Cannabis - The Pot Lab

Cannabis
This article is about the plant genus. For use as a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur
psychoactive drug, see cannabis (drug). For other uses, in an opposite leaf arrangement and the upper leaf pairs
see Cannabis (disambiguation).
in an alternate arrangement on the main stem of a mature
plant.
Cannabis (/ˈkænəbɪs/) is a genus of flowering plants
that includes three different species, Cannabis sativa,[2]
Cannabis indica and Cannabis ruderalis.[1] These species
are indigenous to Central and South Asia.[3] Cannabis has
long been used for hemp fibre, for seed and seed oils, for
medicinal purposes, and as a recreational drug. Industrial
hemp products are made from Cannabis plants selected
to produce an abundance of fiber. To satisfy the UN
Narcotics Convention, some Cannabis strains have been
bred to produce minimal levels of tetrahydrocannabinol
(THC), the principal psychoactive constituent responsible for the high associated with it and which is obtained
through the dried flowers of Cannabis plants selectively
bred to produce high levels of THC and other psychoactive cannabinoids. Various extracts including hashish and
hash oil are also produced from the plant.[4]
Underside of Cannabis sativa leaf, showing diagnostic venation
1
Etymology
The leaves have a peculiar and diagnostic venation pattern
that enables persons poorly familiar with the plant to distinguish a Cannabis leaf from unrelated species that have
confusingly similar leaves (see illustration). As is common in serrated leaves, each serration has a central vein
extending to its tip. However, the serration vein originates from lower down the central vein of the leaflet, typically opposite to the position of, not the first notch down,
but the next notch. This means that on its way from the
midrib of the leaflet to the point of the serration, the vein
serving the tip of the serration passes close by the intervening notch. Sometimes the vein will actually pass
tangent to the notch, but often it will pass by at a small
distance, and when that happens a spur vein (occasionally a pair of such spur veins) branches off and joins the
leaf margin at the deepest point of the notch. This venation pattern varies slightly among varieties, but in general it enables one to tell Cannabis leaves from superficially similar leaves without difficulty and without special
equipment. Tiny samples of Cannabis plants also can be
identified with precision by microscopic examination of
leaf cells and similar features, but that requires special
expertise and equipment.[13]
Main article: Cannabis (etymology)
The word cannabis is from Greek κάνναβις (kánnabis)
(see Latin cannabis),[5] which was originally Scythian or
Thracian.[6] It is related to the Persian kanab, the English canvas and possibly even to the English hemp (Old
English hænep).[6] In modern Hebrew, ‫ ַקַּנּבֹוס‬qannabōs
(modern pronunciation: [kanaˈbos]) is used but there are
those who have theorized that it was referred to in antiquity as ‫ קני בושם‬q'nei bosem, a component of the biblical
anointing oil.[7][8] Old Akkadian qunnabtu, Neo-Assyrian
and Neo-Babylonian qunnabu were used to refer to the
plant meaning “a way to produce smoke.”[9][10][11]
2
Description
Cannabis is an annual, dioecious, flowering herb. The
leaves are palmately compound or digitate, with serrate
leaflets.[12] The first pair of leaves usually have a single
leaflet, the number gradually increasing up to a maximum
of about thirteen leaflets per leaf (usually seven or nine),
depending on variety and growing conditions. At the top
of a flowering plant, this number again diminishes to a
The plant is believed to have originated in the mountainous regions northwest of the Himalayas. It is also known
as hemp, although this term is often used to refer only to
varieties of Cannabis cultivated for non-drug use.
1
2
2
DESCRIPTION
• Micrograph sativa (left), indica (right)
2.3 Chromosomes and genome
Cannabis, like many organisms, is diploid, having a
chromosome complement of 2n=20, although polyploid
individuals have been artificially produced.[22] The first
genome sequence of Cannabis, which is estimated to be
820 Mb in size, was published in 2011 by a team of Canadian scientists.[23]
Cannabis growing as weeds at the foot of Dhaulagiri.
