nation. In this case, the characteristics are related to the nation, with the
advanced nations on one side and the Muslim countries on the other. Second is
the profession, such as athlete, leader, and villain. In this case Muslims see the
West as the source of negative elements (villains) and as the leader of
globalization and the West sees Muslims as the source of Islamic values, with
leaders are often portrayed as violent and fundamentalists. Third is the reaction
of an actor to another actor. In this regard, Muslims may react to the West, and
the West also reacts to Muslims negatively, such as after acts of terrorism and
the Western ‗invasion‘ into Muslim countries.
Actors and behaviors have similarities and differences. Both Muslims and
the West are different in their values. However, we can also see some
similarities, for example: both tend to be global, and want to spread the values
and principles of their own to other parts of the world. Interdependency of
both actors is also at work. Thus, Muslims are dependent on the West in the
latter‘s ICTs, and the West also is dependent on Muslims to use these ICTs, or
to learn their know-how. To do all these, each needs adjustments and accuracy.
We also notice that each of the movements is rooted in a particular cultural
tradition, and often in local conditions: They share some features:
105
One, the movements are reactions to the secularization and the world
economy and domination resulting from the expansion of colonial powers.
Two, each is historically oriented and interprets contemporary global events
(debt, crisis, war, ethnic strife, and disease) as divine portents that validate their
central doctrines. Each fears decline and lack of faith in whatever religious
principles it espouses.
Three, each has designs on state power and has adopted political structures
to attain that end, either to gain control over a nation state, or to establish his
own, independent state (see Hayanes, 1998).
Four, all insist that while converting others to their own, believers should
keep themselves separate from non-believers.
Five, each makes a strong appeal to young people, particularly college
students, and have developed organization to reach them.
Six, each has a militant segment that challenges the power of the secular
state by disobeying secular laws, a call to higher law.
Seven, most stress the importance of family in social life. Some emphasize
that women should stay home.
Eight, they feel that the economic problems of today are caused by moral
degeneration (Robbins, 2002, 347).
Conclusion
As it is a religion of global audiences, and indeed, it proved to be true in the
pre-modern globalization, Islam should be able to play an important role once
again in a global context. Not only in terms of language (Arabic) and other
major Islamic languages, such as Malay-Indonesian, Urdu, Persian, Turkish, and
Swahili, but also in terms of culture and civilization, Islam should be able to
compete in the positive sense with other religions, areas, and regions.
Now is the time for Muslims to the comprehensive elements of
communication. They see the media as a tool or channel (wasilah) for Islamic
messages. They should be serving as a good source (da‟i) of information about
Islam. They should create their own search engines, providers, satellites, blogs
or websites with an excellent performance, attractive, comprehensive
information, at least in the form of mailing lists.
The information should be covering all aspects of Islamic messages (maudu),
such as philosophy, law, theology, arts, humanities, education, and the modern
development of Muslims. Classical, medieval, and modern references should be
accessible. Recent publications should be available. Facebook and Twitter and
the like should be used maximally for the purpose of Islamic dakwah and
education. As a result, effective dakwah will be achieved. All these elements of
106
Harold Lasswell model of communication (1960) should be sponsored
sufficiently by the Muslims philanthropist and governments.
Muslims should develop their own film industries, videos, music and arts,
which are attractive to the global audience. Not only to Muslims, but also to
anyone interested to access Islamic messages. By so doing, the negative
information about Islam or inappropriate human behavior posted on several
websites should be corrected by these positive postings. As for being a receiver,
the active reception model is more relevant to Muslims, as the effective
message depends on the receivers, who is the one constructing the meanings.
Muslims should be able to use the Western media facilities and know-how to
channel their Islamic teachings for dakwah and education. Thus globalization
should be grasped, rather than hated and avoided. Globalization is indeed an
opportunity, a challenge for Muslims to develop their creativity. Creativity
should thus be highly sponsored, not only in broadcasting networks, as the
original Al-Jazeera, but also in other types of media.
107
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109
110
Islamic Discourse and Problems:
Relating to Self and Others
Farhad Omar
Director, Islamic Television Channel,
Johannesburg, South Africa
Islamic media discourse under the banner of The Islamic Discourse and
Multi-Cultural Problems can be viewed from various loci of reference. The
subject matter is vast. Rather than attempt to delve into great depth into the
root matter I have utilized the findings of other researches and focused on
providing solutions to the current dilemma. Never has the influence of mass
communication on our society including our culture, race and religion been
more significant than the present. It is undeniable that after the 9/11 attacks on
US, Islam has dominated media substantially.
Islam, meaning submission and peace, is presented on media channels as a
violent religion that indiscriminately encourages the killing of innocent
individuals and promotes the oppression of woman and other such unfounded,
unjust allegations and assumptions. This has served to inaccurately shape public
perception of Muslims and their beliefs. In an attempt to explore what has led
to the current status quo as a by-product of multiculturalism one has to look at
the origins in societies and I made the following observations.
 Multiculturalism is a fairly ill-defined idea, and its manifestations in various
countries display a great deal of variation, dependent on the particulars of
the society in question (Vincent 2003:43; Grillo 1998:193-194). As noted,
multiculturalism has been a highly controversial and contested discourse;
and as such has been a central issue in the debate about the nature of
modern societies being transformed by globalization (Brah 1996:227).
 Multiculturalism permits the maintenance of cultural difference of ethnic
minorities within the state, in explicit contrast to the assimilative ideal
formerly associated with the nation-state. Rather than requiring assimilation
into the mainstream culture, and the repression and denial of cultural
111
difference, multiculturalism purports to allow and encourage the different
cultural features of ethnic minorities, while extending to them the full rights
of citizenship of the state (Grillo 1998:176).
 Thus multiculturalism encourages ethnic groups to maintain a distinctive
identity and engage in the politics of recognition within a single society. In
this way particular ethnic identities may be preserved, while common
citizenship provides a countervailing identity that unites the different groups
in a common polity (Kivisto 2002:36).
 As Parekh notes: ‗The term ―multicultural‖ refers to the fact of cultural
diversity, the term ―multiculturalism‖ to a normative response to that fact‘
(quoted in Kivisto 2002:36). It can in effect be seen simply as a more
sophisticated model of social control than the nation-state model it seeks to
replace (Bonnett 2000:107).
 Minorities are typically only allowed to deviate from the norm to the extent
that they enrich, rather than challenge, the culturally specific values of the
majority. The majority sees its cultural values as being universal and hence
trans-cultural in nature. Thus it will allow for cultural variations only in as
much as they do not challenge these basic, ‗universal‘ values
(Grillo1998:195). Any such challenge is seen as implicitly rejecting these
universal values and hence is deemed to be beyond the articulation of
acceptable cultural difference (Horton 2003:25). Failure to accept these
limits on multiculturalism is seen as indicative of bad citizenship,
disqualifying the miscreant from taking part in ‗multicultural‘ debate (Parekh
2000:89).
After understanding the roots of multiculturalism we need to examine the
role of Islam within the multicultural context and the following observations
have been made. Some of the main common topics and stereotypes on
Muslims is the division of Muslims into good and bad Muslims. In this
discourse good Muslims represent some kind of a Euro-Islam which seems to
include an understanding of a Muslim not practicing religion publicly and thus
not being visible as a Muslim in public. Likewise bad Muslims stick to a
traditionalist understanding of Islam which is represented in Islamic clothing
and publicly practiced religion. In addition only those Muslims who
continuously condemn terrorism in public are regarded as good whereas bad
Muslims remain silent. Remaining silent is likened to acceptance of terrorism.
Another line in the common discourse on Muslims is their presentation as a
monolithic block. This approach is reflected in the use of the term ―Them‖ for
all Muslims and ‗Us‘ by Americans, Germans, French, British, etc. The
distinction between ―Them‖ and ―Us‖ is representative of an assertion that
Islam in principal is incompatible with major European ideals like democracy,
sexual equality, and rejection of violence as a means of policy. To put it shortly:
Islam is seen as not compatible with modernism and freedom of the individual.
It is regarded as a threat to the achievements of the European age of enlightenment.
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Muslims, they further say, not only are different and their religion
incompatible with European culture but also their presence in Europe is
regarded as a threat. This viewpoint claims that Europe is running a great risk
of being conquered by Islam through immigration, naturalization and birth
rates. Defenders of this argument are convinced that because of a growing
Muslim community Europe is in danger of losing its Christian based cultural
identity.
Another line adopted in the common argument refers to the term
―Islamophobia‖ itself is in the center of the critique. It is stated that the term
was especially used by "Islamists" as a means of obscuring legitimate criticism
of Islam or Muslims. Accordingly Muslims show that they are unable to accept
criticism of their religion by naming every critique of Islam and Muslims as
Islamophobic. In so doing, the Muslim aggressors present themselves as
victims whereas they themselves were the perpetrators. With this understanding
of the root of multiculturalism and the current positioning of Islam within this
multiculturalism, we need to investigate what has been the cause of shaping
such a distorted public opinion. The main protagonists of this view of Islam
can be narrowed to media coverage of Islam and anti-Islam actors, and I will
elaborate on this.
Media coverage on Islam
A comparison of the country reports shows that anti-Islamic attitudes are
not a characteristic of a common mainstream of media. Nevertheless antiIslamic articles can be found in very different politically oriented journals and
newspapers, marginal media of sub-cultural streams as well as central organs of
the leading intellectual and administrative groups. These articles and reports
have dramatically increased after 9/11 in all the countries in our research focus.
In this respect the European media seem to show a particular interest in
questions of gender power and politics. Differences in the understanding of
sexual equality are seen as the crucial point of difference between the European
or national culture and the Islamic culture.
Domestic Muslims are held responsible for global Muslim terrorist activities.
Their critical reaction on terrorism is seen as a litmus test for their identification
with the national state or Europe as a whole. Islam is presented as a societal
problem, a barrier for integration while social circumstances of Muslims as an
urban sub-proletariat in European cities are neglected. The discourse presented
is anti-Islamic because it is not balanced as a pro-contra discussion but very
often presents only a collection of arguments against the compatibility of Islam
and life in a Western society.
Media tends to adopt negative public attitudes and prejudices rather than
being informative and balanced. This can be seen mainly when those voices
that follow the mainstream on Islam and Muslims as a danger to society are
given space for articulation. It is quite hard to find editors for articles that try to
113
give a more differentiated view on the issue. In the public and political
discourse, as reflected in the media, Islam has become a central part of the
struggles of contemporary American, French, German, Dutch, Italian, English,
etc identity.
Anti-Islamic actors
a) Non-Muslims
Non-Muslim politicians, intellectuals as well as so called and ―real‖ experts
on Islam who openly express their anti-Islamic opinions seem to gain more and
more publicity. They play an increasing role in the anti-Islamic discourse.
Where knowledge on Islam and Muslims is poor it‘s easy to fuel fear of
Muslims and Islam, so the people who appear to know more and claim to have
a clear notion of how the issue has to be understood and be tackled get a major
role in the process of public opinion building.
People like Hans-Peter Raddatz in Germany, Oriana Falacci in Italy or
Caroline Fourest and Michel Houellebeq in France or perhaps Poly Toynbee in
Britain present themselves successfully as courageous tellers of the truth in the
face of moral relativists (in the Netherlands and Germany called ´naïve
multiculturalists´) and dangerous Muslims. No further differentiation between
Islam and understandings of Islam, between theory and practice and different
cultural influences on the understanding of Islam is made by these spokesmen
and this makes their analyses so easy to follow and to adopt by the masses: their
ideas and arguments are seen to plausible and sensible.
b) Authentic Muslims as anti-Islamic actors
The focus must not be confined to non-Muslim misrepresentations of Islam
but to a greater agitator; the ‗authentic‘ Muslims as experts on Islam. It is
noteworthy that the public makes more and more use of Muslim spokespeople
to legitimize a harsh critique on Islam and Muslims. A very interesting
phenomenon I want to analyze here is the rising importance of Muslim born
intellectuals in the anti-Islamic discourse. Observations of countries like
Netherlands, Germany and France, reveal that criticism from within their
Muslim population is regarded as authentic and plausible because individuals
like Ayaan Hirsi Ali in the Netherlands or Necla Kelek in particular or in some
respect Seyran Ates in Germany have a Muslim family background, hold
academic or political titles or mandates which seem to give them legitimization
and authorization to analyze phenomenon like: Forced marriages, honor killings
and domestic violence.
The value of their opinion derives also from the fact that leading politicians
declare them as noteworthy experts. Some of them like Necla Kelek or
Chardott Djavann (France) have gained status as official advisers to ministers.
Necla Kelek is advisor to the Ministry of Interior in questions of Muslim affairs
(She is a permanent member of the recently established German wide
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Islamkonferenz) and also for migrant issues to the Ministry of Integration.
Chardott Djavann was among a selected few invited for an audition at the Stasi
Commission set up by Jacques Chirac to reflect upon the applications of laicité.
For all of these authentic criticizers the above-mentioned phenomena in
Muslim families are directly based on Islam itself. The protagonists mentioned
become especially valuable because they are without any restrictions willing to
share the harsh critique on Islam as expressed by representatives of the nonIslamic majority society. Here I want to draw your attention to an interesting
metamorphose they are undergoing in the process.
Hirsi Ali and Kelek at the beginning of their media career as Islam-experts
stated they no longer regarded themselves as Muslims even though those in the
media and politics continuously address them as examples of independent
secular Muslims. With their critical approach to Islam they are regarded as ideal
representatives of a modern form of Islam and thus defined as authentic ´good´
Muslims.
Interestingly, when addressed as modern Muslim women none of them
rejects the classification of being a Muslim. Because it is this combination of
being both an ´authentic Muslim´ and a woman that makes them authoritative
and powerful voices in the discourse on Islam as being oppressive against
women. To make their argumentation more convincing to the masses they mix
empirical data and novel-like elements with narrations of their own family
history. All the three women mentioned regard themselves as the voice of the
oppressed women who cannot speak or are afraid to do so. In this respect even
openly aggressive assertions against Islam can be expressed without showing
any evidence for what is stated as the ―hidden face of Islam‖.
With this understanding of the problems of the Islamic discourse within this
multicultural society, we will now look at what we have adopted in an attempt
to firstly open the lines of communication and creating a repositioning of the
understanding and acceptance of Islam within this society. ITV or (Islamic TV)
as it was formerly known is a non-profit satellite broadcaster that broadcasts
across southern Africa. Amongst a bouquet of free-to-air Christian channels,
ITV stands out as the only channel with an Islamic ethos and receives
substantial feedback from both Muslims and non-Muslims in the Southern
African region. How did we get this right? The concept was simple, ITV‘s main
objective is to educate, inform and enlighten its audiences through a creative of
mix of content that chose to meet our audiences where they are and take them
to where we want them to be.
In this regard humor was used to expose the stereotypes mentioned earlier
in this paper for the masses to realize how absurd the very notion of the mass
grouping actually was. We chose content and programming that would focus
on the similarities of the various groups in an attempt to stop the ―us‖ and
―them‖ positioning. Our content chose to showcase the Muslim home and
rather than preach Islam we presented Islam in order that our audiences may
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understand. This led to two outcomes, the first was allowing our non-Muslim
audiences to get a more accurate understanding of Islam and secondly it
empowered our Muslim audiences to stop being shy and apologetic about their
faith.
The channel offers an array of entertaining programming that is suitable for
every household to enjoy, whilst still maintaining a strong moral ethos. Social
prejudice was diffused by integrating common interest and information onto
the channel as I will present to you on this short video clip of the programming
of the channel. The successes of our efforts can be seen and measured as more
and more people engage with the channel to know more and our partnerships
with organizations such as the Islamic Propagation Centre International
founded by the late Ahmed Deedat allow us to distribute additional literature
and information to these interested parties.
As Muslims we have been slow to provide a correct picture of Islam in the
English speaking world but now as more and more opportunities arise within
this sphere it is incumbent on us to seize these opportunities and display the
truth.
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Renewal of Islamic Media Discourse:
Style, Content, Form
30
Azhar Arsyad
Professor of Arabic and Management,
Universitas Islam Negeri (UIN), Alauddin, Makassar)
“The question of renewing contemporary Islamic discourse has, without doubt, today become
an existential issue, one of life or death. If it is not able to dislodge the rust from its joints that
have calcified and worn out, it will not be able to contribute thought and culture to world
production. If it does not leave its isolation to join the vast arena of human knowledge, it will
continue to ruminate its sayings that have been incessantly repeated for decades.” 31
One day, the North Wind and the Sun were arguing. They were trying to decide which
one of them was stronger. When a traveler came along wrapped up in his overcoat, they agreed
that the one who could make the traveler take off his coat would be declared the stronger of the
two. The North Wind began. He blew as hard as he could, but the harder he blew, the tighter
30
By Style, we are concerned specifically with what might be called the texture of writing or
speech, with such matters of verbal detail as diction, imagery, syntax, and sound. Diction, the first
of these elements that make up style, means simply the writer‘s choice of words. Another aspect
of a writer‘s style and one which often seems especially important is imagery. It ordinarily means
the evoking of any experience of the senses. Many writers when they refer to imagery, are
concerned with metaphorical objects. The order of words in sentences, along with the lengths of
sentences and paragraphs, makes up an important part of prose style, the element called syntax –
from a Greek word meaning ―to put in order‖. (see an Introduction to the study of literature by
Marlies K.Danziger & W. Stacy Johnson, Boston, D.C. Heath and Company, 1961. By Content,
according to Mario Pei and Frank Gaynor In their Dictionary of Linguistics, 1969, Littlefield,
Adams & Co, is the intrinsic meaning of a linguistic symbol. In The Study of Multimedia,
However, The term content is something within materials to be presented. It is the meaning and
information which is denoted by the materials, words, and pictures being presented to influence
others‘ images cognitively. Form of media refers collectively to all media technologies, including
the internet, video games themselves having developed into a mass form of media. Traditional
media forms refer to the printing press, computer, plastic as a media form, CD, DVD, etc., and
―new media‖ has something to do with electronic media and internet.
31 Ridwan Ziyada, “Renewing of religious discourse through a departure from Arab-centrism”, Alexandria,
18-20 April Conference on Human Rights and Renewing of Religious Discourse: How Can the
Arab World benefit from the Experiences of the non-Arab Islamic World?
117
the traveler wrapped his coat around himself. Finally, the North Wind gave up. Then the
Sun began to shine with intense heat and, right away, the traveler took off his coat. The
North Wind had to concede; the Sun was stronger than he was. Source unknown.32
BACKGROUND
At various times during Sept. 11 event, in addition to 1990 and 1993s, Islam
in America has been the feature of national media coverage. When Time
magazine announced that Islam was (and is) the fastest growing religion in
America and that its membership would surpass that of the second largest
religion, i.e. Judaism by the turn of the century, it was Islam in juxtaposition to
Judaism that provided the contextual significance. By the time the Gulf crisis
unfolded and the national networks found that they had surplus time and few
experts to plug the gaps, it became fashionable then to integrate Islam into the
framework of daily news. Middle Eastern studies departments, religious editors
and instant street experts combined to give Islam more exposure than ever. Of
course, some subjects were carefully avoided. For instance, no one addressed
the subject of the percentage of African slaves who were Muslims when they
came to America; why Islam was raging ―out of control‖ among African
Americans; or the number of American converts to Islam in Saudi Arabia when
they were asked to help Saudi government at the time of crisis.
Despite the fact that prejudice, intimidation, discrimination,
misunderstanding, and lack of publicity have become an American religious
phenomenon, probably, not many Americans are aware of the existence of a
sizeable number of Muslims in that country. Nonetheless, some of them may
experience direct or indirect contacts with Islam and Muslims. Some know
Islam through their friends and companions; others read books and print
media; others meet Muslims on the street and public places; and the rest listen
to Islam being associated with notorious activities in the media like terrorism,
anti modernization, oppression, anti-democracy and violation of human rights.
However, many Americans have shown their eagerness to learn more about
Islam and a few have even decided to embrace this religion.
There are several means by which new converts begin to have contact with
Islam. First, Muslim students play an important role in awakening other
students‘ curiosity (especially women) of different religions and beliefs on one
campus to be attached to live peacefully under the banner of Islam. One female
student who eventually embraced Islam from Boston University33 stated: “The
first thing I learned about Islam was its prohibition of eating pork. I was in a restaurant with
a friend who did not want to eat pork. When I asked the reason she said she was a Muslim.”
32
This story is quoted from A. Arsyad in Step by Step: Readings in English, Pustaka pelajar,
Yogyakarta, 2008, P.53.
33 Hasnah Husain, 1992, The Dynamics of Conversion to Islam among White Americans, unpublished
paper.
118
Another woman said: “When I was in the college, I had a friend whom I met constantly
in the bathroom washing herself. The way of washing was very strange to me. When I asked
her, she said she was doing ablution, and explained to me that Islam requires washing before
prayer.”
Another type of communication by which new converts get to know Islam
is through media; TV, new sprint, and academic work. TV and newspapers play
a significant role in shaping public awareness of the existence of Islam. One of
the female students who later embraced Islam in 1991 and who had been
searching for something other than her own religion, stated; “I saw a Muslim
woman on TV. She had a lot of dignity and peace. She had veil (hijab) and she had herself
respect. You know, I tried to find out more about Islam.” Not at all these media,
however, have publicized the nature of Islamic faith fairly; most of them to
some extent misinterpret and have prejudice toward Islam consciously or
unconsciously, and then represent the misconception to the public. Islam in
Western countries still has minority status and is often misunderstood in spite
of the efforts of various Islamic organizations as one convert said, as he was
once the victim of religious prejudice, because of this misunderstanding34.
However, these prejudices and misconceptions do not prevent some others
from finding Islam as it is understood by Muslims.
Academic works on Islam, which are readily available to the public, have
certainly increased people‘s knowledge of Islam. As other media, not all
academic works are objective towards Islam and Muslims, though they still
provide a lot of information about Islam and draw others‘ awareness. Salman
Rushdie's controversial book, The Satanic Verses, and the Muslims‘ rejection as
well as their protest against the book motivated many Americans to pour into
book stores. They bought not only Rushdie‘s book, which became among the
bestsellers of the year, but also the Qur‘an and other books on Islam. 35 Six out
of 10 whom Hasnah Husein interviewed recognize that books have played a
certain role in increasing their knowledge on Islam and in directing their
conversion.36
Third, the other means of information about Islam is professional contact;
teacher-student, doctor-patient, and social worker-client. This contact has
brought about the awareness of the presence of Islam in America, as far as
Hasnah‘s research was concerned.
Finally, the fourth medium by which these women got acquainted with
Islam was their husbands. These men also played a crucial role in some of these
women‘s conversion to Islam. The following statements were made by the new
convert that Hasnah interviewed in Boston: ―I had been searching for something when
Ibid.p. 4
Emily Kalled Lovell, 1983,"Islam in The United States: Past and Present‖. In Earle H. Waugh.Baha
Abu Laban,and Regula E.Qureshi. The Muslim Community in North America.Alberta : The
University of Alberta Press. P.93
36 Hasnah Husain, loc.cit.
34
35
119
I met my husband. He wanted me to know about Islam. So he took me to an Islamic picnic.
When I sat down with other sisters, I felt comfortable. It was a peace, a peaceful feeling inside.
Oh….This is Islam. I think I want it‖.37
These background explanations at least could help those who are interested in
discussing the renewal of Islamic media discourse; content, style, and form a
little bit grasp and understand the psychology and sociology of the matter.
Media images of Islam in the west
We would agree, probably, that the mass media can convey stereotypical
images. According to Harper38, stereotype is defined as ―an oversimplified
image of (usually) some category of person, institution, people, or event which
is shared in essential features by large numbers of people….”stereotypes are
commonly, but not necessarily, accompanied by prejudice. Our attitudes toward others are, in
many cases, influenced by media images.”
Despite increase in the number of Muslims in the West, misinformation
about Islam is widespread. This misinformation also finds its way into text
books and media published in Asian and African countries including Muslim
countries themselves with all its impact on growing young generations all over
the world. Misinformation is prevalent in text books, fiction and non-fiction
material, reference books, encyclopedias, magazines, journals, newspapers,
television, and radio shows. Let us look at a few examples below:
A medical encyclopedia published in Chicago, Illinois, mentions the Prophet
Muhammad‘s name (peace be upon him) among those famous people who
were epileptic. A church publication in 1981 mentioned the rise of Islam in its
early period in the following words: ―….the moral looseness of the new faith, the might
of the sword, the fanaticism of the new religion, the shrewdness of Muhammad, the hope of
plunder, the love of wealth, and the idea of a sensual paradise have been among the causes for
the spread of Islam which is today embraced by one sixth of the world‟s population.”
A fourth grade history text book published in US had an article about the
Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and its topic is, ―A camel driver‖.
The same article tells the children of 9-10 years of age about the status of
women in Islam in the following words: ―…..They believed that women should be
slaves to men and that they thought that a man might have as many wives as he wished, all at
one time…”. “Very soon they began to force others to become Muslims whether they wanted
or not. Like the high way robber who says, “money or your life” they gave everyone a choice,
“money or your life, or be a Muslim.”
It is obvious that adults and children who read this kind of material would
not want to know anything more about Islam. It is every Muslim‘s
responsibility to open the minds of people so that they read and learn
37
38
Hasnah Husain, op.cit., p.6
Harper Dictionary of Modern Thought, New York: Harper and Row, 1977
120
discourses about Islam before they even think about accepting it. Casual
readers of the daily newspapers including those in Indonesia could be forgiven
for thinking that the word ―Moslem‖ is an adjective used to explain violent
events in remote parts of the world. Some of the examples are ―Moslem
Leftists‖ make war in Lebanon, ―Moslem separatists‖ rebel in the Philippines,
―Moslem insurgents‖ fight the Soviet Union‘s troops in Afghanistan, ―Moslem
militants hold hostages in Iran, ―Moslem extremists assassinate officials in
Syria, ―Moslem cultists ―make trouble in Nigeria. ―Moslem fundamentalists‖
struggle to establish Islamic state in Indonesia, etc.39
This journalistic shorthand, however, according to Lippman, is misleading,
unfair and potentially dangerous, because it distorts our understanding. It
fosters the impression that Moslem – that is, those who practice the religion of
Islam – are generally troublemaking fanatics whose penchant for working out
religious conflict through violence is a menace to the rest of the world. It
validates the belief that Islam promotes violence. However, press accounts of
the turmoil in El-Salvador do not, for example, describe the right wing hardliners as ―Christian extremists‖.
Muslims are everywhere in the world. They are of every race, from east to
the west, from south to the north, and some six million Americans as well.
While the adherents share common religious beliefs, they naturally differ widely
in behavior. Most of them are not leftists or blind fanatics or extremists; they
cannot be stereotyped in the image of one race or one kind of political or social
conduct. The vast majority of Muslims are not Arabs. The biggest Muslim
nation is Indonesia with about more 200 million Muslims 40.
Every Muslim would be astonished as they read the media such as the one
from The Christian Science Monitor. The contents are full of lies and slender.
The followings are some quotations from The Christian Science Monitor,
Monday, April 26, 1993. The title is 'The Roots of Terrorism': ―…(Muslims)
have raped, tortured and murdered Israeli Jews and Arabs..Yet Americans,
from our comfortable distance, validate the PLO, an organization founded on
murder. In short, we succeeded in rewarding terrorism‖.41
39
Thomas W Lippman, 1982, Understanding Islam: An Introduction to the Moslem World. A Mentor
book, New York: New American Library.
40
Omar Ahmed, 1993,"Muslim demographics” in Al Talib, The Muslim Newsmagazine at
UCLA, March 1993.
41 ―The Roots of Terrorism‖ in ―The Christian Science Monitor‖, Monday, April 26, 1993. Other
articles and statements seem to be very offending and sarcastic like ―Can an Islamic Government
Foster Democratic Rights‖ (The Christian Science Monitor, April 28, 1993 p. 10-11), ―The
Dilemma for Arab Democrats. Those seeking political freedom worry it will whether if Islamist
win‖ and in (TCSM, April 27, 1993 p.6), ―Islam Extremism: Fundamentalists‘ clout
overestimated by US‖.
121
Testimonial in some Western books
In the 14 centuries, subsequently Islam was established more formally, it has
often been considered by the Western media in the 20th century, a source of
conflict, violence and fanaticism, but Thomas Lippman, a well known
American journalist says it has also been a source of beauty, generosity, thought
and inspiration. Its record does not compare unfavorably with that of
Christianity. The performance of the Muslim Arabs when they conquered
Egypt in the seventh century, for example, is a model of benevolence compared
to that of the Catholic Spaniards in Mexico and Peru.42
The Qur‘an according to the understanding of Lippman prescribes struggle
and fighting only in defense of the faith and teaches that those who join the
struggle are more likely to be admitted to Paradise than those who only stay at
home. The Qur'an ordains justice, charity, mercy, self-denial, and tolerance.
Those who count themselves Moslems are not, in their daily lives, more prone
to violence or aggression than non-Muslims. A quarter of the population of
present-day India belongs to the Muslims. But the Hindu fundamentalists (and
not called so by the Western media) accompanied by its government have
overtly destructed the Babri mosque. Isn‘t this an example of violence made by
non-Muslims? Look at the Moros in the Philippines in the era of Marcos. Look
at Bosnia. Thousands of women were raped by the soldiers of its neighbor;
millions rendered homeless. Thousands of young girls were made sex slaves.
Muslims were burned alive by the Christian Serbs.
Through the international media, Muslims and Islam are occasionally
associated with terrorism. However, Noam Chomsky, a long time political
activist, a writer, and a professor of Linguistics at M.I.T. has described that
actually the great terrorist in the real world is the US itself. He made the
following statement:
St. Augustine tells the story of a pirate captured by Alexander the Great, who
asked him ―how he dares molest the sea.‖ ―How dare you molest the whole
world? The pirate replied: ―because I do it with a little ship only, I am called a
thief; you, doing it with a great navy, are called an emperor.‖ The pirate‘s
answer, Chomsky explained, was ―elegant and excellent." It captures with some
accuracy the current relations between the US and various minor actors on the
stage of international terrorism: Libya, PLO and others. It is actually a kind of
supreme cynicism. The concept of international terrorism is actually used as a
cover for Western violence. It is necessary to add a second feature, which is an
act of terrorism enters the conon only if it is committed by ―their side‖ (the
Moslem‘s side or formerly the Soviet side. Not ours (Western side).43
Thomas Lippman, loc.cit.
Noam Chomsky, 1990, Pirates and Emperora : International Terrorism in the Real World. Vermont:
Amana Books.
42
43
122
When Israel bombs Palestinian refugee camps killing many civilians or sends
its troops into Lebanese villages in ‗counter terror‘ operations where they
murder and destroy, or hijacks ships and places hundreds of hostages in Prison
camps under horrifying conditions, this is not terrorism according to the West,
said Chomsky, sarcastically.
Correcting the image of Islam
I would suggest some broad lines of the work, without going into its minute
details which have to be tailored according to the prevailing situation44:
―Encourage the dialogue between Muslims and the followers of other faiths,
Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and others. It is, however,
pertinent that those representing the Muslims, are totally loyal to Islamic
ideology on the first hand, and are fully aware of the nature of the conflict and
its political dimensions, on the other. Such a dialogue will provide us a chance
of reaching a selected type of audience and we can convey really Islamic
massage in a serious manner. By doing, hopefully, it will appeal to some of nonMuslims.
The Muslim missionaries to the West must be fully aware of the Western
outlook of Islam and they should be capable of addressing such an audience.
The Islamic media discourse, by and large, happens to be the best and most
useful tool of correcting distorted image of Islam. Islamic organizations should
endeavor to make a selected and authentic set of such literature in various
languages available. Its distribution should be on a very large scale, not limited
to only those who ask for it.
The freedom of expression usually guaranteed in the West and it provides us
with a very good opportunity for dakwah. All possible channels and media as
well as the new media should be exploited to convey Islamic massage. The new
―converts‖ to Islam from the indigenous West should be properly taken care
of. If we succeed in enthusing in them the correct Islamic ideas, they can
bother influence their relatives, friends and community. Space in the western
media and time on air can be bought to convey the message of Islam
occasionally to create a curiosity among the readers/listeners.
The last, but the most important measure to brighten the image of Islam is
by presenting a live model of Islam through our noble character individually
and as a community. No other means can supersede or even compare this tool
of communication which has mainly been responsible for attracting people to
Islam and it will continue to do so in the future. Mere rhetoric without the
support of live model of Islamic personality will simply fall flat on the audience
with no tangible results.
See also The Future Monthly, July 1988. A.D.Vol.3. Nos. 9,10. Riyadh: World Assembly of
Muslim Youth.
44
123
In the end, as suggested by Ilyas Ba-Yunus45, it is not recommended that
Muslims organize a segregated community. Living in a non-Muslim society,
Muslims have to exhibit the principle of cooperation and humanistic altruism to
the world that is fast becoming conflict oriented. By definition, the Islamic
community has to reach out and be open ended.
Media in the Muslim world
Despite written in 1993, It‘s interesting to read the conclusion of the article
presented by Abdelwahab El-Affendi46 about ―The Media in the Muslim
World‖ and Professor S. Abdullah Schleifer‘s critique47 as Follow: ―Schleifer‘s
thought-provoking critique of the media raises important and fundamental
questions about how an ideal Islamic society should regard the role of the mass
media. Whether the Western-defined modern mass media and its
accompanying values are appropriate for Muslim societies is an important issue
that the Ummah must eventually address. The main problem facing the
Muslims today, however, is not that the media are corrupting them. Rather,
they have corrupted the media, or their leaders have done so and blinded the
reason of the community. One can thus sum up the problem of the modern
Muslim world in the absence of free debate, a failure made more poignant and
glaring by the inability of the Muslim world to develop a mass media capable of
articulating the truth about itself and the world.‖
Since the new era after the era of the new order government, Indonesia has
given the extremely full freedom to the media association and organization to
publish and issue whatever possible as we see nowadays. Talking about giving
freedom to the media association, Schleifer stated:
―To avert the catastrophic disintegration of Muslim society, the credibility of
its leadership must be restored. The easiest way to do this is to restore the
health and freedom of the media. There is no alternative to the institution in
all Muslim countries of a pluralistic system, giving full freedom of
association and organization. A multiplicity of organizations supporting the
protection of human rights and the freedom of the press must be allowed to
form and work unhindered. The cornerstone of such systems must be
freedom of the press. Not only must independent media organization be
permitted, but they should be encouraged by unconditional government
financial support, preferably dispensed through impartial institutions in
accordance with agreed criteria and safeguards. The small ruling elites who
45
Ilyas Ba Yunus, 1987, Muslims in North America: Problems and Prospects, Takoma Park, Maryland :
The Muslim Students Association of the United States & Canada.
46 Abdelwahab El-Affendi, ―Eclipse of Reason: The Media in the Muslim World,‖ in Journal of
International Affairs, Summer 1993, 47, no. 1. The Trustees of Columbia University in the City of
New York 164-193.
47 See also S.Abdullah Schleifer, ―Mass Communication and the Technicalization of Muslim
Societies,‖ paper delivered at the Second Annual Conference of for Promoting Understanding &
Unity in the Islamic World (Istanbul : October 1986) p. 2.
124
fear the consequences of democracy for their lifestyle and freedoms should
hasten to conclude a deal with the rising forces in society that would
guarantee them a minimum of rights and freedoms before it is too late.
Societies could thus be reconstructed around the formal guarantee of basic
civil and political rights for all groups, and an undertaking of the
democratization process.‖
The beginnings of such developments according to Schleifer further may
already be evident in a number of Muslim countries, such as the Arab countries
of Yemen and Jordan, and Malaysia. Malaysia, a multi-ethnic, multi-religious
country with a slim Muslim majority has overcome most of the impediments to
democratization in its history and boasts a rapidly industrializing economy.
While some have argued – not without justification – that Malaysia‘s democracy
is not perfect, it outshines any other Muslim country and most Third World
nations, allowing relatively free elections and reasonable press freedoms, and
with exemplary policies of religious tolerance. Malaysia also has thriving
political movements; its Islamic party has attained power in at least one state,
and has been legal since independence.
El-Affendi then added that the ethical imperative for the Muslims at this
juncture is to exploit mass media potential to the fullest in order to launch a
multiplicity of long-overdue debates over how the Ummah should chart its
future course. Our problems and moral failings are not from unnecessarily
publicizing our shortcomings, but of remaining silent in the face of horrendous
crimes being committed against that very existence of the Ummah. The role of
a community that was designated as a ―witness unto mankind‖ is being
subverted not only by its failure to give humanity moral decadence and
corruption. Our moral shortcomings are crying out of their own accord,
without the need for any mass media outlets to spell them out. We need an
unfettered and inquisitive media, not to condemn what has already been
condemned, but to seek the way out of the abyss and shed light on the road
along the way‖.48
Islamic media discourse at present
Today, the Islamic discourse is influenced by the political, intellectual and
cultural circumstances prevailing in the Islamic world and the economic and
social conditions experienced by Muslim societies. The implications of the
general conditions in the Islamic world impact on the general intellectual,
scientific, cultural and information action of which the Islamic discourse is part
and parcel.
48
Abdelwahab El-Affendi, Eclipse of Reason : The Media in the Muslim World, in Journal of
International Affairs, Summer 1993, 47, no. 1. The Trustees of Columbia University in the City of
New York 164-193.
125
Being an expression of the general Islamic conditions, the Islamic discourse
swings between strength and weakness, moderation and extremism, ability and
feebleness, adequacy and inadequacy, depending on the environment, the
society, and the internal to the external circumstances in which it evolves. Four
main aspects as far as Al-Twaijiri is concerned could be distinguished here:
First: The general weakness marking most patterns of the Islamic discourse at
the level of its content. This is epitomized in the regression of knowledge
against a sweeping ignorance, or what is conventionally referred to as religious
illiteracy, reflected in the frailty of the content and the failing perception of the
matters and issues addressed from an Islamic angle and presented to the public
opinion within the Islamic world, as well as the international public opinion.
Second: Improvisation and spontaneity resulting from lack of planning,
disregard of the scientific approach commanding specialized study of all issues,
topics and situations at hand, reliance on individual capacities in most cases, to
the detriment of co-operation, complementation and co-ordination of efforts,
and the waiver to collective action with regard to new developments and
emerging situation that require a unified position.
Third: Narrow-mindedness and focus on the transient in a total disregard for
the future and for the medium and long ranges. This accounts largely for the
fact that many patterns of Islamic discourse are confined to the circle of
counter-reaction, and for the quasi total absence of initiative.
Fourth: Reflection of the doctrinal, intellectual and cultural differences as well
as the local, regional and international conflicts on the Islamic discourse in its
entirely, making it disjointed, contradictory, plagued by multiple visions and
lacking in harmony and co-ordination49.
These negative aspects impact on general conditions in the Islamic world, as
well as on the image of Islam and Muslims in the world, and on the capacity to
meet challenges and fend off ill-intentioned campaigns that target the Islamic
Ummah, threatening its existence, the sovereignty of its states, the stability of
its peoples and their prosperity and development. In addition to these negative
conditions, the Islamic discourse is influenced by the state of backwardness
where the Islamic world wallows to the extent where this discourse loses
credibility effectiveness and influence, and becomes negative and no better than
hollow and fake words.
In many of its aspects, the modern discourse is no reflection of the true
shining image of Islam, but for a few limited cases, in odd instances and at
varying endeavors. The inadequacy of he Islamic discourse, in addition to the
negative aspects that we have described in detail earlier, lies in the
overwhelming challenges that the Islamic Ummah has to meet. These
49
Abdul Aziz Othman al-Twaijiri, Islamic Discourse Between Tradition and Modernity‖ in Future
Islam, A journal of Future Ideology that shapes Today The World of Tomorrow, 2004.
126
challenges fall into two categories: challenges of which the source is internal
and other that hail from the outside world, although the internal challenges are
much more daunting. These are clear in the state of division and alienation that
prevails within the Islamic world, as well as in the state of poverty and
backwardness that cripple many sectors in many parts of the Islamic world, as
well as in the failure to activate and entrench Islamic solidarity in public Islamic
life. They also take the form of an instability that marks the political, economic,
administrative, cultural, technological and information realms and which
impedes development efforts. All of these challenges impact heavily on the
performance level of the Islamic discourse, and on the effectiveness of its
mission within the Islamic world as well as on the regional and international
arena.
This is the status prevailing internally and externally within the Islamic
discourse at the current juncture. At the internal level, and in view of local
conditions, some forms of Islamic discourse emerge with the purpose of
destroying unity instead of fostering it and sowing discord and conflict instead
of trust, mutual respect and brotherhood. This category of Islamic discourse
causes further weakness to the Ummah, scatters its efforts apart, and provides
external forces with the opportunity to undermine its rights in one way or
another.
At the external level, the weak Islamic discourse, with frail sense of
belonging, and a heavy load of differences, does nothing but consecrate the
stereotypical distorted image of Islam and Muslims, and provides the enemies
of Islam and those who support them with the pretexts to double up efforts in
plotting against the Islamic Ummah, undermining its rights, subjecting it to
tyranny and imposing the new colonial hegemony over Islamic countries.
At the internal level, and in view of local conditions, some forms of Islamic
discourse emerge with the purpose of destroying unity instead of fostering it
and sowingdiscord and conflict instead of trust, mutual respect and brotherhood.
This category of Islamic discourse causes further weakness to the Ummah,
scatters its efforts apart, and provides external forces with the opportunity to
undermine its rights in one way or another. In fact, an Islamic discourse that
lacks in scientific and professional prerequisites could turn to be of a
boomerang effect, entailing, therefore, counter-productive results, the more it
goes astray of the wisdom, gentle exhortation and fair practice of dialogue.50
Communication: Efforts and endeavors
In the contemporary world the mass media provide the meeting ground for our
interactions with others beyond our ―world‖. The media supply the role models
and the scenarios for our encounters with others. What we see, what we say,
and what we do when we encounter foreigners, for instance at home and
50
Ibid.
127
abroad, are shaped by media images.51 And the media -also new media52- could
distort the image. Approximately one century ago, the word ―neighbor‖
referred to people very much like one‘s self—similar in dress, in diet, in
custom, in language—who happened to live next door. Today, relatively few
people are surrounded by neighbors who are cultural replicas of themselves.
Tomorrow we can expect to spend most of our lives in the company of
neighbors who will speak in a different language, have different values, move at
a different pace, and interact according to a different script.
Dean C Barlund53 wrote that within no longer than a decade or two the
probability of spending part of one‘s life in a foreign culture will exceed the
probability a hundred years ago of ever leaving the town in which one was
inborn. As our world is transformed, our neighbors will be people whose life
styles contrast sharply with our own. Barlund even said long ago that the
technological feasibility of such a global village is no longer in doubt. The
means already exist: In telecommunication systems linking the world by
satellite, in aircraft capable of moving faster than the speed of sound, in
computers which can disgorge facts more rapidly than men can formulate their
questions. The methods for bringing people closer physically and electronically
are clearly at hand. What is in doubt is whether the erosion of cultural
boundaries through technology will bring the realization of a dream or a
nightmare. Will a global village be a mere collection or a true community
See Gary Gumpert and Robert Cathcart, Media Stereotyping: Images of the Foreigner, in Larry
A. Samovar & Richard E. Porter, Intercultural Communication: A Reader, Wadsworth
Publishing Company, Inc. Belmont, California, 1992, p.349.
52 New media is a broad term in media studies that emerged in the latter part of the 20 th century.
For example, new media holds out a possibility of on-demand access to content anytime,
anywhere, on any digital device, as well as interactive user feedback, creative participation and
community formation around the media content. Another important promise of new media is
the ―democratization‖ of the creation, publishing, distribution and consumption of media
content. What distinguishes new media from traditional media is the digitizing of content into
bits. There is also a dynamic aspect of content production which can be done in real time, but
these offerings lack standards and have yet to gain traction. Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia, is
an example, combining Internet accessible digital text, images and video with web-links, creative
participation of contributors, interactive feedback of users and formation of a participant
community of editors and donors for the benefit of non-community readers. Facebook is an
example of the social media model, in which most users are also participants. Most technologies
described as "new media" are digital, often having characteristics of being manipulated,
networkable, dense, compressible, and interactive. Some examples may be the Internet, websites,
computer multimedia, computer games, CD-ROMS, and DVDs. New media does not include
television programs, feature films, magazines, books, or paper-based publications – unless they
contain technologies that enable digital interactivity. See Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit
organization.
53 See Dean C. Barnlund,‘ ―Communication in a Global Village‖ in Larry A. Samovar & Richard
E. Porter, Intercultural Communication : A Reader, Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc.
Belmont, California, 1992.
51
128
of men?54
Will its residents be neighbors capable of respecting and utilizing their
differences, or clusters of strangers living in ghettos and united only in their
antipathies for others?
One thing that one should pay attention to is that communication, especially
the among the Arab and the Muslim Worlds in one‘s effort to have
collaboration needs mutual effort, benefit and goodwill, sincerity, friendship,
and brotherhood. It is easy to be misled by instant friendship which may appear
to be deep and personal but are really superficial. The effort is superficial, the
good will is not sincerely intended, and in many cases the benefit is felt by the
other side to be not just. Friendship and friendliness are not synonymous.
Friendliness characterizes much of some people daily interaction but is not
always an indication of friendship.55
Characterizing instant friendships is the appearance of two parties becoming
close but, in reality, there is no strong bond between them. We do not want
this case to happen. Communication should be affective (not only effective) in
which head and heart or reason and emotion are expected to be kept. Affective
communication in collaboration among the Arab and the Muslim worlds is the
communication of feelings, of honest, heart-felt emotions. 56
Renewing Islamic media discourse57
See Azhar, Arsyad, ―Musaahamatul Qiyam al-Diiniyyah fi al-Tafaahum wa Ishlahi al-alam alMumazzaq‖, NESIL in Mumaarasatu Hayyatin IImaniyyatin Fa‟aalatin ,International Symposium in
Istambul, Turkey, 2004. P. 396.
55 See Deena R. Levine & Mara B. Abdelman. Beyond Language: Intercultural Communication,
Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1982. See also Daniel Coleman, Social
Intelligence: The New Science of Human Relationships, Bantam Dell, New York, 2006 p.51
56 See John C. Condon and Fathi Yousef, An Introduction to intercultural Communication, BobbsMerrill Educational Publishing, Indianapolis, 1979.
57 Abdul Aziz Othman al-Twaijiri explains that discourse or ―wacana‖ in bahasa Indonesia and
―khitab‖ in Arabic has two meanings. The first one is pure, consistent and simple. It was
recognised by the Arabs and mentioned in the Holy Quran, the Hadiths of the Prophet (PBUH),
and the early dictionaries. The second one is a contemporary concept, much complex in nature
and goes beyond the linguistic information-related. Clear distinctions can be observed in the
various connotations of discourse and which vary according to the contexts in which they occur.
First : At the linguistic Level : Lisan Al Arab defines discourse (Khitab and Mukhataba) as the
exchange of speech. Speech is described as the medium of Khitab and Mukhataba, and two
interlocutors, engage in a discourse (yatakhataban). It is also defined as a medium of
differentiation between two opposites: between right and wrong and the means of distinguishing
between a rule and its opposite (See also Ibn Manzur, Lisan Alarab, Volume 2, page 856, Edition
of Dar Al Jeel and Dar Lisan Al Arab, Beirut, 1988). Discourse, as defined in Kitab Al Kulliyat, is
the speech or the words of which the purpose is to clarify a matter to those able to understand.
Words that do not serve the purpose of clarifying a matter to the listener cannot be termed as
discourse (see Abu Albaqaa Al Kafawi, Al Kulliyat, page 419. Edition of Arrisala Institution. Dr
Adnan Drawiche and Muhammed Al Basri. Beirut, 1992).Second : At the Quranic Level : The
term ―speech‖ in the form of ‗Khatb‘ occurred nine times in the Holy Quran and three times in
54
129
Before discussing the renewal of Islamic Media discourse in detail, Dr.
Abdulaziz Othman Altwaijri58 was very blunt in addressing the issue. The
following statements in his article about ―Islamic Discourse between Tradition
and Modernity‖ hopefully would help us grasp the issue: “One of the prerequisites
of an active interaction with the multiple changes witnessed by our world is a reconsideration of
the systems and patterns adopted in our intellectual and cultural life, and a rethinking of the
positions we adopt and the choices we make in all political and economic matters. Only
through such a review that we would be able to assess our work, meet the needs, redress and
correct eventual errors, and rationalize, strengthen and steer our march in the right direction.”
This reconsideration would pave the way for us to renovate, develop,
modernize and keep pace with the swift changes occurring in the various fields
of life. It would help us achieve higher levels of global development in a way
conducive to a better life, and that aims at developing society, enriching man
and edifying civilization. Further, It‘s very interesting to quote the expression of
the form of Khitab. The latter incidences are Allah‘s verse „And He said : Entrust it to me, and he
conquered me in speech‟ (Sad, verse 23).In his verse : „And we made his kingdom strong and gave him wisdom
and decisive speech‟ (Sad verse 20) , and in the following verse: „Lord of the Heavens and the earth, and
(all) that is between them, the Beneficent; with whom none can converse‟ Annabae, verse 37) He further
mentions that in the Dictionary of Quranic Terms, the words khatabahu, mukhatabatan‘ and
‗Alkhatb‘ are defined as: to speak and converse, while Al Khatb is the matter about which the
conversation takes place (Moujame Al-Fath Al Qorane Al-Karim, V.2, Arabic Language
Academy, General Body in charge of the Emiral Libraries Affairs, Cairo, 1996). In the abovementioned three Quranic instances, the speech is often associated with pride and honour, might,
and wisdom, as well as with magnanimity and eminence of Allah, Exalted be His Name. This
association provides a good opportunity to ponder the deep meaning of discourse that
transcends the original synonym of discourse as the exchange of speech or the desire to enlighten
the other, to a much loftier sense closely associated with sublime notions that range from pride
and honour “he conquered me in speech‟, wisdom „And we gave him wisdom and decisive speech‟, and divine
greatness and eminence: „Lord of the Heavens and earth, and (all) that is between them, the Beneficent; with
whom none can converse‟. Both the linguistic and Quranic connotations affirm the noble significance
of discourse for decisive speech can only become ideal if associated with wisdom, and if the
purpose behind it is to shed light on truth. Third: At the level of modern Concepts : Discourse
is a philosophical term (See Al Amadi, Al ahkam Fi Usul Al Ahkam, Part 1, page 136, Dar Al
Kutub Al Ilmiyya, Beirut 1980, Al Amadi says in this book ‗Discourse is the term agreed upon to
mean explain a matter to he who is receptive and ready to understand it‘, Dr Taha Abdulrahlane
says in his book‘ Al-Lisan Wal Mizan‘, page 215 (edition of the Arab Cultural Centre-Casablanca
1998): ―What is spoken-the speech or discourse- and is fit to be considered as speech, is what
serves the purposes of communication that are compulsory in what is referred to as discourses.
Discourse is no more than every utterance addressed to the other with the purpose of explaining
to him a given idea), that is closer in meaning to the philosophical theory or thesis. The
philosophical discourse of a person is his way of thinking, perceiving and expressing his ideas and
conceptions. This discourse can either be in line with or opposed to the philosophical discourse
of another person. When this concept became part of modern political thought, it gave rise to the
political discourse which carries and intellectual weight as well as an ideological content. Thus,
the political discourse of a group becomes the expression of its political creed and its choices. It
becomes in this case more than a way of communication or the expression of an opinion, to
become the receptacle that stands for spirit, creed, philosophy and doctrine. See further Abdul
Aziz Othman al-Twaijiri, Islamic Discourse Between Tradition and Modernity‖ in Future Islam, A
journal of Future Ideology that shapes Today The World of Tomorrow, 2004.
58 Ibid.
130
the late Abu Rabi when he talked about ―civilization‖ in the Muslim world
today as follow:
To put bluntly, the Arab and the Muslim Worlds cannot boast an Arab or
Muslim civilization at present. The political and economic elite in the Arab
or Muslim Worlds, regardless of their culture, are true participants in the
civilization of capitalism. True, there is an Arab or Muslim culture, but it is
currently dominated by the larger capitalist civilization. We cannot compare
a normative civilization (Islamic worldview) to a concrete and historically
present civilization; that is, the global capitalist civilization. That is to say
that it is impossible to fathom modern global identity outside the rubric of
capitalism. In other words, we cannot view religious identity outside the
domination of the capitalist system. Capitalists (proponents of a capitalist
civilization) can be found all over the world, including the Muslim World,
and class conflict still defines social relation. Furthermore, the Muslim
World, unlike Europe, has failed to develop its capitalist system in the
modern period and has thus become dependent on the world capitalist
system, which has been pioneered by the West. The Muslim World has
culture but lacks civilization.59
Thus, renewing the Islamic discourse to establish a harmony between
tradition and modernity entails renewing the civilizational edifice of the Islamic
world by strengthening and immunizing the self, reaching high levels in
knowledge and science and being creative in these fields, instilling the spirit of
Islamic solidarity for the latter to become a force of advancement and
civilizational competitiveness, and a source of inspiration and impetus for
progress in all fields. In fact, an Islamic discourse that lacks in scientific and
professional prerequisites could turn to be of a boomerang effect, entailing,
therefore, counter-productive results, the more it goes astray of the wisdom,
gentle exhortation and fair practice of dialogue.
