Southern African marine linefish status reports

Transcription

SOUTHERN AFRICAN
MARINE LINEFISH STATUS REPORTS
B.Q. Mann (Editor)
- drawings by N. Kistnasamy -
OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH INSTITUTE
Special Publication No 7.
JUNE 2000
FRONT COVER:
The Investigational Report series of the Oceanographic Research Institute presents the detailed
results of marine biological research. Reports have appeared at irregular intervals since 1961.
All manuscripts are submitted for peer review locally and abroad.
The Special Publication series of the Oceanographic Research Institute reports on expeditions,
surveys and workshops, or provides bibliographic and technical information. The series
appears at irregular intervals.
The Poster series of the Oceanographic Research Institute provides a permanent record for the
wider distribution of poster presentations at conferences. The series appears at irregular
intervals.
The Bulletin series of the South African Association for Marine Biological Research is of general
interest and reviews the research and curatorial activities of the Oceanographic Research
Institute and SEA WORLD’s aquarium and dolphinarium. It is published annually.
These series are available in exchange for relevant publications of other scientific institutions
anywhere in the world. All correspondence in this regard should be directed to:
The Librarian
Oceanographic Research Institute
P O Box 10712
MARINE PARADE
4056
Durban, South Africa
SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION FOR
MARINE BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH INSTITUTE
Special Publication No. 7
SOUTH AFRICAN LINEFISH STATUS REPORTS
B.Q. Mann (Editor)
- drawings by N. Kisnasamy -
Published by
South African Association for Marine Biological Research
P O Box 10712
MARINE PARADE
4056, SOUTH AFRICA
Copyright 2000-06-30
ISBN 0 86989 080 8
ABSTRACT
This publication is a compilation of status reports for 102 important marine linefish species in
southern African waters. Where available, information and the relevant references for each
species are presented on distribution, habitat preference, migration, fishery, biology, population
dynamics, biological reference points, current status, current regulations, research priorities and
management considerations. It is intended to be an up to date summary of what is currently
known about each species in order to inform users, managers and scientists in determining
effective management plans for each species. It is also intended to highlight research
requirements in relation to the management of southern Africa's marine linefish resources.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The hard work and enthusiasm of all scientists who contributed towards the compilation of this
document is gratefully acknowledged. Bernadine Everett is sincerely thanked for all her help in
putting the final document together and Lynnath Beckley is thanked for reviewing the final draft.
I would also like to thank my other colleagues at ORI for their support and encouragement.
Financial support from the Chief Directorate: Marine and Coastal Management, KwaZulu-Natal
Nature Conservation Service, South African Network for Coastal and Oceanic Research and the
South African Association for Marine Biological Research is gratefully appreciated.
ii
CONTENTS
PAGE
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..........................................................................................................ii
INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................... 1
HOW TO USE THIS REPORT .................................................................................................. 1
MARINE LINEFISHING IN SOUTHERN AFRICA ..................................................................... 2
SPECIES CONSIDERED.......................................................................................................... 2
CRITERIA EVALUATED ........................................................................................................... 3
STATUS OF THE LINEFISHERY ............................................................................................. 5
FISH STATUS REPORTS......................................................................................................... 6
STATUS OF THE SHARK FISHERY .................................................................................... 201
SHARK STATUS REPORTS ................................................................................................ 202
REFERENCES...................................................................................................................... 233
INDEX ................................................................................................................................... 257
APPENDICES
I
Affiliations of researchers who contributed to this publication....................................... 261
II
Abbreviations and symbols used in this report.............................................................. 262
iii
INTRODUCTION
The Marine Living Resources Act (No. 18 of 1998) calls for the establishment of management
plans for important harvestable species in South Africa. While this has been attained for
commercial species such as hake and west coast rock lobster, this process, in the case of
linefish species, has been limited. Reasons for this include the multi-species, multi-user nature
of the linefishery, past provincial regulations which differed for the same species and the fact
that research on various linefish species is widely scattered and often in the “grey” literature.
There was therefore an urgent need to collate, interpret and publish these data. This report
addresses these issues and makes available information that is required by users, managers
and scientists for the development of sound management plans.
In two separate workshops, one on the KwaZulu-Natal reef-fishery (Harris 1997) and the other
on the management and monitoring of the national linefishery (Penney et al. 1997), the
development of status reports and specific management plans for key linefish was
recommended as a top priority in terms of improving management of the linefishery. These
ideas were formalized with the establishment of a Linefish Management Protocol (Griffiths et al.
1999), which was designed to execute management plans for each important species through a
predetermined cycle of monitoring, assessment and revision of management regulations.
At both the KwaZulu-Natal and national workshops, key linefish species were informally
prioritized in terms of their fishery and conservation importance. The species chosen were
allocated to specific researchers who were deemed to have the most knowledge and
experience of those particular species. The structure and format of the status report was
developed in collaboration with the various researchers involved. The draft status reports were
then peer-reviewed and the editor made the final changes and corrections.
The concept of periodically collating and publishing scientific information on key linefish species
has proven to be most successful in the past. Two editions of the “Visboekie” (Wallace and van
der Elst 1983, van der Elst and Adkin 1991) made a significant contribution to fisheries
management and linefish research in southern Africa and further afield. While these two
editions contained detailed biological information on key linefish species, the current status
reports contain more quantitative information and include, where available, biological reference
points and stock status indicators, which are essential in the drawing up of management plans.
HOW TO USE THIS REPORT
It is intended that this report should serve both as a reference and a working document. The
individual status reports provide information in specific categories on each species as well as a
comprehensive bibliography. Where information is lacking the word "unknown" has been used
to highlight gaps in current knowledge. As linefish research is an ongoing process, the current
status reports will need to be updated as more and improved information is made available. In
this regard readers of this document are requested to bring any mistakes to the attention of the
editor so that future status reports may be correctly updated.
The arrangement of this report is by family in alphabetical order. For ease of reference the
cartilaginous species (sharks and rays) are separated from the bony fish. Where possible the
individual status reports are confined to two pages but this was not possible in the case of major
species where much information was available. Considerable use has been made of
abbreviations and symbols to shorten the document. While most are self-explanatory, some
may require reference to Appendix II.
1
Note: The status reports should be referenced by including the names of both the compiler and
the referee as given in the example below:
MANN, B.Q., RADEBE, P.V. and BECKLEY, L.E. 2000 – Pinky (Pomadasys olivaceum). In
Southern African Marine Linefish Status Reports. Mann, B.Q. (Ed.). Special Publication
Oceanographic Research Institute 7: 51-52.
MARINE LINEFISHING IN SOUTHERN AFRICA
Linefishing is defined as that activity where fish are harvested using a hook and line but
excludes the use of set longlines. This activity embraces subsistence, commercial and
recreational linefishing, the latter often being referred to as angling.
Subsistence fishing has only recently been recognized as a distinct sector within the linefishery.
Subsistence linefishers generally consist of poor people living within walking distance of the
resource, they fish from the shore using low technology gear and the fish caught are generally
used for their own consumption, while a surplus may be sold locally. While the actual number of
subsistence fishers relying on linefish is not known, there is an increasing frequency of true
subsistence fishing from west to east with a peak in the former Transkei region (Mann and
Fennessy 1998, McDonald 1998).
Commercial linefishing comprises about 3 000 boats and provides a livelihood for an estimated
25 000 people spread along the entire South African coast. Its role in providing fresh fish to the
nation is considerable with a wet fish wholesale value of around R 70 million in 1990 (van der
Elst and Adkin 1991). Its participants operate from a variety of craft, ranging from 3m beachlaunched dinghies to 20m harbour-based vessels that carry a crew of 20 and remain at sea for
up to 30 days.
The open access recreational fishery is large and growing with approximately 500 000
participants in 1996 (Brouwer et al. 1997, Mann et al. 1997b, McGrath et al. 1997, Sauer et al.
1997). While less than six percent of marine anglers are affiliated to angling clubs and
organizations, this fishery is divided into four distinct facets: rock and surf, deep sea, estuarine
and spearfishing (van der Elst 1989). The importance of this fishery in meeting the recreational
needs of the nation is considerable. Moreover, the infrastructure associated with tourism and
the tackle manufacture industry make this a particularly valuable fishery, probably in excess of
R 150 million per annum turnover (van der Elst and Adkin 1991).
The linefishery as a whole, excluding the estuarine sector, is estimated to provide employment
for approximately 130 000 people, and to contribute about R 2.2 billion annually to the
economies of the four coastal provinces (McGrath et al. 1997).
SPECIES CONSIDERED
There are approximately 250 species that have been reported caught by linefishers around
southern Africa, although only a dozen of these account for more than 90% of the catch (van
der Elst and Adkin 1991). Linefishers further eastward catch an increasingly greater diversity of
fishes, mostly species of the rich Indo-Pacific ichthyofauna. A total of 102 species are dealt with
in this report. Criteria for inclusion were the fish’s importance in landings, target value for certain
fishers, depleted species and those considered to have future potential in the fishery. While the
list was compiled through the joint efforts of linefish researchers and managers at a number of
workshops, this was an informal process and a number of additional species may well justify
inclusion. For a more comprehensive exercise in prioritizing linefish species readers are referred
to the work of Lamberth and Joubert (1999).
2
CRITERIA EVALUATED
In order to provide a synoptic, yet comprehensive, overview of the natural history, fishery,
population dynamics and status of each species, a number of specific criteria were identified.
These were carefully evaluated in the light of research progress and, wherever possible, details
are provided with relevant references. Criteria evaluated for each species are:
Scientific name: Genus and species according to Smith and Heemstra (1986) and hence the
Smith number given in brackets
Common names: The vernacular names given are those most commonly used (no more than
three common names are given)
Compiler/s: Name/s and institution/s (addresses are given in Appendix I)
Referee/s: Name/s and institution/s (addresses are given in Appendix I)
Date of completion: Month and year when the status report was completed
Distribution of species: The global distribution of the species is given. The following
abbreviations have been used:
MOZ - Mozambique (Ponta do Ouro northwards)
KZN - KwaZulu-Natal (Ponta do Ouro to Umtamvuna River)
TKI - Transkei (Umtamvuna River to Kei River)
SEC - South East Cape (Kei River to Nature’s Valley)
SWC - South West Cape (Nature’s Valley to Cape Point)
WC - West Coast (Cape Point to Orange River)
NAM - Namibia (Orange River to Kunene River)
Note: A number of status reports also use SC – Southern Cape (Knysna to Cape Agulhas)
Distribution of stock: The distribution of the evaluated stock or the stock of importance to
southern Africa (Namibia/South Africa/Mozambique)
Habitat: A brief description of the habitat and depth preferences of adults and juveniles, and the
distribution of eggs & larvae, if known
Migration: A brief description of movement patterns or residency of the species
Fishery: An indication of which sectors of the linefishery (and other fisheries) target the species
and its relative importance
Biology and population dynamics
Growth curve: Where possible the actual von Bertalanffy or other growth equation is given
using correct notation and the area where the study was done. If growth of the species has not
been studied in southern Africa but has been determined elsewhere, the most appropriate
growth equation or growth parameters determined for that species is given (see Appendix II for
symbols used)
Length-weight: The most appropriate length-weight relationship equation is given using correct
notation and the area where the study was done. Additional equations are shown with area and
reference if relevant
Length relationships: Where available, various useful length relationships are given using
correct notation (e.g. fork length/total length relationship)
Length and age at 50% maturity: Actual calculated length and age (or range) is given, and
where possible it is stated whether this was calculated for males, females or combined sexes
Reproductive style: Where known, this is specified for the species (e.g. gonochorist,
hermaphrodite, viviparous etc.)
M:F sex ratio: Where assessed, this is given for either the whole population or for a specified
sector of the population (e.g. adults only etc.). If intersex stage is known to occur then M:I:F sex
ratio is given
3
Length and age at sex change: Where known, these values are given for sex changing
species
Spawning season and locality: Months and area when and where spawning occurs
Maximum length, weight and age: Maximum length and weight are usually from the largest
recorded specimen, while maximum age is normally the largest specimen aged in a particular
study
Length and age at first capture: If this is not known from the fishery, the minimum legal size
and age are given
Natural mortality (M): Available estimates of M with the area and date calculated
Fishing mortality (F): Available estimates of F (or range of estimates) with the area and date
calculated
Biological reference points
FSB25: The F value at which the spawning biomass is reduced to 25% of pristine level (threshold
reference point), with area and date calculated
FSB40: The F value at which the spawning biomass is reduced to 40% of pristine level (target
reference point), with area and date calculated
F0.1: A more conservative level of F than FMSY at which yield is maximized but more protection is
provided for the spawning biomass, with area and date calculated
FMSY: The F value at which maximum sustainable yield is achieved, with area and date
calculated
Current status
Fcurrent: The most recent estimate of F, with the area and date calculated
SBPRcurrent: The percentage by which spawning biomass per recruit has been reduced to under
Fcurrent
Trend in CPUE: A brief description of any known trends in catch per unit effort for the species
with reference to where this information is published or, if unpublished, from which data source
this trend was determined
Trend in catch composition: A brief description of any known trends in percentage catch
composition with reference to where this information is published or, if unpublished, from which
data source this trend was determined
Trend in mean size: A brief description of any known trends in mean size
Trend in sex ratio: A brief description of any known changes in sex ratio (especially relevant to
sex changing species)
Current regulations
The most recent regulations (September 1998) were used for this purpose
Category: To which use category (if any) the species has been allocated (i.e. Specially
Protected List, Critical List, Restricted List, Exploitable List, Recreational List or Bait List)
Bag limit: The current daily bag limit as it applies to both commercial and recreational fishers
Minimum size limit: The current minimum size limit for the species
Closed season: The specific dates of any closed season for the species
Effective marine reserves: Any marine protected areas that have either been shown or are
thought to be effective in protecting the species
Other regulations: Any other regulations that have particular reference to the species in
question
Frequency of attaining DBL: Where available this is presented as a table depicting the
percentage of outings where a certain bag limit was reached and the corresponding percentage
catch reduction achieved by that bag limit. In a few instances the percentage reduction in F
since introduction of a daily bag limit is given
Research priorities: The outstanding research needs for each species are identified in terms
of their considered urgency and with relevance to those parameters which are most directly
applicable to their future management
4
Management considerations: Any additional comments specific to the future management of
the species
References: References are quoted in the text and presented in alphabetical order at the end
of the document. While references cited in this document comprise mainly southern African
published works, foreign references applicable to the occurrence of species outside southern
African waters are used when local information is lacking. There has also been extensive use
made of “grey” literature such as unpublished reports in the compilation of this document.
STATUS OF THE LINEFISHERY
The South African linefishery has undergone significant changes over the years. From modest
beginnings at the turn of the century, this fishery has grown to include an enormous number of
recreational, commercial and subsistence fishers. The effect of this escalating fishing effort has
manifested itself in several ways, including on the status of the resource itself. Most significantly
it has resulted in a severe change in species composition of landings, primarily due to the
targeting by fishers on vulnerable endemic reef fishes (van der Elst and de Freitas 1987).
Several of these are slow growing sparids with complicated life histories, including sex change,
which have been severely overexploited.
As a result of growing concern for the linefish resource, biological studies on a few important
sparid species (e.g. seventy-four, hottentot and carpenter) were initiated in the 1960s (Ahrens
1964, Nepgen 1977). However, a number of decades passed before the fishery received
research attention that was concomitant with its status. With the exception of elf (shad) in
KwaZulu-Natal and snoek in the Cape, no other restrictions were promulgated until a
comprehensive management framework was introduced for the linefishery in early 1985.
Included in this framework was the introduction of a two-tiered licence system for commercial
fishers, freezing of commercial effort at the 1985 level, the introduction of revised minimum size
limits equal to sizes at maturity, the division of species into categories based on perceived
vulnerability to exploitation, with associated bag limits for commercial and recreational fishers,
and the introduction of national closed seasons for certain species (Griffiths et al. 1999). One of
the main objectives behind this initiative was to steer fishing effort away from "vulnerable" reef
species to the more “resilient” shoaling species. Although species categories and size limits
were revised in 1992, in essence the management framework has remained unchanged. Owing
to a lack of biological and fisheries data, the level of protection afforded to each species has
depended largely on subjective perceptions of its vulnerability to exploitation, rather than on
quantitative evaluations.
Recent research surveys have revealed that regulations have failed to provide a reasonable
measure of resource protection, either because of poor enforcement or that the regulations
themselves were not limiting (Attwood and Bennett 1995, Brouwer et al. 1997, Mann et al.
1997b, Sauer et al. 1997). Catch rates for many species have continued to decline and stock
assessments indicate that may of the so-called “resilient” species (e.g. dusky kob and geelbek)
are severely overexploited (Griffiths 1997a, b, 1999, Hutton et al. In prep.). Given the increasing
demands for access to the fishery, a substantial revision of the management procedure was
required to prevent linefish stocks from collapsing. This led to the development of a Linefish
Management Protocol tailored to the requirements of the South African linefishery (Griffiths et
al. 1999).
The linefish status reports included in this document should therefore be seen as a contribution
towards establishing a sound knowledge base from which effective management plans for
South African linefish species can be developed.
5
ARIIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Galeichthys ater (Smith No. 59.2)
COMMON NAMES: black seabarbel, black seacatfish
COMPILER: M. Wilhelm (UCT)
REFEREE: M.H. Griffiths (MCM)
DATE OF COMPLETION: August 1999
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic to SEC and SWC (Smith and Heemstra 1986). Some
also caught at Swakopmund, NAM coast (Tilney 1990). Exclusively marine
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Primarily on the SEC and SWC coast may extend as far north as
TKI. However, it is likely that a third, as yet unidentified Galeichthys species occurs in TKI and
KZN waters (P.H. Heemstra, JLBSII, pers. comm.)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Shallow offshore reefs to about 60m depth
JUVENILES: Strictly marine, found in intertidal and on shallow subtidal reefs
EGGS & LARVAE: Paternal mouth brooder
MIGRATION: Juveniles migrate from the intertidal to shallow reefs before recruitment into the
fishery. No evidence of a breeding migration evident (Tilney 1990)
FISHERY: Largely a by-catch in the commercial and recreational skiboat fishery. Comprises
approximately 30% (± 10 mt per annum)) of Port Alfred linefish catches – increases in
importance when other linefish species are less abundant (Hecht and Tilney 1989, Tilney 1990).
Also occasionally taken by shore anglers and in beach seine-nets where it is generally regarded
as an undesirable by-catch species (Tilney 1990)
BIOLOGY AND POPULATION DYNAMICS
– 0.274/yr (t +1.406yrs)
) combined sexes, SEC (Tilney 1990)
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = 279.3mm FL (1–e
–5
3.04
SEC (Tilney 1990)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt (g) = 1.38 x 10 FL (mm)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: Unknown
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 235mm FL, combined sexes, SEC (Tilney 1990)
AGE AT 50 % MATURITY: Males 9 years, females 7 years (Tilney 1990)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochorist, paternal mouth-brooders (Tilney 1990)
M: F SEX RATIO: 1:1 SEC (Tilney 1990)
SPAWNING SEASON: Spawning between August and October, peaking in August in SEC
(Tilney 1990)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Shallow reefs off SEC (Tilney 1990)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 48cm TL (Smith and Heemstra 1986), 350mm FL (Tilney 1990)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 1.9kg (from length-weight equation)
MAXIMUM AGE: >15 years, SEC (Tilney 1990)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: (see Tilney 1990)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: Males 9 years, females 12 years (Tilney 1990)
NATURAL MORTALITY: (using Pauly’s method)
Males 0.211 year –1, females 0.133 year –1 (Tilney 1990)
–1
–1
FISHING MORTALITY: Males 0.123 year , females 0.124 year (Tilney 1990)
6
BIOLOGICAL REFERENCE POINTS
FSB25: Males = 0.24 year –1, females = 0.14 year -1 (Tilney 1990)
–1
-1
FSB40: Males = >0.25 year (outside curve), females = 0.25 year (Tilney 1990)
–1
-1
F0.1:Males = 0.28 year , females = 0.23 year (Tilney 1990)
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Males = 167 year -1 females = 0.125 year -1 (Tilney 1990)
SBPRcurrent: Males = 57%, females = 53% (Tilney 1990)
TREND IN CPUE: From 1980 at DIFS (Tilney, 1990). Effort increased by 17% from 1985–87 in
the Port Alfred skiboat fishery (Tilney 1990)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Catch composition in the Port Alfred skiboat fishery
increased from 0.5% to 4% between 1980 and 1987 (Hecht and Tilney 1989)
TREND IN SEX RATIO: Not available
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Not available
CURRENT REGULATIONS
CATEGORY: Not listed
BAG LIMIT: None
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Unknown
OTHER REGULATIONS: None
BAG LIMIT FREQUENCY: Not applicable
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Medium priority. Age and growth; catch composition; stock distribution, residency and migration;
stock assessment; aquaculture potential. Re-evaluation of biological and population dynamics
parameters
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
Sea barbel are becoming an increasingly important component of commercial catches as other
target linefish species decline
7
ARIIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Galeichthys feliceps (Smith No. 59.3)
COMMON NAMES: White seabarbel, white seacatfish
COMPILER: R.L. Tilney (MCM)
REFEREE: B.Q. Mann (ORI)
DATE OF COMPLETION: June 1999
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic to southern Africa. Sea and estuaries from East
London (SEC) to Swakopmund (NAM). The barbel species found east of Fish River is believed
to be a seperate species
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: As above. The stock has been evaluated on the SEC coast
between Fish River and Cannon Rocks
HABITAT
ADULTS: Found in the marine and estuarine environment – prefer muddy and sandy substrata
and reef fringes down to 60m
JUVENILES: Juveniles found in shallower water than adults, abundant in turbid estuaries, less
abundant in clear estuaries, unable to survive turbidities less than 8 ppt (Bennett 1985)
EGGS & LARVAE: Mouth-brooding adult males found in estuaries between September and
March
MIGRATION: Adults migrate into estuaries during their mouth-brooding phase, between
September and March
FISHERY: Largely caught as a by-catch of the commercial skiboat fishery in the SEC. A limited
amount of targeting occurs by skiboats in the SEC when catches of preferred species are poor
(Hecht and Tilney 1989, Tilney 1990). Also targeted by some skiboats off Swakopmund in NAM.
Largely an undesirable by-catch species in the recreational skiboat fishery and the shore fishery
-0.147/yr(t+1.406)yrs
),
GROWTH CURVE: Males Lt = 390mm FL (1-e
-0.119/yr(t+1.834)yrs
) SEC (Tilney 1990)
females Lt = 408mm FL(1-e
-6
3.08
SEC (Tilney 1990)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 9.55 x 10 FL(mm)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Males 315mm FL, females 295mm FL SEC (Tilney 1990)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Males 10 years, females 9 years SEC (Tilney 1990)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochorist, paternal mouth-brooders (Tilney 1990)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.03 whole population, 1:1.51 mature population SEC (Tilney 1990)
SPAWNING SEASON: Peak GSI in September, spawning between September and December
(Tilney 1990)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Large estuaries in the SEC (Tilney 1990)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 385mm FL (Tilney 1990)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 3.8 kg SA angling record (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: Males >16 years, females >18 years SEC (Tilney 1990)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: (see Tilney 1990)
8
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: Males 9 years, females 11 years SEC (Tilney 1990)
NATURAL MORTALITY: Males M = 0.137 year-1, females M = 0.101 year-1 SEC (Tilney 1990)
-1
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: Males F = 0.253 year , females F = 0.217 year SEC (Tilney 1990)
FSB25: 0.34 year-1 (Tilney 1990)
-1
FSB40: 0.17 year (Tilney 1990)
F0.1: 0.21 year-1 (Tilney 1990)
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: 0.25 year-1 (Tilney 1990)
SBPRcurrent: 29% (Tilney 1990)
TREND IN CPUE: Unknown
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Catch composition in the Port Alfred skiboat fishery
increased from 1.5% to 11.2% between 1980 and 1987 (Hecht and Tilney 1989)
TREND IN SEX RATIO: Unknown
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: None
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: Not applicable
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Re-evaluation of biological and population dynamics parameters
Sea barbel are becoming an increasingly important component of commercial catches as other
target linefish species decline
9
CARANGIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Caranx ignobilis (Smith No. 210.17)
COMMON NAMES: Giant kingfish, jack, trevally
COMPILER: B.Q. Mann and P.V. Radebe (ORI)
REFEREE: R.P. van der Elst (ORI)
DATE OF COMPLETION: July 1999
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Widespread in Indo-Pacific reaching Hawaii (Fischer and
Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986, Sudekum et al. 1991)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Individual stocks not yet identified. Locally, giant kingfish ranges
from Port Elizabeth to MOZ (juveniles found as far south as the Swartkops estuary in the SEC)
(Whitfield 1998)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Common in tropical and subtropical marine habitats such as shallow coastal areas,
islands, atolls and isolated shoals, often associated with reefs (Smith and Heemstra 1986, van
der Elst 1988, Sudekum et al. 1991, Whitfield 1998). Sometimes resident in large estuarine
systems such as Kosi Bay. Often associated with the KZN sardine run as a voracious predator
(R. van der Elst, ORI, pers. obs.)
JUVENILES: Found in estuaries (Blaber and Cyrus 1983, Blaber 1986, Smith and Heemstra
1986, Smith 1992, Whitfield 1998)
EGGS & LARVAE: Little known about early life history, no juveniles smaller than 40mm SL
recorded in KZN estuaries (Blaber and Cyrus 1983)
MIGRATION: Recruitment of juveniles into KZN estuaries occurs during summer, larger
juveniles and sub-adults may remain in the estuarine environment prior to maturation (Blaber
and Cyrus 1983, Whitfield 1998). Adults appear to be fairly wide ranging and are more
abundant off KZN during the summer months (Sedgwick’s/ORI/WWF Tagging Programme)
FISHERY: Important recreational gamefish, caught by shore anglers, skiboat anglers and
spearfishers, often sought after as a trophy fish. Little commercial value locally (van der Elst
1988)
-1
GROWTH CURVE: L∞ = 1838mm SL, k = 0.111 year , t0 = 0.097, Hawaii (Sudekum et al.
1991)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(kg) = 2.070 x 10-5 FL(cm)2.987 KZN (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
-5
2.977
Hawaii (Sudekum et al. 1991)
Wt(g) = 2.3 x 10 SL(mm)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(mm) = 1.056 FL(mm) + 58.7 KZN (van der Elst and Adkin
1991) TL(mm) = 1.070 FL(mm) + 35.7 Hawaii (Sudekum et al. 1991)
SL(mm) = 0.924 FL(mm) + 6.0 Hawaii (Sudekum et al. 1991)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 650mm FL, KZN (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
600mm SL (females), Hawaii (Sudekum et al. 1991)
10
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: ~3 years (van der Elst 1988), 3.5 years (Sudekum et al. 1991)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Assumed to be gonochoristic
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.39 Hawaii (Sudekum et al. 1991), male dominated in southern African
waters (van der Elst 1988)
SPAWNING SEASON: Summer in KZN (van der Elst 1988, Whitfield 1998). Peak spawning
season is from May to June (summer) in Hawaiian waters (Sudekum et. al. 1991)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Widespread in tropical areas, recorded from Zanzibar, Hawaii and the
Philippines where it appears likely that males and females aggregate in sex-specific shoals
(Williams 1965, Sudekum et. al. 1991)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 165cm FL (Smith and Heemstra 1986, Sudekum et. al. 1991)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 55kg in SA (van der Elst 1988), 68kg in Hawaii (Sudekum et. al. 1991)
MAXIMUM AGE: >10 years (Sudekum et. al. 1991)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: Unknown
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: Unknown
NATURAL MORTALITY: Unknown
FISHING MORTALITY: Unknown
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1 : Unknown
FMSY : Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent : Unknown
SBPRcurrent : Unknown
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
CATEGORY: Recreational List
-1
-1
BAG LIMIT: 5 person day
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Adults may receive some protection in the Maputaland and
St Lucia Marine Reserve Sanctuary areas, while juveniles may receive protection within the
Lake St Lucia Wilderness Area. There are reports of shoals of large giant kingfish which
congregate in the protected Umtentu estuary during the summer months
OTHER REGULATIONS: No sale
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: Unknown
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Age and growth, stock assessment, residency and migration, early life history
C. ignobilis is a top predator on tropical coral and rocky reefs and its aggressive behaviour
makes it vulnerable to localised overfishing. Greater protection of juveniles (perhaps through the
introduction of a minimum size limit, or protection of estuarine nursery habitats) may be
necessary to ensure the future sustainable use of this species
11
CARANGIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Caranx sem (Smith No. 210. 21)
COMMON NAMES: Blacktip kingfish, yellowtail kingfish
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Broadly distributed in coastal waters throughout Indian Ocean
and Western Pacific Ocean (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: As above from Algoa Bay northwards (Fischer and Bianchi 1984,
Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Shallow nearshore reefs and pinnacles where it often congregates in shoals, seldom
found in turbid or estuarine waters (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van
der Elst 1988, van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
JUVENILES: Common in coastal bays and large, unspoilt estuaries (Blaber and Cyrus 1983,
van der Elst 1988)
EGGS & LARVAE: Unknown
MIGRATION: Most abundant in southern African waters during summer (van der Elst 1988).
Tag returns have shown little movement with a mean distance travelled of 3km during an
average of 105 days at liberty (7 recaptures from 302 fish tagged) (Sedgwick’s/ORI/WWF
Tagging Programme)
FISHERY: Caught by shore anglers and skiboat anglers especially in northern KZN,
occasionally taken by spearfishers (van der Elst 1988)
GROWTH CURVE: Unknown
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 3.86 x 10-5 FL(mm) 2.856 (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(mm) = 1.138 FL(mm) + 9.8 (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 500 mm FL (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Unknown
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Unknown
M:F SEX RATIO: Unknown
SPAWNING SEASON: Unknown
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Few breeding fish observed in KZN waters, spawning probably occurs in
more tropical waters (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 100 cm (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: Unknown
12
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
SBPRcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Probably derives some protection in the Maputaland and St
Lucia Marine Reserve Sanctuary areas.
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Distribution and abundance, reproductive biology, age and growth, residency and migration,
stock assessment, early life history
It is an important gamefish species, which is also popular with saltwater flyfishing enthusiasts.
Greater protection of juveniles (perhaps through the introduction of a minimum size limit, or
protection of estuarine nursery habitats) may be necessary to ensure the future sustainable use
of this species
13
CARANGIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Caranx sexfasciatus (Smith No. 210.22)
COMMON NAMES: Bigeye kingfish, bigeye trevally
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Widespread in tropical Indo-Pacific, from the east coast of Africa
to Australia and Japan (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Swartkops estuary in the SEC northwards, the most abundant
Caranx species in SA waters (Smith and Heemstra 1986, Whitfield 1998)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Found in clear, warmer waters often associated with coastal reefs, sensitive to
changes in salinity and water turbidity (van der Elst 1988, Whitfield 1998)
JUVENILES: Commonly found in estuaries from KZN to the SEC, predominantly associated
with clear water although smaller juveniles may be found in more turbid water (Blaber and Cyrus
1983, Smith and Heemstra 1986, Blaber and Cyrus 1987, van der Elst 1988, Whitfield 1998)
EGGS & LARVAE: Little known about early life history, juveniles enter estuaries in KZN at 3060mm SL (Blaber and Cyrus 1983)
MIGRATION: Juveniles 30-60mm SL enter KZN estuaries between October and April (Blaber
and Cyrus 1983, Whitfield 1998). Adult fish appear to be summer migrants to northern KZN
waters (Kyle 1986)
FISHERY: Popular recreational gamefish especially in northern KZN, caught by shore anglers
and skiboat fishers and occasionally speared by divers. Popular with saltwater flyfishing
enthusiasts in Kosi Bay and along the Maputaland coast (Kyle 1986, van der Elst 1988)
GROWTH CURVE: Unknown, growth of juveniles in estuaries is about 12cm per year for the
first two years of life (Blaber and Cyrus 1983)
-4
2.573
KZN (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(kg) = 2.477 x 10 FL(cm)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(mm) = 1.140 FL(mm) + 6.5 KZN (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Sexual maturity attained at 50cm FL (van der Elst 1988)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochorist (van der Elst, ORI, pers. obs.)
SPAWNING SEASON: Spring and summer (Kyle 1986, van der Elst 1988, Whitfield 1998)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Inshore marine environment (Whitfield 1998)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 80cm FL (van der Elst 1988)
14
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Probably some protection afforded by the St Lucia and
Maputaland Marine Reserves
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Moderate priority, age and growth, stock assessment, reproductive biology, residency and
migration, early life history
It is an important gamefish species, which is also popular with saltwater flyfishing enthusiasts.
Greater protection of juveniles (perhaps through the introduction of a minimum size limit, or
protection of estuarine nursery habitats) may be necessary to ensure the future sustainable use
of this species
15
CARANGIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Lichia amia (Smith No. 210.33)
COMMON NAMES: Garrick, leervis
COMPILER: A. Govender (ORI)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: From the Mediterranean Sea (including Portugal), along the west
African coast (especially Mauritania), to the south and east coasts of southern Africa (Smith and
Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: From Cape Point to Cape Vidal (van der Elst et al. 1993)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Found in nearshore surface waters, varying from the surf zone to a depth of 50m (van
der Elst 1988, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
JUVENILES: Common in SEC and SWC estuaries and coastal shallows (van der Elst et al. 1993)
EGGS & LARVAE: Distributed southwards inshore of the Agulhas Current from spawning grounds
in KZN waters, a single larvae was recorded off Port Edward in 50m of water (Beckley 1993)
MIGRATION: Annually, during winter, adults migrate to KZN waters to spawn. During summer,
they return to Cape waters (van der Elst 1988)
FISHERY: Highly sought after as a recreational trophy fish by shore anglers, skiboat anglers and
spearfishers, especially during the short season in KZN, but makes up a relatively small percentage
of the total catch of these sectors (van der Elst et al. 1993)
LENGTH–WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 1.132 x 10-5 FL(mm)3.015 SEC (Marais and Baird 1980a)
Wt(g) = 7.286 x 10-5 FL(mm)2.725 KZN (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(mm) = 0.915 FL(mm)1.046 SEC (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 750mm FL (males), 850mm FL (females), 800mm FL (combined
sexes) (van der Elst et al. 1993)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochorist (R. van der Elst, ORI, pers. comm.)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1 (van der Elst et al. 1993)
SPAWNING SEASON: September to November (van der Elst et al. 1993)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: KZN waters (van der Elst et al. 1993)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 1800mm FL (Smith and Heemstra 1986)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 32 kg, SA angling record (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: 9 years (van der Elst et al. 1993)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 70cm TL (current minimum size)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: Between 1 and 2 years (van der Elst et al. 1993)
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.37 year-1 KZN (van der Elst et al. 1993)
16
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.17 year-1 KZN (van der Elst et al. 1993)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
FSB50: 0.66 year-1 KZN (van der Elst et al. 1993)
-1
F0.1: 0.7 year KZN (van der Elst et al. 1993)
FMSY: 5.95 year-1 KZN (van der Elst et al. 1993)
CURRENT STATUS
-1
Fcurrent: 0.17 year (van der Elst et al. 1993)
TREND IN CPUE: CPUE in KZN has varied from year to year between 1957 to 1991 with no clear
trend (van der Elst et al. 1993)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Analysis of mean weight of fish caught between 1957 and 1991 in KZN
revealed a cyclical pattern with approximately four years of large fish followed by two years of
smaller fish. It is believed that this reflects patterns of recruitment (van der Elst et al. 1993)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: 70cmTL
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Probably none due to migratory behaviour
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Age and growth and stock assessment needs to be undertaken as a matter of urgency
Garrick is a prime recreational angling species and trophy fish that should be managed to attain a
large size and not a large tonnage of landings. Although it appears as if the stock status of garrick is
currently sound, a review of these findings and calculation of biological reference points is needed.
Estuarine protected areas in the SEC and SWC, which provide important nursery areas for garrick,
should be established
17
CARANGIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Scomberoides commersonianus (Smith No. 210.38)
COMMON NAMES: Largemouth queenfish, giant queenfish, talang queenfish
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Widely distributed throughout the Indian Ocean and the Western
Pacific Ocean (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Probably a single stock from Algoa Bay northwards (R. van der
Elst, ORI, pers. obs.)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Pelagic, tropical coastal regions, periodically enters estuaries, generally intolerant of
low salinities but will enter turbid water, swims in small groups and often frequents reefs and
offshore islands (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988,
Blaber et al. 1995). Sometimes associated with whale sharks (R. van der Elst, ORI, pers. obs.)
JUVENILES: Classified as a species which is only partially dependent on estuaries, however,
juveniles are abundant in estuaries in north-east Australia and are fairly common in Durban Bay
(Wallace et al. 1984a, Blaber et al. 1989, Guastella 1994)
MIGRATION: Little known about the migratory behaviour of this species, abundance increases
off the KZN coast during summer (van der Elst 1988)
FISHERY: Occasionally caught by shore anglers, recreational skiboat anglers and light-tackle
boat anglers, particularly in Durban Bay and Richards Bay. Also taken by spearfishers (van der
Elst 1988, Guastella 1994)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Unknown
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Unknown
SEX RATIO: Unknown
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Unknown
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 120 cm (Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
18
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1 : Unknown
FMSY : Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent : Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: None
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: None, pelagic species
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
More research on the general biology of this species is needed
As this species appears to be estuarine-associated to a certain degree, greater protection of the
estuarine environment along the KZN and TKI coasts may offer some protection
19
CARANGIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Seriola lalandi (Smith No. 210.44)
COMMON NAMES: Yellowtail, southern yellowtail
COMPILER: A.J. Penney (Pisces cc)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Circumglobal species in warm-temperate waters, consisting of a
number of disjunct populations (Smith and Heemstra 1986). SA population occurs from
northern SWC to southern KZN, from the shore out to the continental shelf edge. The species
is strongly reef pinnacle orientated and the stock extends out to offshore seamounts such as the
Alphard Banks south of Cape Agulhas and Tripp Seamount off the WC
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: SA population throughout its known range, but primarily between
Cape Point and southern KZN
HABITAT
ADULTS: All life phases are epipelagic, although larger fish may occur to depths >40m. Adults
mainly occur in surface waters of 15°C to 24°C (above the thermocline) on the central Agulhas
Bank between Cape Point and Port Elizabeth
JUVENILES: Distribution of the juveniles is unknown, and only a few specimens have been
seen (some in False Bay). Based on life histories of similar species elsewhere, the juveniles are
pelagic and start to form shoals in association with floating objects (such as kelp) at 5–10cm FL.
15cm FL and larger juveniles start to shoal with other pelagic species, such as sardine and
juvenile chub mackerel
EGGS & LARVAE: Yellowtail eggs have been found in plankton from southern KZN to Cape
Point, with the highest concentrations being in the central Agulhas Bank area. Although
spawning has been observed close to shore, most of the eggs have been found from 5–20
nautical miles offshore (Brownell 1979)
MIGRATION: Yellowtail remain concentrated in the area off Cape Agulhas during the summer
months (Oct – Mar), where the bulk of the catches are made. During this time they undertake
rapid, repeated movements between conspicuous reef pinnacles such as the Alphard Bank (40
Mile Bank), Vlakbank, Six Mile Bank, 12 Mile Bank, Anvil Rock and along the western shore of
False Bay (Penney 1990)
FISHERY:
SHORE ANGLING: Although primarily an offshore species, yellowtail has been the main target
species for shore anglers fishing off the Rooikrantz ledges for the past 50 years (Bennett 1990).
Annual catches are not known, although the ledges have become famous for high catch rates.
Also caught from the shore during the annual KZN sardine run
SPEARFISHING: Yellowtail is the main target species for spearfishers seeking gamefish
species in the SWC. It is particularly targeted in the Struis Bay – Arniston area during the
summer months, and when shoals move into False Bay along the Rooikrantz, to the extent that
this species is illegally spearfished for commercial gain at such times. Annual catches are not
known (Mann et al. 1997b)
20
RECREATIONAL BOAT: The recreational boat fishery in the Cape Agulhas area closely mirrors
the commercial fishery, and yellowtail is the main target species in the summer months,
particularly for vessels operating out of Struis Bay, but also for skiboats on the western shore of
False Bay (Sauer et al. 1997). A large proportion of the ‘recreational’ catch is actually made by
B-permit semi-commercial vessels. The true recreational catch is estimated to be about half as
big as the annual commercial catch
COMMERCIAL BOAT: Yellowtail is the principal species in the commercial boat fishery in the
Cape Agulhas region, where it contributes up to 90% of the catches in the summer months. It is
particularly important to the fisheries operating out of Gans Bay, Struis Bay and Arniston. The
species is also periodically caught in large quantities by larger freezer or ice vessels fishing on
offshore reef areas such as the Alphard and 72 Mile banks. Reported commercial catches have
averaged about 700mt per year since 1986, having declined to some 220mt in 1981, just before
prohibition of purse-seining (Penney 1990)
BEACH SEINE: Yellowtail have made a moderate contribution to beach-seine catches on the
western shore of False Bay since at least the early 1960s. Reported catches have fluctuated
between 2mt and 170mt over the period 1972 to 1998. However, beach-seine catches have
also been substantially under-reported (Lamberth et al. 1997)
PURSE SEINE: Purse-seining for yellowtail has been prohibited since 1982, although
applications continue to be received and some illegal purse seining is thought to continue.
Reported purse-seine catches increased from 120mt to 540mt from 1972 to 1976, and then
declined to 160mt in 1981 (Penney 1990). Actual purse-seine catches were probably much
higher than this, probably at least double. Purse-seine fishing at least doubled the F on the
yellowtail stock over this period
-0.17609/yr (t + 1.26 yrs)
) both sexes, SWC (Penney Unpubl.
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = 135.02cm FL (1-e
data)
-3
2.7566
SWC (Penney Unpubl. data)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 3.31 x 10 FL(cm)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIP: TL(cm) = 1.1179 FL(cm) + 1.5092 SWC (Penney, Unpubl. data)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 615mm FL both sexes, SWC (Penney Unpubl. data)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Approximately 2 to 3 years, both sexes, SWC (Penney Unpubl. data)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochorist (Penney Unpubl. data)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1 SWC (Penney Unpubl. data)
SPAWNING SEASON: Strong October – March peak, with some gonad activity observed all
year round (Penney Unpubl. data)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Yellowtail spawn over a wide area during their summer spawning
season, from southern KZN to Cape Point. The main spawning area appears to be the central
Agulhas Bank, south of Cape Agulhas, where the stock concentrates in the summer months
(Penney Unpubl. data)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 1290mm FL longest recorded in commercial samples, but known to attain
1500mm FL. Smith and Heemstra (1986) report it attaining 193cm, but this may refer to a
specimen of Seriola dumerili
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: SA spearfishing record is 34.2 kg (van der Elst 1988). World record (New
Zealand) is 52kg (IGFA). Smith and Heemstra (1986) report it attaining 50.8kg, but this probably
refers to a specimen of Seriola dumerili
MAXIMUM AGE: Maximum age read from otoliths is 9 or 10 years, but possibly gets a few
years older (Penney Unpubl. data)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 400–450mm FL (NMLS Unpubl. data)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: Approximately 1 year (Penney Unpubl. data)
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = ~0.3 year (Pauly equation, Thomson and Penney In prep.)
FISHING MORTALITY: Mean F on ages 2 – 4 (which comprise the bulk of the fishery)
-1
-1
escalated from an estimated 0.2 year in 1975 to a maximum 0.8 year at the height of the
-1
purse-seine fishery in 1981. F dropped back to 0.2–0.3 year with prohibition of purse seining,
and has since increased gradually to around 0.5 year-1 (Thomson and Penney In prep.)
21
FSB25: 0.6 year-1 (Thomson and Penney In prep.)
-1
FSB40 : 0.45 year (Thomson and Penney In prep.)
F0.1: Unknown
-1
FMSY: 0.4 year (Thomson and Penney In prep.)
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Poorly estimated in recent years, but about 0.4 year-1 (Thomson and Penney In prep.)
TREND IN CPUE: Reported commercial boat CPUE fluctuated around 0.2 – 0.3mt.boat-1.day-1
during the main fishing season from 1969 - 1978, before declining rapidly to levels of < 0.1
mt.boat-1.day-1 in the early 1980s. After prohibition of purse-seining, CPUE increased rapidly to
-1
-1
-1
-1
above 0.2mt.boat .day in 1984, before stabilising at current levels of about0.15mt.boat .day
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Contribution by yellowtail to commercial catches fluctuates
widely between years as a result of varying year class strength and availability, averaging 5% 10% of annual reported commercial catches
TREND IN SEX RATIO: No trend
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Fluctuates inter-annually in response to year-class strength, with no
consistent trend
CURRENT REGULATIONS
CATEGORY: Exploitable List
-1
-1
BAG LIMIT: 10 person day (recreationals only)
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: None (migratory species)
OTHER REGULATIONS: May not be caught using a purse seine net
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Existing information and analyses need to be published
Yellowtail is of major significance to small-scale commercial fishers in the SWC. FSB40 appears
higher than FMSY – hence a conservative approach is needed and F should not rise above 0.4
-1
year
22
CARANGIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Trachinotus africanus (Smith No. 210.47)
COMMON NAMES: Southern pompano, African pompano
COMPILER: B.Q. Mann (ORI)
DATE OF COMPLETION: January 2000
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Primarily confined to KZN and MOZ but extending as far south
as Knysna. Also recorded from Gulf of Aden, Oman and the eastern Indian Ocean, possibly a
disjunct distribution pattern (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Assumed to be KZN and MOZ
HABITAT
ADULTS: Found in warm, shallow coastal regions usually in association with reefs or rocky
outcrops (Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
JUVENILES: Make use of sheltered bays as nursery areas such as Durban beachfront,
sometimes entering estuaries (Wallace 1975a, Berry et al. 1982, van der Elst 1988)
MIGRATION: Adults appear to be fairly wide ranging (mean distance of 57km travelled of the 23
recaptures made to date). A southward migration into KZN waters occurs during the summer
months (Sedgwick’s/ORI/WWF Tagging Programme, van der Elst 1988)
FISHERY: Caught primarily by shore anglers along the KZN and MOZ coast. Comprised 0.6%
(by number) of shore anglers catches in KZN between 1994-96 (Mann et al. 1997a). Also taken
by spearfishers, of little commercial value (van der Elst 1988)
GROWTH CURVE: Not calculated, extremely fast growth observed in specimens kept in
captivity at Sea World, Durban (van der Elst 1988)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Attain sexual maturity before the age of 3 years (van der Elst 1988)
SPAWNING SEASON: Spring in KZN (van der Elst 1988)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Spawning thought to occur in northern KZN and MOZ with adults
sometimes aggregating in large shoals (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: Attains 80-90cm TL (Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 15kg (SASAA record), although specimens in Durban’s Sea World have
exceeded 25kg (van der Elst 1988)
23
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1 : Unknown
FMSY : Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent : Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Probably limited due to migratory nature
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Reproductive biology, age and growth, stock assessment, residency and migration, early life
history, aquaculture potential
Little is known about the biology of this species and further investigation is warranted. Van der
Elst and Adkin (1991) expressed some concern about the vulnerability of juveniles in nursery
areas along Durban’s beachfront
24
CARANGIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Trachinotus botla (Smith No. 210.50)
COMMON NAMES: Largespot pompano, wave garrick, moonfish
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Widespread in Indo-Pacific from Algoa Bay northwards to
Kenya, also Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Eastern and Western Australia (Fischer and Bianchi 1984,
Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Although occasionally reaching as far south as Port Elizabeth,
largespot pompano are most abundant in northern KZN and MOZ (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Inhabits clear, shallow coastal waters, often preferring the rough surf zone along
sandy beaches (van der Elst 1988)
JUVENILES: Found in the shallowest part of the surf zone where they are at times stranded by
receding waves, intolerant of fresh or turbid waters (van der Elst 1988)
MIGRATION: Of the 420 tagged to date only 7 (1.67%) have been recaptured with a mean
distance travelled of only 5km which suggests considerable residency in adults of this species
(Sedgwick’s/ORI/WWF Tagging Programme)
FISHERY: Caught primarily by shore anglers using light tackle along the northern KZN and
MOZ coast (van der Elst 1988). Comprised 1.4% (by number) of shore anglers catches in KZN
between 1994-96 (Mann et al. 1997a)
GROWTH CURVE: Not calculated
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 2.216 x 10-5 FL(mm)2.944 KZN (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Spawning has been recorded on northern KZN beaches (van der Elst
1988)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: Attains 75cm TL (Smith and Heemstra 1986)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 2.6kg (SASAA record)
25
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1 : Unknown
FMSY : Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent : Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: No change between 1975-77 (0.02 fish angler-1 day-1) and 1994-96 (0.02 fish
angler-1 day-1) in KZN (Joubert 1981b, Mann et al. 1997a). A seasonal peak in catch rates was
recorded in May-June (Joubert 1981b)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: No change in percent composition (by number) between
1975-77 (1.43%) and 1994-96 (1.39%) in KZN (Joubert 1981b, Mann et al. 1997a)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Probably receives protection in the St Lucia and
Maputaland Marine Sanctuary areas (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Reproductive biology, age and growth, stock assessment, residency and migration, early life
history
Little is known about the biology of this species and further investigation is warranted. This
species forms an important component of recreational and subsistence linefisher’s catches
along beaches in northern KZN (R. Kyle, KZNNCS, pers. comm.)