2.1
2.4 Taxonomy
Reproduction
Cannabis normally has imperfect flowers, with staminate
“male” and pistillate “female” flowers occurring on separate plants.[14] It is not unusual, however, for individual plants to bear both male and female flowers.[15]
Although monoecious plants are often referred to as
“hermaphrodites,” true hermaphrodites (which are less
common) bear staminate and pistillate structures on individual flowers, whereas monoecious plants bear male
and female flowers at different locations on the same
plant. Male flowers are normally borne on loose panicles,
and female flowers are borne on racemes.[16] “At a very
early period the Chinese recognized the Cannabis plant Cannabis sativa leaf, dorsal aspect
as dioecious,”[17] and the (c. 3rd century BCE) Erya dictionary defined xi “male Cannabis" and fu (or ju ) The genus Cannabis was formerly placed in the Nettle
(Urticaceae) or Mulberry (Moraceae) family, and later,
“female Cannabis".[18]
along with the Humulus genus (hops), in a separate famAll known strains of Cannabis are wind-pollinated[19] and ily, the Hemp family (Cannabaceae sensu stricto).[24] Rethe fruit is an achene.[20] Most strains of Cannabis are cent phylogenetic studies based on cpDNA restriction
short day plants,[19] with the possible exception of C. site analysis and gene sequencing strongly suggest that
sativa subsp. sativa var. spontanea (= C. ruderalis), which the Cannabaceae sensu stricto arose from within the foris commonly described as “auto-flowering” and may be mer Celtidaceae family, and that the two families should
day-neutral.
be merged to form a single monophyletic family, the
Cannabaceae sensu lato.[25][26]
2.2
Biochemistry and drugs
Cannabis plants produce a group of chemicals called
cannabinoids, which produce mental and physical effects
when consumed.
Various types of Cannabis have been described, and variously classified as species, subspecies, or varieties:[27]
• plants cultivated for fiber and seed production, described as low-intoxicant, non-drug, or fiber types.
Cannabinoids, terpenoids, and other compounds are se• plants cultivated for drug production, described as
creted by glandular trichomes that occur most abundantly
high-intoxicant or drug types.
on the floral calyxes and bracts of female plants.[21] As a
• escaped, hybridised, or wild forms of either of the
drug it usually comes in the form of dried flower buds
above types.
(marijuana), resin (hashish), or various extracts collectively known as hashish oil.[4] In the early 20th century, it
became illegal in most of the world to cultivate or possess Cannabis plants produce a unique family of terpenoCannabis for sale or personal use.
phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, which produce
the “high” one experiences from consuming marijuana.
There are 483 identifiable chemical constituents known
• Root system side view
to exist in the cannabis plant,[28] and at least 85 different
• Root system top view
cannabinoids have been isolated from the plant.[29] The
2.5
History of cannabis
two cannabinoids usually produced in greatest abundance
are cannabidiol (CBD) and/or Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol
(THC), but only THC is psychoactive. Since the early
1970s, Cannabis plants have been categorized by their
chemical phenotype or “chemotype,” based on the overall amount of THC produced, and on the ratio of THC
to CBD.[30] Although overall cannabinoid production is
influenced by environmental factors, the THC/CBD ratio
is genetically determined and remains fixed throughout
the life of a plant.[31] Non-drug plants produce relatively
low levels of THC and high levels of CBD, while drug
plants produce high levels of THC and low levels of CBD.