Among the endeavors to rethink patterns and systems, working methods,
stances, choices and policies is the review of the Islamic discourse at its various
levels. This discourse is indeed the mirror of the Islamic entity, a vehicle of
Islamic call and an instrument for highlighting the truths of Islam, refuting the
allegations leveled at it and the doubts cast on it in many ways. This discourse is
furthermore the only tool available for the sage, the thinkers, the reformers and
the decision and opinion makers of the Ummah to defend its existence before
the escalating hostile campaigns that strive to distort the image of Islam and
denigrate Muslims, undermine the vital interests of the Islamic world and
subjugate it to hegemonic policies that serve the designs of the New World
Order imposed by the unique pole on the rest of the international community
and which hold the rein of international policy at this stage in history.
Ibrahim Abu Rabi, ―The Muslim World in the Twenty First Century‖ in Kustiwan et.al (eds.) ,
Islam, The West and the Rest, Makassar, Alauddin Press, 2009, p. 54..
59
131
In form and content, the Islamic discourse is a human discourse using all
media forms: media technologies, including the internet, video games
themselves having developed into a mass form of media. Traditional media
forms such as the printing press, computer, even plastic as a media form, CD,
DVD, etc., including the new media which has something to do with electronic
and the internet. The content seeks to promote dialogue, understanding, coexistence and co-operation with all the parties of the international community,
in order to spread the values of justice, peace and welfare. With Islam as its
reference, the Islamic discourse shuns violence and extremism, calls for the
respect and preservation of human rights, and for banishing injustice,
hegemony and the earth‘s spoliation.
Conclusion
Islamic discourse should not be limited to preaching. It is every form of
discourse that expresses the specificities of the Islamic Ummah, defends the
supreme interests of the Islamic world, presents the true image of Islam and
Muslims, rectifies errors, dispels suspicions, refutes accusations, and stands up,
armed with knowledge, logic and the appropriate language, to the malicious
campaigns waged against all Islamic countries, no exceptions made.
When the Islamic discourse comes under discussion, the concept should be
applicable to the cultural discourse, the literary discourse, the artistic discourse
and the information discourse, though the latter can be of more comprehensive
nature and encompass all other levels of discourse, in such a way as to become
for example the religious information discourse, the philosophical information
discourse, the political information discourse, etc. The latter as Othman AlTwaijiri mentions, being the way Muslims address the rest of the world, the
mould that shapes their ideas, opinions and the standpoints that they wish to
convey to the international public opinion. Based on this, we can safely argue
that the Islamic discourse is the larger framework of Islamic Da‘wah, practiced
at its deepest and most comprehensive levels.
Many of the acceptable modes and techniques of modern journalism must
be particularly repugnant to an Islamic perspective as noted by Schleifer. Spying
and seeking to confirm suspicions (e.g. most investigative reporting) are
forbidden by Qur'an and Hadith (the reported sayings of the Prophet) as are
slander and backbiting, which means spreading stories, even though true, which
injure the feeling and honor of a Muslim. Slander is not simply a legal error or
an occupational hazard; it is a great sin. In numerous hadiths the Muslims are
forbidden to publicize their own and others‘ faults; on the contrary, the Muslim
is urged to cover up or hide faults60.
60
See S.Abdullah Schleifer, ―Islam and Information: Need, Feasibility, and Limitations of an
Independent Islamic News Agency,‖ American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 3, no.1 (Spring
1986)pp. 122-3
132
As pointed out further by Al-Twaijiri61, the articulation of Islamic discourse
in term of content must be genuine, truthful, honest, serving first and foremost
the Islamic interests, moderate, fair, equitable and derived from the principles,
virtues and moral values of Islam. This discourse must be universal. It must be
relevant to all human societies, upholding humanity‘s interests, achieving coexistence and co-operation among nations and peoples for the welfare of all
humanity, and fostering the principles of justice, equity and peace. It must also
be flexible, renewable, well formulated and fulfill all the objective conditions
required when addressing people in a language understood by all, with a sound
and acceptable logic that is compatible with he conditions of every
environment and every category of people. It must be constructive, beneficial
and purposeful, and must aim at reforming, renewing and developing at the
internal level. It has also to strive to clarify and highlight the truths of Islam and
dispel the doubts harbored about it, in a moderate, gentle and flexible way that
shuns all forms of extremism, violence, vehemence and zeal, inviting to the
righteous path without being impulsive, undermining the interests of the target
audience or offending the latter. The discourse must be sublime and elegant in
form and content. It must be free of imitation and must transcend ephemeral
trends or overwhelming currents, in such a way as to preserve its independence
and its distinction. Last but not the least, It must be open unto dialogue, and
mutual understanding, and must be receptive to the regional and international
environment, fully assimilating changes and new developments.
Finally, the content, again as mentioned before using all media forms,
should seek to promote dialogue, understanding, co-existence and co-operation
with all the parties of the international community, in order to spread the values
of justice, peace and welfare. With Islam as its reference, the Islamic discourse
shuns violence and extremism, calls for the respect and preservation of human
rights, and for banishing injustice, hegemony and the earth‘s spoliation. In term
of Style, the writer‘s choice of words should be full of wisdom using deep,
amazing, and meaningful imagery which is the evoking of any experience of the
senses, as well as good order of words in sentences and paragraph. Wallahu
a‟lamu bishawaab.
61
See Abdul Aziz Othman al-Twaijiri, op.cit.
133
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135
Muslims in the Global Media System
Syed Arabi Idid
Dept. of Communication,
Kulliyyah of Revealed Knowledge and Human Science,
International Islamic University, Malaysia)
Praise be to Allah for his Compassion and Mercy
for bestowing upon us with strong Iman and good health.
We meet here in Jakarta to discuss the problems faced by the Muslim media
and media in the Muslim states and how we can make suggestions to overcome
some of these problems. The problems are plenty and demand a lot of time and
resources. We must make suggestions for actions that are feasible and
practicable.
A major problem facing the Muslim Ummah currently however is the state
of our Muslim nations and the plight of Ummah in this globalized world.
Whatever Muslims do or say draws immediate attention; for, the world per se is
largely focused on what is going in a Muslim's mind – is it something
destructive or any action they are planning detrimental to others. We keep on
saying Islam is by faith a submission to the Divine One and that we harbor no
violence, the secularists do not trust Muslims. But when something is
happening in the Muslim community, the globalised world will take heed of
them. Such is the big impact that Muslims are making on the global stage.
But how do the secularists and the rest of the world learn of the acts and
actions performed by the Muslims? How do the non-Muslims know of the
situation of the Muslims? In fact how do we as Muslims know the plight and
situation of the other Muslims? The answer inevitably is through the mass
media. Media have grown to be very important in the lives of world citizens.
They convey news, information and entertainment. They can promote peace
and also set the platform for violence to happen. The Muslims have been
divided as Modernizers and Fundamentalists based on their support for
democracy. Those that support Democracy are called Modernizers and those
that go against are called fundamentalists. (Pew Survey, 2010)
136
Mass media serve as the link between the governments and the peoples. We
are living in an interconnected world where news and information are
transmitted in a very fast manner. We have to appreciate the impact of the new
technologies on the news gathering process to understand the speedy
transmission of news reports. An event that is happening in Malaysia is fast
transmitted to other parts of the world at the click of a mouse. And in some
instances the event gets some reception from other international players. But
the international players may or may not, and often enough may not get a clear
picture of what is happening in Malaysia but they do make comments
nevertheless, perhaps putting up airs that they have in command the full picture
of the event.
Likewise we sometimes make comments on events that have happened in
other parts of the world even though we may not have the total facts or
information with us. Such is the situation that we are in today. We are fast to
react to news events that are transmitted to us from faraway places likewise
many other people do react to events on Malaysia as reported in the news
media.
In today‘s world, people seldom meet with others face to face to understand
problems. We seldom meet as we meet today to know what is going round with
the lives of other Muslims. Thus the non-Muslims know about the Muslims
through the mass media and other sources of information. This is the
intermediation channels that see us connected with the others. Does our
knowledge of the world being shaped by the intermediaries make a relevant
addition to enable us to explain and understand the given picture that we have
of the other people?
Media reporting is not mere information transmission since the time
international news agencies began operating. The reporting has caused a change
in the way diplomacy is conducted. People who read a certain news event and
feel that such news events affect them would then apply political pressure on
their respective governments to react in a way that is politically of advantage to
the government in power. But people who read the news items again may not
have the full facts, but given the situation at hand governments have to contend
that perception plays an important part in affecting government‘s handling of
diplomacy.
Let us relate the news events on the coverage of Islam and Muslims. News
about and of Islam and Muslims have been conducted by the news agencies
many decades ago. But the event of Sept. 11 has brought about a radical change
in the way Islam and Muslims have been reported. In pre-Sept. 11, Muslims
were dubbed as backward; as the people who have been left behind because of
colonialism.
Muslims were painted as a group adhering to a teaching that is not
conducive to a modern way of life. And contemporary scholars have lamented
that it is the practice of Islam that the Muslims have been left far behind. But to
them Muslims were the Arabs, in the Middle East, in the north of Africa. The
137
Malays, the Indonesians, the Indians, the Pakistanis and other non Arab
Muslims were not brought into the equation as yet until September 11 when
Muslims were roped in together as a group with a new label.‖It goes without
saying that Islam and the activities of certain Muslims are very newsworthy
subjects. Indeed very few of the most significant news stories of the past few
years have not included Muslims in one form or other while very few of the
stories about Muslims over this same period have been about anything other
than the ―War on Terror.‖ (pg 1 Poole and Richardson, 2006).
This special stereotyping of Muslims has been the picture of the day after
Sept. 11. Nothing that the Muslims do can go out from that frame. The reasons
for this attributed that Muslims have been matched with terror. One reason
could be said to be political. The political events in Palestine where Muslims
showed their sympathy were said to be part of the reasons why Muslims have
become terrorists. The other was harping on the old stereotyping where
Muslims are not able to catch up with the modern demands.
A book written by Benjamin R Barber on ―Jihad vs McWorld‖ (2003) poses
several questions relating to the issues of the ideology of Islam and the ideology
of capitalism as well as free trade. Mention was made that Islam is not being
able to catch up with the modern world and because of this inherent inability it
has to destroy others. If McDonald, Pepsi, KFC etc. symbolized modern
society, the McWorld, then Islam would not be able to adjust itself to world
capitalism. But if you travel to several states in the Muslim world, the Muslims
have adjusted to the modern world. Dubai, Kuala Lumpur, Islamabad, Qatar
are modern capital cities where people value good education and a good way of
life. In fact, Muslims all over the world want good education, clean water and
good health facilities. There is more than simple assertions that Muslims are not
capable of adjusting to the modern (Western) world.
The West must redefine their relationship with the Muslim states. The
Western societies hold a negative perspective of Muslim states at the political
level because in education and in the economic sectors, the relationship is much
better. Perhaps it is at the people to people level that relationship of Muslims
and Western societies can be strengthened. If we can do that then there is hope
that the media can play its role of adjusting itself to the changing political and
socio-economic scenario. Western media must play its role in educating the
public that reporting of the Muslims must be more complex than it is today.
The simple picture of a society practicing terror, or a society that is of threat to
western civilization must be given to a more critical appraisal of a society that
wants itself to be heard and want to have its say in the modern development of
a global society.
Muslims have ideas on how modern world should be shared. The innovative
ways of Islamic banking and finance, in the field of education, in science and in
the arts must be accepted as part of the modern way of life. Diversity, a
concept that is always enunciated by the west to be its pillar in governance, is
after all the acceptance of different values and different ideas, that accepting
138
them adds strength to modern global society. Then negative stereotyping (see
Brainwash by Dominic Streatfeild 2006) by agencies, including the media, can
give way to a more learned way societies can accept the different life styles,
different values, different cultures and different religions. The coverage of
Islam as feared by Edward Said would be placed in better perspective.
What then is a globalised world? There are scholars who want to define
globalization and they do so in so many languages and meanings. In giving
meanings to globalization these scholars also coin new terms such as globalism,
globality, globalization, globalizing, cosmopolitanism, cosmopolitan and
hybridity accompanied with different sorts of meanings. An introduction to the
study of globalization should acknowledge its varied vocabulary and, in the
minds of so many people, the advent of complicated terms with ambiguous
meaning.
Globalization denotes the processes through which sovereign national states
are undermined by transnational states (Beck, 2000: 11) as nation states go
through a process of denationalization. Beck (2000) painted an unhopeful
picture of corporations existing at the expense of nation states and at the
displacement of international bodies, such as the United Nations, by United
Coca-Cola. To have such a displacement would be too extreme to imagine as no
nation state would be prepared to be taken over to make way for corporate
sovereign states who have no sense of people welfare but only the welfare of
greed and profit. It would also not be to the liking of the Muslims as this would
mean a displacement of their religion and culture and no Muslim would be
willing to give up their way of life (Al-Deen) for the sake of globalization.
Giddens (2005) sees globalization in a different perspective, stressing that
globalization is the latest phase of modernization. In the globalization process,
the model of transnational states emerged and developed their own regional
sovereignty and identity beyond the national level but with the national
structure remains intact.
Effects of globalization
While there are many definitions, the effects of globalization are the main
concerns of governments, scholars and ordinary people. Globalization has
widened the economic gap between the rich and poor in the developing world,
and it has elevated the rich to be part of the elites in the global world on
account of their capital, knowledge and networking. The poor have grown
poorer because of the inequitable distribution of wealth.
To the Muslims, there is an added concern because of the distorted image that
the secular West has painted about the Muslim world. The moment of history
after the Cold War is referred to as the era of globalization and it was
characterized by the ascendancy of the concept of culture. It is said that the
world is divided by the new modern culture and the pre modern culture, the
pre-modern being those that have not reached the modern or those that are
139
anti modern. The pre-modern peoples are said to have no creative ability but
the anti modern fundamentalists are said to have a profound ability to be
destructive.
The majority of the Muslim states are painted as living in a pre modern age
and the thinking is that they must be progressive enough to move up the
modernity ladder. They must make way so that by becoming modern, the
Muslims would then be able to be as developed as the other non Muslim world.
There is yet another view held by them on the Muslim world, namely that of
the anti modern who are unable or not willing to be modern and hence choose
the way to destroy the modern world. They (the anti modern Muslims) are
violent, aggressive and have no rational thinking but are only bent on
destroying.
No Muslim would accept the idea that he is created to be violent or suicidal
as what is painted as anti-modern man. A Muslim is one who submits to the
command of Allah but he is one who seeks knowledge to please his Creator.
Causing destruction is far from his way of thinking.
In a globalized world, there does not exist anymore a national man or a national
party, but there only exists a ―cosmopolitanized world‖, an identity that
reinforces local identities ―but which includes the other." Being cosmopolitan
means having specific as well as multiple identities (Beck 2005: 257). A
globalised world, as a concept, is a world society without a world state and
without world government (Beck, 2000: 13). In line with this concept, we
Muslims would then have an identity as Muslims but also having an identity of
being a Pakistani, or an Australian or a Malaysian. In the case of Malaysians we
have the identity of being a Muslim, a Malaysian and a Malay. This is what Beck
(2005) talks of specific as well as multiple identities. The global epoch assumes
no dominating or controlling center. Gone are the media centers in the world
such as New York, London, Paris or Tokyo. The de-centering thus allows the
sprouting of significant production centers to promote the exchange of
products, making no one dominating‖ (Sparks, 2007: 137)
The reality of globalization sees the developed centers marketing the cultural
products to the global segments of the population. The cultural products of
Disney, the Micky Mouse, the Superman, Batman, or the once emerging the
Ultra-man are the products of urban media centres pushing its value laden
products to the other parts of the world. Global brands are playing their role
marketed well by international corporations to make their presence felt
worldwide. We have yet to push our Muslim products to be used by the young
of the non-Muslims in this world as much as the non-Muslims have made it
enjoyable for the young Muslims to use the entertainment and educational
products of the non-Muslims.
In opposition to negative aspects of globalization, the hopefuls see a future, as
policymakers grapple with threats to the world order and imprinting
140
globalization with a human face. Globalization is therefore understood to be
humane and a place for the betterment of mankind. In this internet global
world, the materialistic culture has meandered itself into the values of society at
the expense of our inner and spiritual self, and we expect instant response to
our demand whatever the nature of that. There are so many issues at hand. We
see the might of Europe and the United States falling and the rising stars of the
BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and China) nations making changes in the history of
mankind. Yet we continue to be dragged down by the old issues, ranging from
poverty, low literacy, religious intolerance, environmental degradation and
prejudices, and the current financial and banking problems in Europe and
America, that we have accepted them to be global in nature and stature but are
unable to find solutions to them. An understanding of globalization is
important as this paper draws consequentially from the terms as defined above
to an understanding of our global media.
Global media
Global reporting of the media falls under the concept of world society and
globality (Beck 2000: 10). Does a global media exist? There is no global media,
according to Tarik Sabry (2005), as a global media ought to ―transcend nationstate boundaries and language communities, use English, the language of
globalization, and attract a cross-section of international audiences that is not
limited to the rich and influential. (41-42). Is there an Islamic global media? Can
Al-Jazeera and Al Arabia be classified as Islamic global media? Al-Jazeera
beams in English and in Arabic. It has yet to reach a large section of the
Muslim community.
If audience size is the main criterion, then even CNN is ill qualified to be a
global media as its audience constitutes only 1 percent of the world‘s
population. Among the Muslim states, the only well known satellite channels
are Al-Jazeera and Al-Arabia and the size of the audience is less than CNN
though their impact on the Arab audience is very strong compared to the other
news organizations.
There is a difference when scholars speak of the nation states, the global
media and the response of the local regional or national media. Tarik Sabri
(2005) and Winston Mano (2005) express fear of the global media penetrating
the Arab and African media in their respective regions. Mano (2005) speaks of
the erosion of sovereignty of African governments and the benefits accrued to
global oligopolies. African scholars acknowledge the strength of the Western
media stations in Africa, such as the News Corporation, General Electric,
Times Warner, Walt Disney and Bertelsmann, who, having their headquarters
in the United states and Europe make their presence felt in advertising,
publishing , newspaper and broadcasting (Mano, 2005).
On the other hand, the Chinese and Indian media systems can play the role
of global players (Schiller, 2005; Ravi Sundaram 2005). The Chinese are selling
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their hardware to several nation states and buying shares into the global media
corporations. The Indian states have seen the rise of new media empires like
the corporate owners of satellite television channels, large soft ware companies
not to mention the growth of the Bollywood industry, drawing revenue level
next to Hollywood. Can there be centers in the Muslim world that would
challenge the might of the international media stations such as CNN and BBC?
Or at least be in a strong but not in the same entertainment mode as
Bollywood?
Bollywood has fans in Eastern Europe, Middle east, Africa, South East Asia
(Hedge, 2005) and created an ethnic identity of nostalgia among the Indian
youth in the United States and even in Malaysia. Both China and India boast of
one of the largest state-run broadcasting systems in the world. The strength of
the global media rests on the ability of corporations to develop from within the
nation states to cater for domestic consumption, catering next to diasporas to
reach more truly global audiences (Staubhaar, 2010). India is an example of the
indigenous development of media by the emergence of new media empires.
(Sundram: 2005).
We also see this diasporas scenario in the Arab world, where Arab speaking
citizens in France or Germany tune to broadcast stations from Morocco and
Algeria to have spring- like nostalgia from their past countries. An estimated
nine percent (7.3 million) of the German population, are émigrés, the largest
share, 26 percent or about 2 million, Turkish and an estimated 20 percent of
the French population is of ethnic or non-French origins immigration (Payne ,
2009).
If globalization is meant to be part of the hegemonic system of the world,
then the global powers will continue to dominate the media systems of other
states in consonance with the idea of hegemony. The hegemonic theory directs
that certain world centers will continue their value imposition on the other
media systems. This is hardly valid at the present moment as other nations, like
Russia China, India, and Brazil have their own media systems and would not
readily accept the domination of Western media. Or would there be a
hegemonic rise of other super powers to take the place of the previous
hegemonic states? The global history has seldom seen a world without powerful
governments near the shorelines of other nation states. We might yet see the
rise of powerful multiple nation states in the immediate future and the patterns
of the past would then set in motion the previous hegemonic alignment.
An assumption of the global media is that there are no centers, that there is
free flow of messages, and productions. But in actual fact realities creep into
this assumption. There continues to be limited centers in the world that run the
24 broadcasting stations. Al Jazeera and perhaps Al Arabia are examples of how
developing states could penetrate the Western monopoly, but in reality the
number of such broadcasting stations is only a small fraction of the total
broadcasting stations the world over. The other parts of the world still are
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dependent on CNN or BBC for their world news. Money, resources and
networking and even language are imposing limits to any broadcasting station
to be a world player.
Media in possession of Muslims are faced with the language factor if they
wish to expand and reach a bigger audience. Al Jazeera has found that mainly
broadcasting in Arabic is not sufficient for the station to reach its maximum
and hence it needed to broadcast in English to reach the English speaking
Muslims and the non-Muslims. Media move signs and symbols in the culture of
globalization and the idea of reporting newsworthy events from a narrow
perspective as in the past should make way to a higher level of interpretation
and acceptance. The global news media shapes and frames events in deterritorialized nation states and thus inevitably differ from the functions set in
the non globalised nation states.
Such a function necessitates a change in the mindset of global media owners
and editors. Journalists would have to undergo a radical change and the
mobility of journalists that we see now in evidence require now a mobility in
mind venture and in global visual with a global ability to analyze global issues.
Once trained to see an event in a nation state, the journalist, now an idea
maker, need to deconstruct such an event to be seen in a globalised perspective.
If Beck (2005) talks of cosmopolitans in our midst then we need to have jocosmo
(journalists who are cosmopolitans) in our media, explaining, writing and
musing the seriousness of our globalized world that is friendly to the teachings
of Islam.
While thinking of reporting events, there is a need contextualize them as
events with worldwide implications, rather than regard them as Western,
Eastern, Chinese, Indian, Christian or Muslim events. Those events happening
in and to the Muslim states are to be decontextualized and not seen in a simple
picture of ―a fiend or a friend‖ to the West when the Western media report
them as such. It ceases to be reporting in the solitary identity of ―us‖ but shovel
above to be ―us with the other and the others‖ thus reporting, detached, as a
cosmopolitan confronted with cosmopolitic issues.
Such a global mindset while commensurate with globalitarian values and
appreciation, calls upon scholars to devise appropriate academic curricula at the
tertiary level of education to address the ever increasing concerns of a
globalised society. As cosmopolitans with multiple identities we exist in a
denationalized, de territorialized space, embracing globalized issues, but we
need to ask with what expectations?
We have in this instance raised several issues, identified some of the
problems, but we are far in providing solutions. Let us move on by highlighting
a problematic paradigm as a showcase in providing a cosmopolitan solution.
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The Global Media among the Muslim states
What do we Muslims want? Do we want to react to the globalized world or
do we shape the globalization process? Do we join the big players or do we be
part of the team with others as the big players and we remain as small players?
Or do we choose to remain isolated? Do we want to reach many non Muslims
through the use of the media or do we want to reach only the Muslims? Or do
we want the non-Muslims to reach the Muslims through the mass media or do
we want the non Muslims to have a positive image of the Muslims through the
mass media? These are some of the questions that we have to answer.
I see that Muslim states cannot just remain isolated as we have to exist
alongside with the non- Muslims in this world that is created by Allah, the
Almighty. Many of our Muslim states trade with other non-Muslim states. Many
of the rich Muslims deposit their money in banks in the non-Muslim world and
send their children to study in well known universities in non Muslim countries.
Likewise we see that many non-Muslims have trading partners among Muslims
and do their business in Muslim countries. Of late our Islamic banking and
financial system has been receiving good reception from many Muslims and
non Muslims who see the richness and justice of that system. Likewise the halal
product services are being welcomed by non-Muslims. You can visit United
Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand and witness how many shops have been
opened with halal products and services. So the Islamic way of life is being
made known to the outside world, although it is still slow. In short Muslim way
of life can be a way of life of the Western world if only we could inform them
of such a good state of affairs.
A characteristic of the Muslim media system is accentuated by the Muslim
and non Muslim connectivity. There are Muslim states that have better
connections with non-Muslim states than they have with the Muslim states.
This is accounted for by their trade arrangements, their security alliances, their
geography and their culture. In terms of the proximity theory, media in these
Muslim states tend to report of events of these non-Muslim states more than
they have on the Muslim states. For example in the international news pages, a
cursory observation, the Malaysian media system report more pertaining to the
ASEAN states than they report on OIC countries. And this can be extended to
the other states. Exception could be made of the Arab states whose affinities
with the Arab brothers are closer than their connection with other nation
states. Under this section on the global media, this paper would like to touch on
two aspects; namely the global media system in Muslim states and an added
concern in the representation of the Muslims and Islam in the world press as
reflected by the forces of contemporary economic globalization and an Islamic
globalization that is cultural, religious and ideological (Norani Othman, 2008)
The Muslim media and communication systems are thrown into the global
system by sheer force of historicism and the determinism of political economy.
Not only has the Muslim media system been affected to meet the economic
144
wave but it has forced the media and communication systems of other
ideological states, if Muslim states, can be grouped within an ideology, to be
part of the global system, either directly or indirectly. The traditional media
system of television, newspaper, the news agencies augmented by the new
media have drawn the national media systems to be part of the global systems
but the part they play, the strength they bear to the global system, differs from
nation to nation.
Elsewhere we have discussed on the impact of the global media touching on
the poor quality of the Muslim media system in midst of the global dynamic
media standard (Idid & Galander, 2002) We argued for the Muslim states to be
aware of the impact of the news and entertainment programs and called on the
Muslims to be take possession of themselves if they were to preserve their
identity. It is the government and the people who have the power, knowledge,
and the freedom to master the information technology and utilize the new
media for their own good.
Has the world changed under the rubric transformation of globalization?
Has the centers of information dissemination changed? Several decades ago,
Anthony Smith (1980) talked about the geopolitics of information, citing how
Western cultures dominated the world, the developing world in particular. The
domination seemed possible; the developing world was indeed poor, with low
levels of literacy in contrast to the rich West and to the domineering Western
culture. There have been rapid changes since then. The spread of
independence, the development of information, the increasing levels of literacy
and economic growth have caught the imagination of scholars that there ought
to be change in the relationship between the West and the developing states.
To make matters worse, the new information technology and the complexities
of political and financial governance have placed undue pressure on the
performance of the Muslim states.
Muslim states are not homogeneous. Often scholars associate Islam and
Muslims with the Arabs leaving more than two thirds of the Muslim states in
Africa, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, southeast Asia and China out of the
mainstream in understanding Islam and the Muslims. For example, among
members of OIC, (Organization of Islamic Conference) member states, 27 are
from Africa, 26 are in Asia, 2 in Europe, and 2 in Latin America (Ihsanoglu,
2010: 32). Each Muslim state has its own media system determined by its
history, its political and economic system because an Islamic paradigm is yet to
spread an equitable veneer on the media system of the Muslim states.
After the Sept. 11 incident, Muslims became very sensitive to the notion of
Islamaphobia and the representation of Islam in the West. Books have been
written to understand how social ideas shape the way in which Islam and
Muslims are reported‖ (Poole and Richardson;2006:1). The West has a lot to
learn about Islam and the Muslim states. The Muslim states have a lot to
untangle the image they have of the Western states who once dominated them
145
through colonization. Muslims also hold negative images of the United States,
with power relations appearing to be a critical factor in image formations
(Tehranian, 1999).
After Sept. 11, with the concept of ―Either you are with Us or Not With
Us‖ a spirit of whatever friendship there was seems to have broken down
between Muslims and the West and this has been made worse by the gross
reportage of Muslim atrocities and aggressiveness in many instances. The
stereotyping of Muslims has been going on for several decades and one would
not see how this stereotyping would cease in the immediate future. In previous
decades, the stereotyping on the Muslims were focused on the Arabs painting
them as poor and unorganized, but after Sept. 11, the stereotyping has been on
the Muslims and Islam, portraying them as militants bent on committing jihad
and portraying Muslim women with their veils as being victims of male
oppression. Even global newsmagazines such as Newsweek and Time, are not
free from flourishing out negative reporting on Islam (Ali & Khalid, 2008).
I would not like to dwell on this subject of the negative press coverage of Islam
and Muslims as this has been talked about in several conferences, in several
publications and in discussions on several occasions. (Barber, 1995; Foley,
2010; Mazni Buyong et al., 2010)
I would just like to mention one as an illustration of the schism of values
with the West. Western audiences are taken aback on how 12 Danish cartoon
sketches published by the Danish daily Jyllands-Posten on 30 September 2005,
can cause so much furor in the Muslim world, as to them such cartoon
sketches displayed in the press are merely indicators of press freedom
(Stromback, Shehata & Dimitrova, 2008).
Some Western schools of thought have demanded that topical issues be
debated in the open and the media supposedly to play the role of encouraging
dissent and consent. But not all societies subscribe to that notion of freedom,
and not all issues are to be openly discussed, especially of sensitive issues. For
instance, religious issue is sensitive in India and Malaysia, and should be
regarded as such. Although one may subscribe to press freedom surely there are
limits to such a display
In discussing the global media system in the Muslim states, one has to
distinguish between the government and the people‘s media systems. The Arab
Spring revolution has indeed shown how the people‘s media system has been
able to circumvent and also to counter the official media system that at times
speak for itself rather than speak for the people. One has to understand the
poor media penetration in the Muslim states. If we take the Arab states ( to
be an indicator of the Muslim states), we find that there are less than 53
newspapers per 1000 Arab citizens compared to 285 newspapers per 1000 in
the developed world (Sabry 2005:42). Even internet use is very much less
when comparison is made with Western nations.
146
Internet has become a way of life in so many societies. Internet users have
become more likely to shop, acquire knowledge and the way they pursue their
hobbies and interests. A majority of internet users also consistently report that
the internet helps them to do their job and improve the way they get
information. Internet use and the new social media are encouraging a new way
of seeing world events. Muslim states acknowledge the importance of new
technology but some are frightened that these new technologies might pose a
threat to the political system of the country as some governments fear that they
might not be able to control the users. To some extent this is true as the Spring
uprising in the states of Egypt, Tunisia and Morocco were said to be possible
because the young, who were the majority connected with the uprising,
conveyed their messages through the internet and the mobile phones.
The internet has been making an impact in the Islamic and the developing
world. Some Muslim states, though, have recognized the importance of the new
media and used them to communicate with their citizens. Some Muslim states
have opened up its doors for the penetration of the new media, for example
Malaysia, but other Muslim states are fearful of the effects the new media might
have on their society and their political system. A world leader said that
Malaysians should empower their Ummah by learning and mastering
technology and hence be able to handle themselves in this knowledge and
information age (Mahathir, 2002). If it be seen to be a threat to the Muslim
world then by mastering the technology Muslims would not be that fearful and
perhaps be able to use it to their advantage.
The media landscape in Muslim states is not satisfactory compared to the
developed world, the picture is being snubbed because of state policy, of low
literacy and the lack of infrastructure. Hence the Muslim states are not able to
enter the global media scenario and be part of it, and if it pushed to be part of
the picture, they participate passively. The Muslim media are dependent on the
West for the import of TV sets and other audio sets and even so in the content
of the various programs. Local contents and programs from the other Muslim
states are little compared to the import and dependence on the Western states.
This inability to be similar to the status of the media of India and China are due
to technological inhibitions, economic drawbacks and at times due to state
policy.
Conclusion
We acknowledge that whatever the definitions, the effects of globalization
need to be addressed. Scholars differ defining globalization, and, in their
numerous interpretations, have also caused more misunderstanding at the term
and phenomenon. Whatever the discussion, globalization is more than the sum
of nation states put together or the sum of trade and commerce between
countries.
The world has been become interdependent in economics, in finance, in
banking, in trade and in manufacturing. The Muslim states have made their
147
contribution to the world economy. The economic and political strength of
different states are constantly being challenged. Who would be able to predict
three decades ago, the rise of China as an economic giant after the United
States and the rise of South Korea, Brazil, Russia and India as emerging states
to change the global media scenes? But we are yet to see a Muslim state
emerging to take its place as a world power in the might of South Korea or
China.
Having understood the various effects of globalization, we then focused on
the role of the global media. We would suggest that there could be changes in
the functions of media and that the journalists would contribute positively by
playing a different role by highlighting and reporting events. Given such a
disjuncture we can then see the plight of the Muslims and the religion Islam as
issues of global concern. The Muslims must take a position to determine what
is newsworthy and what is not newsworthy. At the present moment it is the
Western media that determine what is newsworthy often than not when they
portray Muslim events in a bad light. There is little sympathy or sensitivity on
their part. The instance of the Dutch cartoons is an example of how insensitive
some newspapers or nationalities be in matters related to the sensitivity of
Muslims.
The universities in the Muslim world must be able to devise a curricular so
that their graduates are able to report better on Islamic sensitivity. And we
would suggest that journalists be given training so that they would be able to
perform better. This conference could also suggest that there could be an
exchange of journalists attached to other newspapers in other Muslim countries
so that journalists would be able to have a pan-Islamic perspective.
The Muslim states being heterogeneous, the response to globalization is
mixed, some being positive yet others are not able to do so because of the
economic, political and social development of the respective nation states. But
the incident of Sept. 11 has caused a disruption in feeling between Muslims and
the West. Scholars have tried to understand the phenomena on the
representation of Islam and the Muslims, but the power of the press has been
more to spread the stereotyping than to inculcate some understanding on the
matter. Muslim states are poor in media presence. This can be accounted by the
poor infrastructure that we Muslims have of our own countries. We have
limited electricity supply to encourage the growth of our electronic media. We
have a low level of socio-economic standing.
The media system in Muslim states is weak, thus unable to play an active
role in the global media system. Muslim states can hear and listen, but they are
not able to speak to the world system. Hence grievances and issues that they
would like ―others‖ to understand and appreciate are taken notice, sometimes
with and at other times without with an apology
But we feel as one Ummah, perhaps not as strong as we ought to feel. We have
the feeling for Palestinians. We have the feeling for the Muslims suffering in
148
South Thailand, in Kashmir and in South Philippines. We have a feeling for
what is happening in Tunisia, Morocco and Libya.
We have the position that the Western media portray Islam and the Muslims in
negative light, either with orchestrated intention (Poole & Richardson, 2006) or
at times due to ignorance. Evidence is seen in the studies made by several
scholars (Ali and Khalid, 2008; Poole & Richardson, 2006). But there is little
that Muslims can correct these images because of their inability to reach out to
the ―other‖. But if Muslims can persuasively present them as global events,
having repercussions globally, and gaining the Muslim trained journalists to
present them professionally as such then we would advance somewhat in
gaining understanding.
149
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151
Religious Boundaries to Freedom of Speech in
the Age of New Media: A Dutch Perspective
62
Sofjan Saury Siregar
Rector, European Islamic University, Rotterdam, Holland
Abstract63
The idea of freedom of speech is not alien to Islamic tradition; its need in society is
supported in the Qur‟an. Contrary to public sentiment, freedom of speech in the European
context has been emphasized on the idea that the freedom is not absolute. Although the
freedom of speech offers space to shock and disturb – in a proportionate way – it carries with
it duties and responsibilities, thus it may be subject to conditions and restrictions e.g. necessary
to uphold public order, safety, and to protect of the reputation and rights of others. This is
much aligned to the notion in Islam that any freedom should be in observance of the respect
and tolerance for and dignity of others.
The trial of the Dutch politician Geert Wilders in 2011 and the controversy and public
uproar surrounding the Danish cartoons in 2006 are two examples in which the space offered
in the European context of freedom of speech were exploited. The goal of imposing any
'limitation' to freedom of speech in the European context i.e. maintaining public order and
safety was jeopardized as the information surrounding the subject of the controversies as hypes
themselves seemed to only add fuel to the fire.
New Media have provided a seemingly unlimited specter of information sharing through
among others internet, blogs, social media. However, the emergence of new types of media have
increased biased `news‟ greatly, as many providers of `news‟ seem to entertain the notion that
the news should be consumed maximally, even if this would lead to compromising normal
journalistic standards of objectivity, balance and accuracy.
The framework of Dutch law in regard to the freedom of speech on one hand, and the role
of New Media on the other hand has led to exacerbation of the tensions surrounding issues
62
Sofjan S. Siregar, President of the Islamic University of Europe, Rotterdam the Netherlands,
[email protected]
63 Presented at the 2nd International Conference on Islamic Media, 13 December 2011, Jakarta,
Indonesia.
152
related to Islam and Muslims. The ethics of a debate and law are not complementary in the
case of the freedom of religion vis-à-vis freedom of speech. By not acknowledging that freedom of
speech and freedom of religion in a democracy – as any degree of freedom - are attached to
responsibilities on part of all involved, as well as to norms of ethics and of propriety, the two
freedoms unnecessarily are placed diametrically opposed to each other.
Keywords: freedom, speech, religion, Islam, Dutch, law, Europe, boundaries,
democracy.
Introduction
Do not insult the idols of other people because they will insult Allah... (Qur'an, 6:108)
A right isn’t always right
Muslims in Europe in general, but in the Netherlands in particular,
experience the constant criticism on Islam as offensive. Over the last ten years,
they have had to endure a barrage of insults, ranging from calling Islam
backward to comparing the Qur‘an to Hitler‘s Mein Kampf and from claims that
all Muslims are potential terrorists who are out to subdue the world to the
extremely distasteful claim that the Prophet of Islam was, by modern standards,
a pedophile.
On the whole, Muslims in the West have remained very patient through all
this. By doing so they followed in the footsteps of the blessed Prophet of
Islam, who is the best example to follow. As Allah, Glorious and Exalted is he,
says in the Qur‘an: ―Verily, in the Messenger of God you have a good example
who looks forward to God and the Last Day‖ (1).
Even though they were surprised to find that their non-Muslim fellow
citizens apparently do not realize how hurtful offending and mocking what is
sacred to them. Moreover, Muslims were very surprised to see that most of
these distasteful claims were defended in the public sphere under the banner of
freedom of speech.(2) Allah prohibited the Muslim from insulting the god of
other religion, as He said: ―Do not insult the idols of other people because they
will insult Allah.‖ (3)
This article will explain the framework of European and Dutch law in this
regard and will show what the role of the New Media is in both giving a voice to
the voiceless on the one hand and exacerbation of the tensions surrounding
issues related to Islam and Muslims on the other, with special attention to
online journalism.
Freedom of speech
In the current discourse freedom of speech has become an umbrella term
cited in and out of season. In order to understand the importance of this, it is
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good to reflect on the notion of freedom in general. First it should be said that
the idea of freedom of speech is not alien to the Islamic tradition, as the Qur‘an
is clear in what is expected of the believing men and women: “They all enjoin the
doing of what is right and forbid the doing of what is wrong.” (4)
In order to live this Qur‘anic injunction one actually needs to implement the
freedom of speech. The way in which freedom is used and has been
institutionalized in the European (secular) context was heavily influenced by
liberal thinker John Stuart Mill. The pivot of Mill‘s body of thought is the idea
that one should be able to live their life without interference of others.
Criticaster have dismissed this idea somewhat due to the fact that people are
shaped by their surroundings and that for example family, institutions and
governments help form individual choices, and that freedom can never be
absolute. Nevertheless, the individual European citizen is the starting-point of
the European law.
So what does the freedom of speech mean within the European context and
how does it relate to freedom of religion? In the European Convention of Human
Rights a number of relevant issues have been recorded:
1) Freedom of religion;
2) A prohibition of discrimination on the grounds of race, sex and religion; and
3) Freedom of speech
The European bill has a secular character, which means that there is a clear
separation of church and state. At a state level within Europe there are many
differences among member states regarding this character, which can be
explained on historical grounds. Even though every country is free to interpret
the relationship between church and state in their own right, the way in which
Europe has shaped this relationship is more dominant, for a sentence by the
European Court of Justice is binding.(5)
In fact, the freedom of conscience and religion are of fundamental
importance in this respect because they are seen as the basis of democracy, and
this goes for both religious and a-religious citizens. The European Court of
Human Rights does not force member states to follow a set model, but places
boundaries when tension arises between religious space and other norms and
values.
Moreover, a delicate issue is the relationship between freedom of speech
and freedom of religion, or to be more precise, the protection of religious
feelings at the expense of the freedom of speech. In the case of the Danish
cartoon controversy (which will be discussed in detail later) the European
Court stated that the right to shock and disturb plays an indispensible role in a
democracy, and is thus (within limits) allowed.
In practice, this above mentioned right is not as clear cut as it was made out to
be in the case of the cartoons.
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There are examples in which the court speaks out in favor of the freedom of
religion and against the freedom of speech. The case of Theresa in 1996 is an
example of this. What is essential is that the court differs between limiting the
public (political) debate on the one hand and personal opinions in the
atmosphere of morals or religion on the other when insults are being made. In
the case of the latter, Europe is more likely to be a bit more restrictive toward
the offender.
It should be clear that freedom of speech, like any other form of freedom, is
not absolute, even though politicians and the media sometimes would like us to
believe this. The European Court for Human Rights has also made this very
clear in their convention when they state that
the exercise of these freedoms, since it carries with it duties and
responsibilities, may be subject to such formalities, conditions, restrictions
or penalties as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic
society, in the interests of national security, territorial integrity or public
safety, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health
or morals, for the protection of the reputation or rights of others... (6).
Taking article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights into
account one could argue that in the current social climate in Europe where
there are tensions regarding the position of Muslims and Islam in society, the
EU should be a bit more reserved with the freedom of speech used to miscall
religious sentiment.
The fact that article 10 exists indicates that apart from the legal perspective
in regards to the freedom of speech there is also a moral perspective. Because
the freedom of speech implies responsibility one should sometimes refrain
from speaking in favor of the common good. (7)
The moral perspective is based on mutual respect and tolerance, two values
which are crucial for a well functioning society in which people live together in
mutuality but cannot be enforced by law. God commands people to be just to
one another, even if they hold opposing views. "O you who have believed, be
constantly upright for Allah, witnesses with equity, and let not antagonism of a
people prevent you from being just. Do justice; that is nearer to piety‖. (8)
The Wilders trial
Being part of the public debate is the defining factor between limiting the
freedom of speech in most cases. Dutch right wing politician Geert Wilders,
who is known for his anti Islamic viewpoints, seems to be very aware of his
position as a politician and the (extra) freedom that provides him with. He has
perfected the art of offending and disturbing fully. In recent year Wilders has
created buzz worldwide via his websites, YouTube film Fitna and twitter
account by claiming that people ought to speak out against Islam more and
insinuated that the founding of Eurabia would only be a matter of time.
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During a lecture in New York last year, Wilders underlined the above with
the following statement: ―Today, I come before you to warn of a great threat. It
is called Islam. It poses as a religion, but its goals are very worldly: World
domination, holy war, Shari‘ah law, the end of the separation of church and
state, slavery of women, the end of democracy. It is NOT a religion, it is a
political ideology. It demands your respect, but has no respect for you.‖ The
technique Wilders uses is as clever as unfair; he avoids the live debate with
people who have studied Islam and the lay Muslims. All he does is drop bombs
in parliament and online which have a shielding effect for him and never fully
explains himself in current affairs programs.
In a recent court case Wilders was acquitted of hate mongering and insulting
Muslims. The clash between the right to profess one‘s opinion and the
prohibition of discrimination on religious grounds was won by the former in
this instance. Criticizing Islam, or any other religion for that matter, is
acceptable as long as one does not directly and explicitly insult Muslims the
judges stated.
Right to offend according to Dutch law
In Dutch law, as stated above in the Wilders court case, insulting a religion
or a religious community are two different things. When insulting a religion, the
intention of the person who insults is the determining factor whether
somebody is guilty or not (9) However, when insulting a religious community,
the intention of the insulter is no longer relevant but the harshness of the insult
(10) In addition to this, there are other factors which can make sure that insult
charges may be dismissed. The most important three factors are artistic
expression, religious motivation for insult and a contribution to the public
debate.
If the Danish cartoons had been Dutch cartoons they would not have been
forbidden either under Dutch Law. Cartoons fall under the category of satire,
and satire is part of artistic expression. As long as the cartoons were made
without the intention of insulting someone, this would be acceptable from a
law perspective. Satire is part and parcel of the Dutch cultural landscape and
therefore acceptable. The same goes for insult coming forth from religious
texts. One might take offence to certain statements in religious texts, they will
however never be forbidden as this would go against the freedom of religion
people have. Nevertheless, if a person cites religious texts in such a way that
they become unnecessarily hurtful, they would break Dutch law. The third,
contributing to the public debate, is a controversial one for it has to do with
word use, and also how often the offensive words were used. (11)
The case of Hirsi Ali, who claimed to fight for Muslim women‘s rights, is an
interesting one in this respect; for she called the Prophet of Islam perverted and
a pedophile in order to strengthen her cause of liberating Muslim women. The
judge ruled that even though Hirsi Ali had insulted the Muslim plaintiff because
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of her words, the number of times which she had said it kept it within
proportions according to Dutch law. (12)
Now that the legal framework is explained, religious boundaries to the
freedom of speech will be linked to the changed media landscape and online
journalism.
New media, new journalism
Internet is part of daily life for many people nowadays. A staggering one
billion people have access to the internet today, and the number is expected to
grow rapidly. What started as a medium for searching for information 15 years
ago, is now an influential medium through which people stay in touch with
friends, do business, take in news and blog.
Of course, this easy access and the adjunct use of the worldwideweb has a
profound influence in how humans take in information. A whole generation is
coming to age that does not know what it means to live without internet and
being offline. This media savvy generation knows what is out there and can deal
with information from different platforms all at the same time. This generation
is also referred to as being Generation-C, because consuming media equals
producing content to them: SMS, MMS, email, chat, blog posts, podcasts, just
sitting still and watching, listening or reading is the exception, while collating,
selecting and forwarding seems to be the rule. This generation informs itself
mostly through internet by surfing to news websites, reading blog entries about
certain topics and are kept up to date by online friends living all over the world.
This new way of using media has led to a clash between what we would call
old and new media. Old media, such as radio, TV and print media are finding it
tougher and tougher to compete with new media outlets such as internet, social
media and smart phone applications. In 2008 a survey showed that more
Europeans and North-Americans got their national and international news
online rather than from a newspaper. It will not come as a surprise that print
media suffered the heaviest blows in this changing media landscape. The
amount of newspapers has dropped tremendously over the last 10 years as has
the number of different magazines. (13)
Old media companies which survive, do so because they have changed the
way in which they provide their services, becoming (at least partially) part of the
new media. Both Time magazine and the Economist are good examples of how
established media companies anticipate on the consumer change in using
media: Heritage brands which have successfully transformed itself from being a
current affairs magazine to a cross medial platform containing articles, videos,
audio clips, photo essays blogs and polls, all offered on different platforms and
are flourishing because of it.
A change in use of media inevitably means a change in journalism. Internet
has opened many doors for what Richard Nixon once called the silent majority.
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The web has become a platform on which everybody can give their two cents
on any issue and run the risk of being taken seriously. Wikipedia is a good
example of an encyclopedia which is taken very seriously by the public, while it
is in fact made by the same people who use it. When it comes to online
journalism three main observations can be made:
1) The 24/7 need for news has led to a decrease in accurate reporting.
2) Everybody is a journalist online, but required journalistic standards are often
not met.
3) Web 2.0 has brought the journalist and his readership much closer together
which raises concerns about the ‗pleasing factor‘ of journalists.
Accuracy and the 24-hour news cycle
The first 24-hour news cycle arrived with the advent of news channels on
TV. The channels brought a much faster pace of news production with
increased demand for stories that can be presented as news because of the fact
that they are continuously ‗on air‘. This pace only increased with the rise of
online news. It is always prime time somewhere in the world.
The pressure of both commercial stakes and needing scoops constantly
because it is always prime time creates immense competition between different
media organizations. This competition has led to a movement away from
traditional values such as verification, explaining context, relevance and
proportion. Former journalist Tom Rosentiel fears that ―these values will be
replaced by a "journalism of assertion" which de-emphasizes whether a claim is
valid and encourages putting a claim into the arena of public discussion as
quickly as possible‖.
In a survey among Dutch journalists more than one third asserted that they
fear that the credibility of journalism in general is in danger because of this. In
addition to this a staggering 60% does not regularly verify information found
on the internet through another source.(14)
When looking at the way in which Islam and Muslims are being portrayed in
Western media, it is clear that they are discussed from an Outsider‟s view, which
means that news regarding Muslims and Islam is not contextualized in a way
Muslims themselves would. For instance the attacks of September 11 were
explained in Western media in terms of ‗A holy war against the West‘, and that
the perpetrators were driven solely by a desire to become martyrs. The political
reality of the people and countries involved was completely neglected. Many
news commentators also simply assumed that this was an act of Muslims hating
the West because of its lewd morals in the West and did not take into account
US foreign policy in this regard. In some cases it was an attack of Islam aimed
at the West.
By equating Islam with terrorism, journalists reduced Islam to a political
ideology instead of viewing it as a dynamic religion, which has led to many
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problems in Europe. Ultimately, society as a whole will pay the price for the
unfair and daily bombardment of negative news surrounding Muslims as it will
become more polarized. Abrahamian (2003) states that after 9/11 the was an
increase in verbal and physical violence toward Muslims, and The European
Monitoring Center on Racism and Xenophobia stated that ―...relatively low
levels of physical violence were identified in most countries, although verbal
abuse, harassment and aggression was much more widespread. Muslims,
especially Muslim women, asylum seekers and others, including those who
‗look‘ of Muslim or Arab descent were at times targeted for aggression.
Mosques and Islamic cultural centers were also widely targeted for damage and
retaliatory acts.‖ (15)
This shows that accuracy of ‗facts‘ and offering context instead of isolating
incidents are of utmost importance when trying to fight polarization in society
based on religious differences. From a Qur‘anic view God encourages people to
understand each other in the light of pluralism and peace and co-existence
when He says: “O humanity! Behold, we have created you all out of a male and a female,
and have made you into nations and tribes, so that you will get to know each other”. (16)
Blogs, everybody can be a journalist
With the further development of the new media a new brand of journalism
has emerged: Blogs. They are opinionated, ranting, often incoherent and
frequently biased with little regard for accuracy or balance. A blog is simply a
highly personalized series of updated posts on a web page in the form of a diary
or journal, often including commentary on, and hypertext links to, other web
sites.
Perhaps one attraction of blogging lies precisely in its unmediated and
dynamic quality."Readers are flocking to online news sites by the millions for
the latest news,‖ JD Lasica, senior editor of the Online Journalism Review
states."[The Public is] also streaming to weblogs for skeptical analysis, critical
commentary, alternative perspectives rarely seen in mainstream media. Unlike
the large media organizations, bloggers were unhindered by the normal
journalistic standards of objectivity, balance and accuracy. This amateur output
was raw, subjective and honest as people sought emotions, not detachment finding solace and expression in the words of the thousands of blogs that
sprang up.
Moreover, the fact that established print journalists from outlets such as The
Independent and Guardian Unlimited started to create their own weblogs to sit
alongside news and features blurred the distinction between ‗real‘ journalism
and blogging even more.
The question is why so many readers of online content have chosen to steer
away from traditional sources of news in favor of weblogs. Looking at the
content blogs provide, such as alternative perspective, first-person experiences
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and interactivity, one might conclude that readers want either a balanced or
more personal angle to their news and that standard and rigor do not
necessarily matter.
Modern day Western society is individualized to such an extent that the way,
in which individuals define and try to solve their own problems, has become
the lens though which the world is viewed. Blogs have become in a sense a
global conversation about how the world is viewed, an individual network of
personally tweaked news. The way in which Al Qaeda is used and uses internet
is a good example of this collation and expression of Islamic justifications on
for instance weblogs given by people (radicals) who have not even received
proper religious training to do so. (17)
Unfortunately, blogging is not the democratic innovator utopians hoped it
to be. But it offered freedom. Freedom to select and create content which,
most often, does not live up to the standard of traditional journalism as agreed
on in the declaration of principles on the conduct of Journalists in Bordeaux.
This is something we have to deal with because of the fact that news on blogs
is authentic, and that, more than anything else, is what today‘s internet
generation is actually looking for.
A culture of pleasing
According to a Dutch survey amongst journalists more than 50% of them
has more contact with the audience because of internet. In a bid to win over
readers in a very tough market, newspapers such as the Guardian opened up a
chunk of their website in order for readers to comment on articles called
comment is free which is more or less an open forum.(18)
This talkback option has asked of the journalist to change his role and
become more flexible. Before, the Great Wall of China divided the journalist
from his readers. The Journalist never thought about ‗what the public‘ wanted
to read, but only what he felt they should know. This is impossible and
unthinkable nowadays. A journalist must work together with the critical and
sometimes stubborn citizens nowadays to spark interest in the pieces which he
writes. This means updating and debating constantly, and also looking at news
as a commercial venture: what does my reader want to read? The danger here is
that journalists will adopt the slant and public displeasure in order to be read
more.
The economic pressure has led to some parts of the press moving toward
sensationalism, entertainment and opinion. Through this stereotypes have been
reinforced more than broken down and has led to further negative framing of
Islam in European society. A good example of this was when a few hundred tshirts with the face of Bin Laden were sold in Indonesia. This was news on all
possible news platforms available, giving people the impression that the whole
of Indonesia was supportive of Al Qaeda, whereas obviously it was a gross
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misrepresentation of the facts and that this could not be further away from the
truth.