26
CHEILODACTYLIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Chirodactylus jessicalenorum (Smith No. 215.5)
COMMON NAMES: Natal fingerfin, Natal bank steenbras
REFEREE: S.T. Fennessy (ORI)
DATE OF COMPLETION: April 1999
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic to the east coast of SA from Coffee Bay in TKI to
Sodwana Bay in KZN (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Same as for distribution of species
HABITAT
ADULTS: Inhabits inshore reefs in depths from 3 - 20m (Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst
1988)
JUVENILES: Often found beneath floating objects at sea (Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst
1988)
EGGS & LARVAE: Chirodactylus spp. Larvae reared from eggs collected on KwaZulu-Natal shelf
(A. Connell, CSIR, Unpubl. Data)
MIGRATION: Congregates at certain times of the year into loosely packed shoals, presumably as a
prelude to spawning (van der Elst 1988)
FISHERY: This species is primarily shot by spearfishers and is rarely caught by hook and line
anglers (van der Elst 1988, van der Elst 1989, Mann et al. 1997b)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 75cm TL (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 10.2 kg (van der Elst 1988)
27
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Percentage composition has remained relatively constant
between 1984-95 (Mann et al. 1997b)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Mean size appears to have declined slightly from 1984-95 (Mann et al.
1997b)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: None
MINIMUM SIZE: None (previously a 2 kg minimum weight limit for shore spearfishers in KZN)
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Some protection is probably provided in the St Lucia and
Maputaland Marine Reserves (Chater et al. 1993)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Reproductive biology, age and growth, distribution and abundance, stock assessment,
residency and migration, early life history
Natal fingerfin are almost exclusively targeted by spearfishers. Little is known about the biology
and population status of this species and further research is needed
28
CORYPHAENIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Coryphaena hippurus (Smith No. 211.2)
COMMON NAMES: Dorado, dolphinfish, mahimahi
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Worldwide in tropical and subtropical seas (Shcherbachev 1973,
Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986, Ditty et al. 1994)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Distributed throughout southern African waters to 35°S with
occasional large adults being caught off the Cape south coast (Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der
Elst 1988)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Epipelagic, wide-ranging oceanic fish of tropical and warm temperate waters, sometimes
aggregate under floating objects, often seen in pairs. May form small aggregations (Oxenford and
Hunte 1987, van der Elst 1988, Massuti and Morales-Nin 1995, 1997)
JUVENILES: Pelagic, often associated with flotsam, where their cryptic colouring provides good
camouflage (Smith and Heemstra 1986, Ditty et al. 1994)
EGGS & LARVAE: Though development and distribution are poorly understood, larvae are widely
distributed in neritic and oceanic waters primarily near the surface. Larvae are usually found at
°
temperatures greater than 24 C and beyond the 50m depth isobath (Shcherbachev 1973, Rose and
Hassler 1974, van der Elst 1988, Ditty et al. 1994). Larvae reared from eggs collected off Park
Rynie (A. Connell, CSIR, Unpubl. data). Larvae recorded off east coast, particularly in summer (L.E.
Beckley, ORI, Unpubl. data)
MIGRATION: Unknown in SA. Migration circuits have been proposed for northern and southern
dorado stocks in the western central Atlantic with fish undertaking a pre-spawning migration into
higher latitudes during spring and summer (Oxenford and Hunte 1986a,b). A northward prespawning migration of adult fish from tropical areas of the Atlantic Ocean into the Mediterranean
has also been recorded (Massuti and Morales-Nin 1995)
FISHERY: Highly prized commercial and recreational species throughout its distribution, caught
mainly by trolling lures or baits (Rose and Hassler 1974, Uchiyama et al. 1986, van der Elst 1988,
Benetti et al. 1995). Commercially important in some parts of the world where traps, purse seines
and long-lines are used (Bannister 1976, Hassler and Hogarth 1977, Uchiyama et al. 1986, Benetti
et al. 1995). Increasing interest being shown in the aquaculture potential of this species due to its
very fast growth (Hassler and Hogarth 1977, Kraul 1989, 1991)
-0.72/yr (t - 0.068yrs)
) Hawaii, captive fish (Benetti et al. 1995)
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = 169.6 cm SL (1-e
-5
2.602
-8
2.94
Males Wt(kg) = 1.24 x 10 SL(mm) Central Atlantic (Oxenford and Hunte 1986a,b)
-8
2.84
Females Wt(kg) = 2.22 x 10 SL(mm) Central Atlantic (Oxenford and Hunte 1986a,b)
29
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Males 735mm SL, Females 610mm SL (first maturity) Central
Atlantic (Oxenford and Hunte 1986a,b)
Males 618mm FL, Females 545mm FL Mediterranean (Massuti and Morales-Nin 1997)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: During first year of life (Shcherbachev 1973, Massuti and Morales-Nin
1997), at approximately 4 to 5 months of age (Uchiyama et al. 1986, Oxenford and Hunte 1986a,b)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochoristic, multiple spawners, show sexual dimorphism with males
growing larger and having a steeper forehead (Oxenford and Hunte 1986a)
M:F SEX RATIO: Generally a 1:1 sex ratio although females tend to dominate the smaller size
classes (450-600mm FL) and males the larger size classes (800-1300mm FL) (Rose and Hassler
1974, Massuti and Morales-Nin 1997)
SPAWNING SEASON: Peak spawning occurs in summer although spawning has been recorded
throughout the year (Shcherbachev 1973, Oxenford and Hunte 1986a,b, van der Elst 1988, Ditty et
al. 1994, Massuti and Morales-Nin 1997)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Tropical oceanic waters, often closer to shore (Shcherbachev 1973, Ditty
et al. 1994, Massuti and Morales-Nin 1995, 1997)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 180cm FL but few exceed 100cm FL (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: 4 years (Beardsley 1967)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: Variable
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: During first year of life
FISHING MORTALITY: Unknown in SA waters. No evidence that fishing mortality is affecting
dorado stock abundance in the eastern Caribbean (Oxenford and Hunte 1987)
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1 : Unknown
FMSY : Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: Unknown in SA waters
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: None, highly migratory, pelagic species
BAG LIMIT FREQUENCY: Unknown
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Information on stock distribution, migration patterns and catches by foreign vessels fishing in SA
waters is needed
Clearly a species which is subject to low fishing pressure in SA waters
30
DICHISTIIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Dichistius capensis (Smith No. 187.1)
COMMON NAMES: Galjoen, damba
COMPILER: C.G. Attwood (MCM)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic to southern Africa occurring from southern Angola to
Durban (Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: As above
HABITAT
ADULTS & JUVENILES: Adults and juveniles occupy the same habitat: exposed surf-zone and
shallow sub-tidal reefs, including kelp beds. They are most abundant at the interface of sand
and reefs. Galjoen never enter estuaries
EGGS & LARVAE: Little known about distribution, eggs are known to float and have been
described by Leis and van der Lingen (1997). Larvae are particularly vulnerable to starvation
during very early life (van der Lingen 1994)
MIGRATION: A complex pattern that includes resident and dispersive behaviour has emerged
from tagging studies. The majority of tag returns (>75%) suggest resident behaviour, with
ranges smaller than 500m, while others are known to migrate vast distances, throughout the
range of the population. The disparity is not correlated with season, size or sex. Although larger
individuals show a greater propensity for dispersal, the trend is not consistent as some small
fish have moved large distances and some large fish were recovered at their release area after
several years (Attwood and Bennett 1994)
FISHERY: The vast majority of galjoen are taken by the recreational shore-fishery and spearfishery. A net-fishery that once operated has been banned, but illegal catches are still common
on the WC. Galjoen are occasionally taken by light tackle boat anglers. The sale of galjoen is
illegal
-0.252/yr(t-0.694yrs)
) SWC (Bennett and Griffiths 1986)
GROWTH CURVE: Males Lt = 472mm TL(1-e
-0.142/yr (t-0.282yrs)
) SWC (Bennett and Griffiths 1986)
Females Lt = 677mm TL(1-e
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 9.03 x 10-6 TL(mm)3.12 SWC (Bennett and Griffiths 1986)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIP: FL(mm) = 0.91 TL + 2.71 SWC (Bennett and Griffiths 1986)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Males 31cm TL, Females 34cm TL (Bennett and Griffiths 1986)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Males and females reach maturity in their sixth year (Bennett and
Griffiths 1986)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochoristic (Bennett and Griffiths 1986)
M:F SEX RATIO: Samples are always biased towards females, as they grow faster and enter
the fishery earlier but no reason to suspect that the ratio differs from 1:1 (Bennett and Griffiths
1986)
31
SPAWNING SEASON: October to March (Bennett and Griffiths 1986)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Throughout range
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 670mm TL
MAXIMUM AGE: Oldest aged fish in Bennett and Griffiths’ (1986) sample was 13 years, but fish
over 600mm TL have not been reliably aged. M. Kerstan (MCM) examined an otolith of a
640mm TL fish in 1988, and suggested an age of over 20 years
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 350mm TL (minimum legal size)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: Males 6 years, Females 5 years
-1
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: Not reliably estimated. Males M = 0.38 year , females M = 0.32 year
(Bennett 1988)
-1
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: Males F = 0.53 year , females F = 1.08 year (Bennett 1988)
FSB25 : Male >>1 year-1 (tc=6), Female 0.4 year-1 (tc = 5) SWC (Bennett 1988)
-1
-1
FSB40 : Male 0.8 year (tc=6), Female 0.25 year (tc = 5) SWC (Bennett 1988)
-1
-1
F0.1: Male 0.55 year (tc=6), Female 0.3 year (tc = 5) SWC (Bennett 1988)
-1
FMSY: Female 1.49 year (tc = 5) SWC (Bennett 1988)
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Males 0.53 year-1, females 1.08 year-1 (Bennett 1988)
SBPRcurrent: Males 45%, females 20% (Bennett 1988)
TREND IN CPUE: SWC angling club records show the following (Bennett et al. 1994):1938–65
erratic catches; 1965–88 sustained decline; 1989-92 modest recovery. The time series ended in
1992 at 3 fish.100hrs-1. Angling survey in 1994-96 revealed CPUE of 0.21 fish.angler-1.day-1,
-1
which translates approximately to 2.6 fish.100hrs (Brouwer et al. 1997). CPUE therefore
appears to be stable in the SWC. By comparison, research CPUE at De Hoop averages at 49
fish.100hrs-1 (>35cm TL) (Bennett and Attwood 1993 + updates)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Research catch composition stable at De Hoop. No data
available for exploited areas to construct a time series
TREND IN SEX RATIO: No data available
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Mean size in SWC club records was stable at just over 1kg between
1938 and 1992 (Bennett et al. 1994). Fish caught for research in De Hoop Marine Reserve are
smaller than fish caught by recreational anglers in adjacent areas (Attwood and Wilhelm, In
prep.)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
BAG LIMIT: 5 person .day
MINIMUM SIZE: 35cm TL shown to be effective (Attwood and Bennett 1990)
CLOSED SEASON: 15 October to 28/9 February
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Cape Point, De Hoop, Tsitsikamma National Park, Sardinia
Bay (Bennett and Attwood 1993, Attwood and Bennett 1994)
OTHER REGULATIONS: No commercial trade
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: From Attwood and Bennett (1995b)
Bag size
% frequency in catch
0
84.1
1
10.9
2
2.9
3
1.1
4
0.5
5
0.2
6
0.2
>6
0.1
32
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Continuation of study on fish movement patterns. Continuation of monitoring of catch per unit
effort and age structure in MPAs at Goukamma, De Hoop, Cape Point, Tsitsikamma, and in
exploited areas at Cape Point and Still Bay. More areas need to be covered
Careful monitoring of the fishery by means of shore patrols (roving creel surveys) should be
undertaken throughout the distribution of this species on a regular basis. Improved law
enforcement is required on the WC to reduce illegal netting for galjoen
33
DICHISTIIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Dichistius multifasciatus (Smith No. 187.2)
COMMON NAME: Banded galjoen
REFEREE: C.G. Attwood (MCM)
DATE OF COMPLETION: November 1998
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: South-east African endemic occurring from SWC through to
southern MOZ and off Madagascar (Joubert and Hanekom 1980, Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith
and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Southern MOZ to Stil Bay, common along the TKI and KZN coast
(Smith and Heemstra 1986)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Inshore reef fish found in the turbulent surf zone along rocky shores (Joubert and
Hanekom 1980, Joubert 1981a, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
JUVENILES: Found over shallow reefs, in tidal rock pools and sub-tidal gullies (Berry et al. 1982,
van der Elst 1988)
EGGS & LARVAE: Pelagic, little known
MIGRATION: To date a total of 5 (3.3%) of the 151 banded galjoen tagged have been recaptured.
Although limited, these data suggest that banded galjoen are fairly nomadic with an mean distance
travelled of 112km (Sedgwick's/ORI/WWF Tagging Programme)
FISHERY: Of moderate Importance to shore anglers along the KZN and TKI coast (Joubert 1981b,
Mann et al. 1997b). Larger specimens are occasionally speared (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
GROWTH CURVE: Not aged
-5
3.152
KZN (Joubert 1981a)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g)= 1.2x10 FL(mm)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: FL(mm) = 3.741 + 0.885 TL(mm) KZN (Joubert 1981a)
LENGTH AT 50% SEXUAL MATURITY: Unknown, length at first maturity approximately 190mm
FL (males) and 215mm FL (females) (Joubert 1981a, van der Elst 1988)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.3 (Joubert 1981a)
SPAWNING SEASON: Extended spawning season from March – October, peaking from July October (Joubert 1981a)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Off KZN coast (Joubert 1981a, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst
1988)
34
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 320mm FL (Smith and Heemstra 1986)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: Unknown, previously 150mm TL in KZN
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: CPUE declined from 0.03 fish.angler-1.day-1 in 1975-77 (Joubert 1981b) to 0.01
fish angler-1.day-1 in 1994-96 (Mann et al. 1997a) in KZN
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Decrease in catch composition from 2.94% in 1975-77
(Joubert 1981b) to 0.95 in 1994-96 (Mann et al. 1997a) in KZN
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Probably receives some protection in the St Lucia Marine
Reserve Sanctuary and Mkambati Marine Reserve Wilderness Area (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: Unknown (insufficient data)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Age and growth, stock assessment (YPR and SBPR), residency and migration, stock
distribution, early life history and recruitment studies
Although only a moderately important shore angling species caught along the KZN and TKI
coast, banded galjoen are commonly caught by subsistence fishers. Declines in both CPUE and
catch composition suggest that further investigation of the status of this species is needed
35
DINOPERCIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Dinoperca petersi (Smith No. 180.1)
COMMON NAME: Cave bass, lampfish
COMPILER: S.T. Fennessy
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Western Indian Ocean including Pakistan, southern Oman, Kenya,
MOZ, and SA south to Algoa Bay (Smith and Heemstra 1986, Randall 1995)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Assumed to be southern MOZ to SWC
HABITAT
ADULTS: Adults inhabit reefs to a depth of 50m (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
JUVENILES: Juveniles found amongst shallow subtidal rocky reefs in KZN (van der Elst and Adkin
1991)
MIGRATION: Unknown
FISHERY: Fairly important in recreational and commercial skiboat fisheries and in the spearfishery
in KZN (van der Elst 1988, Mann et al. 1997a, Mann et al. 1997b)
2.96
(FishBase 1998)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) =0.0249TL(cm)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 30cm FL KZN (van der Elst 1988)
SPAWNING SEASON: Winter (van der Elst 1988)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Reefs off KZN (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 5.8kg SA spearfishing record (van der Elst 1988)
36
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: None
SIZE LIMIT: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves (Chater et al.
1995a)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Establish efficacy of existing marine reserves
Currently not covered by existing legislation, this fish is vulnerable to spearfishers. Consideration
should be given to including this species on the restricted list with a size limit of 30cm as
precautionary management
37
ELOPIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Elops machnata (Smith No. 36.2)
COMMON NAMES: Springer, ladyfish, tenpounder
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Indo-West Pacific species ranging from SA northwards to the
Red Sea, India and into the western Pacific (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra
1986, Whitfield 1998)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Extending from the Breede River northwards, common off TKI, KZN
and MOZ (van der Elst 1988, Whitfield 1998)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Adults are found in shallow coastal waters and commonly enter estuaries, particularly
larger subtropical estuaries which are permanently open. May be found in turbid water and has a
wide salinity tolerance (Wallace 1975a, Marais and Baird 1980a,b, Marais 1984, Cyrus and
Blaber 1987, van der Elst 1988, Whitfield 1998)
JUVENILES: Common in warm, turbid estuaries on which they are dependent as nursery areas
(Wallace 1975a, Wallace and van der Elst 1975, Wallace et al. 1984a, Cyrus and Blaber 1987,
Paterson and Whitfield 1996)
EGGS & LARVAE: Spawning takes place at sea and larvae enter KZN, TKI and SEC estuaries
between 20mm and 40mm SL during spring and summer. The larvae resemble transparent eel
leptocephali but have a forked tail (Wallace 1975b, Wallace and van der Elst 1975, Melville-Smith
and Baird 1980, Beckley 1984a, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988, Whitfield 1998)
MIGRATION: Of the 1263 individuals tagged in the Sedgwick's/ORI/WWF Tagging Programme
only 22 (1.74%) have been recaptured with a mean distance travelled of 29km during a mean of
355 days at liberty. E. machnata is more abundant off TKI during the spring and summer
months and large shoals of breeding adults have been found off MOZ during winter, suggesting
the possibility of a northward spawning migration during autumn (van der Elst 1988, Plumstead
et al. 1989)
FISHERY: Important component of estuarine sport anglers' catches in KZN, TKI and SEC. Also
taken by rock and surf anglers, recreational skiboat anglers and spearfishers. Particularly popular
with saltwater fly anglers. Of little commercial importance but caught by subsistence and artisanal
fishers in St Lucia and Kosi Bay using fish traps and gill-nets (Kyle 1986, van der Elst 1988, van der
Elst 1989, Mann 1995)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 0.0072 FL(cm)3.0527 SEC (Marais and Baird 1980a)
MORPHOMETRICS: TL(cm) = 1.13 FL(cm) + 2.869 SEC (Marais and Baird 1980a)
38
SPAWNING SEASON: Winter (van der Elst 1988)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Off MOZ (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 90cm - 1m (van der Elst 1988)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: Increase in gill net CPUE between late 1970s and 1992-93 in both the Sundays
and Swartkops estuaries, SEC (Marais and Baird 1980b, Marais 1981, Baird et al. 1996)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Increase in percentage composition of anglers' catches from
1.9% in 1972-78 to 2.2% in 1988-93 in Swartkops estuary SEC (Marais and Baird 1980a, Baird et
al. 1996)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None, previously 150mmTL in KZN
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: No evidence of effective MPAs, although some protection may
be obtained in the St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Sanctuaries and in the Lake St Lucia
Wilderness Area
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING BAG LIMIT: Unknown
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Age and growth, stock assessment, egg and larval dispersion, residency and migration
MANAGEMENT CONSIDRATIONS
E. machnata is considered to be under only moderate angling pressure although estuarine nursery
areas may be threatened (van der Elst and Adkin 1991). Protection of suitable estuarine habitat
along the south-eastern seaboard should therefore be seen as beneficial management
39
GEMPYLIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Thyrsites atun (Smith No. 247.8)
COMMON NAME: Snoek
COMPILER: M.H. Griffiths (MCM)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: A circumglobal inhabitant of the shelf waters of the temperate
southern hemisphere. Snoek are found from the surface to the seabed, to depths of 550m
(Kailola et al. 1993). It occurs off southern Africa, Australia, New Zealand, the east and west
coasts of southern South America, Tristan da Cunha, and the islands of Amsterdam and St.
Paul (Nakamura and Parin 1993)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Southern African snoek are found from northern Angola to Algoa
Bay, but are most abundant between the Cunene River and Cape Agulhas (i.e. in the Benguela
ecosystem). This stock apparently exists as two sub-populations – one off NAM and one of SA with medium term exchange in response to water temperature and prey availability (Griffiths In
prep.). This report is focused on the SA sub-population
HABITAT
ADULTS: Adults are pelagic, occurring throughout the distributional range of the SA subpopulation (Griffiths In prep.)
JUVENILES: The primary nursery area is situated to the north of Cape Columbine and a
secondary one to the east of Cape Agulhas. Juveniles are generally found shorewards of the
150m isobath with onshore/offshore movement depending on prey availability, including an
inshore migration in autumn in response to clupeiod recruitment (Griffiths In prep.). Early
juveniles are epipelagic, becoming pelagic with growth (>30cm FL)
EGGS & LARVAE: High concentration of eggs recorded along SW edge of Agulhas Bank and
off Orange River on WC (Crawford 1989)
MIGRATION: Adults move offshore (between the 150-450m isobaths) in winter/spring to spawn.
Longshore movement is generally random (not seasonal), but during unfavourable conditions
may involve movement between sub-populations of more than 1000km (de Jager 1955, Nepgen
1979, Griffiths In prep.)
FISHERY:
COMMERCIAL SKIBOAT: In terms of landed mass, snoek is by far the most important species
of the commercial linefishery, currently comprising around 40% of the annual national total
(Sauer et al. 1997, Griffiths In prep.). Bulk of the catch is made on the WC and in SWC, but
substantial catches are made on the offshore pinnacles (e.g. 72 Mile Bank) of the SC, and to a
lesser extent in the SEC (Crawford 1989, Griffiths 1999, Griffiths In prep.)
RECREATIONAL SKIBOAT: Important on WC and in SWC (Griffiths In prep.)
TRAWL FISHERY: An important by-catch of the trawl fishery with approximately 10 000mt
landed per annum (Griffiths In prep.)
-0.2943/yr (t+1.056 yrs)
) NAM (Venidiktova 1988)
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = 115.3cm TL(1+e
Under review in SA (Griffiths In prep.)
-6
3.07
(Griffiths In prep.)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 6 x 10 TL(mm)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIP: FL(mm) = 0.8994TL(mm) + 4.05 (Griffiths Unpubl. data)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Males 720mm FL, females 729mm FL SWC (Griffiths In prep.)
40
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Under review (Griffiths In prep.)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochorist (Griffiths In prep.)
M:F SEX RATIO: Inshore (<150m depth) – 1:1.3 in summer/autumn and 1:2 in winter/spring
(Griffiths In prep.) Offshore (>150m depth) – 1:1.1 in summer/autumn and 1.5:1 in winter/spring
(Griffiths In prep.)
SPAWNING SEASON: Winter/spring (June-November)(Olivar and Fortuno 1991, Olivar and
Shelton 1993, Griffiths In prep.)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Offshore along the shelf break (150-400m) (Griffiths In prep.)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 1250mm TL (Griffiths Unpubl. data)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 9kg (Nepgen 1979)
MAXIMUM AGE: 10 years (Griffiths Unpubl. data)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: Under review (Griffiths In prep.)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 2 years (Griffiths Unpubl. data)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: Average catch per boat year increased from 4669kg (1897-1906) to 5999kg
(1927-31) and then declined to 3454kg (1986-98) (Griffiths 1999). Current catch rate is
therefore 74% of that for the 1897-1906 period and 56% of that for the 1927-31 period. Given
th
the natural fluctuation in snoek availability observed throughout the 20 century, and the
dramatic declines observed for other species using the above three data sets, the snoek stock
does not appear to have been depleted
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Under review (Griffiths In prep.)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: 600mm TL
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: None – pelagic, migratory species
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Publish results and establish biological reference points. Evaluate current management
measures (e.g. current minimum size limit is much smaller than size at 50% maturity – 54cm FL
vs 72.5cm FL). Estimate total abundance, determine diurnal spawning patterns and position in
water column (i.e. does trawling interfere with spawning)
Highly variable inter-annual availability. Current level of F appears sustainable. Primary
resource for small-scale commercial fishers and off-season TAC fishers. User conflict between
trawl and linefishery
41
HAEMULIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Pomadasys commersonnii (Smith No. 179.10)
COMMON NAMES: Spotted grunter, tiger
COMPILER: S.T. Fennessy and P.V. Radebe (ORI)
REFEREE: L.E. Beckley (ORI)
DATE OF COMPLETION: December 1998
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Indian Ocean from India to False Bay in SWC (Smith and
Heemstra 1986)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Estuaries and coastal waters over soft sediments (Wallace 1975a, Whitfield 1998)
JUVENILES: Estuaries and shallow inshore waters over soft sediments (Wallace 1975a,
Wallace 1975b, Whitfield 1998)
EGGS & LARVAE: Eggs occasionally recorded in estuaries (Connell 1996), but mostly occur in
shallow coastal waters near estuary mouths (Harris and Cyrus 1995, 1996). Larvae reared from
eggs collected on southern KZN coast (A. Connell, CSIR, Unpubl. data). Ripe-running fish
recorded close inshore (Wallace 1975b)
MIGRATION: Juveniles migrate into estuaries, which they utilise as nursery areas. Spawning
occurs in the marine environment and post-spawning adults may enter estuaries for feeding
purposes (Wallace 1975a, Wallace 1975b, Wallace and van der Elst 1975, Whitfield 1990).
Tagging results suggest that adult spotted grunter are fairly resident in the region of estuary
mouths (Sedgwick’s/ORI/WWF Tagging Programme)
FISHERY: Very important in estuarine recreational linefisheries both from the shore and from
boats, particularly in KZN, TKI and the SEC (Marais and Baird 1980a, Mann 1993, Baird et al.
1996, Pradervand 1998). Also taken in KZN subsistence net and trap fisheries (Kyle 1986, Kyle
1995, Mann 1995, Kyle 1999) and SEC net fisheries (Lamberth et al. 1997). Of lesser
importance in the marine shore fishery (Coetzee et al. 1989, Bennett et al. 1994, Mann et al.
1997a) and spearfishery (Mann et al. 1997b). Occasionally taken as an incidental by-catch of
Tugela Bank prawn trawlers (S. Fennessy, ORI, Unpubl. data)
-0.066/yr(t-0.348yrs)
) KZN (Wallace and Schleyer 1979)
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = 895mm TL(1-e
-1
L∞ = 91.7cm TL, k = 0.19 year (Torres 1991)
-5
2.956
SEC (Marais and Baird 1980a)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 1.4 x 10 TL(mm)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS:TL(mm) = -7.4938 + 0.7803 SL(mm) KZN (Wallace 1975a)
TL(mm) = -2.1901 + 0.9252 FL(mm) KZN (Wallace 1975a)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Males 33cm TL, females 39cm TL KZN (Wallace 1975b)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Males 2.5 years, females 3 years (derived from Wallace and
Schleyer 1979)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochorist (Wallace 1975b)
SEX RATIO: Unknown
42
SPAWNING SEASON: August - December in KZN (Wallace 1975b). Eggs collected June to
December (A. Connell, CSIR, Unpubl. data)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: In the sea adjacent to estuary mouths (Wallace 1975b)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 867mm TL (Wallace and Schleyer 1979)
MAXIMUM AGE: 15 years (Wallace and Schleyer 1979)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 9.5kg SA angling record (van der Elst 1988)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: Approximately 3.3 years (derived from Wallace and Schleyer 1979)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: CPUE of competitive anglers’ catches in Lake St Lucia were variable with no
clear trend between 1956 and 1976 (van der Elst 1978). Catches by anglers in the Swartkops
and Sundays estuaries have also shown no clear trend in CPUE between 1980 and 1993 (Baird
et al. 1996). However, gill-net catches in the Swartkops and Sundays estuaries have shown a
decline in abundance of spotted grunter between 1980 and 1992 (Marais and Baird 1980b,
Marais 1981, Baird et al. 1996). KZN shore anglers’ catches have increased slightly from 0.001
fish.angler-1.day-1 between 1975-77 (Joubert 1981b) and 0.013 fish.angler-1.day-1 between
1994-96 (Mann et al. 1997a), although this may be due to the increased number of sandy
beaches sampled in the latter study
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Catch composition was variable with no clear trend in Lake
St Lucia between 1956 and 1976 (van der Elst 1978). Little change in percent composition of
anglers' catches in Swartkops estuary between 1972-78 (87.3%) and 1988-93 (85.5%) (Baird et
al. 1996). Composition of KZN shore anglers’ catches has increased slightly from 0.11% (by
number) between 1975-77 (Joubert 1981b) and 1.08% between 1994-96 (Mann et al. 1997a),
see above comments
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: No clear trends in the mean weight of spotted grunter caught at St
Lucia between 1956 and 1976 (van der Elst 1978). No noticeable decline in mean size of
spotted grunter caught by gill nets in the Swartkops and Sundays estuaries between 1980 and
1992 (Baird et al. 1996)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: 5 person-1 day-1
SIZE LIMIT: 40cm TL
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Some protection may be obtained in the Lake St Lucia
Wilderness Area (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
43
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Stock assessment currently being undertaken by S.T. Fennessy (ORI) in KZN (1999/2000)
More estuarine protected areas are required along the SA coast to ensure the effective
conservation of spotted grunter and other estuarine dependent species
44
HAEMULIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Pomadasys kaakan (Smith No. 179.13)
COMMON NAMES: Javelin grunter, mof grunter
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Indo-Pacific south to TKI (Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Assumed to be from southern MOZ to central KZN
HABITAT
ADULTS: Water < 75m deep over soft sediments (Smith and Heemstra 1986, Fennessy 1992) and
larger estuaries (van der Elst 1988)
JUVENILES: Estuaries (van der Elst 1988, Whitfield et al. 1989) and shallow inshore waters over
soft sediments (Beckley and Fennessy 1996)
MIGRATION: Unknown
FISHERY: Low importance in the KZN skiboat fishery, seldom caught in the shore angling fishery
(Mann et al. 1997a) but occasionally taken in large estuaries such as St Lucia and Richards Bay
(NMLS, Unpubl. data). Occasional incidental bycatch of Tugela Bank prawn trawlers (Fennessy
1994a)
GROWTH CURVE: Not aged in SA
-1
L∞ = 625mm TL, k = 0.57 year Pakistan (FishBase 98)
-1
L∞ = 625mm TL, k = 0.247 year Pakistan (FishBase 98)
-5
2.713
LENGTH AT SEX CHANGE: Unknown
AGE AT SEX CHANGE: Unknown
SPAWNING SEASON: Winter, KZN (van der Elst 1988)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Inshore marine environment adjacent to river mouths (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 80cm TL (Fischer et al. 1990)
45
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Medium to low priority
This species is not currently targeted to any great extent. However, greater protection of estuarine
and offshore nursery areas is needed
46
HAEMULIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Pomadasys olivaceum (Smith No. 179.17)
COMMON NAMES: Pinky, piggy, olive grunt
DATE OF COMPLETION: February 1999
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Widespread Indo-Pacific species found off India, Arabia,
Madagascar and extending along the entire east African coast to False Bay (Fischer and
Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Entire eastern seaboard of SA reaching False Bay in the SWC
(Joubert and Hanekom 1980)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Offshore reefs or soft substrate banks from 10 - 90m, often aggregating around
pinnacles and shipwrecks (Joubert and Hanekom 1980, Joubert 1981a, Buxton et al. 1984, van
der Elst 1988, Fennessy et al. 1994)
JUVENILES: Inshore reefs down to 10m, sandy beach surf zone and the lower reaches of
estuaries (Joubert and Hanekom 1980, Joubert 1981a, Berry et al. 1982, Beckley 1983,
1984a,b, Lasiak 1986, Whitfield and Kok 1992)
EGGS & LARVAE: Larvae are shelf-associated between Tugela and Algoa Bay (Beckley
1993). Also recorded off Tsitsikamma (Tilney and Buxton 1994, Wood 1999). Larvae reared
from eggs collected off KZN south coast (A. Connell, CSIR, Unpubl. data). Larvae probably
develop offshore and only migrate to inshore nursery areas as post-larvae capable of swimming
(Beckley 1986)
MIGRATION: No longshore migration known, there is a trend in size with depth with adult fish
found in deeper water in the SEC (Buxton et al. 1984). Similarly, in KwaZulu-Natal adult fish
migrate offshore into deeper water to spawn (Joubert 1981a)
FISHERY: Important shore angling species in KwaZulu-Natal, TKI and the SEC, taken primarily
by subsistence fishers or used as bait by recreational anglers (Joubert 1981b, van der Elst
1988, Brouwer et al. 1997)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Juveniles: Wt(g) = 1.4 x 10-5 FL(mm)3.070 KwaZulu-Natal (Joubert 1981a)
Adults: Wt(g) = 8.8 x 10-5 (mmFL)2.701 KwaZulu-Natal (Joubert 1981a)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: Juveniles: FL(mm) = 1.584 + 0.902TL(mm) KwaZulu-Natal
(Joubert 1981a)
Adults: FL(mm) = -2.726 + 0.927TL(mm) KwaZulu-Natal (Joubert 1981a)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Estimated at about 130mm FL (Joubert 1981a, Beckley 1984b)
47
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Unknown, probably gonochoristic
M:F SEX RATIO: Juveniles = 1:1.1 KwaZulu-Natal (Joubert 1981a), Adults = 1:2.7 KwaZuluNatal (Joubert 1981a)
SPAWNING SEASON: Prolonged spawning period, probably occurring throughout the year
(Joubert 1981a). ). Eggs collected in KZN throughout the year (A. Connell, CSIR, Unpubl. data)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: In water >10m depth probably along most of the east coast (van der Elst
1988)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 25-30 cm TL (Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: Approximately 300g (van der Elst 1988)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 75mm TL (minimum legal size limit)
BIOLOGICAL REFERENCE POINT
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent : Unknown
-1
-1
TREND IN CPUE: Decrease between 1975-77 (0.21 fish.angler .day ) and 1994-96 (0.035
-1
-1
fish.angler .day ) by number in KZN (Joubert 1981b, Mann et al. 1997a)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Decrease between 1975-77 (19.65%) and 1994-96 (2.98%)
in KZN (Joubert 1981b, Mann et al. 1997a). Catches fluctuated between 1985 and 1995 in KZN
with no clear trend (NMLS shore patrol data in Mann et al. 1997a)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Modal size has remained similar at about 100mm TL between 1975-77
and 1994-96 in KZN (Joubert 1981a, Mann et al. 1997a)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
CATEGORY: Bait List
BAG LIMIT: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Probably receive some protection in all the large MPAs along
the south-eastern seaboard where no fishing is permitted
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Age and growth, stock assessment, size at maturity, spawning season, inshore/offshore
migration, early life history
The large decrease in CPUE and catch composition along the KZN coast is disturbing although
there is little fishing pressure on mature stocks found offshore, except by prawn trawlers on the
Tugela Bank (Fennessy et al. 1994). The reasons for the apparent decline of the juvenile
population found inshore warrants further investigation. Furthermore, this species is likely to
become increasingly important as a food fish in the future, particularly with regard to
subsistence line fishers
48
ISTIOPHORIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Istiophorus platypterus (Smith No. 252.1)
COMMON NAME: Sailfish
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Widely distributed in tropical, subtropical and warm-temperate
waters of the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic Oceans, roughly between 30oN and 30oS latitude
(Maksimov 1971, Beardsley et al. 1975, Nakamura 1985, Leis et al. 1987, Greenough and
Rothschild 1989)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Sailfish are found in both the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans off SA
but the Atlantic variety (which does not grow as big as the Indo-Pacific variety) represents a
separate stock, if not a sub-species (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der
Elst 1988). Nakamura (1985) treated the Atlantic variety as a separate species I. albicans
HABITAT
ADULTS: Epipelagic, found primarily near the surface although has been recorded to depths of
160m, normally remains above the thermocline. Densest concentrations of sailfish are found near
large land masses or offshore islands (Maksimov 1971, Beardsley et al. 1975, Nakamura 1985, van
der Elst 1988)
JUVENILES: Epipelagic, appear to be closely associated with warm currents (Beardsley et al.
1975)
EGGS & LARVAE: Larvae remain in the upper 6m of the water column and are often found in
near-reef areas (Beardsley et al. 1975, Leis et al. 1987). Post-larval sailfish have been recorded off
KZN during January to April (van der Elst 1988)
MIGRATION: Highly migratory species undertaking long-range migrations as well as extensive
short-term movements which are probably associated with local environmental conditions. Sailfish
appear to penetrate higher latitudes during summer returning to more tropical waters during the
winter. Most migration patterns are closely associated with warm currents (Beardsley et al. 1975,
Nakamura 1985). Off the SA east coast sailfish are seldom caught south of KZN, and it is believed
that these fish migrate down from northern MOZ between November and February (van der Elst
1990)
FISHERY: Sailfish is an important recreational and commercial species throughout its distribution.
They are caught using a number of methods including trolling (lures and/or baits), longlining, gill
nets, harpooning etc (Beardsley et al. 1975). Off SA, sailfish are targeted primarily by recreational
skiboat anglers in northern KZN (van der Elst 1988, Hill and Bursik 1997)
-0.3014/yr (t+1.959yrs)
),
GROWTH CURVE: Males Lt = 147cm TKL (1-e
-0.1586/yr (t+3.312yrs)
females Lt = 183cm TKL (1-e
) Florida (Hedgepeth and Jolley 1983)
Note: TKL is trunk length between the posterior edge of the orbit to the origin of the caudal keels
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(kg) = 2.0739 x 10-5 FL(cm)2.6054 [snout-fork length] Pacific (Skillman and
Yong 1974); Wt(g) = 0,1078 FL(mm)1.662 [FL to lower bill] KZN (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
49
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 120cm TKL Atlantic (Maksimov 1971), 150cm FL KZN (van der Elst
1988)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 3 years (van der Elst 1988)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Heterosexual, females usually grow larger than males (Beardsley et al.
1975)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:4.3 KZN (van der Elst 1990), 1:2.4 Atlantic (Beardsley et al. 1975)
SPAWNING SEASON: Spawning occurs throughout the year with a peak in summer (Maksimov
1971, Nakamura 1985, van der Elst 1990)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Spawns in the tropics in shelf waters (Maksimov 1971, Beardsley et al.
1975, Nakamura 1985, Leis et al. 1987). Little reproductive activity observed in KZN waters (van
der Elst 1990)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: Greater than 340cm TL (Nakamura 1985)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: Attains 100kg (Nakamura 1985, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst
1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: 15 years (Prince et al. 1986)
NATURAL MORTALITY: Unknown in SA waters, 1.73 year-1 Atlantic, 0.90 year-1 Pacific,
0.54 year-1 Atlantic (summarised from Squire and Suzuki 1980)
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: Increase in total landings recorded between 1980 and 1986 in the Indian Ocean
(Silas 1989), decrease in catch rates since 1959 in western Pacific (Squire and Suzuki 1980)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Increase in percentage composition between 1980 and 1986
in the Indian Ocean (Silas 1989)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: None – highly migratory, pelagic species
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Stock distribution, migration patterns, stock assessment, trends in stock size and composition
Collaboration with East African and Indian Ocean Island authorities, as well as countries
permitted to longline in our waters such as Japan and Taiwan, is needed for the joint
management of sailfish stocks in the south-west Indian Ocean
50
ISTIOPHORIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Makaira indica (Smith No. 252.2)
COMMON NAME: Black marlin
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Distributed throughout tropical and sub-tropical shelf waters of the
Indo-Pacific in temperatures ranging from 15° to 30°C. During summer it reaches temperate waters
(Nakamura 1975, 1985, Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Thought to be one stock of black marlin found throughout the Indian
Ocean which extends down the eastern seaboard of southern Africa with occasional strays entering
the Atlantic Ocean by way of the Cape of Good Hope (Nakamura 1985, Smith and Heemstra 1986,
van der Elst 1990)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Oceanic, highly migratory and epipelagic, usually above the thermocline. Often found
close to land masses, islands and coral reefs at depths ranging from 0 to 200m (Fischer and
Bianchi 1984, Nakamura 1985). Most common off KZN during summer especially around deep,
submarine canyons that reach close to the shore (van der Elst 1990)
JUVENILES: Widely distributed by surface currents, found predominantly in nearshore coastal
waters, no juvenile black marlin have yet been positively identified in SA waters (van der Elst
1988, van der Elst 1990)
0
0
EGGS & LARVAE: Pelagic, found in surface waters of warm, tropical oceans (27 to 28 C), often
found closely associated with the seaward side of reef edges (Nakumara 1985, Leis et al. 1987)
MIGRATION: Highly mobile species which appears to move into higher latitudes during summer
and returns to warmer, tropical waters during winter but movement patterns are not entirely
predictable. In the tropical western Indian Ocean black marlin are more abundant during the during
the north-east monsoon period (Merrett 1971, Nakamura 1975, Pepperell 1990, Speare 1994).
Black marlin is the most common marlin species in SA waters and is most abundant off the KZN
coast during the summer months and may range as far south as Cape Point (Shannon et al. 1989,
van der Elst 1990)
FISHERY: Important recreational target species, caught by skiboat anglers primarily off KZN.
Virtually no commercial harvesting of black marlin occurs from mainland southern Africa although
foreign longline fleets do harvest moderate catches in the south western Indian Ocean (Shannon et
al. 1989, van der Elst 1990)
-1
GROWTH CURVE: L∞ = 282cm FL and k = 0.474 year [eye-fork length] Pacific (Koto and Kodama
1962 as quoted by Weatherhall and Yang 1980)
-7
3.272
[to lower bill] KZN (van der Elst and Adkin
1991)
WEIGHT AT 50% MATURITY: >200 kg in females, around 50-80 kg in males (van der Elst 1988,
Pepperell 1990, Speare 1994)
51
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Heterosexual, females grow larger than males (Nakamura 1985)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:6.7 KZN (van der Elst 1990). Males dominate smaller size classes (20200kg), while females dominate the larger size classes (Nakamura 1985)
SPAWNING SEASON: Occurs from October to December in the north-western Coral Sea, May to
June in South China Sea and from August to October around Taiwan (Nakamura 1985, Leis et al.
1987, Speare and Williams 1992)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Spawning areas include the north-western Coral Sea, south China Sea
and around Taiwan (Nakamura 1985, Leis et al. 1987, Speare and Williams 1992). No
reproductively active black marlin recorded in SA waters (van der Elst 1990) and no spawning
areas as yet identified in the Indian Ocean (Cyr et al. 1990)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 448cm TL (Nakamura 1985)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 707kg (Nakamura 1985)
MAXIMUM AGE: Males 13 years (105kg) and females 20 years (275kg) Indian Ocean (Cyr et al.
1990)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 15kg (Pepperell 1990)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 0+ year class (Pepperell 1990)
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1 : Unknown
FMSY: Unknown - estimates of the MSY for the Indian Ocean of 1400-1550mt (Silas 1989)
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: Increase in total landings from the Indian Ocean between 1980 and 1986 (Silas
1989). Substantial decline in catch rates from the early 1950s to 1975 in the Pacific Ocean
(Weatherhall and Yang 1980)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Slight increase in percentage composition in the Indian Ocean
longline fishery between 1980 and 1986 (Silas 1989)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Age and growth, stock distribution, movement patterns in south-west Indian Ocean, identification of
spawning areas, reproductive strategies and sex ratios, catch trends
Collaboration with East African and Indian Ocean Island authorities, as well as countries
longlining in our waters such as Japan, Taiwan and Korea, is needed for the joint management
of black marlin stocks in the south-west Indian Ocean. Better submission of catch statistics is
essential (perhaps by onboard observers)
52
ISTIOPHORIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Makaira mazara (possibly the same species as the Atlantic blue marlin
Makaira nigricans) (Smith No. 252.3)
COMMON NAME: Indo-Pacific blue marlin
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Disagreement in the literature regarding the taxonomic status and
hence distribution of M. mazara and M. nigricans (Rivas 1975). M. mazara is found in tropical and
°
°
subtropical waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, mainly between 35 N and 35 S latitude
(Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Nakamura 1985)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Widely distributed throughout the Indian Ocean (van der Elst 1988)
HABITAT
°
ADULTS: Epipelagic, oceanic species occurring in clear, warm surface waters >24 C above the
thermocline, not usually found close to land masses or islands unless there is a steep drop-off of
the shelf (Rivas 1975, Nakamura 1985)
JUVENILES: Pelagic and oceanic, often found in association with warm currents (Rivas 1975). No
larvae or juveniles have been positively identified off southern Africa (van der Elst 1990)
EGGS & LARVAE: Tropical waters, occur primarily in the surface stratum (0-6m) and are often
found concentrated on the seaward edge of reefs (Rivas 1975, Leis et al. 1987)
MIGRATION: Extensive and seasonal migrations with fish migrating into higher latitudes during the
summer months and returning to equatorial waters during the winter months. Some evidence of
migration activity being greater in males (Rivas 1975, Nakamura 1985, van der Elst 1988, Cyr et al.
1990)
FISHERY: Important component of commercial longline fisheries in the Indian Ocean, smaller
numbers being taken by gillnets and harpoons (Silas 1989, Cyr et al. 1990). Capture of blue marlin
by sport fishermen in SA is relatively uncommon and all are landed during summer from November
to March, with most being hooked further offshore than other billfish species (van der Elst 1990)
GROWTH CURVE: Males k = 0.285 - 0.815, t0 = 0.106, L∞ = 282 - 371cm TL, females k = 0.123 0.175, t0 = -0.202, L∞ = 540 - 626cm TL Pacific (Skillman and Yong 1976)
-7
3.191
[to lower bill] KZN (van der Elst and Adkin
1991)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: (Weights at first maturity given) Males 31 – 47kg, females 60 –
80kg Pacific (Hopper 1990)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Between first and second year of life (van der Elst 1988)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Heterosexual, dimorphic species with females growing considerably
larger than males (Rivas 1975, Namakura 1985, Cyr et al. 1990, Hopper 1990)
53
M:F SEX RATIO: In Hawaiian waters, sex ratio varies depending on season. During the summer
reproductive season males outnumber females by as much as 6:1, during the rest of the year sex
ratio is close to 1:1 or larger females outnumber males (Hopper 1990). Catches off KZN
predominantly females (van der Elst 1990)
SPAWNING SEASON: Summer -autumn (Leis et al. 1987, van der Elst 1988, Hopper 1990)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Distinct breeding populations and spawning occurs between 30°N and
30°S. Specific spawning grounds have yet to be identified (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: Female: 420cm TL (Nakamura 1985)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: Males: 120 – 150kg, Females: 820 - 907kg (Nakamura 1985, Smith and
Heemstra 1986)
MAXIMUM AGE: Both males and females aged up to 21 years in Indian Ocean (Cyr et al. 1990)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: Within first year of life (Cyr et al. 1990)
-1
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: Males M = 0.53 - 1.56 year , females M = 0.15 – 0.21 year Pacific
(Skillman and Yong 1976)
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1 : Unknown
-1
FMSY : MSY estimated at between 3 400 – 3 600mt.year in the Indian Ocean (Silas 1989). MSY
-1
determined at 22 000mt.year for the Pacific with a total effective effort of 142 million hooks (Yuen
and Miyake 1980)
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent : Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: Blue marlin catch has fluctuated between 2 400 – 3400mt between 1980 and
1986 in the Indian Ocean (Silas 1989). Dramatic decrease in CPUE in the Pacific, present effort is
almost twice that needed for MSY (Yuen and Miyake 1980)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Declining trend in percentage composition in the longline
fishery in the Indian Ocean between 1980 and 1986 (Silas 1989)
TREND IN SEX RATIO: Varies between regions
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Age and growth, stock assessment, stock distribution, migration patterns, reproductive biology
Collaboration with East African and Indian Ocean Island authorities, as well as foreign countries
longlining in Indian Ocean waters such as Japan, Taiwan and Korea, is needed for the joint
management of blue marlin stocks in the south-west Indian Ocean. Better submission of catch
statistics is essential (perhaps by onboard observers)
54
ISTIOPHORIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Tetrapturus audax (Smith No. 252.2)
COMMON NAME: Striped marlin
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Tropical, subtropical and temperate waters of the Indo-Pacific
ranging approximately between 45°N and 35-40°S latitude (Nakamura 1985, Squire 1987)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: In the western Indian Ocean densely distributed in the Arabian Sea,
around Sri Lanka and in the MOZ channel, extending southwards to the SWC during summer
(Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Epipelagic species, normally found near the surface and seldom going deeper than 90m.