When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate, the
plants in the first filial (F1 ) generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce similar amounts of CBD
and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce
enough THC to be utilized for drug production.[30][32]
3
2.5 History of cannabis
Cannabis sativa appears naturally in many tropical and
humid parts of the world. Its use as a mind-altering drug
has been documented by archaeological finds in prehistoric societies in Euro-Asia and Africa.[39]
The oldest written record of cannabis usage is the Greek
historian Herodotus's reference to the central Eurasian
Scythians taking cannabis steam baths.[40] His (c. 440
BCE) Histories records, “The Scythians, as I said, take
some of this hemp-seed [presumably, flowers], and,
creeping under the felt coverings, throw it upon the redhot stones; immediately it smokes, and gives out such a
vapour as no Grecian vapour-bath can exceed; the Scyths,
delighted, shout for joy.”[41] Classical Greeks and Romans were using cannabis, while in the Middle East, use
spread throughout the Islamic empire to North Africa. In
1545 cannabis spread to the western hemisphere where
Spaniards imported it to Chile for its use as fiber. In
North America cannabis, in the form of hemp, was grown
for use in rope, clothing and paper.[42][43][44][45]
2.6 Early classifications
Top of Cannabis plant in vegetative growth stage
Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types
of Cannabis constitute a single, highly variable species,
or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has
been a subject of debate for well over two centuries. This
is a contentious issue because there is no universally accepted definition of a species.[33] One widely applied criterion for species recognition is that species are “groups
of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such
groups.”[34] Populations that are physiologically capable
of interbreeding, but morphologically or genetically divergent and isolated by geography or ecology, are sometimes considered to be separate species.[34] Physiological
barriers to reproduction are not known to occur within
Cannabis, and plants from widely divergent sources are
interfertile.[22] However, physical barriers to gene exchange (such as the Himalayan mountain range) might
have enabled Cannabis gene pools to diverge before the
onset of human intervention, resulting in speciation.[35]
It remains controversial whether sufficient morphological
and genetic divergence occurs within the genus as a result
of geographical or ecological isolation to justify recognition of more than one species.[36][37][38]
Relative size of varieties of Cannabis
The Cannabis genus was first classified using the “modern” system of taxonomic nomenclature by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753, who devised the system still in use for
the naming of species.[46] He considered the genus to be
monotypic, having just a single species that he named
4
2
Cannabis sativa L. (L. stands for Linnaeus, and indicates
the authority who first named the species). Linnaeus was
familiar with European hemp, which was widely cultivated at the time. In 1785, noted evolutionary biologist
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck published a description of a
second species of Cannabis, which he named Cannabis
indica Lam.[47] Lamarck based his description of the
newly named species on plant specimens collected in India. He described C. indica as having poorer fiber quality
than C. sativa, but greater utility as an inebriant. Additional Cannabis species were proposed in the 19th century, including strains from China and Vietnam (IndoChina) assigned the names Cannabis chinensis Delile, and
Cannabis gigantea Delile ex Vilmorin.[48] However, many
taxonomists found these putative species difficult to distinguish. In the early 20th century, the single-species concept was still widely accepted, except in the Soviet Union
where Cannabis continued to be the subject of active taxonomic study. The name Cannabis indica was listed in
various Pharmacopoeias, and was widely used to designate Cannabis suitable for the manufacture of medicinal
preparations.[49]
2.7
20th century
Cannabis ruderalis
In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janichevsky concluded
that ruderal Cannabis in central Russia is either a variety of C. sativa or a separate species, and proposed C.
sativa L. var. ruderalis Janisch. and Cannabis ruderalis
Janisch. as alternative names.[27] In 1929, renowned plant
explorer Nikolai Vavilov assigned wild or feral populations of Cannabis in Afghanistan to C. indica Lam. var.
kafiristanica Vav., and ruderal populations in Europe to
C. sativa L. var. spontanea Vav.[32][48] In 1940, Russian botanists Serebriakova and Sizov proposed a complex classification in which they also recognized C. sativa
and C. indica as separate species. Within C. sativa they
recognized two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. culta
Serebr. (consisting of cultivated plants), and C. sativa
L. subsp. spontanea (Vav.) Serebr. (consisting of wild
or feral plants). Serebriakova and Sizov split the two C.
DESCRIPTION
sativa subspecies into 13 varieties, including four distinct
groups within subspecies culta. However, they did not
divide C. indica into subspecies or varieties.[27][50] This
excessive splitting of C. sativa proved too unwieldy, and
never gained many adherents.
In the 1970s, the taxonomic classification of Cannabis
took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting Cannabis in the United States and Canada specifically named products of C. sativa as prohibited materials.
Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts
argued that the seized Cannabis material may not have
been C. sativa, and was therefore not prohibited by law.
Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, while Dr. Richard E. Schultes
and others testified for the defense. The botanists engaged in heated debate (outside of court), and both camps
impugned the other’s integrity.[36][37] The defense attorneys were not often successful in winning their case, because the intent of the law was clear.[51]
In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small[52] and American taxonomist Arthur Cronquist published a taxonomic
revision that recognizes a single species of Cannabis with
two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. sativa, and C. sativa
L. subsp. indica (Lam.) Small & Cronq.[48] The authors
hypothesized that the two subspecies diverged primarily
as a result of human selection; C. sativa subsp. sativa was
presumably selected for traits that enhance fiber or seed
production, whereas C. sativa subsp. indica was primarily selected for drug production. Within these two subspecies, Small and Cronquist described C. sativa L. subsp.
sativa var. spontanea Vav. as a wild or escaped variety
of low-intoxicant Cannabis, and C. sativa subsp. indica
var. kafiristanica (Vav.) Small & Cronq. as a wild or
escaped variety of the high-intoxicant type. This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical
analysis of phenotypic characters.[30][48][53]
Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist Richard E. Schultes and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of Cannabis in the 1970s, and
concluded that stable morphological differences exist that
support recognition of at least three species, C. sativa,
C. indica, and C. ruderalis.[54][55][56][57] For Schultes, this
was a reversal of his previous interpretation that Cannabis
is monotypic, with only a single species.[58] According
to Schultes’ and Anderson’s descriptions, C. sativa is tall
and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, C. indica is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide
leaflets, and C. ruderalis is short, branchless, and grows
wild in central Asia. This taxonomic interpretation was
embraced by Cannabis aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed “sativa” drug strains from wideleafed “indica” drug strains.[59]
2.9
2.8
Popular usage
5
Continuing research
He also concluded there is little support to treat C. ruderalis as a separate species from C. sativa at this time, but
Molecular analytical techniques developed in the late more research on wild and weedy populations is needed
20th century are being applied to questions of taxonomic because they were underrepresented in their collection.
classification. This has resulted in many reclassifica- In September 2005, New Scientist reported that retions based on evolutionary systematics. Several studies searchers at the Canberra Institute of Technology had
of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and identified a new type of Cannabis based on analysis of
other types of genetic markers have been conducted on mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.[68] The New Sciendrug and fiber strains of Cannabis, primarily for plant tist story, which was picked up by many news agencies
breeding and forensic purposes.[60][61][62][63][64] Dutch and web sites, indicated that the research was to be pubCannabis researcher E.P.M. de Meijer and coworkers de- lished in the journal Forensic Science International.[69]
scribed some of their RAPD studies as showing an “extremely high” degree of genetic polymorphism between
and within populations, suggesting a high degree of po- 2.9 Popular usage
tential variation for selection, even in heavily selected
hemp cultivars.[31] They also commented that these anal- The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little
yses confirm the continuity of the Cannabis gene pool effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultithroughout the studied accessions, and provide further vators and users of drug-type Cannabis. Cannabis aficonfirmation that the genus comprises a single species, cionados recognize three distinct types based on such
although theirs was not a systematic study per se.
factors as morphology, native range, aroma, and subKarl W. Hillig, a graduate student in the laboratory jective psychoactive characteristics. Sativa is the most
of long-time Cannabis researcher Paul G. Mahlberg[65] widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched,
at Indiana University, conducted a systematic investi- and found in warm lowland regions. Indica designates
gation of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and
variation among 157 Cannabis accessions of known ge- highland environments. Ruderalis is the informal name
ographic origin, including fiber, drug, and feral pop- for the short plants that grow wild in Europe and central
ulations. In 2004, Hillig and Mahlberg published a Asia.
chemotaxomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in their
Cannabis germplasm collection. They used gas chromatography to determine cannabinoid content and to infer allele frequencies of the gene that controls CBD and
THC production within the studied populations, and concluded that the patterns of cannabinoid variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate
species, but not C. ruderalis.[32] The authors assigned
fiber/seed landraces and feral populations from Europe,
central Asia, and Asia Minor to C. sativa. Narrow-leaflet
and wide-leaflet drug accessions, southern and eastern
Asian hemp accessions, and feral Himalayan populations
were assigned to C. indica. In 2005, Hillig published a
genetic analysis of the same set of accessions (this paper
was the first in the series, but was delayed in publication),
and proposed a three-species classification, recognizing
C. sativa, C. indica, and (tentatively) C. ruderalis.[35] In
his doctoral dissertation published the same year, Hillig
stated that principal components analysis of phenotypic
(morphological) traits failed to differentiate the putative
species, but that canonical variates analysis resulted in
a high degree of discrimination of the putative species
and infraspecific taxa.[66] Another paper in the series on
chemotaxonomic variation in the terpenoid content of the
essential oil of Cannabis revealed that several wide-leaflet
drug strains in the collection had relatively high levels of
certain sesquiterpene alcohols, including guaiol and isomers of eudesmol, that set them apart from the other putative taxa.[67] Hillig concluded that the patterns of genetic,
morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation support
recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species.
Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type
Cannabis often describe the ancestry or gross phenotypic
characteristics of cultivars by categorizing them as “pure
indica,” “mostly indica,” “indica/sativa,” “mostly sativa”,
or “pure sativa.”
3 Reproduction
3.1 Breeding systems
Cannabis is predominantly dioecious,[19][70] although
many monoecious varieties have been described.[71] Subdioecy (the occurrence of monoecious individuals and
dioecious individuals within the same population) is
widespread.[72][73][74] Many populations have been described as sexually labile.[62][75][76]
As a result of intensive selection in cultivation, Cannabis
exhibits many sexual phenotypes that can be described
in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring
in the individual, or typical in the cultivar.[77] Dioecious
varieties are preferred for drug production, where typically the female flowers are used. Dioecious varieties are
also preferred for textile fiber production, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate licit crops of monoecious hemp from illicit drug crops.[72] However, sativa
strains often produce monoecious individuals, probably
as a result of inbreeding.
6
3
REPRODUCTION
Cannabis sativa fruits (achenes) that contain the seeds
Male Cannabis flower buds
systems have been discovered, particularly in plants.[70]
Dioecy is relatively uncommon in the plant kingdom, and
a very low percentage of dioecious plant species have
been determined to use the XY system. In most cases
where the XY system is found it is believed to have
evolved recently and independently.[80]
Since the 1920s, a number of sex determination models
have been proposed for Cannabis. Ainsworth describes
sex determination in the genus as using “an X/autosome
dosage type”.[70]
Cannabis flower with visible trichomes
3.2
Mechanisms of sex determination
Cannabis has been described as having one of the most
complicated mechanisms of sex determination among the
dioecious plants.[77] Many models have been proposed to
explain sex determination in Cannabis.
The question of whether heteromorphic sex chromosomes are indeed present is most conveniently answered
if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a karyotype.
Cannabis was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped; however, this was in a period when karyotype
preparation was primitive by modern standards (see
History of Cytogenetics). Heteromorphic sex chromosomes were reported to occur in staminate individuals of
dioecious “Kentucky” hemp, but were not found in pistillate individuals of the same variety. Dioecious “Kentucky” hemp was assumed to use an XY mechanism.