The Qur'an has clearly stated: O you have believed, if there comes to you a
disobedient one with information, investigate, lest you harm a people out of ignorance and
become, over what you have done, regretful. (19)
Tension hype!
The Danish cartoon controversy is a typical example of how the tension
between Freedom of religion on the one hand and freedom of speech on the
other was portrayed on different platforms of new media, unleashing a hype of
immense proportions.
On Thursday 30 September 2005 editor Flemming Rose of the conservative
Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten publishes 12 cartoons of the prophet
Muhammad in the Art section of the newspaper. In the months leading up to
the publication the debate on censorship and self censorship heated up in
Denmark. After he hears that children‘s book writer Kaare Bluitgen can‘t find
an illustrator for her book on the life of Muhammad, Rose decides to ask 25
cartoonists to draw up a satirical cartoon of which the Prophet of Islam is the
subject. 12 people respond and their cartoons are published. At that point
Rose could not have realized that his publication of satirical cartoons, would
lead to riots, deaths, diplomatic rows and an economic boycott of Danish
products.(20)
Weeks after the publication Egyptian newspaper Al Fadjr reprints the
cartoons in anger. Moreover, at around that same time, a group of Danish
Muslims travels to the middle-east bringing the cartoons and other materials
they find online. This lobby is supported and amplified by numerous websites,
blogs, emails and chain SMSes. The anger surrounding the publication also
leads to a call for boycotting Danish products though internet and mobile
phones.
What started as an attempt to stir up a debate in Denmark in September
2005 was a full blown media hype in 2006. Boosted by the many emails, text
messages, blog entries and interactive polls on websites everybody formed an
opinion (whether pro or con) which was more often than not nothing more
than parroting. Facts became completely irrelevant and rumors spread so fast
that they are not checked on their truth. Many people protesting had not even
seen the cartoons. In protests things got out of hand and people crossed
boundaries set by Allah when innocent people died and protesters burnt and
trampled the flag of Denmark which has a religious symbol on it. ―Do not insult
the idols of other people because they will insult Allah.” (21)
The interesting thing about this media hype is the fact that it is very much a
new media-hype. Information was sent and received over a variety of platforms
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which were all connected one way or the other. Also, because of the nature of
new-media we see continuous real time updates which means that it becomes
increasingly more difficult to put out the fire as new sparks emerge from
everywhere. This is a reason why the uproar was so lengthy.
The cartoon controversy has reminded us of the fact that the traditional
borders of a country no longer depict the mental and moral borders of people.
We are living in an age where because of globalization, the 24-hour economy
and increasing (international) media literacy people are aware of what is
happening around them and are more likely to respond to issues which are
close to one‘s heart.
Conclusion
The world has changed significantly over the last decade. Technological
advances in the field of the media have made it possible to really view the world
as a global village. This global village called the worldwide web, like any young
nation, has its issues. It has given a voice to the voiceless, which can be heard
and read on millions of websites and blogs daily. One needs to shed a positive
light on this and see that this means that many people can now define
themselves.
However, the hoped for democratic revolution of Internet has not taken
place. In many instances defining the ‗other‘ is still prevalent and has led to
social tension. Unfortunately, in a great number of instances the voiceless have
become the faceless, and it is this anonymity which has partially led to the
amount of offence at the address of religion in a rapidly secularizing Europe.
Dutch law is very clear: When it comes to taking offence, one should be
resilient, even when it comes to religion. The public prosecutor has treaded
lightly and has only in a rare occasion prosecuted someone for crossing the line
when it comes to offending people regarding their religious beliefs. In the
recent hate mongering case against Muslims of Dutch MP Geert Wilders the
public prosecutor even demanded full acquittal. (22)
Apart from the legal side of the debate regarding religious boundaries to
freedom of speech we also have moral boundaries to take into consideration
which are systematically crossed in this instance. Van Stokkum (2009) argues
that the intolerance towards Muslims in both the media and the public debate
stem from radical secular concepts and that the expression of these concepts
are seen as less problematic than intolerance towards other minority groups and
religions.(23)
It is very unsatisfactory for Muslims to ascertain the fact that from a juridical
perspective not much can be done to stop the continuous flow of negativity
surrounding their religion and Islamic Identity. It is because of this that many
Muslims feel pressured by Dutch society and insulted.
162
However, the fact that cases against Hirsi Ali (2005) and Wilders (2011)
went to court gave Muslims the opportunity to clearly expound on why things
said in the media by both politicians and their adherents were perceived as
being hurtful to the community, which provided the debate with a new angle
from an ethical approach.
It seems that the laws regarding freedom of speech and religious boundaries
have not taken the zeitgeist of today‘s world into account properly, and are
therefore sometimes seen as unjust and arbitrary. It is too easy to state
something in a blog-post or on twitter and simply hide behind freedom of
speech, for a debate needs to be open, respectful and honorable. Muslims are
commanded to do so through the following Qur‘anic injunction: “Invite to the
Way of your Lord with wisdom and fair admonition; and argue with them in ways that are
best and most gracious.” (24)
It is precisely these above mentioned three adjectives which are more often
than not absent in the debate on Islam in the media. Interestingly enough
European law places the right to shock, disturb and offend over the ethical
boundaries needed to engage in a debate, and by doing this showing that the
ethics of a debate and law are not complementary in the case of the freedom of
religion and the freedom of speech from a law perspective. This very
incompatibility between ethics and law will lead to numerous new skirmishes
on the religious boundaries of the freedom of speech.
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Footnote
(1) Qur'an 33:21
(2) Evers, H. Media, Extremisme en de grenzen van de uitingsvrijheid, in Media
Ethiek, p. 139-152 (Groningen: The Netherlands) 2007.
(3) Qur'an 6:108
(4) Qur'an 9:71
(5) European Court of Human Rights, European Convention on Human Rights,
http://www.echr.coe.int Last accessed 03/10/2011.
(6) European Convention on Human Rights
(7) Murdered Cineaste Theo van Gogh‘s parents stated the same thing during
his funeral in 2004.
(8) Qur'an 5:8
(9) Van Het Reve trial 1967
(10) The Goeree family trial 1989.
Hermans, L Pleijter, A Tebbe, F. Nieuwe journalisten door nieuwe bronnen,
(Rotterdam: The Netherlands) 2002.
(11) Shadid, W. Moslims in de Media: De Mythe van de registrerende journalistiek, in
Mist in de Polder (ed: Vellenga, S et al) p.173-193 (Amsterdam:The
Netherlands) 2009.
(12) Blanken, H Deuze, M. PopUp De botsing tussen oude en nieuwe media,
(Amsterdam: The Netherlands) 2009
(13) Berger, M.S. Religieuze grenzen aan de vrijheid van meningsuiting: de Deense
spotprenten voor de Nederlandse rechter, in NCJM-Bulletin, p. 664-675 (Leiden:
The Netherlands) 2006.
Loenen , T. Gelijkheid als juridisch beginsel, (Amsterdam: The
Netherlands) 2009.
(14) Rechtspraak, de. Kort geding Hirsi Ali, Hoge Raad der Nederlanden
http://www.rechtspraak.nl last accessed 03/10/2011.
(15) Abrahamian, E. The US media, Huntington and September 11, in Third world
Quarterly, p 529-544 (London: United Kingdom) 2003.
(16) Qur'an 49 : 13
(17) Thomas, T.L. Al Qaeda and the Internet: The Danger of Cyber planning,
Parameters, p112-124 (Carlisle:USA) 2003.
(18) Stolwijk, S. De zaak Goeree, in AA p119-127, (Leiden: The
Netherlands)1988.
(19) Qur'an 49 : 6
(20) Shadid, W. Moslims in de Media: De Mythe van de registrerende journalistiek, in
Mist in de Polder (ed: Vellenga, S et al) p.173-193 (Amsterdam:The
Netherlands) 2009.
(21) Qur'an 6 : 108
(22) Geert Wilders is the chairman of political party PVV ( Partij Voor
Vrijheid) Wilders, G. Geert
Wilders Weblog, http://www.geertwilders.nl Last Accessed 03/10/2011
164
(23) Stokkum van, B. Wat een Hufter! (Amsterdam:The Netherlands) 2010.
Jenkins, H Thorburn, D.
Democracy and New Media, (London: England) 2004.
(24) Qur'an 16: 125
165
166
Media Strategy in the Islamic Universities:
Emir Abdel-Kader University of Islamic Sciences,
Algeria as a Model
Nassir Bou Ali
College of Communication, University of Sharjah, UAE
Abstract
Specialization in the Islamic media is now considered one of the essential disciplines
maintained by some colleges in the Islamic universities to promote the media mission based on
civilization of the society to which we belong, and that is the Arab-Islamic society. The idea of
establishing or creating departments or colleges for teaching the media in some universities of
Islamic sciences in the Muslim world started in the early eighties of the last century. Its
importance lied in expression of a pattern of art and media understanding in an attempt to
establish the moral and value-based orientation of the media's components, bases and pillars.
Later, it became clear that idea of creating these media departments encountered problems
at the level of formation, framing and theorization. Student of the programs offered by these
departments will observe that these programs lack interactive closeness between the courses of
media science and other Islamic sciences in one specialization, namely "Islamic media." This
absence of interaction between the programs produced media-Da'wah models that suffer from
lack of skill in many methods of media processing, despite the presence of strong value-based
background in the media formation.
It is also being observed that a large portion of Islamic media studies have ended as if these
are attractive slogans and titles taken from a bunch of specializations in Islamic studies and
religious sciences (Tafseer, Hadith and Seerah) as if Islamic media is the knowledge of
Tafseer, Hadith or history which the media should be a means to convey it. Here we can
exclude some studies of the Islamic media whose content is well pertinent to the media and
improvement of media performance for students.
This study comes as an attempt to diagnose the phenomenon of media training at the
colleges of Islamic sciences in some universities in view of some scientific observations that have
been recorded through a relatively long experience in teaching the media in this specialization,
namely the Islamic media.
167
The study concludes with the observation that there is absence of values in the media
teaching programs in the departments of media and their presence in an inappropriate way in
the colleges of Islamic sciences.
The study suggests inclusion of the theory that calls for inevitability of media values in the
media formation, as it is characterized by possessing the appropriate intellectual dimension
which connects effectively between the values and media sciences.
Keywords: Islamic media, media, Da'wah communication.
Introduction
The specialization of Islamic media in several universities of Islamic sciences
in the Arab world is considered one of essential disciplines to promote the
media mission based on civilization of the society to which we belong. The idea
of establishing departments for teaching the media in some universities of
Islamic sciences started in the early eighties of the last century. Its importance
lied in expression of a pattern of art and media understanding in an attempt to
establish moral and value-based orientation of the media's components, bases
and pillars.
This study comes as an attempt to diagnose the disease and prescribe the
remedy on the basis of an observation recorded through experience in teaching
the media in this specialization (Islamic media), as from very beginning, the
student observes lack of interactive closeness between the courses of Islamic
sciences and media sciences in one specialization, namely "Islamic media."
This absence led to the appearance of negative results at the levels of
formation, framing and theorization. (A large portion of Islamic media studies
have ended as if these are attractive slogans and titles taken from a bunch of
specializations in Islamic studies and religious sciences (Tafseer, Hadith and
Seerah) as if the Islamic media is the knowledge of Tafseer, Hadith or history
which the media should be a means to convey it.)
A member of the university teaching staff commented on this specialization
(Islamic media) that it is a tall tree with no fruits. This study has set out from
this main question: How Da'wah and media can be closer in terms of subject
and curriculum and how to create a convergence between the two in an
interactive manner that leads to a beginning of real Islamic media? When do we
reap fruits of this tree (Islamic media) which is fruitful all the time?
This issue was taken up for discussion in several universities of Islamic
sciences from different points of view, as it now constitutes a central concern
in the preparation of study programs and units. Not so long ago, the First
National Conference at Emir Abdel-Kader University of Islamic Sciences in
Algeria discussed the ways of teaching the Islamic sciences, including the
Islamic media. (1)
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The Department of Media, Faculty of Social Sciences at the University of
Umm Al-Qura has also contributed in this regard by offering a study program
which is now being taught to students. This study program teaches the true
Islamic faith, without disturbing the media study units which are considered the
first priority for the media person. Students are provided with latest teaching
materials in the branches of media specialization. The aim of this study
program in general is that Saudi media commits itself to Islam in all its activities
and preserves the faith of this Ummah's predecessors, and excludes everything
that is contrary to the Islamic Shari'ah, and stands against the destructive
trends, atheistic tendencies, materialistic philosophies.
The Department of Media is keen for the safety of media person and sees
that the student at the department should be enrolled only after a written and
oral test to state the extent of his readiness to realize his mission, and the
department does not accept a student unless he obtains a certificate of
completion of high school with a grade "Very Good".
It also tries to find a close correlation between him and the religious and
media institutions, such as the Muslim World League and the Offices of
Awareness affiliated to General Presidency of Research, Ifta, Da'wah and
Guidance as well as the Saudi Television in Makkah and Jeddah in order to link
Da'wah with media and put them together in a melting pot called "Islamic
media".(2)
The complication of knowledge and its obvious implications are always
open for discussion: Is Da'wah a media? (in other words, Da'wah includes
media and indeed, Da'wah is main and media is just a part.) Is media a Da'wah?
(in other words, the media includes in itself Da'wah, and indeed the media is
original and Da'wah is just a part.) Similarly whether Da'wah is pertinent to the
content only, not to the means and the media is pertinent to the means only,
not to the content.
From this angle, some believe that the media is a means to convey the
message of Da'wah. Others are wondering whether these two are synonymous
or not. These and other questions cause continuous concern to the teaching
staff members and students at Emir Abdel-Kader University of Islamic
Sciences in Algeria. It is certainly a cause of concern for every teaching staff
member who wants to link this specialization to its cultural dimension.
Answer to these questions needs a thorough debate and extensive research.
The aim of this study is to raise this issue for debate among specialists in media
sciences on one hand, and the Shari'ah scholars on the other, so that they find
out ways to enable the specialization of Islamic media integrate fully between
Da'wah and media and there should be no distance between the two.
Often we observe the juxtaposition of Da'wah courses with media courses
in the universities of Islamic sciences in a way that we do not see the desired
interaction. Even, the pedagogical vocabulary of the courses indicates that there
169
is divergence between Da'wah and media as a result of teachers' academic,
cultural and perhaps even civilizational divergence which may reflect negatively
on the student graduates, as they would continue to suffer from an intellectual
disturbance.
The convergence of Da'wah with media needs more study, understanding
and planning, as most of the applied curricula that we at least know are
predominantly of a technical nature and lack the characteristics of civilizational
dimension. Hence, we can say for example that the media which is taught in the
universities of Islamic sciences (as the vocabulary is in our hands.) stems from
the Western concepts and theories which lack our characteristics (like our man,
our soil and our time). It is also not consistent with concepts and ethics of the
society in which we live. On the other hand, Da'wah is not only the activity of
imam and the rhetoric of sermon on the pulpit, but it is also a civilizational
message and technological performance.
The approach adopted in this study is not one-sided approach (approach
towards Da'wah or media). Also, it is not a dual approach towards (right and
wrong, or correct and error, for example) in this academic and intellectual issue.
Instead, this study is an attempt to have an in-depth look at Da'wah and the
extent of its integration with media in terms of subject and methodology to
develop the specialization of Islamic media in the right way. Prior to that, there
is a need to define the concept of Da'wah and media according to their logical
order in this study.
Da'wah
The word "Da'wah is linguistically derived from the Arabic verb ( ،‫ يدعو‬،‫دعا‬
‫ )دعاء‬and has a meaning of call and invitation.(3) The Islamic Da'wah has two
meanings: The first meaning is the message of Islam and what it contains such
as faith, law, values, ethics and manners. The second meaning is to convey or
deliver this message to the people, and invite them to understand, believe and
make it a standard behavior in their life. (4)
Da'wah, as Ibrahim Imam says, is the function of Apostles since long time,
when the difference among the human beings began for the first time, due to
whim and injustice and earlier they were originally on one religion and one law
that is the religion and law of Islam, as Almighty Allah says: "The people were one
nation then they differed." (5)
Islamic Da'wah is meant for calling to God and it is intended to call to our
true religion that is Islam: "The religion with Allah is Islam." (6), which was
brought by Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). Islam is the theme and
content of Da'wah. The Prophet (as stated in the books of his life history)
conveyed the message of Islam in the best way and remained calling for it since
Allah honored him with this message until his death.
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Da'wah is a religious assignment and duty of every sane adult Muslim, male
or female, provided that Da'wah is carried out on the basis of knowledge and
insight: "Say: "This is my way. I do invite unto Allah with clear knowledge, I and
whosoever follows me. Glory to Allah! I am not among those who join gods with Allah" . (7)
So we understand that Islamic Da'wah is the "missionary side" of faith and it
is, as Ibrahim Imam says, almost equivalent to the concept of media, because
Da'wah is to inform and introduce Islam through communication technology.
Muhammad Sayed Muhammad in this regard says that Da'wah is a part of the
Islamic media or is its ideological part, noting that Da'wah does not include
only the means of media, but also includes a good example and other measures
needed in this regard. He adds, "When we say, Da'wah is part of the Islamic
media, we do not magnify the Islamic media or minimize the Islamic Da'wah.
But this position is similar to our saying that public relations use all means
of media besides using personal and social contacts as well as management
solutions and the like to achieve their goals, in spite of the fact that public
relations are a part of the media science and the specialization in public
relations is a branch of the media science which is the main." (8)
Abdul Latif Hamza has made the term of Da'wah in the era of Prophet
Muhammad (peace be upon him) exactly equal to the term of media in our
time. He says: "People in the past since the advent of Prophet Muhammad
(peace be upon him) did not know the modern term of media and
communication with its three types: personal, collective and mass. Instead, they
used the concept known to them, and that was the concept of Da'wah which
means "inviting" and in other words, propagating." (9)
Al-Tayyeb Burgooth defines Da'wah as an organized and methodological
effort that aims to educate people about the reality of Islam and bring a
balanced and radical change in their life on their way to fulfill the duties of
Istikhlaf (their being vicegerent of God on earth) in order to seek the pleasure of
God and win His paradise. He explained two basic things about Da'wah: 1)
Da'wah as the missionary content of a religion that is to be embraced and
adhered, 2) Da'wah as a process of communicating this content and introducing
the people to it as well as striving for the sake of construction in the face of
destruction. (10)
Most of these definitions agree that Da'wah has two parts; one part is
related to the message content while the other is associated with means.
Muhammad al-Joyushi sees that elements of the media process are same
elements of Da'wah: Da'wah worker, the content of Da'wah and the means of
Da'wah, the recipient of Da'wah and the impact of these elements on the
process of Da'wah as a whole. (11) We will analyze these elements in more
detail when dealing with the concept of media.
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Media
Media is intended in general the process of information transmission from a
sender to a recipient (public) and it symbolizes the press of dissemination by
the communication means such as press, radio, television and the Internet, of
the news, cultural, social, religious and entertainment contents to a broad sector
of society. This definition includes several elements forming what is called a
media process: 1) Sender who communicates or conveys. The sender may be a
politician, media person, preacher or a body of similar activity. 2) Message;
content of information. 3) Means; a tool or channel by which the message is
transmitted or conveyed. 4) Recipient; the public as individuals or groups. 5)
Reaction; a positive or negative impact of this process. (12)
So the media includes these five elements, which are summarized in the
statement of Harold Lasswell: Who (sender) said what? (content) by which
means (channel) to whom? (recipient) with what impact (impact of all these
components). Azzi Abderrahman says that this is mentioned in the Qur'an as
Allah says: "Speak fair to people." The verb "speak" includes sender and means
while "fair" is content of the message and its positive impact, and "people" is
recipient public. (13)
Azzi Abderrahman created this controversy between Da'wah and media
since late eighties and tried to treat it in his own way, wondering whether these
two concepts are synonymous or different citing the statement of Muhammad
Sayed Muhammad that media is a means of disseminating the Islamic message.
In other words, focus in media on information as it moves while focus in
Da'wah is on message then means. As many others opine that media and
Da'wah are identical words, because media is Da'wah, and Da'wah is media.
According to Azzi Abderrahman, Da'wah in this framework can use
newspapers, magazines, radio, television and the Internet to inform the public
about the message like educators who use television and computer in education
and call them as means of education technology. So there is nothing wrong in
this case to use Da'wah technology to follow the example of educators who
used the term of education technology. Although these perceptions are at the
level of abstracts, in reality, as Azzi Abderrahman says, the media is a means to
disseminate Da'wah in the present situation of the Muslim world, but it is the
media in a future Islamic society.
Media education: Is message a value?
Return to the self and search for origin and its knowledge is no longer a
desired objective in sciences of information and communication only, but it is a
fundamental issue in all other sciences, especially the social sciences. The
economists have paid attention to this reality as research and studies have
appeared in Islamic economics. The education teachers have also shown more
interest in the subject of Islamic guidance in raising and educating the children.
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The books of Abu Hamid al-Ghazali and other scholars have come under close
attention for quite some time.
The relationship of media with Da'wah or of Da'wah with media is one of
the episodes of restoring the heritage and advancing the sciences on genuine
and solid grounds. There is no doubt that establishment of departments of
media sciences at the universities of Islamic sciences is a healthy and positive
phenomenon, but this initiative is so far -as I believe- is a measure
overwhelmed by enthusiasm rather than a scientific and thoughtful planning,
because establishment of departments for teaching the information media in
these universities is not easy, as these departments, besides the financial and
technical resources need the human resources capable of preparing the media
frameworks that are intellectually and technically perfect on the basis of "the
message is the value".
These human elements are not available at the present time, and therefore a
dichotomy exists between Islamic culture and media culture. This dichotomy is
very clear if we take into account, Emir Abdel-Kader University of Islamic
Sciences in Algeria as a model, where batches of students graduate annually
with bachelor's degree from the Department of Islamic Media, and they lack
many elements which form the integrated interaction between Da'wah
(content) and media (skills and performance). They are either semi-preachers
who have nothing to do with arts of media or semi-media persons who lack the
religious authority as well as arts of rhetoric and methods of Da'wah.
This dichotomy in our belief is due to the juxtaposition of Islamic sciences
courses with courses of media sciences in a way that lacks the desired
interaction. It is obvious that the course of information media from an Islamic
perspective is the only course which is programmed for the fourth year
students. This course alone is not sufficient to bring about this interaction
between Islamic sciences and media sciences. Even about this course (the
media from an Islamic perspective), there are those who express doubt from
the premise that media is one and there is no Islamic and un-Islamic media.
On this point, some people on more than one occasion raised a number of
questions: Is it not that media, its arts, and its means in the West are same as
our media, its arts and means or in any other place? Is the investigative
reporting or television interview different from one country to another
country? Is it not that the same steps and methods are applied? Are the press
and TV photography different in Algeria from that of Cuba?
These questioners do not have a deeper look at the things, so they set out
on the basis that media is like any other art or craft that can be used for noble
humanitarian purposes in the service of a man and his happiness, and it may be
used for the opposite also. This means that media education like an art or craft
becomes separate (mechanically) from education of the objective for which it is
utilized and from the aim served by it.
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These questioners, indeed, raise an old debate in the West (late 19th century)
when the perception of media was a purely technical perception, but this
perception later evolved in the West, where media from twenties of last century
began to include the theoretical units, and lately there has been a variety of
frameworks in which specialized interests are formulated about major industrial
enterprises as well as communication technology and its contents so that there
is, says Ezzi Abdul Rahman, interconnection between means and message. This
gap which was between them has been reduced. (14)
A- Media education: A science of means or message
We agree with these questioners that professionalism of media arts and
technologies may not differ between Cuba (a communist country) for example
and the United States of America (a liberal country) or Algeria or UAE, and the
steps followed by the Cuban media person while doing an investigative
reporting are same steps and procedures followed by an American, Algerian or
UAE media person. Similarly, it is same way that we follow while filming a
documentary about a group.
But we say that main and important dispute is content of the message that
we present, regardless of professionalism of implementation, as well as the
purpose served by the message. Then, what is permissible and what is not in all
of this, whether it is the form, content or means of implementation. Here lies
the difference between what is Islamic and what is not, in respect to goal and
purpose of implementation.
B- Media: A science that has center and authority
Media person is not only a reporter who well knows how to write and talk
about the events which are taking place especially in the political sphere or a
press technician, but he is also a cultured man who has authority and basis of
certain cultural concept, as Ibn Khaldun says, convinced of aims and objectives.
From this perspective, he adapts his media message according to a value-based
dimension as an authority of reference and center of vision. From this angle, we
look at another matter that is "absence of value" in the media teaching
programs in the departments of information and communication sciences as
well as the presence of this value in a way not suitable to the information media
in the colleges of Islamic sciences.
In order to make the thing more clarified, we cite here the statement of
Karam Shalabi who questioned in this regard, saying: "Does God's law allow us
to eavesdrop or do spying or stealing in order to get a news for scoop before
others? Does Islam permit us to publish a news of sex, personal secrets and
scandals?" Then, he asks on the other hand: "Is presentation of news and
information as well as utilizations of media means to serve the objectives of
Russians (previously) in Chechnya equal to the presentation of news and
information as well as the utilization of media means to achieve the objectives
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of Muslims there? Are not there clear differences between these two media
purposes and objectives? (15)
From this central question, we say that media material from an Islamic
perspective is essential and its study becomes compulsory, and similarly, the
preparation of a media person from the perspective of our civilization is an
inevitable duty. From this perspective, it is possible to propose the inclusion of
theory of inevitable media value** in the teaching of media, because it is
characterized by possessing the appropriate intellectual dimension that links in
a scientific way between the value and media sciences. So media is no longer an
abstract word or mere presentation of news and information, just because it is
any news or any information, but news and information are presented on the
basis of theories which represent the philosophy of political or economic
systems to serve certain interests and ideologies like the media of Zionist
ideology.
Therefore, selection and presentation of news and views, as well as method
of presentation do not take place without any goal or purpose. In addition to
this, there should be effort to eliminate some incorrect concepts of others
about the media and its means as they believe that media is synonymous with
dance, singing entertainment or pastime as it is said: "It (media) is the art of
lying." These views are quick reactions as they are overwhelmingly emotional.
There is also stereotype criticism that places the media in the negative
perspective, so there is negligence for great development and diversity that have
taken place in the field of media as well as its arts and theories.
Of course, it is not only the information media which suffered from these
views or prejudices, psychology has also suffered from such stereotypes with
regard to "Freud and sex" and sociology suffered as well from such stereotypes
in respect of "Durkheim and Suicide". While there are several sub-schools, even
under the Freudian theory itself, as the specialized disciplines of sociology in
the West alone have reached the number of 50. Mustafa Ashuy says that age of
the American Society of Psychology is now more than a century, and that
disciplines of social branches have been dedicated to the service of man and
society, and some of these were dedicated also to influence the Islamic societies
culturally and psychologically, but also to deepen their differences and
fragmentations as well as to focus their attention on superficial issues. (16)
In view of the above-mentioned, consideration should be given to media on
the basis that it is a means and a message at the same time. The latter can be
built or demolished according to the aim underlined for it and purpose of its
dissemination. We should not here miss the statement that a call for orientation
of information media is not intended to make media persons bound by
heritage, so that they become the scholars of Fiqh or Fatwa, and the media
education turns to the learning of principles of jurisprudence or religion or
Islamic history. The Islamic sciences have their own nature and media sciences
also have their own nature. Similarly, these sciences have their own
requirements, objectives and various disciplines.
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Towards a methodology of interactive integration: Transition from
'what to say' to 'how to say'
To avoid this dilemma, it is necessary to provide a clear concept for this
specialization (media in Islamic sciences) so as to take it out of its narrow
perspective and protect it from all kinds of wrong impression given to it for a
period of time. While we use this term "integration" or "reactive juxtaposition",
it is because we want to eventually put Da'wah and media in a way that media
serves Da'wah, and the latter becomes a lofty goal of information media and
interaction takes place between them in terms of the content (what do we say?)
and the form (how do we say?) as well as the purpose and the goal, and that is
called theoretically scientific Islamic media. Convergence of Da'wah with media
in terms of teaching, formation and guidance is not confined only to content
and form of the message, but exceeds to the sender, the means, the recipient
and the impact under a social order and cultural dimension.
It is now clear that Islam presents a model of information media based on a
philosophy that is different from that of present media and provides a view
about each of media components that I have referred. Hence, the message of
media in Islam aims at formulating the knowledge of human being
characterized by truthfulness and fairness, as truthfulness is the strength of
communication, mutual dealing, understanding and counseling. Islam has
forbidden lying in all its forms and shapes, as Allah says: "It is those who believe not
in the Signs of Allah that forge falsehood; it is they who lie." (17) He also says: "And
shun the word that is false." (18) In the verse also: "O ye who believe! Fear Allah and be
with those who are true (in word and deed)." (19)
As the media in all its forms is based on the message, it is inevitable that this
message in the Muslim society in particular, is truthfulness, which means that
this message is based on truthfulness and stems from a genuine and true vision,
so that it aims at achieving good and benefit, and when we come to the area of
media implementation, the merit of truthfulness in the media requires the
following:
Truthfulness of news
Which means a commitment to carry truth without any change in it; and
stay away from rumors and malicious propaganda so that the society does not
live in suspicion and doubt, because these are the bases of strife, as Allah says:
"O ye who believe! If a wicked person comes to you with any news, ascertain
the truth, lest ye harm people unwittingly and afterwards become full of
repentance for what ye have done." (20)
Truthfulness of drafting
The media in its drafting of news is committed to honesty of the word, so it
does not intend intimidation, excitement and reference without any real basis as
intended by other media. Allah says: "O ye who believe! Fear Allah and (always)
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say the right word: That He may make your conduct whole and sound, and
forgive you your sins, and he that obeys Allah and His Messenger, has already
attained the highest achievement." (21)
"The right word", according to Abdul Wahid Hamid, is a statement that
contains the aspects of truth and goodness together. The righteousness of
statement makes it imperative, as he says, to rationale, reason and intuition
prior to issuance of any statement, besides the fact that statement is issued out
of sincerity and faith. (22)
As regards the means in Islam, the religion of Islam calls for acquisition of
all modern means that enable the message's delivery without any time barriers.
In this context, the means (technical) should be integrated into the value-based
cultural perspective of the society, which means introduction of culture to
technology, not transformation of culture into technology.
This process gives high priority to cultural transformation and ensures the
value-based cultural supervision or direction of technology. From this angle, we
can say that Da'wah will become directed to media when introduced to
technology, provided that media (as technology) is integrated into value-based
perspective of the society.
On the level of sender, it is important to take into account inclinations of
the public, its psychological incentives, its cultural level and its social
conditions, and the message will be effective when it is based on the knowledge
of recipient public. The correct equation in this context should be based on the
following question: Not only what people like to read, hear and see, but also,
what people should read, hear and see?
There is no doubt that realization of this equation or demand necessarily
requires full knowledge about the public through in-depth study of its views
and opinions. We are in a dire need for this kind of field studies. As regards, the
level of impact, it shall be positive as long as the media content is associated
with values of society, its culture and civilizational scope. (23)
The integration between Da'wah and media or between the courses of
Islamic sciences and media sciences is not limited to religious subjects, but also
the successful integration between them should be in various fields; political,
economic, cultural, social and sports etc. Even at the level of curriculum (in
terms of academic) Da'wah-based Islamic sciences benefit from the curricula of
media and communication sciences and these curricula are mostly inductionbased and empirical, while the media benefits from the curricula of Da'wah or
Islamic sciences which are mostly deduction-based or normative.
One of the examples of successful integration between social sciences and
Islamic sciences is the subject of economics. Economics for example, whatever
the scientific methods and statistical techniques are used, should not be
separated from the ideological framework. Therefore, economics within the
value-based Islamic framework cannot be separated from the Islamic concept
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of ownership and the role of man in disposition of ownership, even it cannot
be separated from the general Islamic principles regarding the circulation of
money, in a way that Islam for example does not allow sale and purchase
without restrictions and conditions related mostly to the concepts of Halal and
Haram.
Conclusion
In conclusion, we do not want, through this modest study, to reach the
perfection, as it is impossible, but we only look forward to the preparation of
media persons who at least can combine interactively between Islamic sciences
and media sciences. Abdul-Rahman bin Mahdi says, "We do not want a man
who is an Imam in Hadith and who is not an Imam in Sunnah. Similarly, we do
not want a man who is an Imam in Sunnah and who is not an Imam in Hadith.
But whatever it may be, we will not get a man like Malik bin Anas who is an
Imam in both of them.
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References and Footnotes:
** We may refer in this context to the following colleges, departments and
sections: the Department of Media, Al-Azhar University; Department of Media,
University of Umm Al-Qura, Department of Media, International Islamic
University, Malaysia; Faculty of Da'wah and Media in Riyadh; Department of
Da'wah and media, the University of Emir Abdel-Kader in Algeria; Department
of Da'wah and Media, Faculty of Islamic Sciences, the University of Batna,
Algeria; Department of Media, the University of Pakistan, and I think the
Department of Media, Jakarta, Indonesia.
1.
See the Themes of Congress on Methods of Teaching the Islamic and
Human Sciences, Reality and Prospects, which was held at Emir AbdelKader University of Islamic Sciences in Algeria on 18-20 Safar 1421H
corresponding to 22-24 May 2000.
2. See the following link http://www.uqu.edu.sa/page/ar/454 (03/04/2011).
3. Imam, Ibrahim, (1985), The Principles of Islamic media, Cairo, Dar al-Fikr
al-Arabi, p 22.
4. Mohammed Mohammed, Syed, (1986), Media Responsibility in Islam,
Algeria, al-Mu'assasah al-Wataniah Lil-Kitab, p. 45.
5. Qur'an 10:19.
6. Qur'an 3:19.
7. Qur'an 12:108
8. Syed, p. 46.
9. Abdul Latif, Hamzah, (1974), Media in Early Islam, Cairo, Dar al-Fikr alArabi, p 37.
10. Mohammed Sahraoui, Meqlati, (1997), Methodology of Prophet
Muhammad (peace be upon him) in Protection of Da'wah and Its
Achievements, Majallah al-Tajdeed, International Islamic University of
Malaysia, (2) 12, 221-241.
11. Muhammad, Al-Joyushi, (1982), Da'wah and Men of Da'wah in the
Modern Era, Cairo, Maktabah al-Nahdhah, p. 5.
12. Abderrahman Azzi, (1989), Islamic Media: Obstruction of the Message in
the Era of Means, Annals of the Algiers University (4) 12, p.35-45.
13. Ibid, p. 39.
14. Abderrahman, Azzi, (1990), Media Formation: Convergence and
Divergence between Means and Message, Algerian Journal of
Communication, University of Algiers, (4) 4,7-14.
15. Karam Suleman, Shalabi, (1988), Press News and Islamic Regulations,
Jeddah, Dar al-Shurooq, p. 11.
16. Mustafa, Ashoe, (1997), Towards Integration of Social Sciences and
Islamic Sciences, Majallah al-Tajdeed, International Islamic University of
Malaysia, 1 (9), 55-81, p 60.
** ** See the site of Media Determinism Theory:
http://www.google.com/site/value mediadeterminism theory/home
179
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
Qur'an, 16:105.
Qur'an, 22:30.
Qur'an, 19:119.
Qur'an, 49:06.
Qur'an, 33:70-71.
Abdul Wahid, Hamid, (1984), Media in the Muslim Society, the Muslim
World League Journal, Saudi Arabia, (33) 9, 56-80, p. 72
23. Nassir Bou Ali (2011), La Médiologie entre Marshall Mac-Luhan et Azzi
Abderrahmane, de la Technologie a la compétence Morale. El Hikma
Magazine, Algéria 6(3), 301- 319, (in French(
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New Media in the Muslim World:
Complexity of Culture, Technology and Utilization
Hamdy Hassan Aboelenen
Deputy Rector/Dean; International University of Egypt
The old and new media in the Muslim world are in the forefront of general
cultural scene as well as different institutions which affect the cultural
formation of new generations. This is not due to the power possessed especially
by media in this vast geographic length, but because of general conditions
prevailing in most countries of the Muslim world. Perhaps the decline in the
role of other institutions which are supposed to contribute immensely in the
cultural formation of these generations such as educational, religious, cultural
and political institutions represents one of the key features of these conditions.
When information media became popular and widespread in the first half of
the last century, it was generally believed that information media is working in
integrity with these institutions and others. The messages broadcast through the
information media were produced in an area that had vast space between
information media and these institutions. Therefore, weak effects of these
institutions also gave the information media more influence in guiding the
general thinking in the society. Hence, the social and intellectual cohesion, for
instance, protects the public from becoming a prey to the effects of local
information media or those coming from abroad. When this cohesion is
somehow disintegrated, the public faces the media individually suffering some
isolation and then its influence on them increases.(1)
The technological evolution represents the essence of media evolution as
well as the essence of resulting diverse cultural, political and social influences.
The history of mass media indicates that it depended on the evolution of
communication technology from the era of printing where the first forms of
old media were born to the age of digital communication, when the new
information media emerged. The impact of technological evolution was not
confined to mere providing new channels or facilitating the access of media
content to larger sectors of the public. The truth is that technology in all stages
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of its evolution was influencing the content of information media and levels of
its potentials to influence its audience.
In the work areas of old media, it was the development of communication
technology besides other factors that made it a mass media and also made the
process of receiving its content a collective process under which a large number
of people are exposed to a media content that is homogeneous to some extent.
This collective reception imposed the public standards and prevailing social
values as well as expression of the mainstream in the society. In the
performance of these tasks, it was necessary for information media to integrate
with other institutions in the society, regardless of the limits of this integration.
Also, information media was and still working in a virtual situation that allows
interaction between different groups which make up the society. When new
means of communication emerged, they due to their technological nature
became individual and interactive working in a virtual situation, far away from
the influence of other institutions, even in the form of advice, guidance or
correction.
What combines the old and new media is that they together were the
product of evolution of communication technology which exercised influence
not only in providing channels but also in the nature of media content itself. It
is known that technology is not something of free value and that the import of
technology does not mean only the import of equipment and tools, but also the
import of cultural patterns emerged in the environment of their production.
When it comes to the technology of communication, the influence of cultural
patterns that came with the new technology is certain to increase.
Media in Muslim countries: The problem of evolution
The real problem of media in Muslim countries as well as in other
developing countries is that its development as a whole is due to the external
technological and non-technological factors, not in response to the local needs
whereas development comes due to the internal as well as external factors. The
Arab world knew of the press when it served the French purpose during its
attack on Egypt at the end of 18th century. These preliminary forms of the
press left with the French campaign in the beginning of 19th century. In other
parts of the Muslim world, the colonial campaigns were behind the emergence
of first forms of newspapers, as is case in Indonesia, when it knew of the first
forms of press through the Dutch-East India Company in the 17th century.(2)
The information media since then is dependent on external factors at least
from professional and technological aspects. In larger parts of the Muslim
world, the professional standards of news media are measured by its closeness
or distance from the Western standards (values of the news, arts of the media
work, the concept of freedom, etc). Its technological advancement is measured
with the level of its use of latest technology produced in the West, not with the
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level of its capability to meet the local needs. Even the Western classification of
media systems in the world countries in terms of freedom is the authorized
classification in larger parts of the Muslim world such as the classification of
the US "Freedom House and classification of the French "Reporters without
Frontiers", in spite of the flaws that these classifications have, even by the
Western standards and according to the Westerners' concept of freedom.(3)
The truth is that the spread of Western concept of the press freedom has
caused a lot of disturbance in the Third World's media environment. The last
three decades have witnessed tremendous developments in the media industry
which left a great impact on the media in larger parts of the Muslim world. In
the late eighties, Muslims showed their concerns about the technology of Direct
Broadcast Service (DBS). Their main concern at that time was about the impact
of incoming broadcast on faith and morals in the Muslim countries. But the
past two decades have shown that real danger to faith and morals did not come
this time from the external sources but from the internal sources of the Muslim
world countries themselves. What we are witnessing in the Arab world - where
more than seven hundred TV channels are working on regular basis - indicates
that we have decided to entertain ourselves until death, as said by one of the
American researchers.
However, this change in the performance of Arab media is not due to a
completely domestic condition, but rather an echo of changes in the global
media industry. In the wake of globalizing the media activity, the major Western
powers exerted pressures to liberate the media from restrictions and restructure
its means as well as subject them to the market mechanism for political and
economic reasons so knowledge turned from a service to a commodity to be
manufactured according to wishes of the public and not according to their
needs. (4)
Any attempt to merely control the media performance is considered an
assault on freedom and a breach of the principles of free trade as well as an
attempt of exercising the political pressure. As a result, the governments in
most of the Muslim countries have consented to retain only the political
control of media performance as much as they can, leaving the rest to the
market mechanism which made the media content falling down to the lowest.
New media and media reality in the Muslim world
The Muslim world witnessed successive waves of communication
technology which in the end created so-called new media to distinguish it from
the traditional media such as newspapers and local TV channels, etc. Digital
technology of communication is considered to be the decisive factor in the
emergence of new media and in the change of traditional media landscape. It is
now responsible for the current abundance of information, due to the
provision of more multimedia and possibility of dealing easily with written texts
and transmitted images.
It is a reality that technology of digital communication has brought the new
information media which surprised the traditional media in the Muslim world
from two angles:
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First: The conditions of traditional media were not stabilized yet, when the
technology of digital communication reached with its new means and methods.
The traditional media had not taken its place right between the main forces
affecting the formation of social and political culture, and this exposed it to
many upheavals and changes. That traditional media had not crystallized the
philosophy of its work in the societies in which it operates and has not yet
completed its financing structure. It could not so far develop the professional
standards that match the prevailing social and cultural reality and also could not
cope with change in the needs of the public by the change of media
environment.
Therefore, the media systems in countries of the Muslim world are a
mixture of the systems which are different and even contradictory, as some of
these systems are authoritarian, while others are socialistic, and some others are
semi liberal. Rather, the information system in one state is exposed to change
according to the prevailing political conditions and at frequent intervals. Instead
of the old media leading the incoming new media, the opposite has happened.
This means that new media forced the old media to change in an unorganized
way.
Similarly, the new media came with individual interactive character at a time
when many countries of the Muslim world were not able through traditional
media of the collective nature to crystallize the national identity and realize the
social cohesion as well as to achieve the general feeling of national unity. At the
national level, the massive and diverse means of communication provided by
new media is not always a healthy phenomenon, as it leads to the fragmentation
of public interests and breaks the bonds of relationship established by the
systems of social, educational and cultural relations between the citizens of each
state in a way that generates more feeling of alienation and more distrust of
governments and other institutions that need the necessary consensus to be
more efficient.
I do not argue the fact that diversity of opinions carried by the media is a
necessity for all societies. However, when these societies lack a minimum
consensus on a system of values, concepts and issues, and when the concept of
citizenship becomes absent in some of its aspects or immature enough, then
this diversity will never be a healthy phenomenon in all its aspects.
Second: New media came with a huge flood of information and a free flow
of information became one of the key features of new global information
system, at a time when freedom of expression constitutes one of the
consequences which are believed to have resulted from the free flow of
information. Fifty years ago, said Karl Deutche, "Knowledge is power and the
advanced sources of information must be available globally, if we want the
democratic societies to survive and continue. However, the problem will
become more complicated when growing flood of information would lead us to
the final limits of our capability to pursue this flood of information. The
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solution lies in taking advantage of information technology in a manner that
allows effective access to information that we need to utilize it as individuals
and members of a democratic society.(5)
Technological and cultural reality of information in the Muslim
world
The free flow of information in large parts of the Muslim world - Like
many other societies - is today a technological reality rather than a cultural
reality. Today, there are problems that obstruct free flow of information to
become a cultural reality capable of developing their societies. Perhaps the most
prominent of these problems is how to access information. The real
significance of information flow is not in its flow, but in its access. Hence, the
expected effect of information flow is to widen the gap between economic
classes in the society.
Robert Reich, an economist says: "Americans no longer ascend or descend
together as if they were together in a big boat. With the new communication
technology, Americans have become as if they are in many small boats. If this
trend continued to the next generation, the top 20% of those with incomes in
the United States will get 60% of the general income, while the bottom 20%
will get only 2%. The factor that separates between economic classes in the
United States is the access to information and its control. (6) There is another
problem and that is how to use the available information. Neil Postman says,
"The problem is not that we do not have much information. The problem
which lies in something else is that people really do not know what to do with
this information as they do not have a principle that regulates their use of this
information." (7)
Some people think that with a shift to the electronic transmission of
information, the task of media will become much easier and there will be a
more knowledge-based generation than the generation of traditional media but
the truth is that the information age has brought a generation that is less
interested and less familiar, as Times-Mirror Group report says. (8)
Flow of information in the Muslim world is suffering from two problems
together. Access to new information channels is economically costly, and level
of education as well as political and cultural climate are not so capable to
provide a framework for investment of this information if it was obtained.
Wherever there is illiteracy and lack of psychological climate, this climate
supports the prevailing trend in the Arab world and through out the world
from within and outside the media industry towards trivialization of
information and entertainment, and pushing the public deep in a flood of
entertainment items which sometimes take the form of information.
This phenomenon has a political dimension in the Muslim world, like other
third world countries where intensive recreational use of information media
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leads either to numb the sense of reality, instead of trying to understand it or to
fall prey to the society's radical forces which lead it wherever they want.
Subjection of culture to technology
There are many signs to point out to the fact that technology is today one of
the key factors in changing the social reality whereas technology is associated
fully with the social patterns. The technological closeness created by the world
powers aimed basically at achieving a cultural convergence giving triumph at
the end to the Western culture as the culture of dominant forces. The new
information media provides its users with many cultures that work side by side
with its original national culture. With this media, the capacity of individuals has
increased to include other cultures through the Internet-based social media
interaction. This suggests that many social interactions take place in the cultural
contexts rather than in the context of original culture.
Some studies indicate that individual's ability of cultural interaction steadily
increases as much as his culture spreads and becomes more diversified. This
shows that a large proportion of social interactions that take place on the
Internet occur in the contexts of cultures rather than their happening in the
context of original cultures. Wendy Griswold suggests that individuals of
different indigenous cultures produce meanings through exchange of symbols
in interactive contexts that work in the context of cultures of each of them, and
that these are the cultures that enable them to reach points of agreement
among themselves, resulting in a behavioral effect on the indigenous culture
and achieving a change in the socio-cultural situation.(9)
The information revolution with its tools and methods known today to be
the new media is another example of the Muslims' cultural subordination to
modern communication technology. This technology has become one of the
driving forces in shaping the contemporary culture for the generations of young
Muslims throughout the Muslim world. It is well known that technology itself
have a strong impact, regardless of its content. This is echoed by Marshall
McLuhan, a Canadian communication scholar in the sixties, when he said, "The
medium is the message."
Like others in all parts of the world, we are fascinated by the revolution of
communication. We talk about it with great admiration, and did not yet know
how to get to the final end of benefiting from it. We have allowed it to change
many things in our life. But this admiration should not hide from us the reality
of problems that accompany it. It is true that these problems will not stop its
spread and reduce its use. But its knowledge has become a necessity. Modern
communication technology hides under its bright cover problems that do
appear only when its means become a part of the daily social and cultural
reality. The man who invented technology may become its captive, as it is
influencing the pattern of his life and styles of his living, even his general
culture and his view of the world around him. Regardless of the controversy
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about relationship between culture and technology, and whichever has more
influence over the other, there is some phenomena which indicate that
communication technology has become an effective factor in the prevailing
culture, if not a deciding factor in some cases.
Perhaps the language is the first victim of new communication technology.
The language used by youth today through the Internet and mobile messages
has come up, due to the impact of means they use to convey messages. In other
words, it is a technological product imposed by the means of electronic
communication, and it did not show the result of factors that led to the
evolution of language itself in earlier eras. The electronic communications in
the long run threaten many creative operations that prevailed in the previous
times of communication, including the creative writing. With the abridgment of
language and its dependence on potentials of new means of communication,
the language would lose some of its functions and many of the literary arts
which depend on it would disappear. Therefore, the language would become a
product of technology rather than a human creativity belonging to various
groups which enrich the human life with their diversity.
It is not ruled out that communication technology will impose the limits of
language and number of its words and will specify the implications of its words.
Three decades ago, the number of vocabulary used in telephone calls according to the Western Studies – used to be around 5000 words. The figure
fell to about 1800 in the messages of electronic communication. The average
number of vocabulary used in the writing of novels fell from 10,000 to about
3500 words in the literary works published electronically. (10)
Electronic Citizenship
In the sixties of the last century, Marshall McLuhan, a Canadian scholar, let
out his well-known cry about the global village. He predicted that
developments in the communication technology will transform the whole world
into a small village where information will circulate in its various parts at a
time. But the new reality though it realized that prediction, however, it was
disappointing all the hopes that came with the slogan of global village.
The last 20 years confirm that communication technology did not make the
world one village but re-divided it into hundreds of isolated villages. Not only
has communication technology divided the world, but also it has divided one
state into a set of isolated villages. The role which was carried out by the
information media earlier to determine the priorities of interest and assemble
the people around similar aims and objectives as well as to achieve a consensus
of the nation has become doubtful today.
This new division which was brought out by the communication revolution
is not based on the geographical, religious, regional or even ethnic foundations
of traditional citizenship. But it is based on a new basis which has significance
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in the human life. The division today is based on the desires of individual
human being and his personal interests. The new information has divided the
people on the basis of what they want to view or follow, regardless of their
culture or whereabouts.
This phenomenon is more obvious now in areas of sports, music and
entertainment. The European sports clubs have fans in all over the world who
are obsessed with the players of these clubs more than their interest in the
players of their local clubs. This phenomenon has prompted some
communication experts to talk about a new kind of citizenship that is the
television citizenship or electronic citizenship. This is a prediction that may
prove to be correct or not at the same degree, due to the prevalence of cultural
traditions rather than scientific theories in interpretation of relationship
between culture and technology.
However, there are phenomena that deserve to be taken into consideration.
When an individual spends an average five or six hours a day, shifting between
the various internet sites and watching the different satellite channels, his
perceptions of the world will become identical with others who move around
the same websites and watch the same TV channels whom he watches. These
websites and TV channels become sources capable of forming a culture for
those who are exposed to them, regardless of the state or culture which
actually, he lives in.
At the same time, they become capable of creating some sort of knowledge
and cultural homogeneity among their viewers for example in Argentina,
Russia, the United States, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Finland and Nigeria, when
they take their viewers from their local culture and put them into the culture
that they spread, and their cultural ties among themselves are stronger than
those ties which bind them to the local culture. Perhaps some see in these
statements a kind of exaggeration but the fact is that there are evidences on this
phenomenon, although the age of the Internet and satellite channels is very
short and it is still difficult to determine their cultural impacts specifically.
In China and Japan, for example disappeared many traditional national
cultural values of those who rely for their knowledge and entertainment more
on the Western TV channels at a time when these values are still strong among
those who depend more on the local channels. Rather, their perceptions of the
world are less similar to the perceptions of their compatriots and more similar
to the perceptions of viewers of those TV channels in other countries which
are culturally different.
People and new media: Uses and gratifications
The search began to know the motives of exposure to the Internet and the
effects of such exposure, when the Internet shifted from a "semantic web"
aimed automatically at getting information from different sources and enabling
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the information search capabilities to deal with information at a large scale in
order to make the new formats of human knowledge to a "pragmatic web"
aimed at achieving the human objectives of the Internet use.
This is based on the consideration that human being is the main element in
this system so he is enabled to interact socially and share information. This shift
to mean that human being is the basis of the pragmatic web contributed to
change the whole concept of the web, as it made the human being a
constructive element in the network, instead of continuing as a mere consumer
or beneficiary of its services. (11)
Youth constitute the main audience of new information media which
depends in its spread and effect on four basic factors:
First: These new technologies are now available to a large segment of the
population especially the youth who have developed their abilities of using
these technologies at a time when the communication infrastructure has been
modernized in many countries of the Muslim world.
Second: Prospects provided by the International Information Network
(Internet) with all its capabilities of social networking, as well as information
and news communication.
Third: The existence of real needs to use these new technologies, as it is an
important factor in determining the quality and content of its use.
Fourth: Integration with traditional media which enables the new media to
disseminate some of its messages to larger segments of direct users of the
traditional media, which ultimately leads to increase the number of new media
users.
The Muslim world represents a unique case of relationship between ratios of
the spread of new media as well as the quality and effects of its use. The
following table shows the rates of prevailing use of the Internet in the largest 10
Muslim countries compared to the world's largest internet user countries.
The above table indicates a significant decrease in the volume of new media
use in countries of the Muslim world compared to other major countries of the
world. However, the Muslim world was the scene of testing the impact of these
media means in political terms, as is the case in Iran, Lebanon and Egypt. Iran
represents a special case in the countries of the Muslim world, as the Iranian
revolution in 1979 provided a unique environment for studying the impact of
audio cassettes that were considered at that time an early outcome of the new
media age.
189
190
These cassettes broke the government restrictions on the traditional media
and reported the speeches of Khomeini from the place of his exile to the
Iranian people. In 2009 Iran came back to offer new evidences on the impact
of new media in the death of Nada Agha Sultan during the demonstrations
which erupted in the protest of Ahmadinejad's election as President of the
Republic. (12)
The social and political reality in large areas of the Muslim world provides
different interpretations of new media impact on the Muslim masses. Several
studies indicate that numerous means brought about by digital communication
technology talking to each other, cannot cause a social or political change. (13)
But when the quality of life becomes bad and social and political tension
spreads, and when the forces of change become willing and capable of using
the prospects provided by the new media in order to stimulate change in the
current social and political conditions, then only these new tools can exercise
their influence in the general discourse. In addition, there is external
intervention for geopolitical reasons associated with some regions of the
Muslim world.