Although often found in relatively shallow coastal waters , striped marlin are known to range across
oceanic regions above the thermocline (Nakamura 1985, van der Elst 1988, Squire 1987, Brill et al.
1993)
JUVENILES: Epipelagic, distributions appear to coincide with larval distributions in equatorial
waters of both the Indian and Pacific Oceans (Ueyanagi and Wares 1975, Nakamura 1985). In the
Pacific juveniles migrate eastward to feeding areas on the west coast of America (Squire and
Suzuki 1990)
°
°
EGGS & LARVAE: Recorded between 10 and 18 S in the western Indian Ocean during mid
°
°
summer and between 6 N and 6 S in the eastern Indian Ocean. Lower temperature limit of larvae is
°
approximately 24 C (Ueyanagi and Wares 1975, Nakamura 1985). Larvae in the north-west and
south-west Pacific occur between the equator and 30°N and 30°S, respectively, and are transported
westwards by the Equatorial Current (Squire and Suzuki 1990)
MIGRATION: Undertake extensive migrations with a tendency to move towards the equator during
winter months. Migratory rates and patterns are however, highly variable and recent genetic work
suggests spatial partitioning of genetic variation and possible spawning site fidelity (van der Elst
1988, Squire and Suzuki 1990, Brill et al. 1993, Graves and McDowell 1995)
FISHERY: Important commercial and recreational species throughout their distribution. Taken
mainly by surface longlines in the commercial fishery, with 2130mt (13%) of the world catch
(15600mt in 1981) taken in the Indian Ocean (Nakamura 1985). Only of moderate importance in
sport catches off SA, with most fish caught between November and December (van der Elst 1990).
Second most important billfish species (after sailfish) caught by the sports fishery in Kenyan waters
(Silas 1989)
GROWTH CURVE: Males k = 0.315 - 0.417, t0 = -0.521, L∞ = 277.4 – 313.4cm TL,
females k = 0.696 - 0.709, t0 = 0.136, L∞ = 251.0 – 251.8cm TL Pacific (Skillman and Yong 1976)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(kg) = 5.7126 x 10-7 TL(cm)3.3756 combined sexes, Pacific (Skillman and
-3
2.20
Yong 1974); Wt(g) = 2.964 x 10 FL(mm) [to lower bill] KZN (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
55
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: First maturity at 140 - 165cm [eye-fork length] (Bartoo and
Ueyanagi 1980, Nakamura 1985)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: In second year of life (derived from Skillman and Yong 1976)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Heterosexual with no sexual dimorphism, but females tend to grow
larger than males (Ueyanagi and Wares 1975)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1 but males tend to predominate in individual spawning groups (van der Elst
1988), off KZN mature females appear to dominate catches 1:3.3 (van der Elst 1990)
SPAWNING SEASON: Mid-summer (Ueyanagi and Wares 1975, Nakamura 1985)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Spawning occurs between 10° and 18°S in the western Indian Ocean and
°
°
between 6 N and 6 S in the eastern Indian Ocean (Ueyanagi and Wares 1975, Nakamura 1985). In
the Pacific major spawning areas are located in the north-west and south-west Pacific (Squire and
Suzuki 1990)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 320 - 350cm TL (Nakamura 1985, van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 180 - 200kg (Nakamura 1985, van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: 8 years (Davie and Hall 1990)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 80cm eye-fork length (Nakamura 1985)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: In first year of life (derived from Skillman and Yong 1976)
-1
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: Males 0.59 - 1.55 year , females 1.33 – 1.36 year Pacific (Skillman and
Yong 1976)
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1 : Unknown
-1
FMSY : MSY estimated at 3 000 – 3 500mt.year for the Indian Ocean at an optimal effort of 100
million hooks (Silas 1989)
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: Total catch has fluctuated between 1 559 and 4 150mt in the Indian Ocean
between 1980 and 1986 (Silas 1989). Catch rate for the entire Pacific fishery shows a slow longterm decline, from 1952 to 1975, the catch rate declined by approximately 50% (Bartoo and
Ueyanagi 1980, Squire and Au 1990). However, Pacific stocks still appear to be healthy (Suzuki
1989)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Percentage composition in the pelagic longline fishery in the
Indian Ocean has fluctuated between 14.4 and 30.8% between 1980 and 1986 (Silas 1989)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Age and growth, stock assessment, stock distribution, migration patterns, reproductive biology
56
Collaboration with East African and Indian Ocean Island authorities, as well as foreign countries
longlining in Indian Ocean waters such as Japan, Taiwan and Korea, is needed for the joint
management of striped marlin stocks in the south-west Indian Ocean. Better submission of
catch statistics is essential (perhaps by onboard observers). Furthermore, to conserve genetic
variation, it is essential that international management of striped marlin focus on smaller,
genetically homogenous stocks (Graves and McDowell 1995)
57
LETHRINIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Lethrinus crocineus (Smith No. 185.5)
COMMON NAMES: Yellowfin emperor, yellowtail emperor, scavenger
DATE OF COMPLETION: March 1999
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Western Indian Ocean south to KZN. Species has been confused
with Lethrinus mahsena (Smith 1959, Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: From Pinda in MOZ to southern KZN (Fischer and Bianchi 1984)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Generally occurring over reefs in deeper waters down to 150m (Smith and Heemstra
1986)
JUVENILES: Unknown
MIGRATION: Unknown
FISHERY: Occasionally caught by commercial lineboats in northern KZN and MOZ (Mann et al.
1997a)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 600mm TL (Smith and Heemstra 1986)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: Unknown
58
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Separate statistics are not reported for this species
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: None
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Probably receives some protection within the St Lucia and
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Very little is known about the biology and distribution of this lethrinid species. It may represent a
species endemic to the south-east African coast in which case more information on this species
should be collected
A relatively unimportant species off KZN (Mann et al. 1997a), possibly found in greater
abundance off MOZ
59
LETHRINIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Lethrinus nebulosus (Smith No. 185.13)
COMMON NAMES: Blue emperor, scavenger, mata-hari
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Indo-West Pacific region from southern Africa to the coast of Japan
including Australian waters (Smith 1959, Aldonov and Druzhinin 1978, Young and Martin 1982,
Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986, Ebisawa 1990)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Abundant in KZN and MOZ waters, extending southwards to Algoa
Bay in SEC (Smith and Heemstra 1986)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Inhabits coral and rocky reefs from 10m down to 50-80m, often found on sand between
reefs and over the reef itself (Aldonov and Druzhinin 1978, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst
1988)
JUVENILES: Found inshore in various habitats including coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangrove
creeks (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Ebisawa 1990)
EGGS & LARVAE: Pelagic eggs widely distributed by ocean currents, some recorded off the KZN
coast presumably borne down from regions further north by the Agulhas Current (van der Elst 1988)
MIGRATION: Some indication that adults migrate to shallow reef areas for spawning (Ibrahim et al.
1988a)
FISHERY: An important species taken by both commercial and recreational skiboat fishers in KZN
and occasionally by spearfishers (van der Elst 1988). In other parts of the world this widely
distributed species is also caught in beach seines, trawl nets, gill-nets and fish traps (Aldonov and
Druzhinin 1978, Baddar 1987, Kuo 1988)
GROWTH CURVE: Not aged in southern African waters but a number of studies done elsewhere
including:
Kuwait
Gulf of Aden
Australia (females)
Australia (males)
(Baddar1987)
(Edwards et al. 1984)
(Kuo 1988)
(Kuo 1988)
62.73cmTL
99.87cmTL
61.07cmFL
52.66cmFL
L∞
k
0.19
0.10
0.1059
0.127
0.36
0.88
0.8811
1.1581
t0
2.798
Gulf of Aden (Aldonov and Druzhinin 1978)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 0.04318 TL(cm)
3.01
Wt(g) = 0.01733 TL(cm)
Kuwait (Baddar 1987)
0.9695
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(cm) = 1.401 x SL(cm)
Kuwait (Baddar 1987)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 25cm FL, Australia (Kuo 1988); approximately 40cm FL, Japan
(Ebisawa 1990); males at approximately 20cm TL and females at approximately 35cm TL, Kuwait
(Baddar 1987); 37cm TL, Arabian Gulf (Ibrahim et al. 1988b)
60
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 4 years, Australia (Kuo 1988); males at 3 years and females at 4 years,
Kuwait (Baddar 1987); 3-4 years, Arabian Gulf (Ibrahim et al. 1988a)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Protogynous hermaphrodite, Australia (Young and Martin 1982);
juvenile hermaphrodite with no evidence of sex change in mature individuals, Japan (Ebisawa
1990)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.04, Australia (Kuo 1988); 1:1 Kuwait (Baddar 1987)
SPAWNING SEASON: Multiple spawners with protracted spawning season, most spawning
appears to take place during spring and summer in both northern and southern hemispheres
(Baddar 1987, Kuo 1988, Ebisawa 1990)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Shallow reef areas in tropical waters (Ibrahim et al. 1988a)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 680-750mm TL (Aldonov and Druzhinin 1978, Smith and Heemstra 1986,
Ibrahim et al. 1988a, van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: 10 years, Arabian Gulf (Ibrahim et al. 1988a); 14 years, Gulf of Aden (Aldonov
and Druzhinin 1978); 21 years, Kuwait (Baddar 1987); 20 years, New Caledonia (Morales-Nin
1988)
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Increasingly important component of the KZN commercial
skiboat catch as other endemic reef fish species have declined (Penney et al. 1999)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: None
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Age and growth and stock assessment of Lethrinus nebulosus needs to be conducted in MOZ
and KZN waters
Lethrinus nebulosus represents a shared stock between MOZ and KZN and a joint
management plan is needed for this species
61
LUTJANIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Smith No. 181.5)
COMMON NAMES: River snapper, mangrove snapper, red snapper
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Widespread in tropical Indo-West Pacific including the Red Sea and
Persian Gulf, extending eastwards to Samoa (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Allen and Talbot 1985,
Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Fairly abundant off MOZ and northern KZN, juveniles occurring in
KZN and TKI estuaries, occasional specimens are found as far south as Port Elizabeth (Smith and
Heemstra 1986, Whitfield 1998)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Predominantly marine, usually found over coral or rocky reefs down to 80-120m (Allen
and Talbot 1985, van der Elst 1988, Whitfield 1998)
JUVENILES: Juveniles migrate into littoral nursery areas such as brackish mangrove estuaries and
the lower part of freshwater streams when they are about 20-50mm TL. Within estuaries juveniles
prefer rocky areas or the prop roots of mangroves and they can tolerate very reduced salinity levels
(van der Elst 1988, Doi and Singhagraiwan 1993, Whitfield 1998)
EGGS & LARVAE: Spawning occurs at sea and eggs and larvae are widely dispersed by currents
(Leis 1987, van der Elst 1988, Whitfield 1998). L. argentimaculatus has been successfully spawned
and raised in captivity and larval development has been well researched (Doi and Singhagraiwan
1993)
MIGRATION: Juveniles migrate into estuaries at 20-50 mm TL about 30-50 days after hatching.
Prior to maturation, sub-adults leave the estuarine environment between 400-540mm FL
(between 3 and 8 years) and migrate out to offshore reefs (Doi and Singhagraiwan 1993,
Sheaves 1995, ANSA 1996)
FISHERY: Popular species with estuarine sport anglers in KZN and TKI but also taken by
recreational and commercial skiboat fishermen and spearfishers mainly in northern KZN and MOZ.
Also caught by subsistence and artisanal fishers in Kosi Bay using gill-nets and fish traps (van der
Elst 1988, van der Elst 1989, Kyle 1986). Elsewhere in the world this species is captured with handlines, traps, nets and trawling gear and is an important species in coastal net cage culture (Doi and
Singhagraiwan 1993)
-1
GROWTH CURVE: L∞ = 105cm TL, k = 0.187 year Malaysia (Ambak et al. 1985)
-6
2.21
(corrected from van der Elst and Adkin
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(kg) = 3.788 x 10 TL(mm)
1991)
62
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 450-600mm FL (Talbot 1960, Grimes 1987, van der Elst 1988,
Sheaves 1995)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Estimated to be between 3 and 7 years (Doi and Singhagraiwan 1993,
Sheaves 1995)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochoristic (Thompson and Munro 1983, Grimes 1987)
SPAWNING SEASON: Spring and summer (Talbot 1960, Allen and Talbot 1985, van der Elst
1988)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Unknown, but spawning probably occurs in northern KZN and MOZ
waters. Spawning aggregations thought to occur on outer reef slopes but this needs confirmation
(Domier and Colins 1997). In captivity, spawning takes place at night between 01h00 and 04h00
(Doi and Singhagraiwan 1993)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 100cm TL (Allen and Talbot 1985, van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 12-16kg (Allen and Talbot 1985, van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: Unknown in SA, greater than 20 years in Australia (Sheaves 1995)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: Between 3 and 5 years (extrapolated from Sheaves 1995)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: Decline in CPUE between 1981 and 1984 in Kosi Bay (Kyle 1986)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Decrease in percentage composition between 1981 and 1984
in Kosi Bay (Kyle 1986)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Some protection of adults may be obtained in the St Lucia and
Maputaland Marine Reserves, while juveniles may receive some protection in the St Lucia
Wilderness Area and Lake Amanzimnyama in the Kosi lakes system, as both these areas are
closed to fishing (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Reproductive biology, age and growth, stock assessment, stock distribution, residency and
migration, aquaculture potential
Although at the southernmost part of its distribution, degradation of estuarine habitats in KZN has
probably had a serious effect on populations of this estuarine-dependent species. Protection of
suitable estuarine habitat along the KZN and TKI coasts should therefore be seen as a high priority
63
LUTJANIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Paracaesio xanthura (Smith No. 181.21)
COMMON NAMES: Yellowtail fusilier, protea bream
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Tropical Indo-West Pacific from southern Africa to Australia, not
reported from the Red Sea or Persian Gulf (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Extending south to Port Edward in KZN, seasonally common on
Landers Reef and Protea Banks on KZN south coast (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Generally occurring over coral and rocky reefs at depths of 25 to 200m, usually occurring
in shoals which feed on zooplankton (Fischer and Bianchi 1984)
JUVENILES: Unknown
MIGRATION: Unknown
FISHERY: Seasonally important in commercial skiboat catches in southern KZN (NMLS Unpubl.
data)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 450-500mmTL (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
64
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: None
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Very little is known about the biology and distribution of this species. However, as it is a
relatively uncommon species off KZN, research on this species should receive a low priority
The seasonal occurrence of P. xanthura on the Aliwal shoal and Protea Bank reef complexes is
important to commercial skiboat fishers in the area
65
MEGALOPIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Megalops cyprinoides (Smith No. 37.1)
COMMON NAMES: Oxeye tarpon, Indo-Pacific tarpon
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Tropical Indo-West Pacific extending into the subtropical waters
of southern Africa (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986, Whitfield 1998)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Favours estuaries along the KZN coast and northwards into MOZ,
occasional strays reach as far south as Algoa Bay (Smith and Heemstra 1986, Whitfield 1998)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Predominantly a solitary, catadromous species, found in shallow coastal and particularly
estuarine waters. Completely tolerant of freshwater, often recorded from freshwater pans and rivers
on the KZN north coast and MOZ, but nowhere abundant (van der Elst 1988, Whitfield 1998)
JUVENILES: Appear to be attracted into brackish or freshwater lakes and pans, which they enter
from adjacent estuaries during high rainfall periods (Whitfield 1998)
EGGS & LARVAE: Spawning takes place at sea and larvae enter estuaries at 17-31mm SL
during spring and summer (Harris and Cyrus 1995). The larvae resemble transparent eel
leptocephali but have a forked tail (van der Elst 1988, Whitfield 1998)
MIGRATION: Little known, juveniles appear to remain in estuaries (or connected freshwater
bodies) until reaching maturity. Adults presumably migrate out to sea in order to spawn and may
re-enter estuaries once spawning is complete (R. van der Elst, ORI, pers. comm.). Only one of
the 33 fish tagged to date has been recaptured, with no movement recorded
(Sedgwick's/ORI/WWF Tagging Programme)
FISHERY: Although relatively seldom caught, oxeye tarpon are sought after for their fighting
qualities and are targeted by anglers using light spinning or fly tackle (van der Elst 1988).
Occasionally caught in the subsistence gill-net fishery in St Lucia but is considered to be of poor
eating quality (Mann 1995)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 1.291 x 10-2 TL(mm)2.885 KZN (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
MORPHOMETRICS: Unknown
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Approximately 25cm SL, India (FishBase 1998)
SPAWNING SEASON: Spring and summer (Harris and Cyrus 1995, 1997)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Spawning probably occurs in the marine environment along the northern
KZN and MOZ coast (R. van der Elst, ORI, pers. comm.)
66
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 70cm SL (Whitfield 1998)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: None
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: No evidence of effective MPAs, however, some protection may
be obtained in the Lake St Lucia Wilderness Area and Lake Amanzinyama (Kosi) as fishing is
prohibited in both areas (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Age and growth, stock assessment, egg and larval dispersion, residency and migration
MANAGEMENT CONSIDRATIONS
Populations of oxeye tarpon may have been reduced in KZN due to riverine and estuarine
degradation. Protection of suitable estuarine habitat in KZN and MOZ should therefore be seen as
beneficial management
67
OPLEGNATHIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Oplegnathus conwayi (Smith No. 206.1)
COMMON NAMES: Cape knifejaw, beaked galjoen, cuckoo bass
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic to the east coast of SA from False Bay (SWC) to Tugela
(KZN) (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988, Chater et al.
1995a)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: As for distribution of species, limited data collected from KZN (Chater
et al. 1995b)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Inshore reefs in depths from 10 to 100 m (Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
JUVENILES: Bright yellow and black juveniles are common on subtidal reefs in KZN, TKI and SEC.
Small juveniles may be found in tidal pools or beneath floating objects at sea (van der Elst 1988)
MIGRATION: Unknown
FISHERY: This species is primarily shot by spearfishers and it makes up a large proportion of the
spearfishing catch particularly in the SEC. It is rarely caught by linefishers (van der Elst 1988, van
der Elst 1989, Chater et al. 1995b, Mann et al. 1997b)
-3
2.318
KZN and SEC (Chater et al. 1995b)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Unknown, smallest mature fish was 445mm FL (Chater et al.
1995b)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1.6:1 KZN and SEC (Chater et al. 1995b)
SPAWNING SEASON: Evidence of gonadal activity throughout the year, ripe-running fish
observed in August in KZN (Chater et al. 1995b)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 800-900 mm TL (Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 5.8kg (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: 13 years (Chater et al. 1995b)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: Unknown, previously a 2kg minimum weight limit for shore
spearfishers in KZN (Mann et al. 1997b)
68
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Variable from 1984-95, better catches appear to be made
when game fish are less abundant and vice versa (Mann et al. 1997b)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Mean size has remained constant from 1984-95 (Mann et al. 1997b)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None (previously a 2kg minimum weight limit for shore spearfishers in KZN)
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Thought to receive protection in most of the MPAs along the
south-eastern seaboard where spearfishing is prohibited
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Cape knifejaw is almost exclusively targeted by spearfishers and is very easily shot. Numbers
appear to have declined on inshore reefs along the KZN south coast and attention should be
given to conducting a detailed investigation into the biology and population status of this species
69
OPLEGNATHIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Oplegnathus robinsoni (Smith No. 206.3)
COMMON NAMES: Natal knifejaw, cuckoo bass
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic to KZN and MOZ waters (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith
and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Assumed to be as for distribution of species, limited data collected
from KZN (Chater et al. 1995b)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Inshore reefs in depths from 10-100m (van der Elst 1988)
JUVENILES: Small yellow and black juveniles are commonly found under floating objects at sea,
while slightly larger juveniles are found on shallow subtidal reefs (van der Elst 1988, Chater et al.
1995b)
MIGRATION: Apparently highly resident (R. van der Elst, ORI, pers. obs.)
FISHERY: This is an important target species for spearfishers in KZN (Mann et al. 1997b). The
Natal knifejaw is occasionally (but rarely) taken on line (van der Elst 1988, Chater et al. 1995b)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 5.94 x 10-4 FL(mm) 2.479 KZN (Chater et al. 1995b)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Unknown, smallest mature fish was 355mm FL (Chater et al.
1995b)
M:F SEX RATIO: 0.53:1 KZN (Chater et al. 1995b).
SPAWNING SEASON: Evidence of gonadal activity throughout the year, ripe-running fish
observed in October and January in KZN (Chater et al. 1995b)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Thought to occur throughout distribution (Chater et al. 1995b)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 60cm TL (Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 3 kg (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: 10 years (Chater et al. 1995b)
70
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: Unknown, previously a 2kg minimum weight limit for shore
spearfishers in KZN (Chater et al. 1995b, Mann et al. 1997b)
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Unknown (NMLS catch statistics not reported separately from
Cape knifejaw)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Unknown as trends in mean size reported by Chater et al. (1995b) are for
both knifejaw species
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None (previously a 2kg minimum weight limit for shore spearfishers in KZN)
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Receives protection in the Maputaland and St Lucia Marine
Reserves (Chater et al. 1995a)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Natal knifejaw are almost exclusively targeted by spearfishers and easily approached and shot.
Numbers appear to have declined on shallow subtidal reefs along the KZN coast (B. Mann,
ORI, pers. obs.) and attention should be given to conducting an investigation into the biology
and population status of this species
71
PLATYCEPHALIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Platycephalus indicus (Smith No. 155.6)
COMMON NAMES: Bartailed flathead, sand or river gurnard, sandfish
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Widespread Indo-Pacific species extending southwards to
Mossel Bay (Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Assumed to be southern MOZ to SEC
HABITAT
ADULTS: Estuaries and inshore coastal waters down to 15m, found over sandy or muddy
substrata, usually solitary (van der Elst 1988, Whitfield 1998)
JUVENILES: Make extensive use of mangrove estuaries, but are classified as partially
estuarine dependent and juveniles < 10cm SL are usually rare in estuaries (van der Elst 1988,
Whitfield 1998)
EGGS & LARVAE: Small numbers of larvae have been recorded in Richards Bay and St Lucia
estuary and in the adjacent surf zone (Harris and Cyrus 1995, 1996, 1997). Reared from eggs
collected on KZN south coast (A. Connell, CSIR, Unpubl. data)
MIGRATION: Of the 130 tagged to date only three (2.31%) have been recaptured, none of
which have moved, which suggests a degree of residency (Sedgwick’s/ORI/WWF Tagging
Programme). However, adults are thought to migrate out of estuaries into the marine
environment in order to spawn (Wallace 1975b)
FISHERY: Small component of estuarine and shore anglers' catches, commonly taken by
estuarine flyfishers. (van der Elst 1988). Small numbers are also caught in the St Lucia
subsistence gill-net fishery, Vetch’s Pier beach-seine fishery and the Kosi Bay trap fishery.
Potentially valuable as a food fish (Kyle 1986, Mann 1995, Beckley and Fennessy 1996)
GROWTH CURVE: L∞ = 48.9cm TL, k = 0.34 year-1 Kuwait (FishBase 98)
-4
2.383
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 40cm TL (Wallace 1975b)
SEX RATIO: Unknown
SPAWNING SEASON: July to November in KZN (Wallace 1975b, van der Elst 1988)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Marine environment in the vicinity of KZN estuaries (van der Elst
1988)
72
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: None
SIZE LIMIT: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Some protection may be obtained in the Lake St Lucia
Wilderness Area (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Reproductive biology, age and growth, catch trends, residency and migration, stock
assessment, early life history
Although it comprises a small component of catches, bartailed flathead is an important predator
in shallow marine and estuarine environments and would ultimately benefit from improved
estuarine and catchment management. Consideration could also be given to managing this fish
as a recreational species
73
POMATOMIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Pomatomus saltatrix (Smith No. 178.1)
COMMON NAMES: Elf, shad, bluefish, tailor
COMPILERS: A. Govender and P. V. Radebe (ORI)
DATE OF COMPLETION: October 1999
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: World-wide in warm temperate-shelf waters (van der Elst 1976)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: SA coastline, primarily from Cape Point to southern MOZ (van der
Elst 1976)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Sandy and rocky substrata from shore down to 100m (van der Elst 1976)
JUVENILES: Shallow subtidal waters (< 20m deep) primarily in larger embayments in the SEC and
SWC (van der Elst 1976, Smale 1984, Wallace et al. 1984a, Wallace et al. 1984b)
EGGS & LARVAE: Inshore of Agulhas Current off KZN (Beckley and Connell 1996). Larvae utilise
shoreward edge of the Agulhas Current for dispersal to nursery areas in the SEC and SWC
(Beckley 1993). Larvae reared from eggs collected on KZN shelf (A. Connell, CSIR, Unpubl. data)
MIGRATION: Adults and 0+ juveniles migrate seasonally between the SWC and KZN passing
through the SEC and TKI. It is both an alimental and gametic migration with shad feeding largely on
sardines (Sardinops sagax) and spawning occurring in warmer KZN waters. Adults are common
during the summer and autumn months in Cape waters and during winter and spring in KZN (van
der Elst 1976). The migration of 0+ juveniles precedes the migration of larger adults
FISHERY: Elf is the most important shore angling species caught in SWC, SEC, TKI and KZN
(Brouwer et al.1997). It is important to recreational skiboat fishers in the SWC, SEC, TKI and KZN,
but primarily used for bait by this sector. Elf are important to commercial skiboat fishers primarily in
the SWC, especially in False Bay and Struis Bay (NMLS commercial data). Prior to new regulations
promulgated in September 1998, elf were not allowed to be commercially exploited in KZN. Elf are
also caught by the False Bay trek netters and are caught as a by-catch by the Vetch’s Pier seine
netters in Durban (Lamberth et al. 1995a,b, Beckley and Fennessy 1996). SA lands about 0.2% of
the global elf catch of 20 000 mt (FAO 1999)
-0.094/yr(t + 2.09yrs)
) KZN (Govender 1999)
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = 1247mm FL(1-e
Lt = 670mm FL(1-e-0.18/yr(t + 1.23yrs)) RSA (Hughes 1986, using data from van der Elst 1976)
-5
2.98
KZN (van der Elst 1976)
LENGTH–WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 1.5 x 10 FL(mm)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(mm) = 1.306 FL(mm) + 30.6 (van der Elst 1976)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: males 240mm TL, and females 250mm TL (van der Elst 1976)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: <1 year (Govender 1996)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochorist (van der Elst 1976)
M: F SEX RATIO: 1:1 KZN and SEC (van der Elst 1976, Smale and Kok 1983, Lasiak 1984a,b)
74
SPAWNING SEASON: Early spring to summer in KZN (September-February) with a peak from
October to December (van der Elst 1976). Eggs found between October-February with a peak in
egg numbers over November-December in KZN (Beckley and Connell 1996)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: In nearshore waters (30-60m depth) off KZN (Beckley and Connell 1996)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 120cm TL world-wide (Smith and Heemstra 1986) and approximately 100cm
TL in SA (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 14.4kg world-wide (Smith and Heemstra 1986) and 10.3kg in SA (van der
Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: 10 years (van der Elst 1976)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 30cm TL (current minimum size)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: <1 year (Govender 1996)
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.4 year (Butterworth et al. 1989, Govender 1997)
-1
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.27 year in RSA between 1983-1993, F = 1.7 year in KZN between
1987-1993 (Govender 1996). Annual F values available for whole of RSA from 1956 to 1972
(Butterworth et al. 1989). Annual F values available for KZN from 1987 to 1993 (Govender 1996)
-1
FSB25 : 0.4 year (Govender 1997)
FSB40 : 0.2 year-1 (Govender 1997)
-1
-1
F0.1: 0.25-0.3 year (in mass harvested) and 0.7-1.0 year (in numbers harvested) (Govender 1997)
-1
-1
FMSY: 0.4 year (in mass harvested) and 1.4 year (in numbers harvested) (Govender 1997)
CURRENT STATUS
-1
Fcurrent: 0.27 year RSA 1983-93 (Govender 1996)
SBPRcurrent: 34% RSA 1983-93 (Govender 1997)
-1
-1
TREND IN CPUE: Decline from 12.5 elf.100 angling hrs in 1956 to 5 elf.100 angling hrs in 1973
but very variable from year to year (van der Elst 1976)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Fluctuates from year to year but makes up between 26-70%
of shore catches in KZN (Mann et al. 1997a, NMLS shore patrol data)
TREND IN SEX RATIO: No change (A. Govender, ORI, Unpubl. data)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Slight decrease in mean weight from 1956 to 1972 (van der Elst 1976,
Govender 1996)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
CATEGORY: Restricted List
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: 30cm TL
CLOSED SEASON: 1st September to 30th November, both dates inclusive (applies to all fishers)
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: None due to migratory habit
OTHER REGULATIONS: Prior to the new legislation promulgated in September 1998, no
commercial harvesting and sale of elf was allowed in KZN. Only elf >40cm TL could be imported
and sold by licensed sellers in KZN
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: Data obtained from NMLS catch card data from Cape
Vidal (Govender 1997)
Bag size
% frequency in catch
0
23
1
23
2
20
3
13
4
10
5
11
75
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Biology needs to be studied in areas outside KZN especially in the SEC and SWC. Inter-annual
recruitment variability needs to be investigated and quantified. Offshore-onshore local
migrations need to be confirmed
Under the new regulations (September 1998) elf can be commercially exploited in KZN. This is
almost certainly going to increase F on this species. Consideration should be given to decommercialising elf throughout its distribution as this is primarily a recreational species
76
SCIAENIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Argyrosomus inodorus (new species previously incorrectly identified as
A. hololepidotus Smith No. 199.1)
COMMON NAME: silver kob
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Northern NAM to southern TKI in less than 150m (Griffiths and
Heemstra 1995)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Three stocks identified in SA waters, one in SWC, one in SC and
one in SEC (Griffiths 1996b, 1997a)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Mostly moderate/low profile reef in 20-120m depth in SEC and SC and 2-120m in the
SWC (Griffiths 1997a)
JUVENILES: Sand/mud substrata, recruiting into shallow embayments (5-10m depth) but
moving offshore with growth (Griffiths 1997a)
EGGS & LARVAE: A. hololepidotus larvae described from Algoa Bay (Beckley 1990) were
probably A. inodorus
MIGRATION: Inshore (<60m) in summer dispersing further offshore in winter in response to
oceanographic patterns (Griffiths 1997a)
FISHERY: Only important in the shore fishery in SWC (Brouwer et al. 1997). An important
component of the catch of both recreational and commercial skiboats in SWC, SC and SEC
(Smale and Buxton 1985, Griffiths 1997a, b). Caught in the beach seine fishery in SWC
(Lamberth et al. 1997). Comprises part of the by-catch of inshore trawlers along the SEC
(Griffiths 1997b)
-0.409/yr(t-3.34yrs) -1
) SWC (Griffiths 1996b)
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = 1086.8mm TL(1+e
-0.55/yr(t-6.67yrs) -0.325
Lt = 1172.3mm TL(1+ 1/0.325 *e
)
SC and SEC (Griffiths 1996b)
-6
3.07
(Griffiths 1996b)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: SL(mm) = 0.8999TL(mm) – 20.96 (Griffiths 1996b)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Males 290mm TL, females 310mm TL SEC (Griffiths 1997a)
Males 325 mm TL, females 375mm TL SC (Griffiths 1997a)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Females 1.3 years SEC; females 2.4 years SC (Griffiths 1996b)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochorist (Griffiths 1997a)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.6 SEC; 1.2:1 SC; 1:2.1 SWC (Griffiths 1997a)
SPAWNING SEASON: Although there is evidence of spawning activity throughout the year, the
main spawning season is from August to December with a peak in spring (Sept-Nov) (Griffiths
1997a)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Inshore throughout distribution (Griffiths 1997a)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 1450mm TL (Griffiths and Heemstra 1995)
77
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 36.3kg (Griffiths and Heemstra 1995)
MAXIMUM AGE: 25 years (Griffiths 1996b)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 2.8 years (Griffiths 1997b)
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.16 year-1 (Griffiths 1997b)
-1
-1
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.67 year SEC; F = 0.42 year SC; F = 0.46 year SWC, 1994
(Griffiths 1997b)
-1
FSB25: 0.19 year (Griffiths 1997b)
FSB40: 0.11 year-1 (Griffiths 1997b)
-1
-1
-1
F0.1: 0.1 year SEC; 0.1 year SC; 0.13 year SWC, 1994 (Griffiths 1997b)
FMSY: Not calculated
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: 0.67 year-1 SEC; 0.42 year-1 SC; 0.46 year-1 SWC, 1994 (Griffiths 1997b)
SBPRcurrent: 2.9-9.8% SEC; 6.5-12.5% SC; 4.4-10.4% SWC, 1994 (Griffiths 1997b)
TREND IN CPUE: The average catch per boat year has dropped to 9.24% (SWC), 7.83% (SC)
and 3.89% (SEC) of historical values (Griffiths 1999). Average catch per boat year was 2771kg
(1897-1906), 1222kg (1927-31), and 256kg (1986-98) in the SWC; 3551kg (1897-1906), 9739kg
(1927-31), and 763 kg (1986-98) in the SC; and 14857kg (1897-1906), 13516kg (1927-31), and
578kg (1986-98) in the SEC (Griffiths 1999). Annual catch per inshore trawler declined from
56.6mt (1944-54) to 4.7mt (8.2%)(1985-94) in the SEC and from 97.0mt (1944-54) to 6.7mt
(1985-94) in the SC (Griffiths 1999)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Not assessed
CURRENT REGULATIONS
CATEGORY: Recently (1998) moved from the Exploitable List to the Restricted List
-1
-1
BAG LIMIT: 5 person .day (recreationals only)
CLOSED SEASON: None
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Determine size at maturity in the SWC
Silver kob has been heavily overexploited and implementation of stringent management
measures is urgently required in order to rebuild the stock
78
SCIAENIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Argyrosomus japonicus (previously incorrectly identified as
A. hololepidotus, Smith No. 199.1)
COMMON NAMES: Dusky kob, daga salmon, kabeljou
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Eastern seaboard of southern Africa, southern seaboard of
Australia, northern Indian Ocean off Pakistan and north-west coast of India, northern Pacific
from Hong Kong northwards along Chinese coast to southern Korea and Japan (Trewavas
1977, Griffiths and Heemstra 1995)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Evaluated from Cape Point to MOZ border
HABITAT
ADULTS: Adults frequent estuaries and surf-zone but occur mostly in nearshore marine
environment down to 100m
JUVENILES: Juveniles 30 –150mm TL in estuaries only, juveniles <1000mm TL found in
estuaries and the surf-zone (Griffiths 1996a)
EGGS & LARVAE: In shelf waters off the KZN coast (Beckley 1993)
MIGRATION: Large proportion of the adult population in the Cape migrates to KZN to spawn
(Griffiths 1996a)
FISHERY: Important to both shore and estuarine anglers in SWC, SEC, TKI and KZN (Brouwer
et al. 1997, Griffiths 1997c). Important to both recreational and commercial skiboats in KZN, TKI
and SEC (Griffiths 1997c). Also taken in beach seine nets in the SWC and in estuarine gill-nets
in KZN (Lamberth et al. 1997)
GROWTH CURVE:
Lt = 1473mm TL (1-e-0.228/yr(t+2.620yrs))2.468 - females (Griffiths and Hecht 1995b)
Lt = 1372mm TL (1-e-0.260/yr(t+4.282yrs))4.619 - males (Griffiths and Hecht 1995b)
-0.241/yr(t+3.194yrs) 3.067
)
- both sexes (Griffiths and Hecht 1995b)
Lt = 1427mm TL (1-e
-6
3.04
(Griffiths 1996a)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: SL(mm) = 0.883TL(mm) – 15.51 (Griffiths and Hecht 1995b)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 1070mm TL (females) and 920mm TL (males)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 5 years (males) and 6 years (females) (Griffiths 1996a)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochorist
SEX RATIO: 1:1 (Griffiths 1996a)
SPAWNING SEASON: August to November in KZN, October to January in the SEC and SWC
(Griffiths 1996a)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Inshore reefs and pinnacles in KZN, TKI and SEC (Griffiths 1996a)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 1810mm TL (Griffiths and Heemstra 1995)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 75 kg (Griffiths and Heemstra 1995)
MAXIMUM AGE: 42 years (Griffiths and Hecht 1995b)
79
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 400mm TL (minimum size limit)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 1.5 years (Griffiths 1997c)
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.1 year-1 (Griffiths 1997c)
FISHING MORTALITY: Values of 0.63 year-1 for juveniles (estuaries and surf-zone) and 0.06
year-1 for adults (offshore) were calculated from data collected in 1990-92 (Griffiths 1997c)
FSB25: 0.11 year-1 (for current 40cm size limit) (Griffiths 1997c)
-1
FSB40: 0.07 year (for current 40cm size limit) (Griffiths 1997c)
F0.1: Not calculated
FMSY: Not calculated
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Values of 0.63 for juveniles (estuaries and surf-zone) and 0.06 for adults (offshore) were
calculated from data collected in 1990-92 (Griffiths 1997c)
SBPRcurrent: 2.3% of pristine (Griffiths 1997c)
TREND IN CPUE: As A. japonicus was previously confused with another species, A. inodorus,
no clear data are available in catch trends of this species in the SEC and SWC
TREND IN SEX RATIO: None
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: No trend in mean size in SEC surf-zone catch 1968-92
CURRENT REGULATIONS
CATEGORY: Recently (1998) moved from the Exploitable List to the Restricted List
-1
-1
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: None
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: The following table was constructed from data (1994-96)
presented in Griffiths (1997c)
BAG
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
KZN
Surf
94.3%
4.1%
1%
0.5%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
Cape
Surf
92.5%
5.0%
1.6%
0.5%
0.2%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
St Lucia
Estuary
84.1%
12.0%
2.7%
0.7%
0.3%
0.2%
0%
0%
0%
0%
LOCALITY
Great Fish
Estuary
86.2%
12.2%
0.9%
0.6%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
Sundays
Estuary
81.7%
14.5%
2.3%
1.5%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
Gamtoos
Estuary
83.9%
11.8%
3.2%
0.5%
0%
0%
0%
0.5%
0%
0%
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Determine whether spawning also occurs in the SEC (i.e. do all adults have to migrate to KZN
to spawn?)
Dusky kob has been heavily overexploited and implementation of stringent management
measures is urgently required in order to rebuild the stock
80
SCIAENIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Argyrosomus thorpei (Smith No. 199.2)
COMMON NAMES: Squaretail kob, half kob
COMPILERS: S.T. Fennessy and P.V. Radebe (ORI)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic to southern Africa; south-east coast of Africa from XaiXai in MOZ to Port Elizabeth in SEC (Smith and Heemstra 1986, Fennessy Unpubl. data)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Rocky reefs (van der Elst 1988)
JUVENILES: Water < 50m deep over subtidal soft sediments, particularly the Tugela Bank
(Fennessy 1994); also inshore shallow waters (Beckley and Fennessy 1996); occasionally in
estuaries (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
EGGS & LARVAE: Shelf waters off KZN (Beckley 1993)
MIGRATION: Limited, apparently resident (van der Elst 1988)
FISHERY: Very important in recreational and commercial skiboat fisheries in the mid-1980s to
early 1990s (Denton and van der Elst 1987, Fennessy 1994a), now much less important
(Penney et al. 1999, Sauer et al. 1997). Limited importance for shore anglers (Mann et al.
1997a). Caught as a by-catch by Tugela Bank prawn trawlers particularly from January to
February (Fennessy 1994b)
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = 518.3mm TL(1-e-0.286/yr(t+1.46yrs)) (KZN, 1989) (van der Elst et al. 1990)
-5
2.89
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) =2 x 10 , TL(mm) (van der Elst et al. 1990)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 329 mm (females) (van der Elst et al. 1990)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 2.1 yrs (females) (van der Elst et al. 1990)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochorist (Audibert 1988)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1: 1.1 (all fish) (KZN, 1987) (Audibert 1988)
SPAWNING SEASON: June to September (van der Elst et al. 1990)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Tugela Banks (Denton and van der Elst 1987), probably other areas
as well
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 13.7 kg (Audibert 1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: 13 yrs (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 350 mm TL (minimum legal size)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 3.7 years (van der Elst et al. 1990)
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.34 year (KZN, 1987) (van der Elst et al. 1990)
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.92 year-1 (KZN, 1987) (van der Elst et al. 1990)
81
FSB25: ∞ (KZN, 1987) (van der Elst et al. 1990)
FSB40: ∞ (KZN, 1987) (van der Elst et al. 1990)
F0.1: 0.58 year-1 (KZN, 1987) (van der Elst et al. 1990)
FMSY: 0.58 year-1 (KZN, 1987) (van der Elst et al. 1990)
CURRENT STATUS
-1
Fcurrent: 0.6 year (KZN, 1993) (Fennessy 1994b)
SBPRcurrent: 37% using calculated growth parameters (KZN, 1993) (Fennessy 1994a)
17% using a more realistic L∞ of 1000mm TL (Fennessy 1994a)
TREND IN CPUE: Total commercial catch (MOZ border to Durban) declined from 132.7 ton in
1990 to 14.2 ton in 1998 (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Percentage composition in the commercial catch (MOZ
border to Durban) declined from 37% in 1990 to 5% in 1998 (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
SIZE LIMIT: 350 mm TL
CLOSED SEASON: None
OTHER REGULATIONS: Closed season for prawn trawlers operating on inshore Tugela Bank
between 1 January and 28/29 February
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Establish size at maturity; improve growth model parameter estimates; stock assessment
The growth model parameters (and hence the biological reference points and current status)
and the size at 50% maturity in van der Elst et al. (1990) are poorly estimated. Indications are
that the stock of this species has collapsed and is in urgent need of rebuilding
82
SCIAENIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Atractoscion aequidens (Smith No. 199.3)
COMMON NAMES: Geelbek, Cape salmon
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Gulf of Guinea to southern MOZ, also north-west Africa south to
Angola and south-eastern Australia (Fischer and Bianchi 1984)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Cape Point to southern MOZ – separated from stock off Angola by
cool water off SA WC and southern NAM (Griffiths and Hecht 1995a)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Adults (>90cm) found throughout distributional range, over sandy and rocky substrata
to depths of 150m (Griffiths and Hecht 1995a)
JUVENILES: Sandy and rocky substrata to depths of 100m, early juveniles (<50cm ) in SEC,
sub-adults (50-85cm) in SWC (Griffiths and Hecht 1995a)
EGGS & LARVAE: Inshore of Agulhas Current in KZN and TKI, transported southwards by
inshore edge of Agulhas Current to nurseries in the SEC (Beckley 1993, Griffiths and Hecht
1995a)
MIGRATION: Adults undertake a seasonal migration from SWC through SEC and TKI to KZN
where they spawn in spring (Garratt 1988, Griffiths and Hecht 1995a)
FISHERY: Important to recreational and commercial skiboat fishers in SWC, SEC, TKI and KZN
(Smale and Buxton 1985, Sauer et al. 1997). Occasionally taken by shore anglers and beach
seine net fishers in SWC
GROWTH CURVE:
Lt (mm FL) = [424.9-1.56+(1004.0-1.56–424.9-1.56)(1-e-0.659(t-1)/1-e-0.659(t-1))]0.641 (Griffiths and
Hecht 1995a)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 8.42 x 10-6 FL(mm)3.01 (Griffiths and Hecht 1995a)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(mm) = 1.06FL(mm) – 0.757 (Griffiths 1988)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 900mm FL (Griffiths and Hecht 1995a)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 5 years (Griffiths and Hecht 1995a)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochorist (Griffiths and Hecht 1995a)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1 (Griffiths and Hecht 1995a)
SPAWNING SEASON: Spring (August – November) with a peak in Sept/Oct, based on gonad
condition (Griffiths and Hecht 1995a). Released eggs most abundant in Sept/Oct (A. Connell,
CSRI, pers. comm.)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: KZN (Griffiths and Hecht 1995a)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 1300mmTL (Smith and Heemstra 1986)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 25kg (Smith and Heemstra 1986)
MAXIMUM AGE: 9 years (Griffiths and Hecht 1995a)
83
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 600mm TL (567mm FL) (minimum legal size limit, although
relatively large catches are made of undersized geelbek in the SWC) (T. Hutton, UCT, pers.
comm.)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 2 years (Griffiths and Hecht 1995a)
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.5 year (SA stock, 1997) (Hutton et al. In prep.)
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.62 year (SA stock, 1997) (Hutton et al. In prep.)
-1
FSB25: 0.39 year (SA stock, 1997) (Hutton et al. In prep.)
FSB40: 0.26 year-1 (SA stock, 1997) (Hutton et al. In prep.)
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: 0.54 year-1 (SA stock, 1997) (Hutton et al. In prep.)
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: 0.62 year-1 (SA stock, 1997) (Hutton et al. In prep.)
SBPRcurrent: 5% (SA stock, 1997) (Hutton et al. In prep.)
and 1.46% (SEC) of historical values (Griffiths 1999). Average catch per boat year was: 9784kg
(1897-1906), 812kg (1927-31), and 243kg (1986-98) in the SWC; 6508kg (1897-1906), 355kg
(1927-31), and 258kg (1986-98) in the SC; and 17765kg (1897-1906), 3692kg (1927-31), and
258kg (1986-98) in the SEC (Griffiths In press)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Pending
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: None as species is migratory and spawning areas are not
protected
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: Not calculated
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Update growth study for future assessments
Indications are that the stock of this species has collapsed and is in urgent need of rebuilding.
Adult geelbek aggregate in known localities on the KZN coast during the spawning season and
large catches are made during this period, especially at night
84
SCIAENIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Johnius dussumieri (Smith No. 199.6)
COMMON NAMES: Small kob, mini-kob, nondi
COMPILER: S.T. Fennessy (ORI)
REFEREE: B. Q. Mann (ORI)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Indo-West Pacific south to East London (Smith and Heemstra
1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Assumed to be southern MOZ to central KZN
HABITAT
ADULTS: Turbid water over subtidal soft sediments, particularly the Tugela Bank (Fennessy et al.
1994, Fennessy 2000), also inshore shallow waters (Beckley and Fennessy 1996) and in estuaries
(Wallace 1975a, Mann 1993, Whitfield 1998)
JUVENILES: Turbid water over subtidal soft sediments, particularly the Tugela Bank (Fennessy et
al. 1994, Fennessy 2000), also inshore shallow waters (Beckley and Fennessy 1996) and in
estuaries (Wallace 1975a)
MIGRATION: Unknown
FISHERY: Important in Lake St Lucia gillnet and recreational linefisheries (Mann 1993, Mann
1995). Substantial incidental by-catch of Tugela Bank and Sofala Bank (MOZ) prawn trawlers
(Gislason 1985, Fennessy et al. 1994)
GROWTH CURVE:
-0.9/yr(t+0.270yr)
) KZN (based on length frequency distribution analysis) (Fennessy
Lt = 195mm TL(1-e
Unpubl. data)
-4
2.9503
-6
3.28
Wt(g) = 3.08 x 10 TL(mm)
KZN (Fennessy 2000)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 10-12 cm (KZN, both sexes combined) (Wallace 1975b)
125mm TL (females, KZN) (Fennessy 2000)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochorist (Fennessy 2000)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.25 (all fish, KZN) (Fennessy 2000)
SPAWNING SEASON: September to February KZN (Fennessy 2000)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Tugela Bank (Fennessy 2000), Sofala Bank MOZ (Brinca et al. 1983)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 23cm TL (Smith and Heemstra 1986) 30cm TL (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: ~400g (based on maximum length)
85
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 75 mm TL (Tugela Bank trawlers – Fennessy Unpubl. data)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: None
SIZE LIMIT: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: The wilderness area in Lake St Lucia may provide some
protection for this species
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Low priority
This species is not currently targeted to any great extent; has low market value, but has potential for
subsistence harvesting
86
SCIAENIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Otolithes ruber (Smith No. 199.2)
COMMON NAME: Snapper kob
COMPILER: S.T. Fennessy and P.V. Radebe
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Indo-West Pacific south to Durban (Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Assumed to be southern MOZ to central KZN
HABITAT
ADULTS: Turbid water over subtidal soft sediments, particularly the Tugela Bank (Fennessy et al.