Heterosomes were not observed in analyzed individuals
of monoecious “Kentucky” hemp, nor in an unidentified
German cultivar. These varieties were assumed to have
sex chromosome composition XX.[81] According to other
researchers, no modern karyotype of Cannabis had been
published as of 1996.[82] Proponents of the XY system
state that Y chromosome is slightly larger than the X, but
difficult to differentiate cytologically.[83]
Based on studies of sex reversal in hemp, it was first reported by K. Hirata in 1924 that an XY sex-determination
system is present.[75] At the time, the XY system was
the only known system of sex determination. The
X:A system was first described in Drosophila spp in
1925.[78] Soon thereafter, Schaffner disputed Hirata’s
interpretation,[79] and published results from his own
studies of sex reversal in hemp, concluding that an X:A
system was in use and that furthermore sex was strongly More recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors[84][85]
influenced by environmental conditions.[76]
have used RAPD to isolate several genetic marker
Since then, many different types of sex determination sequences that they name Male-Associated DNA in
7
markers are relatively abundant. In dioecious
plants where sex chromosomes have not been
identified, markers for maleness indicate either
the presence of sex chromosomes which have
not been distinguished by cytological methods
or that the marker is tightly linked to a gene
involved in sex determination.[70] "
Environmental sex determination is known to occur in
a variety of species.[87] Many researchers have suggested that sex in Cannabis is determined or strongly
influenced by environmental factors.[76] Ainsworth reviews that treatment with auxin and ethylene have feminizing effects, and that treatment with cytokinins and
gibberellins have masculinizing effects.[70] It has been reported that sex can be reversed in Cannabis using chemical treatment.[88] A PCR-based method for the detection
of female-associated DNA polymorphisms by genotyping
has been developed.[89]
4 Industrial and personal uses
A male hemp plant
Cannabis is used for a wide variety of purposes.
4.1 Hemp
Main article: Hemp
The term Hemp is used to name the durable soft fiber
Dense raceme of carpellate flowers typical of drug-type varieties
of Cannabis
Cannabis (MADC), and which they interpret as indirect
evidence of a male chromosome. Several other research
groups have reported identification of male-associated
markers using RAPD and AFLP.[31][62][86] Ainsworth
commented on these findings, stating,
“It is not surprising that male-associated
Cannabis sativa stem longitudinal section
from the Cannabis Plant stem (stalk). Cannabis sativa
8
4 INDUSTRIAL AND PERSONAL USES
cultivars are used for fibers due to their long stems; Sativa few days, minuscule psychoactive effects may be felt, devarieties may grow more than six metres tall. However, pending on dosage, frequency and tolerance to the drug.
hemp can refer to any industrial or foodstuff product that
is not intended for use as a drug. Many countries regulate
limits for psychoactive compound (THC) concentrations
in products labeled as hemp.
Hemp is valuable in tens of thousands of commercial products, especially as fibre[90] ranging from paper,
cordage, construction material and textiles in general, to
clothing. Hemp is stronger and longer-lasting than cotton.
It also is a useful source of foodstuffs (hemp milk, hemp
seed, hemp oil) and biofuels. Hemp has been used by
many civilizations, from China to Europe (and later North
America) during the last 12,000 years.[90][91] In modern
times novel applications and improvements have been explored with modest commercial success.[92][93]
4.2
Psychoactive drug
Main article: Cannabis (drug)
See also: Tetrahydrocannabinol, Cannabidiol and Effects
of cannabis
Cannabis is a popular recreational drug around the world,
Active/Lethal Dose Ratio and Dependence Potential of Psychoactive Drugs
Heroin
Very high
Dependence Potential
High
Moderate
/ High
Morphine
Pentobarbital
Cocaine
Ephedra
Moderate
Moderate
/ Low
Nicotine
Marijuana
Nitrous oxide
Rohypnol
Caffeine
MDMA
Legend
Narcotics
Depressants
Stimulants
Anesthetics
Hallucinogens
Cannabis
Ketamine
Low
Very low
Cannabis Museum in Amsterdam
Alcohol
LSD
Mescaline
Psilocybin
0.001
0.002
0.01
0.02
0.1
0.2
Various forms of the drug cannabis exist, including extracts such as hashish and hash oil[4] which, because of
appearance, are more susceptible to adulterants when left
unregulated.