The fast spread of new information media represents a source of its
strength, hence within a few years, the number of its users jumped to a large
section of the population and the future is still open for it, as no means of
communication could achieve this speed earlier. Within ten years, the
proliferation rate of the Internet has reached more than 40% of the total
population in each of Malaysia, Iran, Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Morocco. The
new media age with this speed represents the key of its unique strength.
It must be recognized that rapid development of this new kind of the media
has surprised the media experts who could not yet developed new theories to
explain this unprecedented media phenomenon in the history of media in terms
of proliferation or influence. The most common theory in studying this
phenomenon which itself represents a new era of media is indeed an old theory
which was used with traditional means of media and it is a theory that explains
the differences between the public in using the information media to satisfy the
psychological and social needs in order to achieve their goals. (14)
The new media studies from this perspective point out that with enormous
diversity in the use of old and new media, many questions about the causes of
individual choices for this means will remain without definite answer. (15)
The studies which started in the past mid-century on the uses and
satisfactions indicate that motives of exposure to the media as well as
satisfactions resulting from such exposure have evolved over the time. In
general, the motives of exposure to traditional media were concentrated on
escape from the problems of reality and venting of emotions and social use of
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information which they receive from the media in conversations with others,
and avoidance of isolation whereas media provides an alternative company,
entertainment, self-assertiveness and control of surrounding environment.
With the advent of new media especially what transpires through the
Internet, there appeared new motives and different satisfactions, due to
unprecedented characteristics of the new media. Studies which were conducted
in nineties and later came out through the so-called "cyber communities"
which, according to Coley (2006) are divided into three categories: (16)
First: Social networking sites such as Facebook and Myspace, where young
people publish their personal information in order to get new friends and
maintain existing friendships.
Second: Chat systems, through which the instant messages are exchanged.
Third: Blogs which are the personal websites to present personal views,
news, comments proposed links.
The new media studies focused on research into reasons behind the
widespread use of different applications of the Internet which today is the basis
of new media. Apart from many assumptions in this regard, most of these
studies see in the social interaction a basic function of these applications with
diversity in objectives of this social interaction.
These studies combine the attention to social support through working for
the need for social and psychological support to strengthen capacity to cope
with problems, whether backed by professional experience where the user
resorts to a source of reference that provides him with know-how in the face of
problems or a support based on exchange of experiments and advices. (17)
The fact which can be drawn from the researches of new media uses and
satisfactions is that priorities of using the new information media cannot be
generalized globally or at the level of one nation-state for long periods of time.
The social, political and cultural circumstances have their strong impact on
public in the use of these new tools. Intensive political use of new information
media in some countries of the Muslim world is a natural outcome of instability
experienced by these countries.
At the level of Arab or Muslim world, the political use of information media
cannot be generalized as the degree of political stability varies from country to
country. But the fact is that these methods with all their potentials are ready for
this type of use at any time when political stability is exposed to tension,
especially as everybody now stores the recent experiences and knows how to
benefit from them and add on them.
Recommendations:
1. It is necessary that countries of the Muslim world pay attention to the issue
of handling information including development of skills in new generations
192
for use of information and training how best to benefit from available
information so as to bring back the real benefit to these generations. In this
regard, it is necessary that curriculum at preparatory and secondary levels
includes subjects that contribute to the development of search skills for
information, verification and utilization.
2. All political, religious and cultural institutions in countries of the Muslim
world must realize the importance of new information media and start their
actual presence on the social networks in a way that ensures their active
interaction with the users of these networks and provide incentives to
encourage youth to visit these sites and take advantage of information that is
available there and contribute to rationalize and correct many ideas which
people exchange through new information media.
3. The creation of continuous awareness among youth would make them take
the best advantage of these new tools and develop their skills to use them
especially with regard to verification of available information and immunize
them against the negative aspects of addiction to these media tools.
4. The role of institutions concerned with the function of culture in the society
is to be activated in a way that they are able to respond to the needs of
individuals and express them as well as strengthen their presence in the
living situation, including the restructuring of these institutions so that they
are more able to carry out their functions efficiently in their societies.
5. Traditional information media should integrate with these media tools and
should not consider them as remote, isolated islands in order to achieve the
necessary degree of interaction with them and secure consensus among
members of the society, a consensus needed to ensure that various
institutions play their role.
6. A standard is developed for media freedom that reflects the Islamic concept
of press freedom in the face of Western standards of press freedom. In this
regard, it is recommended to hold a workshop for representatives of various
media institutions in countries of the Muslim world to improve standard
and publish it in an annual report on the status of press freedom from the
Islamic perspective.
7. Work on creating awareness among social institutions especially families by
following up the use of these media tools by children and adolescents in
order to rationalize this use.
193
References
Impact of Information Media: Hamdy Hassan (1992), Communication and
Impact Research, Cairo, Dar-al-Fikr al-Arabi, Cairo.
Indonesia knew of first forms of Press through a newsletter that was addressed
to East India Company Staff in 1616 and was called Memorie de Nouvelles
Refer for this: John C. Merrill (1989) Global Journalism: A Survey of the
World's Mass Media (New York, Longman).
For criticism of Western classification of the press freedom:
-Hamdy Hassan (2006) "Structures of Property and Its Impact on Press
Freedom", a paper presented to Arabic Regional Workshop on Impact of
Property Structures and Circulation of Information with Freedom of Press
in the Arab World, Egypt.
-Hamdy Hassan (2008) "Difficulties in Development of a Global Standard
to Measure the Press Freedom", a paper presented to the Second Arab
Regional Workshop on Press Freedom in the World Arab, Cairo, Egypt.
For Impact of Globalization on Media Activity in the Arab World:
-Hamdy Hassan (1999) "Arab Media: Opportunities and Challenges in New
World Media Order", a paper presented to the First Conference of Arab
Media, League of Arab States, Cairo.
-Hamdy Hassan (2003-2004), "Globalization of Media Activities: Issues and
Views, Annals of the Faculty of Arts, Scientific Publication Council,
University of Kuwait.
Karl Deutche (1963), The Nerves of Government (New York: Free Press of
Geloncoe).
Robert Reich (1991), The Work of Nations (New York: Alfred A. Knopf)
p.302.
Neil Postman, Technology: The surrender of Culture to Technology, op., p.25.
"The Age of Difference News: A Study of Young Americans and How they
view the Time-Mirror Center for the People and the Press, Washington D.
C., 1990, P.3.
Wendy Griswold (2008), Cultures and Societies in a Changing World, (Sage:
Pine forge Press) pp. 60-64.
Severin, Werner J. and Tankard, James W. (2001) Communication Theories:
Origins, Methods and Uses in Mass Media, Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
See a detailed explanation in this regard:
194
-Ahmed Samir Mohamed Abdel-Ghani, "Arab Virtual Communities on the
Internet: An Analytical Study on Dimensions of Arab Social Contact over
the Web", a research presented for degree of PhD in media, Department of
Journalism and Media, Faculty of Arabic language, Al-Azhar University,
2010.
A passer-by using a mobile phone camera shot the death of an Iranian girl
during the demonstration of Green Movement as blood coming from her
head and nose while she was staring with her eyes at camera. This scene
was downloaded on the Internet and soon the bloody scene was broadcast
through global television networks.
Marwan M. Kraidy and Sara Mourad, Hypermedia Space and Global
Communication
Studies: Lessons from the Middle East, Global Media Journal Volume 9,
Issue 16, Spring 2010.
Katz, E. (1959), Mass Communication Research and Study of Popular Culture:
An editorial note on a possible future for this journal, Studies in Public
Communication, 2.1 to 6.
Flanagin, A.J. Metzger, M.J. (2001), Internet Use in Contemporary Media
Environment, Human Communication Research, 27, 153-181.
Refer for more classifications: -Gary p. Schneider, Jessica Evans, and Katherine
T. Pinard (2008), The Internet: Illustrated.
(Boston: Cingage Learning, 5th edition)
-Ahmed Samir Mohamed Abdel-Ghani, " Arab Virtual Communities on the
Internet: An Analytical Study on Dimensions of Arab Social Contact over
the Web" op., p.170-210.
Gustavo S. Mesh (2007) Online Communities, in Ram A. Cnnan, Carl Milofsky
(Editors) Handbook of Community Movements and Local Organizations
(Springer) pp.232-233.
195
Benefiting from Means of Technology
in Service of Islamic media
Malik Ibrahem Al-Ahmad
Professor of Media, King Saud University, Riyadh, KSA
Abstract
We are living in an era of media. People spend most of their time with
media either receiving it or interacting with it. This engagement with media at
the level of individuals and nations require thoughtful and well-studied
intervention from preachers, reformers and all those who present the Islamic
message in order to achieve a number of Islamist goals.In this paper, a brief
definition of media and in particular Islamic media has been presented, and
with reference to contemporary media as significant introduction about the
main subject. In the second section, a comprehensive review of technology and
its contemporary role vis-à-vis media and its enormous impact on the media
process, and finally, appropriate tools and means to employ the technology in
the Islamic media were reviewed.
I. Introduction
Meaning of media
The term ‗media‘ is derived from information media which is no more a mere
tool of delivering information; it has exceeded this point by transmitting news,
information and beyond that, thought, analysis and guidance for future through
the mass media such as press, radio and television.
Reality of contemporary media
It was narrated by Abdullah bin 'Omar (may Allah be pleased with him) that
two men came from the east and spoke. The people were pleased by their
speeches. Messenger of God (peace be upon him) said: No doubt, there is
some speech that has charm like magic. Bukhari has reported this Hadith in the
chapter: ‫إن من البيان لسحرا‬
196
Al-Khattabi said: "The speech is of two kinds: One when explanation of
something takes place to any extent; and the other, when it is so articulate that
it pleases the listeners and wins their hearts. Its fascination is like magic. When
such a speech motivates for a righteous thing, it is commendable, otherwise it is
condemnable. Same can be said about a person who comes up with good
argument that fascinates. Ibn Battal said that above Hadith does not condemn
the speech, nor does it praise.
Information media once employed as a tool of entertainment and recreation,
was on the margins of society. Today however it is in the mainstream of the
society, using entertainment and recreation for performance of a message,
delivery of an idea, formation of a mindset, and making of public taste, and
fixing of certain priorities so it not confined to monitor the event and
transmission of information, but due to its possession of power, influence,
pressure and control, it is now making the event and preparing for it at the
same time. (1)
Official bodies and political elites intensify use of information media in crisis
to exert influence since people in general depend on media; hence, media's
effectiveness and impact are beyond any stretch of doubt.
Media has become a daily human needs which cannot be done away as it is now
a part of the social system and public order.
"The information media is one of the most important and crucial social
institutions that contribute to an active and influential role in the formulation of
mental and paternal images in the collective mind of modern societies. Man in
general and the contemporary man in particular live in different worlds. One of
these worlds is near, but it is small and confined. This is immediate surrounding
of the man who himself gets his information directly through the traditional
senses. The other world is far away, but it is wider and broader. This is a world
where man cannot get his information directly through the senses so he resorts
to derive his information by means of transmission and communication as well
as social interaction, not as in the world that perceived. The reported world
which is built of the social world is movable, which comprises mental images,
patterns which are manufactured or transmitted primarily by the information
and communication media." (2)
"In spite of this importance of the media in the life of people, many people
do not think the extent of the effects caused by the media in the patterns of
their thinking and behavior or conduct of the society. The majority no longer
thinks about the hidden images the media uses in formation of political, social,
economic and cultural systems." (3)
Islamic information
A number of researchers and media specialists in the modern era have
presented definitions of Islamic media which include the following: (4)
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"It is the religious media, which aims at providing the public in general with
the facts of Islamic religion which are derived from the Qur'an and Sunnah
directly or indirectly through a general or specialized medium that has an
extensive and in-depth background on subject of the message in order to
formulate a correct public opinion that appreciates the religious facts and is
affected by belief, worship and dealing." (5)
"The Islamic media is a new term that is expressed by the Qur'an in an
alternative word that is Da'wah, which is meant for the religion of Islam,
means of conveying it, ways of reaching out to people, and methods of
addressing them." (6)
"The Islamic media is a tool of Da'wah to reach its goal. It is distinguished
from the non-Islamic media in the sense that it is a media with ethical
principles, behavioral rulings, other obligatory rules and regulations that are
derived from the religion of Islam. This is a media which is explicit in its
method and clean it is means. Its intention is good, its title is truth, its motto is
frankness; its objective is righteousness. It neither misleads, nor is misled,
rather it leads to a way that is right and straight. It does not follow the twisted
ways, the methods of deceit, corruption and Machiavellianism." (7)
"When Islamic media is under discussion, the prevailing notion is that it is a
religious media. I always say that such view is a narrow view. I don't say that it
is a wrong view, as there is a difference. The religious media is a part of Islamic
media. Therefore we should not confine the Islamic media to religious media.
When we mean by the religious media, the guided media which serves the
Shari'ah and Da'wah-related areas directly, and this is something which is
needed. The need of Muslim Ummah for such a media is great, but this is close
to the specialized media which deals with one aspect of the human life. Our
way of life indeed covers all aspects of life. And also there are political,
economic, cultural, social and other different aspects of life, which Islamic
media must cover." (8)
"The Islamic media is a process of communication which includes all the
media activities in the Muslim society and carries out all of its functions ideally
such as news, guidance and entertainment at the national, international and
global levels, and it is committed to Islam in all its objectives and means, and in
its messages and other materials that related to information, culture,
entertainment recreational and depend on the media among those who are
committed to Islam in word and deed, and use all the tools and means of
specialized and general media." (9)
In other words, it is not compulsory that whatever is presented in media is
to be something religious, cultural or Da'wah-based. It may be an
entertainment media, and falls within the permissible things, thus it comes
under the name of Islamic media, provided that it does not contradict the
principles and rules of Islam (The issues of Ijtehad are excluded from this).
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"While we are talking about Islamic media, do we have courage to consider
'Islamic media' synonymous of Islam in a sense that the Islamic media is Islam?
Any criticism of Islamic media, showing its negative aspects and the extent
of its weakness may become an open criticism of Islam. The very purpose of
Islamic media is to make human beings subservient to Almighty God, Who has
created and provided us with all the bounties. Due to this lofty objective, all the
aims and objectives of Islamic media became high and it is governed by the
following rule: "Everything that leads to the common good of humanity and to
the realization of man's exclusive subservience to Almighty God and
achievement of his goal to construct this earth and be vicegerent in this worldly
life is one of the objectives of Islamic media." (10)
"Islamic media means any media statement or practice regulated by the rules
of Islamic Shari'ah without presence of any religious text that commands it
directly." (11) The Islamic media faces many challenges, including some
external ones: "The most prominent challenges facing the Muslim world today
on the media level is the spread of hatred against Islam and Muslims or what is
called 'Islamophobia' in the Western media, especially after the events of
September, and the propaganda against Islamic fundamentalism and terrorism
as well as the threat to the Western civilization from this destructive evil which
is represented by Islam." (12)
There are also several internal challenges especially the shortcomings of
'Islamic' channels which include, as some say, lack of adequate knowledge
where arts of media, technical work and the necessary professional quality are
required. These channels possess the available technologies in the world but are
backward where they should excel and be advanced through distinct media
discourse as media is not just communication tools only to transmit certain
Islamic discourses, programs and songs, but it is much more complex." (13)
II. Technology and media
Concept of communication and information technology
Technology is originally a Greek word composed of Techo and Ligos. "The
information revolution and especially its use in the media have transformed the
world as Michel Makulov, a known media person says, into a small village
which was earlier described by him as a ship sailing in the vast universe with its
passengers as humans and other living species. Can any one expect where
things are moving in that ship or small village with the continuance of
technological advancement?‖
"The media was able to take advantage of the main source of globalization
and that is technology, where fascination of the satellite TV channels with all
their kinds and colors has grown up and each one of them is trying to attract
the viewer through a number of means and temptations. Each one has its own
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team of broadcasters, journalists, programmers, directors, investors and those
who monitor their message, and then comes the general direction of that TV
channel in accordance with well- researched policies and prospects." (14)
Role of technology in information media
Technology has an important role in emergence, development and spread of
information media. Even it may be said that it has been instrumental in
evolution of media from a limited media to a mass media. It has contributed to
reduce the costs of accessing the target (costs of equipment, costs of
communication and costs of programs) apart from easy access to the media
content at any place and time.
Due to technology, it became comfortable and easy to deal with information
media for each family member, besides the variety of tools that suite all
according to their abilities and backgrounds. Technology has encouraged the
people to acquire the equipment that has media content even the people of
limited income group, as it has fascinating and attractive content. For example,
the dishes that receive satellite transmission have spread among the poor and in
the villages and rural areas of the Arab world in an unexpectedly fast pace.
Technology has its impact in methods of information collection, production
and distribution in the three main print and audio-visual media. Similarly, these
developments have created a new distinct audience which depends on internet
and electronic information transfer networks to receive information.
Nature of media technology
The media technology is characterized by qualities that have contributed to
spread and acquisition of information media hence it is characterized by
audiovisual entertainment and by easy access, because all are able to interact
with it whether it is small or big.
Its availability: Except for a very few, most of it is available to all people as
per their capabilities. Also, the speedy development of technology was in the
favor of consumer and facilitated the affairs of his life and finally its availability
everywhere and all the times (even in aircraft) in the deserts and mountains in
all countries and at all times. Besides that, many studies have showed that there
are two things which have crucial relationship with technology and media.
These are content and context of the content. Technology is merely a tool of
transmission that facilitates. Tool, style, technology and device may change but
it is important to see whether content is effective? Is it appropriate? Is it
attractive? Do people need it? Are people able to acquire it?
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Media globalization and technology
Globalization has always been associated with technical advancement and
economic expansion. The emergence of digital system was crucial in
transmission of sound and image and in delivery of these materials to the end
user. It also reduced the cost, which helped in expanding the range of
circulation worldwide. It also helped the fiber networks in facilitating the
transmission of large quantities of information with greater clarity around the
world. It has become apparent that there is an alliance between
telecommunications, technology and software companies and the media
institutions, due to common interests between these parties as if the first party
paves the road while the road treads on it.
Media and areas of technological progress
Digital conversion of various forms of information - Text, sound, instant
and moving images, artificial smartness, integration of interfaces and smart
interactive facilities into information products and services as well as digital
compression techniques that allows the transfer of larger quantities of
information very quickly through wired and wireless networks of
communication satellites, with a significant increase in their capacity and the
possibility of their use.
Multimedia
Multimedia represents a quantum leap in the media and a new mechanism
for access to the end user, whereas it combines word and image, print and
audio, and instant and live presentation. It has multiple options under a single
platform to achieve one goal. Multimedia is the title of media revolution we are
witnessing in the current era, as it combines various types of media and
technology so we find the sound, image, drawing, architecture, literary text,
language skill, various techniques, digital transmission, computer and Internet
uses, all are together to produce a media that is full of complexity, density and
fascination.
Communication technology and information media
Communication and information technology represents the amalgamation
of computer, multimedia, wired and wireless technologies that resulted in new
forms of technology which has outstanding capabilities to produce, collect,
store, process, transmit and retrieve information in an unprecedented manner,
based on text, sound, image, movement, color and other effects of mass and
personal interactive communication. The combination of wired and wireless
communication means with computer technology led to the creation of a new
era of electronic publishing, where words are printed on TV screen, or on
computer-related monitor so that a beneficiary can receive it in his home or
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office, where users can approach the electronic texts of information with
quantity and quality that they want and at times that suite them.
The new communication technology does not abolish the old
communication means, rather it upgrades and changes it dramatically. Hence,
the cinema has changed after emergence of sound and color; and similarly, it
applies to newspapers and magazines following the emergence of new innovations
in the field of letters composing, printing systems, page transmission systems
through satellite which had an effect on the styles of editing, direction and
production in general. TV has also changed after the emergence of portable
video cameras, and following the minimization and upgrading of many
necessary gadgets of production process. Each communication technology
came to upgrade the previous conventional technologies." (15)
At the level of self-contact, the conventional means of communication
included the recording of notes, personal diaries, calendar, photos and
calculators. The present technological innovations include audio and video
cassettes, computer programs and their utilizations in all problems.
At the level of interpersonal communication, the traditional means include:
interview, postal mail, telephone, telegraph, and copying machines, while the
current technological innovations include teleconferencing by telephone and
electronically or through video, e-mail, mobile phone and visual phone.
At the level of collective communication, the traditional communication
means included the face-to-face communication such as seminars, conferences,
workshops and public addresses, while the technological innovations include
teleconferencing and computer-based communications.
At the level of organizational communication, traditional means included the
wired and wireless internal communications, while the latest technological
innovations include teleconferencing, e-mail, fax, information systems, eadministration, automated processing of information.
At the level of large groups, the traditional means included microphones,
slide show screens and animation, while the current technological innovations
include the video systems and multi-media computer systems.
At the level of mass communications, the traditional means included
newspaper, radio, television, cinema film, books and display boards, while the
current technological innovations include cable television, television by
subscription, televised texts systems (teletext and video data), direct television
reception system through satellite, portable radio sets and recorders, video
games, digital information systems, electronic book, and CD-ROMs.
Through what was mentionedabove, it can be said that current communication
technology – through their different means and methods – did not eliminate
the old technology with its different means, instead, it became a natural
extension of these old means and methods.
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Media and properties of communication technology
Interactive
Where participants in the communication process will have impact on the
roles of others and they will be able to exchange it.
Individualism
Communication message can go directly to one individual or to a particular
group, not to large masses as it was in the past.
No time limitation
Possibility of sending and receiving messages in appropriate time for
individual user and without any requirement from all participants to use the
system at the same time
Flexibility
There are many means of communication which can benefit the user to
contact another person from any place while he is moving such as mobile
phone, a photocopier weighing several grams, a VCR which can be carried
in the pocket, mobile computer with printer.
Decentralization
The centrality of media and communication has been eliminated as satellites
are working on decentralization of TV transmission stations.
Privacy
Where the environment of future media will be according to the interests
and desires of the public and people will not be linked to media through
geographical participations only as they always will be linked together
through their common interests and their needs of information.
Information
15 percent of the world population receives almost all the new technological
innovations.
50 percent of the world population is engaged in production and
consumption of this technology.
35 percent is living in isolation from this technology.
4 billion people view the televisions around the world.
2 billion people browse the Internet in the world.
Digital technology
One of the main objectives behind the development of computers in the
field of communication was to get out of the nature and means of mass
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communication (press, radio, television) which has one-way communication
only from a source-to-receiver to a more effective means of communication
between the source and the receiver. The inter-link of television-computer and
television-telephone for live transmission via cable has created interactive and
process-focused instruments, and as the computer is digital, it was necessary to
transform all its presentations into digits.
The technological revolution and its relation with media has brought many
newspapers to homes via cable satellite, and Internet has put us in direct
contact with any place in the world, and allowed exchange and transfer of
countless amount of information. In the area of press, for instance, the use of
electronic computer allows many applications: Word processing, office
publishing, designing, and e-mail for direct contact with databases and
electronic publishing where more importance is given to visual elements in the
production of newspapers.
The studies show that more than half of the computers will be smart phones
and computers tablet and subsequently the share of laptop computers will
decline sharply (less than 30 percent).
Living rooms (smart home)
As a result of digital technology, now it has become possible to interact
between the electronic devices such as laptop, television, computer games,
smart mobile phone, etc, and exchange information between devices and
manage the devices through remote-control (putting on lights, operation of air
conditioners, putting off refrigerators...) apart from linking of all devices with a
centralized control unit associated with Internet.
Smart mobile phone (as integrated media platform)
The application of digital technology has converted the mobile to become a
personal media tool as well as contact device through smart phone whereas you
can browse Internet, watch YouTube and browse the E-mail. Also it is an
effective means of social networking such as twitter and face-book. It can be a
source of listening radio or receiving the dvd-h broadcast and not to forget the
reception of MMS and store and circulate images/video-clips. Sometimes daily
newspapers and weekly magazines can be received in a modified copy, apart
from full browsing of the Internet in a light form.
Ipad
It is one of the latest computing platforms and is characterized by being of
medium size, screen and weight, and electronic screen is suitable for reading
whether electronic newspapers or books. Also it is suitable for watching visual
programs with high clarity. Indeed, it is an integrated and interactive electronic
magazine (browsing, reading and audio-visual…).
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Interference and integration between media and technology
Since its appearance, television has been dominant in the human societies
and a leading source of entertainment. It intruded all the houses and reached
the villages and suburbs. It affected the status of radio but did not abolish it.
Similarly, the press was affected negatively by television, hence, the number of
newspapers decreased comparatively. Finally, the Internet entered the domain
and affected all other means of media, but for the TV, it did not shake its
position, hence the TV transmission through Internet remained limited and
weak and it needs computers, connections, telephone lines, a subscription to
the service provider and so on.
The media in spite of its quantitative and qualitative development plays an
integral and not a competitive role. The press presents with analysis the future
television programs, and the radio broadcasts the news and analyses of
newspapers, while television telecasts references to the press reports especially
the new ones. The Internet plays a similar role in this regard and provides sites
for newspapers, radios and TV channels, and sometimes combines these tools
in the same website with a wider choice and huge interactive capacity for the
user. Fast speed in transfer and telecast has been widely noted with enormous
advancement in integration of efficiency and capabilities available in devices
and interfaces (television + Internet, mobile + Internet, folder for files and also
those loaded from the Internet…).
Next television
A complete device combining the TV reception and transmission, besides
being connected to the Internet and presents various interactive services.
Interactive television - as a model of combination between advanced
technology and media - is characterized by the following properties:
o Has several TV channels and includes a detailed list of programs,
their varieties and timings.
o Possibility of recording for a particular material and presentation
of other or display of another material and part presentation of
another material.
o Variety of information services: weather, tourism, news, sports,
personalities, and important events.
o Shopping and interactive games.
o Payment on demand (often for movies) VOD
o Browsing the Internet (requires DSL line)
o Other services which are available in part or fully according to the service
provider, device and ready programs.
Internet and television
The past few years have been characterized by integration between the
Internet and television. Although the Internet is known for many areas where
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television now cannot match it and these areas include e-mail, shopping,
conversation, apart from browsing millions of websites associated with services,
information and entertainment. However, the provision of linking the Internet
with television and the application of interactive television led to a qualitative
integration between these two technologies.
There is a fast evolution in the television technology which includes a shift
to digital transmission which began in many Western countries (tertiary), apart
from the control of satellite digital transmission. This system is compatible with
the computer system which very soon would lead to an integral formula
between computer and television whereas television will be a part of the
computer or vice-versa.
Interactivity will go up beginning from freedom of choosing the programs
and their timing as well as the recording of their materials and programming of
their transmission timings and presentation of detailed information about
programs, and also the possibility of watching more than one channel at a time.
The barrier between computer and television will shrink and there will be
integration, mutual benefits and progress so that all the computer technologies
are available in television, as it is working by a digital system.
Television, despite the domination of Internet at present will remain the first
and most powerful media means in the world. Whereas the expenditure on TV
advertisements rose from 174 billion in 2007 to 191 in 2011 while it came down
in the print media from 126 to 93 billion and with a share that exceeds 40
percent of the general spending of advertisement in the whole media.
As regards the Internet, in advertisement it only represents a small
percentage, because the media networks, in spite of their good presence (more
than one billion subscribers) but their income cannot still be compared with
other kinds of media (4-5 billion) for about 1 percent of advertising income for
the whole media (45 percent for television in comparison with the search
engines that harvest 30 billion Dollar. In the aspect of follow-up, the share of
television surpasses all other means of media to another (more than 70
percent).
Also, the steady advancements in the technology of television screens such
as 3D, HD greatly contribute as it is observed to the expansion of viewing
globally.
III. Use of technology in service of Islamic media
Technology is an excellent and effective tool for applications of Islamic media
in two types:
1. Direct: Whereas the Islamic media message would be direct to the
beneficiaries, and it is an established method, as many of the Islamic teachings,
rulings and preaching will be through a direct discourse, however, technology
can be utilized in improving the technical aspects which help in acceptance of
the message and better interaction.
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2. Indirect: Where the media stuff or message is indirect or suggestive (this is a
prevailing trend in the present media). However, it plays the same role of the
direct message as the discourse is usually directed to the inner mind and not to
the conscious mind and includes teachings of belief and behavior, making the
human being to respond in a sub-conscious way, and its examples include the
following:
 Instant suggestive images and context of using the image within a media
theme, for example, without a verbal direction to the reader.
 Social and historical drama inculcating the love of people or places, and
highlighting the values of certain scenes that encourage adherence by
them within the dramatic context.
 Educational, documentary and knowledge-based programs, which
usually include cultural and intellectual suggestions, and foster certain
principles, and highlight certain places and figures for their following
and adoption.
 And usually it has a content that is varied and suitable for various
categories which include:
 Islamic values
 Islamic ethics
 Building Islamic personality
 Linking Islamic models
 Defining Islamic history
Use of Technologies in Islamic Media
How to benefit from the modern media for media interaction with the public
and deliver the message of Islamic media?
There are many technical means and mechanisms which may be helpful and
include:
1. One product and multiple platforms
Press stuff:
It is published in the paper newspaper and through mobile messages (news)
and on website of the newspaper online, as well as bringing e-paper that is fully
interactive
Visual stuff
Formulated for broadcast and storing through: television channel (tertiary
and satellite broadcast) and broadcast through (iptv), apart from digital tertiary
broadcast (smart phone, digital car TV), also YouTube and interactive website
of channel that at times are broadcast through channels and are available for
browsing and download online, and also it is possible to provide clips that can
be downloaded or broadcast.
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Audio stuff
Formulated for broadcast and storage through fm/am radio broadcast and
live broadcast on the Internet, and also it can be produced as an audio stuff
stored on the radio site (interactive), and also it can be broadcast via satellite
(dish), or downloaded via Internet or broadcast through SMS.
2. Competitive and challenging product
Public television programs, which usually attract large numbers of viewers
and which are the products of huge budgets, but they succeed to deliver the
message of Islamic media strongly and effectively. Their examples include the
reality programs that narrate some real personalities or huge competition
programs (who wins million) or big historical drama Such as films (the
Message) or strong social TV serials Babul Harah) as well as other public
programs which (A cornerstone Amr Khalid and Ayedh Al-Qarni) or strong
radio social and historical programs. Similarly programs of some important and
contemporary personalities whose programs are very attractive.
3. Interactive media
Interactivity is the characteristic of new media which attracts a large segment
of youth. Studies show that absolute majority of youth from the age of 18 to 30
years constitute the main source of receiving media through interactive media,
where youth is an active element in the media process.
This mechanism is specific to youth and rising generation and there is
possibility that interactivity is guided and it is not open. Interactivity has several
mechanisms such as television channels/video on YouTube or channels on the
Internet. Interactivity is characterized that all participate with their own
production, vote, comment and addition. The programs of social networks help
in this regard forcefully and Facebook and Twitter are good examples for that
as millions of people visit these social networks and record their participation.
Those who are responsible for Islamic media may direct this kind of media, but
in a smart way so that they can reach the largest number of young people.
4. New drafting of old products
Time of paper newspapers and magazines is in decline, and the alternative
today is electronic newspapers and magazines which have several methods
including the format of PDF which resembles the paper edition. Also it has an
upgraded version of the usual magazine but it has various patterns of the
content that is readable with audio-visual characteristics and it can be viewed
like any paper magazine and also it is designed in the same way. The difference
is only in the sense that this is an electronic content which has more variety and
richness in its content. Also it is possible to produce the e-book by using the
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electronic paper which represents a technology revolution in production and
circulation of the book.
5. Simulation programs
Digital technology can be used in simulation of reality in order to achieve
some goals of the Islamic media like its use in theaters, museums or
presentations through very large 3D display screens or those which are in the
form of a dome over the head. Also, there are eyeglasses which show the
scenes directly to eye, leading to full integration with what is being shown. This
no doubts would contribute to narrow the concepts and happenings (historical
events can be narrated easily in an enjoyable and attractive manner) Also,
programs of educational simulation (of the flight, for example) can be modified
to be a tool of guidance as well as very sophisticated Islamic Education.
6. One product and multiple languages
Many television programs, documentaries and drama may be translated to
present them in various countries which have different languages as the picture
is an original substance of the media process while the voice is for
interpretation and explanation
7. Media mobile: A new platform
Mobile, in addition to its role of communication, has become an integrated
media platform. Even, the latest studies point out that ratio of its use in
communications is only 25 percent while the remaining is for the media
aspects. It may include the aspects of Islamic media. It includes messages of
Da'wah awareness for Muslims, and other messages for calling upon nonMuslims (textual or illustrated messages).
Also, very short clips (less than a minute) can be produced to represent
certain social and value-based positions or awareness drama and send them to a
large number of people. Also, it is possible to broadcast a short audio-visual
material about preaching of distinct figures or a brief report on the Muslim
world and its conditions.
8. Games
The computer games have become a media tool getting in homes through
their specific equipment or Internet, where a large numbers of competitors
participate, and it is possible to produce games which have Da'wah and
educational dimensions and can contribute to reaching out to the new general
and guiding them through entertainment that include suggestive messages
through certain characters, stories or game mechanisms, (for example, how to
reach Makkah). These games may include knowledge-based games which have
cultural and informative characteristics (Pillars of Islam) or have historical
dimensions (Islamic battles) or stories of Muslim figures.
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9. Internet as comprehensive Da'wah and media platform
Internet can be considered a comprehensive media revolution. While talking
earlier about the pattern of interactive media specific to youth, the Internet is
really a platform that covers all kinds of media and is characterized by strong
access, variety of content and mechanisms of access to the targeted audience.
The Internet is now taking a huge space of people's time, and it is still in the
process of advancement and expansion in the content and its variety which is
bound to encourage and increase its spread and expansion among the masses.
Islamic media has got into this area however it is still in need of many things
that can be done through this platform.
In the beginning, it is possible to point out the areas and ways of influence
and take advantage of the Internet in Da'wah:
-
Educational/cultural/knowledge-based sites
News and social sites
Islamic Da'wah sites
Social networking sites (Facebook and Twitter)
Forums and groups and pal-talk rooms
News and cultural and knowledge-based sites
Confined communication video (skype)
Topics which can be transmitted through the Internet are so many,
however, some of them are given below for examples:
- Introducing Islam and its laws and refuting suspicions
- Enlightening Muslims about their religion and clarifying
deviations
- and perversions that have long Muslims
- Reviewing the conditions and issues of Muslims in the Muslim
- world, as well as Muslim minorities in other societies
- Holding dialogue with non-Muslims
- Providing services such as (prayer times, Qiblah, Eid prayers)
- Electronic Qur'an (readable and audible)
- Islamic books and references including the Prophet's Hadith
- Da'wah announcements (activities, publications, events, Hajj and
- Umrah tours and Da'wah programs
- Replies to questions about Islam (questions and answers)
- Audio-visual lessons and live transmission of lectures, seminars
and meetings
- Service of e-mail (individual and collective communication
through e-mail groups)
- Chat rooms dialogues: excellent means of closed dialogues,
- especially with the people of deviation and non-Muslims and are
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- characterized by privacy and possibility of blocking the
dialoguer's
- personality in order to avoid any embarrassment.
Television
Qualitative development of television and its techniques such as multiple
channels Television, interactive television, Internet television, high-visual
television, 3-D television necessitated growth in its applications and benefits in
a way that suits this technological revolution. Islamic television (in the form of
Islamic channels fully or partly) should keep in the consideration these
technologies at the time of production in order to be able to attract a large
number of viewers through the following:
- Technically high-quality programs (HD)
- Programs of pleasant, attractive, educational and documentary
nature
- Programs of purely entertaining nature (drama, positions,
dialogues)
- Programs of cultural nature (report, focused coverage
- Programs with the nature of news (dialogue, report, interview,
news, events)
- Programs of indirect Da'wah nature (a trip with preacher, how a
- Muslim lives)
- Programs of interviews which depend on the capability and skill
of interviewer in communication with his guest and his status as
well as his intellectual level and the nature of the topic.
- Programs of excitement and stimulation with all their elements
- (contests and games)
- Programs of topical discourse which depend on the presenter's
- professionalism, skill and capability as well as on the fact that
topics are relevant and up-to-date
- Programs of general nature such as personal diaries, cultural and
- literary programs
- Programs of Fatwas as such programs are focus of attention for
a large number of viewers.
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References
Omar Obeid Hasan, Muraaja'at fil-Fikr wal Da'wah wal-Harakah, Kitab alUmmah, 1992.
Dr. Abdul Qader Tash, Al-E'lam wa Qadhaaya al-Waaqe al-Islami.
Ibrahim Imam, Wasaael al-E'lam wal-Mujtama al-Hadeeth.
Mahmoud Karam, Al-Takhteet al-E'lami fi Dhauel Islam, 160.
Mohyuddin Abdul-Haleem, Al-E'lam al-Islami wa Tatbeeqatuhul Ilmiyah
Ibrahim Imam, Al-E'lam al-Islami, 28.
Faisal Hassounah, Al-Liqa al-Thalith anil E'lam al-Islami, WAMY,1976.
Abdul Qader Tash, Al-Aalamiyah Magazine, Muslim World League
Mahmoud Sulaiman, Al-Takhteet al-E'lami.
Ibrahim al-Ziadi, Muqarabaat fil E'lam al-Islami: Muqarabaat fi Ishkaliat alMustalah.
Muhammad Hudhaif.
Tariq al-Bakri, Athar al-Fadhaiyaat al-Islamiyah fil Afraad wal Mujtama'at.
Tariq al-Bakri, Athar al-Fadhaiyaat al-Islamiyah fil Afraad wal Mujtama'at.
Hamad bin Abdullah al-Luhaidan, Al-Taqniah Ja'lat al-Aalam fi Mutanawali
E'lamina.
Abdul Ameer al-Faisal, Al-Taqniyaat wa Wasaael al-E'lam, 2007.
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Developing Communication for Da'wah Strategy:
Actuating Prophetic Journalism in Digital Era,
Combining Words and Actions
Parni Hadi
Editor in Chief, ANTARA Indonesian News Agency,
Republika Radio & Newspaper
New emerging forces
Digital technology has developed internet-based communications as the
latest state of the art of communications technology. The interned-based social
media, including Facebook and Twitter, dubbed as ―new‖ media, have
become a new player as well as a new center of power, in addition to the ―old‖
media (newspapers/magazines, radio and TV stations). The new media have
enabled almost everyone to be journalist, preacher, teacher, opinion maker and
―content provider‖ that can publish and broadcast his or her ideas directly, thus
threatening the old established professional ones.
The new individual ―content providers‖ through their social networks, citing
a terminology of Soekarno, Indonesian leader and first President in the 1960s,
have become ―new emerging forces‖ which are confronting ―old established
forces.‖ The ―new‖ emerging media have been developing rapidly with an ever
growing influence in the ideological, political, social and economic fields
throughout the world. They have prompted democratization process, forcing
the downfalls of long-serving authoritarian rulers of a number of Muslim
countries in the Middle East.
What is continuing to happen in the Middle East now, where some rulers
are threatened to step down, has given us an invaluable lesson learnt:
Technology and Democracy are closely related and unstoppable!
Technology and Democracy have great influences on how people
communicate. Technology has made messages reach the target more easily
(cheaper and faster). Democracy has enabled people to express and
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communicate their dreams, ideas and hopes without fear of being punished by
rulers and leaders.
More sophisticated technologies make communications easier, faster and
cheaper. More freedom of expression as a product of democracy produces
more ideas. Less technology and less democracy make communications
difficult, blocking ideas to come out. Realizing that technology and democracy
are very closely related and unstoppable, the Muslim world has no other choice
now but mastering the digital technology and promoting democracy, which
gives more freedom of expression. However, too much freedom or ―freedom
without boundaries‖ exercised by journalists and media, particularly the social
media, has negative impacts on the population as shown by moral decadence of
the younger generations, which is attributed by ―older generations‖ to free
access to pornography websites. But CORRUPTION done by ―older
generations‖ is not less dangerous than pornography.
Prophetic journalism
Da‘wah is propagating noble Islamic values and appeals for Taqwa,
complete obedience to Allah, by means of doing goodness and avoiding
wrongdoings (amar bin ma‘ruf nahi an al-munkar) based on Holy Qur'an and
Hadith. Da‘wah is an act of mass communications, in which journalism and
mass media play a significant role. The technology used and the level of
prevailing democracy shown by the freedom of the press, affect the quantity,
quality and impacts of Da‘wah. It is already proven that in the modern era,
Da‘wah through mass media is the most effective one.
―Old‖ established professional and authoritative preachers as Da‘wah key
players are now challenged by new emerging non certified preachers who
broadcast their messages through ―new‖ media. It is true that Da‘wah in the
presence of multi-players of communications is facing ever growing challenges
of balancing Modernity due to technology and democracy and Morality based
on Qur'an and Hadith. To answer those challenges, I suggest that ―old‖
established, professional and authoritative preachers should develop themselves
to become new content providers who publish and broadcast their messages
through ―new‖ media too. Then, the council of Ulema (Muslim scholars)
should embrace the self-styled new, non certified preachers to join hand in
hand with the professional ones.
In the use of media, ―old‖ and ―new‖, I propose those content providers to
actuate ―Prophetic Journalism‖, namely implementing the four excellent
characters of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him):
a. Sidq (revealing truth)
b. Tableegh (disseminating Truth in an educational way)
c. Amanah (reliable, trustworthy and accountable)
d. Fathonah (with wisdom or wisely).
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Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) in his Da‘wah combined his
words and with his deeds. He did what He said. It must be admitted that many
leaders, preachers and media professionals in the Muslim world have not yet
implemented what Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) had said and
done. Too many words, less action or even worse: their actions are
contradictory to what they say. Critics say that many leaders, preachers and
teachers can give examples, but they are not yet able to transform themselves to
be examples. Corrupt practices which are rampant in some Muslim countries is
a vivid example.
Actuating Prophetic journalism by means of practicing the four excellent
characters of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) for Islamic journalists
and content providers is urgent now. The basic fundamental of Prophetic
journalism is love, emanating from Allah, the Supreme Love Himself. Thus,
prophetic journalists and content providers would show dignity, devotion,
tolerance, mutual understanding, mutual respect, non violence and tender
loving care in their reports, features and commentaries. The four characters of
Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) due to their universal noble values
have been incorporated in the Code of Conducts of Journalists everywhere,
including Islamic, other religion-based and secular content providers. The
practice of journalism worldwide indicates that most men and women working
in the media are motivated by ―a call from within‖, a spirit to serve a cause
higher than the commercial goals of their news organizations or any other
worldly rewards.
Prophetic journalism would give optimal results if the following conditions
prevail:
a. Freedom of expression, no oppression by whosoever, government and
religious authorities as well as the media owners. Freedom prevails only in a
democratic society. Freedom will result in the presence of:
b. Independence (objectivity), a condition to reveal:
c. Truth. It is truth that everyone would like to see. But it is not just for the
sake of truth, it must be dedicated to:
d. Justice/Fairness. Truth must be the basis for social justice. It is social justice
that will produce:
e. Prosperity, economic and social well beings, which in turn will yield:
f. Peace. It is peace of mind that everyone is seeking for. But, it must be not
just a personal, local, national peace, it must be dedicated to:
g. Global peace where Humanity based on universal noble values could
flourish, getting along with Islamic principles, which are ―Rahmatan lil
Aalameen‖ (Blessing for all creatures).
Lessons learnt
Being a journalist for almost 40 years, I would like to convey some of my
experiences in dealing with the media, including cooperation with regional and
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international news organizations, during a period of limited democracy
(freedom of the press) and lack of technology in the early 1970s until early
1990s. I started my journalistic career as a reporter with a state-controlled news
agency, ANTARA, in 1973, working with old fashioned typewriter, telex
machine, no long distance direct telephone and B/W TV set in a less
democratic Indonesia, where freedom of the press as part of freedom of
expression was limited. Thanks God, I ended my work with ANTARA up in
2001 as its president director/editor in chief, the first one for a career journalist
from within the organization, starting up from the bottom position. It was
made possible only after Indonesia enjoyed freedom of the press following the
Reform Movement in 1998. A lesson learnt: Democracy opens up
opportunities for career development.
ANTARA is a member of International Islamic News Agency (IINA), the
Organization of Asia-Pacific News Agencies (OANA), which I served as its
Secretary General (1988-1991) and the Non-Aligned News Agencies Pool
(NANAP). Most members of IINA, OANA and NANAP then were
state/government controlled media. News and features exchange program
among members of those organizations were beyond expectations, though
leaders of member agencies met regularly. Most decisions adopted just RIP
(rest in papers or rest in podium). The reasons are mostly lacks of democracy,
technology, professionalism and seriousness.
A government to government (G-to-G) cooperation scheme is less effective
compared to a business to business (B-to-B) scheme. And nowadays with the
emergence of social media, a person to person (P-to-P) scheme is the most
effective one! A lesson learnt: freedom, less bureaucracy makes more things get
done more easily and quickly. By the grace of Allah, I was chosen to be a cofounder and the first Publisher and Editor in Chief of Republika daily, an
Islamic newspaper, which came into being in 1993 under the sponsorship of
the Indonesian Moslem Intellectuals‘ Association (ICMI). Republika now is one
of the biggest, nation-wide circulated dailies. It was the first Indonesian
newspaper serving readers through internet, Republika on Line, in 1995.
Republika is known most helpful for Da‘wah in Indonesia, where Moslems
are the majority in the 240 million-populated country. But, until now Republika
has not yet become the biggest daily. The position of the biggest in circulation
and influence is occupied by a secular newspaper. The secular media (print,
radio and television stations) are dominant because of several reasons, mostly
because of better quality thanks to professionalism and public acceptance due
to ideological and political perceptions. Republika has adopted an ―implicit‖
rather than ―explicit‖ approach, as can be seen from its popular and unlike
Islamic name. But, still it is far left behind by the so-called secular, ―nationalist‖
newspaper. This is of course is a challenge.
A lesson learnt: Professionalism and public acceptance are of equal
importance than religious and ideological appeal alone. Again with the blessing
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of Allah, I was selected to be the first non-civil servant president director/CEO
of Radio Republik Indonesia (RRI) in 2005, after RRI changed its status from a
government radio into a Public Service Broadcasting (PSB) based on the 2002
Broadcasting Law. RRI is a member of the Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union
(ABU). I served RRI for five years, until 2010.
RRI is praised for being better after the change of its status and its editorial
policy, but in term of popularity among younger urban population it is still
behind commercial radio stations. RRI‘s dominance is in the rural areas, where
the majority of the Indonesian people live.
News and features exchange program among ABU members is also not yet
satisfying. A lesson learnt: Less bureaucracy and professionalism that includes
the arts of presentation according to specific target audience are of vital
importance.
Other experiences include my position as Secretary General of the
Indonesian Journalists‘ Association (PWI), from 1993-1998 and my work as a
columnist, TV/radio talk show master and lecturer and trainer of school of
journalism and journalistic training courses. In this capacity I observe that
journalists working with private/commercial news organizations are more
professional and therefore paid better compared to those working with
state/government media. This fact confirms me strongly that Freedom (less
bureaucracy) is the Mother of Creativity and Creativity is the most important
starting Capital. It is another lesson learnt!
Combined Da'wah: Words and actions
As a journalist I have tried to help carrying out Da‘wah with words, written
and spoken (Da‘wah bil lisan and bil qalam) throughout my journalistic career
during a period of restricted freedom of the press under the President Suharto‘s
New Order (until 1998) and in ensuing period of almost unlimited freedom of
the press under the Reform Order, since 1998-now. Meanwhile, as a social
activist, I have tried to help doing a combined da‘wa with funds and concrete
actions (Da‘wah bil hal) to help poor people through the Dompet Dhuafa
Repubika Foundation, better known as DD, literally means Purse for the Poor,
which I initiated in 1993.
Starting operation initially as a social arm of Republika daily, DD collects
zakat, infaq, sedekah dan wakaf funds for poor people. The collected funds are
disbursed for donations and three main Empowerment Programs: Interest-free
revolving funds for small-scale economic projects/community enterprises, free
health care and free education for the poor. DD‘s combined Da‘wah so far has
gained remarkable successes, thanks to a significant support of the media,
initially by Republika, but later on by almost all major national media, both
―old‖ and ―new‖. In return, the media by lending support to DD has also
thereby gained benefit: they are regarded as pro-poor media. Realizing this, DD
has developed its own regular publications, websites, facebook and twitter
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accounts. Latest DD‘s print media is SwaraCinta, the Voice of Love, a monthly
magazine, which is accessible through website and Ipad.
Practicing the four excellent characters of Prophet Muhammad (peace be
upon him), DD publications present reports on current affairs, essays on
exemplary leaders and ordinary people with extraordinary performance and
contribution to the society for educational purposes, new empowerment
projects, appeals for donations, progress reports on projects underway and last
but not least, annual financial statement of accountability after being verified by
public auditors.
The success of DD is not just in steady increase of collected funds, but also
in an ever increasing ―awareness‖ of Moslems in paying Zakat and the ―public
trust‖ in Moslem fund-raising foundations, which are professionally managed
with high standard of accountability. The number of DD donors increases
every year, amounting to some 65,000 fixed donors now. In addition to fixed
and occasional donors, DD notes with thanks to Allah, an ever increasing flow
of CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) funds from both domestic and
multinational companies.
DD is appreciated not just as a fund-raiser, but it is recognized as a ―doer‖
in the fields. Acknowledging DD‘s successes, many newspapers, radio and
television stations follow suit: they established their own fund-raising units. But,
they channel their funds through DD, because they do not have competent
operators in the fields. Nowadays DD is an independent foundation and the
biggest fund-raiser and a prominent propagator of Islamic (Shari‘ah) economics
in Indonesia. It is a proof and another lesson learnt: A combined Da‘wah,
words and deeds, is most effective.
Practical suggestions (solutions)
Based on my personal engagement with the media and social activities plus
my observation of best practices, the following are some practical suggestions:
1. Journalism is the practice of collecting, processing (editing) and
disseminating information. Journalism and mass media play a very
important role in mass communication, including Da‘wah. Messages from
leaders, preachers, Islamic scholars and other resource persons are
communicated effectively to followers, audience, listeners and public at large
as well as their responses by mass media after being processed and
transformed by journalists into information.
Suggestion: Be friendly with journalists and their media!
2.
Information is a product which is loaded with ideological, political,
economic, social and cultural values and interests by its provider (mass
media). Thus, information is not value-free and not-interest free. It depends
on the provider‘s values and interests, who may have also listened to and
accommodated the values and interests of the target audience (readers,
listeners and viewers), advertisers (mostly for commercial media), audience‘s
responses (including supports, complaints and or protests).
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Suggestion: Involve ourselves in the production of information as
journalists, writers, contributors, speakers, publishers and owners of news
organizations!
3. Message (Content) and Means of dissemination (Technology) are
believed to be of equal importance. But lately it is proven that the Message
is more important than the Means. Even, in the discourse of ―old‖ and
―new ―media, it is widely accepted that Content is the King. The reason is
that Technology can be more easily produced, reproduced, copied (pirated),
adopted and adapted, while content production involves intellectual,
emotional and spiritual capabilities of human being, which is unique and in
some cases mysterious, unexplainable.
Suggestion: Control the content providers by providing our own version!
4. The ―new‖ media, which include internet-based multimedia such as mobile
phone, facebook, twitter, Iphone and Ipad, give unlimited opportunities for
everyone to be a content provider. Both ―old‖ and ―new‖ media are
Content Providers. Most important players in content production are
journalists (reporters/contributors and editors). Since its emergence, mass
media has become ―Rulers‖ of the societal life worldwide, moreover in the
present digital era, where interned-based social media are preoccupying and
dictating our modern lives, especially for the younger generation.
Suggestion: Provide and deploy more professional content providers for
―old‖ and ―new‖ media through education/trainings!
5. Realizing the most important role of content providers, the cultivation of
noble values through continuous systematic lifelong education, including
Da‘wah, is a MUST.
For Muslim journalists there is no other better choice than adopting the
four excellent characters of Prophet Muhammad by means of practicing and
propagating Prophetic Journalism.
Suggestion: Include Prophetic journalism in the curriculum of our schools
of communications and journalistic training centers.
6. The invention of Internet, mobile phone and Iphone has prompted the
birth of Citizen Journalists or Citizen Content Providers. Digital Technology
has helped speeding up the spreading of as well as democratizing
information. The emergence of digital communications technology has
posed a serious challenge to those regarded ―old‖ media to compete with
the ―new‖ media. Technology has shaped and shifted media form,
appearance and way of presenting information. To keep up the pace of
technological development, owners of ―old‖ media develop their news
organizations into a convergent multi-media offering ―three in one‖
services: text, audio and video.
Suggestion: Develop convergent media
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7. Judging by its legal status, there are now:
a. State/government media
b. Private/commercial media
c. Personal/social media
The first two are run by bureaucrats and professionals, while the third is
free, run by individuals as citizen content providers, adopting citizen
journalism. Many state/ government-controlled media are facing serious
challenges posed by commercial and more over by social media. Lack of
freedom of expression and bureaucratic procedures have caused
state/government media left far behind by private/commercial media and
even more by social media in speed of distribution and style of presentation.