1994), also inshore shallow waters (Beckley and Fennessy 1996) and in estuaries (Wallace 1975a)
JUVENILES: Turbid water over subtidal soft sediments, particularly the Tugela Bank (Fennessy et
al. 1994), also inshore shallow waters (Beckley and Fennessy 1996)
MIGRATION: Unknown
FISHERY: Targeted by recreational paddleski fishermen off Durban (Beckley and Fennessy 1996);
very limited importance in other linefisheries (Fennessy 1994a, Mann et al. 1997a). Substantial
incidental by-catch of Tugela Bank prawn trawlers, some of which is retained (Fennessy et al.
1994). Important in trawl fishery off Sofala Banks, MOZ
GROWTH CURVE:
-0.296/yr(t+0.93yr)
) KZN (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
Lt = 443mm TL(1-e
-1
L∞ = 429mm TL, k = 0.144 year MOZ (Gislason 1985)
-1
L∞ = 459mm TL, k = 0.32 year MOZ (Schultz 1992)
-6
3.13
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 4.94 x 10 TL(mm) KZN (Fennessy 1994b)
Wt(g) = 2.27 x 10-5 TL(mm)2.86 KZN (van der Elst Unpubl. data)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 237mm TL (females, KZN) (Fennessy 1994b)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 1.7 years (females, KZN) (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochorist (Fennessy 1994b)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.82 (all fish, KZN) (Fennessy 1994b)
SPAWNING SEASON: August to January KZN (Fennessy 1994b)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Tugela Bank (Fennessy 1994b), Sofala Bank MOZ (Brinca et al. 1983)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 80cm TL (Smith and Heemstra 1986) 70cm TL (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: 7 years (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 130mm TL (Tugela Bank trawlers – Fennessy Unpubl. data)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 0+ years (Tugela Bank trawlers – Fennessy Unpubl. data)
87
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
SIZE LIMIT: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Low priority
This species is not currently targeted to any great extent. Despite the large reported maximum size,
no fish over 500mm TL have been seen in several years of sampling
88
SCIAENIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Umbrina canariensis (Smith No. 199.8)
COMMON NAMES: Baardman, belman, tasselfish
COMPILER: B.Q. Mann (ORI) and P.D. Cowley (JLBSIISII)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Found around entire African coast, western Mediterranean, Canary
Islands and Cape Verde Islands (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: There is some confusion regarding the taxonomic status of Umbrina
spp. in SA waters. U. canariensis is the dominant species in the SEC and SWC, while U. ronchus is
the dominant species in KZN waters (Smith and Heemstra 1986). However, there are possibly two
species of U. canariensis, one inhabiting the inshore region of the Cape coast, while the other
species is found offshore in deeper water (S. Lamberth and M. Griffiths, MCM, pers. comm.)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Occur mainly over sand and rubble bottoms, but also inhabit subtidal reef ecosystems.
Often observed in caves during the day possibly suggesting that they are more active nocturnally
(Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
JUVENILES: Van der Elst (1988) suggests that juveniles are found in deeper water where they are
frequently trawled, however this may be a separate species (see stock distribution). Juveniles have
been observed in tidal rock pools and on subtidal reefs in the SEC (L. Beckley, ORI, pers. comm.)
MIGRATION: Results from tagging in the De Hoop Marine Reserve suggest that U. canariensis are
highly resident. No movement was recorded from 13 recaptured individuals (C. Attwood, MCM,
pers. comm.)
FISHERY: U. canariensis is targeted by shore anglers and was the fifth most often caught species
in the SWC between 1938-92 (Bennett et al. 1994). Relatively small numbers are taken by
recreational and commercial boat-based linefishers (S. Lamberth MCM Unpubl. data). Umbrina
spp. are also targeted by spearfishers along the entire south-eastern seaboard and account for
between three and 10% of the total catch (Mann et al. 1997b). They are also caught in beach-seine
nets and by inshore trawlers in the SWC (Lamberth et al. 1994, Japp et al. 1994)
-6
3.144
SWC (S. Lamberth MCM Unpubl. data)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 300mm TL (Lamberth et al. 1994)
89
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 55cm TL (Smith and Heemstra 1986), 75cm TL (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 11.05kg (SASAA records), 12.6kg (SA spearfishing record)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 40cm TL (minimum size limit)
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: Wide fluctuation in CPUE in the SWC between1960 and 1992 with a peak in the
mid-1970s. Seasonally, catch rates appear to be bimodal with highest catches in April-June and
September-November (Bennett et al. 1994)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Comprised 2.2% (by number) of competitive angler’s catches
in False Bay between 1938 and 1985. However, very few U. canariensis were caught prior to 1960
indicating an increase in catch composition due to a change in targeting (Bennett 1991)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Considerable interannual variation with no clear trend in mean size
(Bennett et al. 1994)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: U. canariensis has been shown to receive protection in the De
Hoop Marine Reserve (Bennett and Attwood 1993). It is likely that protection of this species is also
achieved in other MPAs along the south-eastern seaboard where linefishing and spearfishing is
prohibited
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Taxonomic clarification, reproductive biology, age and growth, distribution and abundance,
stock assessment, residency and migration, early life history
Clearly more information is required on the taxonomy, biology and stock status of this species to
ensure its sustainable utilisation. A project entitled “Taxonomy, biology and management of
Umbrina spp.” has been proposed and is scheduled to commence in February 2000 (K. Hutchings
UCT, pers. comm.)
90
SCIAENIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Umbrina ronchus (Smith No. 199.9)
COMMON NAMES: Slender baardman, slender tasselfish
COMPILER: B.Q. Mann (ORI) and P.D. Cowley (JLBSII)
REFEREE: R.P. van der Elst
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Known from the north-west coast of Africa and the Canary Islands
to the Cape and along the east coast of Africa to the Persian Gulf (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith
and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: There is some confusion regarding the taxonomic status of Umbrina
spp. in SA waters. U. ronchus appears to be rare in Cape waters and is the dominant species in
KZN waters (Smith and Heemstra 1986), however, both species may occur sympatrically in the
SEC (S. Lamberth, MCM, pers. comm.)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Occur primarily on shallow subtidal reefs especially at the sand/reef interface. Shoals of
U. ronchus are often observed in caves during the day, possibly suggesting that they are more
active nocturnally (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
JUVENILES: Often observed in subtidal gullies and over shallow subtidal reefs along the KZN
coast (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.). Colouration pattern (narrow oblique, wavy stripes) clearly evident
in juveniles
MIGRATION: Unknown
FISHERY: Seldom caught by either shore or boat-based anglers. However, they form an important
target species in the spearfishery comprising between one and 10% (by number) of the total
spearfishing catch in KZN (Mann et al. 1997b)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 70cm TL (Smith and Heemstra 1986)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 6.36kg (SASAA records)
91
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 40cm TL (minimum size limit)
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: In KZN percentage catch composition (by number) has
fluctuated between 1984 and 1995 (comprising between 1-10% of catches reported to the NMLS)
with no clear trend (Mann et al. 1997b)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Probably receives some protection within the Maputaland and
St Lucia Marine Reserves
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Taxonomic clarification, reproductive biology, age and growth, distribution and abundance,
stock assessment, residency and migration, early life history
Clearly more information is required on the taxonomy, biology and stock status of this species to
ensure its sustainable utilisation. A project entitled “Taxonomy, biology and management of
Umbrina spp.” has been proposed and is scheduled to commence in February 2000 (K. Hutchings,
UCT, pers. comm.)
92
SCOMBRIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Euthynnus affinis (Smith No. 249.4)
COMMON NAMES: Eastern little tuna, kawakawa, mackerel tuna
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Wide-ranging Indo-West Pacific species, prefers warm, coastal,
surface waters of the Indian Ocean, from SA to Indonesia and around the islands of
Madagascar, Reunion, Mauritius, Seychelles and Sri Lanka, few records from the Eastern
Pacific Ocean (Yoshida 1979, Collette and Nauen 1983, van der Elst 1988, Stequert and Marsac
1989)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Widespread Indo-West Pacific extending south to Cape St Francis
in the SEC (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Oceanic and coastal surface waters, an epipelagic, neritic species (Collette and
Nauen 1983, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
JUVENILES: Juveniles, together with larvae, are generally caught near the coast but
sometimes offshore (Stequert and Marsac 1989)
EGGS & LARVAE: Eggs and hatched larvae drift passively and are distributed by ocean
currents, larvae occur on the shelf edge from KZN to Algoa Bay in summer (van der Elst 1988,
Beckley 1993)
MIGRATION: A pelagic migratory species but little known about its migration patterns, of the
284 that have been tagged in SA waters none have been recaptured (Sedgwick’s/ORI/WWF
Tagging Programme)
FISHERY: Important to the recreational skiboat fishery in KZN but seldom caught commercially
in SA waters (Mann et al. 1997a). The SA catch makes up < 1% of the global catch, which
appears to be increasing - peaking at about 180 000 mt in 1997 (FAO 1999). Constitutes an
important protein source in the east (van der Elst 1988, Shannon et al. 1989)
-1
GROWTH CURVE: L∞ = 82cm FL, k = 0.508 year , t0 = 1.020 years (Torres and Pauly 1991)
LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP: Wt(g) = 3.0 x 10-5 FL(mm)2.908 (van der Elst and Adkin
1991)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Between 50 and 65cm FL, Indian Ocean (Collette and Nauen 1983,
Stequert and Marsac 1989)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Approximately 3 years, Indian Ocean (Collette and Nauen 1983)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Assumed to be gonochoristic
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1 as juveniles, but males predominate in adult stages (Collette and Nauen
1983, van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
93
SPAWNING SEASON: Mostly during summer but varies according to region (Collette and Nauen
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Spawns off KZN, and larger larvae extend in a plume along the shelf
edge down to Algoa Bay (Beckley 1993). Spawning recorded in various localities throughout its
distribution (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 100cm FL, but common to 60cm FL (Collette and Nauen 1983, van der Elst
1988)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 11.8 kg (Collette and Nauen 1983, van der Elst 1988)
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1 : Unknown
FMSY : Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent : Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: None (highly migratory)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Age and growth, stock assessment, residency and migration, reproductive biology
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS
Population status thought to be sound (van der Elst and Adkin 1991). Joint management and
collaboration between countries harvesting tuna in the Indian Ocean is needed via the IOTC
94
SCOMBRIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Katsuwonus pelamis (Smith No. 249.7)
COMMON NAMES: Skipjack tuna, oceanic bonito
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Cosmopolitan in tropical and warm-temperate waters, absent
from the Black Sea. Roughly distributed within the 150C isotherm (Collette and Nauen 1983,
Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986, Stequert and Marsac 1989)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: As above, common from Maputo Bay (MOZ) to Algoa Bay (SEC)
but also taken in SWC (Smale 1983, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
HABITAT
ADULTS: An epipelagic, oceanic species, often associated with ocean convergences and
fronts. A schooling species found from surface waters down to 260m, often in association with
yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) (Collette and Nauen 1983, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van
der Elst 1988)
JUVENILES: Habitat similar to adults (Stequert and Marsac 1989)
0
0
EGGS & LARVAE: Found in most parts of the Indian Ocean from 15 N to 35 S, preferring
0
waters with surface temperatures of at least 25 C (Collette and Nauen 1983, Stequert and
Marsac 1989). In southern African waters occur chiefly offshore in the Agulhus Current probably
advected from the central Indian Ocean spawning area (Shannon et al. 1989, Beckley 1993)
MIGRATION: Undertake extensive oceanic migrations (Hunter et al. 1986, van der Elst 1988).
Summer migrant off the east coast of SA (Smale 1983). A total of 950 skipjack tagged off SA
with no recaptures (Sedgwick’s/ORI/WWF Tagging Programme) suggesting a low fishing
mortality
FISHERY: Important recreational and commercial linefish species in SA but primarily caught by
foreign vessels in our waters (Smith and Heemstra 1986, Shannon et al. 1989). Elsewhere,
skipjack tuna makes up about 40% of the worlds commercial tuna catch and has replaced
yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) as the dominant tuna species. Caught mostly in purse
seines, poling, longlines and gillnets (Collette and Nauen 1983). The SA catch makes up <
0.1% of the global catch, which appears to be fairly stable at 1.5 million mt per annum (FAO
1999)
GROWTH CURVE: Numerous age and growth studies worldwide (see FishBase 1998), growth
-1
parameter estimates of L∞ = 80cm FL and k = 0.6 year from MOZ (Po et al. 1992)
-6
3.378
KZN (corrected from van der Elst and
Adkin 1991)
-6
3.379
SEC (Smale 1983)
Wt(g) = 1.89 x 10 FL(mm)
95
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Between 40 and 50cm FL, Indian Ocean (Collette and Nauen
1983, van der Elst 1988, Stequert and Marsac 1989)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 1 to 2 years, Indian Ocean (Stequert and Marsac 1989)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochoristic (Stequert and Marsac 1989)
M:F SEX RATIO: 0.83:1 north-west Madagascar (Stequert and Marsac 1989)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 99cm FL (Collette and Nauen 1983), rarely exceeds 75cm FL in southern
Africa (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 18.9 kg (Collette and Nauen 1983) 9 kg maximum in southern Africa (van
der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: 12 years (FishBase 1998)
SPAWNING SEASON: Throughout the year but primarily summer (Stequert and Marsac 1989,
van der Elst 1988)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Probably throughout Indian Ocean between 150N and 350S but
concentrated spawning grounds occur off northern Madagascar, the southern tip of India and
Sri Lanka and east of Indonesia (Stequert and Marsac 1989)
NATURAL MORTALITY: Unknown in SA waters
FISHING MORTALITY: Unknown in SA waters
BIOLOGICAL REFERENCE POINTS (in SA waters)
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1 : Unknown
FMSY : Unknown
CURRENT STATUS (in SA waters)
Fcurrent : Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: Unknown (foreign data records at MCM)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: None, highly migratory oceanic species
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Age and growth, stock assessment in the Western Indian Ocean/ South-East Atlantic, migration
patterns, recruitment
Although significant research has been conducted on this species worldwide, the catch potential
in the Indian and South Atlantic Ocean is still largely unknown. Joint management and
collaboration between countries harvesting tuna in these areas is needed via the IOTC and
ICCAT
96
SCOMBRIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Scomber japonicus (Smith No. 249.11)
COMMON NAMES: Chub mackerel, common mackerel, slimy mackerel
COMPILERS: J. Griffin (UCT) and B.Q. Mann (ORI)
REFEREE: R.J.M. Crawford (MCM)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Cosmopolitan species found in warm and temperate transition
waters of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans (Crawford 1989)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: In southern African waters found from Angola to southern MOZ
(Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986). It is thought that a single population
represents the stock in the south-east Atlantic (Crawford and De Villiers 1984)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Pelagic, shoaling species found in surface waters down to 200m, usually found close
to land (van der Elst 1988)
JUVENILES: Inshore, gradually moving into deeper waters upon reaching maturity (Crawford
1981)
EGGS & LARVAE: Pelagic, recorded in inshore waters along the WC (Crawford 1981)
MIGRATION: Seasonal migrations thought to be related to breeding cycle - congregating in
northern Benguela region in summer, migrating southwards during winter, and possibly
migrating northward again towards the end of the year (Crawford and De Villiers 1984).
Migrations could also be related to prey availability (Crawford and De Villiers 1984)
FISHERY: Historically taken mainly on handline, since 1954 one of the most important pelagic
species caught by commercial purse-seine and beach-seine net fisheries, also taken by midwater and bottom trawlers, especially in NAM waters. Frequently landed by recreational skiboat
anglers who often use them as bait (van der Elst 1988, Crawford 1989)
GROWTH CURVE:
Lt = 68cm SL (1-e-0.2070/yr(t+0.9845 yrs) WC (Baird 1977)
-3
3.3112
WC (Baird 1977)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt (g) = 4.9 x 10 SL(cm)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(cm) = 0.8807 + 1.1925 SL(cm) WC (Baird 1977)
FL(cm) = 0.2113 + 1.065 SL(cm) WC (Baird 1977)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 39-40cm SL, WC (Baird 1977)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 3 years, WC (Baird 1977)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochoristic (Baird 1978, Crawford 1981)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.14 (Baird 1978)
SPAWNING SEASON: June-September on the WC (Baird 1977)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Primary spawning area is between Lambert’s Bay and Dassen Island
on the WC (Crawford 1989), however, there may be other spawning areas along the SA coast
(van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 5kg (Crawford and De Villiers 1984)
97
MAXIMUM AGE: 8 years (Baird 1977)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: Approximately 10cm TL
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 0+ year class (Crawford and De Villiers 1984)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: No record of trends in line-caught chub mackerel. Trends in annual catch are
highly variable due intermittent strong year classes (Crawford 1989). First purse-seine catches
were made in 1954 when 4 000t were landed. During the ensuing 12 years annual catches
averaged 30 000t. In 1967 a record harvest of 130 000t was taken mainly due to the use of
spotter planes. Purse-seine catches decreased after 1969 and have been low since 1976. Total
catch of chub mackerel in the SE Atlantic has shown a similar decline. Chub mackerel were
able to tide the inshore pelagic fishery between the collapse of the sardine resource in the early
1960s and the increase in anchovies during the mid 1970s (Crawford 1989)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Considerable decrease in the contribution of chub
mackerel to all fish canned by the SA purse-seine fishery between 1954-1986 (Crawford 1989)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
CATEGORY: Bait List
BAG LIMIT: None
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: 1 September to 30 December for commercial purse-seine fishers on the
WC (van der Elst 1988)
OTHER REGULATIONS: International TAC of 200 000t introduced for the SE Atlantic in 1980.
TAC halved to 100 000t in 1986 and in 1988 the TAC was dispensed with as a restrictive
measure (Crawford 1989). Also subject to gear restrictions and various other regulations
pertaining to purse-seining and trawling
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: None due to migratory nature of stock
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Further research needs to be carried out to establish whether migrations are a result of food
availability or for spawning, and to establish clear patterns of migration. Research is also
needed to ascertain the causes of variability in recruitment success
Effective management of the chub mackerel should involve international collaboration,
particularly between SA and NAM. A healthy fishery will be dependent on the maintenance of
suitable levels of abundance of forage species (especially anchovy Engraulis capensis)
(Crawford 1989)
98
SCOMBRIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Scomberomorus commerson (Smith No. 249.12)
COMMON NAMES: King mackerel, couta, cuda
COMPILERS: A. Govender and P.V. Radebe (ORI)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Widespread in warm waters of the Red Sea and Indo-Pacific
STOCK DISTRIBUTION: MOZ, KZN, TKI extending as far south as Mossel Bay (Smith and
Heemstra 1986). Based on tagging results this distribution probably represents a single stock
(Sedgwick’s/ORI/WWF Tagging Programme)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Pelagic in deeper coastal waters over the shelf, occasionally venturing close to the
shore. Younger fish tend to shoal in single cohorts (van der Elst 1988)
JUVENILES: Recorded from large marine embayments in MOZ (A. Govender, ORI, pers. obs.)
MIGRATION: Adults migrate during summer (November - March) into KZN waters from MOZ.
This probably represents a feeding migration as little spawning has been recorded in KZN
waters (Govender 1992)
FISHERY: Very important in the recreational and commercial skiboat linefishery and
spearfishery in KZN and MOZ (Govender 1992). Rarely taken by recreational shore-based
anglers. Juveniles are caught in the artisanal beach-seine fishery and as a by-catch of the
prawn-trawl fishery in northern MOZ (A. Govender, ORI, pers. obs.)
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = 1343.5mm FL(1-e-0,2917/yr(t+2.999yrs)) KZN (Govender 1994)
-5
3.2515
KZN (Govender 1992)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: FL(mm) = 0.86mm TL + 32.8 (Govender 1992)
TL(mm) = 1.09mm FL + 32.6 (Govender 1992)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 705mm FL (males), 1096mm FL (females) KZN (Govender
1992)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 2.8 years (Govender 1995)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochorist (Govender 1992)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.81 KZN (Govender 1992)
SPAWNING SEASON: Spring-summer (November to March) (Govender 1992)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Unknown but probably MOZ (Govender1992)
MAXIMUM AGE: 5 years (Govender 1994)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 2200mm FL (Collette and Nauen 1983)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 48 kg SA angling record (van der Elst 1988)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: <1 year (A. Govender, ORI, pers. obs.)
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.5 year (Govender 1995)
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.25 year KZN (Govender 1995 )
99
FSB25: 0.32 year-1 KZN (Govender 1995 )
-1
FSB40: 0.22 year KZN (Govender 1995 )
-1
F0.1: 0.83 year KZN (Govender 1995 )
-1
FMSY: 6.67 year KZN (Govender 1995 )
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: 0.25 year-1 KZN (Govender 1995 )
SBPRcurrent: 33% (Govender 1995 )
TREND IN CPUE: Highly variable due to changing cohort strength, hence only useful in longterm data series (R. van der Elst, ORI, pers. comm.)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Very variable from year to year, a good run depends on
good recruitment in previous years. In the recreational skiboat linefishery in 1989 king mackerel
formed 68% (by number) of the total recorded catch and by 1997 this dropped to 12%. In the
spearfishery it formed 53% (by number) in 1989 and by 1997 it formed 22% (Govender 1992,
NMLS data)
TREND IN SEX RATIO: Not detected or suspected: gonochorist (A. Govender, ORI, pers. obs.)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Probably none due to highly migratory nature
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: Data from the KZN recreational skiboat fishery
(Pradervand In prep.)
Bag
% caught
% catch reduction
0
94.96
100
1
3.84
46.5
2
0.72
26.5
3
0.29
14.3
4
0.10
8.6
5
0.05
4.9
6
0
4.9
7
0
4.9
8
0
4.9
9
0.01
4.1
10
0.02
0
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Stock distribution, migration, early life history, recruitment and variability in year class strength,
spawning season(s) and spawning locality in areas other than KZN (especially MOZ)
•
Used by various fishery sectors therefore possibility of user conflict
•
Juveniles thought to be subjected to high mortality in MOZ as are caught in both artisanal
beach seines and as a by-catch of the prawn-trawl fishery
•
There is an urgent need for joint management of the king mackerel stock between MOZ
and SA
100
SCOMBRIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Scomberomorus plurilineatus (Smith No. 249.13)
COMMON NAMES: Queen mackerel, Natal snoek
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Western Indian Ocean from Kenya and Zanzibar to KZN
(Collette and Russo 1984, van der Elst and Collette 1984)
STOCK DISTRIBUTION: Confined primarily to KZN and MOZ (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith
and Heemstra 1986)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Open, coastal waters near rock and coral reefs and especially near river-mouths
providing the water is not too turbid (van der Elst 1988, van der Elst and Collette 1984)
JUVENILES: Unknown
MIGRATION: Adults migrate during summer (November - March) into KZN waters from MOZ.
This probably represents a feeding migration as little spawning has been recorded in KZN
waters (van der Elst and Collette 1984)
FISHERY: Important to the recreational skiboat linefishery and the spearfishery in KZN and
MOZ (van der Elst 1988). Forms a small contribution to the commercial skiboat linefishery in
KZN (Chale-Matsau 1996)
GROWTH CURVE:
Lt = 935mm FL(1-e-0,583/yr(t+0.991yrs)) KZN (Chale-Matsau et al. 1999)
-5
2.9411
KZN (van der Elst and Collette 1984)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: FL(mm) = 0.86 TL (mm) - 11.6 (Govender, Unpubl. data)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 720-740mm FL (males), 760-780mm FL (females) is 750mm FL
combined sexes KZN (van der Elst and Collette 1984)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 2 years (Chale-Matsau 1996)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochorist (A. Govender, ORI, pers. obs.)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.44 KZN (van der Elst and Collette 1984)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Not in KZN but possibly in MOZ waters (A. Govender, ORI, pers. obs.)
MAXIMUM AGE: 6 years (Chale-Matsau et al. 1999)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 120mm FL (van der Elst and Collette 1984)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 10 kg (van der Elst and Collette 1984)
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.45 year KZN (Chale-Matsau 1996)
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.28 year KZN (Chale-Matsau 1996)
101
FSB25: 0.55 year-1 KZN (Chale-Matsau 1996)
-1
FSB40: 0.35 year KZN (Chale-Matsau 1996)
-1
F0.1: 0.65 year KZN (Chale-Matsau 1996)
-1
FMSY: 2.23 year KZN (Chale-Matsau 1996)
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: 0.28 year-1 KZN (Chale-Matsau 1996)
SBPRcurrent: 50% KZN (Chale-Matsau 1996)
TREND IN CPUE: Appears to have high variability in year class strength (R. van der Elst, ORI,
pers. obs.)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Between 1987 and 1995 formed 20% (by weight) of the
scrombrid catch taken by recreational skiboaters in KZN (Chale-Matsau 1996). In the early
1990s formed 21% (by number) of spearfishers’ catches, however, in the late 1990s it only
comprised 11% (Chale-Matsau 1996)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Probably none as adults are migratory
Bag
% caught
% catch reduction
0
96.17
100
1
2.21
72.8
2
0.72
55.1
3
0.35
42.1
4
0.15
34.5
5
0.10
28.3
6
0.07
23.4
7
0.08
16.8
8
0.05
11.5
9
0.04
7.5
10
0.05
1.7
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Stock distribution, migration, early life history, recruitment, spawning season(s) and spawning
locality
Although the stock status of queen mackerel is currently sound, there is a need for joint
management of this and other species which are shared with MOZ
102
SCOMBRIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Thunnus alalunga (Smith No. 249.14)
COMMON NAMES: Albacore, longfin tuna
COMPILER: M Kroese (MCM)
0
0
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Cosmopolitan, occurring between 45-50 N and 50 S in all
tropical, sub-tropical and temperate oceans and the Mediterranean Sea (Collette and Nauen
1983)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: An Atlantic Ocean and an Indian Ocean stock may occur in SA
waters (Yeh et al. 1997)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Oceanic, but related to oxygen and water temperature, have been recorded in water
0
0
temperatures ranging from 9.5 C to 25.2 C (Collette and Nauen 1983), and usually associated
with oceanic temperature fronts. Feed at the surface, but live at the thermocline (Kailola et al.
1993)
JUVENILES: Form loose schools in upper (100m) of water column in temperate waters, range
expands and contracts according to seasonal distribution of warm water (Kailola et al. 1993)
0
0
0
0
EGGS & LARVAE: Spawning occurs in the Indian Ocean from 14 to 28 S and 55 to 80 E
(Stequert and Marsac 1989) and off Brazil in the Atlantic (Coimbra 1999). Larvae live in upper
0
60 m of water where water is warmer than 24 C (Kailola et al. 1993)
MIGRATION: Albacore in the Southern Hemisphere spawn in tropical oceanic waters between
0
0
5 - 25 S (Collette and Nauen 1983). In the Atlantic Ocean, juveniles move into temperate
waters in an anti-clockwise motion and reach SA waters as pre-adults. They join adults through
the Benguela current in the tropics (Coimbra 1999)
FISHERY: Directed SA pole and line fishery, directed longline fishery by foreign longline
vessels. Also targeted by recreational skiboat fishers, particularly in the SWC
GROWTH CURVE:
Lt = 124,74cm FL (1-e –0.2284/yr(t+0.9892yrs)) (Punt et al. 1995) (note: FL = Upper jaw fork length)
-6
3.283
(Beardsley 1971)
Wt(kg) = 1.3718 x 10-5 FL(cm)3.0973 (Penney 1994)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 90cm FL (Bard 1981)
80cm FL , females only (Punt et al. 1995)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 5 years (Bard 1981)
3.5 years in Atlantic after 1965, females only (Punt et al. 1995)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Small spawning aggregations with each fish producing 2-3 million
eggs, released in at least 2 batches annually (Kailola et al. 1993)
103
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1 immature fish, more adult males than females (Collette and Nauen 1983)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 127 cm FL (Punt et al. 1995)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 40kg, World angling record (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: 13 years (Punt et al. 1995)
SPAWNING SEASON: October to March in the Southern Hemisphere (Collette and Nauen
1983)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Albacore in the Southern Hemisphere spawn in tropical oceanic
waters between 50 - 250 S (Collette and Nauen 1983). Spawning grounds in the Indian Ocean
0
0
0
0
are from 14 to 28 S and 55 to 80 E (Stequert and Marsac 1989) and off Brazil in the Atlantic
(Coimbra 1999)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 45 - 89cm FL (Coimbra 1999)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 1 - 3 years (Coimbra 1999)
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.3 for South Atlantic stock (ICCAT 1999c)
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.65 (1996/97, ADAPT, ICCAT 1999c)
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1 : 0.36 (ADAPT, ICCAT 1999c)
FMSY : 0.87 (ADAPT, ICCAT 1999c)
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent : 0.65 (1996/97, ADAPT, ICCAT 1999c)
SBPRcurrent : 20% of pristine (Punt et al. 1995)
TREND IN CPUE: Declining trend in South Atlantic between 1957 and 1993 (Punt et al. 1995),
but fluctuating in recent years, current catches appear to be sustainable (ICCAT 1999c)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Monitor changes in abundance of the Southern Atlantic albacore stock. Determine whether
there is an inflow of Indian Ocean albacore into the South Atlantic stock
Joint management and collaboration between countries harvesting tuna in the Indian and
Atlantic Oceans is needed via the IOTC and ICCAT respectively
104
SCOMBRIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Thunnus albacares (Smith No. 249.15)
COMMON NAMES: Yellowfin tuna
0
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Worldwide, in tropical and subtropical seas, between 45 N and
0
40 S, but does not occur in the Mediterranean Sea (Collette and Nauen 1983)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: A single stock of yellowfin occurs in each ocean where they are
found (Kailola et al. 1993), but two stocks have been postulated for the Indian Ocean (Morita
and Koto 1971). The yellowfin that occur in SA waters may be from the Atlantic and/or Indian
Ocean stock
HABITAT
ADULTS: Epi-pelagic in oceanic water, found in water from 18–310C (Collette and Nauen
1983), in SA usually found adjacent to the continental shelf
JUVENILES: Caught in the tropics, sometimes associated with floating objects (Stequert and
Marsac 1989), in SA small yellowfin (5-20 kg) are common off the KZN coast
EGGS & LARVAE: Eggs are epi-pelagic (float at the surface) and larvae are pelagic, widely
distributed by ocean currents (Kailola et al. 1993)
MIGRATION: Annual movement in the Atlantic Ocean of mature fish to the spawning area off
West Africa occurs. Long distance movements have been observed in other oceans, but no
direct evidence of migration (Collette and Nauen 1983). Off southern Africa, progressively larger
fish are found with increasing latitude
FISHERY: Longline fisheries target large (adult) yellowfin. Juveniles are caught in purse seine
fisheries in tropical oceans (Stequert and Marsac 1989, Kailola et al. 1993). Yellowfin are an
important gamefish targeted by the recreational skiboat fishery along the eastern seaboard of
SA (van der Elst 1988)
7.49
(Gascuel et
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = 37.8+ 8.93 * t + (137cm FL – 8.93 * t) * [1-exp(-0.808*t)]
al. 1992)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: (note: DW = dressed weight, PFL = precaudal fin to fork length, RWT =
round weight)
-5
2.7745
(Penney and Griffiths 1998)
DW(kg) = 9.24 x 10 PFL(cm)
-5
2.976
RWT(kg) = 2.15 x 10 FL(cm)
(Cavariviere 1976)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: PFL(cm) = 0.7489FL(cm) – 3.0592 (Penney and Griffiths 1998)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 101cm FL (Kailola et al. 1993)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 2 years, all mature by age 3 (Kailola et al. 1993)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Multiple, serial spawners (Kailola et al. 1993)
105
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1, but male dominated in northern parts of distribution (Stequert and Marsac
1989)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 209cm FL (Kailola et al. 1993)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 176 kg (Kailola et al. 1993)
MAXIMUM AGE: 5+ (Kailola et al. 1993)
SPAWNING SEASON: Spawning throughout the year, but more in summer months (Stequert
and Marsac 1989)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Tropical waters (Stequert and Marsac 1989)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: Unknown in SA waters
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: Age 0 – 1 by purse seine (Stequert and Marsac 1989)
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.8 at age <1, and M = 0.6 at age >1 (ICCAT 1999a)
FISHING MORTALITY: F (at age 4) = 0.73 (ICCAT 1999a)
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1 : 0.65 (ICCAT 1999a, ADAPT case B2)
FMSY : >1, where F1997/FMSY (ICCAT 1999a, ADAPT case B2)
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent : 0.73 (where F97 (Age 4), ICCAT 1999a, ADAPT case B2)
SBPRcurrent : 30.5% (where F97 (Age 4), ICCAT 1999a, ADAPT case B2)
TREND IN CPUE: Declining in Atlantic (ICCAT 1999a)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: 3,2 kg
CLOSED SEASON: None
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
To determine the stock identity of yellowfin found in SA waters and the extent of mixing should
both Atlantic and Indian Ocean yellowfin stocks occur in SA waters
Yellowfin rate second in world tuna catches. Large amounts of yellowfin tuna are caught in SA
waters by foreign longline vessels, but these catches are insignificant when compared to the
huge catches of juvenile fish made by purse seine vessels in tropical waters. Over-fishing the
juveniles will have a direct influence on the abundance of yellowfin in SA waters. Joint
management and collaboration between countries harvesting tuna in the Indian at Atlantic
Oceans is needed via the IOTC and ICCAT respectively
106
SCOMBRIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Thunnus obesus (Smith No. 249.17)
COMMON NAMES: Bigeye tuna
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Inhabit the tropical and temperate waters of the Pacific, Indian
0
0
and Atlantic Oceans, between 44 N and 40 S (Calkins 1980)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Preliminary indications are that bigeye tuna found off southern
Africa are from the Indian Ocean stock (ICCAT 1999b). Even bigeye tuna found off the WC may
have been transported there by the Agulhas Current (ICCAT 1999b)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Epi- and meso-pelagic in Oceanic waters (Collette and Nauen 1983), but tend to
occupy deeper water, 150m – 250m during the day (Brill and Holland 1990), which may be
closely linked with the thermocline (Stequert and Marsac 1989). Move into the warmer surface
water at night to feed (Kailola et al. 1993)
JUVENILES: Have not been reported outside the tropics (Stequert and Marsac 1989), in monospecific schools or in association with yellowfin and or skipjack. May be associated with floating
objects. (Collette and Nauen 1983)
EGGS & LARVAE: Eggs are epi-pelagic, in tropical oceans (Kailola et al. 1993). Larvae are
0
0
pelagic and have been found between 10 N and 10 S (Stequert and Marsac 1989)
MIGRATION: Unknown if migration takes place, juveniles are found in the tropics and mature
fish are caught in tropical and temperate waters (Kailola et al. 1993)
FISHERY: Directed longline fishery and caught in the purse seine fishery (Stequert and Marsac
1989). Harvested primarily by foreign longline vessels in SA waters
GROWTH CURVE:
Lt = 285.4 cm FL (1-e – 0.11270/yr(t)) Atlantic Ocean (Cayre and Diouf 1984)
Females: Lt = 209.8cm FL (1 – e –0.171/yr(t + 0.86yrs)) Indian Ocean (Tankevich 1982)
–0.058/yr(t + 1.773yrs)
) Indian Ocean (Tankevich 1982)
Males: Lt = 423cm FL (1 – e
LENGTH-WEIGHT: (note: RWT = round weight, DW = dressed weight, PFL = pectoral fin to
fork length, PCN = pectoral fin to caudal notch)
Females: Wt(kg) = 4.23 x 10-5 FL(cm)2.84 Indian Ocean (Tankevich 1982)
-5
2.85
Indian Ocean (Tankevich 1982)
Males: Wt(kg) = 4.05 x 10 FL(cm)
RWT = 2.396 x 10-5 FL (cm)2.9774 (Parks et al. 1982)
–4
2.7679
(Penney and Griffiths 1998)
DW = 1.19757 x 10 PFL(cm)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: PFL(cm) = 0.761FL(cm) – 7.5222 (Penney and Griffiths 1998)
PCN(cm) = 0.6778FL(cm) – 7.2467 (Penney and Griffiths 1998)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Estimates range from 67 - 92cm (Stequert and Marsac 1989)
107
100 - 125cm Australia (Kailola et al. 1993)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Approximately 3 years (Stequert and Marsac 1989, Kailola et al.
1993)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Multiple, serial spawners (Kailola et al. 1993)
M:F SEX RATIO: More males than females (Stequert and Marsac 1989)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 236 cm FL (Collette and Nauen 1983)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 197.3 kg (Collette and Nauen 1983)
MAXIMUM AGE: May grow to 8-11 years (Stequert and Marsac 1989)
SPAWNING SEASON: January to March in Indian Ocean (Southern Hemisphere) (Stequert
and Marsac 1989)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Spawning aggregations associated with frontal regions where
0
temperatures are 25-26 C (Kailola et al. 1993)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: Approximately 45cm FL in Indian Ocean (Stequert and Marsac
1989)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: <1 year in Indian Ocean (Stequert and Marsac 1989)
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.8 at age <1; M = 0.4 at age >1 (ICCAT 1997a)
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.86 (1996) (ICCAT 1997a)
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1 : 0.268 (ICCAT 1997a)
FMSY : 0.341 (ICCAT 1997a)
CURRENT STATUS
-1
Fcurrent : F = 0.86 year (Atlantic 1996) (ICCAT 1997a)
TREND IN CPUE: Declining trend in Atlantic Ocean (ICCAT 1997a)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: 3.2 kg
CLOSED SEASON: None
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Identity of the stock occurring off southern Africa needs to be determined. Stock assessment to
determine the impact of current catches
Joint management and collaboration between countries harvesting tuna in the Indian at Atlantic
Oceans is needed via the IOTC and ICCAT respectively
108
SCORPIDIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Neoscorpis lithophilus (Smith No. 190.1)
COMMON NAME: Stonebream, stinker
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic, subtropical species found between MOZ and False
Bay (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Along east coast from southern MOZ to Cape Agulhas (Joubert
and Hanekom 1980)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Inshore reef fish found in shallow, rocky areas with turbulent surf (Joubert and
Hanekom 1980, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
JUVENILES: Shallow subtidal gullies and rock pools during summer (Joubert 1981a, Berry et
al. 1982, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
MIGRATION: Little known about migration of this species. To date only 4 (1.39%) stonebream
have been recaptured of the 287 tagged with a mean distance travelled of 37km
(Sedgwick's/ORI/WWF Tagging Programme)
FISHERY: Fourth most important species caught in the shore fishery along the KZN and TKI
coasts, becomes progressively less abundant further south. Larger specimens occasionally
taken by spearfishers (Mann et al. 1997a,b, Mann and Fennessy 1998)
-5
3.080
KZN (Joubert 1981a)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: FL(mm) = -0.914+ 0.89TL(mm) KZN (Joubert 1981a)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Not calculated, first maturity at approximately 260mm FL (females)
and 290mm FL (males) (Joubert 1981a)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochoristic (B. Mann, ORI, Unpubl. data)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.2 (Joubert 1981a)
SPAWNING SEASON: Extended spawning season June - January (Joubert 1981a)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Shallow coastal waters off MOZ and KZN coast (Smith and Heemstra
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 500mm FL (Smith and Heemstra 1986, Branch et al. 1994)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 2870g (SASAA record)
109
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: Unknown, previously 150mm TL in KZN
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
-1
-1
TREND IN CPUE: Decrease between 1975-77 (0.09 fish angler day ) and 1994-96 (0.05 fish
-1
-1
angler day ) in KZN (Joubert 1981b, Mann et al. 1997a)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Decrease between 1975-77 (7.94%) and 1994-96 (4.18%)
in KZN (Joubert 1981b, Mann et al. 1997a). Little change between 1985 and 1995 in KZN
(NMLS shore patrol data in Mann et al. 1997a)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Mean size has remained similar between 1975-77 and 1994-96 in KZN
(Joubert 1981a, Mann et al. 1997a)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Probably only effectively protected in the St Lucia Marine
Reserve Sanctuary and Mkambati Marine Reserve Wilderness Area (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs).
However, a few specimens have been recorded in both the Tsitsikamma National Park
(Hanekom et al. 1997) and the De Hoop Marine Reserve (Bennett and Attwood 1993)
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: Insufficient data
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Age and growth, stock assessment, stock distribution, residency and migration, early life history
and recruitment
Stonebream is an important shore angling species along the southern MOZ, KZN and TKI
coasts and is commonly caught by subsistence fishers. With growing demand being made by
the subsistence sector, further investigation of the status of this species is needed to ensure
sustainable utilisation
110
SERRANIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Epinephelus albomarginatus (Smith No. 166.33)
COMMON NAME: Captain fine, white-edge rockcod
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic to southern Africa, south-east coast of Africa, Quissico
(MOZ) to East London (SWC) (Heemstra and Randall 1993)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Assumed to be primarily southern MOZ to TKI
HABITAT
ADULTS: Deeper rocky reefs (van der Elst 1988); 40-120m (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
JUVENILES: Unknown
MIGRATION: Probably limited, apparently resident (van der Elst 1988, S. Fennessy, ORI,
Unpubl. data)
FISHERY: Important in commercial skiboat fisheries off southern MOZ and KZN, less so in
recreational skiboat fisheries (van der Elst 1988, Penney et al. 1999, Mann et al. 1997a)
GROWTH CURVE:
-0.201/yr(t+0.19yrs)
) (KZN) (Fennessy 1998)
Lt = 784.9mm TL(1-e
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) =8.76 x 10-6TL(mm)3.085 (KZN) (Fennessy 1998)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: About 600mm TL (females in northern KZN) and 375mm TL
(females in southern MOZ) (Fennessy 1998)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 7 years (females in northern KZN) and 3.1years (females in
southern MOZ) (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Protogynous hermaphrodite (Fennessy 1998)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1.4:1 (northern KZN, mature fish) (Fennessy 1998)
1:3.2 (southern MOZ, mature fish, unexploited stock) (Fennessy 1998)
LENGTH AT 50% SEX CHANGE: KZN unknown, MOZ 725mm (Fennessy 1998)
AGE AT 50% SEX CHANGE: KZN unknown, MOZ 12.5 years (Fennessy 1998)
SPAWNING SEASON: October to February (Fennessy 1998)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Reefs off northern KZN and MOZ (S. Fennessy, ORI, Unpubl. data)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 820 mm TL (S. Fennessy, ORI, Unpubl. data)
MAXIMUM AGE: 15 yrs (S. Fennessy, ORI, Unpubl. data)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 3.4 years (Fennessy 1998)
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: 0.222 year (KZN, 1998) (Fennessy 1998)
FISHING MORTALITY: 0.351 year-1 (KZN, 1998) (Fennessy 1998)
111
-1
FSB25: 0.196 year (KZN, 1998) (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
FSB40: 0.124 year-1 (KZN, 1998) (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
-1
F0.1: 0.208 year (KZN, 1998) (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
FMSY: 0.450 year-1 (KZN, 1998) (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
CURRENT STATUS
-1
Fcurrent: 0.351 year (KZN, 1998) (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
SBPRcurrent: 10 % (KZN, 1998) (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: (See management considerations)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Significant reduction in modal size from 1985-1987 to 1995-1997
(Fennessy Unpubl. data)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
SIZE LIMIT: 400mm TL
CLOSED SEASON: None
1995)
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL:
Bag limit caught per outing
Frequency of outings (%)
0
98.9
1
1.1
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
(Richards Bay recreational skiboats 1993-97 KZN - Fennessy Unpubl. data)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Establish efficacy of existing marine reserves; establish extent of north-south migration;
establishment of size/age at maturity in KZN
No spawning occurs south of Durban. All fish pass through an immature female phase and all
males appear to be derived from functional females, although there is no histological evidence
for this. Size at maturity in KZN females is a very rough estimate as only five mature fish were
sampled. Commercial and recreational skiboat CPUE and catch composition data for individual
serranid species are difficult to interpret because of poor species identification and multispecies
“targeting”. Total serranid contribution to recreational skiboat catches (1979-1995) shows no
trend (Penney et al. 1999). Total serranid contribution to commercial skiboat catches has
increased since the 1950s, possibly as a result of the decline in importance of some sparid
species (van der Elst and de Freitas 1988). Results of per-recruit analyses presented here do
not take sex change into account
112
SERRANIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Epinephelus andersoni (Smith No. 166.34)
COMMON NAME: Catface rockcod, brown-spotted rockcod
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic to southern Africa, south-east coast of Africa, Quissico
(MOZ) to Knysna (SWC) (Heemstra and Randall 1993)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Assumed to be primarily southern MOZ to SEC
HABITAT
ADULTS: Rocky reefs from surf zone to at least 50m (van der Elst 1988, Heemstra and Randall
1993). Recorded from 70m (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
JUVENILES: Tidal pools (Beckley 1985c, Beckley 1994) and shallow subtidal reefs (Berry et al.
1982, Fennessy et al. 1998)
EGGS & LARVAE: Shelf waters off KZN (Beckley 1993, Connell, Unpubl. data)
MIGRATION: Limited, apparently resident (van der Elst 1988, Fennessy Unpubl. data)
FISHERY: Important in recreational and commercial skiboat fisheries in KZN (van der Elst 1988,
Penney et al. 1999, Mann et al. 1997a), limited importance for shore anglers (Brouwer et al. 1997,
Mann et al. 1997a), moderately important for spearfishing (Mann et al. 1997b)
GROWTH CURVE:
-0.307/yr(t+0.81yrs)
) KZN (Fennessy 1998)
Lt = 794.3mm TL(1-e
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 2.26 x 10-5TL(mm)2.905 (Fennessy 1998)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 550 mm TL (females) (Fennessy 1998)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 4.4 years (females) (Fennessy 1998)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochorist, small proportion are protogynous (Fennessy 1998)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:2.8 (northern KZN, mature fish) (Fennessy 1998)
SPAWNING SEASON: September to January (Fennessy 1998)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Reefs off northern KZN and MOZ (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 815 mm TL (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
MAXIMUM AGE: 11 years (Fennessy 1998)
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: 0.294year (KZN, 1998) (Fennessy 1998)
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: 0.487year (KZN, 1998) (Fennessy 1998)
113
FSB25 : 0.3 year-1 (KZN, 1998) (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
-1
FSB40 : 0.19 year (KZN, 1998) (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
-1
-1
FMSY: 0.586 year (KZN, 1998) (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
CURRENT STATUS
-1
TREND IN CPUE: Decline in KZN shore fishery from 0.003 fish/angler/day (1975-77) (Joubert
1981b) to 0.0001 fish/angler/day (1994-96) (Mann et al. 1997a)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Size unchanged between 1985-87 and 1995-97 in KZN (Fennessy 1998)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
SIZE LIMIT: 400 mm TL
CLOSED SEASON: None
1995a)
0
7.3
1
64.2
2
19.5
3
6.4
4
1.8
5
0.8
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Establish efficacy of existing marine reserves, establish extent of north-south migration
No spawning occurs south of Durban. All fish pass through an immature female phase before
maturing as male or female. Commercial and recreational skiboat CPUE and catch composition
data for individual serranid species are difficult to interpret because of poor species identification
and multispecies “targeting”. Total serranid contribution to recreational skiboat catches (1979-95)
shows no trend (Penney et al. 1999). Total serranid contribution to commercial skiboat catches has
increased since the 1950s, possibly as a result of the decline in importance of some sparid species
(van der Elst and de Freitas 1988)
114
SERRANIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Epinephelus malabaricus (Smith No. 166.48)
COMMON NAME: Malabar rockcod
COMPILER: S.T. Fennessy
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Indian Ocean south to TKI, eastwards to India, Indonesia, Japan,
eastern Australia and south to New South Wales (Smith and Heemstra 1986, Heemstra and
Randall 1993)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Assumed to be southern MOZ to TKI
HABITAT
ADULTS: Rocky and coral reefs, as well as sandy/mud bottoms from the shore to 150m (Heemstra
and Randall 1993)
JUVENILES: Nearshore and estuaries (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
MIGRATION: Unknown
FISHERY: Minor importance in recreational and commercial skiboat fisheries and spearfishing in
KZN (van der Elst 1988, Fennessy 1998, Mann et al. 1997a,b)
3.03
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 0.0128 TL(cm) (FishBase 1998)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Matures at 70-80cm TL (van der Elst 1988)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Probably protogynous (Heemstra and Randall 1993)
SPAWNING SEASON: August to October (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 1150 mm TL (Heemstra and Randall 1993)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 25 kg (Heemstra and Randall 1993)
115
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
SIZE LIMIT: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
1995a)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Commercial and recreational skiboat CPUE and catch composition data for individual serranid
species are difficult to interpret because of poor species identification and multispecies “targeting”.