Active Dose / Lethal Dose
Comparison of physical harm and dependence regarding various
drugs.[94]
Cannabidiol (CBD), which has no psychotropic effects by
itself[97] (although sometimes showing a small stimulant
effect, similar to caffeine),[98] attenuates, or reduces[99]
the higher anxiety levels caused by THC alone.[100]
only behind ethanol, caffeine and tobacco. In the United
According to Delphic analysis by British researchers in
States alone, it is believed that over 100 million Ameri2007, Cannabis has a lower risk factor for dependence
cans have tried Cannabis, with 25 million Americans havcompared to both nicotine and alcohol.[101] However,
ing used it within the past year.[95]
everyday use of Cannabis can in some cases be corThe psychoactive effects of Cannabis are known to related with psychological withdrawal symptoms such
have a biphasic nature. Primary psychoactive ef- as irritability and insomnia,[96] and evidence could
fects include a state of relaxation, and to a lesser de- suggest that if a user experiences stress, the likeliness
gree, euphoria from its main psychoactive compound, of getting a panic attack increases because of an intetrahydrocannabinol. Secondary psychoactive effects, crease of THC metabolites.[102][103] However, Cannabis
such as a facility for philosophical thinking, introspection withdrawal symptoms are typically mild and are never
and metacognition have been reported amongst cases of life-threatening.[104]
anxiety and paranoia.[96] Finally, the tertiary psychoactive effects of the drug cannabis, can include an increase
in heart rate and hunger, believed to be caused by 11-OHTHC, a psychoactive metabolite of THC produced in the 4.3 Medical use
liver.
Normal cognition is restored after approximately three Main article: Medical cannabis
hours for larger doses via a smoking pipe, bong or
vaporizer.[96] However, if a large amount is taken orally Medical cannabis (or medical marijuana) refers to the
the effects may last much longer. After 24 hours to a use of cannabis and its constituent cannabinoids, such as
9
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), as medical therapy to treat
disease or alleviate symptoms. The Cannabis plant has a
history of medicinal use dating back thousands of years
across many cultures.[105]
Cannabis has been used to reduce nausea and vomiting
in chemotherapy and people with AIDS, and to treat pain
and muscle spasticity;[106] its use for other medical applications has been studied but there is insufficient data
for conclusions about safety and efficacy. Short-term
use increases minor adverse effects, but does not appear
to increase major adverse effects.[107] Long-term effects
are not clear,[107] and there are safety concerns including
memory and cognition problems, risk for dependence and
the risk of children taking it by accident.[106]
In Buddhism, cannabis is generally regarded as an intoxicant and may be a hindrance to development of meditation and clear awareness. In ancient Germanic culture,
Cannabis was associated with the Norse love goddess,
Freya.[113][114] An anointing oil mentioned in Exodus is,
by some translators, said to contain Cannabis.[115] Sufis
have used Cannabis in a spiritual context since the 13th
century CE.[116]
In modern times the Rastafari movement has embraced
Cannabis as a sacrament.[117] Elders of the Ethiopian
Zion Coptic Church, a religious movement founded in the
United States in 1975 with no ties to either Ethiopia or the
Coptic Church, consider Cannabis to be the Eucharist,
claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back
to the time of Christ.[118] Like the Rastafari, some modern Gnostic Christian sects have asserted that Cannabis
4.4 Ancient and religious uses
is the Tree of Life.[119][120] Other organized religions
founded in the 20th century that treat Cannabis as a
Main articles: Religious and spiritual use of cannabis sacrament are the THC Ministry,[121] Cantheism,[122] the
and History of medical cannabis
Cannabis Assembly[123] and the Church of Cognizance.
Rastafarians tend to be among the biggest consumers of
The Yanghai Tombs, a vast ancient cemetery (54 000 modern Cannabis use.