Suggestion: Apply good corporate governance.
8. It is admitted that social media mostly lack in accuracy, though many big
news organizations run by professional journalists often quote
personal/social media as initial source or clue of information. Due to lack of
professionalism, citizen content providers often face difficulties in feeding
readers with constant, timely news. Of course, in some particular cases,
especially in reporting local disasters, citizen journalists are much faster than
the so-called professionals hired by news organizations.
Suggestion: Involve citizen journalists in our training programs
9. Combined Da‘wah: Dompet Dhuafa (DD) Way. Founded, supported and
run by journalists, Dompet Dhuafa since its establishment has carried out a
combination of Da‘wah, namely with words (written and spoken) on Islamic
teachings, funds and concrete empowerment programs. DD deploys noted
Islamic scholars and preachers to write and speak in the media and directly
to the audience through regular gatherings as well pioneers and social
volunteers to help the Poor in the urban slums and less developed, isolated
rural areas with concrete, benefitting actions. DD gives three things
altogether: words, funds and deeds.
Suggestion: Do combined Da‘wah.
10. Triple C Principle. For the success of Da‘wah, there must be synergy of
professional, organized content providers and citizen journalists.
Cooperation, competition, instead of confrontation are the key words. This
triple C principle is also valid in dealing with international, secular,
commercial news organizations and citizen content providers.
Suggestion: Avoid unnecessary frictions and confrontation
11. Keys to success for content providers, including preachers, in the digital era.
Methods/arts of presentation should be:
a. Actual,
b. Personal
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c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
Fashionable
Interactive (dialogue), instead of monologue, imposing indoctrination
Informing, so people know
Educating, so people understand
Entertaining, so people are at ease, relaxed, relieved
Enlightening, so people are spiritually peaceful
Empowering, to enable people to actualize their respective potentials for
their happiness
13. Strategy to achieve objectives:
a. Adopt and apply best practices of Prophetic Journalism
b. Continuous education and trainings for character building based on
noble characters of Prophet Mohammad and mastering communications
technology
c. Cooperation and Competition for the sake of goodness (fastabiqul
khairat), instead of Confrontation (Triple C principle).
d. Establishing national and regional training centers, opened to
professional and citizen content providers, offering Prophetic Journalism
lessons.
e. Setting up of ― old ―and ―new media‖ and production houses for text,
audio and video
f. Free flow of information for exchange of contents
g. Setting up a clearing house/center for solving disputes
h. Less dependent on outside resources
i. Combining words and deeds. Do what you say!
Conclusion
Digital technology, interned-based ―content providers‖ give more
opportunities and advantages rather than adversaries and disadvantages. The
bigger the challenges we face, the bigger the opportunities we have. There is
always a room for optimism and innovation. ―Old‖ and ―New‖ forces should
unite with Dignity for Devotion to Allah through concrete actions dedicated to
establish a peaceful and more prosperous world for the benefit of human
beings and all creatures. May Allah bless all of us!
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222
Reality of Islamic Media and
Electronic Network
Mohamed Gamal Arafa
Journalist and Political Analyst, Egypt
Introduction:
Although the Internet's age now stands at 42 years (as it began in 1969
merely as small communication network between computers inside the armed
forces and universities in the developed world and soon these were linked to
the internal networks). Then it developed to its present form in 1995, when it
was possible to communicate between various regions of the world via
telephone and wireless links. The reality of Islamic media and its evolution in
the post-Internet era changed only in shape – with few exceptions. The
situation is still less than what is to be expected, and new information
technology is not utilized to achieve the desired transformation of Islamic
media.
The same old formats (print and audio-visual) of Islamic media have been
used to transfer the information to the Internet without introducing a new
vision or a different approach to deal with digital technology or creative look or
modern methods of handling, display and simplification, while the new
information network has remained providing communication with Muslims and
all human beings in the world. The more important than what the Internet has
provided is that it has given us an easy and simple method for communication
between the human beings and then the facility of reaching out to non-Muslims
and communicating with Muslims all over the world across oceans, mountains
and plains, without bearing fatigue of travel, hardship and risk.
As the Internet has become – if it is appropriately expressed – like a new
tool of Da'wah, good tiding or warning, or like an electronic messenger or
carrier that delivers the prophetic message. In other words, it is a new tiding
that carries the message of Islam from the Prophet of Islam to all the human
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beings in different parts of the world, but through online modern means
without traveling and physical movement, and without any restrictions.
Indeed, it is a role in which the new Islamic media has to succeed or it has
yet to utilize it in the best way, as it has adopted the new appearance of modern
technology, without changing the methods or ways of old Da'wah discourse
that hardly convinces non-Muslims in the modern era, including those who do
not speak Arabic, the language of Holy Qur'an, except through the methods
which make them closer to the languages of modern world and their means to
receive information or to be convinced with it (through e-mails, Youtube video
footages, groups on Facebook, twits (comments) through Twitter, and chat
rooms.)
This requires the use of new media and information technology to meet the
challenges of Da'wah in the modern era and look for opportunities of
conveying the true word of Islam in all parts of the earth and spread the
message of Islam regarding the construction of earth and in the face of evil and
injustice.
The West realized earlier the importance of this technology for the media.
When the Western policymakers were preoccupied with looking for alternatives
that ensure the continuation of the Western and in particular, the U.S.
domination over the world economic and cultural situations, their opinion had
settled on the technology of computer networking and satellite systems,
according to the American media person, Herbert Schiller in his book: "The
media and the American Empire".
Indeed, we must not underestimate the effect of any simple electronic
means to support the Islamic media. There are dozens of experiments narrated
by youth about discussions between them and others in the United States,
Spain and Japan on Islam in the Internet chat rooms which resulted in their
knowing the truth about Islam and embracing this religion.
There are other experiences of young men who were searching at random
for e-mail addresses in some countries and then using some of the sites (like the
site of Islam House) http://www.islamhouse.com which contains translations
in different languages, in order to send materials, including the introduction of
Islam to these e-mails and the results were encouraging. Replies were received
from foreigners who were looking for guidance and assistance from someone
who can teach them the tenets of Islam. (1) Most important of them are those
messages of foreigners who are surprised after learning the true Islam. They
ask: "Why this negative image in the media about Muslims and Islam?!
First: Internet's evolution from 1969 to 1995
The Internet began to appear in 1969 before 42 years as mere small
communication networks between the computers inside armies or universities
in the developed world, which soon were linked to the internal networks. The
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most beneficiaries were the armies, where the idea of the Internet originally
developed as a military and governmental idea for communication between the
armies, and spread to the sector of education and research and then trade till it
was within the reach of individuals.
But the Internet's real emergence as we know today was in 1995 when it was
possible to provide the service of access to the Internet by telephone which
transferred the information online from computers in one continent to another.
Since then, the Internet browsing began and the communication between one
person in the far east and another person in the far west was easily possible and
the message or invitation which was transferred from one region to another in a
week or a month, was easily transferred with the push of a button on your
computer after you wirelessly connect to the network by telephone. Then,
communication with sound and image was available and now it is possible to
hold conferences or deliver speeches or convey messages within a few minutes.
After the service of the Internet access via phone, the Internet turned to a
network of huge computers connected to each other through the sea cables or
satellite links. Anyone in the world can have access to it and inquire about any
information or communicate with others via links with these global networks
which led to break the barrier of distance and time.
Before the Internet, communication between peoples, nations and various
cultural groups was difficult and it was not possible except through journey,
regular mail, conferences or exchange of papers and books from distant places,
but after the advent of the Internet, there has been a historic and qualitative
transformation, in its true meaning, not only in communication within a society,
but in an active and intensive communication between different societies and
cultures, and there is no longer an existence for distance or time.
The Islamic media was confined to the printed materials or videos and
largely depended in getting information even about people in other Islamic
countries on foreign media agencies and their correspondents in the world
(Reuters, AFP, Associated Press, etc.). Though such news, a Western culture
and agenda in the approach was apparent with the distortion of Jihad and
independence of Muslim people who seek liberation. They considered it a
rebellion. At the same time, theses agencies served the plans of missionary
organizations and the Western intelligence services under the cover of media.
They ultimately spread the distorted information across the world about the
conditions of Muslims.
As the Internet has open information floating in the vast ocean, not owned
by anyone theoretically and transmitted online through the telephone
connections that are difficult to control in today's world, there are no specific
laws, so it is almost free for all and it is easy to spread the religious, cultural,
political, or even pornographic and atheistic ideas without any restriction (there
are websites on the Internet which call for atheism and infidelity). The control
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key is in the hands of Western companies and server which stores the
information and controls the establishment of sites there.
The World Wide Web (www) has come under many kinds of influence
which include the dominance of countries and companies that turned later into
spying and gathering information about the network users. The Internet and
websites like Facebook have become a treasure of information for intelligence
agencies in the world to uncover the identities of millions of people and their
personal pictures as well as affiliations and even what do they eat, drink, wear
and believe?!
Secondly: Wider areas of media in the Internet age
These can be summarized as follows:
1- Dissemination of religious, social and political ideas (about faith/
evangelization/ atheism/ worship of Satan...etc.): After the Internet, it is now
possible for any person who has an idea, positive or negative, rational or
irrational to disseminate it on the Internet and mobilize the public for it as well
as make groups on the social networks (Facebook, Twitter…etc.) to be adopted
by them and then to be reported by the newspapers.
These ideas which are being promoted are divided into several types like
good and bad, some ideas for young groups and other ideas for religious,
political or ethnic groups banned from working legitimately in their countries.
Other trivial ideas on the Internet also include call for nudity, wearing the
bizarre trousers, atheism, worship of Satan or call for girls to imitate boys in
their clothing and hairstyle, etc. Some of these ideas unfortunately exist in our
societies and have impact on a number of Muslim youth, due to negative
influence of the Internet media which is accessed well by the youth.
The good ideas disseminated through the Internet media include call to
promote virtue and fight against nudity, video clips and morally depraved
dance, as well as to encourage charitable giving, memorization of the Holy
Qur'an and support the oppressed Muslims in different parts of the world.
Things have reached to the extent that some Christian groups from the
West which dream of constructing a church in the Holy Makkah have
constructed a special website for their cherished Makkah church, (but only on
the Internet(!)) and for dissemination of false news about Christianization in the
Gulf countries! (2)
2- The Internet and online campaigns (resistance to normalization of relations
with the Zionist enemy, beauty contests, campaigns against nudity and for
promotion of virtue, support to the oppressed people and Muslim minorities,
electronic voting, etc.): There was a growing realization about the significance
of the Internet campaigns in promotion or prevention of ideas. Both Muslims
and non-Muslims benefited from such campaigns. These campaigns began first
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in America and some European countries in the form of electronic messages
and statements that rejected, for example, war on Iraq, due to the killing of
American and European soldiers there.
These e-campaigns in the Muslim world began in the form of campaign like
fighting against some local social phenomena which were morally depraved
such as pornographic video clips, and calling for "a summer with no sins" and
developed to the campaigns of religious and political nature such as a boycott
of Zionist or American goods, (with the start of Intifada) or boycott of the
Danish products (after appearance of insulting portrayals of Prophet
Muhammad, peace be upon him) or the Dutch products (after the Fitna film),
and so on.
These campaigns in cases of aggression on Gaza (earlier, on Iraq and
Lebanon) turned into calls for direct support of Gaza by sending images that
showed savagery and brutality of the Israeli occupation to the U.S. Congress
members and the world leaders (through e-mails), and calls for reaching out to
the people of Gaza to support them morally and e-campaigns to put pressure
on the European Union and Egypt to open Rafah crossing and lift siege from
the people of Gaza.
3- The Internet and e-wars (like wars in Iraq, Lebanon, Gaza as well as relief to
the persecuted Muslim minorities): In such cases, Arab and Muslim activists
used the Internet with its various means (social networks like Facebook, Twitter
and YouTube) to launch what may be called (e-war) especially in cases of
aggression and wars against Arab states like Iraq, Lebanon and Gaza. This ewar included the destruction of the enemy websites (used against Muslims)
through Muslimshackers, exposure of the global Jewish support to Israel through
their websites, taking the advantage of it in giving tips and advisories to Muslims,
bloggers' war, phone calls to the people of Gaza and also to Zionists in response
to Zionists' phone calls to the people of Gaza to instill fear in them. (3)
There is another form of e-war by fighting the Christian websites, whether
direct or indirect. These websites deliberately adopt the Islamic names to
confuse Muslims who visit these sites, and to distort the Qur'an and Islam.
Such websites contain verses similar to the Qur'anic verses, but it is indeed the
mockery of the Holy Qur'an, and the Muslim professionals are trying to break
and disable such websites.
4- The Internet and information revolution (blogs and facebook groups have
turned into electronic newspapers and their owners have become media
persons in the equation of (mobile camera + YouTube + Facebook +Twitter =
independent news agency): The Internet is no longer a mere device for
browsing and getting news, information and communication between human
beings, but it is also now possible through the Internet to create news and work
as an independent news agency by ordinary individuals, and disseminate the
news of Muslims and their sufferings in the world as well as their achievements.
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Any person who owns mobile camera+computer+Internet has become a
journalist, news reporter, an independent Islamic media person or a source of
news in general. He transmits news on the Internet about a variety of events
with pictures, or video recordings (demonstration, fighting or attack on
institutions) on YouTube, Twitter or the like, putting an end to the government
censorship or blocking of such information.
This information revolution has allowed the Islamic media to take advantage
of the Internet in publication of Muslims' news, images, videos and events
without any barriers or boundaries, as this was not available in the traditional
media.
5- E-philanthropy (online charity associations + collection of Zapata through
visa card + online purchase of sacrificial animal, etc: The charitable activity has
benefited a lot from direct communication with the public over the Internet
and without any restrictions. Now there is an opportunity to fill the vacuum in
the life of youth by such charitable work, whether through raising the fund for
the disabled or doing charity work for the children of orphanages or for the old
persons in the old-age homes through simple functions. (4)
6- Online Christianization: With the Internet's emergence, it has become a
golden opportunity for the evangelists, as there has been no obstacle before
them to reach out to Muslims anywhere and the organizations of Christian
prolytizing began thinking to exploit this network to evangelize the world, even
they have set up an online association for evangelization. They hold an annual
conference attended by representatives of the Christian missionaries.
This online evangelist activity has resulted in thousands of the missionary
websites, which are more than ten times of the Islamic websites. Statistics
confirm that number of the missionary websites exceed the Islamic websites
with a ratio of 1200 %. The most dangerous of their methods on the Internet is
their use of Pal talk in order to criticize Islam and distort its image openly.
The dangerous means used by the missionaries include e-mail groups which
they have created on e-mail sites, especially Yahoo which has many such groups
and try to evangelize in the Gulf. One example of such groups is "GCH1" a
Gulf Christians mailing group whose founders say that the group has been
created to communicate among the Christians in the Gulf and enhance their
mutual communication to make them members of the online church and
overcome all barriers and obstacles that come in the way of their growth in love
and knowledge. (5)
These Gulf-based e-mail groups created by the missionaries often attract the
youth through social issues or relations between the two sexes for friendship
and exchange of views and ideas that may lead to Pal talk or exchange of direct
e-mail messages, making it difficult for their recipients to prevent hundreds of
such weekly letters that attract the youth to read them with the aim of
evangelization or creation of religious confusion.
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Same means are used for monitoring, espionage and the recruitment of
Muslims in the Western or Israeli intelligence networks through Facebook and
dialogue between the Muslim youth and intelligence officers with the disguised
names of girls to trap the youth through suspicious dialogues.
Thirdly: Kinds of electronic Islamic media:
Before the Internet, there was only one effective media and that was the
print media (government and private newspapers and magazines). The Islamic
media was confined to this framework that would have required in many cases,
formal approvals and regulatory restrictions, but with the spread of the
Internet, now there are two additional kinds of electronic media: (First), official
or organized media which works as a profession, and (Second), private media
which works as a hobby or a mission by the virtue of its experience with the
Internet and its various means of dealing with the electronic network.
In fact, this Islamic media which is a private or non-official media, often
practiced by the Muslim youth who may not have membership in certain
groups and bodies, and with their personal or individual liking or as a hobby,
has become the most active means of Islamic media as it should be in the age
of the Internet, because this media is more aware of the electronic network's
language, vocabulary and impact. Also independence of this media from official
institutions gives it wider space of freedom to work and serve the cause of
Islam, according to its own judgment without any administrative or fiscal
restrictions from any quarter.
These Muslim individuals or private youth groups operating with religious
motivation and without any desire of monetary benefit seem more aware of the
Internet's various mechanisms, and more free in dealing with the media and
intellectual battles. Therefore, it is important that Muslim organizations and
bodies pay more attention to this kind of private - individual or group - Islamic
media, as it is more capable to deal with the Internet, and also it has more
flexibility and freedom in dissemination of ideas or in commanding the
intellectual battles without the restriction of official institutions that may have
some embarrassment for one reason or another for their involvement in certain
media conflicts.
Here, we refer to effective and influential kinds of the Islamic media in the
non-traditional forms which are available on the Internet only such as:
1- Bloggers: They are those who record various events and elaborate them
with more freedom on the Internet. They take part in the matters of public
concern in their own way, exchanging the views more freely and publish daily
news and views which the official and public newspapers or websites do not
dare to talk about frankly. This way of thinking which emerged strongly in the
United States following the events of 11 September 2001 increased before the
war on Iraq in April 2003. Such bloggers are considered to be a repository of
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stories, diaries, views, discussions, debates and news about issue or issues
selected by the blogger.
These bloggers have also become a center for a large number of links to
other websites taking up the similar issues. Rather these bloggers have
surpassed all other means of media and traditional press, as they provided with
more information and used the technology as a tool that helps the people
express their feelings about different issues (war, religious conflict,
dissemination of ideas…etc.). They offered the opportunity for those who want
to express their opinion and give vent to their feelings about various crises.
Bloggers are distinguished from the traditional media (press and television)
in the speed of dissemination, and beside the news, image and video, they
provide with political commentaries, analyses, stories and diaries which make
them superior to other means of media. They even have become strong
competitors with the traditional media, because they have access to information
faster than others, and often other means of media publish the stories of these
bloggers, as they have expanded the use of digital video camera or mobile
camera to film the different events and historical occasions, and broadcast the
lengthy footage on their websites immediately.
Perhaps the only difference in this kind of media is the standard of accuracy,
credibility and documentation of information which newspapers and other
means of media are keen to adhere to. At the same time, these qualities are not
available in some bloggers which often offer only biased news, views and
commentaries in the favor of one side or idea and with a view of personal
nature, though these bloggers have a lot of information documented with
images and videos.
2- Phenomenon of online philanthropists or charity volunteers: This
began with the spread of the Internet in the Arab world since 1995 by young
men and women who were interested in doing charity work voluntarily for the
sake of God. They did it to see smile on the face of the poor who is needful or
a patient who does not find a medication or an orphan who needs someone to
take care of him, or an elderly man or woman in the old-age home waiting for
somebody to visit him or her.
This was an idea initiated by some religious young men or women who
wanted to do simple charity work through an agreement between university
students or neighborhood friends to collect some money in order to purchase
medicines for the hospital patients, or food commodities for the poor families.
Such an understanding is expected to have taken place through e-mail
communication between each other and led to an agreement on collection of
money and carrying out this charity work. Later this led to the formation of 1020 member young groups. Each of such groups adopted a name to work in the
area of charity. Others formed second and third groups and so on there were
dozens of such groups.
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These online groups are not officially declared or recognized societies, but
private voluntary groups set up by efforts of the youth and for noble objectives
of helping others. The simple amount of money for such charity work is
collected among the young men and women and their families, and the matter
reached the level of urging the traders and businessmen to donate in kind for
food provision in the month of Ramadan for example, or devices for hospitals
or clothes for the orphans, because the law prohibits any groups to raise funds.
These groups are involved in many other social activities ranging from
providing the school bags and food packages for poor students in the
beginning of educational year, to donating the blood for the needy, visiting the
orphanages and preparing the recreation trips for them, and providing the poor,
especially the orphan brides with various household equipment, and purchasing
the medical devices for the public hospitals and clinics, and finding out jobs for
the unemployed, and collecting and selling the old consumed things to utilize
the proceeds in the charitable work and visiting the orphanages and old-age
homes to organize ceremonies there, or taking the orphans or mentally disabled
to the parks, recreation centers and restaurants for their entertainment.
They are all volunteers for development and helping others without any
financial payment. Their motto is the Holy Qur'an's verse: "O ye, who believe, bow
down and prostrate yourselves and worship your Lord and do well, that ye may prosper."
(Qur'an, 22:77) These groups and their websites on the Internet are considered
to be a very effective electronic means of media.
3- Cyber Activists: Since the spread of the Internet, there have been online
groups of activists who may be named as "Cyber Activists." They have been
individually or through groups sending comments on specific events or
dispatching news and information to be published by different newspapers and
websites in a way that one message is circulated to hundreds or thousands of
friends and acquaintances. With the passage of time, they have turned to be a
media service, similar to a private news agency or a small chat group of youth
who often do not know each other well, but they try to convey the view of
youth about various events.
Some of these messages may be religious advices, social news and political
comments. Some other messages may be a kind of alert for online young
groups to support Muslims in a country by sending the ready messages to the
attached addresses of Western officials about the Zionist crimes in Palestine, or
to protest against the headscarf ban in France and so on. They have organized
many online opinion-polls and votings to seek support for justice to the
oppressed. Such move on the Internet is considered to be a contemporary
Jihad, as described by Sheikh Yusuf al-Qaradhawi.
Some of these cyber activists have acted as a propaganda machine to expose
the Israeli massacres and other war crimes in Palestine by circulating reports
and images, and appealing to the world to face the Western media which has
been a sole player in the arena of information media. The facilities available to
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civil society activists on the Internet have contributed to the crystallization of
phenomenon "Cyber Activists" who represent a new segment of the society,
which has been silent, but lured by the Internet as an easy means of social
activity and self-expression.
4- E-mail groups: These groups are spread in all the major websites, most
notably Yahoo which allows the production of mailing list at:
http://groups.yahoo.com. These groups are interested in different religious,
political and social activities. These groups are put together by the electronic
media for exchange of information and expression of freedom as these groups
discuss issues and arrange meetings among their members through e-mail or
Chat program. They also hold audio-visual conferences through the mechanism
of Pal talk to discuss the preparation for launching a certain online campaign.
5- Direct electronic interaction: Where activists on the Internet take part
directly in discussions on organization of campaigns for certain issues through
tools like: (Areas of Dialogue) which are open forums for all views where
activists discuss the community issues and events, and like (Visitors' Records)
which is a book of comments for the website visitors on contents of the
website as well as its issues.
Some activists launch campaigns against certain issues through direct
conversation programs or Chat which is like a phone on the Internet through
which communication is possible between activists by writing or speaking
directly. Similarly, there are "Online Surveys" which take the opinions of the
Internet visitors on certain issues or Pal talk which is a free program for live
and direct dialogue on the Internet with the use of sound and image. This is a
program where the Christian missionaries are very active.
6- Petition and voting sites: These sites publish what is like petitions or data
and seek voting on them. They represent a link of communication between
groups supporting or opposing an opinion and contribute to decision-making
on certain issues in different parts of the world. It is significant to know that
voting is different from petition in the way that voting is fixed by the website,
while petition is open with no voting on it, but it is closer to collecting the
signatures.
Objectives of the Islamic media and mechanisms of the Internet:
If new mechanisms of the Internet have been utilized by the developed
countries in the West for the sake of achieving certain goals related to the
Western or materialistic civilization, and disseminating the ideas of hegemony,
globalization, moral liberalism or Christian missionary work, then these
mechanisms may not achieve the objectives of Islamic media based on an
Islamic civilizational vision due to the difference of objectives pursued by every
side, using the same tools. The Islamic media may be required to explore new
mechanisms which are compatible with the universal message of Islamic media.
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It is therefore natural, logical, and even necessary to try to find out these
mechanisms of modern technology as well as develop new methods of
electronic communication to achieve the goals of Islamic civilizational project
in areas of E'maar, Istikhlaf, enlightenment and liberation of mind from
materialistic tendencies so that man moves around in the land with reflection
and works for this world and the Hereafter, while the media is active with all its
kinds and forms, whether direct (through newspapers and electronic media
websites) or indirect (through e-mail groups, Facebook, Twitter and the like).
It is significant to point out here that the Islamic media is required to
provide a positive message aimed at building not destroying, and at positive
outlook, instead of self-condemnation such as shouting and wailing over the
Western conspiracies and onslaughts against Islam, because all these defensive
approaches may preoccupy the Islamic media from its roles of building,
reconstruction and education models, and also bringing out the positive models
and developing the healthy aspects of Islamic experiment in general.
It is necessary that the electronic Islamic media is based on a comprehensive
project of Islamic renaissance that aims at bringing an overall development and
highlighting the identity of Islamic civilizational state through arts, culture,
sciences and all other walks of life, and such a project is not confined to defend
and wail on the conspiracies which are being hatched against Muslims.
The Islamic media is also required to highlight the Islamic cultural identity
and even the pure identity of art, drama and cinema that bear the enlightening
message, highlighting the forgotten historical Islamic heroism, in addition to
the rehabilitation of credibility in areas of agriculture, industry, innovation and
invention. Therefore, the time of Muslims must not be wasted in the nonsense
activities, but should be focused on development, revival, innovation and
advancement as well as purposeful entertainment and plays that enlighten the
human mind.
Discourse and message of electronic Islamic media
Every media project has a message, objective and discourse through which
the objective or message is explained. The electronic Islamic media project is
required to present Islam in an appropriate and modern discourse through the
electronic means in order to address the issues and challenges and put forth
ideas, which reflect the great civilization of Islam with a scientific view that is
compatible with needs of the situation. It should have the creative capacity to
present its civilizational message in a contemporary, convincing and easy style
that can build bridges between nations, peoples and civilizations, and give
credence to good elements over bad elements.
The Islamic media must have a clear civilizational message derived from the
message of Islam. The media like any comprehensive civilization weapon has
two effects: "Either it is utilized in its optimal way to serve interests of the
Ummah through scientific preparation of its programs, which are compatible
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with the principles, objectives and civilization of the Ummah, or it is mere a
media whose objectives are not clear and which publishes any thing dispatched
by the media persons. In this case, the media would turn into a deadly weapon
in the hands of the Muslim Ummah's enemies, as is now the case of the
Western media (the European and American media) towards Islam and
Muslims. Through such media, rumors would be spread, frustration would be
generated, and corruption would be at large."(6)
To see that the message of Islamic media is civilizational, it must be based
on the constants of this Ummah, and there should be a great endeavor to
translate these principles into a civilizational behavior that overcomes the
process of Westernization, which has undermined the Muslim Ummah and led
to its alienation from its own identity at times.
The Western media, for example, succeeded over the long years in distorting
the image of Islam and portraying it in a fabricated form (terrorism and
extremism). Therefore, the task before the Islamic media in general and
electronic Islamic media in particular due to its dealing with the latest
mechanisms and its exposure to wider horizons, is harder and heavier. It
requires a double effort to refute the false accusations labeled by some Western,
Christian and Zionist circles to tarnish the image of Islam and its real message.
It also requires more effort to intensify the task of presenting the true image of
Islam and its civilization in a simplified way that does not confine the religion
of Islam or its Shari'ah to Hudood (Islamic punishments) and cutting off the
hand as propagated by secular and Western forces with the aim of alienation.
The objective of electronic Islamic media must be to provide Islamic
solutions that are close to human nature. Islam has given such solutions for
economic recovery (Takaaful, Zakah, E'maar and Istikhlaf) after the Western
capitalism – and Communism before it –has brought devastation to the world
economy, because of the interest-based culture. Such solutions also include the
good governance, struggle against injustice and dictatorship, provision of justice
(with its different branches), equality, poverty alleviation, and respect of human
life.
The significance of the Internet with respect to the message of Islamic
media lies in its role as an important means of cultural and intellectual exchange
in the language of modern age so that the civilizational message of Islam is
conveyed through successful experiences and models, and Islamic solutions are
put forth in times of crisis. The financial crisis that swept the world in 2008 was
a testimony of rehabilitation for the Islamic economic system and it was a
serious blow to the global capitalism. It revealed its greatest mistake of interestbased mortgaging as a financing tool, instead of a self-financing system through
participation. This model, as proposed by the Islamic banks should be utilized,
and investment should focus on productive projects, not on projects, which are
imaginary and based on paper money.
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The present reality of electronic Islamic media
If the Islamic media, as we have already mentioned, is based on an objective
and message, and this media is required to realize them with the latest
mechanisms and take into its consideration the welfare of entire humanity, then
the present reality of electronic Islamic media points out to an internal fault in
the means of this message‘s transmission and presentation, or in its method of
propagation and persuasion, or in the understanding of the message itself, apart
from external constraints of the Western globalization and its ability to perform
better than the Islamic media, and to undo what the Islamic media has done.
If we talk about both kinds (official and private) of Islamic media, then it is
natural to point out that the fault here is related to each case separately, whereas
the ―official‖ Islamic media seems weak in its ability to innovation and
improvement and it is characterized by rigid, traditional and old approach in its
presentation, in spite of the greater capacity of its electronic media than its print
media. On the other hand, the private or individual media appears at times to
be more advanced technologically, but in terms of mission and objective, it is
divided and at times fighting each other on secondary things.
Some official institutions in the field of Islamic media - like other official
institutions - are hit by rigid and traditional approach, and are working with the
traditional mindset, away from innovation and renovation, although the
Internet is known for innovation and renewal at every minute and even at every
second. Some Islamists have in this area presented individual experiments and
publicity, but not media. Even some of the Islamic groups have taken their
intellectual differences and disputes to the electronic network which led to
domination of their disputes over the main message and objective of Islamic
media, and their preoccupation by these superficial differences, instead of
paying attention to the main message and developing the means of its
presentation.
As the ideological and organizational discord appeared on the Internet and
gap between different Islamic groups widened, things have come to an extent
that some individuals and groups began publicity for their websites as well as
their own views, instead of their focus on the essential message of Islamic
media such as the work of Da'wah, E'maar and presentation of Islamic
solutions on various issues which were overlooked by the world, as the need
for these solutions is more at the moment and nobody knows them, because a
section of the Muslim Ummah is preoccupied with secondary discord and selfpublicity, instead of propagating the religion of Islam and highlighting the
Islamic ideas which the enemies of Islam have deliberately tried for many years
to hide and distort.
In spite of the Internet's success as a means of Islamic media in spreading a
part of the Islamic culture and attracting a large number of youth, the Islamic
media has so far failed in dissemination of its civilizational Islamic message in
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an attractive manner to the whole world. This failure is partly due to the rivalry
among certain individuals and groups on the Internet, which is indeed one of
the most dangerous mistakes committed by them on this electronic network.
No doubt, there are other individuals and groups which are well aware of the
message of electronic Islamic media and have tried their best to realize it,
however, the number of such individuals and groups remained small in the
larger spectrum of the Internet.
The picture of Islamic media is not so gloomy, as many of young Muslim
individuals and groups that understand Islam as a comprehensive religion
capable of providing solutions to the world problems, have stood neutral in the
factional and organizational disputes and presented positive pictures and
models of joint work on the Internet, carrying the concerns of Muslim Ummah
on their shoulders.
A large number of the above-mentioned individuals and groups are
represented by those who utilized the electronic network for leading a strong
Islamic media endeavor in order to support the issues of Muslim Ummah and
spread its message and confront the enemies of Islamic message with
dissemination of the correct Islamic culture as well as the solutions presented
by the religion of Islam to the problems of larger humanity.
The most prominent of external problems facing the electronic Islamic
media, include globalization which – through all media means and new
communication technologies – is intruding homes and rooms, and distorting
the impact created by the Islamic media in the shadow of Western
globalization's deluge as well as the huge amount of misinformation.
Globalization is indeed, an advanced stage of the new Western hegemony
and domination over the Muslim world, and its danger lies in the fact that it
breaks any barriers and plays a negative role in portraying an image of Islam
and Muslims. This requires from the Muslim individuals and groups to reverse
the equation and rectify this image of Islam and Muslims through the electronic
media.
It is obvious that the impact of these distorted images is not only on the
minds of those who are influenced by these images, but also on the process of
decision-making at the international level, where politicians in the West always
take stand against Islam and Muslims due to the accumulation of distorted
knowledge which gives a negative and unrealistic image about Muslims, apart
from the exploitation of this electronic media by Zionists to give a false and
negative image about of Muslims.
It is difficult to face this negative image which is being promoted through
globalization except with hard work and collective effort. It is also difficult, if
the Islamic media moved at random and without prior planning, as well as
without an Islamic civilizational vision derived from the teachings of Islam and
based on the reality of Muslim Ummah. This civilizational vision which is like a
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plan and roadmap together will play a role in guiding the Islamic media and
providing it with necessary knowledge and expertise to confront the Western
globalization in order to begin a new historic era that restores the glories of
Islamic civilization.
The media research which examined the image of Muslim world in the
Western media found that (7) the events related to the Muslim world have been
treated in a negative manner, as there have been texts in the press linking
between conflicts, violence and Islam. The anti-Islam campaigns in the Western
world call for demonizing the religion of Islam and Islamizing terrorism.
This is a great injustice to Islam and Muslims by the Western writings that
come up in the framework of distorting the image of Islam and Muslims in the
West. The common feature in the Muslim world is that its history is filled with
a large number of wars and conflicts. The Islamic personality is surrounded by
very negative stereotypes and a Muslim is generally considered to be very
backward. Muslims are aggressive, against women and they are known for
terrorism. Finally there is a growing trend in the negative treatment of Muslim
issues in the Western media and use of the term "Islamophobia" (fear of Islam),
the portrayal of Muslims in brutal and negative images.
Recommendations for success of Islamic media websites
Here are some recommendations on the basis of problems mentioned above in
order to enable the Islamic media websites to play a vital role in the future as
follows:
1-
To have a clear civilizational Islamic vision that includes any electronic
Islamic media project based on E'maar (construction), enlightenment,
dialogue, moderation and fighting against injustice and intellectual
extremism so as not to leave any scope for irregular judgment, or fighting
against rigid approach, due to lack of experience and subsequent inability
to keep up with those who receive the message of the electronic Islamic
media in technical terms, and therefore failure to conveying the message
of Islamic media.
2-
Avoid the argument of differences related to various schools of
jurisprudence and keep it away from the Islamic media websites, especially
those directed to the Western countries or those coming up in the West,
because it will not be beneficial to the Westerners who visit these Islamic
media websites and follow up the sharp jurisprudence differences between
two or more Muslim individuals or groups.
3-
Focus on training and preparation of professional and technical staff
including specialists in the electronic media, technicians, experts and
consultants, and preparation of field studies and specialized research,
improvement of performance and monitoring of response and demand of
such media projects through accepting the comments, instead of the
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present reality of electronic media projects based on irregular individual
efforts, without proper research, study or clear civilizational methodology
that brings objective and message to such projects.
4-
Combine and unify the efforts of those taking initiatives in the area of
electronic Islamic media (e-newspapers, websites and groups of activists)
as much as possible in unified activities, rather than their scattered
existence with similar and duplicate activities that waste the efforts and
capacities, and do not add any value to the funds spent in these rival and
duplicate activities, in contrast with the owners of Western projects where
in the developed countries, there is an idea of combining the activities
through alliance and integration between similar projects in order to
benefit from the consolidation of investments, capabilities and finances in
larger projects that control the maximum number of talents in the world.
Muslims are in greater need to unify their efforts and investments to serve
their religion.
5-
A large portion of the Islamic media projects is based on individual
initiative or the idea of one man or one investor. This eventually leads to
the attention of the website project to highlighting the role of the Sheikh,
scholar or donor who stands behind the project, and aim of the project is
divided between highlighting the knowledge and activities of individual
project owner, and presenting a general media service to the Islamic
civilizational project. Therefore, it is necessary to separate between the
project management or finance, and the editorial or professional team in
the media work.
6-
Establish the specialized Islamic websites in sciences of religion, Holy
Qur'an and its interpretation, the Sunnah and its sciences, Islamic
jurisprudence, ethics, transactions under the supervision of scholars
known for their knowledge and dedication, as well as the people of
technical expertise who are able to present these sciences with the best use
of these electronic and technical means in a simple manner so that it is
easy to convey the message of Islamic media.
7-
Set up websites of Islamic Da'wah in different foreign languages such as
English, French, Russian, German and others with the previous conditions
that combine science with expertise in presentation and attraction.
8-
Take advantage of the world talking chambers, whether under certain
websites like Yahoo, Messenger, or independent networks such as Pal-talk,
Skype and others in collaboration with Da'wah scholars and computer
specialists in order to conduct seminars, lectures and advertising campaign
that may attract a larger number of listeners, Muslims or non-Muslims.
9-
Benefit from the social networks like Facebook, Twitter, MySpace and
others for direct communication with people from everywhere, and invite
them to Islam and its true path as well as to the comprehensive solutions
that Islam has presented to the problems of the modern world, and
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support the youth groups which are distinguished or adopt the Islamic
civilizational project, and pay attention to prepare and train the groups in
this manner through charity or endowment institutions from where these
youth set out to serve the electronic Islamic media very effectively.
10- Take interest in the consultancy departments of Islamic media websites,
because these are the most prominent forms of direct interaction with the
public, and through them, the distorted images of Islam can be corrected
even for some Muslims as well as for non-Muslims, through direct
answers by the specialists who combine foreign language and
comprehensive Islamic civilizational vision, and convince with good
thinking and opinion, and provide answers in various areas of humanities,
psychology, education, Da'wah and family.
11- Take advantage of modern communication technology in the field of
satellite television and the Internet in order to establish Islamic channels in
the languages of Western countries on the Internet for direct
communication with Muslims and non-Muslims so as to ensure quick and
easy transfer of information and direct interaction that leads to enrich the
electronic Islamic media discourse and play an extraordinary role in
dissemination of Da'wah among all people of the world.
239
References:
Forum of the Most Beautiful Girls of Saudi Arabia on the Internet,
Department of Internet Computer, Solutions to Problems of Technology of
Windows System, 16/1/2011.
Mohamed Gamal Arafa, e-Evangelization, A Deceptive Trap for Gulf Youth,
Al-Mujtama, Kuwait, 5 October 2008, issue No. 1818.
Muslim youths have benefited from the Jewish organizations and websites
notably (www.Aish.com) to urge the Jews of the world to support their State
of (Israel) in its aggression against southern Lebanon in 2006 and Gaza in
2009 too determine what they said, there are (54) ways to support Israel) To
reverse these calls and tips, there are (54 ways to support Gaza).. See also
details in: Mohamed Gamal Arafa, ―Hello... We will bomb Tel Aviv" A
Message in support of Gaza, Islam Online. Net, 2/1/2009.
Mohamed Gamal Arafa, "Faelu khair dot com", Online voluntary groups,
17/8/2011. Http://www.alamatonline.net/l3.php?id=9108
Opcit; Mohamed Gamal Arafa, e-Evangelization, A Deceptive Trap for the
Gulf Youth, al-Mujtama' magazine, Kuwait, 5 October 2008 Issue No. 1818.
Mustafa Mohammed Taha, Contemporary Islamic Media in the Era of
Globalization, al-Waei al-Islami magazine, Issue No. 532, 3/9/2010.
http://alwaei.com/topics/view/article.php?sdd=1117&issue=483
Adli Syed Redha, Role of the Media in Correcting the Image of Islam, al- Haras
al-Watani magazine, Issue No. 317, 1/9/2008.
240
Media in Muslim Societies: Changing Situation
between First Conference and This Conference
Abdul Rahman Al Shobaily
Former Member of Shura Council,
Saudi Arabia / Media Specialist
Three decades have passed since the First Conference of Islamic Media
concluded its proceedings in Indonesia. The whole media has since changed,
and even the media in the Muslim society has witnessed many positive and
negative; basic and formal; and objective and technical changes. What is
important for us here is that we get to know our place in these changes and
take advantage of such changes so that we do not remain as mere spectators
and recipients.
Since our first conference, one thing has not changed and that is the Muslim
world's poor share of professionalism and technology. Our society is still living
at the margin of development taking place in the areas of science, industry and
media. We still import and do not export; and we still consume and do not
produce. The more important is that we do not manufacture it, nor we handle
it properly, as there has been some improvement in our societies, the media
technology and its applications have taken the least share of it.
The media content in our countries is not exceptional from others, and
since the beginning of this century, the whole world media is undergoing
transformation between openness, flexibility and transparency of information,
speed of its circulation and less complexity of the official bureaucracy on one
hand, and tendencies which are morally harmful, and undermine the relations
of people and affect their creeds on the other hand.
Some media channels spread indecent values and some other channels leak
immoral things that affect the values of conservative families in all religions,
giving way to options that are more attractive and at the same time, they have
more temptation and distraction. Some media programs disseminate deviant
ideas which have led to crime, deviation and perhaps terrorism. Constitutions,
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codes of conduct and open information policies in most of our countries have
been useless to adjust things and deter the violations.
When we met here, 30 years ago, we were thinking some modest things that
do not exceed the exchange of film and cassette, and we were looking forward
in the wake of our ambitions to establish a central library where the stations
may find their desired religious programs, and we were dreaming to have an
effective news agency to exchange the news between our countries, and we
were planning to formulate mechanism to organizes the media institutions in
the Muslim world in order to negotiate on our behalf for purchase of rights
regarding the global programs and sports in the Muslim world, and we were
preoccupied with indoctrinations, mottos and codes of ethics for media and
contents of communication means, and we attached hopes to the ministries of
information to do all of this.
But now, the face of media has changed during this period and there is a
change in the patterns of its administration, and there is a change as well in the
forms of its ownership, and seminars no longer represent the ideal method of
solutions and there is no longer an existence for many information ministries,
and most of the coordination formations and blocs have failed not only in
media but in many affairs of our life, and it became inevitable for us to think in
a new way that achieves cooperation and integration, away from traditional
methods that we have been used to. We must not forget that private economic
sector has become after the previous conference, a full-fledged partner in the
media activity.
We had met in the month of Shawwal 1400H (September 1980) after less
than two years of changes that took place in Iran, where simple technique
played a crucial role in the first soft applications of its kind through media. But
today, after more than thirty years, we live in a new era, in which the media is
playing a central role in development of events and formation of systems and
entities, where news is available in seconds via mobile phone, with the user‘s
touch of a button through YouTube, Facebook and Twitter.
The electronic press through (IPad) is now competing with the print media
and threatening its existence. This space is further narrowing, due to the
channels of serious entertainment, methodological education and in-depth
thought, and the book is electronically downloaded, either free of charge or at a
very low cost, annulling the function of libraries and traditional censorship which
we have lived with for decades. Beyond all that, now Fatwa and religious rulings
can be accessed by any body through camera, sound-recorder and write-up.
The question that imposes itself once again in this place and with frankness
is: "What have we done?", "What are we going to do?", and "How do we make
the media an important element of development as a whole, as well as of
dialogue and understanding between peoples and civilizations?", after we have
confined its role to politics and news.
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The result of thirty years' media in the Muslim society after our first
conference says that we have achieved nothing during all these years except
conferences, would this meeting of ours be a turning point to make the Muslim
countries an effective number on the map of new media with addition of
creativity, technology and professionalism?
I know for sure that the secretary-general of the Muslim World League
(MWL), who since his appointment, 10 years ago has been thankfully working
to hold this conference and was very keen for creation of a specialized and
effective agency for media in the Muslim world.
In deed, he had more appreciation for the role of media in achieving the
objectives of Islamic fraternity, unity, strength and cooperation among
Muslims, as well as dialogue with religions and civilizations and, for this, we
look forward that success of Indonesian government and the MWL in holding
this second conference would be a cause of realizing the hopes as we have
waited so much and are confident that the conference would come out, God
willing, with a clear-cut and strong stance enhanced by the support of all in
order to move from the phase of dreams and doctrines to the phase of action
and influence, and to comprehend the changes of modern age and keep up with
time, and continue the progress where others have ended.
The two-day protocol-oriented meeting is not enough. We need a process of
serious assessment, as well as institution, instrument and methodology. We
must not make this meeting a rare event that is repeated once in the life, and let
me make a loud call that all of us need to have the courage to review past
experience, and retrospect the formations that failed in achieving their
objectives, and to objectively identify the reality, method and outcome, in all
the activities of joint Islamic media after we define the term of "Islamic media"
and determine its concept and set its dimensions.
I appeal to the conference to adopt a proposal in this regard that serves the
media in the Muslim world, and creates vitality and dynamism in it, and takes it
out of its idleness, through selecting an independent body that does not exclude
any continent, organization or faction, and that is headed by a highlyexperienced personality of Islamic media, a body that diagnoses and prescribes
treatment with a methodology and then to hold this meeting periodically to
look into the ideas that come forth.
The official media in most of the Muslim countries is in crisis, a crisis in its
administration, and in the method of its financing, and in the forms of its
privatization, and in the patterns of the governments‘ relations with it, and its
connection with politics, as well as in its censorship. It is also in crisis in terms
of its direction, and its reasons of turning towards partial and marginal issues at
cost of the main issues of the Ummah.
Consequently, the media no more protects the ethics, and nor it is engaged
with addressing the issues of Muslim Ummah. This reflected in the level of
professionalism in its performance and presentation, and in the angle of
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deviation in the content, and perhaps the proposed body in the future would
become just like a think-tank and support the governmental and private media
institutions in improving their conditions and rising to the level of their
mission.
This paper does not have a magic wand for reform and direct the blame to
any one. It just cautions of the current situation, as tendencies of the media
today is bigger than the ability of parents and educators to bear their
consequences, because the media has let the doors wide open for all good and
bad on the pretext of freedom of expression and justification of openness, I do
not see an arena better than this gathering of ours to tell the truth about what
should be done for reforming the media in the Muslim world.
Let me on your behalf to ask about the positive role played by many
institutes of Islamic media in our universities in developing the theory of
Islamic media that controls its applications and directs its policies and identifies
its relations, and makes it a role-model for various types of media, as well as an
example to guide the people of the whole world.
During three decades since our last meeting, the world media has gone through
awful transformations with the entry of new technologies, and their effects
were clearly evident in the recent popular revolutions that took place in some
of our countries, where technology was employed in politics and regime change
in a way that exceeded what the traditional parties have been doing in the
contemporary history.
This is going to change the role of media, and then there is a need to have a
different and serious look that requires dealing with it in a different manner
directing it positively and according to its growing role. It is my hope that our
conference in the wake of many hopes that we have attached to it, would study
the reality of new media from this perspective specifically in a way that is based
on the ethics, values and orientations of Islam.
My dear brothers, I feel with conviction that media in the Muslim world, for
which we have dedicated some courses and schools, is still in a very early stage
of knowledge and application, in spite of the fact that its potentials are great.
Indeed, the Muslim societies are in dire need of them. We have to proceed
from this conference before anyone else, and this date and without any delay
for formulation of its features in a modern way that convinces those who
implement them with full understanding and acceptance.
The Muslim world has great potentials which cannot be ignored. It has
significant intellectual and scientific potentials that make it in no need of what it
imports or imitates. The most important of these potentials is what - after our
previous meeting particularly after the events of Sept. 11, 2001, has been called
in the modern terminology as "soft power" that can be employed positively and
effectively in winning over the hearts and minds of people, and attracting their
sympathies and inclinations.
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We can imagine the number of those embracing the religion of Islam in all the
continents, and the number of masses attracted by the telecast of Hajj
pilgrimage, prayers, recitations of Holy Qur'an and Jumu'ah sermons from the
Two Holy Mosques. Such valuable components are not possessed by other
religions, though we do not have any intention in this conference to
monopolize or compete with other religions, we only intend, as I said earlier, to
have a rightful place in this world, without any exclusion of others.
Moreover, the changes that have taken place in our world today, after our
first conference, which led the countries like Saudi Arabia to take an initiative
of promoting the culture of dialogue among civilizations and religions in a
world abuzz with intolerance, hostility and neo-colonialism. It is a pride for
Muslims that they have the initiative to build the bridges of understanding with
others, in spite of the fact that their religion is described to be a closed and
isolated religion, and they are blamed for terrorism, violence, cruelty and
arrogance with others.
I sincerely pray to Almighty God that this conference becomes one of the
tools of dialogue with other cultures through the information media, and in
order to dedicate this concept, it establishes an affiliated permanent body to
support efforts to reach out to others through dialogue in different
communication and information media.
We in this place suffer from the West's contradiction and double-standard
while raising the banner of freedom of expression, and at the same time, it tries
to silence the voice of fair-minded people and oppress them. It impedes the
right of practicing Muslim to worship, and tolerates the offences to others'
beliefs and religions, and injures the feelings of the believers in the holiness of
Almighty God and respect of the prophets and apostles.
This conference has to take the initiative and call with open hearts and
minds for correcting the path of freedom of thought and expression, and invite
the media to a direction that gives honor to human being, and respect to
beliefs, and affirms that the individual's right to expression should be
guaranteed within the boundaries of collective and social rights.
When we met thirty years ago, nearly two decades had passed on naming the
concerned departments of enlightenment, guidance and news after ministries
for information, a beautiful name in Arabic differing from the concept of
propaganda prevailing in the totalitarian regimes and the developing countries.
It was competing with the same corresponding sense in other languages.
Nearly in the beginning of this century, some countries in the Muslim world
and elsewhere began moving towards its abolition altogether or replacement of
these ministries with national regulatory councils and transformation of the
subordinate implementing institutions such as news agencies and departments
of radio and television into specialized national organizations which enjoyed
relative independence, and these measures were considered to be among the
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transformations witnessed by the past three decades since our first conference.
However, the regulatory scene in respect to our media institutions remained
hazy, and the structural and regulatory relationship between many countries and
their media institutions are still cloudy between centralization and
decentralization, and between tight control and independence,
If we had today an ideal model of such relationship, we would have
benefited from it in determining the optimal relationship between the executive
and regulatory authorities in the media. I think that each of our countries has in
this regard a similar concern, but the regulations are different from each other.
Here, I am not calling for a typical pattern, and also not for the transfer of Arab
states‘ conditions to you, but I hope that the Muslim world, according to the
circumstances of each society, has a dynamic model that benefits from the
experiences of successful regulations wherever they are found, and then, the
administrative reform is provided to the media institutions. This is what our
conference can offer in the future so that our institutions can dispense with the
imported and ready-to-use patterns.
These are some forms of changes that have taken place in media since our
first meeting, three decades ago. The media is naturally a renewable entity that
develops rapidly, and we have to keep up with its developments. If the
coordinating organizations and bodies have remained stagnant, the least duty
that our this conference can render -if we want its success- that it interacts with
the latest developments and initiates to develop a progressive reform program
that delights the media persons and addresses the complaint of Muslims about
the critical situation faced by their media as well as the others‘ media which is
influencing their generations, and this complaint is reflected in every social
speech, lecture and symposium that deals with the media and its state of affair
in the Muslim countries.
Let me present some recommendations in the following which I hope that
the conference would take up and add them to its communiqué:
First: That the MWL accelerates the formation of the media body in the
Muslim world, consisting of 10 academics and independent practitioners from
different countries of the Muslim world, with the aims of:
1- To study the reality of media in its quantity and quality in Muslim countries,
as well as the Muslims‘ media in the countries of Muslim minorities, and to
issue an annual report on ways to improve and upgrade them.
2- Develop a comprehensive theory of standard where the Muslims‘ media
should be in view of its objectives, content and presentation, in cooperation
with the Islamic universities specialized in this area, then print, publish and
distribute them among academics and those who implement them.
3- The media body should be a think tank to help the weak media institutions
in the Muslim countries in the production of programs with distinct
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religious content under their programs chart, and to assist the Islamic media
in general to improve its conditions and messages whether it is done by the
media body itself or through its contract with other specialized agencies,
with particular attention to new media technologies and applications.
4- Study the conditions of media departments that provide or wish to provide
the courses in the field of Islamic media, so that their programs have
advanced level of quality and excellence.
Second: Invite all the information media in the Muslim countries to support
the efforts of dialogue within their societies and with different cultures,
religions and civilizations outside the Muslim countries, and the initiative is to
build the bridges of communication and understanding and reduce tensions at
various levels, and invent the programs that carry out these tasks.
Third: Call the information media in the Muslim countries in particular and
countries of the world in general for investing the patterns of media potentials
known as ―the soft power‖ to communicate with other cultures, as well as to
employ and develop them as a means of understanding in the field of
international politics and conflict resolution between the nations and peoples
amicably
Fourth: Appeal to all countries of the world to intervene in order to confront
all that tends to offend the religious sanctities, rationalize the freedom of
expression that leads to the disintegration and corruption of youth in particular
through the information media, and to be of help to families and schools in this
field.
"Our Lord, Let not our hearts deviate after You have guided us, but give us
mercy from your own presence, for You are the grantor of bounties with
measure."
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Review of Pioneering Media Experiences
among Muslim Minorities: Practical Solutions for
Promotion of Islamic Media
Mohamed Ali Harrath
CEO of Islam Channel, London, UK
The fall of the Soviet Union resulted in the Middle East and Islam
becoming the new antagonists of the Western press (Turner, 1994:11). The
media enforced concept of a ‗clash of civilizations‘ can be considered factually
unfounded as Islam shares much of the same Judeo-Christian and GrecoRoman heritage (Rodinson, 1987). Though this is the case Islam has historically
been viewed as a notable other. Not only in the press but this is a culture found
in Western literary pieces and their adaptations for the large screen.