Total serranid contribution to recreational skiboat catches (1979-95) shows no trend (Penney et al.
1999). Total serranid contribution to commercial skiboat catches has increased since the 1950s,
possibly as a result of the decline in importance of some sparid species (van der Elst and de Freitas
1988)
116
SERRANIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Epinephelus marginatus (Smith No. 166.43)
COMMON NAME: Yellowbelly rockcod
DATE OF COMPLETION: October1998
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Inhambane (MOZ) to Cape Point (SWC), off West Africa from
southern Angola to the west coast of France, throughout the Mediterranean and off Brazil
(Heemstra and Randall 1993)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Rocky reefs from the surf zone to about 200 m (van der Elst 1988)
JUVENILES: Tidal pools (Beckley 1985b,c, Beckley 1994) and shallow subtidal reefs (Berry et
al. 1982, Burger 1990, Fennessy et al. 1998)
MIGRATION: Apparently fairly resident, some individuals may move longer distances (Zabala et
al. 1997, Fennessy, Unpubl. data)
FISHERY: Important in recreational and commercial skiboat fisheries along entire south-eastern
seaboard (van der Elst 1988, Penney et al. 1999, Mann et al. 1997a). Limited importance for
shore anglers (Brouwer et al. 1997, Mann et al. 1997a). Moderately important for spearfishing
(Mann et al. 1997b)
GROWTH CURVE:
Lt = 936.2mm TL(1-e-0.145/yr(t+0.97yrs)) (KZN) (Fennessy 1998)
-5
3.055
(KZN) (Fennessy 1998)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) =1.25 x 10 TL(mm)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Females: 625mm TL (KZN) (Fennessy 1998)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Females: 6.6 years (KZN) (Fennessy 1998)
M:F SEX RATIO:1:7.25 Mature fish (KZN) (Fennessy 1998)
LENGTH AT 50% SEX CHANGE: 870mm TL (KZN) (Fennessy 1998)
AGE AT 50% SEX CHANGE: 17 years (KZN) (Fennessy 1998)
SPAWNING SEASON: November to January (KZN) (Fennessy 1998)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 1125 mm TL (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 27.5 kg (KZN) (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
MAXIMUM AGE: 24 years (KZN) (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 2.9 years (KZN) (Fennessy 1998)
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.171 year-1 (KZN, 1998) (Fennessy 1998)
117
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.195 year-1 (KZN, 1998) (Fennessy 1998)
-1
FSB25: 0.16 year (KZN, 1998) (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
FSB40: 0.099 year-1 (KZN, 1998) (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
-1
FMSY: 0.259 year-1 (KZN, 1998) (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
CURRENT STATUS
-1
TREND IN CPUE: KZN shore fishery has declined from 0.001 fish/angler/day between 1975-77
to 0.0007 fish/angler/day between 1994-96 (Joubert 1981b, Mann et al. 1997a)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Significant reduction in modal size from 1985-87 to 1995-97 (Fennessy
Unpubl. data)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: 5 person-1day1 (recreationals only)
CLOSED SEASON: None
1995a); Tsitsikamma National Park (Burger 1990); De Hoop Marine Reserve (Bennett and
Attwood 1993)
84.2
0
15.4
1
0.3
2
3
0
4
0.1
5
0
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
All fish pass through an immature female phase and all males are derived from functional
females. Commercial and recreational skiboat CPUE and catch composition data for individual
serranid species are difficult to interpret because of poor species identification and multispecies
“targeting”. Total serranid contribution to recreational skiboat catches (1979-95) shows no trend
(Penney et al. 1999). Total serranid contribution to commercial skiboat catches has increased
since the 1950s, possibly as a result of the decline in importance of some sparid species (van
der Elst and de Freitas 1988). Results of per-recruit analyses presented here do not take sex
change into account
118
SERRANIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Epinephelus rivulatus (Smith No. 166.34)
COMMON NAME: Halfmoon rockcod, butcher’s prick
COMPILER: S. T. Fennessy and P.V. Radebe (ORI)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Indian Ocean and western Pacific (Heemstra and Randall 1993)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Rocky reefs to at least 80m (van der Elst 1988, Heemstra and Randall 1993)
JUVENILES: Shallow subtidal reefs (Berry et al. 1982, Fennessy et al. 1998)
EGGS & LARVAE: Shelf waters off KZN (Beckley 1993, Connell Unpubl. data)
MIGRATION: Limited, apparently resident (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
FISHERY: Important to KZN skiboat fishery, particularly the commercial sector (Mann et al. 1997a),
limited importance for shore anglers (Joubert 1981b)
GROWTH CURVE:
-0.502/yr(t+0.668yrs)
) (KZN) (Fennessy 1998)
Lt = 350.9mm TL(1-e
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 1.96 x 10-5 TL(mm)2.968 (Fennessy 1998)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:0.85 Mature fish (KZN) (Fennessy 1998)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Females 200 mm TL (Fennessy 1998) - (See management
considerations)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Females 1.6 years (Fennessy 1998)
LENGTH AT 50 % SEX CHANGE: 315 mm TL (Fennessy 1998)
AGE AT 50 % SEX CHANGE: 5.5 years (Fennessy 1998)
SPAWNING SEASON: July to November (Fennessy 1998)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 435mm TL (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
MAXIMUM AGE: 14 years (Fennessy 1998)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 1.4 kg (Heemstra and Randall 1993)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 250mm TL (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.36 year (Fennessy 1998)
119
BIOLOGICAL REFERENCE POINTS (see management considerations)
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: (see management considerations)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Unchanged from 1985-1987 to 1995-1997 (Fennessy 1998)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
BAG LIMIT: 5 person .day (recreationals and semi-commercials only)
SIZE LIMIT: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
1995a)
0
79.9
1
19.2
2
0.9
3
0
4
0
5
0
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Establish size at maturity, fishing mortality rates and biological reference points, stock assessment,
establish efficacy of existing marine reserves
Current estimates of fishing mortality are unrealistic, so biological reference points cannot be
calculated. All fish pass through an immature female phase before maturing as male or female.
Commercial and recreational skiboat CPUE and catch composition data for individual serranid
species are difficult to interpret because of poor species identification and multispecies “targeting”.
Total serranid contribution to recreational skiboat catches (1979-95) shows no trend (Penney et al.
1999). Total serranid contribution to commercial skiboat catches has increased since the 1950s,
possibly as a result of the decline in importance of some sparid species (van der Elst and de Freitas
1988)
120
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Acanthopagrus berda (Smith No. 183.1)
COMMON NAMES: Riverbream, perch, black porgy
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Widespread and abundant in tropical Indo-West Pacific, occurs
from SA to India extending to Japan, Indonesia and northern Australia (Fischer and Bianchi 1984,
Smith and Heemstra 1986, Sheaves 1992, Garratt 1993a, Tobin et al. 1997)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Plentiful in MOZ waters and in the estuaries of KZN and TKI,
occasional specimens are found as far west as Knysna on the SWC coast (Smith and Heemstra
1986, Harrison 1991, Whitfield 1998)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Euryhaline, estuarine species tolerant of a wide range of salinities and water turbidity. In
SA waters adults are rarely found in the marine environment (Wallace 1975a, Kyle 1986, van der
Elst 1988, Garratt 1993a, Whitfield 1998)
JUVENILES: 0+ juveniles enter KZN estuaries at 20-50mm TL between July and November and
remain in the estuarine environment to adulthood (Wallace and van der Elst 1975, Whitfield 1998)
EGGS & LARVAE: Spawning occurs in estuary mouths and in the nearshore marine environment,
eggs are transported into the marine environment during peak ebb tides and larval development
takes place at sea (Wallace 1975b, Garratt 1993a, Harris and Cyrus 1996, Whitfield 1998)
MIGRATION: Juveniles migrate into estuaries at about 20-50mm TL. Mature adults migrate
annually down to the estuary mouth and sometimes into the nearshore marine environment to
spawn. On completion of spawning, adults will migrate back up into the estuary (Wallace and
van der Elst 1975, Kyle 1986, Garratt 1993a, Kyle and Robertson 1997)
FISHERY: Important component of estuarine sport anglers catches in KZN and TKI. Also caught by
subsistence and artisanal fishers in St Lucia and Kosi Bay using fish traps and gill-nets (van der Elst
1988, van der Elst 1989, Kyle 1986, Mann 1995, Kyle 1999)
GROWTH CURVE: Not aged in SA, Lt = 383mm TL(1-e-0.273/yr(t+0.474yrs)) Kuwait (Samuel and
Mathews 1987)
-5
3.09
(units corrected from van der Elst and Adkin
1991)
Wt(g) = 0.01713 x TL(mm)3.01578 Kuwait (Samuel and Mathews 1987)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Estimated at 200-220mm TL (Wallace 1975b, Kyle and Robertson
1997)
121
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Protandrous hermaphrodite (Garratt 1993a,b, Tobin et al. 1997)
M:F SEX RATIO: 8.8:1in male-dominated spawning aggregation at Kosi mouth (Garratt 1993a)
SPAWNING SEASON: May to August with peak spawning in May and June (Wallace 1975b,
Garratt 1993a)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Open estuary mouths and in the nearshore marine environment in the
close vicinity of estuary or river mouths (Wallace 1975b, Kyle 1986, Garratt 1993a, Whitfield 1998).
Spawning has been observed at night on the outgoing tide in Kosi mouth (Garratt 1993a)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 450 - 750mm TL in SA (van der Elst 1988) but few exceed 300mm TL
(Garratt 1993a)
MAXIMUM AGE: Unknown in SA, 14 years in Kuwait (Samuel and Mathews 1987)
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: Unknown (total mortality estimate of 0.388 year in Kuwait) (Samuel and
Mathews 1987)
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: 0.342 year Kosi Bay 1997 (derived from current annual capture rate
estimated to be 29% of adult population in Kosi Bay) (Kyle and Robertson 1997)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
-1
Fcurrent: 0.342 year Kosi Bay 1997 (Kyle and Robertson 1997)
TREND IN CPUE: Significant decline in St Lucia between 1956 and 1977 (van der Elst 1978).
CPUE has shown considerable fluctuation between 1981 and 1996 in Kosi Bay with no clear
downward trend (Kyle and Robertson 1997)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Decrease in percentage composition in St Lucia between
1956 and 1977 (van der Elst 1978)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Significant decline in mean weight of river bream caught in St Lucia
between 1956 (+ 0.86 kg) and 1976 (+ 0.61 kg) (van der Elst 1978)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: No evidence of effective MPAs, however, some protection may
be obtained in the St Lucia Wilderness Area, Lake Amanzimnyama in the Kosi lakes system and in
Mtentu and Msikaba estuaries as these areas are closed to fishing (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Age and growth, stock assessment, egg and larval dispersion and interchange between different
estuaries, aquaculture potential
MANAGEMENT COSIDERATIONS
In addition to increased fishing pressure on estuaries, degradation of estuarine habitats in KZN has
probably had a serious effect on populations of this estuarine-dependent species. Protection of
suitable estuarine habitat along the KZN coast should be seen as a high priority
122
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Argyrops spinifer (Smith No. 183.4)
COMMON NAMES: King soldierbream
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Widespread in tropical Indo-West Pacific extending to the IndoMalayan archipelago and northern Australia (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra
1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Found off MOZ and KZN extending south to Knysna, nowhere
plentiful (Smith and Heemstra 1986)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Known to occur on a wide range of bottom substrata down to a depth of 135-150m
(Druzhinin 1975, Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
JUVENILES: Found in shallow waters of sheltered bays (Fischer and Bianchi 1984)
MIGRATION: Unknown, some evidence of large aggregations during autumn in the Gulf of
Aden (Druzhinin 1975)
FISHERY: Small numbers are occasionally caught by recreational and commercial skiboats off
KZN (Mann et al. 1997a) and by lineboats in MOZ (A. Govender, ORI, pers. comm.) but they
make up a very small component of the catch in both areas. Relatively large catches are taken
by bottom trawlers in the Gulf of Aden (Druzhnin 1975)
2.657
Gulf of Aden (Druzhinin 1975)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 0.0798 FL(cm)
LENGTH AND AGE AT SEX CHANGE: Unknown
SPAWNING SEASON: Summer to autumn in Gulf of Aden (Druzhinin 1975)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 700-750mmTL (Druzhinin 1975, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 5 kg (Druzhinin 1975)
123
MAXIMUM AGE: 17 years, Gulf of Aden (Druzhinin 1975)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 80mm FL, Gulf of Aden trawl fishery (Druzhinin 1975)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 1 year (inferred from Druzhinin 1975)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: None
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Possibly receive some protection in the St Lucia and
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Little is known about the biology of Argyrops spinifer, however, as it is constitutes a very small
component of catches and appears to be more plentiful elsewhere, it has received a low priority
in terms of research in southern Africa
Protection of adequate habitat for adults (i.e. deep reefs) is likely to be the best method of
conserving this species
124
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Argyrozona argyrozona (Smith No. 183.5)
COMMON NAMES: carpenter, silverfish
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic to SA. Recorded from Table Bay to the TKI (Smith and
Heemstra 1986), but abundant between Cape Point and Kei River (NMLS)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: As above, Nepgen (1977) studied carpenter occurring between
Cape Point and Cape Agulhas while current programme (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.) is
addressing those between Cape Agulhas to East London (including offshore grounds of
Agulhas Bank)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Bentho-pelagic associated with high profile reef of 50 – 200m (Griffiths and Brouwer
In prep.)
JUVENILES: Shallow (10-40m) inshore reef (Buxton et al. 1984, Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
EGGS & LARVAE: Pelagic, inshore of Agulhas Current (Wood 1998)
MIGRATION: Typically resident with some nomadic behaviour involving migrations of more than
100km movement (Wilke and Griffiths 1999, Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
FISHERY: Important in recreational and commercial skiboat catches in SWC, SC and SEC
(Smale and Buxton 1985, Brouwer 1997a, Griffiths 1999)
GROWTH CURVE:
Lt = 745mm FL (1-e-0.071/yr(t+1.524yrs)) SWC (Nepgen 1977). This study was based on whole
otoliths and is probably inaccurate (see maximum age). SC and SEC currently under review
(Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
-3
3.183
male SWC (Nepgen 1977)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 8.01 x 10 FL(cm)
-2
2.945
Wt(g) = 1.81 x 10 FL(cm)
female SWC (Nepgen 1977)
Wt(g) = 2.0 x 10-5 FL(cm)2.924 SEC+SC (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(mm) = 1.158 FL(mm) – 1.448 (Nepgen 1977)
TL(mm) = 1.07FL(mm) + 6.73 (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY:
SEC – males 275mm FL, females 262mm FL (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
Tsitsikamma – males 270mm FL, females 270mm FL (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
SC – males 263mm FL, females 250mm FL (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Under review (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochorist (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
125
M:F SEX RATIO: Port Alfred - 1:0.9 (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
Port Elizabeth - 1:1.3 (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
Tsitsikamma - 1:1.3 (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
Cape Agulhas - 1:0.7 (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
SPAWNING SEASON: Summer and Autumn (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Throughout distribution (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 608mm FL (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 3.62 kg (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
MAXIMUM AGE: Nepgen (1977) recorded a maximum age of 12 years for carpenter using
whole otoliths (although he found the otoliths of the larger fish to be opaque and unreadable).
Ageing using sectioned otoliths reveals that they live to at least 30 years (Griffiths and Brouwer
In prep.)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 25cm TL (minimum legal size)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 4 years (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
NATURAL MORTALITY: Under review (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
FISHING MORTALITY: Under review (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
Under review (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Under review (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
SBPRcurrent: Under review (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
TREND IN CPUE: The average catch per boat year on traditional fishing grounds (i.e. excluding
the offshore Agulhas Bank) has dropped to 3.21% (SWC), 4.77% (SC) and 25.88% (SEC) of
historical values (Griffiths 1999). Average catch per boat year was 9350kg (1897-1906), 3473
kg (1927-1931), and 300 kg (1986-1998) in the SW Cape; 1468 kg (1897-1906), 3481 kg (19271931), and 166 kg (1986-1998) in the S Cape; and 3574 kg (1897-1906), 3107 kg (1927-1931),
and 925 kg (1986-1998) in the SE Cape (Griffiths 1999)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Under review (Griffiths and Brouwer In prep.)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: 10 person-1 day-1 (recreationals only)
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Protected within the Tsitsikamma and De Hoop Marine
Reserves
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Determine size at maturity in SWC, publish results of current research programme
As the biology and stock assessment of carpenter is currently under review (Griffiths and
Brouwer In prep.), management recommendations will be forthcoming once this research has
been completed
126
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Boopsoidea inornata (Smith No. 183.22)
COMMON NAMES: Fransmadam, karel grootoog
COMPILER: T.P. Jayiya (UCT) and B.Q. Mann (ORI)
REFEREE: C. Wilke (MCM)
DATE COMPLETED: July 1999
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic, Cape Point to southern KZN (Smith and Heemstra
1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Assumed to be as above
HABITAT
ADULTS: Scattered and flat reefs in 5 - 30m depth (Trow 1982, Buxton and Smale 1984, van
der Elst 1988)
JUVENILES: Shallow subtidal reefs and gullies, particularly those covered in coralline algae
(Buxton and Smale 1984, Beckley and Buxton 1989)
EGGS & LARVAE: Pelagic, have been found in shelf waters within the Tsitsikamma National
Park (A. Wood, DIFS, pers. comm.)
MIGRATION: Unknown
FISHERY: Although small, fransmadam comprise an important component of recreational and
commercial skiboat catches in the SEC and SWC. Primarily used as bait but increasingly being
used for food as other larger reef fish species become depleted. Also occasionally taken by
shore anglers in the SEC and SWC (Brouwer 1997b, Lamberth 1996)
BIOLOGICAL INFORMATION AND POPULATION DYNAMICS
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochoristic (Garratt 1986b)
SPAWNING SEASON: Spring and summer (Buxton and Smale 1984)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Subtidal reefs in SEC and SWC (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: Unknown, but seldom exceeds 0.4kg (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
127
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
CATEGORY: Bait List
BAG LIMIT: None
MINIMUM SIZE LIMIT: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Receive protection in the Tsitsikamma National Park
(Buxton and Smale 1984) and the De Hoop Marine Reserve (C. Wilke, MCM, pers. comm.) as
well as other marine protected areas along the SEC and SWC
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Age and growth, stock assessment, catch trends, reproductive biology, residency and migration,
early life history
Fransmadam are becoming increasingly important in the SEC and SWC as other larger reef fish
species are depleted. It is likely that future catches of this species will continue to increase with
increased targeting and the use of smaller hooks
128
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Cheimerius nufar (Smith No. 183.7)
COMMON NAMES: Santer, soldier
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Widely distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical waters
of the Indian Ocean including the entire east coast of Africa, Madagascar and Mauritius. Also
known from the western Pacific from Malaysia to China (Druzhinin 1975, Fischer and Bianchi
1984, Garratt 1985a,b, Smale 1986, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: From MOZ to Cape Agulhas in the SWC (Garratt 1985a,b, Smale
HABITAT
ADULTS: Found in loose shoals primarily over deeper, low relief reefs down to at least 90m
(Coetzee and Baird 1981a, Garratt 1985a, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988,
Piotrovski 1990)
JUVENILES: Found on shallow reefs and over sand adjacent to reefs from 7-60m (Buxton et al.
EGGS & LARVAE: Pelagic eggs distributed inshore of the Agulhas Current (Garratt 1985b).
Larvae have been successfully reared artificially (Garratt et al. 1989)
MIGRATION: Adults do not appear to undertake extensive migrations (Sedgwick's/ORI/WWF
Tagging Programme), however, they appear to be nomadic between reef complexes and local
migrations into shallow water during stormy weather or following cold water upwelling is known
to take place (Smith and Heemstra 1986, Wilke and Griffiths 1999)
FISHERY: Important to the commercial and recreational skiboat fishery in MOZ, KZN, TKI and
the SEC (Garratt 1985a, Smale and Buxton 1985, van der Elst 1989, Penney et al. 1989,
Timochin 1992). Seldom taken by spearfishers (van der Elst 1988) but occasionally caught from
the shore at specific sites in the SEC (Coetzee and Baird 1981a, Hanekom et al. 1997). Also
taken in bottom trawls off MOZ and in the Gulf of Aden (Druzhnin 1975, Piotrovski 1990,
Timochin 1992)
GROWTH CURVE:
Lt = 953,56mmTL(1-e-0,0654/yr(t+2,6177yrs)), SEC (Coetzee and Baird 1981b)
-1
L∞ = 700mm TL and k = 0.17 year MOZ (Timochin 1992)
-4
2.571
KZN (Garratt 1984)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 2.4 x 10 FL (mm)
-5
2.7831
Wt(g) = 5 x 10 FL (mm)
SEC (Coetzee and Baird 1981b)
-2
2.8367
Gulf of Aden (Druzhinin 1975)
Wt(g) = 3.548 x 10 FL (cm)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(mm) = 1.130 FL(mm) - 0.17 KZN (Garratt 1984)
FL(mm) = 0.8798 TL(mm) - 0.9658 SEC (Coetzee and Baird 1981b)
129
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 250mm FL (females) KZN (Garratt 1985b), 340mm TL SEC
(Coetzee 1983)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Approximately 3-4 years (derived from Coetzee and Baird 1981b)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Rudimentary hermaphrodite and functional gonochorist (Coetzee
1983, Garratt 1985b, Buxton and Garratt 1990, Garratt 1991) but spawning behaviour and early
gonadal development suggest the possibility of protogynous sex change (Garratt 1993b)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.5 MOZ (Piotrovski 1990), 1:2.5 KZN (Garratt 1985a), 1:2 SEC (Coetzee
1983)
LENGTH AND AGE AT SEX CHANGE: Uncertainty remains whether C. nufar changes sex
(Garratt 1993b)
SPAWNING SEASON: June to October peaking between July to August in MOZ (Piotrovski
1990). May to November peaking between August to October in KZN (Garratt 1985b, Garratt
1991). November to February peaking between December and January in the SEC (Coetzee
1983)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Throughout its distribution including the Gulf of Aden, MOZ, KZN and
SEC (Druzhinin 1975, Coetzee 1983, Garratt 1985b, Piotrovski 1990, Garratt 1993b).
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 750mm TL (Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 7 kg SA angling record (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: 22 years SEC (Coetzee and Baird 1981b), 25 years in Gulf of Aden (Druzhinin
1975)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 170-190mm FL (prior to implementation of a minimum size
limit of 30cm TL in KZN) (Garratt 1985a)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: Between 1 and 2 years (inferred from Coetzee and Baird 1981b)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Santer increased in importance in the KZN commercial
linefishery between 1923 and 1985, but has subsequently remained relatively stable (Penney et
al. 1999)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Mean size has remained similar at between 300 and 350mm TL
between 1979-81 and 1994-96 (Garratt 1985a, Mann et al. 1997a)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: 10 person-1.day-1 (recreationals only)
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Probably receives some protection in the most of the large
MPAs along the southeastern seaboard where bottom fishing is prohibited
130
Data from the KZN recreational skiboat fishery (Pradervand In prep.)
Bag
% caught
% catch reduction
0
88.1
100
1
7.3
66.6
2
2.5
44.0
3
1.1
29.4
4
0.46
20.9
5
0.20
16.2
6
0.13
12.8
7
0.14
8.3
8
0.06
6.2
9
0.02
5.4
10
0.07
2.1
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Stock assessment, calculation of biological reference points, residency and migration
Santer is the second most important commercial linefish caught in KZN and MOZ. This shared
stock needs to be managed jointly by both countries
131
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Chrysoblephus anglicus (Smith No. 183.8)
COMMON NAME: Englishman
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic, southern MOZ to Algoa Bay (Smith and Heemstra
1986, van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Assumed to be primarily southern MOZ to TKI
HABITAT
ADULTS: Offshore reefs in depths from 50 - 120 m (Garratt et al. 1994)
JUVENILES: Unknown
MIGRATION: Unknown
FISHERY: Important in the KZN commercial and recreational skiboat fishery (Mann et al.
1997a), particularly on the south coast (Garratt et al. 1994). Occasionally taken by competitive
spearfishers (Mann et al. 1997b)
-4
2.74
(KZN) (Garratt et al. 1994)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Not determined, fish with mature gonads from 381mm FL (KZN)
(Garratt et al. 1994)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Unconfirmed protogynous hermaphrodite (Garratt et al. 1994)
M:F SEX RATIO:1:3.7 (St Lucia Marine Reserve) - 1:40 (KZN south coast) (Garratt et al. 1994)
SPAWNING SEASON: Limited data but appears to be an extended spawning season during
winter and spring (Garratt et al. 1994)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Unknown - limited spawning in KZN (Garratt et al. 1994)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 100 cm TL (Smith and Heemstra, 1986), 80 cm TL (van der Elst 1988)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 200 mm FL (Garratt et al. 1994)
132
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: Slight increase from 58 kg/man/year (1940-41) to 64 kg/man/year (19851992) KZN (Garratt et al. 1994)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Increase from 1.5 % of total commercial KZN linefish catch
in 1940-41 to 6% from 1985-1992 (Garratt et al. 1994)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Slight reduction in KZN from 350mm FL (1979-81), to 343mm FL in
1990-92 (Garratt et al. 1994)
TREND IN SEX RATIO: Sex ratio has been heavily skewed towards females due to removal of
large male fish and sex ratio on the KZN south coast consists of 95% females (Garratt et al.
1994)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
SIZE LIMIT: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
1995a)
Bag
% caught
% catch reduction
0
92.82
100
1
5.53
45.2
2
1.06
24.1
3
0.25
16.7
4
0.17
10.0
5
0.10
5.0
6
0.05
1.8
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Size at maturity, determining if sex change occurs, age and growth, stock assessment. The low
proportion of mature fish in KZN catches makes the determination of size at maturity and
spawning season very difficult
As with other endemic reef fish species there are indications that englishman have been
overexploited. Stock assessment should be undertaken as a matter of priority and consideration
should be given to introducing precautionary management especially in the form of MPAs
133
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Chrysoblephus cristiceps (Smith No. 183.9)
COMMON NAME: Dageraad
COMPILER: A.J. Booth (DIFS)
REFEREE: M.J. Smale (PEM)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic, from Cape Point to southern KZN (Fischer and
Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: SWC, SEC, TKI and southern KZN
HABITAT
ADULTS: Offshore reefs between 20-100m (Buxton and Smale 1984, Buxton 1987)
JUVENILES: Shallow subtidal reefs 10-30m in the SEC (Buxton 1987)
EGGS & LARVAE: Small pelagic eggs with a large oil droplet, larvae not described (Buxton
1990)
MIGRATION: Tagging results suggest that dageraad are fairly resident although there may be
some nomadic movement between reefs (Buxton and Allen 1989, Wilke and Griffiths 1999,
Sedgwick’s/ORI/WWF Tagging Programme)
FISHERY: Important to commercial and recreational skiboat fisheries in TKI, SEC, SC and
SWC (Crawford and Crous 1982, Smale and Buxton 1985, Hecht and Tilney 1989)
-0.081/yr(t+2.35 yrs)
) (SEC - Tsitsikamma) (Buxton 1993)
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = 654.7mm FL (1-e
-0.059/yr(t+2.17 yrs)
) (SEC - Port Elizabeth) (Buxton 1993)
Lt = 764.4mm FL (1-e
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 1.3 x 10-5 FL(mm)3.151 (SEC) (Buxton 1993)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(mm) = 1.1432 FL(mm) - 3.6024 (SEC) (Buxton 1993)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Females: 375mm FL (SEC-Port Elizabeth) (Buxton 1993)
Females: 365mm FL (SEC-Tsitsikamma) (Buxton 1993)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Females: 9.5 years (SEC-Port Elizabeth) (Buxton 1993)
Females: 10.5 years (SEC-Tsitsikamma) (Buxton 1993)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Protogynous hermaphrodite (Robinson 1976, Buxton 1989, Buxton
1990)
M:I:F SEX RATIO: (Male: Intersex: Female)
1:0.2:2.3 SEC Adults (1978- 86 East London )
1:0.2:4.4 SEC Adults (1978-86 Woody Cape - St Croix)
1:0.4:13 SEC Adults (1978-86 St Croix - Sardinia Bay)
1:24 SEC Adults (1978-86 Knysna - Mossel Bay)
1:0.6:3.8 SEC Adults (1978-86 Tsitsikamma National Park) (Buxton 1993)
134
LENGTH AT SEX CHANGE: 435mm FL (All values Buxton 1993)
385-420 mm FL SEC (1978-86 East London)
315-455 mm FL SEC (1978-86 Woody Cape - St Croix)
175-455 mm FL SEC (1978-86 St Croix - Sardinia Bay)
315-350 mm FL SEC (1978-86 Knysna - Mossel Bay)
420-455 mm FL SEC (1978-86 Tsitsikamma National Park)
SPAWNING SEASON: November to January (Buxton 1993)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Spawning recorded in SEC (Buxton 1990)
MAXIMUM AGE: 23 years (Buxton 1993)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: (Note that minimum legal size is 300mm TL = 266mm FL) (All
values Buxton 1993)
364 mm FL SEC (1978-86 East London)
266 mm FL SEC (1978-86 Woody Cape - St Croix)
235 mm FL SEC (1978-86 St Croix - Sardinia Bay)
235 mm FL SEC (1978-86 Knysna - Mossel Bay)
291 mm FL SEC Adults (1978-86 Tsitsikamma National Park)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 5 years based on the minimum size but between 5 and 9 years
based on the above lengths (Buxton 1993)
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.116 year (SEC, Tsitsikamma National Park 1980-86) (Buxton
1992)
-1
M = 0.09 year (SEC, Port Elizabeth 1980-86) (Buxton 1992)
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.094 year (SEC, Tsitsikamma National Park 1980-86) (Buxton
1992)
F = 0.426 year-1 (SEC, Port Elizabeth 1980-86) (Buxton 1992)
-1
-1
FSB50: 0.06 year (M = 0.09 year ) SEC, Port Elizabeth 1980-86 (Buxton 1992)
-1
FSB50: 0.06 year (M = 0.12 year-1) SEC, Tsitsikamma 1980-86 (Buxton 1992)
-1
-1
F0.1: 0.09 year (M = 0.09 year ) SEC, Port Elizabeth 1980-86 (Buxton 1992)
-1
F0.1: 0.10 year (M = 0.12 year-1) SEC, Tsitsikamma 1980-86 (Buxton 1992)
-1
-1
FMSY: 0.15 year (M = 0.09 year ) SEC, Port Elizabeth 1980-86 (Buxton 1992)
-1
FMSY: 0.18 year (M = 0.12 year-1) SEC, Tsitsikamma 1980-86 (Buxton 1992)
CURRENT STATUS
-1
-1
Fcurrent: 0.43 year (M = 0.12 year ) SEC, Port Elizabeth 1986 (Buxton 1992)
Fcurrent: 0.09 year-1 (M = 0.09 year-1) SEC, Tsitsikamma 1986 (Buxton 1992)
-1
SBPRcurrent: ~5% (M = 0.12 year ) SEC, Port Elizabeth 1986 (Buxton 1992 - inferred from
published curves)
-1
SBPRcurrent: ~ 54% (M = 0.09 year ) SEC, Tsitsikamma 1986 (Buxton 1992 - inferred from
published curves)
TREND IN CPUE: Strong evidence to suggest that the CPUE for dageraad has declined
throughout their distributional range except in the Tsitsikamma National Park (Crawford and
Crous 1982, Hecht and Tilney 1989, Buxton 1993)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Drastic decline in percent composition by mass from ~65%
(1940s-1960s) to 2.5% (1987) in the Port Alfred linefishery (Hecht and Tilney 1989). Similar
declines in SC (Crawford and Crous 1982)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Strong evidence for decrease in mean size and age-at-sex change in
exploited areas (Hecht and Tilney 1989, Buxton 1993). Fish are recruited into the fishery before
maturity
TREND IN SEX RATIO: Skewing of sex ratio with fewer males in areas with higher fishing effort
(Buxton 1993)
135
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: 5 person-1day-1 (recreationals only)
MINIMUM SIZE LIMIT: 300mm TL
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: The Tsitsikamma National Park has been shown to protect
a higher abundance and a larger mean size of C. cristiceps than adjacent exploited areas
(Buxton and Smale 1989, Buxton 1992, 1993). De Hoop Marine Reserve and marine reserves
off East London probably also assist in protecting a portion of the dageraad stock (Wilke and
Griffiths 1999)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Continued stock assessment, stock distribution, validation of growth estimates, residency and
migration, juvenile nursery areas
Evidence suggests that dageraad are under high exploitation pressure and that urgent action is
required to implement a stock rebuilding strategy and to increase the number of effective MPAs
for this and other endemic linefish species
136
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Chrysoblephus gibbiceps (Smith No. 183.10)
COMMON NAMES: Red stumpnose, Miss Lucy
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic, Cape Point to East London (Fischer and Bianchi
1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: SWC, SEC and TKI
HABITAT
ADULTS: Offshore reefs to 150m (Buxton and Smale 1984)
JUVENILES: Shallow reefs (Buxton and Smale 1984)
MIGRATION: Tagging in the De Hoop and Struis Bay area have shown C. gibbiceps to be
extremely resident (Wilke and Griffiths 1999)
FISHERY: Seasonal component of the commercial linefishery, especially on the Agulhas Banks
(Crawford and Crous 1982, van der Elst 1988). Also taken by the recreational skiboat fishery
and spearfishery (Smale and Buxton 1985, Brouwer 1997a, Mann et al. 1997b). Occasionally
taken by inshore trawlers along the SEC coast (van der Elst 1988)
-5
2.892
(SEC) (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: ~300mm FL (SEC) (C.D. Buxton, DIFS, Unpubl. data)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Late gonochorist (sensu rudimentary hermaphrodite) (Buxton 1985)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:0.02:1.56 (male: intersex: female) (C.D. Buxton, DIFS, Unpubl. data)
SPAWNING SEASON: October - February (SEC) (C.D. Buxton, DIFS, Unpubl. data)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: SEC (C.D. Buxton, DIFS, Unpubl. data)
137
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
(1897-1906), 187kg (1927-31), and 8kg (1986-98) in the SWC; 70kg (1897-1906), 757kg (192731), and 7kg (1986-98) in the SC; and 96kg (1897-1906), 382kg (1927-31), and 20kg (1986-98)
in the SEC (Griffiths 1999)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Decline in total catch at Struis Bay between 1969 and
1980 (Crawford and Crous 1982)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: De Hoop Marine Reserve has been shown to be effective in
protecting C. gibbiceps (Wilke and Griffiths 1999). The Tsitsikamma National Park also serves
to protect adults of this species
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Reproductive biology, age and growth, catch composition, stock distribution, residency and
migration, stock assessment, early life history, juvenile nursery areas
Completion of an age and growth study and stock assessment of this species should be seen
as a top priority. Evidence suggests that red stumpnose is heavily overexploited and stringent
management measures should be implemented to ensure rebuilding of the stock
138
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Chrysoblephus laticeps (Smith No. 183.11)
COMMON NAMES: Roman, red Roman
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic from Cape Point (SWC) to Port St Johns (TKI) (Fischer
and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: SWC, SC, SEC, TKI (Buxton 1987)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Deeper high-profile inshore and offshore reefs to 100m (Buxton and Smale 1984,
Buxton 1987)
JUVENILES: Shallow subtidal reefs to 30m (Penrith 1972b, Buxton and Smale 1984, Buxton
1987)
EGGS & LARVAE: Small pelagic eggs with large oil droplet, larvae found on shelf waters off
the SEC and have been successfully reared in captivity (Davis 1997, Wood 1998)
MIGRATION: Extensive tagging results have shown that Roman are extremely resident (Buxton
and Allen 1989, Buxton 1993, Wilke and Griffiths 1999, Sedgwick’s/ORI/WWF Tagging
Programme)
FISHERY: Important to commercial and recreational skiboat fisheries in TKI, SEC, SC and
SWC (Crawford and Crous 1982, Smale and Buxton 1985, Hecht and Tilney 1989). Frequently
speared by divers (Mann et al. 1997b). Occasionally taken by shore anglers fishing in deep
water (Brouwer 1997a)
-0.147/yr(t+1.69 yrs)
) (SEC - Tsitsikamma) (Buxton 1993)
-0.069/yr(t+3.11 yrs)
) (SEC – Port Elizabeth) (Buxton 1993)
Lt = 580.6mm FL(1-e
-5
3.154
(SEC) (Buxton 1993)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(mm) = 1.1144 FL(mm) – 2.855 (SEC) (Buxton 1993)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 172 mm FL (Females, SEC – Port Elizabeth) (Buxton 1993)
180 mm FL (Females, SEC – Tsitsikamma) (Buxton 1993)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 2.5 years (Females, SEC) (Buxton 1993)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Protogynous hermaphrodite (Penrith 1972a, Buxton 1989, Buxton
1990)
M:I:F SEX RATIO: (male: intersex: female) (All values - Buxton 1993)
1:0.1:1 SEC Adults (1978 – 86 Woody Cape – St Croix )
1:0.01:1 SEC Adults (1978 – 86 St Croix – Cape Receife)
139
1:0.2:2.4 SEC Adults (1978 – 86 Noordhoek – Sardinia Bay)
1:0.8:3.9 SEC Adults (1978 – 86 Jeffreys Bay)
1:2.8 SEC Adults (1978 – 86 Knysna – Mossel Bay)
1:0.4:0.8 SEC Adults (1978 – 86 Tsitsikamma National Park)
LENGTH AT SEX CHANGE: (All values - Buxton 1993)
325-350mm FL SEC (1978 – 86 Woody Cape – St Croix )
300-325mm FL SEC (1978 – 86 St Croix – Cape Receife)
275-375mm FL SEC (1978 – 86 Noordhoek – Sardinia Bay)
300-325mm FL SEC (1978 – 86 Jeffreys Bay)
300-325mm FL SEC (1978 – 86 Knysna – Mossel Bay)
300-325mm FL SEC Adults (1978 – 86 Tsitsikamma National Park)
AGE AT SEX CHANGE: 6 to 14 years based on the above lengths (SEC) (Buxton 1990)
SPAWNING SEASON: October and January (SEC) (Buxton 1990)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: SEC (Buxton 1989, Buxton 1990)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 512mm FL (Buxton 1987)
MAXIMUM AGE: 17 years (Buxton 1993)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: (All values - Buxton 1993, note that minimum legal size is
300mm TL = 272mm FL)
278mm FL SEC (1978 – 86 Woody Cape – St Croix )
260mm FL SEC (1978 – 86 St Croix – Cape Receife)
258mm FL SEC (1978 – 86 Noordhoek – Sardinia Bay)
220mm FL SEC (1978 – 86 Jeffreys Bay)
212mm FL SEC (1978 – 86 Knysna – Mossel Bay)
278mm FL SEC Adults (1978 – 86 Tsitsikamma National Park)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 4-6 years based on the above lengths (6 years at the minimum size
limit of 272mm FL)
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.193 year SEC Tsitsikamma National Park 1980 - 86 (Buxton
1992)
M = 0.108 year-1 SEC Port Elizabeth 1980 - 86 (Buxton 1992)
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.047 year SEC Tsitsikamma National Park 1980-1986 (Buxton
1992)
-1
F = 0.288 year SEC Port Elizabeth 1980 - 86 (Buxton 1992)
FSB50: 0.17 year-1 (M=0.11 yr-1) SEC Port Elizabeth 1980 - 86 (Buxton 1992)
-1
-1
FSB50: 0.32 year (M=0.19 yr ) SEC Tsitsikamma 1980 - 86 (Buxton 1992)
F0.1: 0.18 year-1 (M=0.11 yr-1) SEC Port Elizabeth 1980 - 86 (Buxton 1992)
-1
-1
F0.1: 0.26 year (M=0.19 yr ) SEC Tsitsikamma 1980 - 86 (Buxton 1992)
-1
FMSY: 0.43 year (M=0.11 yr-1) SEC Port Elizabeth 1980 - 86 (Buxton 1992)
-1
-1
FMSY: 1.58 year (M=0.19 yr ) SEC Tsitsikamma 1980 - 86 (Buxton 1992)
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: 0.29 year-1 (M=0.11 yr-1) SEC Port Elizabeth 1986 (Buxton 1992)
-1
-1
Fcurrent: 0.047 year (M=0.19 yr ) SEC Tsitsikamma 1986 (Buxton 1992)
SBPRcurrent: ~ 31% (M=0.11 yr-1) SEC Port Elizabeth 1986 (Buxton 1992 – inferred from
published curves)
SBPRcurrent: ~ 54% (M=0.19 yr-1) SEC Tsitsikamma 1986 (Buxton 1992 – inferred from
published curves)
TREND IN CPUE: The average catch per boat year has dropped to 12.65% (SWC), 17.44%
(SC) and 4.65% (SEC) of historical values (Griffiths 1999). Average catch per boat year was:
425kg (1897-1906), 560kg (1927-31), and 71kg (1986-98) in the SWC; 132kg (1897-1906),
229kg (1927-31), and 40kg (1986-98) in the SC; and 860kg (1897-1906), 558kg (1927-31), and
40kg (1986-98) in the SEC (Griffiths 1999).
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Decline in species composition for “other sparids”
including Roman in the Port Alfred skiboat fishery between 1980 and 1987 (Hecht and Tilney
140
1989). Decrease in catch composition in the Port Elizabeth region between 1979-80 and 199496 (Smale and Buxton 1985, Brouwer 1997a)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Little evidence for change in mean size or size/age-at-sex change in
unexploited and exploited areas (Buxton 1993). Fish are recruited into the fishery after maturity
TREND IN SEX RATIO: Skewing of sex ratio with fewer males in areas with higher fishing effort
(Buxton 1993)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: 5 person-1day-1 (recreationals only)
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: The Tsitsikamma National Park has been shown to be an
effective MPA for this species (Buxton and Smale 1989, Buxton 1992, 1993). The De Hoop
Marine Reserve has also been shown to protect Roman (Wilke and Griffiths 1999)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Continued stock assessment, stock distribution, residency and migration, juvenile nursery areas
Roman appear to have sustained fishing pressure better than many other species of endemic
sparid reef fish and it has been suggested that this is largely due to the small size at maturity
(~180mm FL) compared to the minimum legal size (272mm FL), and the fact that MPAs are
seeding adjacent exploited areas (Buxton 1993). Furthermore, Roman appear to be widely
distributed over reefs and seldom aggregate making them less vulnerable to capture
141
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Chrysoblephus puniceus (Smith No. 183.13)
COMMON NAME: Slinger
COMPILER: A. Govender and P.V. Radebe (ORI)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic to south-eastern coast of Africa from southern MOZ to the
northern waters of the TKI (Garratt 1985a)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: As above, evaluated in KZN (Punt et al. 1993)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Abundant on offshore reefs 12-100m (Garratt 1984)
JUVENILES: Juveniles <50mm FL uncommon (Garratt 1993c), juveniles >50mm FL widespread
on reefs 20-60m (Garratt 1984)
MIGRATION: Slinger >4 years do not undertake extensive migrations (Punt et al. 1993). However,
it is possible that young slinger (0- 4yrs) migrate northwards between northern TKI, KZN and MOZ
(Buxton 1987, 1992)
FISHERY: Slinger is the most important species caught in the commercial linefishery off KZN and
southern MOZ, but is also important to recreational skiboat fishers in KZN (Garratt 1984, Lichucha
1999)
-0.187/yr(t+2.253yrs)
) where 0 <= t <= 11 (KZN)
GROWTH CURVE: Females: Lt = 406.1mm FL(1-e
-0.187/yr(t-5yrs)
) where 5 <= t <= 11 (KZN) (Garratt et al. 1993)
Males: Lt = 406.1mm FL(1-e
-5
2.82
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Females: Wt(g) = 7.2 x 10 FL(mm) (KZN) (Garratt 1984)
-5
2.872
Males: Wt(g) = 5.5 x 10 FL(mm)
(KZN) (Garratt 1984)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIP: TL(mm) = 1.26 FL(mm) – 14.95 (KZN) (Garratt 1984)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 240mm FL (Females, KZN) (Garratt 1985b)
AGE AT 50% MATRITY: Approximately 3 years (Females, KZN) (Garratt et al.1993)
LENGTH AT SEX CHANGE: >240mm FL (Garratt 1985b)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Protogynous hermaphrodite (Garratt 1985b, Garratt 1986, Garratt
1993b)
M:F SEX RATIO: Unexploited: 1:2.3 MOZ , 1:5 St Lucia Marine Reserve (Garratt et al. 1993)
142
Exploited: 1:8 Richards Bay, 1:4.9 Mvoti, 1:24 Park Rynie, 1:99 Ramsgate, 0:99 Thompson’s Bay
Overall M:F = 1:19 (1979-83, KZN) (Garratt 1985a, Garratt et al. 1993)
SPAWNING SEASON: Extended spawning with peak reproduction in Spring (Aug-Oct) (Garratt
1985b)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Southern MOZ to northern KZN (Garratt 1985b)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: Approximately 522mm FL (Garratt et al. 1993)
MAXIMUM AGE: 11 years (Garratt et al. 1993)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 25 cm TL (current minimum size)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 1-2 years (Garratt et al. 1993)
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.3 year KZN (Punt et al. 1993)
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.4 year KZN (Punt et al. 1993)
-1
FSB25 : 0.25 year KZN (Punt et al. 1993)
FSB40 : 0.17 year-1 KZN (Punt et al. 1993)
-1
F 0.1: 0.08-0.1 year KZN (Punt et al. 1993)
-1
FMSY: 0.17 year KZN (Punt et al. 1993)
CURRENT STATUS
-1
Fcurrent: 0.4 year (KZN 1993) (Punt et al. 1993)
SBPRcurrent: 14-16% (KZN 1993) (Punt et al. 1993)
TREND IN CPUE: See catch composition
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Currently (1970-1990s) forms 50-80% of the commercial
linefish catch in KZN. In early years (1950s) formed less than 10% of the linefish catch in KZN
(Penney et al. 1999)
TREND IN SEX RATIO: Severe skewing of the sex ratio in southern KZN due to the removal of
large male fish (Garratt et al. 1993)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Severe reduction in mean size in MOZ (Lichucha 1999)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: The St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves have been
shown to provide some protection for populations of adult slinger (Garratt 1993c)
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DAILY BAG:
Bag
% caught
% catch reduction
0
77.99
100
1
10.47
77.6
2
5.37
54.7
3
2.65
37.7
4
1.84
22.0
5
1.01
11.2
6
0.32
7.0
7
0.15
4.8
8
0.08
3.5
9
0.02
3.0
10
0.02
2.5
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
143
Migration and locality of juveniles <50mm FL needs to be ascertained. Biology needs to be studied in
areas outside KZN, in particular MOZ. Need to ascertain how much recruitment to KZN is dependent
on the stock off MOZ and in the St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves
As with other endemic reef fish species there are indications that slinger have been
overexploited and there is a need to implement a stock rebuilding strategy. This should be done
in collaboration with MOZ as this is a shared stock
144
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Cymatoceps nasutus (Smith No. 183.15)
COMMON NAMES: Poenskop, black musselcracker, black steenbras
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic, Cape Agulhas (SWC) to Cape Vidal (KZN) (Fisher
and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: SWC, SEC, TKI, KZN
HABITAT
ADULTS: Deeper high-profile inshore and offshore reefs (Buxton and Smale 1984, Buxton and
Clarke 1989)
JUVENILES: shallow subtidal reefs (<10m) (Buxton and Clarke 1989)
MIGRATION: Adult fish are restricted to deep high-profile reefs. The absence of reproductively
active adults in the SWC and SEC suggests that there is possibly an easterly spawning
migration to TKI and KZN (Buxton and Clarke 1989). Juveniles and sub-adults have been
shown to be extremely resident (Sedgwick’s/ORI/WWF Tagging Programme)
FISHERY: Caught by shore anglers, spearfishers and recreational and commercial skiboat
fishers throughout its distribution (Coetzee and Baird 1981a, Hecht and Tilney 1989, Brouwer
1997a, Mann et al. 1997a). Sought after by recreational fishers but is of little commercial
importance due to low abundance, except in the TKI. Comprised 0.2% and 0.3% of the 1979
and 1980 SEC boat catches (Smale and Buxton 1985)
-0.0502/yr(t+2885 yrs)
) (SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1989)
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = 1089.5mm FL(1-e
-5
3.0355
(SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1989)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 2.236 x 10 (mm FL)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(mm) = 1.1252 FL(mm) - 1.2376 (SEC) (Buxton and Clarke
1989)
SL(mm) = 0.8961 FL(mm) - 6.1042 (SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1989)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Not determined, smallest reproductively active female 530mm
FL (SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1989)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Approximately 10 years based on above length (Buxton and Clarke
1989)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Protogynous hermaphrodite (Buxton and Clarke 1989)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:6 SEC (Buxton 1985)
LENGTH AT SEX CHANGE: Approximately 700mm FL, all fish > 950mm FL are male (SEC)
(Buxton and Clarke 1989)
145
AGE AT SEX CHANGE: Approximately 18 years based on above length (Buxton and Clarke
1989)
SPAWNING SEASON: Available data suggests that spawning takes between May-October in
TKI waters (Buxton and Clarke 1989)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Predominantly TKI waters (Buxton and Clarke 1989)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 1099 mm FL (SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1989)
MAXIMUM AGE: 45.5 years (SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1989)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: Approximately 8 years based on minimum legal size (= 446mm FL)
(Buxton and Clarke 1989)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: Trend in CPUE has probably declined significantly in KZN (Penney et al.