m2 ) situated in the Turfan district of the Xinjiang Uyghur
Autonomous Region of the People’s Republic of China,
have revealed the 2700-year-old grave of a shaman. He 5 Aspects of cannabis production
is thought to have belonged to the Jushi culture recorded
and use
in the area centuries later in the Hanshu, Chap 96B.[108]
Near the head and foot of the shaman was a large leather
basket and wooden bowl filled with 789g of cannabis, superbly preserved by climatic and burial conditions. An
international team demonstrated that this material contained tetrahydrocannabinol, the psychoactive component of cannabis. The cannabis was presumably employed by this culture as a medicinal or psychoactive
agent, or an aid to divination. This is the oldest documentation of cannabis as a pharmacologically active
agent.[109]
Settlements which date from c. 2200–1700 BCE in the
Bactria and Margiana contained elaborate ritual structures with rooms containing everything needed for making drinks containing extracts from poppy (opium), hemp
(cannabis), and ephedra (which contains ephedrine).[110]
A cannabis field
“While we have no evidence of the use of
ephedra among the steppe tribes, we have already seen that they did share in the cultic use
of hemp, a practice that ranged from Romania
east to the Yenisei River from at least the
3rd millennium BC onwards where its use was
later encountered in the apparatus for smoking
hemp found at Pazyryk.”[111]
Cannabis is first referred to in Hindu Vedas between 2000
and 1400 BCE, in the Atharvaveda. By the 10th century
CE, it has been suggested that it was referred to by some in
India as “food of the gods”.[112] Cannabis use eventually
became a ritual part of the Hindu festival of Holi.
• Cannabis cultivation discusses aspects of cultivation
for medicinal and recreational drug purposes.
• Cannabis (drug) discusses its use as a recreational
drug.
• Health issues and the effects of cannabis discusses
the pharmacology, physical, and mental effects of
Cannabis when used as drug.
• Hemp discusses its uses as a source of housing, oil,
food, fibers, and industrial materials.
10
7
• Legality of cannabis focuses on the law and enforcement aspects of growing, transporting, selling and
using Cannabis as a drug.
• Cannabis reclassification in the United Kingdom.
• Cannabis rescheduling in the United States.
• Drug policy of the Netherlands.
• Medical cannabis discusses its use as a medication.
• Spiritual use of cannabis discusses sacramental and
religious use.
6
See also
• Tangerine Dream (cannabis)
• White widow (Cannabis)
• Cannabis cultivation
• Cannabis drug testing
• Cannabis in Australia
• Cannabis Social Club
• Hash, Marihuana & Hemp Museum
• Indian Hemp Drugs Commission
7
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• Mallory, J. P. and Victor H. Mair (2000). The Tarim
Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the
Earliest Peoples from the West. Thames & Hudson,
London. ISBN 0-500-05101-1.
• Roffman, Roger A; Robert S. Stephens (2006).
Cannabis Dependence: Its Nature, Consequences,
and Treatment. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
0-521-81447-2.
• Russo, Ethan; Melanie Creagan Dreher; Mary Lynn
Mathre (2004). Women and Cannabis: Medicine,
Science, and Sociology. Haworth Press. ISBN 07890-2101-3.
• Solowij, Nadia (1998). Cannabis and Cognitive
Functioning. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521-59114-7.
[123] “Cannabis Assembly”. Retrieved 13 September 2007.
9 External links
8
Further reading
• Deitch, Robert (2003). Hemp: American History
Revisited: The Plant with a Divided History. Algora
Pub. ISBN 0-87586-206-3.
• Earleywine, Mitchell (2005). Understanding Marijuana: A New Look at the Scientific Evidence. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513893-7.
• Emmett, David; Graeme Nice (2009). What you
need to know about cannabis: understanding the
facts. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 1-84310697-3.
• Hulsewé, A. F. P. (1979). China in Central Asia:
The Early Stage 125 BC – AD 23: an annotated
translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of
the Former Han Dynasty. E. J. Brill, Leiden. ISBN
90-04-05884-2.
• Geoffrey William, Guy; Brian Anthony Whittle;
Philip Robson (2004). The medicinal uses of
cannabis and cannabinoids. Pharmaceutical Press.
ISBN 0-85369-517-2.
• Holland, Julie M.D. (2010). The Pot Book: A Complete Guide to Cannabis: Its Role in Medicine, Politics, science, and culture. Park Street Press. ISBN
978-1-59477-368-6.
• Iversen, Leslie L (2008). The science of marijuana
(2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-019-532824-0.
• International Plant Names Index (IPNI)
15
10
10.1
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
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