The ever-increasing fascination with Islam took to new heights in the early
80s and continued throughout the 90s, looking at the Iranian revolution and
then moving toward the rhetoric of Saddam Hussein during the 1990s and Gulf
War period. Subsequently the events of 9/11/2001 had a radical impact on the
context of media coverage. The rhetoric that came into play after that date put
Islam at the forefront of conversation not only within an international sphere
but for conversations within the home of average family in the West.
The rhetoric used in name of the war on terror post- 9/11 entwined Islam
with an animated and violent social positioning, consequently shaping the social
perception of the religion. Although conflict arising from cultural, religious, and
ideological factors has been the norm, realpolitik and interstate interests have
also shaped the relationship between the two civilizations. (Rodinson, 1987)
The stance that the media take on Islamic affairs often shadows their stance on
state foreign policy.
Research question 1: What factors influence the perception of
Islam in the media?
Although Islam is the fastest growing religion in the West, there are many
stereotypes and misconceptions about Islam, largely due to media and its
output. A combination of biased reporting and an increased Muslim population
248
within Western countries is considered to be the reason for the propagation of
Islamic and alternative media; such as Islam Channel. The significance of the
actions undertaken by media reporters and foreign policy actors lie in the fact
that they feed into each other, leading to constant escalation in the
confrontation between Islam and the West; shaping public opinion through
media to align with foreign policy aims.
Since the 9/11 attacks a decade ago, mainstream media have intensified the
public debate about Muslims and Europe. Within many minorities these
debates have resulted in increased feelings of insecurity becoming enmeshed
with concerns about immigration, integration, and multiculturalism. The
availability of internet and social media has increased the market exponentially,
allowing two-way communication between content producers and viewers;
fostering intellectual exchange. The ability to converse with moderate Muslims
and to use the new media as an educational tool is one reason for the increased
proselytizing of Western society.
Mainstream media have often reported on the archaic nature of Islam and
its inability to adapt to modern society. For many, corporeal religious
institutions display this trait; resulting in the increase of ‗virtual mosques‘;
whereby Muslims use the internet to socialize; creating discussions on topics
that may be considered taboo within a traditional masjid. Unhindered
conversations have resulted in increased knowledge about Islam, and have
removed both ideological and geographic barriers.
Research question 2: What have media advances done for the
proliferation of Islamic and alternative media?
The proliferation of alternative Islamic media forms began after the Second
World War, when Europe experienced a vast increase in immigration from
Middle Eastern and Asian countries. Resultantly, alternative media became
available in an array of languages and in line with a variety of different Islamic
schools of thought. Technology advancement has proliferated the number and
types of media platforms available, creating a constant stream of information
that can be consumed anytime, anyplace and anywhere. Such vast accessibility
has imbued media organizations with an undeniable influence on societies‘
views, perceptions and behavior.
Traditional forms of mainstream media, such as television, radio and
newspapers, have followed the old media adage of ―if it bleeds it leads‖,
saturating the media with news of Middle Eastern wars and biased reporting;
tilting reported outlooks to fulfill political agendas and to increase media sales.
Consumer awareness of this trait has resulted in increased demand for alternate
and neutral media sources. Social media has been extremely effective in
promoting Islam through providing information to a wide audience and in a
cost-effective manner. It has allowed the Muslim community to become tighter
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knit, removing obstacles of geography and language, and has aided in the
organization of political revolutions.
Research question 3: What challenges does new media and
information technology pose?
Social media poses threats to the constructs of society and in some places to
the wellbeing of the population. For converted Muslims, or second and third
generation Muslims, reliance upon ‗virtual mosques‘ and an online community
group can result in the hindrance of integration into mainstream society.
Reliance upon cyberspace communities can result in the ghettoization of the
Muslim community, fostering isolation. A further threat of new media is virtual
violence through individuation. Individuation encompasses a situation whereby
anonymity provides individuals with the courage to act in a violent manner.
Methodology
The investigative component of this paper includes both qualitative and
quantitative primary research. Fifty individuals answered questionnaires, with a
50:50 distribution in gender. Ten individuals were respondents to short
interviews, with the aim of building on the ideas provided within the
questionnaire. Respondents were a mix of both Muslim and non-Muslim.
Limitations
The proliferation of new media has resulted in media access to information
becoming a global phenomenon. This research paper is restricted to the views
and opinions of a London sample. Whilst providing valuable information, the
study would require a more global spread to provide evidence that could be
considered universal. Such an endeavor would require a large budget and an
extensive period of time.
Literature Review
Historical perspective
Centuries of interaction have left a bitter legacy between the world of Islam
and the Christian West, deriving largely from the fact that both civilizations
claim a universal message and mission and share much of the same JudeoChristian and Greco-Roman heritage. Separated by conflict and held together
by common spiritual and material ties, Christians and Muslims presented a
religious, intellectual, and military challenge to each other (Esposito, 1983:25).
The nineteenth-century German thinker Friedrich Schleiermacher argued
that Christians and Muslims were "still contending for the mastery of the human race"
(The Christian Faith, 1928:37). However, this portrait of unremitting WesternMuslim hostility is misleading. The pendulum of Western-Muslim relations has
swung between rivalry/confrontation and collaboration/accommodation.
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Although conflict arising from cultural, religious, and ideological factors has
been the norm, realpolitik and interstate interests have also shaped the
relationship between the two civilizations.
Unlike Europe, the United States did not engage in any prolonged, bloody
encounters with Muslim states and societies until the 1950‘s. It never directly
ruled over Arab and Muslim lands or developed Europe's complex imperial
system. In the first part of the twentieth century, the United States, unrestrained
by colonial and geographic requirements, established dynamic and cordial
relation with Arabs and Muslims, who viewed America as a progressive island
amid European retort.
The emergence of a U.S. global role after World War Two dramatically
changed the foreign-policy elite's attitudes toward rapid socio-political change
in the third world. Although U.S. officials in the first part of the twentieth
century supported the concept of self- determination and opposed the
perpetuation of colonialism, in the second half of the century they looked with
suspicion on populist third-world movements and ideologies.
The U.S. perception of the Middle East situation and the nature of the
threat underwent a radical shift in the 1970s, largely because of the explosion of
Islamic politics. Regional events - the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, the consequent
Arab oil embargo, the 1978-79 Iranian revolution and ensuing hostage crisis shocked many American officials into viewing Islam as a threat to Western
interests (Esposito, 1983:17).
The Western perception of Islam
According to Professor Richard Bulliet of Columbia University, Western
society has quite readily accepted the notion that acts of violence committed by
some Muslims "are representative of a fanatic and terroristic culture that cannot be
tolerated or reasoned with" (Bulliet 1994, iii). The World Trade Center bombing in
1993 did considerable damage to the Muslim image and presence in the United
States and around the world. As James Brooke commented in the New York
Times, by linking “Muslims and domestic terrorism in the minds of many Americans,"
the bombing made Muslims vulnerable targets for racism and political
discrimination (New York Times, 28 August 1995).
In the first of two surveys on American attitudes toward Islam taken just
after the bombing, more than 50 percent of the respondents said that "Muslims
are anti-Western and anti-American”. In the second survey, the respondents were
asked to rate various religious groups from favourable to unfavourable;
Muslims topped the most unfavourable list. According to FBI sources, radicals
with Muslim backgrounds were responsible for the World Trade Centre
bombing; as reprehensible as it was, this was the only violent act committed
domestically by people from a Muslim background for that year. In contrast,
the FBI reported the following terrorist attacks during the 1982-1992 period:
Puerto Ricans, 72 attacks; left-wing groups, 23 attacks; Jewish groups, 16
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attacks; anti-Castro Cubans, 12 attacks; and right-wing groups, 6 attacks (FBI
1995).
Media and Foreign policy
In moments of crisis, confrontationists gain the upper hand and dominate
the media. It is at such a juncture that attitudes toward Arabs/ Muslims are
hardened. Instead of treating terrorist incidents as an aberration, some media
commentators exaggerate their importance and portray them as part of a
systematic war against Western civilization. Instead of viewing terrorism for
what it really is - a desperate and isolated act - these observers view it as part of
a pattern of anti-Western agenda. In this sense, terrorism has further poisoned
the Western perception of Islam and Muslims; with the media being used as a
medium for scaremongering and the advancement of political agendas.
In the aftermath of Cold War, Leon Hadar argued that the media, following
either their own initiatives or the footsteps of the foreign-policy elite,
speculated about the rise of new global enemies. This explains, in his view, the
press's fascination with political Islam (Hader, 1994:64).
From this outlook, the press is not part of the foreign-policy establishment but
has been a willing participant in foreign-policy making insofar as it helps
"establish the boundaries within which policy can be made" (Dorman, 1993:289). This is
evident in the case of Islam and of Muslims, who are often portrayed in a
negative light, thus placing them at a considerable disadvantage in U.S. public
opinion. Although mass public opinion may not count much in the foreignpolicy equation, elite opinion does; decision makers and members of the policy
elite get much of their information from the press (ibid: 297).
The significance of the actions undertaken by media reporters and foreign
policy actors lies in the fact that they feed into each other, leading to constant
escalation in the confrontation between Islam and the West. That is, by
supporting military dictators in the Muslim world, Western policy makers create
conditions conducive to political radicalism, as the suppressive measures of the
state push certain Islamist groups to violence. On the other hand, by
concentrating on radical groups and presenting them as the representatives par
excellence of contemporary Islamic resurgence, media reporters reinforce the
fears of policy makers and encourage them to stick to their hard line.
Islam in the West
The institutional form of Islam and its organizations in Western states is
different from those in the Middle East. The absence of state authority over
Islam and the framework of civil society and absolute freedom of worship give
way to various Islamic groups and diverse interpretations.
There are an estimated 15-20 million Muslims within Europe (Open Society
Institute, 2010). Within this minority, there is high diversity in the Muslim
community, not just in terms of ethnicity and religious practice, but also in
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terms of socio-economic status, class, age and gender; all of which are
increasingly related to types of media access.
There are approximately 50 different languages spoken within the British
Muslim community alone; which requires access to a multitude of alternative
media sources. The proliferation of alternative Islamic media forms began after
the Second World War, when Europe experienced a vast increase in
immigration from Middle Eastern and Asian countries. Resultantly, alternative
media became available in an array of languages and in line with a variety of
different Islamic schools of thought.
There are essentially four ideological positions in the Muslim world today:
fundamentalist, traditionalist, modernist, and secularist. Each group contains
subgroups that blur the distinctions among the primary groups. Islamic
Modernists are most conducive to Western culture; wanting the Muslim world
to become a part of global modernity. They actively seek far-reaching changes
to the current orthodox understanding and practice of Islam. Their aim is to
jettison the burdensome ballast of local and regional tradition that, over the
centuries, has intertwined itself with Islam. Their belief is that Islam should be
modernized to encompass the democratic and cultural norms of the
surrounding environment. Doing so is hypothesized to strengthen Islam by
increasing its spread; allowing people to embrace the religion rather than to fear
it. For modernists, embracing technology to promote Islam is natural order.
Modernists are generally in a weaker position than fundamentalists and
traditionalists, lacking powerful backing, financial resources and an effective
infrastructure. The internet has provided modernists with a public platform to
promote Islam at a low cost and to a wide audience, although the singular
online medium is not considered to be an adequate substitution for the multiple
platforms that financially backed institutions can access.
Misrepresentation of Islam
The media has the unique and often grueling responsibility of reporting fair
and unbiased news stories. However, the global media are now blamed for
overlooking ethical issues, especially when it comes to the question of Islam. It
is now clear to world citizens that the Western media has launched a concerted
campaign against Islam in the name of a campaign against terror. To Western
media experts like Denis McQuail, the more channels carrying the same
campaign message, the greater the probability of acceptance by the audience
(MqQuail, 1994).
Since the end of the Cold War, much media attention has focused on Islam
as a disruption in the global order. Although Islam is the fastest growing
religion in the West, the West has many stereotypes and misconceptions about
Islam that are due to the media‘s often prejudiced and ignorant coverage. Islam
is often looked upon as an "extremist" religion, questioning the religion‘s
fundamental principles as intolerant and sympathetic to terrorism. A major
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factor which contributes to Islamic stereotyping in the West is the media‘s
selection of words describing Muslims, words that are often misleading and
anti-Islamic.
In contrast to what many Westerners think of Islam, Islam is a peaceful
religion, which does not promote any forms of uncalled violence or terrorism.
The association of Islam and violence is a common misconception that the
general public in the West have developed due to the media coverage of Islam.
An example of this kind of misconception is that the Western media and some
historians often say that Islam was a religion spread by the sword. The spread
of Islam was not through coercion but through acceptance of the religion. In
contrast, the spread of Christianity was posited as a choice between conversion,
exile and death.
Existing research: Muslims and media
Strategic Dialogue carried out research in 2009, which involved over 100
interviews with Muslims and non-Muslims in the UK, France and Germany.
The study found that:
 There is a rapidly growing wealth of minority media sources available for
Muslims
 Muslims are supplementing, rather than replacing, their use of mainstream
media with minority media
 There is a distinct lack of trust of the mainstream media‘s objectivity and
fairness with regards to Muslim coverage, which has proved to be a key
reason for the consumption of minority and foreign media.
 Almost half of all interviewees believed that minority media did not achieve
balanced reporting in issues relating to diversity and inter-group relations
 Twice as many people felt that the desire to get unbiased and accurate
information about their countries of origin was a more important driver
than religion
 A large portion of interviewees thought that having more Muslims working
within the media industry may improve the perception of Muslims across
society
There was a widely held view (92 per cent of interviewees, both Muslim and
non-Muslim) that negative media coverage is detrimental to community
relations as it affects the perception of Muslims by the public. Between the
period of 2000 and 2008, the Cardiff School of Journalism, Media and Cultural
Studies conducted an investigation into the portrayal of British Muslims within
the mass media. In total, the study identified 974 newspaper articles. 96 percent
of published print stories portrayed Muslims within the United Kingdom as
dangerous or as the cause of clashing civilizations. More specifically, 36 percent
of this total was related to articles on terrorism, 22 percent were pieces
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illustrating the religious and cultural differences between Islamic and Western
culture, and 11 percent were about Islamic extremism. Only 5 percent of stories
were based on problems of British Muslims. Televised media followed the same
trend, with 89 percent of programs about Muslims or Islam being involved in
negative discourse.
Year
Frequency of Stories
2000
352
2001
2185
2002
1673
2003
1917
2004
2399
2005
3812
2006
4196
2007
3213
2008
3466
Table 1: Frequency of Islam in print media
The table above clearly demonstrates the increase of news coverage within
Britain about British Muslims during 2000 to 2008. The increased coverage can
be correlated to the terrorist attacks in 2001 and 2005; however, it has also
developed a momentum of its own, lasting well beyond highly newsworthy
events.
Muslims and identity
The media have publicly dissected multiple tenets of Islam and Muslim daily
life; often only providing partially informed or wholly inaccurate information
rather than inclusive and knowledgeable pieces. Most recently, the media have
published articles about the downfalls of Muslim marriage, Women‘s rights,
Muslims in state housing, Shari‘ah law, and Islamic schools.
The UK has approximately 166 Muslim faith schools (2009). In 2008, seven
state-maintained Islamic schools catered for 2,100 Muslim children. The
remaining private fee-paying Muslim faith schools cater for approximately
15,000 students. A large number of both the state maintained and private
Islamic schools follow the British curriculum, undergoing the same annual
template of topics and core themes. It is often argued by parents that they feel
Islamic schools provide a safer environment for their children in that they will
not be victimized for their faith and can practice without fear of affront.
Placing negative connotations on Islam results in the victimization of young
Muslims during a period of time when they are beginning to forge their
identities as both British and Muslim. It is arguable that it is not Islamic schools
that create social segregation, but the misinformation and consequent
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maltreatment by one part of a person‘s identity that hinders integration. The
inhospitable environment created by society for Muslims has resulted in the
increase of Muslim presence in the online environment and has increased the
demand for Islamic media; addressing issues specific to the Muslim population
and reporting on international news in an unbiased manner.
Case study: Islam Channel
Islam Channel was launched due to the growing demand for Muslim media
that represented a rapidly growing minority. The constant flow of Islamophobic
misconceptions influenced the creation of divisions between the Muslim
populace and the wider community. Islam Channel was created to re-address
the balance and provide an information source for a whole multicultural people
without anti-Islamic rhetoric and propaganda. The company‘s ethos is that
community cohesion will come to fruition only if mutual understanding is
fostered; giving a voice to the voiceless. Founded in 2004, Islam Channel is a
UK based free to air satellite television channel funded through advertising and
donations. Broadcast in English, Islam Channel aims for its programming to
appeal to both Muslims and non-Muslims, ultimately conveying Islam in its true
form to curious non-Muslims and as a source of further education for Muslims.
The programming objectives of the Channel are to promote critical thinking,
entertainment and education. The channel is watched by 59 percent of Britain‘s
1.6 million Muslims and transmits programs related to Islamic education and
values, current affairs, history and children. Since conception in 2004, the
Channel‘s global reach has increased exponentially; broadcasting to 132
countries.
Year
Reach
Achievements
2004
Broadcast over Europe and
North Africa
First Live broadcast during
Ramadhan
2005
Launch of Web Streaming
First Global Peace and Unity
Event
2006
Coverage spread to Asia and
Africa/ Live coverage of Hajj
Live coverage from Hajj
2008
Launched on DSTV in West
Africa
IC Kids launched
2009
Launched on DSTV in all of
Africa
Viewers
Gaza
raise
£3million
for
The Da’wah Card launched
2010
Launched
in
Turkey,
Kosovo and UK Freesat
£5.5million raised for Pakistan
Flood
disaster
during
Ramadhan
Table 2: Islam Channel progress
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Neutral journalism
To remove media endorsed negative connotations of the Muslim populace,
and to harness and promote inter-religious harmony, weaknesses of the media
system must first be overcome. The first weakness is related to the lack of
reporter neutrality and knowledge about the history and social/cultural
discourse of conflict (Khalid, 2005:143).
Understanding such tenets is core to peace journalism. Peace journalism was
a term originally coined by Professor John Galtung in the 1970‘s. Peace
journalism seeks to minimize the exposure of negative facts that demonize a
conflict; minimizing the rift between opposed parties and fostering an
environment for conflict resolution. It is a broader, fairer and more accurate
method of framing stories; providing a new road-map that traces the
connections between journalists, their sources, and the stories they cover, and
the consequences of their reporting (McGoldrick and Lynch, 2001:6).
Regular conflict journalism frames events in the context of good versus evil.
Such framing escalates violence as only two possible outcomes are portrayed;
with the choice only being to either win or lose. If the situation was framed
from the perspective of a peace journalist, the context would be richer,
dissecting the causes of conflict and potential solutions. The positive and
negative of both conflicting parties would be analyzed, rather than making the
decision that one group is good while the other is bad. Peace journalism
methodology provides information from a neutral vantage point. Such
journalism has been increasing within media in the past decade, which is
potentially one reason for the increased knowledge about Islam in the public
sphere.
Proselytizing effect of media
The history of Muslim-Christian relations is to some extent that of two
civilizations championing a universalistic message and competing for world
domination. In the early phases of this struggle Islam was more tolerant than
the competing religion. In Muslim lands conquered by Christians, Christianity
was imposed by force, and Muslims were sooner or later forced to choose
between conversion, exile, and death. In Christian lands conquered by Muslims,
Christians were tolerated alongside Jews as "People of the Book." One reason
for this difference in attitude was that Muslims considered Christ a precursor
while Christians considered Muhammad (peace be upon him) an impostor. The
proliferation of negative media has not had the wholly expected effect of
demonizing Islam, but has resulted in proselytizing. In the UK, since the
September 2001 attacks on the USA, an estimated 5000 people have converted
to Islam per year. The terror of 9/11 and the global broadcast of the news
resulted in an increased number of people questioning the motives behind the
attacks and researching the true meaning of Islam. As new technological
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platforms and content delivery systems are created and spread across the globe,
it is expected that this figure could rise even further.
Muslim scholars traditionally reacted to new technologies—especially those
developed in the West—with skepticism, fearing that such new innovations
could bring more harm than good to Muslims. Printing machines entered the
Ottoman Empire three centuries after they were first introduced in Europe.
Scholars regarded them as bid'ah, an unlawful innovation, and it took the
Napoleonic conquest of Egypt in 1798 to allow acknowledgment of their merit.
While liberalizing forms of interpretation have allowed more flexible
approaches, some Muslim scholars legitimized the use of the Internet—and
launched their personal websites. Clerics understand that the Internet is a
crucial arena in the fight for the souls and minds of the younger generation, and
also that the Internet can be better controlled and screened compared to other
media technologies. Using the Internet for Islamic purposes was not only
permitted by scholars, but even encouraged.
Sheikh Idris, a Sudanese professor of theology, wrote in 1999 that new
technologies allow Muslims to spread Da'wah more easily and are, indeed, proof
that Islam is the true religion (for only God could have known fourteen
centuries ago that the day would come when the world would turn into one
global village). However, these new technologies also allow non-Muslims to do
the same with their ideas; indeed, at this point in time, the West enjoys better
capabilities in making use of these technologies and might weaken Muslims'
beliefs through them. But these risks, argued Idris, do not deny the merits of
the Internet; they only emphasize the need for Muslims to further utilize these
technologies in service of Islam.
Islam and the Internet
The availability of an ‗internet masjid‘ is particularly crucial for Muslim
groups who do not feel comfortable with going into the confines of a corporeal
masjid and asking the sheikh for advice; be it for reasons of self-consciousness,
shame or gender. Such a trend is particularly noticeable with Muslim converts
and second or third generation Muslims who seek an inclusive identity of being
both Western and Muslim.
Within some more traditional masjids, social norms are governed by a
stricter rule, which does not always blend with the more modern view of Islam.
The Internet breaks this barrier between Muslim minorities by allowing people
to ask questions anonymously and to learn about Islam in a comfortable
atmosphere. New online trust-based communities between like minded
Muslims are created, altering the reference point of many Muslims and
changing the authoritative discourse of a conversation. Such social constructs
allows authority to be earned, rather than forced. Online communities promote
the importance of belonging to an Ummah, which is a core tenet of Islam,
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allowing Muslims to transition from cyberspace acquaintances to tight knit
groups in reality.
In the modern age, the platform of communication is very important, as is
the language that is used. The use of retroactive Islamic scholarly examples
combined with archaic language does not translate to the newer and younger
generation of Muslims, both within the Western and Islamic worlds. For this
reason, modern day sheikhs have recognized the necessity of adjusting their
Islamic discourses to be inclusive of modern culture and relate to the younger
members of their Ummah. Some sheikhs have made this transformation –
starting by building relationships on the Internet and transitioning into trustbased community interaction.
Case Study: Sheikh Suhaib Webb
Muslim convert Suhaib Webb began to blog about his experiences of being
a Western Muslim whilst he studied at the preeminent Islamic institution of
learning Al-Azhar University in Cairo. His aim has been to bridge the gap
between classical and contemporary Islamic thought, addressing issues of
social, cultural and political relevance to Muslims; topics that some
contemporary Muslims may feel uncomfortable approaching a traditional
masjid sheikh about.
First, second and third generation Muslims who have shed their parents
more restrictive cultural traditions are becoming an increasingly prominent
demographic within Western societies. As a result, Imams such as Sheikh
Suhaib Webb are slowing tailoring their approach to empathize with and guide
the youth. Traditional sermons about the Qur‘an and Sunnah are slowly being
replaced with talks that advise the listeners on how to interact with the opposite
sex, behave in an environmentally conscious manner, or play an active role in
local politics; all within an Islamic manner.
By taking cultural nuances into account and informing rather than
stigmatizing, the Internet sheikhs are becoming increasingly popular. Sheikh
Webb illustrated the possibilities that an online Blog can have, beginning with
an online presence and creating a large congregation. On Facebook alone Imam
Suhaib Webb has approximately 22,000 followers. His online sermons have are
equally popular. Sheikh Webb was named one of the 500 Most Influential
Muslims in the World by the Royal Islamic Strategic Studies Center in 2010 and
his website, www.SuhaibWebb.com, was voted the best ―Blog of the Year‖ by
the 2009 Brass Crescent awards.
Traditional media versus new media
Although still popular, some forms of traditional media have been on the
decline. Much of industrialized print media have transitioned online,
traditionally charging readers for access to content. The industrialization of
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processes affects reach, accessibility, usability, immediacy, and permanence.
Media advances have affected all of these.
Reach
Traditional media is governed by a centralized and hierarchical framework,
whereas new media is distinguished through having multiple points of
production, with content being provided from across the globe.
Research by Socialnomics found that in 2010-2011 the approximate time it
takes 50 million people to gain access to media content is:
Media Platform
Years
Radio
38
Television
13
Internet
4
Ipod
3
Facebook
200 million in 1 year
Table 3: Media Reach
In addition to greater reach, Facebook has greater usage. Social media has
risen to the number one use of the Internet, with Facebook members using the
social networking site for approximately 55 minutes per day. The average
Facebook user has 130 friends and is connected to 80 different online groups.
Such a wide network of people increases the effects of peer influence,
particularly when 90 percent of people trust peer recommendations more than
they do corporate endorsed advertisements; making positive discourses on
Islam of particular importance.
The online availability of translation software completely removes language
barriers to all content across the globe. Wikipedia, the online encyclopedia that
is created through user generated content (UGC) does well to foster this
multiculturalism of the web-sphere, supporting a total 3 million articles in a
total of 260 languages. For many, Wikipedia is a main point of contact when
searching for information. Providing information on Islam and Islamic history
on a global scale and in a multitude of languages would increase global
knowledge about Islam, resolving misinformation and promoting the religion.
Accessibility
Unlike traditional media outlets, social media is both created and consumed
by the public with no cost. For many, this point makes social media more
attractive, increasing consumption. Although the Internet has wide accessibility
in comparison to other media platforms, it is not globally reachable; mostly due
260
to politics and economic inequality. Less than a third of the world‘s population
has access to the Internet (Internet World Stats, 2011).
Internet World Stats for 2011 illustrated that although Asia accounts for 44
percent of total Internet usage, the platform has only penetrated 23.8 percent of
the continent‘s population. The percentage for Africa is even lower at 11.4
percent of the population (Internet World Stats, 2011).
The Arab Spring saw 2 billion people access the Internet in aid of the
revolution – sharing experiences and organizing protests. Whilst social media
has been given much credit for escalation of the revolution that has ultimately
resulted in political freedom, many other countries have not had such success.
In Sub-Saharan Africa, only 1 percent of the population has access to the
Internet. This is largely due to repressive political regimes governing the
communication of their populace; imbuing them with ‗mind-forged manacles‘.
Other reasons for lack of access include a lack of infrastructure, prohibitively
high cost service, and illiteracy.
The time lag between LEDC‘s receiving what MEDC‘s consider to be a vital
service will consequently deprive them of further advances in technology and
information platforms. For example; smart phones and portable Internet media
is becoming a norm within Western society – so much so that it is expected to
be the primary Internet connection platform by 2020- yet has little hope of
penetrating Sub-Saharan Africa if their infrastructure is not improved.
Such a move is more likely to happen since the United Nations has declared
the Internet access as a human right. According to Frank La Rue – special
rapporteur to the UN – “Internet is one of the most powerful instruments of the 21st
century for increasing transparency in the conduct of the powerful, access to information, and
for facilitating active citizen participation in building democratic societies‖ (La Rue, 2011).
Access to the Internet and information could provide less economically
developed populations with innovative ideas to form new businesses, increase
their education, and ultimately reduce their own poverty. Whilst this is a logical
solution, the acquisition of Internet infrastructure and service is highly reliant
upon the ability to purchase and implement, which is high in cost – particularly
for third world countries.
Corporations have made strides in assisting access. Microsoft has developed
the Flexgo computer, which is based upon pay as you go ownership. After a
small down-payment, the rest of the computer is paid using pre-paid vouchers
from local vendors. These vouchers last for a defined period of time, much like
pay-as-you-go telephone credit. Once the outstanding amount has been paid
using these vouchers, the metering technology is deactivated and the consumer
owns the machine outright.
The 2005 trial in Brazil has shown that with thanks to this model, computer
sales more than doubled – with 31 percent purchasing a laptop that they would
have otherwise been unable to procure. The spread of such technology will
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globally increase the number of people that have access to Islamic media and
information – particularly in regions of the world that have a long historical
relationship with Islam, such as Africa.
Usability
Industrial media production traditionally needs skill and professional training.
Conversely, theory would dictate that anyone who can access social media can
also produce social media. As most of the work is user generated, visitors to a
website are expected to contribute to the website‘s content, be it through
posting messages, voting and commenting, or uploading videos and images.
Such activity increases website traffic and creates a loyal user base.
Immediacy
The time lag between report and response in traditional media can take days,
weeks or even months, whereas response using social media is instantaneous.
Industrial media have adapted to take on characteristics of social media through
interacting with social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter, in addition to
having blogs and response mechanisms attached to articles. Such advances have
begun to reduce the distinction between industrial and social media.
Permanence
Once created, industrial media cannot be altered. Print media cannot be
recalled to amend facts and add content – it is permanent once printed. The
same applies to both television and radio media. With social media, changes to
content can be instantaneously edited and altered. Such a format allows content
to be more responsive to the comments of readers – making actual content
more conducive to what readers wish to consume.
The ability to continually amend and update information using new media gives
Islamic conversations momentum. Violent and discriminatory comments can
be controlled or deleted, ensuring that the information that is provided to the
public is a correct representation of Islam.
Social media
O Mankind! Lo We have made you nations and tribes so that ye may know one another.
(Qur'an, Al Hujraat:Verse 13) Andreas Kaplan and Michael Haenlein (2010:59)
define social media as "a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological
and technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of usergenerated content".
Social media takes on many different forms, advertising to multiple senses,
and promoting accessibility over multiple platforms. According to Kaplan and
Haenlein there are six different types of social media: collaborative projects (e.g.
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Wikipedia), blogs and microblogs (e.g. Twitter), content communities (e.g.
Youtube), social networking sites (e.g. Facebook), virtual game worlds (e.g.
World of Warcraft), and virtual social worlds (e.g. Second Life).
Social media has been a long established concept that Prophet Muhammad
(peace be upon him) advocated; albeit through more traditional mediums. The
building of Masjid Nabawi in 622CE was used a means of social contact
between the Prophet and the town‘s people. The Masjid went on to include a
community centre and school; a means to both educate and interact.
Evolution of social media
The first form of social media that arose through the Internet platform was
MSN. MSN was considered to be a mechanism to communicate internationally
on a cost-effective basis. The main purpose of the mechanism was to share
limited information, with the conversers able to control the conversation and to
determine what information is shared within that conversation. The
perceptions about Islam from across the globe could be shared through instant
conversation. The second generation of social media was in the form of
websites such as MySpace. Through displaying one‘s own information to the
public, the aim was to meet like minded people who possessed shared interests.
Third generation social media and by far the most notable to date has been
Facebook. Facebook is a mechanism of sharing and receiving information and
multimedia content on both a mass and selective basis. The privacy settings
available on Facebook illustrate increased weariness about the dangers that
mass society can have, and resulted in people not wishing to disclose their
information to the public. An additional danger associated with social media is
the potential for spying on acquaintances and strangers alike; which is
prohibited in Islam. The Qur‘an instructs: "And spy not, neither backbite one
another.” [Qur'an, 49:12]
Twitter has been operating simultaneously with Facebook, and does not
have these privacy concerns. Membership is open to the global population and
users can use the platform to pinpoint their activities and locations. Twitter
acted as a revolutionary mechanism as it provided all people with access to the
Internet with the ability to portray their views and opinions. It gave people of
all creeds a platform to express themselves. The consequence of these
mechanisms is that Islam becomes promoted by those who publicly define
themselves as ‗Muslim‘ on their profile, with perception also being affected by
the way in which these individuals conduct themselves; be it through visual
images or written conversations.
Dangers of social media
“A knife can cut an orange or kill a human being” Sayed Ammar Nakshawani
263
The distance the Internet affords, in that users won't see the immediate,
physical reaction of others, means that young people are often less cautious in
what they write online than they would be in real life. They reveal more
information about themselves than they would offline and might be tempted to
write more harmful messages than they would in the real world, emboldened by
a false a sense of anonymity.
It is necessary to acknowledge the specific problems and challenges that
social networking sites pose in relation to virtual violence. Firstly, the Internet
allows this form of violence to take place at all times, with people being
targeted in what is considered to be the sanctuary of their own homes.
Secondly, the speed in which information is shared means that the audience for
virtual violence is much larger and more immediate than it would be offline.
Thirdly, the anonymity that the Internet provides increase unease through lack
of knowledge about whom exactly poses the threat (Public Service, 2011).
A potential danger of new media is the isolation and ghettoization of the
Muslim community. As the percentage of Muslims that feel uncomfortable
within traditional masjids increases, a greater number begin to rely upon virtual
communities. If the majority of religious needs are fulfilled through the Internet
communication rather than through community centers (which has long been
an original purpose of the masjid) it could result in a breakdown of social
constructs.
New media and politics in the Muslim world
Almost all of the 22 countries that are members of the Arab League have
criminal deformation laws that will punish any attempt at criticizing the
government, any of its ruling bodies or Islam. Vague laws encased within press
laws and penal codes allow individuals and organizations to be charged with an
array of offences, such as spreading false information. Within the region,
television and radio have been traditionally state controlled. The ability to
leverage control over broadcasting equipment and licensing regimes allows
strict control of broadcasted content. The monopoly over communication was
loosened in the late nineties by the proliferation of satellite television. Within
the 22 countries of the Arab League, and between the periods of 2000-2008,
the Internet penetration grew 13 fold, whereas the worldwide average was a
simple doubling. The newfound access to information that could not be wholly
controlled was considered to be a threat to state power.
Islamic states are more vulnerable to the effects of international discourses,
in comparison to other states; often because they have higher levels of
international interventionism and assistance. International discourses
consequently become increasingly important to such countries, both on a
personal and on a state level. From the Western perception, it has seemed that
the Jihadists have had somewhat of a monopoly on the use of social media—
not only for political purposes, but also to evade detection of their activities,
264
disseminate their ideas, plan terrorist attacks, and both recruit new members
and make themselves accessible to recruiters. The shift to cyberspace was a
deliberate strategic move.
During the 1970s, 1980s, and even into the 1990s, radical Islamic preachers
made use of cassette tapes to spread their message, often clandestinely due to
their politically subversive messages and the strong presence of police
intelligence throughout society. Such cassette tapes existed in the
"underground" territory of individual reproduction and distribution by word of
mouth, rather than being made publicly available.
During the 1990s and more clearly after 2000, more popular preachers
transitioned to satellite television broadcasts and websites to spread their
message, given that these new territories were no longer as strictly controlled by
government entities following the introduction of Al-Jazeera in 1996, and given
the challenges of placing entirely effective filters on the Internet access. Shifting
to such a global format amplified voices that were previously restricted by
geography and limited technological advancement.
Islam and integration
In 2003, Gallup conducted a survey to gage the views of America‘s next
generation of adults on Islam. 72 percent of teens aged (13-17) indicated that
they did not know any Muslims and had little exposure to Islamic ideas or
culture (Gallup, 2003). 33 percent of respondents said that they ‗admired
nothing‘ about the Muslim world, whereas the majority simply ‗didn‘t know‘.
When asked to describe what Western societies could do to improve
relations with the Arab/Muslim world, by far the most frequent reply (47
percent in Iran, 46 percent in Saudi Arabia, 43 percent in Egypt, 41 percent in
Turkey, etc.) was that they should demonstrate more understanding and respect
for Islam, show less prejudice, and not denigrate what Islam stands for. The
media is aiming to do this through increased education and provision of
knowledge; altering the discourse to one of informed opinion.
Future of media
Although technically nearly 50 years old (since the launch of ARPANET),
for all practical purposes, the Internet as a widespread phenomenon is only
about a decade and a half old—and this is in the high-income economies that
were its first adopters. Over the past 15 years these advanced markets went
through a series of critical-mass thresholds leading to the current intensive
phase of broadband Internet. Most citizens in advanced economies connect
daily to learn, work, and play, as do an increasing number in emerging
countries.
Two major factors are noteworthy for their impact on the spread of the
Internet: the availability of personal computers (PCs) and the density of preThe Second International Conference on Islamic Media
265
existing fixed telephone lines and cable. The mobile phone, a wireless
technology, demonstrates the exponential growth possibility of wireless
communication. In 1999, there were twice as many fixed telephone lines as
mobile telephone subscriptions. Ten years later, in 2009, the number of fixed
telephone lines has remained flat at 18 percent of the world population,
whereas mobile phone subscriptions have risen to 67 percent of world
population—an estimated 4.6 billion mobile phone subscriptions.
Improvements in wireless technology in the future that will increase data
transmission speed, lower cost (for both devices and services), and expand
geographic access. In addition to this, policies and regulations that provide
radio spectrum for wireless Internet will facilitate increasing high-speed
Internet use in the converging and belated adopters; theoretically providing the
Internet access and mobile communication to the entire world.
Research findings and analysis
Use of alternative and Islamic media
For the purposes of this study, the terms of frequency have been defined as
follows:
Frequently – Multiple times per week
Occasionally – On a monthly/quarterly basis
Never – Never consumed Islamic media
Percentage
Consumption of Islamic Media
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Muslim
Non Muslim
Frequently
Occasionally
Never
Frequency
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Consumption by Gender
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Male
Female
Frequently
Occasionally
Never
The research findings, as illustrated in the above graphs, demonstrated that
the majority of individuals had consumed Islamic media in their lives. Further
to this, the occasional consumption of Islamic media was Recorded to be
higher in non-Muslims than in Muslims.
Female respondents were more inclined to consume Islamic media on a
frequent basis. According to one 32 year old female respondent, “I consume
Islamic media because of my children. Living in a Western society makes it harder for us to
pass on our culture; there are too many external Western influences. Making my children
watch Islamic television and Arabic cartoons teaches them about their culture. It keeps them
connected to their roots”
Women had a higher frequency of accessing Islamic media because they
had a greater proportion of free time; particularly those of child rearing age.
Many cited the use of alternative media as an opportunity to ensure that
their children were exposed to their culture via a medium that represented
their Western culture, and the content representing their Islamic heritage.
Muslims who had never accessed Islamic media in any form defined
themselves as second or third generation British Muslims; with the influence of
religion not affecting their lives as much as it has older members of their family.
Reason for Consumption
Islamic Content
Current Affairs
Children
Language
Familiarity
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In opposition to the 2009 Strategic Dialogue research, a majority of 41
percent said that they consumed alternative media for Islamic and religious
content. The second most popular answer was to provide children with Islamic
influences, mostly through children‘s programs.
Respondents who were not originally born in London indicated that they
consumed alternative and Islamic media due to loyalty. New media platforms
have provided individuals with the ability to continue consumption of
international television programs and periodicals regardless of location. This
has the simultaneous effect of consuming media in different languages.
Non-Muslims indicated that they had consumed Islamic media for
educational purposes, which was in the form of Islamic content. Current affair
was consumed largely when national and mass media sources failed to report
on certain topics, or they desired to attempted to capture an alternative view of
current affairs.
Media platforms and sources
Media Platform
Internet
56%
Newspaper
14%
Radio
2%
Television
28%
0%
20%
40%
60%
New Media
Wikipedia
76%
Youtube
32%
Twitter
94%
Facebook
83%
Blogs
37%
0%
268
50%
100%
Of those that used accessed Islamic and alternative media, the majority used
the Internet platform. All online media sources were popular, with Twitter
being the most accessed. Respondents claimed that twitter was used because it
gave them access to the daily thoughts and inspirational sayings of sheikhs and
Islamic elders. Further to this, it was used as a medium to advertise and
promote Islamic seminars and events in the community. Using social media as
an instrument to receive data about community gatherings illustrates that
isolationist fears may be largely unfounded.
Facebook was used as a mechanism to keep in contact with acquaintances
and converse with people. 46 percent of respondents said that they had met
Muslims on Facebook that they may have not met otherwise, often due to
geographic distance or differing social circles.
The use of Wikipedia and Youtube were particularly high amongst
respondents aged below 25. “I mostly use Wikipedia when I need information about
Islam or Islamic history…Wikipedia usually provides me with more sources on the Internet
that I go on to research, but Wikipedia is always the starting point.”
“I have watched quite a few good documentaries about Islam on Youtube; it‟s the only way
to have access to them because mainstream media doesn‟t really show that type of stuff”
Television was the second largest source for Islamic media. The easy
availability of Islamic media on television, particularly with regard to Islam
Channel, which is available in the UK on the popular provided ‗Sky‘, has made
it easier for individuals to consume Islamic media.
Respondents noted that they enjoyed consuming Islamic television as it made
the consumption feel more legitimate and official in comparison to using online
sources; and easily melded into their Western lifestyle. Radio was rarely
consumed as a source of Islamic media. The few that noted their use of radio
later clarified that it was the Internet radio; accessible through their computers
or mobile devices, rather than a traditional radio unit.
The integration of new media with traditional forms has made information
technology an increasingly inclusive method of information provision.
Television, radio and newspapers can all be accessed via the Internet,
suggesting that some traditional formats may soon be rendered obsolete. The
Internet access increases the reach of Islamic information and the Internet
Da‘wah exponentially, particularly in first-adopter predominantly Christian
Western counties.
Increased proselytization within the Western countries can be largely
attributed to availability of the Internet access. As the Internet access expands
into less economically developed regions, it is expected that the trend could
continue. In past decades, Christianity was spread throughout Africa through
using missionaries sent to build churches and to educate. The provision of
Internet access could spread Islam throughout the region indirectly and
through a cost-effective approach.
Threats of new media
269
Experience of Virtual Violence
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Yes
No
The incidence of respondents being victim to virtual violence was low at 12
percent, although it is possible to conclude that any incidence of violence is
significant. Three quarters of respondents claimed that they had seen virtual
violence and discrimination online, be it through a comments attached to
Youtube videos, blogs specifically advertising hatred of Islam, or through
derogatory comments made on social community sites. One third of
respondents considered mainstream media that portrayed Islam negatively as a
form of violence. “Through creating and publishing mass media that says one religion or
one group of people is not as good as the other – or by labeling them as dangerously different,
it incites hatred within the consumers of that media form. It basically says that such behavior
is okay, and it‟s not”
82 percent recognized an increase of peace journalism within mainstream
media, although all respondents concurred that there was still a very high
proportion of non-neutral media. New media has the potential to promote
Islam though education and integration. With a large percentage of Western
teens claiming that they have absolutely no contact with Muslims or Islam, the
virtual medium may be their only way to do this. Of key importance is to
ensure that once they have made the effort to educate themselves about Islam,
they are exposed to the correct information. Currently, an Internet search about
Islam will provide the searcher with an inordinately high proportion of negative
articles and sources. With Islamic media being highly proliferated, focus should
be placed upon search engine optimization (SEO).
Conclusion
Information technology has greatly advanced in the past half century. Each
new media technology, from cassette tapes to mobile internet, has been an
important step in the evolution of media; assisting notable revolutions along
the way. With particular reference to current and Middle Eastern affairs, the
mainstream media have illustrated an unequivocally biased ethical standing,
presenting and publishing partial reports to fit in-line with foreign policy, rather
270
than traditional reporting coming from a neutral perspective. Recent years have
seen this form of reporting return under the title of ‗peace journalism‘, albeit on
a much smaller scale and that of which it is far from the norm.
Biased reporting and increasingly negative portrayal of Islam in the media
have resulted in an increase in demand for alternative and Islamic media
sources. These sources have proliferated across a multiple platforms; most
notably through television and via the Internet. Both of these forms have
become increasingly adaptable to a global market, through satellite television
and Internet connections, which makes them the most technologically effective
methods of promoting Islam. As traditional platforms begin to merge with new
media forms, rich information becomes increasingly accessible. New media is
most innovative for its capacity to foster two-way communication. As
newspapers and television media sites begin to offer these functions, the
competition for blogs and other web-spaces increase. Media advancement has
resulted in media democratization, but it has also resulted in increased
competition.
It has been hypothesized that an increased dependence on the Internet and
online social communities could result in either the ghettoization of the Muslim
community, or the isolationism of individuals. Primary research has identified
that online social communities are often used as a method to find events in
their real community; rendering it as a mechanism for fostering real a
community in addition to creating online acquaintances. A more severe threat is
virtual violence. It has been overwhelmingly agreed upon that virtual violence is
a problem within online communities, with particular targeting towards
Muslims and Islam. Individuation provides individuals with the courage to act
in a violent manner though the provision of anonymity. Online anonymity in
the Middle Eastern countries has often been considered a necessity. Rather
than being used as a mechanism for virtual violence, anonymity was used to
address social inequalities and government corruption. The discussion of such
topics would traditionally result in incarceration.
The Arab spring used the mobile medium to propel countries towards
political freedom. Originating with the spread of a picture and a story, the
internet used uncensored blogs and social networks to strategize plans for
rebellion; transmitting them across the nation, resulting in numerous protests in
different locations. These protests organized in a fraction of the time
traditionally taken due to the immediate transmission of social networking sites
and their accessibility on phones. Satellite television was the first platform used
to transmit the revolution across the world inevitably having a knock on effect
in surrounding countries.
Though the infrastructure of social media allows for participation from a
larger grouping it is not completely inclusive of the whole globe. Literacy,
economic capabilities and support of an open media from the political regimes
are fundamental issues in the advancement of Muslim input and involvement in
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media. Investment in projects encouraging participation from Muslims across
the globe and encouraging individual social media projects have had and are
continually having an impact on the presence of an alternative Islamic media to
that which is presented by the mainstream.
Investment in the development to an Islamic social media site could prove
to be revolutionary but also the use of an ensured presence in current social
media sites such as Twitter and Facebook are integral. Social media is accessible
like no other and is updated at such speeds that it is the perfect way to be
acquainted with the needs and wants of the global Muslim community, an
online presence is integral. There are pioneering sites to be used as a platform
from which to unify and steer to Islamic media but there is room for growth.
Muslim participation in that development and growth is significant to its
representation and presence within the media experience and thus may prove to
have the most substantial weighting in the promotion of Islamic media.
272
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274
Successful Islamic TV Channels and Websites:
A Case Study “Iqraa TV”
Muhammed Sallam
Director General of Iqraa Channels, Saudi Arabia
Iqraa TV: The Arabic Channel
Founded in 1998 by the Arab Media Corporation (AMC), Iqraa TV was the
first satellite channel specialized in Islamic content. Operating within the Arab
and Muslim framework, Iqraa addresses all Muslim family members through its
diversified programs.
Iqraa channels represent a moderate view of Islam, away from extremism,
featuring moderate Sheikhs and Scholars of diverse Muslim sects and schools
of thought. Content covers a variety of themes from religious rituals to life
issues, as well as entertainment, health, competitions, and programs for women
and youths.
Sources of Finance:
 Islamic Endowments (Waqfs)
 Advertising and Promotion
Iqra TV (Arabic) Satellite Coverage
Iqraa TV is available in the Arab countries on the following
satellites:
 Arab Sat C-band
 Arab Sat KU-band
 Nile Sat
And in Africa on the following satellite:
 Arab Sat 5A
275
Iqraa Channels transmitted beyond Arab and Muslim countries:
1. In Europe via Hot Bird
276
2. In North America via Echo Star
Iqraa TV Worldwide Coverage
North America
Echo Star
Europe
Hot Bird 8
HD broadcast for Arab
region & Europe - Yahsat
Arab sat 5C
Arab Sat Bader 4
Nile sat 101
Asia
Asia Sat 5
Programming
Programs Choice and Development strategy
o New ideas to keep pace with the rapidly changing media.
o Featuring trusted presenters and guests from allover the Islamic world.
277
o Programming covers diverse ideologies and targets various age groups and
communities within a moderate Islamic framework.
o Producing human and skill development programs that benefit the Muslim
Nation, such as: ―Leave Your Fingerprint‖, ―The Nation of Generosity‖,
―The Innovators‖, etc.
25% Qur’an and Religious Programs
25% Youths Programs
12.5% Family Programs
8.3% Intellectual Programs
8.3% Fatwas Programs
8.3% News Programs
4% Documentaries
4% Economics Programs
4% Contests Programs
12
Iqraa Programs Around the Year
1. Maintaining long term engagement with trusted Sheikhs, scholars and
Preachers who appear on Iqraa channel.
2. Constantly updating Iqraa‘s screen to keep pace with accelerating media
developments.
3. Developing programs to keep up with the rapid media evolution.
4. Constantly improving artistic and technical elements, including decorations,
logo and content.
Events Coverage
1. The Holy Month of Ramadhan
Throughout the holy month of Ramadan, Iqraa TV is keen on presenting a
variety of programs intended to provide both education and entertaining in
a Ramadan spirit atmosphere, accommodating top notch trusted Sheikhs
and Scholars from around the Muslim world. You can only find them
together on Iqraa TV.
2. Hajj
 Iqraa‘s first live coverage of Hajj rituals was in 1999 from Iqraa‘s studios
in Jeddah.
 In 2002, Iqraa provided a 6-hour live coverage from Mecca.
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 In 2006, the live coverage of Hajj was extended for 10 hours.
 In 2008, the live coverage reached up to 14 hours and 17 hours in 2009.
 In 2010 through 2013, Iqraa covered Hajj rituals from Mecca for 24 live
hours, 48 in 2012.
Hajj Season 1434H / 2013, Iqraa provided a 24-hour / day live coverage of
Hajj rites in Arabic and in 13 Languages on Iqraa International Channels
(simultaneous translation between English, Arabic, and French). In 1435 H
/ 2014 Hajj Season, the live coverage of Hajj will continue around the clock
as well.
Keeping up with Events
Palestine Events:
 News updates from Palestine throughout the channel‘s life.
 Broadcasting the Tarawih prayer from Al-Aqsa Mosque for five consecutive
years.
 Production of at least one program per year in Palestine over the last 13
years.
General Events:
 Coverage of a number of international Islamic conferences.
 Coverage of various important local and international events.
New Media
1. Iqraa Website (www.iqraa.com)
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Iqraa TV Website has been developed as an integrated platform facilitating
communication, interactivity and links to hundreds of websites that share
the channel‘s objectives. The website also provides a Live Streaming of
Iqraa channels content.
2. Social Networkings
Iqraa Facebook, Twitter and YouTube pages were created two years ago,
and the number of visitors increase every day.
www.facebook.com/iqraaTV
www.twitter.com/iqraatv
www.youtube.com/user/iqraa
Iqra International Channels Network
IQRAA TV was the first TV channel to present programs produced or
subtitled in other languages besides Arabic (English and French) to
accommodate for Muslims and non-Muslims outside the Arab world, a service
that also proved valuable for Arab and Muslim emigrants.
This success and positive effect gave a boost to the inauguration of a huge
project planned and announced by Sheikh Saleh Kamel, the same founder of
Iqraa TV.
1. The idea
280
Launching customized Satellite TV services that cover approximate
geographical regions in various languages that the viewer can conveniently
choose between.
2. Content Policy
Iqraa International Channels provide the same moderate, uncompromising
Islamic content that has been presented on Iqraa TV, striking a balance
between ―religion and life‖ in the form of ‖meaningful, enjoyable media‖
which enables Iqraa to maintain its position as a moderate platform where
everyone can express their ideas.
The Need For Iqraa International
IQRAA international is an edutainment modern channel providing Islamic
content and encouraging effective integration of Muslims into their host
communities, featuring top notch Scholars, Sheikhs and Preachers from all over
the world.
Major Languages Spoken by Non-Arab Muslims
281
Iqraa Channel Global Satellite Coverage
Cable
Intelsat-9
HD broadcast for Arab
region & Europe - Yahsat
Asiasat-5
Canal Sat
Iqra International Channels
Giving priority to the needs of Muslims worldwide and the major languages
spoken by non-Arab Muslims, Iqraa International started with launching the
English and French services. Yet, there are still planned services in Urdu,
Malay, Hausa (Swahili), Russian and Chinese.
282
283
Western Media and Its Stance
on Issues of Muslims and Third World
Zafarul Islam Khan
Editor in Chief, Milli Gazette, New Delhi, India
The stances of Western media on the issues of Muslims and the Third
World are in general hostile. Muslims and other people in the Third World have
realized this and tried to address it in several ways such as creation of joint
news agencies or beginning of publications in the West, but these attempts did
not succeed for various reasons.
Are these stances of the Western media due to mere indifference and lack of
care in our sensitivities; or, are there some other historical, professional and
commercial reasons behind this attitude of Western media toward our issues
and problems? This study attempts to answer these questions, which are often
raised in our seminars and media.
What is the media?
The word 'media' that we use these days comes from the word 'information
media'. In the past, media was known by the word 'press' which was
represented by daily newspapers, weekly, monthly and quarterly magazines.
Today information media has been diversified too much, as we will explain it.
Information media is meant by investigation and coverage of an event, activity
or movement including the coverage of political, social and environmental
situations, and its dissemination with the purpose of educating and enlightening
the public or certain sections of society.
Private media has played an increasing political role in the Western societies
since early fifties, while it is working under political authorities in the majority
of other societies which do not allow the media full freedom in their countries
which undermined their credibility and their impact on masses.