1999) but there appears to have been little change in total commercial catch with an annual
catch of approximately 10t taken between 1930-33 and 12t between 1986-87 in KZN (Buxton
and Clarke 1989)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Although not assessed, trend in catch composition is
thought to have declined in KZN similar to other slow growing, endemic sparids (Penney et al.
1999). Significant decline in catch composition recorded in TKI between 1984 and 1992 due to
voluntary cessation of catch by commercial fishers (Hecht and Buxton 1993)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
CATEGORY: Critical List
-1
-1
BAG LIMIT: 2 person day (includes both commercial and recreational fishers)
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: The residency of juvenile C. nasutus suggests that MPAs
are extremely important for the conservation of this species. Juvenile C. nasutus probably
receive some protection within the Tsitsikamma National Park and the De Hoop Marine
Reserve, while adults may receive some protection in the marine reserves off East London (M.J.
Smale, PEM, pers. comm.)
Bag
% caught
% catch reduction
0
99.6
100
1
0.5
0
2
0
0
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Confirmation of reproductive biology, residency and movements (particularly of adults), stock
assessment, early life history
146
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERTIONS
Slow growth, late maturity and sex change make this species extremely susceptible to
overfishing, careful management of this species, including the use of MPAs is essential
147
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Diplodus cervinus hottentotus (Smith No. 183.16)
COMMON NAMES: Zebra
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: The species Diplodus cervinus is found from the Mediterranean
to Cape Verde and off Angola and SA (Bauchot et al. 1981, Fischer and Bianchi 1984)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: The endemic subspecies Diplodus cervinus hottentotus occurs
from Cape Point to Sodwana Bay (Smith and Heemstra 1986)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Rocky reefs from the shore down to 60m (Mann 1992, van der Elst 1988)
JUVENILES: Shallow subtidal reefs, subtidal gullies, intertidal rock-pools and estuary mouths
(Christensen 1978, Beckley 1983, Beckley 1985b, Bennett 1987, Beckley and Buxton 1989,
Smale and Buxton 1989, Mann 1992)
EGGS & LARVAE: Close inshore, probably throughout distribution range (Brownell 1979, Alan
Connell, CSIR, pers. comm.)
MIGRATION: Adults resident (Sedgwick's/ORI/WWF Tagging Programme)
FISHERY: Caught primarily in the shore fishery where it is of moderate importance throughout
its distribution, seldom caught in large numbers (Joubert 1981b, van der Elst 1988, Whibley and
Garratt 1989, Brouwer et al. 1997). Larger specimens are occasionally shot by spearfishers or
caught by skiboat fishers (Mann et al. 1997a&b)
-0.146/yr(t+2.148yrs)
) SEC (Mann and Buxton 1997)
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = 396.85 mmFL(1-e
-5
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 9.0 x 10 TL(mm)2.7365 SEC (Coetzee and Baird 1981a)
Wt(g) = 1.6 x 10-5 FL(mm)3.082 SEC (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
-5
3.141
SEC (Mann and Buxton 1997)
Wt(g) = 1.27 x 10 FL(mm)
0.969
SEC (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: FL(mm) = 1.015 TL(mm)
TL(mm) = 1.1607 FL(mm) + 2.628 SEC (Mann and Buxton 1997)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 280mm FL SEC (Mann and Buxton 1998)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 6 years (Mann and Buxton 1998)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Rudimentary hermaphrodite (functional gonochorist) (Mann and
Buxton 1998)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1.2:1 (adults only) SEC (Mann and Buxton 1998)
SPAWNING SEASON: Aug-Dec peaking in Oct (SEC) (Mann and Buxton 1998)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Inshore reefs probably throughout distribution (B. Mann, ORI, pers.
obs.)
148
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 480mm FL (Mann and Buxton 1997), approximately 587mm FL
(converted length from SASAA record)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 3.1kg (Mann and Buxton 1997), 6.3kg (SASAA record)
MAXIMUM AGE: 33 years (Mann and Buxton 1997)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
-1
TREND IN CPUE: No change between 1975-77 (0.005 fish angler day ) and 1994-96 (0.004
-1
fish angler day ) in KZN (Joubert 1981b, Mann et al. 1997a). Increase between 1985-86 (3.03g
-1
-1
-1
-1
person hour ) and 1994-96 (6.0g person hour ) in SEC (Clarke and Buxton 1989, Brouwer
1997a)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Increase between 1975-77 (0.04%) and 1994-96 (0.38%)
in KZN (Joubert 1981b, Mann et al. 1997a). Decrease between 1985-86 (2.0%) and 1994-96
(0.7%) in SEC (Clarke and Buxton 1989, Brouwer 1997a)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Little data, mean weight has increased slightly between 1985-86 and
1994-96 in SEC (Clarke and Buxton 1989, Brouwer 1997a)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Tsitsikamma National Park, De Hoop Marine Reserve,
Sardinia, Millers’ Point (Bennett and Attwood 1991, Mann 1992, Bennett and Attwood 1993,
Hanekom et al. 1997)
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: The following results were calculated from the SEC
(Cowley et al. In prep.)
Bag
% caught
% catch reduction
0
83
100
1
12
47
2
3
20
3
2
0
4
0
0
5
0
0
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Stock assessment (YPR and SBPR), stock distribution, early life history and recruitment studies
Zebra is an extremely slow growing sparid that should be managed using a precautionary
approach. Although having a greater depth range than a similar species (i.e. the blacktail
Diplodus sargus capensis), it is found predominantly on high relief reefs and specialises in
feeding on polychaete worms and amphipods (Mann and Buxton 1992)
149
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Diplodus sargus capensis (Smith No. 183.17)
COMMON NAMES: Blacktail, dassie
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Mediterranean, Eastern Atlantic, Western Indian Ocean, entire
African coast to Persian Gulf. Endemic sub-species from Angola to MOZ and southern
Madagascar (Bauchot et al. 1981, Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Cape Point to southern MOZ (Smith and Heemstra 1986)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Shallow rocky and sandy substrata down to 25m (Joubert 1981a, Wallace et al.
1984b, Beckley and Buxton 1989, Mann 1992)
JUVENILES: Shallow subtidal reefs, subtidal gullies, intertidal pools, sandy beach surf zone
and estuary mouths (Christensen 1978, Joubert 1981a, Lasiak 1981, 1984a,b, Beckley 1983,
1985b, Berry et al. 1982, Bennett 1987, Bennett 1989a, Smale and Buxton 1989, Mann 1992)
EGGS & LARVAE: Pelagic, distributed inshore of the Agulhas Current throughout distributional
range (Brownell 1979, L. Beckley, ORI, pers. comm., A. Wood, DIFS, pers. comm., A. Connell,
CSIR, pers. comm.)
MIGRATION: Adults appear to be fairly resident (Bennett and Attwood 1991, Birnie and Bullen
1994, Attwood & Bennett 1995a)
FISHERY: Caught primarily in the shore fishery along the entire south-eastern seaboard where
it is the third most important shore angling species (Joubert 1981b, van der Elst 1988, Whibley
and Garratt 1989, Brouwer et al. 1997)
-0.247/yr(t+1.048yrs)
) SEC (Mann and Buxton 1997)
GROWTH CURVE: Lt =309mm FL(1-e
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 3.3 x 10-5 FL(mm)2.99 KZN (Joubert 1981a)
Wt(g) = 1.6 x 10-4 TL(mm)2.6133 SEC (Coetzee and Baird 1981a)
Wt(g) = 7.4 x 10-6 FL(mm)3.242 SEC (Mann and Buxton 1997)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: FL (mm) = 0.419 + 0.859 TL(mm) KZN (Joubert 1981a)
TL(mm) = 1.626 FL(mm) + 2.554 SEC (Mann and Buxton 1997)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 150-160mm FL, KZN (Joubert 1981a)
211mm FL, SEC (Mann and Buxton 1998)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 3 years (Mann and Buxton 1998)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Rudimentary hermaphrodite (Joubert 1981a). Partial protandrous
hermaphrodite (Coetzee 1986, Mann and Buxton 1998)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1.3:1 KZN (Joubert 1981a), 1:1.98 SEC, adults only (Mann and Buxton 1998)
LENGTH AND AGE AT SEX CHANGE: Variable, sex change can occur at different sizes/ages
(Mann and Buxton 1998)
SPAWNING SEASON: May-Dec peaking Jul-Sep in KZN (Joubert 1981a), Oct-Feb peaking
Oct-Dec in SEC (Coetzee 1986), Aug-Mar peaking Aug-Oct in SEC (Mann and Buxton 1998)
150
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Inshore reefs probably throughout distribution (B. Mann, ORI, pers.
obs.)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 332mm FL (Mann and Buxton 1997), approximately 450mm FL (derived
from SASAA record)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 1.1kg (Mann and Buxton 1997), 3kg (SASAA record)
MAXIMUM AGE: 21 years (Mann and Buxton 1997)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
-1
-1
TREND IN CPUE: Decrease between 1975-77 (0.104 fish angler day ) and 1994-96 (0.063
-1
-1
fish angler day ) in KZN (Joubert 1981b, Mann et al. 1997a). Decrease between 1985-86
-1
-1
-1
-1
(19.4g person hour ) and 1994-96 (11g person hour ) in Port Elizabeth (Clarke and Buxton
1989, Brouwer 1997b). Increase between 1938 and 1992 in False Bay due to a change in
targeting (Bennett et al. 1994)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Decrease between 1956-60 and 1978-82 in KZN (van der
Elst and De Freitas 1988, van der Elst 1989). Little change between 1975-77 (9.2%) and 199496 (8.7%) in KZN (Joubert 1981b, Mann et al. 1997a). Little change between 1985 and 1995 in
KZN (NMLS shore patrol data in Mann et al. 1997a). Decrease between 1985-86 (18.4%) and
1994-96 (7.6%) in Port Elizabeth (Clarke and Buxton 1989, Brouwer 1997b). Increase between
1950-59 and 1976-85 in False Bay due to a change in targeting (Bennett 1991)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Mean size has remained similar between 1975-77 and 1994-96 in KZN
(Joubert 1981a, Mann et al. 1997a). No consistent trend in SWC (Bennett et al. 1994)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Tsitsikamma National Park, De Hoop Marine Reserve and
other MPAs protecting shore angling species along the SE seaboard (Bennett and Attwood
1991, Mann 1992, Bennett and Attwood 1993, Attwood and Bennett 1995a, Hanekom et al.
1997)
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: Reduction in F of 2.4% by introduction of DBL in 1984 (5
person-1 day-1) in False Bay (Attwood and Bennett 1995b). The following results were calculated
from the SEC (Cowley et al. In prep.)
Bag
% caught
% catch reduction
0
55
100
1
38
37
2
3
26
3
2
19
4
1
11
5
1
5
151
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Age and growth in KZN, stock assessment (YPR and SBPR), stock distribution, early life history
and recruitment studies
Blacktail appears to have a faster growth rate and an earlier size at maturity in KZN than in the
cooler Cape waters. Also, despite its slow growth it is still an extremely abundant species on
inshore reefs occupying a wider niche than more specialised reef fish species. Both these
aspects warrant further investigation
152
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Lithognathus aureti (Smith No. 183.19)
COMMON NAMES: Westcoast steenbras
COMPILER: J.A. Holtzhausen (MFMR)
DATE OF COMPLETION: Feb 2000
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic to the West Coast of southern Africa and found rarely
outside NAM’s territorial marine waters (Holtzhausen 2000)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Two stocks occur in NAM waters; a closed and separate
population, which is in the process of speciating, occurring in the southern region at Meob Bay
(southern population) and a second stock (northern population) occurring in the central and
northern regions (Holtzhausen 2000)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Inshore over sandy shores to a water depth of about 10m (Holtzhausen 2000)
JUVENILES: Occur in the intertidal surf-zone (McLachlan 1986)
EGGS & LARVAE: Eggs and larvae thought to drift northwards with the Benguela current after
being spawned in the surf-zone (Holtzhausen 2000)
MIGRATION: Mark-recapture results provided no evidence of spawning migrations in the
central and northern regions. However, indications are that mature males move considerable
distances to find gravid females for reproduction (northern population) (Holtzhausen 2000)
FISHERY: It is estimated that the NAM linefish fishery contributes N$ 35 million per annum to
the GDP of the country (Kirchner, Sakko and Barnes In press) of which approximately N$4.5
million could be attributed to the westcoast steenbras resource. Northern stock exploited by
recreational shore anglers in the West Coast Recreational area (260 km) and in Torra Bay and
Terrace Bay in the Skeleton Coast Park (65 km), constituting one fifth of NAM’s 1500 km-long
coastline. Southern stock targeted by commercial lineboats when kob (Argyrosomus inodorus)
is scarce.
SSB (northern population) estimated at 772 mt (range 538 – 1121) and MSY at 134 mt (range
109 – 173) which was equalled in the 1995/1996 season and almost double the amount
harvested in the 1998/1999 season. Only taken as an incidental catch by recreational skiboats.
Lineboat catches of westcoast steenbras (both stocks) have been recorded since 1973 (35 mt
landed) and reached a peak in 1980 (407 mt landed) followed by a downward trend with a zero
catch in 1993. The use of set-nets was banned in 1992 to protect the species. After not
harvesting the southern population for 11 years, 67 and 97 mt were harvested in 1997 and 1999
respectively. 82% of these catches consisted of females of 10 yrs and older
153
GROWTH CURVE:
Lt = 73.6cm FL(1-e-0.065/yr(t+3.920yrs)) (southern population) (Beyer, Kirchner and Holtzhausen
1999, Holtzhausen 2000)
Lt = 84.6cm FL(1-e-0.088/yr(t+2.765yrs)) (northern population) (Holtzhausen 2000)
The smaller-sized males grow faster than the larger-sized females for both stocks with males
and females from the northern stock attaining larger sizes and growing to be older than males
and females from the southern stock (Holtzhausen 2000)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 3 x 10-5 FL(mm)2.9444 (Holtzhausen 2000)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL (mm) = 0.9495FL(mm)-1.5189 (Holtzhausen 2000)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: males = 35cm FL, females = 41cm FL (southern population)
males = 41cm FL, females = 49.5cm FL (northern population) (Holtzhausen 2000)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: males ≈ 6 yrs, females ≈ 9.7 yrs (southern population)
males ≈ 4.8 yrs, females ≈ 7.2 yrs (northern population) (Holtzhausen 2000)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Protandrous hermaphrodites (Lucks 1970, Holtzhausen 2000)
M:F SEX RATIO: (Stages identified macroscopically and inter-sex stages allocated the sex of
the dominant portion of the gonads. Inter-sex stages where male and female gonads were
equal in size were not included) 1:1.7 (southern population) 4.4:1 (northern population)
(Holtzhausen 2000)
SPAWNING SEASON: Summer, October to February with the spawning peak from December
to February (Holtzhausen 2000)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 80cm FL (southern population) 98cm FL (northern population)
(Holtzhausen 2000)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 16.75 kg (Holtzhausen 2000)
MAXIMUM AGE: 50+ yrs (Holtzhausen 2000)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 20 cm FL (Holtzhausen 2000)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 1 year (Holtzhausen 2000)
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.23 year (range 0.16-0.3) (Holtzhausen 2000)
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.11 year (range 0.05-0.17) (Holtzhausen 2000)
-1
FSB25 : 0.29 year (range 0.23-0.35) (Holtzhausen 2000)
FSB40 : 0.17 year-1 (range 0.13-0.20) (Holtzhausen 2000)
-1
F0.1: 2.6 year (range 0.05-0.17) (Holtzhausen 2000)
FMSY: 0.37 year-1 (range 0.24-0.52) (Holtzhausen 2000)
CURRENT STATUS
-1
Fcurrent: 0.12 year (Holtzhausen 2000)
SBPRcurrent: 42% (range 29 - 56) (Holtzhausen 2000)
TRENDS IN CPUE: CPUE for all NAM linefish species is higher in the closed or partially
restricted areas compared to the area open to angling (Holtzhausen and Kirchner 1998)
TRENDS IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Westcoast steenbras made up 12% of the total annual
recreational catch of rock-and-surf anglers (northern population) during the 1996-1997 season
(Kirchner 1999).
TRENDS IN MEAN SIZE: No specific trend discernible
CURRENT REGULATIONS
CATEGORY: Non-saleable recreational species except for the commercial fishery, which may
target, catch and sell this species
-1
-1
BAG LIMIT: 30 whole fish or 30kg fillets person day , transportation limit of 60 whole fish or
-1
60kg fillets vehicle if two or more anglers present in vehicle
MINIMUM SIZE: None
154
CLOSED SEASON: None for westcoast steenbras specifically. Closed season for all angling
species from 25 January to 15 April applicable to Sandwich area only
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Sandwich area is the only proclaimed marine reserve to
1NM seawards. Although four-fifths of the coastline is closed for recreational angling, lineboats
may operate along the entire 1500km of coastline
OTHER REGULATIONS: All angling species; one rod per angler with a maximum of two hooks,
the use of polychaete worms as bait prohibited, a recreational angler may not sell his catch, a
ban on the use of set-nets by lineboats, no new rights of exploitation for lineboats granted since
1992
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: On average anglers catch between 2.5 angling fish per
day (Kirchner 1999)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Egg and larvae transport by the Benguela current, assessment of the northern stock on an
annual basis, monitor the effect of lineboat harvest on the stock structure of the southern
population.
The northern westcoast steenbras resource in NAM is small and should be managed wisely by
taking into consideration that the commercial linefishery contributes only 15% of the total annual
income derived from the NAM linefish resource
155
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Lithognathus lithognathus (Smith No. 183.20)
COMMON NAMES: White steenbras, pignose grunter
COMPILER: S.J. Lamberth (MCM)
DATE OF COMPLETION: May 1999
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: SA endemic found from the Orange River mouth to KZN (Smith
and Smith 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: North of Cape Columbine (St Helena Bay to Orange River) to
Bashee River mouth TKI (Bennett 1993a)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Individuals >650mm extend their range into deeper water (<25 m) (Bennett 1993b).
A large proportion of these mature fish may be concentrated in the SWC
JUVENILES: 0+ juveniles are estuarine dependent for their first year of life but may remain for
2 years or more. Adolescents (1-5 years, < 650 mm) inhabit the surf-zones of sandy and mixed
shores where they are fairly resident (Bennett 1993b)
EGGS & LARVAE: Eggs and larvae drift southwards after being spawned close inshore along
the northern SEC and TKI coasts. After metamorphosis they enter estuaries along the SEC, SC
and SWC coasts (Bennett 1993b)
MIGRATION: Annual spawning migration commencing in Autumn, northwards and eastwards to
the northern SEC and TKI coasts in time for late winter spawning. Return southwards by late
summer (Bennett 1993b)
FISHERY: Exploited by recreational shore anglers throughout its range. Nationally, 6% of
targeting is directed against this species. On a regional basis targeting is as follows - WC 4%,
SC 17%, EC 9% and TKI 2% (Sauer and Erasmus 1996, Lamberth 1996, Brouwer 1997a, Mc
Donald 1998, Mann and Fennessy 1998).
Bennett (1993a) estimated this sector to be
responsible for 75% of numbers and 50% of the mass of the total catch of this species.
Lamberth (1996) estimated an annual SWC catch of 39 000 fish weighing 86 t for the years
1994-1996. On the whole this fishery is responsible for almost the entire catch of immature
adolescents.
Only taken as an incidental catch by commercial and recreational boats. Approximately 1t
landed annually by this sector.
Beach seines responsible for 25% of number and 50% mass of the total catch. Caught by
normal beach-seine and sinking “Russman” seine along the WC and SWC. Legal fishery
confined to False Bay where up to ± 20 t or 4 700 fish are landed annually. Normal seines
catch adolescent and mature fish whereas the “Russman” fishery catches mostly mature,
sexually active adults (Bennett 1993a, Lamberth 1994).
Sixth most frequently reported by-catch species caught in the WC gill-net fishery but less than
1% of monitored catches by mass and by number (Hutchings and Lamberth 1998).
156
Experimental netting indicates that it would contribute a significant proportion of by-catch if this
fishery was to expand along the south coast (Hutchings and Lamberth 1998).
In the five years prior to prohibition in the early 1980’s the purse-seine fishery was responsible
for approximately 300 t annually (Bennett 1993a). The catch was almost entirely of mature fish
and likely to have accelerated the stock collapse that occurred about that time
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = 1283mm FL(1-e-0.1008/yr(t-0.22yrs)) (Mehl 1973)
Lt (mm TL) = [205.7-1.297 + (997.8-1.297 – 205.7-1.297)1- e-0.441(t-t1) ]1/-1.297 (Bennett 1993a)
1- e-0.441(t1-t2)
No apparent differences in the lengths at age of males and females or of estuarine and marine
individuals of equivalent age (Bennett 1993a)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 2.282 x 10-2 FL(cm)2.8562 (Mehl 1973)
Wt(g) = 1.67 x 10-5 TL(mm)2.984 (Bennett 1993a)
Wt(g) = 8.57 x 10-6 TL(mm)3.053 SWC (C. Attwood, MCM, Unpubl. data)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 650mm TL, both sexes (Bennett 1993b)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 6 years (Bennett 1993b)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Rudimentary hermaphrodite, functional gonochorist (Mehl 1973,
Bennett 1993b)
M:F SEX RATIO: 199M:249F:153H - whole sample (Bennett 1993b)
172M:233F:20H - mature fish (Bennett 1993b)
42M:41F:0H - reproductively active fish (Bennett 1993b)
SPAWNING SEASON: Late winter, July to August (Bennett 1993b)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Northern SEC and TKI at <25m depth (Bennett 1993b)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 1376mm TL (Bennett 1993b)
MAXIMUM AGE: 25-30 years (Bennett 1993b)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 400mm TL (previous minimum size limit) (Bennett 1993a)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 4 years (Bennett 1993a)
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.2 year-1 (Bennett 1993a)
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.55 year (Bennett 1993a)
FSB25 : 0.2 year-1 (Bennett 1993a)
-1
FSB40 : 0.13 year (Bennett 1993a)
F0.1: 0.20 year-1 (Bennett 1993a)
-1
FMSY: 0.21 year (Bennett 1993a)
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: 0.55 year-1 (Bennett 1993a)
SBPRcurrent: 6%, collapsed (Bennett 1993a)
TRENDS IN CPUE:
RECREATIONAL SHORE ANGLING: Based on angler club records there has been a 90%
-1
-1
decrease in CPUE from 6 fish.100h in 1968 to 0.7 fish.100h in 1990 (Bennett 1993a). The
-1
-1
SWC linefish survey recorded 0.9 fish.100h during 1994-96 as opposed to 2.29 fish.100h
during the period 1971-84, representing a 61% decrease over a ten year period (Bennett et al.
1994, Lamberth 1996). There was an increase in CPUE in the De Hoop Marine Reserve from
-1
-1
0-2 fish.100h at the time of declaration in 1986 to more than 5 fish.100h during the period
1988 to 1995 (C. Attwood, MCM, Unpubl. data). Since then, there has been a small but
noticeable decrease to 3-4 fish.100h-1, probably reflecting the overall stock decline experienced
by this species. Catch frequencies have declined by almost an order of magnitude over the last
decade. During 1971-84, 90% of angler outings yielded zero, and 5.2% one fish as opposed to
97% and 2.3% for 1994-96 (Bennett et al. 1994, Lamberth 1996).
157
BEACH-SEINE: Decline in mean annual reported catch from 23061 fish.year-1 in the years
1897-1906 to 3147 fish.year-1 during 1983-91 (Bennett 1993a). This is probably largely a result
of net catches of “linefish” being outlawed in all areas except False Bay during the 1983-91
period (Bennett 1993a, Lamberth 1994)
TRENDS IN CATCH COMPOSITION:
RECREATIONAL SHORE ANGLING: Became important in shore-anglers catches in the early
1960s where they provided 30% of anglers’ catches in the SWC (Bennett 1993a). Its’
importance grew to 43% in the late 1970s but thereafter experienced a sustained decline until
1990-91 where it contributed only 8% of the catch by mass. By 1994-96 white steenbras
comprised only 0.6% of the mass and 4% of the numbers of the total catch (Lamberth 1996)
BEACH-SEINE:
Overall decline according to four time series (Bennett 1993a)
% of landed catch
numbers
mass
1898-1907
3.7
19.4
1951-1968
0.6
6.9
1977-1987
0.4
6.0
1983-1991
0.2
2.6
TRENDS IN MEAN SIZE: No discernible changes in mean size of fish caught by any sector.
This is probably due to the specific habitat preferences of the different size classes. On the
whole, estuarine fisheries are catching juvenile to 2 year olds, shore-anglers and beach-seines
are catching mostly subadults <650mm and the “Russman” seines only sexually mature adults
CURRENT REGULATIONS
CATEGORY: Non-saleable Recreational List (Beach-seine fishery in False Bay is exempt from
this regulation and are allowed to target, catch and sell this species)
-1
-1
BAG LIMIT: 5 person day (recreationals and commercials - excluding beach seiners)
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: De Hoop, Tsitsikamma, Sardinia Bay and Dwesa-Cwebe
Marine Reserves afford refuge to 1-5 year old <650mm individuals which show a fair degree of
residency (C. Attwood, MCM, pers. comm.)
OTHER REGULATIONS: A recommendation exists to prohibit beach-seine permit holders from
landing and selling white steenbras. Anglers, commercial linefishers and beach-seiners would
be restricted to one fish per permit holder per day. This proposal has been accepted by the
False Bay Trek-netters association and endorsed by SAMLMA. Implementation awaits the
approval of the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: The current bag limit of 5 fish angler-1 day-1 was only
attained 0.2% of the time during 1971-1984 (Bennett et al. 1994). For the period 1994-96 it was
attained <0.001% of the time (Lamberth 1996)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
One of the top 20 priority species for research, management and conservation in SA (Lamberth
and Joubert 1999). Environmental factors and estuarine role in determining recruitment success
The white steenbras stock has collapsed and drastic management measures need to be
implemented as a matter of urgency in order to rebuild the stock
158
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Lithognathus mormyrus (Smith No. 183.21)
COMMON NAME: Sand steenbras, marmora
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Found from the Mediterranean, Eastern Atlantic, Western Indian
Ocean and the Red Sea, but has not been reported from tropical East Africa (Fischer and
Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Assumed to be around the entire SA coast, appears to be most
abundant in the SEC and SWC
HABITAT
ADULTS: On sandy substrata from the surf zone down to 50m, adults tend to be found in water
deeper than 10m (Buxton et al. 1984)
JUVENILES: Shallow surf zone <10m, utilise large marine bays in the SEC and SWC as
nursery areas (Lasiak 1981, 1986). Recorded from estuaries but usually associated with the
mouth region of permanently open systems (Whitfield 1998)
EGGS & LARVAE: Pelagic, recorded from False Bay (Brownell 1979)
MIGRATION: Unknown
FISHERY: Although fairly commonly caught by shore anglers along the SEC and SWC coasts
using light tackle, they are generally not targeted due to their small size (Brouwer 1997a,
Lamberth 1996). In parts of the Mediterranean sand steenbras are valued as a food fish (van
der Elst 1988)
GROWTH CURVE: Not calculated in SA
-0.196/yr (t + 0.945yrs)
), Adriatic (Kraljevic et al. 1996)
Lt = 40.1cm TL(1-e
-2
3.023
, Adriatic (Kraljevic et al. 1996)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Males: Wt(g) = 1.06 x 10 TL(cm)
-2
3.063
Females: Wt(g) = 0.94 x 10 TL(cm)
, Adriatic (Kraljevic et al. 1996)
LENGTH AT 50% SEXUAL MATURITY: Not calculated in SA, 13cm SL, Tunisia (FishBase 1998)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Protandrous (FishBase 1998)
LENGTH AT SEX CHANGE: 24.1-35.2cm TL, Adriatic (Kraljevic et al. 1996)
AGE AT SEX CHANGE: 4-8 years, Adriatic (Kraljevic et al. 1996)
M:F SEX RATIO: Unknown in SA
SPAWNING SEASON: Summer, major period of juvenile recruitment from September to May in
SEC (Lasiak 1983, Whitfield and Kok 1992)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Marine environment in SEC and SWC (Whitfield 1998)
159
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 46cm SL (Whitfield 1998)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 940g (SASAA records)
MAXIMUM AGE: 12 years, Adriatic (Kraljevic et al. 1996)
NATURAL MORTALITY: 0.42 year-1, Adriatic (Kraljevic et al. 1996)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: None
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Probably receives some protection in the Tsitsikamma
National Park and the De Hoop Marine Reserve, as well as in other MPAs along the SEC and
SWC where fishing is prohibited (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Reproductive biology, age and growth, stock assessment, stock distribution, residency and
migration, early life history and recruitment
Although currently not a targeted species, sand steenbras may become increasingly important
in the future, particularly to subsistence shore fishers in the SEC and SWC
160
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Pachymetopon aeneum (Smith No. 183.22)
COMMON NAMES: Blue hottentot
DATE COMPLETED: June 1999
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic, Cape Point to KZN (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith
and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Whole south-eastern seaboard including SWC, SEC, TKI, KZN
HABITAT
ADULTS: Deeper high-profile inshore and offshore reefs 20 - 80m (Buxton and Smale 1984,
Buxton and Clarke 1986)
JUVENILES: Shallow subtidal reefs (10-20m) (Buxton and Smale 1984, Buxton and Clarke
1986)
EGGS & LARVAE: Pelagic, found in shelf waters within the Tsitsikamma National Park (A.
Wood, DIFS, pers. comm.)
MIGRATION: Seasonal component of linefish catches in southern KZN and northern TKI, which
suggests the possibility of a northward spawning migration (Garratt 1988)
FISHERY: Important component of the offshore commercial and recreational skiboat fisheries
throughout its distribution (Smale and Buxton 1985, Garratt 1988)
-0.1328/yr(t-0.2473 yrs)
) (SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1986)
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = 467.1 mm FL(1-e
-5
LENGTH/WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 1 x 10 (mm FL)3.149 (SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1986)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 200 - 250mm FL (Females) (SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1986)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 4.5 - 6 years (Females) (SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1986)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Protogynous hermaphrodite (SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1986)
M:F SEX RATIO: 90:1:125 (male: intersex: female) (SEC) (Buxton and Smale 1984)
LENGTH AT SEX CHANGE: 200 - 300 mm FL (SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1986)
AGE AT SEX CHANGE: Between 4 and 9 years (SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1986)
SPAWNING SEASON: September-March (SEC)(Buxton and Clarke 1986)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Northern TKI and southern KZN (Garratt 1988)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 345mm FL (SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1986), 60cm TL (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: At least 2kg (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
MAXIMUM AGE: 12 years (SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1986)
161
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: Disjunct catch per unit effort data available (Buxton and Smale 1984,
Brouwer 1997a, NMLS)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: No data available, but probably receive some protection in
the Tsitsikamma National Park and the De Hoop Marine Reserve
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Catch composition, stock distribution, residency and migration, stock assessment, early life
history, juvenile nursery areas
Blue hottentot appear to becoming an increasingly important component of linefish catches in
southern KZN, TKI and the SEC. For this reason greater emphasis should be placed on
management of this species and a stock assessment should be conducted
162
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Pachymetopon blochii (Smith No. 183.23)
COMMON NAMES: Hottentot
COMPILERS: M. Goodman and M.H. Griffiths (MCM)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Angola to the Breede River (van der Elst 1988, Smith and
Heemstra 1986), but recorded as far north as Tsitsikamma (S. Brouwer, DIFS, pers. com.)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: SA hottentot are most abundant between Port Nolloth and Cape
Agulhas, but there have been no previous attempts to define stocks
HABITAT
ADULTS: Occurs within kelp beds on shallow-water reefs and in deeper waters over subtidal
reefs, offshore pinnacles and blinders to depths of 55m (Pulfrich 1987, van der Elst 1988, Punt
et al. 1996).
JUVENILES: Shallow-water kelp (Ecklonia & Laminaria sp.) beds (Pulfrich 1987)
EGGS & LARVAE: Inshore waters of the Cape Peninsula (Brownell 1979)
MIGRATION: Previous tagging study yielded only 7 returns; of these, six had not moved while
one travelled 40 km (Nepgen 1977). A second study is currently being undertaken by MCM
FISHERY: Important to shore anglers along the WC (Brouwer et al. 1997). Important to
commercial and recreational skiboat fishers on the WC and SWC (van der Elst 1988, Pulfrich
and Griffiths 1988b). Also caught as a by-catch of gill-netting activities on the WC (S. Lamberth,
MCM, pers. comm.)
-0.144/yr(t-1.2yrs)
) (Nepgen 1977)
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = 42cm FL(1-e
-0.097/yr(t-0.431yrs)
) (Pulfrich and Griffiths 1988a)
Lt = 538mm FL(1-e
Both studies were based on whole otoliths, and it is possible that age of older fish was
underestimated. Ageing techniques using whole vs sectioned otoliths are currently being
evaluated
-5
2.967
(Pulfrich and Griffiths 1988a)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(mm) = 1.0996FL(mm) + 1.419 (Pulfrich 1987)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 220mm FL (Pulfrich and Griffiths 1988a)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 5 years (Pulfrich and Griffiths 1988a)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochoristic (Nepgen 1977, Pulfrich 1987)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.2
(Nepgen 1977)
1:1.383 (Pulfrich and Griffiths 1988a)
SPAWNING SEASON: Spawns throughout the year with peaks in winter and summer (Pulfrich
and Griffiths 1988a)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Throughout distribution range (Pulfrich1987)
163
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 500mm TL (Branch et al. 1994)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 3kg (Branch et al. 1994)
MAXIMUM AGE: 12 years (Pulfrich and Griffiths 1988a)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 22 cm TL (minimum legal size limit)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 4.25 years (Pulfrich and Griffiths 1988b)
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.338 or 0.138 year-1 (Pulfrich and Griffiths 1988b)
FISHING MORTALITY: F varied according to M
-1
Lamberts Bay: F = 1.08 or 0.88 year (Pulfrich and Griffiths 1988b)
-1
Saldanha: F = 0.619 or 0.418 year (Pulfrich and Griffiths 1988b)
Kalk Bay: F = 0.55 or 0.353 year-1 (Pulfrich and Griffiths 1988b)
-1
Gans Bay: F = 1.254 or 1.053 year (Pulfrich and Griffiths 1988b)
F < FMSY (tc > 4.25) (Pulfrich 1987)
-1
F0.1 : 0.28 year (Pulfrich 1987)
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
Based on growth parameters determined from whole otoliths, hottentot stocks, with the
exception of Cape Town and Gans Bay, were estimated to be under-exploited in 1985 (Pulfrich
and Griffiths 1988b, Punt et al. 1996). A stock assessment, based on age-length data from
sectioned otoliths, is currently under-way (Goodman and Griffiths In prep.)
TREND IN CPUE: The average catch per boat year on traditional fishing has dropped to 22.4%
(WC) and 37.93% (SWC) of historical values (Griffiths 1999). Average catch per boat year was
1935 kg (1897-1906), 176 kg (1927-1931), and 433 kg (1986-1998) in the WC; and 143 kg
(1897-1906), 518 kg (1927-1931), and 196 kg (1986-1998) in the SWC (Griffiths 1999)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
CLOSED SEASON: None
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Ageing using sectioned otoliths, stock identification and assessment of current stock status
As the biology and stock assessment of hottentot is currently under review (Goodman and
Griffiths In prep.), management recommendations will be forthcoming once this research has
been completed
164
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Pachymetopon grande (Smith No. 183.24)
COMMON NAMES: Bronze bream, copper bream
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Southern MOZ and Madagascar to SWC (Fisher and Bianchi
1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Endemic to southern Africa extending from northern KZN to the
SWC (Buxton and Clarke 1992)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Rocky shores down to 25 m (Beckley and Buxton 1989, Buxton and Clarke 1992)
JUVENILES: Subtidal gullies and inshore reefs (Beckley and Buxton 1989, Smale and Buxton
1989)
MIGRATION: Adults appear to be extremely resident (Cowley 1999, Sedgwicks’/ORI/WWF
Tagging Programme)
FISHERY: Important species in the shore fishery (Clarke and Buxton 1989, Brouwer et al. 1997)
and spearfishery (Mann et al. 1997b). Particularly important along the TKI and SEC coast
(Brouwer 1997b, Mann and Fennessy 1998, McDonald 1998). Occasionally caught by skiboat
fishers in KZN and TKI (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
-0.091/yr(t+5.96 yrs)
) (Males - SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1992)
-0.114/yr(t+3.38 yrs)
) (Females - SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1992)
Lt = 484mm FL(1-e
-0.153/yr(t+1.640 yrs)
) (Both sexes - SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1992)
Lt = 461mm FL(1-e
-5
3.046
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Total Wt(g) = 2.2 x 10 FL(mm)
-5
3.007
Gutted Wt(g) = 2.2 x 10 FL(mm)
0.997
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(mm) = 1.140417 FL(mm)
1.016
SL(mm) = 0.7985 FL(mm)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 300mm FL (Combined sexes, SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1992)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 5.5 years (Combined sexes, SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1992)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Late gonochorist (sensu rudimentary hermaphrodite) (Buxton and
Clarke 1992)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.16 (SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1992)
SPAWNING SEASON: Reproductive activity extends between January and June. Ripe running
fish were found between January and April (Buxton and Clarke 1992)
165
SPAWNING LOCALITY: SEC and probably throughout distribution (Buxton and Clarke 1992)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 572mm FL (Buxton and Clarke 1992), 700mm TL (van der Elst 1988),
740mm TL (C. Attwood, MCM, Unpubl. data)
MAXIMUM AGE: 38 years (SEC) (Buxton and Clarke 1992)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 4.5 years (Buxton and Clarke 1992)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
-1
-1
TREND IN CPUE: CPUE in the Port Elizabeth area has decreased from 12.6g person hour in
-1
-1
1989 (Clarke and Buxton 1989) to 9g person hour in 1996 (Brouwer 1997b)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: 5 person-1 day-1
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Considering that this species is highly resident, any MPA
with restricted shore-fishing (such as Sardinia Bay, Tsitsikamma National Park, De Hoop Marine
Reserve etc.) would benefit this species
Results calculated from the SEC (Cowley et al. In prep.)
Bag
% caught
% catch reduction
0
87
100
1
7
70
2
4
33
3
2
11
4
0
6
5
0
0
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Stock assessment, verification of stock distribution, residency and movement patterns and early
life history
The importance of bronze bream to the inshore recreational and subsistence shore fishery,
together with certain aspects of its biology (e.g. slow growth), underline the need for effective
conservation measures aimed at ensuring the sustainability of this resource
166
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Pagellus bellottii natalensis (Smith No. 183.25)
COMMON NAME: Sand soldier, red tjor-tjor
COMPILER: S.T. Fennessy (ORI)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Pagellus bellottii bellottii ranges from the Straits of Gibraltar to
Angola, and around the Canary Islands, also in the south-western Mediterranean (Bauchot and
Hureau 1990). Local subspecies P. b. natalensis is found from Madagascar to Cape Agulhas
(Smith and Heemstra 1986, Smale and Badenhorst 1991)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Assumed to be as for subspecies distribution above
HABITAT
ADULTS: Depths <100 m, mostly in bays (Smale and Badenhorst 1991, Smale et al. 1993), soft
bottoms and reef-associated (Buxton et al. 1984), found to depths of 160 m in KZN (S. Fennessy,
ORI, Unpubl. data)
JUVENILES: Sandy bottoms, depth <10 m (Buxton et al. 1984)
EGGS & LARVAE: Mostly shelf waters, but also beyond the shelf break (Beckley 1993, Tilney and
Buxton 1994)
MIGRATION: Unknown
FISHERY: Agulhas Bank and KZN crustacean trawl by-catch (Smale and Badenhorst 1991, S.
Fennessy, ORI, Unpubl. data). Non targeted by-catch of skiboat fishery, sometimes used for bait
(Mann et al. 1997a). Commonly caught species in the party-boat fishery off Durban (R. van der Elst,
ORI, pers. comm.)
(Note: All parameters refer to P. b. natalensis unless otherwise specified)
GROWTH CURVE: P. b. bellottii Eastern Atlantic (FishBase 1998)
L∞ = 30.8 - 40.2 cm TL
k = 0.18 - 0.44 year-1
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 0.0067 TL(cm)3.38 (Torres and Pauly 1991)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIP: Unknown
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1 (unfished stock, KZN) (S. Fennessy, ORI, Unpubl. data)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Size at maturity P. b. bellottii Eastern Atlantic (FishBase 1998)
Females: 12.2 cm TL, Males: 13.1 cm TL
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: P. b. bellottii age at maturity approximately 1.5 years (based on size at
maturity)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Protogynous (P. b. bellottii ) (FishBase 1998)
SPAWNING SEASON: Spring to summer in KZN (S. Fennessy, ORI, Unpubl. data)
167
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Offshore (FishBase 1998)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 290 mm FL - P.b. natalensis (Buxton et al. 1984)
325 mm FL - P. natalensis Gulf of Aden (Druzhinin 1975) - but this is presumably P.b. bellottii
according to Smith and Heemstra’s (1986) distribution
MAXIMUM AGE: 6 years - P. natalensis (Druzhinin 1975)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: Approximately 700 g (derived from maximum length of 290 mm FL)
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
SIZE LIMIT: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves, Tsitsikamma
National Park
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Taxonomy, stock distribution, size at maturity, age and growth, stock assessment
Current exploitation levels are low as market potential is primarily for larger fish (> 25cm TL),
however, this species may become increasingly important in the future as it appears to be abundant
over soft substrata and is not reef dependent. There is substantial trawl catch data for this species
at MCM
168
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Petrus rupestris (No. 183.26)
COMMON NAMES: Red steenbras, copper steenbras
DATE COMPLETED: June 1999
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic, from False Bay (SWC) to St Lucia (KZN) (Fisher and
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Assumed to be as for distribution of species
HABITAT
ADULTS: Offshore reefs to 160m (Buxton and Smale 1984)
JUVENILES: Shallower reefs in SEC and SWC (Smale 1988, van der Elst 1988)
MIGRATION: Juveniles appear to be resident in the SWC and SEC with adults migrating
eastwards to TKI and southern KZN (Smale 1988, Wilke and Griffiths In press). The existence
of an annual eastward spawning migration is indicated by sequential catch seasons along the
Cape and TKI coast (Penney and Wilke 1993)
FISHERY: Previously important, yet today only comprises a relatively small component of
recreational and commercial skiboat catches in most areas except SEC and TKI where it still
forms an important component of the catch (Smale and Buxton 1985, Garratt 1988, Hecht and
Tilney 1989, Brouwer 1997a, Mann and Fennessy 1998, McDonald 1998)
GROWTH CURVE:
⎡
Lt (mm FL) = ⎢158.8 0.378 + 1222.5 0.378 − 158.8 0.378
⎢⎣
(
)
⎛ 1 − e 0.119(t −0.75)
⎜
⎜ 1 − e −0.119(33−0.75)
⎝
⎞⎤
⎟⎥
⎟
⎠⎦⎥
1 / 0.378
(Combined sexes - SEC/TKI) (Smale and Punt 1991)
-5
2.9519
(SEC/TKI) (Smale 1988)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Total Wt(g) = 2.7 x 10 (mm FL)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(mm) = 1.0935 FL(cm) + 2.8579 (SEC/TKI) (Smale 1988)
SL(mm) = 0.91279 FL(cm) - 9.628 (SEC/TKI) (Smale 1988)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 575 mm FL (Smale and Punt 1991)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 7.2 years (Smale and Punt 1991)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Late gonochorist (sensu rudimentary hermaphrodite) (SEC/TKI)
(Smale 1988)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1 (SEC/TKI) (Smale 1988)
SPAWNING SEASON: Spawning occurs between August and October (Smale 1988)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Appears to be restricted to the area between East London and the
former Transkei (SEC/TKI) (Smale 1988, Garratt 1988)
169
MAXIMUM LENGTH: At least 1300 mm FL (SEC/TKI) (Smale and Punt 1991)
MAXIMUM AGE: 33 years (SEC/TKI) (Smale and Punt 1991)
LENGTH AND AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: Changes along the SA coastline. Currently
considered to be 3.5 years (SEC/TKI) (Smale 1988)
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.15 year-1 (1979-87 SEC/TKI) (Smale and Punt 1991)
FISHING MORTALITY: Not determinable due to the differing sizes at first capture along SA
coast (1979-87 SEC/TKI) (Smale 1988)
-1
FSB50 : 0.054 year (Smale and Punt 1991)
-1
F0.1: 0.084 year (Smale and Punt 1991)
(Values calculated with tc = 3.5 years and M = 0.15 year-1)
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Not determinable due to the differing sizes at first capture along SA coast (1979-87
SEC/TKI) (Smale 1988)
SBPRcurrent: Not determinable due to the differing sizes at first capture along SA coast (1979-87
SEC/TKI) (Smale 1988). Smale and Punt (1991) did, however, illustrate that SBPR is reduced
rapidly with small increases in fishing mortality. This is of immediate concern from a stock
assessment perspective
TREND IN CPUE: Overall decline in CPUE of this species (van der Elst et al. 1992). Slight
increase in CPUE in TKI between 1984-92 (Hecht and Buxton 1993) probably due to improved
targeting on spawning aggregations on deep reefs (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.). Increase on
offshore Agulhas Banks due to improved targeting but decrease inshore in the SWC and SEC
(Penney and Wilke 1993). Unconsolidated CPUE data is available from Smale and Buxton
(1985), Brouwer (1997a), Mann and Fennessy (1998), McDonald (1998)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Percentage composition has declined dramatically in KZN
(Penney et al. 1999)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Stable to slight increase in mean size of fish caught at Coffee Bay
between 1984-92 (Hecht and Buxton 1993). The commercial fishery targets large spawning fish
in this region
CURRENT REGULATIONS
CATEGORY: Critical List
-1
-1
BAG LIMIT: 2 person .day (commercial and recreational fishers)
CLOSED SEASON: None (1 September to 30 November closed season was de-regulated in
1997)
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Both the Tsitsikamma National Park (Buxton and Smale
1989) and De Hoop Marine Reserve (Smale 1988) have been shown to provide a refuge for this
species. Juvenile fish are only afforded the benefit of this protection as the adults spawn in the
area between East London and TKI. The MPAs around East London may have contributed
some protection to adult fish (M.J. Smale, PEM, pers. comm.)
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: Estimates of daily commercial catch rates between 198591(Penney and Wilke 1993) include: 1.02 fish/man/day SWC (inshore), 2.41 fish/man/day SWC
(offshore), 0.36 fish/man/day SEC. Recent data available from Brouwer (1997a), Mann and
Fennessy (1998) and McDonald (1998)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Validation of age and growth, stock assessment, stock distribution, residency and migration,
early life history, spawning grounds and juvenile nursery areas
170
The establishment of a large MPA in the TKI region, which includes some of the spawning
grounds of adult red steenbras, is essential for the future sustainable use of this species.
Furthermore, re-introduction of the closed season should be considered as a precautionary
measure to assist in stock rebuilding
171
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Polysteganus coeruleopunctatus (Smith No. 183.29)
COMMON NAMES: Blueskin, trawl soldier
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Red Sea to southern KZN (Smith and Heemstra 1986) extending
south to northern TKI (Fennessy, Unpubl. data)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Assumed to be southern MOZ to TKI
HABITAT
ADULTS: Mainly in depths from 66 m to 405 m (Busakhin 1980)
JUVENILES: Water depths of 60-100 m (Fennessy, Unpubl. data)
MIGRATION: Unknown
FISHERY: Increasingly important component of the KZN commercial skiboat fishery (Mann et al.