With the growing concept of democracy and people's rights as well as rule
of law, information media nearly in all countries, was given special freedom and
legal protection to the extent that it is considered 'fourth estate' of modern state
284
after executive authority, parliament and judiciary, because press protects the
rights of people and safeguards their gains and exposes corruption and other
deviations of the rulers, influential and wealthy people in the society and saves
the general public from their tyranny.
Newspapers lost their link with the reader, due to the increase of their
influence and the growth of their circulation and did not care about the views
of general readers and their criticism. These newspapers quickly turned from a
means of media to a means of entertainment and conditioning of public
opinion for the benefit of rulers and major companies.
Information media was small in the beginning owned by individuals and
small companies, then, media began to be concentrated in a few hands after the
Second World War, when big companies entered the field of media as a means
of earning and pressure on the rulers, and influence on the public opinion.
The steady de-regulation of market in the United States led to concentration
of media in few hands. Therefore, these companies were able to control the
media globally as they had huge resources. They started their presence even in
the countries which do not allow the foreigners to own the media whether
through purchase of local companies' shares or through supply of ready-made
stuff used by these media. They also tried to establish local companies in the
names of individuals who were in fact employees in these companies.
In 1983, nearly 50 commercial companies had most of the world media
agencies and in 2002, these were concentrated in the hands of 9 companies and
in 2007, their ownership was concentrated in 5 companies that controlled most
of the world's media. (1)
With the advent of year 2010, majority of media ownership in America was
concentrated in the hands of four companies, which are: Walt Disney Co. (the
largest media company in the world), News Corp. (most of its shares are owned
by Rupert Murdoch), Time Warner and Viacom. We see in the following map
how these four US companies control the whole media in US even if the names
of different other companies appeared in the map, however, they are eventually
linked to one of these big companies:(2)
285
Concentration of media in few hands led to constant absence of variety in
the news and views. Critics and analysts such as Ralph Nader and Noam
Chomsky see that when companies control the media, they inevitably run and
use the media for the sake of their interests. (3)
They say that major companies which own the channels like ABC, CBS,
NBC, as well as small channels and media firms owned by the global
commercial companies and bank interests intervene and discard the news and
views that do not serve their interests. They also say that programs of these
channels such as Fox News reflect views of their conservative owners like
Rupert Murdoch (who owns most of the shares of News Corp).
Deviation of media from its original goal
Information media deviated from its original goal of information, education
and monitoring of the society‘s interests to entertainment, publicity and
bumper profit-making since the early eighties of twentieth century and
particularly when Rupert Murdoch entered the media world with great
momentum after he was a small name in Australia.
The basic goal of media remained no longer social, political and intellectual,
but purely a commercial to attract the maximum number of advertisements,
and ads managers of these institutions became to have more powers than those
of editors. When Murdoch bought the London-based The Times newspaper in
the early eighties of twentieth century and subjected it to these policies, a large
number of its journalists resigned and founded The Independent newspaper. The
infection of Murdoch's policies spread quickly around the world.
According to one study, radio and television stations in the Third World
allocate only one percent of their transmission hours for education and
development while the remaining times of broadcast are allocated for
entertainment, advertising and coverage of social interests that belong to the
elite and especially the rich while they do not care for the issues of common
people, who constitute the overwhelming majority of their readers and viewers.
The media in the Third World imports lifestyle and patterns of thought,
development and consumption from the West, without any thinking and
consideration. They at times broadcast same programs which were originally
prepared for the Western audience and which do not suite the people in the
East.
Objectivity and neutrality
It is supposed that objectivity and neutrality is a key feature of the Western
media, but this value is sacrificed without hesitation when it is contrary to the
objectives of local government as well as the Western governments in general
and to the interests of big commercial companies in particular. This was very
obvious during the attack on Iraq in 2003, when the entire Western media was
286
well united and worked to support the Western war effort as if it was a part of
the combatant forces to carry out its duty. According to one study on the role
of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) during the Iraq war, only 2
percent of the war coverage was allowed to opponents of the war in order to
present their views and this percentage was even lower than the coverage
allowed by the American channels such as CBC, NBC and ABC for opponents
of the war.
According to another study conducted by the University of Wales in Britain,
9 percent of the indications given by BBC about the Weapons of Mass
Destruction (WMD) before the outbreak of war were to confirm the existence
of these weapons in the hands of Saddam regime, and thus these indications
emphasized that the position of Bush and Blair on attacking Iraq was correct.
The truth is that the British military intelligence (MI6) was running a public
relation campaign as "Operation Mass Appeal". Through this campaign, it was
fabricating the news and providing it to different information media, including
the BBC about the Weapons of Mass Destruction possessed by Saddam
Hussein. The media was spreading this news as if it obtained this news with its
efforts. This fabricated news said that Saddam Hussein had concealed such
weapons in his palaces and secret underground bunkers. Indeed, all of these
were completely fabricated. (4)
Types of media today
Media or mass media today includes Internet, radio and television stations
as well as newspapers, magazines and films etc. The media has grown very fast
after invention of printing press in the 15th century when books and
newspapers were published on a vast scale and in a large number which was not
possible before the invention of press. However, the Muslim world has ignored
this important development and preferred the calligraphers who consumed
most of their time in making copies of the books and other publications.
The history of press in the Muslim world can hardly go before the middle of
19th century. In other words, it started three centuries after the appearance of
press in Europe. The printing press was introduced in the Arab world by
Napoleon during the French attack on Egypt in 1800. The colonial power used
it to disseminate its ideas and culture and not to educate and enlighten the
people. The popular newspapers and magazines did not appear except nearly
half a century after this date. The first national newspaper Waqaae Misriyyah
appeared in Egypt in 1828 by an order of Khedive Muhammad Ali.
The first printed newspaper entitled Relation aller Fürnemmen was issued in
Germany in 1605 and the first newspaper Daily Courant in England in 1702. As
regard the territories of Ottoman Empire which included most of the Arab
territories before the First World War, no newspaper appeared until the late
18th century.
287
The state of affairs in the press became easy with the invention of electric
telegraph in the fourth decade of 19th century in a way that helped newspapers
a lot in getting the news very fast from the distant places. Similarly, appearance
of trains contributed in the growth of press in early 19th century in addition to
the advent of steam rotary printing press that helped in printing a large number
of copies and delivering them in distant places due to the fast delivery of copies
to the places that are far away from the place of printing.
A new member joined the family of press when cinema appeared with the
production of first commercial film in 1894. With the advent of second decade
of the 20th century, radio joined the family of press and began playing the role
of media in a new way that was faster and easier for general public. Then, TV
came in 1936. In the beginning, TV stations used to cover a small geographic
area and began expanding its area slowly until it is now possible for any TV
channel to reach any place in the world through the satellite technology and the
Internet.
The press witnessed an unprecedented leap with appearance of Internet in
the mid 60's of 20th century particularly after its commercial use in the mid90's. After that, electronic technology developed very fast, and soon some new
patterns were introduced to the press such as the Internet news websites, email, writers and media persons' blogs, Yahoogroups, Podcast (which enabled
the users to get the news, music, speeches and videos from the Internet
websites), technology of file transmission to the Internet websites (RSS feed),
YouTube, Tweeter, Facebook, video games, e-books, even mobile phones
which now have many facilities. Due to the Internet, many newspapers have
now e-paper editions which have same traditional shape of the newspapers.
Due to the hegemony of Western media, particularly in the field of media,
the English language is now the language of the most media means and it bears
the values of English-speaking countries such as the United States, Britain and
Australia where majority of those working in the major media institutions
belong to these countries especially at the high levels where policies and
priorities as well as volume of the coverage of any event are decided. Even the
media of other languages are no more recognized or accepted globally unless
they are translated into English.
Transformation of media tools to mass controlling tools
With growing dependence of the Western people on radio, TV and cinema
to get information, the role of these media means grew from information and
education to a tool in the hands of governments and major business firms in
such a way that researchers had to describe the media as main tools to control
the masses.(5)
Two researchers have said about the role of media in this new era:
Information media plays an important role in formation of public opinion
on major issues through the information that the media spreads and
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through the interpretations that it gives about the information. It also plays
an important role in the formulation of new culture through choosing
certain beliefs, values and tries to spread them as they may be described as a
lifestyle and subsequently the media formulates certain life style. This takes
place through certain interpretation of the reality. This interpretation and
explanation contribute to formulating that reality. (6)
Due to these developments, there appeared an ideology saying that when a
country achieves a high level of industrialization, it becomes a property of
those who control the media. (7)
To prove this theory, researcher Eco Umberto says: "Before a period not
too distant, if you wanted to control the political power in any country, you had
to control the army and police in that country and today the tanks are not used
except by fascist general for military coups in very backward countries. If a
country has reached an advanced stage of industrialization, the state of affairs
has changed and its example is that in the next day of Khrushchev‘s fall in
Russia, chief editors of Pravda and Izvestia dailies as well as heads of radio and
television were changed and there was no need at all to recall the army, as the
country is controlled by those who control the media." (8)
Controlling the behavior of media
In all countries across the world, normally there are boards and bodies to
look into the behavior of the media for assessment and punishment if necessary
like Press Complaints Commission in Britain and Press Council of India, but
this did not prevent the incidents of many offences by the media against
citizens and public opinion. The examples of such incidents are the gross
excesses committed by the empire of Robert Murdoch in Britain through
spying against the general public and payment of bribes to the officials for
getting the news, which led to the closure of News of the World in July 2011 after
168 years of continuous publication.
We have seen in India that so-called ‗mainstream media‘ (national media)
used to criminalize the Muslim minority and consider it ‗terrorist‘ and this
media blamed for years and still today it is blaming the members of Muslim
community in India and its organizations which bear the Islamic names, of
involvement in terrorism within a few minutes and hours of any terrorist
explosion. Protests of Indian Muslims are useless so far in correcting this
tendency which receives the support of influential circles in India such as
Indian intelligence services and those who believe in extremist nationalism and
see that it is in the supreme interest of India to put constant pressure on
Muslims and contain them. The new President of the Press Council of India
Markanday Katju, a former Supreme Court judge, has rebuked the media
strongly for such abuses particularly against Muslims of India. (9)
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The media did not respond to this rebuke and criticism positively and
instead of changing its policies, it accused Katju of being not objective and
cross his limits and powers. (10)
One reason of this arrogance is that media in India has now grown up too
much and it owns very huge means of challenging even the governments.
Uses of media for advertising and propaganda
The media can be used for following purposes of advertising and
propaganda:
- Support any thing for commercial and social purposes, including
advertisements, marketing, propaganda, public relations and political
direction
- Entertainment through acting, music and sport, including video films and
computer games
- Advertisements of public service
Use of the press for propaganda started from very beginning but with the
passage of time and the concentration of media in few hands that do not
believe in the original purpose of media, use of the media for propaganda of
individuals, companies and governments turned to an art. Noam Chomsky and
Edward S. Herman prepared a ‗propaganda model‘ that explained the nature of
intolerance and bias in the media.
This model believes that bias comes through a conscious and central
decision and it takes place due to factors which include external pressure and
influence of businessmen, advertisers, and also through saturation of journalists
gradually with prejudices and values held by the owners of firms which own
media institutions and therefore these journalists do their self-monitoring or
they know what is required from them and what is prohibited for them.
One of the factors that contribute to strengthening this approach is the
reluctance of journalists from original research and dependence -instead- on the
ready-made services of news agencies like Reuters and Associated Press (AP)
whose correspondents suffer from prejudices and similar values. The media
also prefers the services of these agencies to reduce their expenses and get the
ready-made materials.
This approach is also supported by the fact that media depends on the press
releases issued by ministries, government institutions, non-governmental
organizations and commercial companies directly or through public relations
agencies established and financed by them. (11)
The truth is that media publishes what comes from politicians and
ministries, officials and commanders of army, police and security services as
well as others who have influence in the society considering that it is a fact and
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it is published without any scrutiny and research. You have only to read The
New York Times on any day and you will see that most of the domestic and
foreign stuff is based on the statements and press releases issued by
governments and major companies. (12)
The most important example of "propaganda model" is the events that
occurred during two years following the attack on US in Sept. 2001. The Center
for Public Integrity conducted an in-depth research that took five years. This
research concluded that US president and its seven senior officials made at least
935 false statements about the danger which they said, Saddam Hussein posed
to the US national security. During the period of these two years, media did not
scrutinize these statements but presented them as a strong and firm basis for
invasion of Iraq in 2003 and for waging a global war on terrorism. (13)
It was simply an attempt to influence the American people's decision and
get their support to attack Iraq and start a global campaign against terrorism, a
campaign that has so far killed hundreds of thousands of people. (14)
As evidence of this, Jessica Yellin, an American journalist and CNN
correspondent at the US Congress has admitted that she came under pressure
from the company officials to provide "positive reports" in the period that led
to the invasion of Iraq. (15)
Judith Miller, a journalist in New York Times, played a big role in promoting
the US administration's lies that paved the way for invasion of Iraq and
destruction of its infrastructure. In India, Parveen Swamy, journalist in The
Hindu, played a similar role in promoting stories of "Islamic terrorism", relying
on information given to him by the Indian intelligence agencies.
One of the means of false propaganda by media is what is described as
"echo chamber" which means that someone writes or states something in
media without any basis and then others come from his tribe or profession and
repeat that statement with a lot of exaggeration and modification to the point
that with the passage of time this lie is accepted as a reality. (16)
Examples of such false propaganda include the claim that Babri Mosque was
built after the demolition of a Hindu temple, and that six million Jews died in
the Nazi ovens, and that the Arab states asked the Palestinians to leave
Palestine during the war of 1948, and that Gamal Abdel-Nasser said that he will
throw the Jews into the Mediterranean Sea, or claim about the weapons of mass
destruction possessed by Saddam Hussein.
All these lies have become "realities" with the passage of time as a result of
constant repetition to the extent that many people believe in these false
statements blindly.
One of the means of propaganda is to control the media to achieve the
desired results. This method is used to formulate new values and events at the
level of individuals and institutions, and for political purposes in accordance
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with what is wanted by those who control the media and have influence in the
government and society at any time. (17)
One of these means is what is now called "Paid News". Today it has
become a global problem and it was introduced by the empire of Murdoch
which has changed the concept of press from a social service to a mere
business since the early eighties of twentieth century. The infection of "Paid
News" has now spread to all parts of the world.
Things have reached to the extent that some newspapers and other kinds of
media have set up trading companies to negotiate with advertisers who wish to
publish their advertisements in the form of news and investigative reports
which appear to be the original work of newspapers and other concerned media
writers and reporters on a payment agreed between the two sides. Among such
companies in India is "Medianet" which is under one of India's leading
newspapers, The Times of India.
The Press Council of India (PCI) had established a committee to study this
dangerous phenomenon but its report was not published until its new president
Justice Katjo took up the charge and the report of this committee was
published after more than a year of its submission to the PCI on 30 July2010
and it can be read on the website of Indian Press Council. (18)
Policy of focus on "enemies"
The Western, and especially the US media, which practically controls the
global media is focusing permanently on anyone or anything that is considered
hostile at any time. Nearly five decades after the World War II, this media was
engaged with attacking the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc in any big and small
things, while ignoring the crimes of America and its allies across the world at
the same time. Harold Pinter, a famous British play-writer in his speech
delivered in 2005 while accepting the Nobel Prize for Literature pointed out:
"Organized barbarism, widespread injustice and brutal suppression of free
thought in Stalinist Russia was well known in the West while the crimes of
American state were barely reported , even superficially, not to mention that
these are documented. You do not know of these (American crimes) as if these
crimes never happened. These crimes had no significance, so there was no
interest in them." (19)
It was no surprise that the Western media ignored this important speech to
the extent that the BBC did not broadcast this historic speech by one of the
most famous British play writers. (20)
Samples of Western media bias
Let us now look at some samples of the Western media bias about the
issues of Muslims and the Third World:
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- On 6 June 1967, the Western newspapers were saying that Egypt had
attacked Israel while the ground reality was just the opposite.
- During Vietnam War, Western press did not use the word "invasion" to
describe the US attack on Vietnam and its neighbors like Cambodia and
Laos. They were using the word "involvement" to describe the US role in
Vietnam and as if this came against the American will or somebody forced
America to do that. After the American withdrawal from Vietnam,
Hollywood came and completed the story by films such as "Deer Hunter"
and "Green Berets" which showed the American as a civilized person who
has to fight against a backward and barbaric people of the East! (21)
- The British journalist of Australian origin, John Pilger, prepared a
documentary film entitled "Year Zero" about the crimes of America in
Cambodia and how US was responsible for the arrival of Pol Pot's bloody
regime in Cambodia. This film was shown in 60 countries across the world
except in US where all television stations refused to telecast it.
- The Western media does not tell us about the role of US and CIA in
training, arming and financing Osama bin Laden and his group. Similarly it
does not tell us about US role in training, funding and arming Taliban and
other extremist organizations such as Jundullah.
- The Western media which made a hue and cry in the world about the
weapons of mass destruction (WMD) in Iraq did not cover at all the victims
of Iraq after US invasion. The Western media did not tell us how many
people were killed and how many persons were displaced and how many
children were orphaned and how many women were widowed and how
many babies were born deformed or dead due to the use of internationally
prohibited weapons used by US and its allies in Iraq and Afghanistan.
- Immediately after US invasion, the BBC correspondent in Washington, Matt
Frei, said as if he was speaking to the whole world: "The desire to bring
good, and transfer the American values to rest of the world, especially to the
Middle East now, are the characteristics especially associated with US
military force!" (22)
- In the Iraq war, America reached the idea of attaching journalists to the
brigades of combating US military in the field and calling them as
"Embedded Journalists" or rather "Tamed Journalists" who do write only
what they receive from their companion soldiers and public relations
officials of the military and send a report only after it was monitored by the
officials of military censorship. This was to avoid the mistake that was
previously committed in Vietnam, where analyses in general concluded that
America did not lose the war in Vietnam on the battlefield but lost it in the
media, because reports by correspondents of newspapers and radio stations
revealed the horrors of US forces such as the My Lai massacre, so the whole
world including the American people stood against the war in Far East.
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Therefore, army experts in America reached the idea of attaching the
journalists to combatant brigades in Iraq and not allow them to publish
anything without censorship or move freely during the war.
Media stand on Islam and Muslims
The stand of Western or American media has not been impartial or neutral
toward Islam and Muslims and it has been suffering from the effects of
Crusade wars and influence of the Church and Middle Ages which the West
itself has been suffering for long. They did not leave any opportunity to
frighten the public from Islamists even if they wanted to enter political life
through the doors of democracy sanctified by the West which claims that it
wants to bring it to us.
We know very well the stand of Western media when Islamists (Islamic
Salvation Front) in Algeria won in 1991 half of the seats in parliament, but was
kept away from the political life due to Western pressures in first place, or in
Turkey, where governments of Islamists were dismissed more than once in
recent decades, or when Islamists in the Middle East countries were prevented
in the past to enter politics even though they were a significant grassroots force
in Tunisia, Egypt, Syria and other countries in the region, or when Hamas won
the Palestinian elections in 2006, but it was not allowed to exercise its
legitimate right to governance, due to the pressures and intimidations from the
West.
These days, Western press plays similar role with respect to Iran and it
intimidates the world of its nuclear bomb, which has no basis of truth, while
same media completely ignores the nuclear capability of Israel which possesses
hundreds of nuclear bombs and a notorious nuclear reactor in Dimona. This
media never questions Israel's right to a constant hue and cry about the
potential nuclear bomb of Iran, while Israel itself has an arsenal of same
weapons. Even, it has threatened Egypt and Syria during the war of 1973 to use
these weapons.
The Western media even did not remind Israel that Iran has already signed
the non-proliferation treaty of nuclear weapons that gives it the right to develop
nuclear technology for peaceful purposes and about 800 cameras of the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) monitor all the nuclear facilities
of Iran day and night, and the IAEA inspectors inter these facilities whenever
they want, without any prior warning.
On the other hand, Israel has not signed that treaty and refuses any visit of
inspectors from the IAEA or even from America to its facilities. When the
nuclear scientist Mordechai Wanunu who was working at the Dimona reactor
revealed its nuclear secrets, he was kidnapped from Britain and now he lives in
Israel as a war criminal and outcast prohibited from leaving Israel.
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In the past, until the collapse of Soviet Union in December 1991, the
Western media used to scare the world from communism, and then suddenly
discovered its first enemy in Islam.
Palestine and Israel
The Western media blindly supports Israel in the face of Arab world,
ignoring the values which it claims to adhere such as principled opposition to
the occupation of others' territories, support of oppressed peoples who
struggle to liberate their territories and appeal for the return of refugees to their
countries. The Western media as a whole stands with Israel in all the situations
against Palestine and its people as well as the Palestinian movements which call
for the right of Palestinians in their land. It always says to its readers and
viewers that Hamas wants to destroy Israel while it does not say to its readers
and viewers that Hamas offered a truce for ten years which was rejected by
Israel. This media even opposed the principle of democracy, when it stood
against Hamas after it entered political process and won the election. It offered
the recognition of Israel within the borders of 1967. (23)
It does not say to its readers and viewers that it is Israel which wants to
eliminate the people of Palestine and it is Israel which violates the truce in
Gaza Strip whenever this suites it according to its internal and external
objectives.
Impact of this attitude on readers and viewers is reflected in a study carried
out by the British University of Glasgow on the press coverage of Palestine in
the Western press which said that a poll conducted in Britain among the
viewers of television channels showed that 90 percent of them believe that
"Illegal settlers" in Palestine/Israel are Palestinians! (24)
The hostile stand of Western media about everything related to Palestine
and Palestinians was obvious when the BBC in early January 2009 refused the
broadcast of a paid humanitarian appeal by the Emergency Disaster Committee
which wanted to broadcast it in order to help the victims of Israeli aggression
on Gaza Strip, so the BBC refused to accept this paid advertisement.
We observe how Western newspapers and channels rush to publish and
broadcast anything that is damaging Islam and Muslims, then again, it does not
publish or broadcast the refutation when it appears that the news was false or
the picture was fabricated. A glaring example of this is the news with a video
widely circulated by the Western media in 2009 about a woman in the Swat
region of Pakistan, who appeared receiving 24 whips for her presence with a
man other than her husband, and this whole episode aimed at damaging the
Taliban of Pakistan.
The message carried by this video for readers and viewers across the world
was to pinpoint the savage behavior of Muslims and show that they still belong
to the middle ages. One year after the circulation of this video, it was
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uncovered that the video was a total fabrication and a Pakistani nongovernmental organization (NGO) in Islamabad, which receives funds from
abroad, orchestrated the shooting of this video by bringing together a woman,
few children and men in exchange for payment of money to appear in this
fabricated video which was widely circulated in the world to distort the image
of Islamists in Pakistan and Afghanistan.
The media in Europe from time to time reports that Muslims want to
implement Islamic Shari'ah in Europe and turn it into a Muslim continent. It
has even found a name for this imaginary continent "Euro-Arabia". The truth is
that Muslims of Europe never demanded such a thing or even dreamed of
something like this. If we presume somebody has made a demand like this,
even then, such persons are very few. On the other hand, this demand does not
make a sense and will not be taken seriously within a democratic system.
The Western media now frightens us every day from the appearance of
Islamists in the Arab world, and even one of the Western analysts went on to
say that the United States of America will enter the Third World War to abort
the Islamists' takeover of Middle East! (25)
One study has found that seven Jewish Americans and extreme rightist
Christian institutions are behind the campaign of hatred against Islam and
Muslims. (26)
We have found through follow-up over the years that most of the voices
which incite the West against Islam and Muslims come mostly from Israel,
especially through a number of Jewish research and media institutions which
have no business except spreading lies and suspicions about the intentions of
Arabs and Muslims.
Danish cartoons
Danish cartoons which first appeared in a Denmark newspaper JyllandsPosten in February 2006 represents the general attitude of Western media. These
cartoons aimed at showing the West's hostility towards Islam and consolidating
the image of Muslim as "a terrorist". This is evident from one of the cartoons
showing a bomb tucked in the turban of Prophet of Islam. Then, European
media and the Internet sites raced to republish these cartoons and considered
them a "cultural challenge" which must be responded to safeguard the Western
values, especially freedom of opinion and expression.
This challenge reached its utmost height despite protests of Muslims across
the world including Muslim communities in the West until it became a glaring
example of the Western media assault on the feelings of Muslims. Romano
Bracalini, Italian journalist wrote in the Italian newspaper L'Opinione on Feb. 6,
2006: "Let the Muslims explode in their anger." He added: "These events have
ignited the Europeans' common desire to ridicule the Muslims." The Danish
government in an official statement at the beginning of cartoons crisis said:
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(27) "The surrounding world does not understand us. We are democratic and
want to protect our freedom of speech.”
One of the newspapers which published these humiliating cartoons at that
time was the French magazine Charlie Hebdo which dared again last November
2011 and ridiculed the Prophet of Islam, claiming that Prophet of Islam (God
forbid) is the editor of this issue of the magazine. The magazine published a
deriding cartoon on the cover of that issue.
In order to understand the reason behind Danish media's persistent insult of
Islam and Muslims, we must know that Danish prime minister said more than
once that Muslims are "Scum of the people".
Danish Queen Margrethe II said on 15 April 2005: (28) "We have to show
our opposition to Islam and we have to, at time, run the risk of having
unflattering labels placed on us, because we are something for which we should
display no tolerance."
This anti-Muslim atmosphere is obvious especially when heads of
governments in Britain, France, Germany and Italy stated in close intervals of
the year 2011 that the policy of multiculturalism has failed in the Western
Europe and from now on, a policy of zero-tolerance should be adopted
towards foreign values in particular with Muslims in the European societies.
Freedom of opinion: An absolute value in the West?
We can understand pride of the Westerners in absolute value of "freedom
of opinion" when we know that same Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten had
previously refused to publish cartoons ridiculing the personality of Prophet
Jesus Christ (peace be upon him) while the Danish painter Christoffer Zieler
offered to publish several insulting cartoons in April 2003. (29)
It is well known that there is a law to punish blasphemy in Britain, but it
protects the Christian religion only and there is no punishment for those who
insult the symbols of other religions. On this basis, a British court rejected a
lawsuit against Salman Rushdie's book "The Satanic Verses" in 1990.
There are many examples in the recent past which confirm that the freedom
of opinion and expression is not an absolute value in the Western societies. It is
well known that the West defends attacks on Islam and Prophet Muhammad
(peace be upon him) on the grounds that "Freedom of expression" is a basic
value of the Western civilization which cannot be compromised in any way and
therefore those who commit strong offences against Islam and Muslims
through cartoons, writings and publications are not exposed to any
accountability, while we see that they do not adhere to this argument when it
comes to matters affecting the West and its policies, such as denial or just
doubt about Nazi crimes against Jews as it results in the imprisonment or
penalty in most of the Western countries. One of its examples as follows:
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-
A court in Paris ruled on Feb. 27, 1998 and fined an amount equivalent to
U.S. $ 40,000 against the known thinker, Roger Garaudy as his book "The
Founding Myths of Israeli Politics" published in 1996 rejected the Jewish
myths that support the creation of Israel at the expense of Palestinians and
his questioning of alleged persecution of Jews and the burning of 6 million
Jews in the Nazi ovens, which were adopted to justify the creation of a
homeland for Jews in Palestine in the name of "Israel". The European
Court of Human Rights turned down the appeal of Garaudy against the
ruling.
Michael Hoffman, a U.S. writer in an article entitled "Auschwitz is sacred,
but not Muhammad": "No one is talking about freedom of opinion when
the publisher Enst Zundel and chemical scientist Germar Rudolf are put in
prison in Germany or when David Irving is imprisoned in Austria for just
their questioning about the truth of Nazi Holocaust. But Muslims are
portrayed as if they are intolerant towards the Western freedom when they
want to preserve the sanctity of Muhammad." (30)
An example of the West's indifference toward this value is when Helen
Thomas, Dean of journalists at the White House and correspondent of the
Hearst group newspapers (a media empire in the United States of America) said
on 27 May 2010 while speaking to a rabbi: "The Jews must leave Palestine and
go back to their home countries such as Poland, which they came from." She
was expelled immediately from the service, although she served as a
correspondent at the White House for 57 years.
-
Similarly, CNN expelled its senior editor for Middle East Affairs, Octavia
Nasr who worked there for 20 years, just because she wrote in July 2010 on her
"Twitter" site that she was sad to know about the death of Lebanese Shiite
scholar Mohammed Hussein Fadlallah about whom she said: "She had great
respect for him."
One example of this double-standard policy is when singer Sinead
O'Connor during a live program on NBC tore apart the picture of Pope so the
U.S. Federal Communication Commission fined the NBC channel an amount
$2.5 million. (31)
Defamation of opponents
American press describes the opponents of U.S. administration in Middle
East as "fascists" and those Americans who support these opponents as
"appeasers". Both the terms aim at undesirable notions in the West and the
world. The term "fascists" is a reference to Mussolini's fascism and Hitler's
Nazism while the term "appeasers" is a reference to the surrender of the British
Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain to Hitler before the World War II in order
to prevent Hitler's invasion of Poland. This surrender at the end did not
prevent Hitler's invasion of Poland or the outbreak of World War II. Such an
atmosphere of terror to silence the opponents of the West was due to the role
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of right-wing press, such as Fox News (owned by Rupert Murdoch), Washington
Times, (owned by the Unification Church headed by Rev. Sun Myung Moon)
and The New York Sun newspaper (run by Neocons).
They used these adjectives in an attempt to influence the readers and
viewers that these opponents are like old Nazis and fascists against whom
America fought the World War II and must now fight them to preserve
freedom and democracy in the world. Many publications such as National Review
and American Spectator are racing to use these attributes to the opponents of US
policy in Middle East, including Iran's President Ahmadinejad. The media has
invented the terms of "Islamic fascism" and "Islamo-fascist" both frequently
used by Fox News and CNN to describe the opponents of America from
among the Muslims abroad. (32)
So-called voices representing Islam and the Western press
There are voices of discord which have nothing to do with Islam except
some names which figure prominently in Western media such as Wafa Sultan, a
Syrian woman living in the United States. She claims to represent the rational
Islam, while she rejects all that is represented by Islam. (33)
Asra Nomani is another woman who lives in the United States. Tariq Fatih
and Irshad Manji are other similar names from Canada. Ian Hersey is from the
Netherlands and Taslima Nasreen, the Bangladeshi woman, is a refugee in
India. Javed Anand and and Javed Akhtar are from India. There are many
others like them.
The Western press used the term 'liberal Muslims' for them and they occupy
around 99 percent of the space allotted by the Western media to Islamic voices.
Others are either "Wahhabis", "extremists", or "terrorists", and therefore they
do not deserve to have a voice.
If Western media does not like the statement of Muslim scholars, it
describes it as "fatwa", and if it likes it, it describes it as modernity, liberalism
and progressive statement. The West tries to support them politically and
financially in their countries and offers them a shelter if they had to flee their
countries.
We have seen in summer 2011, when national media in India began to take
an unusual interest and support Sheikh Ghulam Muhammad Wastanawi when a
controversy came up about his tenure as Rector of Darul-Uloom Deoband,
thinking that he represents the progressive trend in Islam while in reality, it was
not so because he is a scholar who adheres to his religion just like those who
were opposed to him and his difference with his opponents in Darul-Uloom
Deoband for other reasons that have nothing to do with religion.
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Situation in India
Indian media which is a local reflection of Western media quickly picks up
the news, views, ideas and values which come from the West. It used to repeat
like a parrot everything that came from the police and Indian intelligence,
accusing the Muslim community, especially youth and institutions such as
mosques and religious schools of terrorism.
The tone now eased slightly after the discovery of Hindu terrorist networks
and take-over of a new Minister of Interior who has secular and objective
thinking, and after the establishment of a new agency "National Investigation
Agency" to investigate the cases of terrorism.
In 2009, Indian newspapers suddenly started to publish news stories on their
front pages about "Love Jihad". The summery of these stories is that Muslims
of India, especially in southern part of the country have begun a new Jihad
movement to push the Hindu women to embrace Islam by enticing and
marrying them and thus convert them from their religion to the religion of
Islam.
The fact is that cases of marriage between a Muslim male and Hindu female,
and vice-versa have become known in India but such cases do not occur
because of certain planning or conspiracy, but due to the friendship that takes
place between students of colleges and universities or between colleagues in the
work-places, however such marriages are not encouraged by both Muslims and
Hindus.
Indian newspapers, while they began publishing such cases under the
headings of "Love Jihad" meant that there was a well-planned conspiracy to
push Hindu women into love and then change their religion as a plan aimed at
increasing the numbers of Muslims in India. This was within the framework of
ongoing disinformation campaign for more than two decades, when the
growing Hindu extremism began to accuse the Indian Muslims that they believe
in terrorism and collect weapons and get the training, and that their
neighborhoods are shelters of saboteurs and terrorists coming from Pakistan
and Bangladesh.
After some time, it was clear that all this propaganda about "Love Jihad"
was a plot masterminded by the fanatic Hindu organizations to tarnish the
image of Islam and Muslims and to prevent the Hindu women to embrace the
religion of Islam at their will as they suffer injustice in the Hindu society until
now. No newspaper or television channel has excused for publishing these false
reports.
Also from time to time, some reports appear in Indian press to claim that
money of Arab oil "Petro-dollars" from the Gulf, especially Saudi Arabia is
flowing into India in large quantities to turn Hindus away from their religion
and make them to embrace the religion of Islam. So far there has been no
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material evidence to prove these allegations. But these allegations are repeated
from time to time for years as if these are a really happening.
One of the examples of publishing such news is that Jamaat-e-Islami is in
contact with the Students' Islamic Movement of India (SIMI) banned since
2001 (34) or the frequent news published in certain newspapers such as Pioneer
that Popular Front of India, a new Islamic youth organization, is a secret
terrorist organization linked to the terrorist organizations, while the truth is
otherwise as it is an organization which works openly. If there had been real
evidences against this organization, the government of India had banned it
without any delay, contrary to its patience and delay when it comes to the
Hindu terrorists.
One of these campaigns is the accusation against the Student Islamic
Movement of India (SIMI) of terrorism, military training, cooperation with
Pakistani and Bangladeshi terrorist organizations, and receiving the funds from
abroad to destabilize security in India. The magazine "Tehelka" conducted a
very detailed investigation on this banned movement and charges leveled
against it but it did not find any truth in it. (35)
Two years ago, an official court set up by the central government to look
into charges against the Students' Islamic Movement of India (SIMI) did not
find any proof of the government accusations and removed the ban, but the
government on the next day got a ruling issued by the Supreme Court to
continue the ban.
The ban continues to this day with all kinds of accusations against this
movement almost daily in the Indian media at the behest of government
authorities especially the Indian intelligence. This happens despite a High Court
ruling to lift the ban, due the lack of any evidence in support of the government
charges against the movement which is banned and paralyzed since 2001.
The national press of India plays its role blindly to tarnish the image of this
movement and magnify its role as if it is an organization like "Al Qaeda". Even
Tablighi Jamaat which has nothing to do with politics is accused by Indian
press of terrorism from time to time!
It was noted that such hostile press campaigns have abated in areas where
Muslims have strong presence in the media like Kerala, where Muslims have
good newspapers in the local language such as Madhyamam or like Karnataka
where Warta Bharti is published in the local language.
The reason for this is that these newspapers are capable of refuting these
false claims on very next day, while in other areas, the situation is different for
Muslims, as they have very weak presence in the media. In this situation, other
newspapers avoid even publication of a letter or denial from Muslims.
301
What to do?
We do not think that it is possible to correct the mindset and method of
Western media through courting or issuing the correction of statements or even
placing the advertisements. This is because its policies are related to calculated
plans and historical hatreds dating back to the Crusades and the Middle Ages.
The Western politicians and policy makers think that it is in the interest of the
West to adopt an anti-Islam attitude in the current period at least until there is
another enemy.
Due to the lack of Muslim influence in media institutions as readers or
advertisers, we have seen that Denmark did not bow to the truth until it was hit
economically by the boycott of its products in the Muslim countries. Our
reaction in this way should continue whenever our sanctities are violated.
But durable solution and remedy lie in taking practical steps to secure our
real and effective presence in global media in all its forms, and some of these
steps are given in the following:
-
It is inevitable for us to control the media in our environment, first so that
it does not remain subject to the materials and effects of Western media,
then we have to expand this work in other environments, especially in the
West, where we may start or buy media institutions including news
agencies that provide written materials and visual stuff to the media.
Experience has shown that if we had an effective and remarkable media
presence in any area, other media institutions give us proper consideration
and do not commit any major mistake about us. They think more than
once before committing any mistake about us.
-
The states and government institutions should not own media
organizations otherwise these will become mouthpiece of the concerned
governments and lose their credibility, because the governments naturally
will not allow any of their branches full freedom that indeed brings
credibility in the eyes of readers and viewers. When media institutions
become part of the government in any way, they lose their role as the
people's watchdog. The governments must realize that an effective and
respectable media will not emerge unless there is an atmosphere of
freedom and legal security that protect the media persons and institutions.
-
Our youth must turn toward global media organizations as editors and
reporters working in their different departments and branches.
302
References
Speech delivered at the Chicago Socialism 2007 Conference on 16 June 2007
http://www.johnpilger.com/page.asp?partid=446
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_media
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing_Consent
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media
Lorimer, Rowland & Scannell, Patty, Mass communications: a comparative
introduction, Manchester University Press, 1994, pp. 26f
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media
Eco, Umberto, Per una guerriglia semiologica, 1967 (English tr. Towards a Semiological
Guerrilla Warfare, first given as a lecture at conference Vision '67 in New
York
Katju on media, see http://www.thehindu.com/news/resources/article2555281.ece
―Editors' Guild slams Katju's comments‖, Times of India, Nov 2, 2011http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Editors-Guild-slams-Katjuscomments/articleshow/10575094.cms
McChesney, Robert, Rich Media, Poor Democracy , University of Illinois Press, 1999
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_echo_chamber
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediatization_%28media%29
http://presscouncil.nic.in/CouncilReport.pdf
This stand is known for many years and Hamas leader Khalid Mish'al told this
to former US President Jimmy Carter. Khalid Mish'al also told me this when
I had an interview with him in Damascus in September 2007. See it in Milli
Gazette:http://www.milligazette.com/dailyupdate/2007/200709281_Hamas
_Khalid_Mishal_Favour_Palestinians.htm
303
Michael Carmichael, ―Neocon WWIII Scenario? Frank Gaffney: Rise of Sharia
Rule in the Arab World Will Bring War‖ Global Research, 25 October 2011
http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=27283
These institutions are: Donors Capital Fund, Richard Mellon Scaife
foundations, Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation, Newton D. & Rochelle
F. Becker Foundations and Charitable Trust, Russell Berrie Foundation,
Anchorage Charitable Fund and William Rosenwald Family Fund,
Fairbrook Foundation: MJ Rosenberg, ―Who funds Muslim-baiting in the
US?‖, Aljazira-27 Aug 2011-http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion
/2011/08/201182713537929189.html
Bashy Quraishy, ―Is There Nothing Sacred?‖- http://www.islamonline.net/English/EuropeanMuslims/Community/2006/02/01.SHTML
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/04/15/wque
en15.xml&sSheet=/news/2005/04/15/ixworld.html
The Guardian No. 6 February 2006: It is worth to mention here that the Danish
government retreated and excused to Muslims when the Danish products
were boycotted in the Muslim world especially the Gulf countries. This
proves that absolute value for the West is the material benefit and not the
freedom of opinion and expression.
Michael A. Hoffwann II, ―Auschwitz is sacred, but not Muhammad‖, January
30, 2006 - http://revisionistreview.blogspot.com/2006/01/auschwitz-issacred-but-not-muhammad.html
Remi Kanazi, ―What Would Jesus Do?‖ http://mobile.mediamonitors.net/content/view/full/26345
Jim Lobe, ―'Fascism' Frame Set Up by Right-Wing Press,‖ Inter Press Service, 1
Sept. 2006.
See for example: Teresa Watanabe, "Islam Fatally Flawed, Says Voice From
Corona via Al Jazeera", LA Times , 13 March 2006 http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-sultan13mar13,0,2410999.story
E.g., Hindustan Times, 16 April 2008.
See, Ajit Sahi, SIMI Here, SIMI There, SIMI Everywhere, Tehelka Magazine,
5:32 (Aug 16, 2008) - http://www.tehelka.com/story_main40.asp?Filename
=Ne160808simihere_simithere.asp
Ajit Sahi, The SIMI fictions - Terror Has Two Faces, Tehelka Magazine, 5:32
(Aug 16, 2008)
http://www.tehelka.com/story_main40.asp?filename=Ne160808terrorhas_t
wofaces.asp
304
Global Media Institutions and
Media in Muslim Countries:
Between Cooperation and Alienation
Muhammad Danladi Musa
Professor of Communication,
University of Canterbury, New Zealand
Introduction
The gap in media resources and access between Western countries and the
Islamic world is narrowing. In terms of the media institutions themselves, most
of the global media giants are largely Anglo-American in their origin except
Sony and Bertelsmann that are Japanese and German respectively. Yet it is also
true to say that a media institution from the Islamic world, namely Al-Jazeerah,
has gate-crushed into the circle of global media institutions as genuine
contender.
In the area of media facilities UNESCO figures indicate that radio,
television and the Internet have become widespread in the countries that make
up the Islamic world as they are commonplace in the West.
These significant developments indicate that a trend that started in Western
countries is manifesting itself in the Islamic world i.e., the increasing centrality
of the media in social life as evidenced by both the proliferation of media
outlets and spread of media gadgets like television sets, radio receivers,
newspapers and the Internet etc.
While these developments and others that shaped them have increased the
visibility of the Muslim world in universal consciousness, they raise further
curiosity and therefore additional questions. For instance,have these developments
resulted in better understanding of the Islamic world in popular perceptions
around the world especially in the West? How are audiences in the Islamic
countries receiving Western media and with what implications for perceptions
about the West as a geo-cultural region? If a South-South cooperation was once
305
advocated by an important UNESCO document in the 1980s is a South-North
cooperation in the contemporary era feasible?
The mass media: Who are they?
It used to be very easy and unproblematic to talk about the mass media and
their role in society. That was the time when most of the world only knew of
the conventional media of press, broadcasting, movie and theatre etc.
Developments in communication technology have ushered an era of
information revolution that commentators refer to as the information
superhighway. (See Castels 2000).
Even though such phrases are themselves contentious they are largely
referring to the times in which we live. These are times when information and
communication have become central and main driving force in education,
culture, economy, security etc. Relevant to our discussion therefore, this period
is referring to the rise of Internet and computer technology that used to take
advantage of the sophistication in satellite to store, process and deliver
messages and data in text, sound and picture instantaneously.
As a result of this development it becomes necessary in discussions and
analysis to qualify which media we are referring to when the subject comes up
in discourse. For it is this development that led to the prefix of ‗old‘ and ‗new‘
being added to accompany the word media. Thus old media refer to the
conventional media of press, broadcasting, theatre and film while new media
refer to the digitized receiving devices and platforms such as Internet, mobile
phones, etc. Within new media still, there is also social media such as Twitter,
Facebook etc.
It has become important to highlight this distinction surrounding the
modern media because of their implications for both production and reception
of messages.
The mass media in a changing social landscape:
With the exception of the United States, most countries of the world had a
media culture predicated on public (through government) ownership of
broadcasting and private ownership of the press. In some countries of Africa
and the Middle East government presence was noticed in both broadcasting
and press ownership.
Given these two broad forms of media ownership, it became the case at the
time that mass media were discussed either in their essential role as catalysts for
nation building, social integration and general societal development or from the
perspective of materialist sociology that sees them as institutions in the hands
of vested interests of the state and business that use them in the propagation,
defense and consolidation of a dominant worldview and interest. (see McNair,
2005, Croteau and Hoynes, 2003, Murdock and Golding, 1973, Musa, 1996 etc).
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While the media in the US were from their early days commercial outfits out
to make profit by selling audiences as commodities to the advertiser the media
in most of the Islamic countries were seen as modernizing tools and catalysts
for what was vaguely called national development. They carried with them
some form of a British, Rithean model of commitment to the public whom
they informed, educated and also entertained with a support mechanism that
was government based rather than advertising. Such government involvement
though, also came with direct or indirect intervention or censorship in different
countries. While the protection of national values or the promotion of national
interest were often alluded to as reason behind such intervention it became,
among Western analysts, the major defining feature of the media in the Muslim
and Third world generally. Yet such feature is to become a fundamental point
of difference between Western media that are increasingly private and those in
the Muslim world that are not.
The point of difference in media ownership was to become vexatious in the
defunct NWICO debates of the 1970s-80s that polarized UNESCO, as most
Third World countries who felt aggrieved with global pattern of information
flow saw nothing wrong with government involvement in media ownership. In
the camp of such advocates for a NWICO were Muslim countries. Indeed,
Mustafa Masmoudi, a onetime Tunisian information Minister was a central
voice in advocating for a NWICO.
It was Masmoudi‘s proposal at the 1976 intergovernmental summit in
Nairobi that formally launched what would become an acrimonious debate
bordering on information and communication between what was the West, and
a largely Third World coalition with significant backing from the then Soviet
Union and some Eastern European countries.
It would be correct to say that at the time such debate carried a Cold War
flavor. The end of the Cold War would therefore require a re-evaluation of
tools of analysis. Moreover, the post-Cold War era has seen two major
developments that would affect the media landscape in both the West and the
Muslim world.
First, neo-liberalism and the emergence of capitalism as a global system has
brought a climate of media de-regulation in both firm and content. Secondly,
the development in technology that brought about convergence of
telecommunication, computers and mainstream media is to revolutionize media
ownership, production and reception in both Western and Muslim countries in
an unprecedented scale.
These two developments alone would impact on the media and their role in
society globally.
First though, the dominance of Western media firms as well as media
content that was decried by Third World and Muslim countries in the 1970s to
early 80s exacerbated so that the entire world became a playing field for about
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nine giant media corporations such as AOL/Time Warner, Viacom, News
Corporation, Sony, Bertelsmann, Vivendi and Walt Disney etc. A central
feature of these media conglomerates is that they are all Western in their origin
and home base except Sony that is from Japan. They all owed their emergence
to world prominence to the ‗market-friendly‘ regulatory authorities namely,
World Trade Organization (WTO) and other International Finance Institutions
(IFI) who designed and supervised the implementation of those policies.
Secondly, because these giant media corporations are vertically integrated
they also control the distribution of media content around the world. The
outcome of these developments is that those media are not only the major
sources of symbolic images and perceptions around the world but also have
exported their commercial, profit-driven model and structure which today, has
become the global media francua.
The convergence of telecommunication and computing has given rise to
digitization which, in return has meant today, Internet and mobile phone have
become most central media devices among a great number of the world
population. This development is challenging traditional media forms of radio,
television and the press as institutions as well as journalism as a vocation.
Instantaneous communication through the Internet has seen the rise of
discussion groups, email and social media as sources of information. Secondly,
the blogosphere has ushered the phenomenon of citizen journalism where
media audiences are now media content producers as well. The implications of
this development in both the West and the Muslim countries are huge as
newspaper readership is falling.
Events of Sept. 11, 2001 and beyond where some strategic locations in the
both the West and Muslim countries were violently attacked as well as the Iraq
and Afghanistan wars have also impacted on the world media landscape. In his
speech after the Sept. 11 attack on New York where the alleged perpetrators
were identified by their religion as Muslims, President Bush declared ‗war
against terror‘ where everyone else in the world according to the then President,
‗is either with us or with the enemies‘.
For the world media it was an invitation to the abandonment of
professionalism and embracing patriotism. And for a long time to come this
posture would affect the environment in which the media in the West and the
Muslim world would operate and function.
Global media and Muslim world
The global media today are powerful in two related ways. First, both
monetary spending and time allocated to their consumption would constitute a
significant proportion of spending and time use among average households in
both the West and Muslim countries. Secondly, their processing and
distribution of symbolic goods make them central institutions not only in the
circulation of perceptions but also the circulation of our way of knowing, of
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interpretation. Thus the yellow symbol of ‗M‘ has come to be understood and
associated worldwide with the fast food franchise called McDonalds that was
founded by Ray Kroc in 1955 after he had acquired the hamburger chain
operated by Richard and Maurice McDonald. From Nairobi to Riyadh, Hong
Kong to New York, Porto Alegre to Kingston the yellow symbol of M has
come to be associated with the economic and cultural corporation called
McDonalds because of the global circulation of meaning by the global media.
Such media centrality in global perception and meaning making is increasing
both because of the connectivity that has grown and resulted in global
‗interdependence‘ as well as due to the increasing spread and centrality of media
in people‘s lives.
Today, the Anglo-American global news media dominance is evident
through the presence of one or several of the networks like CNN, BBC, VOA,
Deutsche Welle, Reuters, AP, France 24, Newsweek and Times etc as major
news sources in most countries of the world including Muslim countries. In the
area of entertainment, Kuttab notes that:
We are also drenched with entertainment written and produced by creative
talents from places like Hollywood and Orlando. These shows receive
awards with names like Oscars and Emmys from cities like Los Angeles,
California and Cannes, France. View a television station in Riyadh, Algiers,
or Manila, and you no doubt see programs originally written in American
English, about people living in American cities and dealing with issues of
interest to Americans. Attend any cinema hall in Amman, Beirut, or Jakarta,
and you will see a flick starring blue-eyed, blonde white men or women
crushing bad guys with black hair and brown eyes. (Kuttab, D. 10 th
November 2004)
The late Palestinian born, American professor of cultural theory Edward
Said who proposed the notion of orientalist construction of the Muslim world
by the Western media noted Kuttab‘s observations much earlier. The bad guys
in Hollywood movies according to Said are, unlike Kuttab‘s description of
them as people of ‗black hair and brown eyes‘ - Muslims and Arabs.
Fictional as such entertainment contents are, they have importance in
shaping consciousness about Muslims over a long term. And it is because of
this that McLuhan cautions that anyone who distinguishes between education
and entertainment is merely exhibiting his/her ignorance of both.
Some version of cultural analysis of media representations have questioned
the extent of influence of fictional content on audiences by pointing at multiple
meanings in media texts as well as the capacity of audiences for oppositional
interpretation or decoding of such messages. Yet, others submit that while
oppositional interpretations are indeed possible there is also evidence not only
of preferred interpretation but also one which indicates that active audiences
are not necessarily competent decoders. (See Hall, S 1993, Deacon, et al 1998)
309
Indeed, Western media corporations are not unaware of the voices of
resistance that question the increasing threat to cultural spaces in Third World
countries so that they respond to such voices by evoking MTV‘s motto of
‗thinking globally and acting locally‘.
Western artists, sports persons and other icons are packaged as global
superstars and sometimes shown along national heroes and or products.
Neither audience freedom nor capacity of interpretation can counter the
homogenizing influence of this process. An entire program produced in
Hollywood like reality shows are, instead of being re-shown outside the US are
having their local variants produced to respond to local cultural tastes as well as
remain compliant to local voices of cultural resistance. But even this as Croateu
and Hoynes observe: "In many cases, the accommodation to local cultural
tastes is superficial, merely disguising the export of US or other Western
products.-------One consequence of ―local adoption‖ has been that in some
parts of the world, the resistance to foreign culture has waned. In Latin
America, for example, the old cries if ―cultural imperialism‖ are now heard only
from a few." (2003, 362).
The indication of extent of resentment caused by the Western produced
media content in the Muslim countries can be gleaned from the report of the
New York based Alliance of Civilization in the United Nations (UN) which
says:
Eighty percent of movie theatres in Muslim countries show Hollywood
films according to a recent study by the US Council on Foreign Relations
and yet, in a survey of 900 Americans feature films presenting Arab
Characters the overwhelming majority of them were found to be outright
racist or essentialized caricatures. Positive, normalizing images of ordinary
Arabs or Muslims are almost non-existent in Western mass media, which is
to say the globalized media. (2006, 4)
In their study of portrayal of Muslims in both News Week and Times
Magazine, two internationally famous magazines and very influential in Western
elite circles, Ali and Khalid (2008) in a content analysis conducted between
1991-2001 found that all the 12 Muslim countries in the sample received greater
negative coverage (31.8 percent) compared to positive coverage (12.7 percent)
in the Newsweek. Similarly, in Times Magazine the same 12 Muslim countries
of Egypt, Jordan, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya,
Bangladesh, Pakistan, Malaysia and Indonesia again received more negative
coverage (29.50 percent) compared to positive coverage (12.6 percent).
What emerges in the global (Western media) representations of Muslim
countries in both news and entertainment lends credence to the Alliance of
Civilization report‘s description of ‗adding salt to injury‘. For it is clear that
Muslim countries receive negative coverage in the news as uncivilised,
extremists, terrorists etc a coverage that is complemented by their image in
entertainment media that strips them of dignity and therefore justifies their
portrayal as the bad guys. (See also Shaheen, J.G, 2001)
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Perhaps it is because of this that the European Union (EU) demanded a
revision of the negative representations of the Islamic World by European
media if economic and political ties are to improve. (See Hafez, K. 2000).
Mass media in the Muslim world
Any discussion about how the mass media in Muslim countries depict the
West must start by providing insight into the form of media ownership in that
geo- cultural region as a context within which to understand such
representations and depictions.
While a dual form of media ownership is found across the Muslim world,
i.e., an ownership that is government in some places and private in others, or
both in one place, the dual ownership is giving way to private ownership in
many countries. Still, in few countries government maintains stronghold in
both broadcasting and the press.
The general incorporation of the region into the global political economy is
to affect the media landscape so that audiences have access to a multiplicity of
television channels that range from local, regional, to global at the same time.
While the press requires a level of literacy to access television‘s advantage of
combining sound and image offers more imaginary cultural space for Muslim
audiences. Indeed, television‘s power in combining both image and sound,
coupled with the increasing low cost of a set has seen it overtake radio as a
most preferred medium.
Yet the popularity and increasing spread of television in the Muslim world
confronted by military as well as political and economic forces or factors would
prove to be a huge challenge to the governments.
On the one hand, the ascendancy of neo-liberalism courtesy of WTO and
IFIs induced market policies has led to media de-regulation around the world.
This has meant broadcasting signals from Western countries and elsewhere
could be beamed into Muslim countries without any such obstacle or resistance
as was previously mounted by the NWICO agitation. As well as that, there is
now private ownership of broadcasting in some Muslim countries where
ownership used to be under government monopoly.
On the other hand the Gulf war 1 and 2, September 11 violent attack on
New York and other locations as well as increasing tension over Palestine have
combined to raise audience appetite and desire for international news in most
of the Muslim countries.
Pressures and media ownership in the Muslim world
Liberalization in world economy, trend of democratization around the
world especially in Eastern Europe and other regions that fall in the Third
World bracket as well as conflicts would pose a huge challenge to policy makers
in the Muslim countries regarding media ownership and control.
311
The impact of liberalization on the media environment is de-regulation that
affords audiences in the Muslim countries to bypass their home media and
receive perspectives from international media that can now reach the entire
world. In a number of countries audiences have become distrustful of news
from local media, because of a perceived government censorship that makes
them to turn to BBC, VOA etc.
The Alliance of Civilization report observes that: "It should be noted that
the news model in much of the Muslim world is confronted by political and
social forces. In some places the media is restricted by state-sanctioned
guidelines that result in narrow portrayals and a less diverse array of
perspectives and information. There is both more overt official and selfcensorship within the media than is found in the West." (2006, 7)
Indeed, in its project on ‗ownership diversity in Muslim media systems‘ the
World Information Access (WIA) revealed that nine out of the 12 most
populous Muslim countries scored very low in world press freedom index.
Countries such as Morocco, Algeria, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia, Egypt, Turkey, Iran and Afghanistan were all noted for either direct or
indirect interference with media content. (See WIA 2008)
While in the past governments could defend or rationalize intervention in
the media under the guise of need to defend an imagined national identity,
uphold national security, promote national development etc today‘s audiences
have options. Moreover, such audiences are now learning to define acceptable
media standards and practices by comparing local media with their Western
counterparts that they can access through satellite.
On a wider political sphere citizens in Muslim countries are now also
exposed to alternative models of organizing human society. This could partly
explain the recent popular uprising in Egypt, Tunisia etc. In other countries like
Indonesia, Turkey or Nigeria, political reforms and the consolidation of
democracy were achieved earlier, because those societies are more integrated
into the global political economy than countries of the Middle East. Moreover,
the fact that citizens in Turkey, Indonesia and Nigeria pay taxes to the
government places more obligation on the latter to respond to yearnings from
the populace. Sreberny Mohammadi summarises the situation:
The Middle East is thus a highly complex region, and any attempt to
describe processes of political change and democratization within it had to
be mindful of the real historical and contingent differences and particular
political economies that exist-no essentialist or culturalist models will
suffice------, indeed the differential roles of particular states within the global
order and the varying impacts of markets, migration, and media, have to be
considered. (2000, 66)
A de-regulated global media landscape brought two kinds of pressures on
media in Muslim countries. First, as citizens are exposed to a private, non-
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government controlled media by satellite such a model becomes the ultimate
that is advocated. Secondly, it shows to entrepreneurs in the Muslim countries
that there is money to be made from investment in the media. Thirdly, it puts
additional pressure on local media to disseminate accurate information as
opposed to government handouts as audiences have means of verifying such
information or can afford to ditch it. Moreover, to be noted as a government
mouthpiece is a recipe for losing audiences and their loyalty all together.
A de-regulated global media landscape brings a different kind of pressure as
well. For instance, the role played by some Western media in reporting the Gulf
war, Palestinian crisis and September 11 incidence etc had made a large number
of audiences in Muslim countries to see such media as not neutral or detached
from Western vested interests often understood in conspiratorial sense.
The emergence and success of the Qatar based Al-Jazeera television speaks
to the kind of unresolved tensions within media in Muslim countries.
On one hand, the network is a response to restricted media practice where
the Ministry of Information or government officials exert influence on media.
On the other, it is also a response to the yearnings by audiences for a medium
that would serve as alternative to what is seen as a compromised Western
media.
Among the lessons of the success of Al-Jazeera television therefore, to the
extent that its largest audiences were initially in Muslim countries and among
Muslims and Arabs in the diaspora, is that Muslim audiences cherish free media
but also opposed to the private, re-regulated Western media that are seen as
allies to anti-Muslim forces and disrespectful of Arabs and Muslims.
At the domestic level of individual Muslim countries however, the new
emerging dilemma is that as entrepreneurs invest in media ownership these
private institutions, instead of disseminating quality information free from
influence of the state are now seen to be serving the interest of ratings and
therefore their owners.
While the liberalization of press laws in Turkey in the 90s led to the
proliferation of print media outlets, the quality of news and information
provided by the outlets is arguably worse than it was prior to that process of
liberalization, as papers have raced to attract readers with sensationalist stories
and shock-value reporting---------the race to attract viewers or readers in a
newly liberalized media environment is often a race to the bottom, not a race to
the top. (Alliance for Civilization Report, 2006-7)
Thus a purely commercial media model imported from the West has not
provided the ultimate answer to questions asked by media audiences in the
Muslim world.
313
New media revolution
In addition to the ascendancy of the market system as a global social order
the other most significant development recorded in our lifetime is the acquired
sophistication in communication technology that ushered in the current digital
era.
Here we are referring to the convergence of telecommunication and
computing that has brought an unprecedented capacity for humans to process,
store, receive and disseminate data in a speed never imagined before. (See
Sparks 2000, Golding 2000).
The relevance of this development for our subject is that the mass media of
press, radio and television etc have all taken advantage of the technological
revolution in several ways. One of these is that most of what we have known as
conventional media is to be found and accessed via the Internet. This implies
that not only is the media form changed but also methods of content delivery
and reception have changed.
Two important developments in the digital revolution that have serious and
far-reaching implications for the media in both the West and the Muslim world,
is the rise of citizen journalism as well as that of social media.
Today, digital media production and distribution via the Internet have
suddenly opened new possibilities for audiences around the world. Through
blogs and Internet discussion groups, people who used to be media consumers
have also become producers who can now post opinion or eye witness account
on the net. (See Allan, 2006)
Thus the importance of the Internet as news source, the role of both citizen
journalism as well as social media such as Twitter and Facebook etc has made it
imperative to feature them in any discussion about the media in Muslim
countries as well as in the West.
In doing this though it should be appreciated that even though civilian use
of the Internet only started in the 1990s its spread in some Muslim countries
has been very fast. For instance, records on Internet penetration in Muslim
countries of South East Asia indicate the lowest of 16.1 percent in Indonesia to
the highest in countries like Brunei, Singapore and Malaysia with 79.4 percent,
77.2 percent and 58.8 percent respectively by 2011. All of these point to a huge
penetration indeed. (See Internet World Stats 2011). Both the initial cost of
computers and Internet Service Providers (ISP) access fee made Internet to
have a very slow start in Muslim African countries.
Today however, those costs have come down and the continent is said to
experience a very fast Internet spread. An additional factor is the spread of the
mobile phone, a technology that is now used to access the Internet. While
Internet penetration in the continent is put at 11.4 percent (See Internet World
314
Stats 2011) this percentage would be higher given that mobile phone, the latest
Internet device among Africans has over 70 percent penetration. Among the
top 10 countries with highest Internet penetration six are countries with a
majority Muslim population i.e., Nigeria, Egypt, Morocco, Algeria, Sudan and
Tunisia.
While keyboard and texting competence is higher among youth in Muslim
countries (15-35 years) it will make sense to see this age demographic to rely on
social media as an important source of information. However, any hope for
diversity of information and alternative public sphere provided by the Internet
for now, remains only a hope, as Paterson reveals in his study: "This research
indicates that discourse on international events of consequence within the
global public sphere is substantially determined by the production practices and
institutional priorities of two information services-Reuters and the Associated
Press. The political economy of online news is not one of diversity but one of
concentration, and the democratic potential of the medium remains thatpotential." (2007, 63-64)
While Paterson points at the extent of dominance of Western news
providers on the Internet one wonders how the influence of blogging would
alter or even fracture that dominance so that audiences, including those in
Muslim countries would now shape their own destiny insofar as news
production and dissemination are concerned. Again, Paterson observes that:
―Whether or not the blogging phenomena offers a solution might be a point of
contention, but research on blogging to date indicates that for remote
international stories, bloggers are as dependent on the source described here as
everyone else. (2007, 64)
While one would, at this stage see Paterson‘s findings as tentative they still
indicate one important trend i.e., the dominance of traditional Western news
sources directly or indirectly as the main providers of key international stories
around the world. To this extent, it would appear to be the case that perception
and opinion about Muslims and Islam continues to come from the traditional
sources that were decried in the NWICO agitation of 1970s-80s. If the Internet
as a news source does not bring alternative perspective on Muslim countries,
then, where is the hope for it?
Global media institutions and media in Muslim countries: between
cooperation and alienation
The kind of interdependence claimed by proponents of globalization
including its policy headquarters ( WTO, IMF and the World Bank) is one
where countries and regions of the world need each other and would benefit
each other. On the other hand, the reality of such interdependence as claimed
by non- OECD countries, including the Muslim countries is one of inequality.
For interdependence to be mutual cooperation among countries of the world
who are the key players is required rather than the alienation experienced by a
majority of these countries including the Muslim countries.
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In the media sphere, for instance, a long-standing asymmetry has existed
between Western countries and the Muslim countries in terms of media
institutions, and flow of media content. In the period of Cold war not only did
the media of the Western countries such as the US, Britain and France etc
account for a preponderant percentage of international news published or
broadcast around the world but also that they control the distribution of global
entertainment content without counter flow. (See Schiller 1976, Nordenstreng
and Varis 1974, Varis 1986 etc)
When majority of Muslim countries joined or associated themselves with the
call to end a global information flow dominated by Western media they were
consciously doing that having realized the implication of that domination to the
perception about them in the world. They were also concerned that words and
images disseminated by the Western media emphasized the negative and bizarre
about Muslim countries in a way that was injurious to their self-esteem. But
above all Muslim countries at the time were concerned of the injury to their
sovereignty that such reliance on Western media would lead to, as well as the
vicious culture of dependence that it would create.
If some critiques could pigeon-hole those kinds of concerns as part of Cold
War rhetoric many Muslim countries would reject that claim for two reasons.
First, the core cultural values of Islam are non-aligned in the sense that one
finds in those values elements that are inclined to arrangements that find
resonance with Western values and others that find resonance with values of
communist societies but majority with neither. Second, practically speaking,
they could point to research findings at the time including the McBride report
as well as emerging social scientific theories of the time such as theories of
imperialism as evidence of the dangers that come with media dominance and
dependence. (See UNESCO 1980, Galtung 1972, Musa 2003)
Moreover, the media that disseminated news about the Muslim world were
seen as part of the modern paraphernalia advocated by modernization theory if
Third World societies are to come out of their perceived ‗backwardness‘. Many
Muslim countries had understood that modernization blueprint for which the
media represented an informational arm, was an invitation to abandonment of
indigenous values and their wholesale replacement with Western values. The
dilemma for both Muslim and Western countries is that not all Western values
are coterminous with core Islamic values.
Yet the main idea behind the globalization project is to transform the entire
world into one single market for capital investment and regeneration. This will
not be possible if some region of the world especially a geo-cultural one like the
Muslim countries represent would fail to conform to this singularity. But the
insistence on a single universal neo-liberal market value system as the
globalization project does is a recipe for incorporation where final outcome is
to alienate any resisting culture as the Muslim culture appears to be.
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The global media today are vertically integrated so that they control not only
production of content but also other details to do with content outlet, synergies
etc. Thus in most countries of the world today, from music to movies, from
soap opera to best sellers, from children animation cartoons to comics etc
audiences are consuming content coming from a handful of global media
corporations whose ownership is largely in the West.
In the prevailing situation the media in many Muslim countries, either for
the practical reason to do with cost or for the fact that their audiences have
become accustomed to them, become conveyor belts for content coming from
the global media. In this regard, those Muslim countries that used to resist such
Western entertainment content, because of their homogenizing (or what Mazrui
calls ‗hegemonizing‘) and imperialistic tendencies are losing the capacity for
cultural resistance.
But as stated, the global expansion of Western media and their content is a
search for market but it is also a move to export culture and values that are
necessary condition for the desired market. As we once stated: "The outcome
of this process is the homogenization or universalization of values and social
systems so that Western food, clothes, thought and systems of governance are
distributed around the world as the most desirable of all." (Musa 2003, 29)
No other move is clearer in emphasizing the Western determination to alter
Muslim mindset than the project of the US government under G.W Bush to set
up Al-Hurra television directed at Arab youths.
An Arabic-language satellite television station financed by the US and aimed
at winning hearts and minds in the Muslim world could shortly become a
reality. President George Bush had been told of initiative 911, which put
half a billion dollars into a channel that would compete in the region with
Al-Jazeera ads would be aimed specifically at younger Muslims who are seen
as anti-American.----It would be aimed at around 40 Muslim countries
around the world. (Campbell, D. The Guardian, Nov 23, 2001)
One of the major features of global media being decried by Muslim
countries is the uni-directionality of the cultural flow where there is no
reciprocity. As a result, popular programs or content from Muslim countries
hardly make it to Western popular channels or prime time viewing. Much of the
content from Muslim countries that make it to the West is largely targeting the
Muslim Diaspora populations and / or their community media. Indeed, some
of these productions as in the case of the Nigerian movies are, to a large extent,
mimicry of Western productions in term of themes.
On the other hand, whatever little space or airtime that is remaining unfilled
by Western imports, in the media of Muslim countries, the featured local
content represent the West in stereotypical images as Hafez observes: "In the
news media of the Islamic world it has become widespread to depict Western
societies and culture as dehumanized, commercial, sexist and violent." (Hafez,
2005,5)
317
Whereas proponents of globalization promote the notion of mutual benefit,
interdependence etc media relations between the West and the Muslim world
are characterized by asymmetry. It is a power relationship of unequal actors and
differential benefits where Western media corporations enjoy dominance
through the presence of their firms and content in Muslim countries and
beyond. The same cannot be said of Muslim media and their content in the
West. Indeed, Al-Jazeera television is finding it difficult to broadcast in some
parts of North America because of the Patriot Act.
The current state of disequilibrium in media relations between the West and
Muslim countries can only perpetuate stereotypes, misrepresentations and
therefore create alienation. What this brings in material profit is proportional to
what is lost in genuine global and cultural interdependence and understanding
that are essential to world peace and prosperity.
Roadmap to equity in cultural exchange and institutional cooperation
The media institutions today are cultural industries with enormous power.
They are central in the production of meaning, perspectives and consciousness.
The perspectives we hold on situations, events or social groups etc will
determine how we interact with these events, situations or social groups. The
disappearance of boundaries of space and time that used to separate nations
and cultures of the world has not only created space for interdependence but
also increased the desire for international news among all citizens of the world.
Yet the opportunity to increase understanding through the dissemination of
information that would lead to genuine interdependence will be lost if
conscious steps are not taken to achieve that. Moreover, the proliferation of
media institutions and their global reach, as well as sophistication in
communication technologies brought about by convergence and digitization,
the birth of new media and citizen journalism etc are all developments that
provide the opportunity for creating understanding rather than alienation
between nations and cultures of the world.
Some of the practical steps that need to be taken as roadmap to a genuine
balanced cultural exchange between media institutions in the West and those in
the Muslim countries include:
a. The creation of an enabling media environment within nation states is important.
National elites, intelligentsia and activists and opinion leaders within nation
states must champion a discourse of engagement with cultures and nations
that used to be seen as ‗distant others‘.
b. Creation of ethical responsibility framework. Media ethics should incorporate a set
requirement in the treatment of other nations or cultures in news and
entertainment so that people are not ripped of their dignity.
c. Diversification of sources: Journalists must learn to expand and diversify their
sources to create a genuine balance as well as provide voice to the voiceless.
318
In times of crisis and or war the lesson must be learnt of how truth has
often been the first casualty.
d. Exchange of media content: The South/South cooperation in exchange of media
content that was advocated and implemented by members of the NWICO
coalition in the 1980s should be experimented as a North/South
cooperation model.
e. Professional dialogue of civilization: The creation of an annual or biennial forum
of dialogue among journalists and media practitioners from the West and
their counterparts from Muslim countries will be useful in stock-taking as
well as enrichment of experience. This forum could lead to the formation of
a reservoir or documentation centre on reporting and cultural exchange
between Islam and the West. UNESCO, ISESCO, OIC etc could co-fund
this initiative.
319
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The Role of Media in Building
a Culture of Dialogue:
An Islamic Perspective
Komaruddin Hidayat
Rector, Syarif Hidayatullah
State Islamic University, Jakarta, Indonesia
Introduction
Media is the most important element in a vibrant democracy. Regarded as
Fourth Estate of democracy, media's primary job is to inform, educate and
entertain society. Its various roles include unbiased public informer, watchdog,
ideological platform for voiceless, agenda setter, sometimes follower. It is
because of this strategic position of media in public life that the power of media
should never be underestimated: Good journalism will guide the masses and
policy makers to take correct decisions.
Let us recall about such a dramatic process of democratization in the Middle
East. Most of scholars acknowledged the role of social media in shaping,
mobilizing and directing patterns of political changes. The social process by
which media influenced what happened in Egypt, Tunis, Libya and Syria, one
can learn that global media is an entity of its own; its magnitude and presence
has shaped the course of information dissemination, while playing a crucial role
in the political, economic, social, religious and cultural process of globalization.
Information technology is at the essence and centrality of globalization and
its ability to transform across the boundary interactions and assimilation. In this
regard, it is not an overstatement to make the claim that the global media is
perhaps the most powerful tool to incorporate and promote dialogue
throughout human history.
By using media to disseminate a culture of dialogue we transcend our
strategy for interfaith dialogue into broader socio-political engagement on wide
ranging discourse. To my experience of being a journalist in Panji Masyarakat
322
Islamic magazine long time ago, media creates a better platform – a key player
and a tool to counter exclusive and closed-mind mentality.
Our religion, Islam—contrary to many notions that contemporary Western
scholars believe—has specific injunctions on human interactions, which
encompasses tolerance and acceptance of other faiths and peaceful
cohabitation. The Qur‘an clearly states: ―O Mankind, We have created you male and
female, and have made you races and tribes, that you may know one another…” (Qur'an
49:13)
This appealing message for dialogue between human beings can be
addressed through media, which is the prime medium to inform us of the
world. It is hoped that through media we can transform information and
images to others, creating a global communication hub and promoting
independent thinking process and freedom of speech.
The contemporary role of media
The simple truth about human psychology is that what they know largely
determines what they see, hear, feel, and how they think and act upon these
senses. Based on this assertion, I argue that the way in which the world is
imagined determines at any particular moment what human beings will do and
what will be its impact on psycho-social tranquility of that state.
It is important to recall the political and cultural experiences in the
developed countries. Nearly all of what any one person knows about the values,
spiritualities and religious beliefs of others comes from the media. When values
differ inter-culturally, the issue arises of the extent to which media behavior
should be modified in the light of the values of specific cultures. This calls for a
better representation of diversity of cultures and faiths in both the stuff and
content of the media.
In the 1990s, the super powers and the developed countries appear to
dominate the world. They do so through the media. That is why the media is
seen as hostile by the Muslim world. Anything from them is regarded as
potentially threatening; this creates obsession and mistrust. It is the gut reaction
and bizarre response of a people repeatedly humiliated by the powerful. It is
not the response of Islamic civilization which has survived over a millennium
and produced the most enduring cultural system ever seen.
This is the consequences of oppression of humanity by the wealthy and
influential one, which has made peace an illusion in a world short of core
human values and their application. Correctly or not, Muslims perceive the
Western media as unfriendly. Many factors explain this sense of discomfort.
The general attitude of hostility is largely true. Western programs about
Muslims and their culture are often slanted to suggest negative images of
Muslims. Most of Western media reports carry messages of political instability
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and the poor treatment of women; the two notorious aspects Western scholars
and analysts prejudice against Islam.
The last dramatic example is about the tragedy of Danish cartoon. We
witnessed the Danish cartoon controversy, whereby, cartoon portrayed Prophet
Muhammad (peace be upon him) were drawn and published first in Denmark
and then subsequently in France, Italy, Germany and Spain. These images
clearly presented Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and Islam as
inherently violent, whilst suppressing women at the same time. It also ridiculed
the religion of Islam and the notion of reward of women for suicide bombers.
Such a pejorative picture about Islam and its community led to a series of
violence and protests throughout the world and a boycott of Danish products
in numerous Muslim countries.
Most recently, there has been an issue over Facebook and its ban in
Pakistan. Facebook had created a page encouraging its users to draw the
Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) as a protest against extremist threats
against freedom of expression and press. This, once again, has brought Muslims
on the road and the Pakistan court has temporarily banned the site because of
its blasphemy against Islam.
Islam does not allow the depiction of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon
him) or any other Prophets. Moreover, there is no real portrait of Prophet
Muhammad (peace be upon him). Therefore, even though there have been
attempts to identify these cartoons as Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon
him) himself. It cannot be so, due to the fact that he has no such image so that
these drawings can be based on it.
This perspective is believed and practiced by most Muslims worldwide.
While it is true that a small segment of Muslims revolted violently,
simultaneously, majority of Muslims did not react in this manner due to their
in-depth understanding of Islam. The global media should have portrayed both
these views rather than just targeting the specific occurrences.
In response to the publications in several Western newspapers of caricatures
of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), Professor Muhammad Dajani of
the Sartawi Center of Al-Quds University and Professor Gadi Wolfsfeld of the
Truman Institute of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem found an appealing
statement during a four months‘ research, how the Israeli and Palestinian media
perceived the ‗other‘.
The findings included commentary by Dr. Hanna Siniora, publisher of The
Jerusalem Times, a daily English language Palestinian newspaper, and Shmuel
Rosner, news director at Ha‟aretz, a daily Hebrew-language Israeli paper.
Professor Wolfsfeld stated: ―The use of journalistic mechanisms makes the
readers believe that ‗our‘ victims are a tragedy and ‗theirs‘ are statistics, ‗our‘
actions are legitimate and ‗theirs‘ are evil, our aspirations are noble and theirs
are despicable‖.
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The depiction of only one side‘s tragedy is accomplished by the location and
space allotment of the news items and by personal and dramatic descriptions
versus impersonal and analytical descriptions, which dehumanize the ‗other.‘
For example, killing of a civilian in the conflict would be put on a front page if
he were from the ‗side‘ of that media, and on a much later page with less
coverage if he were from the ‗other‘ side. Moreover, newspapers give a sense
that ―we‘re all in this together, so that we can identify with the tragedies,‖ said
Wolfsfeld. Ethnic and nationalistic solidarity are stimulated by the use of flags
in photographs as well as cultural and religious symbols.
It is for this reason that in Journalism Ethics, deceiving publics is something
students learn not to do in their first public relations class. The new forms of
communication channels that have arisen with social media do not change the
fact that deception is still morally wrong. One of the significant limits to media
is the lack of neutrality that is inherent. Melone, Terzis and Beleli (2002) argue
that professional objectivity must not override the obligation of a reporter to
realize that he or she can drastically affect perceptions by the audience to a
given situation. Further, they argue that, ―Simply by being there and reporting
on a conflict, the media alter the communication environment and are thus
inherently involved in the conflict and non-neutral.‖ (Ibid.3)
Pluralism and interfaith dialogue
Diana L. Eck in the Harvard Pluralism Project asked with a puzzling
expression: ―What is Pluralism?‖ This statement means that plurality of
religious traditions and cultures has come to characterize every part of the
world today. But what is pluralism? Here are four points to begin our thinking:
First, pluralism is not diversity alone, but the energetic engagement with
diversity. Diversity can and has meant the creation of religious ghettoes with
little traffic between or among them. Today, religious diversity is a given, but
pluralism is not a given; it is an achievement. Mere diversity without real
encounter and relationship will yield increasing tensions in our societies.
Second, pluralism is not just tolerance, but the active seeking of
understanding across lines of difference. Tolerance is a necessary public virtue,
but it does not require Christians and Muslims, Hindus, Jews, and ardent
secularists to know anything about one another. Tolerance is too thin a
foundation for a world of religious difference and proximity. It does nothing to
remove our ignorance of one another. In the world in which we live today, our
ignorance of one another will be increasingly costly.
Third, pluralism is not relativism, but the encounter of commitments. The
new paradigm of pluralism does not require us to leave our identities and our
commitments behind, for pluralism is the encounter of commitments. It means
holding our deepest differences, even our religious differences, not in isolation,
but in relationship to one another.
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Fourth, pluralism is based on dialogue. The language of pluralism is that of
dialogue and encounter, give and take, criticism and self‐criticism. Dialogue
means both speaking and listening, and that process reveals both common
understandings and real differences. Dialogue does not mean everyone at the
―table‖ will agree with one another. Pluralism involves the commitment to
being at the table ‐ with one‘s commitments.
In 13th century, the mystical poet Jelaluddin al-Rumi wrote in the Masnavi:
―The lamps are different but the light is same, it comes from beyond; If thou
keep looking at the lamp, thou art lost; for thence arises the appearance of
number and plurality.‖
Islam recommends balance and a steady pace. There is the noise and dazzle
of the media. Again, Islam emphasizes quiet, meditation and simplicity. The
family itself is under attack in today's world. Islam emphasizes the family as the
key unit of society and would safeguard it at all costs. Most important, Muslims
believe in God in an age dominated by materialism and agnosticism or atheism.
The Holy Qur‘an states: ―And did not Allah check one set of people by means of another,
the earth would indeed be full of mischief.” (2:251)
In another verse the Holy Qur‘an states: ―Did not Allah check one set of people by
means of another, monasteries, churches, synagogues and mosques wherein the name of Allah
is mentioned much would surely have been pulled down.” (22:40)
The teachings of the aforementioned verses are very significant in the
present world context. The everlasting teachings and the universal dimensions
of these two verses are that if there are no differences between people, if power
is concentrated in the hands of one group alone, be it one nation or one race,
the earth would be corrupt because in the worldly setup, our creator is
regulating human beings with other human beings to control and limit their
irresponsible impulse and behavior for expansion, supremacy and dominance.
According to Islam, faith in one God and having common parents Adam
and Eve is the greatest reason for humans to live together with peace and
brotherhood. Islamic view of global peace is mentioned in the Qur‘an where
the whole humanity is recognized as one family. All the people are children of
Adam. The purpose of the Islamic faith is to make people recognize their own
natural inclination towards their fraternity.
Prophet Muhammad and religious pluralism
Michael H. Hart wrote in The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in
History “My choice of Muhammad to lead the world's most influential persons
may surprise some readers and may be questioned by others, but he was the
only man in history who was supremely successful on both the religious and
secular levels…‖ He also stated ―It is this unparalleled combination of secular
and religious influence which I feel entitles Muhammad to be considered the
most influential single figure in human history.‖
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As far as social pluralism is concerned, Islam seeks for peaceful coexistence
and mutual tolerance between the people of different religions and cultures. A
Muslim is required to believe in all the prophets (peace be upon all of them). In
one verse, the Holy Qur'an states: ―We make no distinction among any of the
Prophets.” (2:135) In another verse, it states: ―To each among you have We prescribed a
law and a clear way. If Allah had so willed, He would have made you a single people, but
His plan is to test you in what He has given you; so strive as in a race in good deeds.‖ (5:48).
An analytical look at the text of the verse 5:48 shows that the purpose of
these differences is to test what we do with the revelations and how we behave
with the precepts and teachings of Islam and who strive in a race of good
deeds. Diversity of religions, nations and peoples is a test and the teachings of
Islam require that we address the differences and live a peaceful life in this
world.
In Islam, religious freedom is essential and is at the centrality of religious
teachings and its application by Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him).
Religious freedom as stated by the Holy Qur‘an had seen its implementation by
Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him); subsequently, its documentation in
the Charter of Madinah and practice of religious freedom allowed tolerance,
mutual respect and peace in the history of Islam.
The Charter of Madinah and other covenants of Prophet Muhammad
(peace be upon him) with Jews and Christians, laid down the principles for
building a multi‐cultural and multi‐religious community.
Media and interfaith dialogue
A Muslim philosopher, Al-Ghazali mentioned that moral principles may be
viewed either as the standard of conduct that individuals have constructed for
themselves or as the body of obligations and duties that a particular society
requires of its members. In the one case, conscience is the originator of moral
behavior, and in the other it is the result of moralizing. Between these extremes
there have been many avenues originated from pluralistic religious doctrine.
Information is power that has an impact on public discourse. This way,
perceptions can be changed by access to media. Different types of media are
utilized globally to distribute knowledge and idealistically, free mass media is a
tool for democracy. Responsible media should consider both sides of the story
as equally valid and give them balanced representation and voice, not only in
direct quotations but also in characterization and analysis. Journalists and media
persons have direct access to more people than at any time in the past - they
need to be aware of how they are being manipulated, and on the impact their
reporting can have on exacerbating or calming the conflict.
For the media it can be problematic to find a balance between preventing
harm caused by speech and protecting individual expression. Being able to find
this balance is important, especially in conflict situations. Responsible
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journalism does not just re-publish press releases but is truly concerned with a
truthful, balanced and fair account of events. In order to achieve this,
journalists have to stay clear of judgmental representations and describe reality
without exaggeration.
It is probably appropriate to think of reviewing codes of practice. Such a
review must in addition to emphasizing the truth, also consider the crucial role
of the media in peace building, reconciliation and forgiveness. To some
practitioners who are familiar with the era in history when the media
experienced certain drawbacks that led to the social responsibility theory of the
media, perhaps, this is just another crucial moment for the media to take a look
at itself again.
Freedom of expression is not only the heart of a strong media but so is
respect for fundamental human rights and human values. In this regard, the
media may explore and promote the teachings of Prophet Muhammad (peace
be upon him), who has been regarded as an epitome of responsible leadership
and promoter of global peace. The teachings of Islam, as embedded in the texts
of the Holy Qur‘an and the practices of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon
him), are examples worth taking note of promoting harmony in diversity,
tolerance and understanding through dialogues and peaceful coexistence
through acceptance of others.
The Charter of Madinah is a supreme example of tolerance for a diverse
community. Before the arrival of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him)
from Makkah, Yathrib (later known as Madinah) had a large population
belonging to approximately 22 tribes. This population had a large number of
Jews besides the predominantly Arabs. Regardless of religion, the tribes of
Yathrib sought power through military dominance over other tribes, as
numerous alliances were forged between the warring tribes which contributed
to aggression on each other. Constant warfare was taking a toll on the tribes.
The Prophet (peace be upon him) addressed these power struggles by
establishing common goals that would serve the whole community. The
Charter of Madinah had a mutual declaration that Muslims and Jews ―must seek
mutual advice and consultation, and loyalty is a protection against treachery.‖
The Charter had bound the parties to helping one another against any attack on
Yathrib. If the Jews ―are called to make peace and maintain it they must do so;
and if they make a similar demand on the Muslims it must be carried out.‖
The Charter of Madinah addressed the potential power complications by
focusing on the interdependence of all the parties. The Charter of Madinah
prohibited independent contention by participant groups that claim God‘s
protection, and states that the peace of believers is as one. Once again, the idea
of being one community was emphasized and the participants of the agreement
were made to recognize their power as a unit.
328
Education ushers in knowledge, insight and understanding. It is a unique
tool to disperse doubts and prejudice which are often the root causes of
confusions and conflict. Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) urged his
followers to continue the pursuit of knowledge from cradle to grave. He
underscored the importance of education and advocated for knowledge even if
it took you to China. In those days, China was a distant and unknown territory
for Arabs.
Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) believed in the importance of
interfaith dialogue and its potential to promote religious tolerance and cultural
diversity. Such dialogues promote mutual understanding and respect.
Hence we find the teachings of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him)
on education, peace and interfaith dialogues are time-honored examples of
conflict resolution and peaceful coexistence. In fact it is unfortunate that such
great examples are not utilized for the benefit of humanity. In this lies an
important role for the media to play. The media, with its power, speed and
quality, can promote the teachings of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him)
in order to promote lasting peace.
After all, he was a personality whose timeless charisma and selfless
dedication has captivated the hearts of Muslims and non-Muslims alike. In the
words of philosopher George Bernard Shaw in The Genuine Islam ―I have
studied him - the wonderful man - and in my opinion far from being an antiChrist he must be called the savior of humanity.‖
329
References
Akbar S. Ahmed, ‗Living Islam‘
Akoijam-Sunita, T., 2008. Responsibility of Media KanglaOnline Editorial.
Diana L. Eck, What is Pluralism? The Pluralism Project, http://pluralism.org/
pages / pluralism/what_is_pluralism.
Keeble, Richard Lance. “What is News?: How the World's Biggest Humanitarian
Crisis Goes Uncovered.‖ (Media Ethics Magazine).
Leo R. Sandy and Ray Perkins, Jr. The Nature of Peace and Its Implications for Peace
Education.
Michael C. Aho, A Thesis on Media‟s Role in Peace Building, 8-16, 21. Media
(communication), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_(communication).
Nora Kuusik, The Role of Media in Peace Building, Conflict Management, and
Prevention.
Orly Halpern, Israel-Palestine: ‟Our‟ victims are tragedy - ‟theirs‟ are statistics, New
Routes, Volume 8, Number 2, 2003.
Soley, Lawrence. "Censorship, Inc. The Corporate Threat to Free Speech in the United
States." (Monthly Review Press, 2002).
Stewart M. Hoover, Professor, School of Journalism and Mass Communication,
University of Colorado-Boulder, Religion in the Media Age, November 16,
2003 - Op Ed Page, Denver Post.
Shannon A. Bowen, Program Vice-Chair, Newsletter of the AEJMC Media
Ethics Division, Spring 2010 • Volume 13, No. 3.
The Media's Role in Peace Building: Asset or Liability? Presented at Our Media
3 Conference, Barranquilla, Colombia.
Uchenna Ekwo, Program Director, Center for Media & Peace Initiative, New
York in Newsweek's gaffe, Media and Peace.
Yetkin Yildirim, Peace and Conflict Resolution Concepts in the Madinah
Charter, http://www.interfaithathens.org/article/art10171.asp.
330
331
332
333
334
Code of Honor
for
Media Institutions and Practitioners
Issued by
Organized by
The Muslim World League in cooperation with
The Ministry of Religious Affairs Republic of Indonesia
Jakarta, Muharram 1433H (December 2011)
In the Name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful
Praise be to Allah, Lord of the worlds.
Blessing and peace be upon our Prophet Muhammad, the Seal of Prophets and Messengers,
and his family and companions.
In view of belief in Allah and His Messenger, and inspiration from the Book
of Almighty Allah who commanded to speak fairly to the people: "...And speak
fair to the people..." (Qur'an 2:83) and also what is mentioned in the Sunnah of
Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) in this regard, and, also in view of
keen desire to realize the hopes and aspirations of the Muslim Ummah, and in
anticipation of dangers and challenges faced by the Ummah, and appreciation
of the importance of media in the contemporary life, and recognition of the
media obligation and loftiness of its objectives as well as the honor of the
profession and its traditions, the Muslim media persons approve the general
principles and ethics of media work in this document (Code of Honor for
Media Institutions and Practitioners) issued by the Second International
Conference on Islamic Media that was organized by the Muslim World League
in cooperation with the Indonesian Ministry of Religious Affairs in Jakarta on
20/1/1433H (15/12/2011) and declare their commitment to it as following:
335
First: General principles and objectives for Islamic media
A. To affirm belief in the moral principles and values of Islam, and its universal
and merciful message: "We sent thee not but as a mercy for all creatures." (Qur'an
21:107)
B. To safeguard the Islamic identity from the negative effects of globalization
and westernization, and protect the belief of the Muslim Ummah from any
onslaught.
C. To safeguard the integrity of Muslim society and its social fabric, and work
to achieve balance in the Islamic personality, and lay emphasis on wisdom
while addressing others: "Invite (all) to the way of thy Lord with wisdom and
beautiful preaching…" (Qur'an 16:125)
D. To present the truth clearly within the limits of Shari'ah rules and
regulations.
E. To ensure the freedom that is responsible and disciplined by the Shari'ah
guidelines as a legitimate and inviolable right.
Second: The Document confirms the following rights:
A. The right of expression within the limits of Shari'ah guidelines, formal
standards and interests of the Ummah.
B. The right to information and access to it, and ensuring this right and
organizing it through necessary regulations.
C. Provision of a good environment for performance of work and
accomplishment of tasks in times of crises, including the internationallyapproved protection of civilians.
Third: The Document calls for carrying out following duties and
responsibilities:
A. Introduce Islam and the causes of Muslim Ummah, and contribute to the
work of Da'wah, and encourage the Muslims to know each other, and reach
out to others: "O mankind! We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a
female, and made you into nations and tribes, that ye may know each other..." (Qur'an
49:13)
B. Take care of Islam's heritage, history and civilization, and also of Arabic
language and ensure its integrity, and work on spreading it among Muslims
as the language of Holy Qur'an and prayers.
C. Be committed to Islam as commanded by Almighty Allah: "Therefore stand
firm (in the straight path) as thou art commanded..." (Qur'an 11:112), and
emphasize the need of legislative supremacy for the Qur'an and Sunnah, and
try to replace the man-made law with the Islamic law: "And this (he
commands): judge thou between them by what Allah hath revealed, and follow not their
vain desires, but beware of them lest they beguile thee from any of that (teaching) which
Allah hath sent down to thee…” (Qur'an 5:49)
336
D. Support the Muslim peoples and address their issues in realizing unity and
defend against the risks and ordeals faced by them, and work on keeping
them away from narrow regionalism as well as from racial and tribal
intolerance that leads to disunity, dispute and failure: "…And fall into no
disputes, lest ye lose heart and your power depart..." (Qur'an 8:46)
E. Confront atheism and all other anti-Islam tendencies that spread hatred
against Islam and Muslims.
F. Motivate all the concerned to resist backwardness in its various
manifestations and realize the comprehensive development that achieves
prosperity, progress and power for the Muslim Ummah.
Fourth: Duties of the media persons
The media persons have to work for unity of Muslims and call for Islamic
brotherhood and tolerance in solving their problems: "The Believers are but a single
brotherhood…" (Qur'an 49:10) and they adhere to the following:
A. Not to publish or broadcast what offends Almighty Allah, or Divine
Messages or Messengers (blessing and peace be upon them), and take into
account the criteria of scientific objectivity in criticism of views and ideas.
B. Refrain from publishing and broadcasting all forms of incitement to
violence and jeopardize people‘s security. Terrorism and extremism must be
thwarted, and religion shouldn‘t be used for personal, partisan, political and
sectarian interests or gains.
C. Support the Muslim peoples in their effort to resist oppression and
occupation.
D. Verify the news and be honest in its reporting, and avoid what misleads and
undermines the social peace, and stay away from anything that leads to
despair and hopelessness.
E. Adhere to legitimate means in obtaining information, and avoid any means
that involves violence, blackmail, threat, temptation or breach of the
individual's privacy.
F. Keep away from the fabrication of events or differences that do not exist
for the sake of mere excitement or scoop.
G. Carry out the message of media with modesty and kindness in order to
preserve the professional prestige and Islamic etiquette.
H. Say good as Almighty Allah has described for His Believers: "For they have
been guided (in this life) to the purest of speeches; they have been guided to the path of him
who is Worthy of all (praises)."(Qur'an 22:24), and not to use improper words:
"Not a word does he utter but there is a vigilant Guardian." (Qur'an 50:18), and not
to publish the pornographic pictures, and not to commit mockery, personal
slander, libel, false accusation, sedition, dissemination of rumors and
337
slanders, and keep distance from what Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon
him) has forbidden in this regard: "The Believer is not a person who often slanders
or curses."
I. Refrain from broadcasting or publishing the material that is against the
public etiquette or encourages the moral decadence, or incites for crime,
violence, suicide, or causes panic, or provokes instincts directly or indirectly.
J. Refrain from broadcasting and publication of advertisement for a substance
that is harmful, forbidden or contrary to moral values, or it leads to adverse
social stereotyping, and distinguish between editorial and advertising
materials.
K. Respect the Shari‘ah scholars, jurists and security personnel, and enhance
their status, and consult the trustworthy scholars and benefit from their
opinions: "Ulama are heirs of the Prophets."
L. Respect the legitimate professions and professionals, and take care of
disabled or mentally-retarded persons and their needs, and not to broadcast
and publish anything that tends to offend, ridicule or insult them.
M. Fight against drugs and intoxicants, and not to justify its use in any way, like
presenting them as treatment for the crises and problems faced by the
human being.
N. Abstain and confront any publication that contains the sectarian incitement
or encouragement to division or discrimination on the basis of ethnic,
nationalistic or sectarian bias.
O. Take into account the freedom of expression that is disciplined by the
Shari‘ah guidelines for individuals and groups through websites, and ensure
the right of reply and comment in accordance with the guidelines of
adherence to righteousness and not to offend and defame other people.
P. Refrain from presenting what is taken up by the investigation authorities or
courts in a manner aimed at influencing the trials.
Q. Strengthen the status of family in the Islamic society and its impact on social
cohesion, and protect the children and youth from everything that harms
their physical and psychological growth or incites them to wrong behavior
or urges them to practice them.
R. Make every effort to be capable of using the advanced means of the day in
the field of multimedia and communication technology, and look forward to
be creative in this regard materially and morally, and look for anything that
is new and useful for them in order to serve Islam, Muslims and humanity.
Blessing and peace be upon our Prophet Muhammad SAW, his family and companions
Jakarta, 20/1/1433H (15 Dec. 2011)
338
The Jakarta Declaration
on
Media in the Muslim World
Issued by
The Second International Conference
on Islamic Media
New Media and Communication Technology in
the Muslim World: Opportunities and Challenges
Organized by
The Muslim World League in cooperation with
The Ministry of Religious Affairs Republic of Indonesia
Jakarta, 20/01/1433H (15/12/2011)
In the Name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful
Praise be to Allah, the Lord of the worlds.
Blessing and peace be upon our Prophet Muhammad SAW, the Seal of Prophets and
Messengers, and his family and companions.
By the Grace and Blessing of Almighty Allah, the Second International
Conference on Islamic Media concluded its proceedings in Jakarta on the main
theme of "New Media and Communication Technology in the Muslim World:
Opportunity and Challenge".
The Conference which was held under the patronage of His Excellency
President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono of the Republic of Indonesia, was
organized by the Muslim World League (MWL) in cooperation with the
Indonesian Ministry of Religious Affairs in the period of 18-20/1/1433H (1315/12/2011) in continuation of the First International Conference on Islamic
Media which was held by the MWL in Jakarta in 1400H.
339
It was held in response to the contemporary developments in the world, and
what can be done by the media at different levels to confirm the importance of
coordination between the views and efforts of those working on Islamic media,
as well as to exchange their ideas and experiences, and realize the needs of
upgrading the Islamic media and raise the level of Muslims' information media
as well as the productivity of media work, and support the efforts to defend
Islam in the face of unjust campaigns, and correct the distorted picture
portrayed by enemies about the religion of God, and support the global
dialogue initiated by Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Abdullah bin
Abdul Aziz al-Saud.
The MWL invited a number of media leaders and officials of the Islamic
media organizations, and university academicians who have specialized in the
areas of media in order to discuss the conference theme, through research and
working papers that focused on changing conditions of the day. They held
deliberations on the following themes:
Theme 1: Media in the Current Era: Components and Impact
Theme 2: Collaboration and Networking of Media in the Muslim World
Theme 3: Islamic Media Discourse
Theme 4: Media and Dialogue with Others
Theme 5: Practical Solutions for Promotion of Islamic Media.
At the sessions of the Conference, the speakers emphasized the following:
1. Taking care of the Islamic media and its discourse which derives its
principles from the tenets of Islam. Islamic media is associated with the
universality of Islamic message, as the Almighty Allah says: "We have not sent
thee but as a (Messenger) to all mankind, giving glad tidings and warning them (against
sin)…" (Qur'an 34:28)
2. Islamic media is a discourse of outreach to Muslim and human societies. It
is meant to the changes of time with the aim of reform and solution, as
Allah says: "…And I only desire (your) betterment to the best of my power." (Qur'an
11:88)
3. Islam promotes moderation, objectivity, peace, impartiality and devoid itself
from the trap of emotions and sensationalism. It is consistent with the
mission of the Ummah , as Allah says: "Thus have we made of you an Ummah
justly balanced that ye might be witnesses over the people and the Messenger over
yourselves…" (Qur'an 2:143)
4. Islamic media bears great responsibilities; the most prominent of which is to
support and defend the causes of the Muslim Ummah, and unite the
Muslims‘ voice and stance, using Islam‘s great assets in human and cultural
values to create a distinct Islamic environment, and achieve real integration
and unity among the people of Muslim Ummah. Allah says: "And hold fast up
together by the rope which Allah (stretches out for you), and be not divided among
yourselves…" (Qur'an 3:103)
340
A consensus among participants was reached on the following:
1. If employed correctly, the new media and communication technology hold
great potential to serve the issues of human societies and their scientific and
developmental advancement. Hence, it is essential for Muslims to participate
effectively in areas of information and knowledge to avoid dependency on
others.
2. The new media strives to make the knowledge-based human advancement a
desirable endeavor. This will lead to understanding among human beings,
cooperation and peace on earth. Badly managed media will have negative
consequences for humanity such as ignorance, mutual suspicion, friction
and misunderstanding that bring humanity on a collision course.
3. Media industry in the world hasn‘t escaped the effects of globalization.
Market forces in many parts of the world impose great pressures on media,
therein subjecting contents to market principles. They want to transform
knowledge from a service into a consumer product tailored to meet the
approval of the public demand and not to its needs. This has led to
substandard media content, as well as deterioration in the levels of
commitment to moral and ethical values.
4. The advancement of communication technology has led to audience
segmentation that threatens the required consensus, cohesive social agenda,
group standards and collective social values. New communication
technology could lead to individualism with all the accompanying negative
implications.
5. Public media should be supported and encouraged to function properly as
the voice of the public.
6. Cooperation between media practitioners and academicians is required in
developing media standard that would guide media in the Muslim world.
7. Defending Islam and causes of Muslim Ummah cannot be properly done
without efficient media that boosts our capability to hightlight the principels
and the values of Islam in its real perspective to the world.
Recommendations of the Conference
The conference called upon the governments of Muslim countries, the
media institutions and practitioners, institutions of Da'wah and education to
cooperate within the framework of joint action to achieve and preserve the
objectives of its charters of honor. The conference recommended the
following:
First
To urge the Muslim media to bring understanding and solidarity among
Muslims through the exchange and pooling of media materials and contents; to
341
share and support the effort of dialogue with different cultures, religions and
civilizations, and build the bridges of outreach to them; explore programs that
accomplish these tasks; inspire the methodology of Prophet Muhammad (peace
be upon him) for outreach and dialogue with non-Muslims, as commanded by
Almighty Allah:
"Say: O People of the Book! Come to common terms between us and you… "(Qur'an 3:64)
Second
To call upon the media in the Muslim world to use its potential to disseminate
peace, understanding and harmony and to support peaceful resolution to
disagreements and conflicts.
Third
To appeal to countries of the world to show great respect to religion and beliefs
especially Divine Messages and Messengers (blessing and peace be upon them),
and exercise freedom with a sense of responsibility on matters that could have
negative and undesirable impact on people especially the younger generation.
Fourth
To explore avenues of cooperation among media institutions in the Muslim
world in a way that will foster exchange of expertise and resources in the area
of media and communication technologies.
Fifth
To highlight the importance of media in enhancing security awareness and the
promotion of integrity among official and public bodies as well as emphasize
the role of media in countering sedition, extremism and terrorism.
Sixth
To urge the Islamic organizations, centers and media institutions to utilize
social networking for its potential in Da'wah and humanitarian work.
Seventh
To enhance the skill and competence of practitioners through the
establishment of training centers and institutions that can focus on application
of best practices, taking into account the advancement that has already taken
place in the field of media and communication in order to achieve effective
Da'wah.
Eighth
To constantly upgrade the curricula and facilities in media departments of
training institutions and universities in the Muslim world so that the students
342
and trainees can have both the practical competence and theoretical knowledge
within the Islamic framework to harness new media technologies.
Ninth
To develop skills of younger generations in navigating and utilizing information
that will benefit them through improvement of curricula at preparatory and
secondary levels.
Tenth
To utilize the positive advantages of internet and websites through the
professional use of multimedia options of e-content that would be more
appealing to highlight the teachings of Islam and disseminate its message of
peace, love, cooperation and coexistence among humanity.
Eleventh
To urge relevant institutions in the Muslim world to take the advantage of new
media through their actual presence in this area and active interaction with its
users, and provide guidance to correct misconceptions and inaccurate
information that is circulated through these means.
Twelfth:
To focus on enlightening the youth to benefit from the new media and protect
themselves from its negative effects.
Thirteenth
To agree on a standard of media freedom within an Islamic framework and
hold regular workshops on this, and publish periodical reports on application
of this standard.
Fourteenth
To encourage cooperation between the Muslim World League, ministries of
information and culture, as well as the media institutions in the Muslim world,
and invite the ministers of information and media officials to adopt the
conference recommendations and explore the means that ensure the realization
of its findings.
Fifteenth
To strengthen the role of the International Islamic News Agency (IINA) and
the Islamic Broadcasting Union (IBU), and improve their performance in
accordance with the resolutions adopted by the information ministers in the
Muslim countries, and to call upon the Muslim World League and the Ministry
of Culture and Information in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to host a seminar
where specialists can enrich knowledge that would enhance the capacity of
these institutions.
343
Sixteenth
To urge the media practitioners, planners and media decision-makers in the
Muslim world to actualize the recommendations of this conference to
strengthen the Islamic media.
Seventeenth
Recommendations for the Muslim World League:
The Conference called on the Muslim World League to consolidate the
cooperation among media organizations and institutions in line with the
principles drawn up in Jakarta Declaration. The conference recommends the
following:
1. Formation of a panel of academics, trainers, media practitioners and other
stakeholders to monitor and study the situation of media and
communication in Muslim world and provide annual report on ways to
bring improvement.
2. To support the International Islamic Organization of Media (IIOOM), an
affiliated body of the Muslim World League to enable it perform in the
light of media development around the world, and deal with the effects of
new media and communication technology, and its task will include:
a. To hold dialogue of culture and civilization among Muslims, and
between Muslims and non-Muslims on the basis of mutual respect, and
that Muslims‘ approach should be in accordance with the method
commanded by Allah: "And argue with the way that is better." (Qur‘an)
b. To intensify contact with the media, scientific, cultural, educational
institutions and think-tanks in the world.
c. To communicate constantly with Islamic institutions within non-Muslim
countries and support their programs.
d. To reach out to non-Muslim persons and institutions with moderate
outlook in the realization of just causes.
e. To support the publishing houses which are involved in the translation
of books related to Islamic history, heritage and civilization, and
encourage them to set up a global fund for such endeavors.
The Conference participants decided the following:
1. To issue the Code of Honor for Media Institutions and Practitioners,
according to the attached draft and circulate it among ministries of
information and media institutions in the Muslim world, and stress the need
to adhere to it, while issuing the national media codes as well as codes for
media institutions.
344
2. To hold this conference periodically every two years with the cooperation of
the Muslim World League and the Indonesian Ministry of Religious Affairs.
3. To constitute a follow-up committee comprising the representatives of the
Muslim World League and the Indonesian Ministry of Religious Affairs to
pursue the implementation of the Conference recommendations.
At the end of the Conference, participants expressed gratitude and appreciation
to the Government of Indonesia for hosting the Conference, and to His
Excellency President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono for supporting it. They also
expressed similar gratitude to the Indonesian Minister of Religious Affairs,
Suryadharma Ali and his aides.
They also expressed appreciation to the Muslim World League for its tireless
services to Muslims, and for its attention and dedication to media and Islamic
culture, and called for continuous dialogue and cooperation between the
Muslim World League and the Ministry of Religious Affairs of Indonesia in
realizing joint Islamic programs.
The participants requested the Secretary-General of the Muslim World League
to send a cable of thank and appreciation to Custodian of the Two Holy
Mosques, King Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz al-Saud, and to the Crown Prince
H.R.H Naif bin Abdul Aziz al-Saud in appreciation of Saudi Arabia‘s services
to Islam and Muslims as well as its support to the Muslim World League and
general Islamic work.
With the blessing of Almighty Allah
Issued in Jakarta on 20/1/1433H (15/12/2011)
345
Acknowledgements:
This proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Islamic Media is
jointly composed and compiled by the International Islamic Organization of
Media (IIOOM), Rabithah Alam Islami (the Muslim World League), and the
Ministry of Religious Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia.
Jakarta, November 2013
346

H.E. Boediono

Transcription

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