1997a, Penney et al. 1999). Caught in trawl and trap fishery off MOZ (A. Govender, ORI, pers.
comm.)
-5
3.016
(Fennessy 1994c)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:6.6 (MOZ - relatively lightly fished, Fennessy Unpubl. data)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Potential protogynous hermaphrodite (Fennessy Unpubl. data)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 65cm FL (Fennessy, Unpubl. data)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 200mm FL (Fennessy, Unpubl. data)
172
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent : Unknown
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Increasing from 2.9 % of reported KZN commercial linefish
catch in 1986 to 5% in 1996 (Fennessy, Unpubl. data)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
SIZE LIMIT: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Possibly receive some protection in the St Lucia and
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Size at maturity, determining if sex change occurs, age and growth, stock assessment
Accessibility to this species is reduced because the fishing grounds occur close to the shelf edge
(i.e. the Agulhas Current often prevents fishing). However, increased targeting for this species is
taking place in KZN as other more accessible species are fished out (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
173
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Polysteganus praeorbitalis (Smith No. 183.31)
COMMON NAME: Scotsman
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Algoa Bay to Beira (Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Assumed to be primarily off KZN and TKI
HABITAT
ADULTS: Found on offshore reefs in depths from 50-120 m along the KZN coast (Garratt et al.
1994)
JUVENILES: Inshore reefs in depths of 10-30 m along KZN coast (Garratt et al. 1994)
MIGRATION: Little known
FISHERY: Comprise a relatively small component of the KZN and TKI commercial and recreational
skiboat fishery (Mann et al. 1997a, Penney et al. 1999). However, are important on the KZN south
coast and northern TKI coast (Garratt et al. 1994, Mann and Fennessy 1998)
-5
2.81
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 5.89 x 10 FL(mm) KZN (Garratt et al. 1994)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Not determined, fish with mature gonads from 400mm FL (KZN)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Unconfirmed protogynous hermaphrodite (Garratt et al. 1994)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:2.6 (Richards Bay), 0:148 (southern KZN) (Garratt et al. 1994)
SPAWNING SEASON: Limited data but appears to be an extended spawning season from winter
into spring (Garratt et al. 1994)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Unknown - limited spawning in KZN (Garratt et al. 1994)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 90 cm (Smith and Heemstra, 1986), 75 cm (van der Elst 1988)
174
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: CPUE has dropped by approximately 65% from 127 kg/man/yr (1928-1941) to
17.22 kg/man/yr (1985-1992) in KZN (Garratt et al. 1994)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Declined from 2.9 % of total commercial KZN linefish catch
(1928-1941) to 1.6% (1985-1992) (Garratt et al. 1994)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Significant change in mean size from 1979-1981 (357 mm FL) to 19901992 (mean not given) with recent catches containing fewer large fish (Garratt et al. 1994)
TREND IN SEX RATIO: Skewed towards females due to the removal of large male fish (Garratt et
al. 1994)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Probably receive some protection in the St Lucia and
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: Data from the KZN recreational skiboat fishery (Pradervand
In prep.)
Bag
% caught
% catch reduction
0
97.8
100
1
2.04
14.3
2
0.13
3.8
3
0.03
0
4
0
0
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Size at maturity, determining if sex change occurs, age and growth, stock assessment. The low
proportion of mature fish in KZN catches makes the determination of size at maturity and spawning
season very difficult
As with other endemic reef fish species there are indications that scotsman have been heavily
overexploited. Stock assessment should be undertaken and a stock rebuilding strategy
implemented as a matter of priority. Establishment of a large MPA in the southern KZN and/or
northern TKI region is considered essential for the future sustainable use of this species
175
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Polysteganus undulosus (Smith No. 183.32)
COMMON NAME: Seventy-four
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic to the south-eastern coast of southern Africa (Smith
and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Cape Point to the mouth of the Limpopo River in MOZ with the
centre of adult distribution being on offshore banks (>40m depth) between East London and
Transkei (Ahrens 1964, Penney et al. 1989)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Frequent deep-water reefs and pinnacles forming dense shoals (Ahrens 1964, van
der Elst 1988)
JUVENILES: SEC and SWC in waters deeper than 20m (Penney et al. 1989)
MIGRATION: Adults, during winter and spring, migrate from the SWC and, in particular, the
SEC to breed in warmer northern TKI and southern KZN waters (Ahrens 1964, Garratt 1988).
This migration could also be in response to the seasonal migration of one of their prey, the
sardine (Sardinops sagax), into KZN waters. There is also possibly a return migration of the
adults to the Cape after spawning (Ahrens 1964)
FISHERY: In the early 1960s and 70s P. undulosus was intensively targeted by commercial and
recreational ski- and lineboats, especially in southern KZN. By the 1980s the fishery in KZN had
collapsed and only relatively small quantities continued to be caught in the TKI and SEC
(Penney et al. 1999). In 1998 P. undulosus was afforded complete protective status and may
not be harvested or sold by any fishing sector
-0.277/yr (t-0.178yrs)
) (KZN, 1962-63) (Chale-Matsau 1996)
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = (942 mmTL)/(1+e
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Males: Wt(g) = 1.01 x 10-4 TL(mm)2.67 (KZN, 1962-63) (Chale-Matsau 1996)
Females: Wt(g) = 1.05 x 10-4 TL(mm)2.67 (KZN, 1962-63) (Chale-Matsau 1996)
Combined: Wt(g) = 1.04 x 10-4 TL(mm)2.67 (KZN, 1962-63) (Chale-Matsau 1996)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS:
Males: TL(mm) = 1.14SL(mm) + 20.47 (KZN, 1962-63) (Chale-Matsau 1996)
SL(mm) = 0.86TL(mm) -12.95 (KZN, 1962-63) (Chale-Matsau 1996)
Females: TL(mm) = 1.15SL(mm) + 19.75 (KZN, 1962-63) (Chale-Matsau 1996)
Combined: TL(mm) = 1.14SL(mm) + 21.21 (KZN, 1962-63) (Chale-Matsau 1996)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 650-750mm TL (combined sexes) (Chale-Matsau 1996)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Males 8.9 years, females 7.7 years, combined 8.8 years (ChaleMatsau 1996)
176
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Possibly rudimentary hermaphrodite (Chale-Matsau 1996)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.07 (Ahrens 1964, Chale-Matsau 1996)
SPAWNING SEASON: Late winter to spring, between September and November (Ahrens 1964,
Penney et al. 1989)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Offshore reefs including the Illovo banks in KZN (Ahrens 1964,
Penney et al. 1989)
MAXIMUM AGE: 20 years (Chale-Matsau 1996)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: Possibly 1000mm TL (A. Govender, ORI, pers. comm.)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 250-350mm TL (Chale-Matsau 1996)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 4 years (Chale-Matsau 1996)
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.16 year-1 (KZN, 1962-63) (Chale-Matsau 1996)
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.17 year (KZN, 1962-63) (Chale-Matsau 1996)
-1
FSB25: 0.12 year (KZN, 1962-63) (Chale-Matsau 1996)
FSB40: 0.08 year-1 (KZN, 1962-63) (Chale-Matsau 1996)
-1
F0.1: 0.167 year (KZN, 1962-63) (Chale-Matsau 1996)
FMSY: 0.316 year-1 (KZN, 1962-63) (Chale-Matsau 1996)
CURRENT STATUS
-1
Fcurrent: 0.17 year (KZN, 1962-63) (Chale-Matsau 1996)
SBPRcurrent: 25% (KZN, 1962-63) (Chale-Matsau 1996) but currently thought to be <5% (A.
Govender, ORI, pers. comm.)
(1897-1906), 28kg (1927-31), and 0.04kg (1986-98) in the SWC; 580kg (1897-1906), 200kg
(1927-31), and 0.07kg (1986-98) in the SC; and 5944kg (1897-1906), 339kg (1927-31), and
13kg (1986-98) in the SEC (Griffiths 1999)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: In 1910, comprised 70% of KZN commercial linefish catch
with 1550 mt being landed. Between 1921 and 1933 it ranged from 30-50% with 337 mt being
caught. By 1985, 5.4 mt were reported comprising < 1% of the total commercial linefish catch in
KZN (Penney et al. 1989, Chale-Matsau 1996, Penney et al. 1999)
TREND IN SEX RATIO: No data
CURRENT REGULATIONS
CATEGORY: Specially Protected List (no catch by all sectors)
BAG LIMIT: Not applicable
MINIMUM SIZE: Not applicable
CLOSED SEASON: Not applicable
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Little evidence but some protection may be afforded by the
Tsitsikamma National Park and the De Hoop Marine Reserve (B. Mann, ORI, pers. comm.)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Current rebuilding of the stock needs to be monitored and a stock assessment should be
undertaken after approximately 10 years of fishery closure (half maximum age)
In addition to the current moratorium on catch of this species (which may be a temporary
measure), establishment of a large MPA on the lower KZN south coast and/or the northern TKI
coast which protects some of the spawning grounds of this species is considered essential to its
long-term future
177
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Porcostoma dentata (Smith No. 183.33)
COMMON NAMES: Dane
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic to southern Africa from Beira (MOZ) to Port Edward
(KZN) with occasional strays reaching Algoa Bay (SEC) (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and
Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Found in loosely-packed shoals over deeper reefs, especially in the vicinity of
pinnacles or steep dropoffs in water ranging from 20-120m in depth (Fischer and Bianchi 1984,
van der Elst 1988)
JUVENILES: Small juveniles have been found offshore on the SEC coast near Knysna around
rocky outcrops about 20m deep (Smith and Heemstra 1986)
MIGRATION: Unknown, believed to be fairly resident
FISHERY: Small numbers are caught in the commercial and recreational skiboat linefishery in
MOZ, KZN and TKI but, because of its small size, is of little importance (van der Elst 1988).
Often retained as a “take home” fish for the crew (S. Fennessy, ORI, pers. obs.)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Not calculated, fish >150mm FL are sexually mature (van der
Elst 1988)
SPAWNING SEASON: Spring off KZN (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 300mm TL (Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
178
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: None
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Probably receives some protection in the St Lucia and
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
As this species is endemic to southern Africa information on reproductive biology, age and
growth, stock status, residency and migration and juvenile nursery areas should be collected
With market changes and the greater acceptance of smaller fish, Dane could become
increasingly important in the commercial linefishery off southern MOZ and KZN. This shared
stock needs to be jointly managed by both countries
179
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Pterogymnus laniarius (Smith No. 183.34)
COMMON NAMES: Panga
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic, Yzerfontein (SWC) to TKI (Smith and Heemstra 1986)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: As above with at least 95% of the stock between Cape Agulhas
and Port Alfred
HABITAT
ADULTS: Found predominantly on deep low and high profile reef and to a lesser extent on mud
and sand down to 120m (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986, Booth and
Buxton 1997a)
JUVENILES: As above
EGGS & LARVAE: Pelagic
MIGRATION: Juveniles and subadults found on nursery area on Central Agulhas Bank. After
maturation adults disperse throughout range (Booth 1998)
FISHERY: Comprises 26% of the catch of the offshore commercial linefishery in SEC (Hecht
and Tilney 1989, Booth and Buxton 1997b). Little importance to the recreational skiboat fishery,
sometimes used as bait (SEC) (Smale and Buxton 1985, Brouwer 1997a). Comprises 63% of
the demersal inshore trawlfishery (Booth and Buxton 1997b) and 11% of the demersal deepsea
trawlfishery in the SEC and SC (Booth and Buxton 1997b). All values above are average
percentage total reported catch between 1992-95 (Booth and Buxton 1997b, Booth and Punt
1998)
-0.13/yr(t+1.78 yrs)
) (SEC) (Booth and Buxton 1997a)
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = 379.4 mm FL(1-e
-5
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Total Wt(g) = 2 x 10 FL(mm)3.031 (SEC) (Booth and Buxton 1997a)
Gutted Wt(g) = 2 x 10-5 FL(mm)3.023 (SEC) (Booth and Buxton 1997a)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: FL(cm) = 1.126 SL(cm) + 4.8005 (SEC) (Booth and Buxton
1997a)
FL(cm) = 0.901 TL(cm) - 0.6848 (SEC) (Booth and Buxton 1997a)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 286mm TL (1974/75 combined sexes) (SEC) (Booth and Hecht
1997)
204mm FL (1994/95 combined sexes) (SEC) (Booth and Buxton 1997a)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 5.2 years (1974/75 combined sexes) (SEC) (Booth and Hecht 1997)
4.3 years (1994/95 combined sexes) (SEC) (Booth and Buxton 1997a)
180
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Late gonochorist (sensu rudimentary hermaphrodite) (Booth and
Buxton 1997a)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.7 (Research data SEC) (Booth and Buxton 1997a)
1:1.19 (Commercial data SEC) (Booth and Buxton 1997a)
SPAWNING SEASON: Throughout the year (Booth and Buxton 1997a)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Primarily on the Agulhas Bank (Booth and Buxton 1997a)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 405mm FL SEC (Booth and Buxton 1997a)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 1kg SA angling record (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: 16 years SEC (Booth and Buxton 1997a)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 298mm FL (1974/75 - Inshore trawlfishery SEC) (Booth and
Hecht 1998)
232mm FL (1994/95 - Inshore trawlfishery SEC) (Booth and Buxton 1997a)
263mm FL (1994/95 - Offshore linefishery SEC) (Booth and Buxton 1997b)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 5.5 years (1994/95 - Inshore trawlfishery SEC) (Booth and Buxton
1997a)
7.3 years (1994/95 - Offshore linefishery SEC) (Booth and Buxton 1997b)
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.28 year SEC 1994/95 (Booth and Buxton 1997a)
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.08 year SEC 1994/95 (Booth and Buxton 1997a)
FSB50: 0.30 year-1 SEC 1994/95 (PR - Booth and Buxton 1997b)
-1
FSB50: 0.14 year SEC 1994/95 (ASPM - Booth and Punt 1998)
-1
F0.1: 0.39 year SEC 1994/95 (PR - Booth and Buxton 1997b)
-1
F0.1: 0.24 year SEC 1994/95 (ASPM - Booth and Punt 1998)
FMSY: 0.47 year-1 SEC 1994/95 (ASPM - Booth and Punt 1998)
All biological reference points calculated at M = 0.28 year-1 using either pre-recruit analysis (PR)
or and age-structured production model (ASPM)
CURRENT STATUS
-1
Fcurrent: 0.08 year SEC 1994/95 (Booth and Buxton 1997a)
SBPRcurrent: 67% (CV=33.3%) SEC 1994/5 (Booth and Punt 1998)
Current spawner biomass calculated at M = 0.28 year-1 using an age-structured production
model
TREND IN CPUE: Increase of 1.1% between 1984 and 1995 from the demersal inshore
trawlfishery (Booth and Hecht 1998). CPUE has increased from 2g person-1hour-1 in 1989
-1
-1
(Clarke and Buxton 1989) to 3.3g person hour in 1996 (Brouwer 1997a)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Since 1974, there has been a decrease in age-at-maturity
(Booth and Hecht 1997) and age-at-recruitment (Booth and Hecht 1998)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Since 1974, there has been a decrease in mean size of fish landed in
the Port Elizabeth (SEC) demersal inshore trawlfishery (Booth and Hecht 1998)
TREND IN SEX RATIO: Little change in proportion of males in commercial SEC samples
1974/75 - 1 male: 1.95 females (Hecht 1976)
1994/95 - 1 male: 1.7 females (Booth and Buxton 1997a)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
CLOSED SEASON: None
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Elucidation of ontogenetic movements and residency, early life-history and ontogeny
181
Despite being subjected to directed foreign trawl fleet effort between the late-1960s and mid1970s, panga appears to be showing evidence of a recovery (Booth and Punt 1998) with the
possibility that increased catches are sustainable (Brouwer 1997a, Booth et al. 1999)
182
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Rhabdosargus globiceps (Smith No. 183.35)
COMMON NAME: White stumpnose
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Angola to SEC (van der Elst 1988, Whitfield 1998)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Apparently four stocks off SA, WC (Saldanha Bay), SWC, SC and
SEC (Griffiths et al. In prep., Wilke and Griffiths 1999)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Marine environment to depths of 120m, occurring over soft and rocky substrata
(Talbot 1955, Griffiths et al. In prep.)
JUVENILES: Estuaries and bays, including the surf-zone (Talbot 1955, Lasiak 1981, Wallace et
al. 1984b,c, Bennett 1989b, Whitfield and Kok 1992, Lamberth et al. 1994, 1995a,b)
MIGRATION: Tagging studies reveal no longshore movement between stocks (Wilke and
Griffiths 1999), but catch statistics indicate offshore dispersal in winter in response to
oceanographic patterns (Griffiths et al. In prep.)
FISHERY: An important shore angling fish in the SWC and WC (Lamberth 1996, Sauer and
Erasmus 1996). Also important in recreational and commercial skiboat catches in the SWC and
WC (Sauer et al. 1997, Griffiths 1999). Taken in the beach seine fishery in False Bay (Lamberth
et al. 1994, 1995a,b)
-0.262/yr(t+0.786yrs)
) (Griffiths et al. In prep.)
GROWTH CURVE: Males: Lt = 323 mm FL(1+e
-0.213/yr(t+0.559yrs)
Females: Lt = 368 mm FL(1+e
-0.241/yr(t+0.619yrs)
Sexes combined: Lt = 342.6 mm FL(1+e
-5
3.078
(Griffiths et al. In prep.)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: FL(mm) = 0.8916 TL(mm) + 1.3718 (Griffiths et al. In prep.)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 230mm FL, SWC (Griffiths et al. In prep.)
200mm FL SC (Griffiths et al. In prep.)
170mm FL SEC (Griffiths et al. In prep.)
AGE 50% MATURITY: 4 years, SWC (Griffiths et al. In prep.)
3.2 years, SC (Griffiths et al. In prep.)
2.3 years, SEC (Griffiths et al. In prep.)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Rudimentary hermaphrodite (Griffiths et al. In prep.)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1 (Griffiths et al. In prep.)
SPAWNING SEASON: September to January (Griffiths et al. In prep.)
183
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Throughout distribution
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 50cm FL (Griffiths et al. In prep.)
MAXIMUM AGE: 21 years (Griffiths et al. In prep.)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 25cm TL (minimum legal size limit)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 4 years (Griffiths et al. In prep.)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: The average catch per boat year on traditional fishing grounds (i.e. excluding
the offshore Agulhas Bank) has dropped to 32% (WC), 48% (SWC) and 0.2% (SC) of historical
values (Griffiths 1999). Average catch per boat year was 52kg (1897-1906), 247kg (1927-31),
and 79kg (1986-98) in the WC; 173kg (1897-1906), 260kg (1927-31), and 126kg (1986-98) in
the SWC; and 344kg (1897-1906), 416kg (1927-31), and 0.8kg (1986-98) in the SC (Griffiths
1999)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
CLOSED SEASON: None
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Stock assessment, completion and publication of research findings
As the biology and stock assessment of white stumpnose is currently under review (Griffiths et
al. In prep.), management recommendations will be forthcoming once this research has been
completed
184
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Rhabdosargus holubi (Smith No. 183.36)
COMMON NAME: Cape stumpnose
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic, found from Inhaca Island in southern MOZ to the Berg
River on the WC (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988,
Whitfield 1998)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Primarily marine, common in shallow coastal waters < 50m depth. An inshore species
found in sandy areas and over shallow reefs (Wallace 1975a, Wallace et al. 1984c, van der Elst
1988, Whitfield 1998)
JUVENILES: Dependent on estuaries as nursery areas, where they remain until prior to reaching
sexual maturity (Blaber 1974, Wallace 1975a, van der Elst 1988, Whitfield 1998)
EGGS & LARVAE: Spawning occurs in the nearshore marine environment, probably off estuary
mouths (Wallace 1975b, Beckley 1985a)
MIGRATION: Post larvae migrate into estuaries at approximately 10mm SL. At about 140mm SL
sub-adults migrate out of estuaries into the marine environment (Blaber 1974, Beckley 1983,
Whitfield 1998). Movement of adults is not known as there has only been a 0.62% recapture rate
(Sedgwick’s/ORI/WWF Tagging Programme). A southward summer migration into Cape waters is
inferred by van der Elst (1988) but has not been substantiated
FISHERY: Primarily caught by recreational and subsistence rock and surf and estuarine fishers
using light tackle (van der Elst 1988)
GROWTH CURVE: Unknown – growth of 60-100mm has been calculated for 0+ juveniles, with
faster growth rates recorded in KZN (Blaber 1974, Wallace and van der Elst 1975)
-5
2.8512
SEC (Blaber 1974)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 7 x 10 SL(mm)
2.9266
SEC (Marais and Baird 1980a)
Wt(g) = 0.0424 FL(cm)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: FL(cm) = 0.185 + 1.16 SL(cm) (Marais and Baird 1980a)
TL(cm) = -0.218 + 1.368 SL(cm) (Marais and Baird 1980a)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 190mm TL, KZN (Wallace 1975b), approximately 150mm SL
(Whitfield 1998)
185
SPAWNING SEASON: May to August in KZN (Wallace 1975b), July to February in SEC (Whitfield
1998)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Nearshore marine environment (Wallace 1975b, Whitfield 1998)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 350 - 400mm TL (Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: The SA angling record is 3.5 kg, however, the maximum weight seldom
exceeds 1 kg (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 200 mm TL (minimum size limit)
NATURAL MORTALITY: Total mortality rate of 80% calculated for juvenile R. holubi in West
Kleinemond estuary (SEC) between February and July 1971 (Blaber 1973)
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
-1
-1
TREND IN CPUE: Increase between 1975-77 (0.008 fish angler .day ) and 1994-96 (0.024 fish
-1
-1
angler .day ) along the KZN coast (Joubert 1981b, Mann et al. 1997a)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOMPOSITION: Apparent decrease in percent composition of R. holubi in
Swartkops estuary since earlier this century and 1972-78 (Marais and Baird 1980b). Increase
between 1975-77 (0.69%) and 1994-96 (2.03%) in KZN (Joubert 1981b, Mann et al. 1997a)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: 5 person-1day-1
MINIMUM SIZE: 200 mm TL
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Adults are probably offered some protection within the
Tsitsikamma National Park and De Hoop Marine Reserve
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: Insufficient data
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Reproductive biology, age and growth, stock assessment, adult migration/residency, recruitment
Degradation of estuarine nursery areas along the entire south-eastern seaboard may have
resulted in an overall reduction in biomass of this species. Protection of suitable marine and
estuarine habitats is therefore imperative for the future status of this species
186
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Rhabdosargus sarba (Smith No. 183.37).
COMMON NAMES: Natal stumpnose, yellowfin bream, silver bream
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Widespread Indo-West Pacific species (tropical and subtropical
waters) also found in the Red Sea and around the southern coast of China (Blaber 1984, Fischer
and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986, Yeung and Chan 1987, Whitfield 1998)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: MOZ and East Africa, in SA found along the KZN and TKEI coast,
occasionally extending as far south as Knysna (van der Elst 1988, Smith and Heemstra 1986,
Whitfield 1998)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Primarily marine, common in shallow coastal waters <50m depth. An inshore species
found in sandy areas and over shallow reefs (Berry et al. 1982, van der Elst 1988, Whitfield 1998),
adults >350mm SL seldom recorded in estuaries (Wallace 1975a, van der Elst 1978)
JUVENILES: Make extensive use of estuaries (mainly larger estuaries in KZN and further north),
which serve as nursery areas, where they grow to maturity (Wallace 1975a, Blaber 1984, Kyle
1986, van der Elst 1988, Whitfield 1998)
EGGS & LARVAE: Nocturnal serial spawning by adults occurs in the KZN nearshore marine
environment, probably off large estuary mouths (Wallace 1975b, Harris and Cyrus 1996). Larvae
attain 10mm TL in their first month and fry first start to enter estuaries at around 15-20mm SL (2-3
months) (Wallace and van der Elst 1975, Leu 1994)
MIGRATION: Juveniles use estuaries as nursery areas (Wallace 1975a, Whitfield 1998). Once
reaching maturity, adults migrate into the marine environment (Wallace 1975a) where they appear
to be locally resident with a mean distance travelled during time at liberty of 15km (7 recaptures
from 544 fish tagged) (Sedgwick’s/ORI/WWF Tagging Programme)
FISHERY: Primarily a sport fish in SA waters, sought after by recreational shore anglers, estuarine
anglers and spearfishers (van der Elst 1989, Mann et al. 1997a, b). Also caught by subsistence and
artisanal fishers in St Lucia and Kosi Bay using fish traps and gill nets (Kyle 1986, Mann 1995, Kyle
1999). Commercially exploited in trawl and gill-nets elsewhere in the world (Smith and Heemstra
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = 745mm FL (1-e-0.155/yr(t+0.969 yrs)) KZN, preliminary results (Radebe et al.
1999)
-5
2.9729
(van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
-4
2.68
Wt(g) = 1.45 x 10 FL(mm) KZN, preliminary results (Radebe et al. 1999)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: FL(mm) = -3.0993 + 0.8898 TL(mm) (Wallace 1975a)
187
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 260mm TL (Wallace 1975b), but males mature earlier (Garratt
1993b)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 2 to 3 years, KZN, preliminary results (Radebe et al. 1999)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Protandrous hermaphrodite (Yeung and Chan 1987, Buxton and Garratt
1990, Garratt 1993b)
M:F SEX RATIO: Adult sex ratio (250-450mm FL) close to unity (Garratt 1993b)
LENGTH AT SEX CHANGE: Variable, but mainly between 200-300mm FL (Garratt 1993b)
AGE AT SEX CHANGE: Between 2 and 3 years, KZN, preliminary results (Radebe et al. 1999)
SPAWNING SEASON: July to November (Wallace 1975b, Whitfield 1998)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: KZN nearshore marine environment, close to large estuary and river
mouths (Wallace 1975b, Whitfield 1998)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 750mm TL (van der Elst 1988), 550mm SL (Whitfield 1998)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 12 kg (Smith and Heemstra 1986), 7.3 kg SA angling record (van der Elst
1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: 13 years, KZN, preliminary results (Radebe et al. 1999)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 2 years, KZN, preliminary results (Radebe et al. 1999)
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: 0.3 year KZN, preliminary results (Radebe et al. 1999)
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: 0.1 year KZN, preliminary results (Radebe et al. 1999)
-1
FSB25 : 0.22 year KZN, preliminary results (Radebe et al. 1999)
-1
FSB40: 0.15 year KZN, preliminary results (Radebe et al. 1999)
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: 0.3 year-1 KZN, preliminary results (Radebe et al. 1999)
CURRENT STATUS
-1
Fcurrent: 0.1 year KZN, preliminary results (Radebe, et al. 1999)
SBPRcurrent: 50% KZN, preliminary results (Radebe et al. 1999)
TREND IN CPUE: Significant decrease in St Lucia between 1956 (+7.5 fish/100 angler hours) and
1977 (+1.7 fish/100 angler hours) (van der Elst 1978). Along the KZN coast there has been a slight
-1
-1
-1
-1
increase between 1975-77 (0.01 fish angler .day ) and 1994-96 (0.027 fish angler .day )
(Joubert 1981b, Mann et al. 1997a) but this is probably as a result of more north coast beaches
being sampled in the latter study (B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Decrease in St Lucia between 1956 and 1977 (van der Elst
1978, 1989). Increase between 1975-77 (0.95%) and 1994-96 (2.28%) in KZN (Joubert 1981b,
Mann et al. 1997a) see reason above
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Decrease in the annual average weight of R. sarba landed by NCAU
anglers at St Lucia between 1956 and 1977 (from 1.6 to 0.8 kg) (van der Elst 1978)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: No evidence available, though it is likely that this species
receives some protection in the St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserve Sanctuary Areas, the
Lake St Lucia Wilderness Area and perhaps the Mkambati Marine Reserve Wilderness Area (B.
Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
188
Complete age and growth study and stock assessment, residency and migration, possible
aquaculture potential
Although the stock does not appear to be overfished, degradation of estuarine nursery areas
along the KZN coast may have contributed to a decline in biomass of this species. Protection of
suitable marine and estuarine habitat is therefore imperative to the future status of this and
other estuarine dependent species
189
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Sarpa salpa (Smith No. 183.39)
COMMON NAME: Strepie, karanteen
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Throughout the Mediterranean and eastern Atlantic around SA
to southern MOZ (Fischer and Bianchi 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
STOCK DISTRIBUTION: Saldhana Bay to Maputo (van der Elst 1988, van der Walt 1995)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Subtidal gullies and over shallow rocky reefs, largely confined to the surf zone
(Joubert and Hanekom 1980, Joubert 1981a, Berry et al. 1982, Beckley and Buxton 1989,
Smale and Buxton 1989, Burger 1990, van der Walt 1995)
JUVENILES: Tidal rockpools, sandy littoral, shallow reefs and estuaries in the SEC and SWC
(Christensen 1978, Lasiak 1981, Beckley 1983, 1985a,b,c, Bennett 1987, Whitfield et al. 1989)
EGGS & LARVAE: Abundant inshore of the Agulhas Current off Rocky Bay on the KZN south
coast (Alan Connell, CSIR, pers. comm.), distributed to nursery areas in the SEC and SWC
(Joubert 1981a, van der Walt and Mann 1998)
MIGRATION: Adults migrate from juvenile nursery areas in SWC and SEC to breed in warmer
KZN waters. They remain in the inshore zone (<15m) and there is little evidence of a return
migration to the Cape although some of the largest specimens have been caught in Cape
waters (Joubert 1981a, van der Elst 1988, van der Walt and Mann 1998)
FISHERY: Harvested exclusively by shore anglers throughout its distribution and is the second
most important species (by number) caught along the KZN and SEC coast (Joubert 1981b,
Clarke and Buxton 1989, van der Walt and Govender 1996, Brouwer et al. 1997a, Mann et al.
1997a)
-0,55/yr(t+0.51yrs)
) KZN (van der Walt and Beckley 1997)
-5
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 5.9 x 10 FL(mm)2.793 KZN (Joubert 1981a)
Wt(g) = 8.03 x 10-6 FL(mm)3.18 KZN (van der Walt 1995)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: FL(mm) = 0.884TL(mm) + 1.374(Joubert 1981a)
FL(mm) = 0.867TL(mm) + 2.31 (van der Walt 1995)
TL(mm) = 1.149FL(mm) + 1.14 (van der Walt 1995)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 140-150mm FL (males) and 160-170mm FL (females) KZN
(Joubert 1981a)
145mm FL (both sexes combined) KZN (van der Walt and Mann 1998)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 1.5 years (van der Walt and Mann 1998)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Rudimentary hermaphrodite (Joubert 1981a)
Protandrous hermaphrodite (van der Walt and Mann 1998)
190
M:F SEX RATIO: 1.1:1 KZN (Joubert 1981a)
1.6:1 KZN (van der Walt and Mann 1998)
SPAWNING SEASON: Winter and Spring (Apr - Sep) peaking from Jun to Aug in KZN (Joubert
1981a, van der Walt and Mann 1998)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Over subtidal reefs on the KZN coast (Joubert 1981a, van der Walt
and Mann 1998, Alan Connell, CSIR, pers. obs.). It is not known whether spawning occurs in
Cape waters
MAXIMUM AGE: 6 years (van der Walt and Beckley 1997)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 30cm TL (van der Elst 1988), 45cm TL (Smith and Heemstra 1986)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 1.1 years (van der Walt and Govender 1996)
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.6 year KZN 1994-95 (van der Walt and Govender 1996)
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.81 year KZN 1994-95 (van der Walt and Govender 1996)
FSB25: >2 year-1 KZN, 1994-95 (van der Walt and Govender 1996)
-1
FSB40: 1.6 year KZN, 1994-95 (van der Walt and Govender 1996)
-1
F0.1: 1.19 year KZN, 1994-95 (van der Walt and Govender 1996)
-1
FMSY: >2 year KZN, 1994-95 (van der Walt and Govender 1996)
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: 0.81 year-1 KZN, 1994-95 (van der Walt and Govender 1996)
SBPRcurrent: 60% KZN, 1994-95 (van der Walt and Govender 1996)
TREND IN CPUE: Increase between 1975-77 (0.22 fish angler day-1) and 1994-96 (0.51 fish
angler day-1) in KZN (Joubert 1981b, Mann et al. 1997a). Increase between 1985-86 (8.98g
person-1 hour-1) and 1994-96 (13.4g person-1 hour-1) in SEC (Clarke and Buxton 1989, Brouwer
-1
1997b). CPUE has fluctuated between 0.1 and 0.3 fish angler day between 1986 and 1994 in
KZN (NMLS shore patrol data in van der Walt and Govender 1996)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Increase between 1975-77 (20.3%) and 1994-96 (42.9%)
in KZN (Joubert 1981b, Mann et al. 1997a). Slight increase between 1985-86 (21.5%) and
1994-96 (23.1%) in SEC (Clarke and Buxton 1989, Brouwer 1997b). Catch composition
fluctuated between 5 and 38% between 1986 and 1994, opposite to trend in shad catches in
KZN (NMLS shore patrol data in van der Walt and Govender 1996). Catch composition
fluctuated between 1991 and 1995 in the Tsitsikamma National Park (Hanekom et al. 1997)
TREND IN SEX RATIO: None
CURRENT REGULATIONS
CATEGORY: Bait List
BAG LIMIT: Unlimited
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Are found in abundance in MPAs between Durban and
Cape Town, however, level of protection in these MPAs is not known due to their migratory
habit
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Stock distribution and migration, early life history and recruitment
Strepie are heavily utilised particularly by subsistence line fishers and levels of harvesting
should be carefully monitored
191
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Sparodon durbanensis (Smith No. 183.40)
COMMON NAMES: White musselcracker, brusher
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic, Cape Point (SWC) to Tugela (KZN) (Fisher and
HABITAT
ADULTS: High profile, inshore reefs down to 20m (Buxton and Clarke 1991)
JUVENILES: Tidal pools, gullies and shallow subtidal reefs <12m (Christensen 1978, Beckley
1985b, 1985c, Buxton and Clarke 1991)
EGGS & LARVAE: Pelagic eggs with large oil droplet, larvae described by Brownell (1979)
MIGRATION: To date 24(2.8%) of the 874 tagged white musselcracker have been recaptured.
Juveniles <600mm TL are extremely resident, while adults appear to undertake an annual
winter spawning migration, moving in a northeasterly direction towards KZN
(Sedgwick's/ORI/WWF Tagging Programme). Reduced abundance in northern TKI and KZN
waters during summer months suggest adults return to Cape waters on completion of spawning
(B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
FISHERY: Important target species in the recreational shore fishery and spearfishery (Clarke
1988). This species is of little commercial importance (Buxton and Clarke 1991)
GROWTH CURVE:
-0.09/yr (t-0.709yrs)
) SEC (Buxton and Clarke 1991)
Lt = 1021mm FL(1-e
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Total Wt(g) = 1.8 x 10-5 FL(mm)3.037 SEC (Buxton and Clarke 1991)
-5
3.061
SEC (Buxton and Clarke 1991)
Gutted Wt(g) = 1.4 x 10 FL(mm)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(mm) = 1.127 FL(mm)0.999 SEC (Buxton and Clarke 1991)
1.021
SEC (Buxton and Clarke 1991)
SL(mm) = 0.783 FL(mm)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 350mm FL (combined sexes), SEC (Buxton and Clarke 1991)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: 5.4 years (combined sexes), SEC (Buxton and Clarke 1991)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Late gonochorist (sensu rudimentary hermaphrodite) (Buxton and
Clarke 1991)
M:F SEX RATIO: Adults >350mm FL 1:1.07 SEC (Buxton and Clarke 1991)
SPAWNING SEASON: August-January, SEC (Buxton and Clarke 1991)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Spawning fish recorded in SEC, TKI and KZN (Buxton and Clarke
1991, B. Mann, ORI, pers. obs.)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 1029mm FL (Buxton and Clarke 1991), 120cm TL (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: 31 years, SEC (Buxton and Clarke 1991)
192
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: Approximately 11 years (estimated from Buxton and Clarke 1991)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: Abundance, estimated from available CPUE values, is highest on east coast
(KZN) during winter (June-July) and on the south coast (SEC) during spring and summer
(August-December). CPUE has decreased sharply in the Port Elizabeth area from
30.3g person-1hour-1 in 1985-86 (Clarke and Buxton 1989) to 6g person-1hour-1 in 1996
(Brouwer 1997b). CPUE data available from St Croix Island, SEC (Coetzee and Baird 1981a)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
BAG LIMIT: 5 person-1day-1
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: MPAs such as De Hoop, Goukamma, Robberg,
Tsitsikamma and Sardinia Bay are all probably effective in protecting white musselcracker,
particularly during their resident juvenile stage (C. Attwood, MCM, pers. obs.)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Stock assessment, catch composition, stock distribution, residency and migration and early life
history
White musselcracker are an extremely important trophy fish for both the recreational shore
fishery and spearfishery. Their large size, slow growth, late maturity and longevity make this
species extremely susceptible to overfishing and a conservative management strategy should
be adopted
193
SPARIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Spondyliosoma emarginatum (Smith No. 183.41)
COMMON NAME: Steentjie
COMPILERS: A.P. Aitken (UCT) and B.Q. Mann (ORI)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic, Saldanha Bay to KZN and off southern Madagascar
HABITAT
ADULTS: Subtidal reefs down to 60m (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
JUVENILES: Shallow subtidal reefs, sometimes entering estuaries (van Bruggen 1965, Beckley
1983,1984a, Whitfield et al. 1989)
EGGS & LARVAE: Demersal eggs, larvae widely distributed inshore in the SEC and SWC,
larvae have been recorded entering estuaries (van Bruggen 1965, Penrith 1972b, Beckley
1985a, 1989, Tilney and Buxton 1994)
MIGRATION: Unconfirmed seasonal migration with steentjies being most abundant off the SEC
during autumn and off the SWC during spring and summer (van der Elst 1988)
FISHERY: Although small, steentjies comprise an important component of recreational and
commercial skiboat catches in the SEC and SWC. Primarily used as bait but increasingly being
used for food as other larger species become depleted. Also occasionally taken by shore
anglers in the SEC and SWC (Brouwer 1997a, Lamberth 1996). Taken in beach seine nets in
the SWC (Lamberth et al. 1994)
2.032
(derived from van der Elst 1988)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 0.377 x TL(cm)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Maturity attained at approximately 22cm TL (van der Elst 1988)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Gonochoristic, demersal nest builders and guarders (van Bruggen
1965, Penrith 1972b, Beckley 1989, Buxton and Garratt 1990)
SPAWNING SEASON: Spring and Summer (van der Elst 1988)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: SEC and SWC (Penrith 1972b, van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 45cm TL, few exceed 25cm TL (Smith and Heemstra 1986, van der Elst
1988)
194
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F 0.1 : Unknown
FMSY : Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
CATEGORY: Bait List
BAG LIMIT: None
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Protected within the Tsitsikamma and De Hoop Marine
Reserves and other MPAs on the SEC and SWC coast where fishing is prohibited (B. Mann,
ORI, pers. obs.)
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Age and growth, stock assessment, catch trends, reproductive biology, residency and migration,
early life history
Steentjies are becoming increasingly important in the SEC and SWC as other larger reef fish
species are depleted. It is likely that future catches of this species will continue to increase with
increased targeting and the use of smaller hooks
195
XIPHIIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Xiphias gladius (Smith No. 251.1)
COMMON NAMES: Swordfish, broadbill
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Cosmopolitan species found in open water of all tropical, subtropical and temperate oceans, including the Mediterranean Sea (Taylor and Murphy 1992).
Generally found between the latitudes 450 S and 450 N (Beardsley 1979), but depending on the
0
0
ocean, may be found in latitudes as high as 60 N and 50 S (Nakamura 1985)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Swordfish are found from MOZ to NAM. It is uncertain at present if
swordfish found in southern African waters belong to the Atlantic or the Indian Ocean stock
HABITAT
ADULTS: This epi- and meso-pelagic fish is generally found in surface waters warmer than 130
C, with the optimum range being 180 C to 220 C in the northwestern Pacific Ocean (Nakamura
1985). In SA most catches have been made in waters deeper than the 200m depth contour.
Swordfish inhabit deeper water during the day, possibly as deep as 650m (Nakamura 1985),
and exhibit vertical migration feeding close to the surface during the night (Carey and Robinson
1981)
JUVENILES: Few juvenile fish (less than 115cm) have been recorded from southern Africa, but
juveniles have been observed in the tropical waters of the Indian and Atlantic Ocean (F.
Poisson, IRD, Reunion, pers. comm.)
EGGS & LARVAE: Have been found in tropical seas at temperatures of 240C (Nakamura 1985)
MIGRATION: Unknown if migration takes place in southern African waters, but in the Northern
Hemisphere there is a movement of sexually mature fish into tropical waters during winter for
spawning and back into temperate or cold waters for feeding during summer (Nakamura 1985,
Taylor and Murphy 1992). Since no mature and spawning females have been observed to date
in SA waters, a similar movement may occur in the Southern Hemisphere
FISHERY: Directed fishery in the high seas by foreign longline vessels. Swordfish is also caught
as a by-catch in tuna longline and mid-water trawl fisheries. Swordfish are becoming
increasingly important to high seas fisheries as demand increases (Kroese 1999). Catches in
the Indian Ocean, primarily from the Taiwanese longline fleet, have increased 5 times between
1987-1996 (Ardill 1999). Swordfish are also targeted by recreational boats, particularly in the
SWC
GROWTH CURVE: (note: LJFL = Lower jaw fork length)
1/(1+0.898)
Females (Ehrhard et al. 1996)
Lt = 364.69cm LJFL [1-exp(-0.0262(1+0.898)(t + 0.556))]
1/(1+1.009)
Males* (Ehrhard et al. 1996)
Lt = 189.58cm LJFL [1-exp(-0.1050(1+1.009)(t + 0.410))]
*(The growth curve probably underestimates the L∞ of males since males of 235cm LJFL have
been found in Florida by Taylor and Murphy 1992)
196
LENGTH-WEIGHT: (note: GWT = gilled and gutted weight, DWT = dressed weight (head off,
gutted, fins and tail off), RWT = round weight (live weight), PCN = pectoral fin to caudal notch)
GWT = 4.3491 x 10-6 LJFL(cm) 3.188 SE Atlantic (Mejuto et al. 1988)
RWT = GWT x 1.140 SE Atlantic (Mejuto et al. 1988)
-4
2.7752
SA (Penney and Griffiths 1998)
DWT = 1.20468 x 10 PCN(cm)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: (note: PFL = pectoral fin to fork length, PCN = pectoral fin to
caudal notch)
PFL = 0.8045 LJFL(cm) – 8.5647, SA (Penney and Griffiths 1998)
PCN = 0.6853 LJFL(cm) – 8.879, SA (Penney and Griffiths 1998)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Males: 129cm LJFL, females 179cm LJFL (Arocha and Lee
1996)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Males: 1.4 years, females: 5.5 years (Taylor and Murphy 1992)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Swordfish demonstrate group synchronous oocyte maturation
(Wallace and Selman 1981)
M:F SEX RATIO: Sex ratios within different areas are highly variable. Generally fish below
115cm (juvenile) show a 1:1 sex ratio, but fish above 200cm have 90 –100% female biased sex
ratio (Mejuto et al. 1995). More females than males may move north during the Northern
Hemisphere summer (Taylor and Murphy 1992)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 445cm TL (Nakamura 1985)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 540 kg (Nakamura 1985)
MAXIMUM AGE: Females: 12 years, males: 9 years (Ehrhard et al. 1996)
SPAWNING SEASON: Swordfish have a protracted winter spawning season, probably lasting
6–7 months during which time females spawn every 2 to 3 days (Taylor and Murphy 1992,
Arocha and Lee 1996)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: No spawning fish have been observed in SA waters but have been
reported from Southern Madagascar and Reunion (F. Poisson, IRD, Reunion, pers. comm.)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: Probably from 75cm LJFL (A. Penney, Pisces Cc. Unpubl.
data), minimum legal size in SA waters is 125cm LJFL
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: Approximately 1 year based on above length
-1
NATURAL MORTALITY: M = 0.2 year commonly assumed (Mohn 1992, Nelson et al. 1990,
Prager 1993, Restrepo et al. 1992)
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.754 year-1 for Atlantic Ocean, 1995 (ICCAT 1997b)
FSB25 : Unknown
FSB40 : Unknown
F0.1 : 0.26 year-1 for Atlantic Ocean, 1995 (ICCAT 1997b)
-1
FMSY : 0.452 year for Atlantic Ocean, 1995 (ICCAT 1997b)
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent : 0.754 year-1 Atlantic Ocean (ICCAT 1997b)
TREND IN CPUE: Catch rates of swordfish have declined considerably in the northern Atlantic
(ICCAT 1997b). A decline has already been observed in the SA CPUE, but this is based on very
short time period (Kroese 1999)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: 125cm LJFL or 25kg
CLOSED SEASON: None
197
OTHER REGULATIONS: Although occurring on the Recreational List, which stipulates no sale,
this regulation is not enforced and the commercial tuna-directed longline fishery has been given
a 1000t swordfish by-catch quota inside the SA EEZ (Kroese 1999)
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: Unknown, but anecdotal data suggests that the DBL is
very rarely attained on recreational vessels
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Determine the age and growth and sex-at-age for swordfish, determine the distribution of the
SA stock, collect accurate catch and effort data
Swordfish stocks have been heavily overfished in the northern Atlantic and longline fleets
appear to be converging on remaining stocks in the southern Atlantic. Fishing effort must be
strictly controlled and joint management and collaboration between countries harvesting
swordfish on the high seas in the Indian and Atlantic Oceans is needed via the IOTC and
ICCAT
respectively
198
STATUS OF THE SHARK FISHERY
In uniquely South African parlance, chondrichthyans are termed "inedibles" by most anglers,
despite the worldwide use of these fishes for food. Traditionally sharks and other
chondrichthyans have been rarely commercially targeted in South African waters. One
exception is the soupfin fishery centred around Gans Bay and adjacent areas. Nevertheless,
they are taken in a variety of fisheries, largely as a by-catch. The fact that they are usually not
landed does not alter the fact that they are usually caught and killed. Sports anglers are one
group that targets these fishes for points in competitions. In recent years there has been a trend
for sports anglers to join in tag and release projects with the belief that this will allow targeting of
sharks and rays during competitions without decimating the resource, a practice for which
anglers have been criticized in the past. Although this has been successful in some cases, there
is concern that some individuals are releasing moribund or dead sharks and rays, having
subjected them to fatal damage or stressful treatment while catching, landing, weighing and
release. The extent of this problem deserves urgent research to attempt quantification and
develop advice to anglers.
Although the approximately 210 species of chondrichthyans found off southern Africa
(Compagno et al. 1989, Compagno In press) are poorly known in terms of life history studies
and few reliable data are available on fisheries statistics, they are in need of management.
There has been progress in studies in this group of fishes in the past decade or two, but much
of this information is of limited benefit to traditional fisheries modelling. Many chondrichthyan
species are poorly suited to exploitation and the literature is replete with examples of shark
fisheries collapsing rapidly after a new venture begins in a particular area. The reason for this is
that their life history styles are eminently suited to their role as marine predators which has
allowed for the survival of this group of fishes over millions of years. The traits selected are
those for low population increase rates (generally late maturity, small litters and few litters of
young per female, slow growth etc.) and these are poorly suited to commercial fisheries in
general, and targeted linefisheries or gillnet fisheries in particular. For most species the standing
stock is relatively low and the turnover rate slow because the generation time is long. For this
reason, there needs to be a conservative approach to shark fisheries and every attempt should
be made to regulate and limit catches. Although marine reserves may be a management option
for some of the smaller, less mobile chondrichthyans, most migrate over considerably greater
areas than those encompassed by marine reserves.
Given the growing human population pressure combined with the increasing demand by rapidly
growing economies in both the northern hemisphere and the Far East, and the decline of global
marine fish production, the threat to shark populations is growing rapidly. Given the level of
management chondrichthyans receive in developing countries, including South Africa, the threat
to viable populations of several species is great. If local fisheries are capable of decimating
numerous populations of teleosts within a few decades, we have reason for concern for
chondrichthyans. Support for research on this group needs priority, particularly if it will help
ensure a better understanding of these fishes and contribute to their improved management.
199
CARCHARHINIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Carcharhinus brachyurus (Smith No. 9.5)
COMMON NAME: Bronze whaler, copper shark
COMPILER: M. J. Smale (PEM)
REFEREE: W.H.H. Sauer (DIFS)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Widespread cosmopolitan species found in Eastern and Western
Atlantic, Mediterranean Sea and parts of the Indo-Pacific (Compagno 1984)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Unclear, either a single stock from NAM to KZN, or two discrete
populations: one from SWC eastwards and the other from just south of Walvis Bay northwards
(Walter and Ebert 1991). A recent recapture of a bronze whaler in NAM after release in the
SWC weakens the latter hypothesis (Sedgwick's/ORI/WWF Tagging Programme)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Neritic, occurs over the continental shelf from the surfline to at least 100m, either
close to the surface or near the bottom (Compagno et al. 1989a)
JUVENILES: (see breeding locality)
MIGRATION: This temperate shark moves widely but exact patterns are, as yet, unclear.
Penetrates KZN waters in winter (Bass et al. 1973, Cliff and Dudley 1992)
FISHERY: Caught by recreational shore-based and lineboat fishers, targeted in fishing
competitions. Taken in sardine purse seines and demersal trawlers as by-catch. Is one of
several species taken by gill nets on the WC and in the bather protection shark nets on the KZN
coast
GROWTH CURVE:
Lt = 384.8cm TL (1-e-0.0385/yr(t+3.477yrs)) both sexes (Walter and Ebert 1991)
-6
3.11
KZN (Cliff and Dudley 1992)
LENGTH–WEIGHT: Males: Wt(kg) = 7.49 x 10 PCL(cm)
-6
3.14
Females: Wt(kg) = 6.71 x 10 PCL(cm)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(cm) = 0.744 PCL(cm) + 10.84 both sexes (Walter and Ebert
1991)
FL(cm) = 1.046 PCL(cm) + 6.89 KZN (Cliff and Dudley 1992)
TL(cm) = 1.27 PCL + 1.502 KZN (Cliff and Dudley 1992)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Males 175cm PCL, females 190cm PCL, KZN (Cliff and Dudley
1992)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Males: ~ 20 years, females: ~ 26 years (re-estimated from Walter and
Ebert 1991)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Placental viviparity (Bass et al. 1973, Smale 1991)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1.2:1 KZN (considerable monthly variation Cliff and Dudley 1992)
1:1 for sharks 1-2m TL, 1:1.3 for sharks < 1m TL SEC (Smale 1991)
BREEDING SEASON: Mating probably May to August, parturition September to January (Smale
1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992)
200
BREEDING LOCALITY: Parturition probably occurs in SEC and SWC, apparently not in KZN
(Smale 1991, Cliff and Dudley 1992)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: Males: 293cm TL, females: 303cm TL (Smale 1991)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 205kg (Cliff and Dudley 1992)
MAXIMUM AGE: 30 years (Walter and Ebert 1991)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 543mm TL (Smale 1991)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 0+ (Smale 1991)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: NSB catches peaked in 1979 and again in 1984, catches declined between
1984 and 1990 (Cliff and Dudley 1992)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: None because of its migratory habit
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Validation of age estimates, collection of catch and effort data to estimate trends, determine
stock integrity
Although data on trends are lacking, evidence suggests that this shark matures late and may
have a limited reproductive output once mature. If age and maturity estimates are correct, it is
likely to be highly vulnerable to fishing pressure, whether targeted or as a by-catch. Because of
its size, it is desirable for the fin market. Juveniles would be targeted for their flesh because of
the lower heavy metal contamination though bio-accumulation. This could lead to severe
pressure on stocks, particularly if both adults and juveniles are exploited. Catch records must be
at the level of species rather than "sharks" or other generic terms
201
CARCHARHINIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Carcharhinus leucas (Smith No. 9.9)
COMMON NAMES: Zambezi shark, bull shark
COMPILER: S. Dudley (NSB)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Tropical and subtropical waters of all three major oceans (Bass
et al. 1973, Compagno 1984)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Cape St Francis (SEC) northwards to the Horn of Africa, including
rivers such as the Zambezi and Limpopo and estuarine systems such as Lake St Lucia
(Compagno 1984, Compagno et al. 1989a)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Occurs in coastal waters in a depth range of 1 to 152m, as well as in estuaries, rivers
and lakes (Compagno 1984). Often found in turbid water (Cliff and Dudley 1991)
MIGRATION: A relatively sedentary species, not known to undertake long distance migrations.
A decrease in catches in the KZN shark nets from June to September does however,
demonstrate movement out of the area in winter (Cliff and Dudley 1991). Also, gravid females
move to nursery grounds, such as the St Lucia Estuary, to drop their young (Bass et al. 1973,
Cliff and Dudley 1991)
FISHERY: Very few are caught by commercial or recreational fishers, although larger
specimens may be targeted as trophy fish for a limited number of sport fishers (R. van der Elst,
ORI, pers. comm.). A mean annual catch of 51 sharks is taken in the protective gill nets (shark
nets) off KZN beaches (1978-98, NSB Unpubl. data). This catch consists primarily of adolescent
sharks, with modes of 141-145cm PCL for males and 171-175cm for females (Cliff and Dudley
1991)
GROWTH CURVE:
Lt = 226.4cm PCL(1-e-0.07/yr-1(t+4.9 yrs)) (NSB Unpubl. data)
-5
2.93
(males, KZN) (Cliff and Dudley 1991)
LENGTH–WEIGHT: Wt(kg) = 2.63 x 10 PCL (cm)
Wt(kg) = 2.10 x 10-5 PCL(cm)2.98 (females, KZN) (Cliff and Dudley 1991)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(cm) = 1.234 PCL(cm) + 11.31 (after Cliff and Dudley 1991)
FL(cm) = 1.08 PCL(cm) + 2.78 (Cliff and Dudley 1991)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Males: 190cm PCL, females: 193cm PCL (NSB Unpubl. data)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Males: 21.3 years, females: 22.6 years (NSB Unpubl. data)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Placental viviparity
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.3 in the shark net catch overall, although 1:1 in animals <167cm PCL (Cliff
and Dudley 1991). Thus, within the area sampled (Richards Bay to Mzamba), there is some
evidence for sexual segregation in adults and larger adolescents
202
BREEDING SEASON: Mating appears to occur predominantly in summer, although the season
may be prolonged (Cliff and Dudley 1991). No local data for gestation, but elsewhere 10-11
months (Clark and von Schmidt 1965). Mean litter size 8.7 embryos (range 6-12), embryo sex
ratio at unity, size at birth approximately 45cm PCL (Cliff and Dudley 1991)
BREEDING LOCALITY: Nursery grounds tend to be estuaries and lagoons (Bass et al. 1973,
Cliff and Dudley 1991, Castro 1993). The only known nursery area on the KZN coast is the St
Lucia Estuary. Very few animals in mating condition found in the KZN nets, suggesting mating
generally occurs elsewhere, probably to the north
MAXIMUM LENGTH: Males 234cm PCL in KZN (Bass et al. 1973), females 240cm PCL in SEC
(M. Smale, PEM, pers. comm., in Cliff and Dudley 1991)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: Males 195kg in KZN (Cliff and Dudley 1991), females 314.5 kg in SEC (M.
Smale, PEM, pers. comm., in Cliff and Dudley 1991)
MAXIMUM AGE: Males 29 years, females 32 years (observed) (NSB Unpubl. data). Age at
maximum reported length exceeds L∞ of NSB growth curve, hence cannot be calculated
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 40cm PCL (Bass et al. 1973), 66cm PCL in the KZN nets,
although the capture of small animals in the nets is very unusual (Cliff and Dudley 1991)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 0+ years (NSB Unpubl. data)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: Shark nets have been fishing off KZN beaches since 1952 but the time series
of bull shark CPUE begins only in 1978. This is because of initial confusion of this shark with
another netted species, the Java shark Carcharhinus amboinensis. CPUE of the species pair
declined steeply during the early years of netting. The level in 1966, for example, was probably
about 13.3 sharks.km-net-1.yr-1 (which is somewhat lower than the value originally reported by
Cliff and Dudley (1991)), and in 1977 was only 0.8 sharks.km-net-1.yr-1. Inferring from the catch
composition since 1978, it is likely that the bulk of that early catch consisted of bull sharks.
-1
-1
CPUE of bull sharks alone increased from 0.7 sharks.km-net .yr in 1978 to a peak of 2.1
-1
-1
sharks.km-net .yr in 1986, before declining again (Cliff and Dudley 1991). There was no
significant trend 1978-98 (linear regression of annual catch rate against time), although the
-1
-1
mean annual CPUE fell from 1.5 sharks.km-net .yr between 1978 and 1988 to 1.0 sharks.km-1
-1
net .yr between 1989 and 1998 (NSB Unpubl. data). Mean annual catch for the two periods
fell from 60 to 41 sharks, although there was again no significant trend
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: No trend; catches of the bull shark constitute a mean
annual 4.0% of the shark catch taken in the KZN nets, 1978-98 (NSB Unpubl. data)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: A significant decline in size of animals caught in the nets, from a
predicted mean of 165cm PCL in January 1978 to 156cm PCL in December 1998 (linear
regression of size against julian date of capture) (NSB Unpubl. data)
TREND IN SEX RATIO: No change in KZN nets, 1978-98 (NSB Unpubl. data)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
203
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: There may be limited protection afforded by the sanctuary
areas of the Maputaland and St Lucia Marine Reserves, because of the relatively sedentary
habit of adults of this species
OTHER REGULATIONS: Ban on finning (the landing of fins without the accompanying carcass),
applicable to all saleable elasmobranchs (commercials only)
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: Unknown, but probably seldom attempted
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
The NSB will continue to monitor trends in catch and size, as the only indices of stock status
currently available
Although this species is not exploited commercially at present, it is targeted, together with other
large coastal sharks, in other parts of the world, e.g. the US east coast, where strict
management measures had to be introduced in the 1990s to rebuild depleted stocks
(Branstetter 1999, Musick 1999, NMFS 1999, 2000). The late age-at-maturity and low fecundity
render this species vulnerable to exploitation pressure. Given the potential for commercial shark
fishing to increase on the KZN coast, managers should consider adopting the precautionary
principle at an early stage of the development of any new fishery (see Castro et al. 1999). With
regard to the KZN shark nets, the NSB has begun reducing fishing effort in order to reduce
captures of all exploited species. Consideration should be given to protection of neonates and
juveniles in the St Lucia Estuary
204
CARCHARHINIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Carcharhinus limbatus (Smith No. 9.10)
COMMON NAME: Blacktip shark
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Circum-global in tropical and subtropical continental waters
(Compagno 1984)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Cape Point northwards to the Red Sea, including Madagascar
HABITAT
ADULTS: Globally, a pelagic but not truly oceanic habit (Compagno 1984). On the KZN coast
found close inshore, adults penetrating the surf zone and some occasionally found in the St
Lucia estuary; offshore, rarely caught in water deeper than 30 m (Bass et al. 1973)
MIGRATION: Decrease in abundance in nearshore waters between July and October suggests
seasonal movement, but no direct evidence of either longshore or offshore migration. Bass et
al. (1973) reported that the species ranges into Cape waters in summer. Longshore migration
known to occur off US EC
FISHERY: No commercial fishery, and recreational anglers do not generally catch this species.
It is however, a target of tournament anglers representing about 1% of the total catch by
number (R. van der Elst, ORI, pers. comm.). A mean annual catch of 131 sharks is taken in the
protective gill nets (shark nets) off KZN beaches (Dudley and Cliff 1993c). This catch consists
primarily of adult sharks, with modes of 161-165 cm PCL for males and 166-170 cm PCL for
females
GROWTH CURVE:
-0.21/yr-1(t+1.2 yrs)
) (Wintner and Cliff 1996)
Lt = 193.6cm PCL(1-e
LENGTH–WEIGHT: Wt(kg) = 1.18 x 10-5 PCL(cm)3.05 (males, KZN) (Dudley and Cliff 1993c)
-5
3.08
(females, KZN) (Dudley and Cliff 1993c)
Wt(kg) = 1.08 x 10 PCL(cm)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL (cm) = 1.334 PCL (cm) + 4.27 (Dudley and Cliff 1993c)
FL (cm) = 1.074 PCL (cm) + 2.40 (Dudley and Cliff 1993c)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Males 148cm PCL, females 152cm PCL (NSB Unpubl. data)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Males 5.7 years, females 6.1 years (using growth curve of Wintner
and Cliff 1996)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Placental viviparity
M:F SEX RATIO: <150cm PCL – 1:1; >150 cm PCL - 1:1.3. Over the area sampled by the shark
nets (Richards Bay to Mzamba), seasonal and regional variation in sex ratio of adults, with
some evidence of sexual segregation. Males more abundant than females from Ballito
northwards, females to the south. Males more abundant in summer, females for the remainder
205
of the year. Very few adult males caught August-October, indicating differences between the
sexes in migratory behaviour (Dudley and Cliff 1993c)
BREEDING SEASON: Animals in mating condition found predominantly between NovemberDecember. Gestation period about 12 months. Median litter size is six (maximum 12), embryo
sex ratio is at unity, size at birth approximately 49cm PCL. Some evidence for a three year
breeding cycle (Dudley and Cliff 1993c)
BREEDING LOCALITY: Although two thirds of netted animals are mature, few are in mating
condition, suggesting that mating generally occurs elsewhere (Dudley and Cliff 1993c).
Similarly, pregnant females appear to move elsewhere to pup, possibly to coastal waters of
MOZ. Few neonates have been recorded from KZN (Bass et al. 1973). Elsewhere in the world,
known to use coastal waters, including estuarine salt marshes and tidal creeks, as a nursery
(Branstetter and McEachran 1986, Castro 1993)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: Males: 190cm PCL, females: 195cm PCL (NSB Unpubl. data)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: Males: 110kg, females: 126kg (NSB Unpubl. data)
MAXIMUM AGE: Males 10 years, females 11 years (observed) (Wintner and Cliff 1996).
Calculated age at maximum reported length; male 17.8 years, female exceeds published L∞
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 66cm PCL (in the KZN nets), although the capture of small
animals in the nets is very unusual (Dudley and Cliff 1993c)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 0+ years (after Wintner and Cliff 1996)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: Shark nets have been fishing off KZN beaches since 1952 but the time series
of blacktip shark catches begins only in 1978. This is because of initial confusion of this shark
with other netted species, such as the spinner shark Carcharhinus brevipinna and, to a lesser
extent, the copper shark C. brachyurus. There was a significant decrease in CPUE from 1978 to
1998 (linear regression of annual catch rate against time), with the mean annual CPUE being
-1
-1
-1
-1
3.5 sharks.km-net .yr between 1978 and 1988 and 2.2 sharks.km-net .yr between 1989 and
1998. Mean annual catch for the two periods fell from 137 to 93 sharks (NSB Unpubl. data)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: No trend; constitutes a mean annual 9.2% of the shark
catch taken in the KZN nets, 1978-98 (NSB Unpubl. data)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: No change in KZN nets, 1978-98 (NSB Unpubl. data)
TREND IN SEX RATIO: No change in KZN nets, 1978-98 (NSB Unpubl. data)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: None because of migratory habit
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: Unknown, but probably seldom attempted
206
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Location of nursery grounds for this species, although these are probably outside SA’s borders,
would potentially be useful for regional management purposes. The NSB will continue to
monitor trends in catch and size, as the only indices of stock status currently available
Although this species is not exploited commercially at present, it is targeted, together with other
large coastal sharks, in other parts of the world, e.g. the US east coast, where strict
management measures had to be introduced in the 1990s to rebuild depleted stocks
(Branstetter 1999, Musick 1999, NMFS 1999, 2000). The low fecundity (Wintner and Cliff 1996)
renders this species vulnerable to exploitation pressure. Given the potential for commercial
shark fishing to increase on the KZN coast, managers should consider adopting the
precautionary principle at an early stage of the development of any new fishery (see Castro et
al. 1999). With regard to the KZN shark nets, the NSB has begun reducing fishing effort in order
to reduce captures of all exploited species
207
CARCHARHINIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Carcharhinus obscurus (Smith No. 9.14)
COMMON NAME: Dusky shark, ridgeback grey shark
COMPILER: A. Govender and P.V. Radebe (ORI)
REFEREE: S. Dudley (NSB)
DATE OF COMPLETION: May 1999
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Circum-tropical (Compagno 1984)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: SA coast from SWC to MOZ (Bass et al. 1973, Compagno et al.
1989a)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Pelagic in warm waters of the outer continental shelf in 200-400m water depth (Bass et
al. 1973)
JUVENILES: Sandy shores mainly in the surf zone of KZN and shallow bays in the SEC (Bass et
al. 1973, Smale 1991)
MIGRATION: Seasonal migrants with the onset of migration initiated by low water temperatures
with dusky sharks then migrating to warmer waters. From the southern KZN coast, dusky sharks
over 90cmTL migrate both northwards and southwards but the direction is dependent on sex. Males
move southwards to the SEC while females move northwards to northern KZN and to a lesser
extent as far as southern MOZ. Adults return to waters north of KZN (i.e. off MOZ) to mate (Bass et
al. 1973). Migration is complex. Although there appears to be a tendency for more males to
migrate south and more females to migrate northwards, sex ratios are often not significantly
different (Smale 1991). There may be short term sexual aggregations but this phenomenon
needs further research
FISHERY: Important in shore angling competitions and tournaments, particularly in KZN where
juvenile dusky sharks make up a large proportion of catches. Past catches by the commercial
linefishery have been negligible but there is increasing interest being shown by this sector,
particularly as a source of shark fins. Larger dusky sharks (trimodal length frequency distribution
peaking at 71-80cm, 191-200cm and 241-250cm PCL) are annually caught in KZN’s bather
protection gill net fishery
GROWTH CURVE:
-0.047/yr(t+5.18yrs)
) South-western Indian Ocean (Natanson and Kohler 1996)
Lt = 334cm FL(1-e
-5
3.05
LENGTH–WEIGHT: Wt(kg) = 1.142 x 10 PCL(cm) KZN (S. Dudley, NSB, Unpubl. data)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: FL(cm) = 1.09 PCL(cm) + 0.1 (Natanson and Kohler 1996)
TL(cm) = 1.17 FL(cm) + 4.93 (Natanson and Kohler 1996)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Males: 235cm FL, Females: 218-252cm FL (Bass et al. 1973,
Natanson and Kohler 1996)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Males: 20.5 years, Females: 17-24 years (Natanson and Kohler 1996)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Placental viviparity (Bass et al. 1973)
208
M:F SEX RATIO: Varies depending on the area and size:
(Bass et al. 1973)
(NSB Unpubl. data)
Overall — 1:1
Richards Bay – 1:2.1; <120cm PCL – 1:1.5
Northern KZN — 1:9
Richards Bay to La Mercy – 1:2.4; 121-200cm – 1.14
Durban area — 1:1.7
Umdloti to Amanzimtoti – 1:1.8; 201-250cm – 1:1.7
Southern KZN — 1:1.5
Warner Beach to Mzamba – 1:1.7; >250cm PCL – 1:7.7
SEC — 1:1
Overall – 1:1.8
BREEDING SEASON: Has no clear breeding season and pups are dropped throughout the year
with an increase in births during April to June. Litter size ranges from 6 to 14 with an equal sex ratio.
Size at birth is on average 90cmTL (Bass et al. 1973). Of the 290 pregnant dusky sharks caught in
the NSB nets, 88% were caught between February and July (NSB Unpubl. data)
BREEDING LOCALITY: Mating is thought to occur off MOZ and Madagascar (Bass et al. 1973),
however, it may also take place off northern KZN (N. Kistnasamy, ORI, pers. comm.). Smale (1991)
found no mature animals from the SEC. Central KZN is the primary nursery area for juvenile dusky
sharks with 71% of all dusky sharks <80cm PCL caught between Westbrooke and Scottburgh with
highest catch rates at Umhlanga, Durban and Amanzimtoti (NSB Unpubl. data). Juveniles have
been reported as far south as False Bay in the SWC (Compagno et al. 1989a)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 328cm FL (sex unknown) (Cliff and Wilson 1986)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 450kg in SA waters (NSB unpublished data)
MAXIMUM AGE: 34 years (Natanson and Kohler 1996)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: Approximately 90 cm TL
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 0+ years (Natanson and Kohler 1996)
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: Average for juvenile dusky sharks is 0.27 yr in SA between 1986 to 1993.
-1
CI ranges from 0.19 to 0.44 yr (Govender and Birnie 1997). This is based on tagging data primarily
focused on juveniles both from shark nets and the sport fishery
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: 0.27 yr-1 (Govender and Birnie 1997)
TREND IN CPUE: Between 1956 to 1966 CPUE was constant at <1 dusky shark per 100 angling
hrs. From 1966 to 1977 there was a sharp increase in CPUE reaching a maximum of 6.97 per 100
angling hours in 1977 (van der Elst 1979). This was based on increased targeting of dusky sharks
by competition shore anglers and this trend has increased further peaking at 17.6 per 100 angling
hours in 1992. There has subsequently been a sharp decline to 2.2 per 100 angling hours in 1998
(NMLS Unpubl. data). The catches taken in the KZN shark nets have shown no trends between
1978 and 1998 (NSB Unpubl. data)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Between 1956 and 1977 dusky sharks became increasingly
important in tournament catches while catches of teleosts declined (van der Elst 1979)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
209
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Offshore-onshore local migrations and whether they pup annually needs to be confirmed.
Population dynamics and stock assessment for this species is an urgent priority
With the current increase in shark fishing operations in SA waters, greater emphasis should be
placed on research and management of this species, especially considering that it has a low
rebound potential (Smith et al. 1998, Simpfendorfer 1999)
210
CARCHARHINIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Prionace glauca (Smith No. 9.32)
COMMON NAME: Blue shark
COMPILER: M.J. Smale (PEM)
REFEREE: L. Compagno (SAM)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Oceanic and circum-tropical in temperate and tropical waters
(Compagno 1984)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Along entire coast, stock details not known
HABITAT
o
ADULTS: Epipelagic oceanic species that may enter coastal waters, in waters of 7-16 C but
may tolerate warmer waters (Compagno 1984)
MIGRATION: Tagging studies have shown trans-Atlantic movements (Casey 1985) and
frequent vertical excursions to several hundred metres (Carey and Scharold 1990)
FISHERY: Blue sharks are taken as a by-catch in a number of fisheries, including floating drift
nets, longlines, tuna purse seines and recreational line catches. Although one of the most
widespread sharks, stocks are declining (Amorin et al. 1998, Holts et al. 1998)
-0.16/yr(t+0.89yrs)
)
GROWTH CURVE: Male: Lt = 343cm TL(1-e
-0.15/yr(t+0.87yrs)
) (Tanaka et al. 1990 converted from Skomal 1989)
Female: Lt = 375cm TL(1-e
LENGTH–WEIGHT: Log Wt (lbs) = -5.396 + 3.134 Log TL(cm) (Strasberg 1958)
-6
3.41
(Stevens 1975)
Males: Wt(kg) = 0.392 x 10 TL(cm)
-5
3.2
Females: Wt(kg) = 0.131 x 10 TL(cm) (Stevens 1975)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(cm) = PCL(cm) + 0.8 UCL(cm) (Bass et al. 1975b)
FL(cm) = 1.73872 + 0.82995 TL(cm) (Pratt 1979)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Males: 183cm FL, Females: 190cm FL (Pratt 1979)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Approximately 6 years (Pratt 1979)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Placental viviparity up to 82 young dependent on maternal size (Pratt
1979), up to 135 per litter (Compagno 1984)
M:F SEX RATIO: Varies regionally, little data from SA
BREEDING SEASON: Mating mainly summer, pupping April to July in Atlantic (Pratt 1979)
BREEDING LOCALITY: Uncertain off SA, newborn young have been collected well offshore off
SWC (L. Compagno, SAM, Unpubl. data)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 383cm TL (Compagno 1984)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 198kg (IGFA 1983)
MAXIMUM AGE: 10 years (at 3m) (Stevens 1975)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 45cm TL - depending on fishery
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 0+ years - depending on fishery
211
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: Unknown off SA, declining elsewhere
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Decreasing elsewhere, unknown locally
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Decreasing elsewhere, unknown locally
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: Probably rare
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Validation of age and growth estimates, catch and effort data and biological information from
SA, relationship of local sharks to global population
Although one of the more fecund and widespread shark species, there is no reason to think that
this shark can withstand either directed fisheries or high levels of by-catch. They are among the
midrange of species regarding rebound potential because of their life-history style (Smith et al.
1998). Elsewhere catches are declining - the same is likely happening locally, despite the
relative lack of information. Informed observers indicate that sightings of blue sharks have
declined off the SWC during the last few decades (B. Rose, I&J, pers. comm.)
212
CARCHARHINIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Rhizoprionodon acutus (Smith No. 9.33)
COMMON NAME: Milk shark
REFEREE: W. Sauer (DIFS)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Tropical and subtropical continental shelf waters of the eastern
Atlantic, the Indian and the western Pacific (Compagno 1984)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: KZN northwards (Bass et al. 1975b)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Inshore from <1m to a depth of 200m (Compagno 1984). Especially abundant in
summer off the sandy beaches of northern and central KZN, usually occurring in midwater or
near the bottom (van der Elst 1988). Sometimes found in estuaries but not tolerant of fresh
water
MIGRATION: Unknown in KZN, although there may be information in the NMLS database. The
database should be used with circumspection, given the similarity to other carcharhinid sharks
commonly caught by shore anglers, specifically neonate spinner sharks Carcharhinus
brevipinna and, probably less frequently confused because of the larger size and ridged back,
neonate dusky sharks Carcharhinus obscurus. Off northern Australia, there were four returns
from 277 animals tagged (1.5% recaptured), with the greatest distance travelled 45 km, the
-1
median 27 km and the maximum rate of travel 0.1 km.day (Stevens et al. In press)
FISHERY: Regarded as abundant (van der Elst 1988), this shark is seldom targeted except
during shore angling competitions, but it does appear as a by-catch in some commercial and
recreational landings (R. van der Elst, ORI, pers. comm.). Few are consumed and most are
discarded
GROWTH CURVE:
-0.35yr^-1(t+1 yr)
) (R. van der Elst, ORI, Unpubl. data)
Lt = 110cm TL(1-e
LENGTH–WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 4.77 x 10-3 TL (mm)2.981 (R. van der Elst, ORI, Unpubl. data)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Males 68-70cm TL, females 70-80cm TL (Bass et al. 1975b)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Males 1.8 years, females 2.3 years (from growth curve of van der
Elst Unpubl. data and Bass et al. 1975b)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Placental viviparity (Compagno 1984)
M:F SEX RATIO: Unknown in SA. Elsewhere, eastern India 1:1.34 (Krishnamoorthi and Jagadis
1986), northern Australia 1:0.47 (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991)
BREEDING SEASON: Mating November to January, gestation about one year, mean litter size
4.7 embryos (range 2-8), size at birth 30-35cm TL (Bass et al. 1975b). Sex ratio of embryos off
northern Australia 1:1.26 M:F (Stevens and McLoughlin 1991)
BREEDING LOCALITY: A few neonates have been recorded, mostly from northern KZN, with
two specimens in brackish water within Richards Bay (Bass et al. 1975b). Off north-eastern
213
Australia recorded using shallow embayments with a muddy substrata as nursery grounds
(Simpfendorfer and Milward 1993)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: Males 89cm TL, females 102cm TL (Bass et al. 1975). On the African
west coast up to 178cm TL (Cadenat and Blache 1981, cited by Stevens and McLoughlin 1991)
MAXIMUM AGE: Calculated age at maximum observed size (102cm TL) 6.5 years (from growth
curve of van der Elst Unpubl. data and Bass et al. 1975b)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 29-35cm TL (Bass et al. 1975b)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 0+ years (Bass et al. 1975b)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: CPUE of milk sharks in the KZN shore-based competition fishery increased
from 1973 to 1976, and this increase was attributed to a reduction in predation caused by the
KZN shark nets (van der Elst 1979), a conclusion subsequently re-examined and partially
rebutted by Dudley and Cliff (1993a, b). More recent trends in CPUE are available in the NMLS
database
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Composition of the shark component, which in latter years
comprised primarily dusky and milk sharks, increased from 1956 to 1976 in KZN’s shore-based
competition fishery, while that of teleosts decreased (van der Elst 1979)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: There may be limited protection afforded by the sanctuary
areas of the Maputaland and St Lucia Marine Reserves
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Ongoing angler and manager education to improve species identification (applies to most
carchariniform sharks). Medium priority: age and growth, catch composition, stock distribution,
residency and migration, stock assessment
Although this species is not exploited commercially in SA at present, it is targeted or caught as
by-catch and utilized in other parts of the world, e.g. the Indian east coast (Krishnamoorthi and
Jagadis 1986) and northern Australia (Last and Stevens 1994). Given the potential for
commercial shark fishing to increase on the KZN coast, managers should consider adopting the
precautionary principle at an early stage of the development of any new fishery (see Castro et
al. 1999)
214
DASYATIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Dasyatis chrysonota chrysonota (Smith No. 30.3).
COMMON NAME: Blue stingray
COMPILER: C. Manicom (UCT)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Previously known as Dasyatis marmorata capensis, and recently
distinguished from D. pastinaca (Cowley and Compagno 1993). From central Angola south-east
to Cape Agulhas and north-east to St Lucia (northern KZN), and possibly occurring off MOZ and
beyond. Found at depths less than 110 m (Cowley and Compagno 1993)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Single stock is assumed to occur from Angola to northern KZN (P.
Cowley, JLBSIISII, pers. comm.). Since D. chrysonota chrysonota has only recently been
distinguished from D. pastinaca, further study is needed on distribution of this species
HABITAT
ADULTS: In spring and summer they are found in shallow water in the vicinity of sandy
beaches, estuary mouths, coastal lagoons and sand and mud flats but in winter they move
offshore and are found at depths down to 110m (Cowley 1990, 1997)
JUVENILES: Females give birth to pups inshore, the juveniles then move offshore for their first
one to two years (Cowley 1990)
MIGRATION: Found inshore in summer dispersing further offshore during cooler winter months.
Migration is related to reproductive seasonality (Buxton et al. 1984, Cowley 1990)
FISHERY: Popular target species for recreational rock and surf anglers, especially during shore
angling tournaments (Cowley 1990, 1997). Occasionally taken by both recreational and
commercial skiboat fishers but are seldom targeted. Juveniles are caught offshore as a by-catch
in commercial bottom trawling for hake. Adults sometimes caught as a by-catch in beach seines
in False Bay (P. Cowley, JLBSIISII, pers. comm.)
BIOLOGY AND POPULATION DYNAMICS (DW = Disc Width)
GROWTH CURVE: Females: Lt = 913.4 mm DW (1 – e-0.07/yr(t + 4.48yrs)) SEC (Cowley 1990, 1997)
Males: Lt = 531.8 mm DW (1 – e-0.17/yr(t + 3.65yrs)) SEC (Cowley 1990, 1997)
-5
3.186
SEC (Cowley 1990)
LENGTH–WEIGHT: Females: Wt(g) = 1 x 10 DW(mm)
Males: Wt(g) = 9 x 10-6 DW(mm)3.2512 SEC (Cowley 1990)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: Tail length (mm) = 1.4 x DW(mm) (van der Elst 1988)
LENGTH AT 100% MATURITY: Females: 500mm DW (Cowley 1990)
Males: 408mm DW (Cowley 1990)
AGE AT 100% MATURITY: Females: 7 years (Cowley 1990)
Males: 5 years (Cowley 1990)
215
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Viviparous, nine months gestation, 1-5 pups (Cowley 1990)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.227 SEC (Cowley 1990)
BREEDING SEASON: Pupping occurs during early summer (October – November) (Cowley
1990)
BREEDING LOCALITY: Pupping occurs in sheltered inshore marine environments such as calm
bays and estuaries (Cowley 1990)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: Approximately 750mm DW (van der Elst 1988, Compagno et al. 1989a)
MAXIMUM AGE: Females: 14 years (Cowley 1997)
Males: 9 years (Cowley 1997)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: Trawlers often catch juveniles as a by-catch. Juveniles move
inshore when females = 450mm DW and males = 350mm DW where they are first caught by
shore and skiboat anglers (P. Cowley, JLBSIISII, pers. comm.)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: Females: 5-6 years (based on VB growth curve – Cowley 1997)
Males: 2-3 years (based on VB growth curve – Cowley 1997)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Catch composition, stock distribution, residency and migration, potential long-shore migration,
stock assessment, juvenile nursery areas, spawner biomass recruitment index, long-term
monitoring of catch trend (van der Elst and Adkin 1991, P. Cowley, JLBSIISII pers. comm.)
The commercial value of stingrays has increased rapidly in recent years with export to the East.
The current status is sound but stingrays are potentially vulnerable to increased angling
pressure (Cowley 1990)
216
LAMNIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Carcharodon carcharias (Smith No. 14.1)
COMMON NAMES: White shark, great white
COMPILER: M.J. Smale (PEM)
REFEREE: L. Compagno (SAM)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Coastal and oceanic, most records amphi-temperate and in
coastal waters but scattered records from tropical inshore waters and the open ocean suggest a
vast range in most seas, in this region, along entire southern African coast (Compagno 1984).
Recent records show it to penetrate the tropical Western Indian Ocean (Cliff et al. In press)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Entire SA coast, status and degree of isolation of "stocks" from
different areas of the world presently under investigation by several researchers
HABITAT
ADULTS: Neritic and epipelagic, cold waters off sub-Antarctic islands and in Arctic seas, warm
temperate seas, and the tropics. Areas surrounding seal colonies, fish reefs and river mouths
are focal points for white sharks. Moderate-sized to very large animals known to penetrate
tropics. Knowledge of behavior and habitat use away from inshore study sites is limited
MIGRATION: Tagging studies have shown that white sharks move between KZN and the SWC
(Cliff et al. 1996b). Thought to be a wide-ranging species but increasing evidence to show that
individuals may return to fixed locations at regular intervals (Cliff et al. 1996a)
FISHERY: The NSB catches’ are the highest recorded catches of white sharks in SA. Numbers
vary between about 9 and 60 per year. Unrecorded (probably low) numbers are occasionally
taken as a by-catch in various line and trawl fisheries. Poaching is suspected in the SWC (to
supply the lucrative international market for white shark jaws and other products) but impossible
to verify at present. White sharks are the focus of increasing non-consumptive utilization in the
form of cage-diving
-0.065/yr(t+4.4yrs)
) (Wintner and Cliff 1999)
GROWTH CURVE: Lt = 544cm PCL(1-e
LENGTH–WEIGHT: (Note: G = girth)
Wt(kg) = 46.0 (G2 (m) x PCL(m))0.927 (Mollett and Cailliet 1996)
Wt(kg) = 37.73(G2 (m) x TL(m))0.9334 (Mollett and Cailliet 1996)
-5
2.944
KZN (Cliff et al. 1996a)
Wt(kg) = 2.14 x 10 PCL(cm)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(cm) = 1.245 PCL(cm) + 7.975 (Cliff et al. 1996a)
FL(cm) = 1.1 PCL(cm) + 3.554 (Cliff et al. 1996a)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Aplacental viviparity - oophagous. Up to 10 (possibly 14) embryos per
litter (Francis 1996, Uchida et al. 1996)
217
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.4 KZN (Cliff et al. 1989)
BREEDING SEASON: Unknown
BREEDING LOCALITY: Unknown, pupping grounds may be off the SEC (Cliff et al. 1996a)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: In NSB nets – male of 373cm PCL (Cliff et al. 1996a). White sharks may
reach 607 to 710cm TL (Mollet et al. 1996), but individuals over 6m long are difficult to verify (L.
Compagno, SAM, pers. comm.)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: In NSB nets - male of 892kg (Cliff et al. 1996a). White sharks may reach as
much as much as 2 105kg to 3 419kg (Mollett et al. 1996)
MAXIMUM AGE: >13 years (Wintner and Cliff 1999)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: (In SA): 128cm PCL (Wintner and Cliff 1999), 140cm TL, 125cm
PCL (Smith 1951), 157cm TL, 120cm PCL (M. Smale, PEM, Unpubl. data)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 0 years (Wintner and Cliff 1999)
NATURAL MORTALITY: (Z – F = M): 0.53 - 0.05 = M = 0.48 year-1 (Cliff et al. 1996b)
-1
FISHING MORTALITY: F = 0.055 year (Cliff et al. 1996b)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: 0.055 year-1 (Cliff et al. 1996b)
TREND IN CPUE: Unknown for the linefishery. The NSB recorded a sharp decline between
1965-1972, but from 1978-1993 there has been no significant decline (Cliff et al. 1996a)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Unknown, sporadic in all catches
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Unknown in linefishery. Significant decline in median length of females
caught in NSB nets (but not in male size) from 1978-1993 (Cliff et al. 1996a)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
CATEGORY: Specially Protected List (i.e. protected from capture, baiting, possession, sale, or
buying - except by permit)
BAG LIMIT: Not applicable
MINIMUM SIZE: Not applicable
CLOSED SEASON: Not applicable
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Improved knowledge of age and growth, population structure and movements, impact of cage
diving, general biology and behavior of this apex predator
Protected since 1991, ongoing research is needed to investigate an optimal management
strategy for this species. Although considered to have moderate rebound potential (Smith et al.
1998), protection should be continued, in line with trends world-wide because of the probable
low population size and its apex position in the marine ecosystem
218
ODONTASPIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Carcharius taurus (Smith No. 19.1)
COMMON NAMES: Spotted ragged-tooth shark, grey nurse, sand tiger
COMPILERS: M.J. Smale (PEM), N.J. McQueen (UCT)
REFEREES: W.H.H. Sauer (DIFS), J. Field (UCT)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Tropical Atlantic and Indo-west Pacific (Compagno 1984)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Apparently a single stock along the SA coast
HABITAT
ADULTS: Continental shelf off MOZ, KZN, TKI, SEC and SWC, usually found near reefs, but
may also occur over sand in shallow bays, found to a depth of 200m (Compagno 1984)
JUVENILES: SEC and shallow areas of Agulhas Bank, may penetrate estuaries (van der Elst
1988, Smale Unpubl. data)
MIGRATION: Mating occurs in MOZ and northern KZN in summer, females migrate to the SEC
to pup, and may move further west to shallow areas of the Agulhas Bank (Bass et al. 1975c).
However, details of movements are still uncertain
FISHERY: Caught by shore anglers from rocky shorelines over whole distribution area (van der
Elst 1988). Sometimes taken by skiboats in competitions (e.g. light-tackle boat anglers), and as
a by-catch of other linefishers (Smale Unpubl. data). Occasionally taken as a by-catch of some
commercial trawls (van der Elst 1988). Caught in shark nets along the KZN coast (Dudley and
Cliff 1993a,b)
GROWTH CURVE:
-0.233/yr(t+2.238yrs)
) (tank data, Govender et al. 1991)
Lt = 249.8cm TL(1-e
LENGTH–WEIGHT: Wt(kg) = 2.6958 x 10-8 PCL(mm)2.9418 KZN (G. Cliff, NSB, Unpubl. data)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: TL(mm) = 1.33PCL(mm) + 44.1 KZN (G. Cliff, NSB, Unpubl. data)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: 178.8cm PCL (Females) KZN (G. Cliff, NSB, Unpubl. data)
220cm TL (van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Aplacental viviparity displaying intrauterine cannibalism and
oviphagy. Gestation period usually 8 or 9 months, normally with 2 pups of about 100cm being
born (Bass et al. 1975c, Gilmore et al. 1983)
BREEDING SEASON: Pupping occurs during winter (June to August) (Bass et al. 1975c)
BREEDING LOCALITY: Pupping occurs in the SEC (Bass et al. 1975c)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 294kg SA Angling record (van der Elst 1988)
MAXIMUM AGE: 14 years (estimations are between 12 and 18 years) (Govender et al. 1991)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 0 years (G. Cliff, NSB, Unpubl. data)
219
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: NSB reports this as a high catch species with cyclical trends in catch. Three
distinct periods occurred between 1978 and 1998 where catches were alternately low, high and
then low again (Dudley 1999). This trend appears to have abated now, but due to low fecundity,
this species may be vulnerable to overexploitation (Dudley and Cliff 1993a,b,d)
TREND IN MEAN SIZE: Shore anglers in the SEC catch both juveniles and adults (M. Smale,
PEM, Unpubl. data), however, few sharks below 1400mm TL are caught in the KZN shark nets.
NSB field staff have noticed a significant decline in the length of mature females taken in the
nets (G. Cliff, NSB, Unpubl. data)
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: St Lucia Marine Reserve protects mating aggregations, East
London marine reserves may include part of the nursery area, and Algoa Bay island reserves
provide some protection
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Age and growth data, catch composition, stock distributions, residency and migration, stock
assessment, pupping areas and juvenile nursery areas
Although catches taken by the NSB seem to have stabilised this species is considered to be
extremely vulnerable to overexploitation due to their low fecundity
220
RHINOBATIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Rhinobatos annulatus (Smith No. 27.2)
COMMON NAME: Lesser sandshark
COMPILER: C. R. Sebastián (UCT)
REFEREES: J. G. Field (UCT), W.H.H. Sauer (DIFS), M.J. Smale (PEM)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: NAM to central KZN, (Compagno et al. 1989a). van der Elst
(1988) recorded them as far north as MOZ
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Stocks not characterized, but possibly two separate stocks, one on
the WC and one on the south-eastern seaboard (Sedgwick’s/ORI/WWF Tagging Programme)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Estuaries (Compagno et al. 1989) and shallow coastal waters to 50m (Wallace 1967,
Rossouw 1983), recorded to 73 m in the SEC (Buxton et al. 1984)
JUVENILES: Shallow sandy shores (Rossouw 1983)
MIGRATION: Possible offshore migration during winter, maybe long-shore migration of
juveniles. Offspring remain in shallows for at least one year (Rossouw 1983)
FISHERY: Commonly caught by shore anglers, important component of shore angling
tournaments (van der Elst and Adkin 1991). Comprises a significant portion of the shark catch
taken in gill and beach seine nets (Japp 1997). Common component of the discarded trawl bycatch taken in shallow shelf areas (Compagno et al. 1989a, Smale et al. 1993)
GROWTH CURVE:
-0.24/yr(t-t0)
), but von Bertalanffy model inappropriate (Rossouw 1984)
Lt = 109cm TL(1-e
LENGTH–WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 1.08 x 10-6 TL(mm)3.18 Combined sexes (Rossouw 1983)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: DW(mm) = 0.344 TL(mm) + 1.91 Combined sexes (Rossouw 1983)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Females: 615-650mm TL, Males: 580mm TL (Wallace 1967,
Rossouw 1983)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Both sexes mature at about 3 years of age (Rossouw 1983)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: viviparous (aplacental), producing 3 to 9 pups (Rossouw 1983)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1 (Rossouw 1983)
BREEDING SEASON: Pupping occurs during late summer March-April (Rossouw 1983)
BREEDING LOCALITY: Shallow inshore waters off sandy beaches which are used as nursery
areas (Rossouw 1983)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 1090 - 1400mm TL (Rossouw 1984, Smith and Heemstra 1986)
MAXIMUM AGE: 7 years (male and female) (Rossouw 1984)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: Smallest size sampled by Rossouw (1983) was 235mm TL
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 0+ years (Rossouw 1984)
221
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Validation of periodicity of vertebral banding. Mortality estimates and stock assessment
The status of this species does not currently appear to be threatened (van der Elst and Adkin
1991). However, with the development of shark fisheries this species could become of increasing
importance in the future
222
SCYLIORHINIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Poroderma africanum (Smith No. 11.13)
COMMON NAMES: Striped catshark, pyjama catshark, pyjama shark
COMPILERS: R. Wright (UCT), L. Compagno (SAM)
REFEREE: J. Field (UCT)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic. WC to the KZN south coast down to 100m (van der
Elst 1988). Northern limit of distribution along the WC of SA/NAM is not known (Smith and
Heemstra 1986). Records from between Elands Bay and Lambert's Bay on the WC, and off
Durban, KZN (von Bonde 1932) on the EC. Old records from Mauritius and Madagascar require
confirmation
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Stock distribution currently under investigation, primarily distributed
from Saldanha Bay to just north of East London (Compagno et al. 1989a)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Found on reefs down to 100m, nocturnally active, often found lying on the bottom or
‘holed up’ in caves during the day (van der Elst 1988)
JUVENILES: Egg cases attached to benthic vegetation, habitat of juveniles unknown (van der
Elst 1988)
MIGRATION: Unknown. Sharks in the family Scyliorhinidae generally do not migrate over great
distances (Fischer and Bianchi 1984)
FISHERY: Commonly caught by shore and skiboat anglers, particularly along the SEC and SWC
coasts. Considered as pests by commercial and recreational line fishers, most are discarded (van
der Elst 1988). Incidental by-catch of trawlers, usually quite rare because of habitat choice –
reefs, which is rarely exploited by trawl, because of the damage it causes to the gear (M. Smale,
PEM, pers. comm.)
-3
2.958
(van der Elst and Adkin 1991)
LENGTH–WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 6.74 x 10 TL(cm)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Males: 58-76cm TL, Females: 65-72cm TL (Bass et al. 1975a)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Oviparous (Bass et al. 1975a)
BREEDING SEASON: During summer they congregate into shoals (van der Elst 1988), but it is
not known whether this is related to spawning
BREEDING LOCALITY: Eggs are deposited in their normal habitat range (M. Smale, PEM,
pers. comm.)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 95– 100cm TL (Bass et al. 1975a)
223
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Probably receives some protection in most MPAs in the SWC
and SEC where fishing is prohibited
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Age and growth, life history, behaviour/residence patterns
One of the most common catsharks and current status is thought to be sound (van der Elst and
Adkin 1991)
224
TRIAKIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Galeorhinus galeus (Smith No. 9.20)
COMMON NAMES: Soupfin shark
COMPILER: M. Kroese (MCM)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Temperate waters of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans as
well as in the Mediterranean (Compagno et al. 1989a)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: Distribution limits of the Southern African soupfin stock are not
known, but occurs from East London (SEC) to at least northern NAM
HABITAT
ADULTS: Near the bottom in depths ranging from 2–471m, however, tend to prefer deeper,
cooler waters (Compagno 1984)
JUVENILES: Near bottom, distributed from shallow bays to the over the continental shelf
MIGRATION: Unknown if migration takes places. Seasonal variation in sex ratio is observed in
commercial catches, indicating possible seasonal migration (Freer 1992). Migration occurs in
the Australian population (Compagno 1984)
FISHERY: Landed as by-catch in demersal trawl and handline fisheries. Targeted by
commercial shark longline fishery (Kroese and Sauer 1998). In the East, highly sought after for
their fins
GROWTH CURVE:
–0.162/yr(t+1.328yrs)
) (Freer 1992)
Lt = 1601mm TL(1-e
-3
LENGTH–WEIGHT: Males: Wt(kg) = 566.073*e(2.208*10 *TL(mm)) (Freer 1992)
-3
Females: Wt(kg) = 659.052*e(2.897*10 *TL(mm)) (Freer 1992)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Males: 1278mm TL, females 1371mm TL (Freer 1992)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Males: 8.5 years, females: 9.9 years (Freer 1992)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Ovoviviparous, without yolk sac placenta. Litter size 2- 52
(Compagno 1984)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.09 in pups, adult sex ratio unknown (Freer 1992)
BREEDING SEASON: Pupping season in spring (southern hemisphere)
BREEDING LOCALITY: Pups are found in shallow marine bays
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 1734mm TL (female in SA waters) (Freer 1992)
MAXIMUM AGE: Known to attain 42+ years (Coutin 1992)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: Vulnerable to fishing gear from birth
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 0+ years
FSB25: Unknown
225
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
FREQUENCY OF ATTAINING DBL: Unknown, probably rarely
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Critical data for stock assessment still needs to be determined such as reproductive (pupping)
interval, movement patterns etc.
This species is highly sought after in shark fisheries around the world, mainly for its flesh and
fins. With the growth of shark fisheries in SA, careful consideration should be given to the
management of this target species including the adoption of the precautionary principle in the
absence of more detailed information on stock status
226
TRIAKIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Mustelus mustelus (Smith No. 9.27)
COMMON NAMES: Smooth-hound, houndshark
COMPILER: I.T. Peters (UCT)
REFEREE: W.H.H. Sauer (DIFS), J.G. Field (UCT)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Mediterranean, West Coast of Africa south to NAM and round
the southern Cape coast to Fish River (Smith and Heemstra 1986).
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: SA coast, west of the Fish River (M. Kroese, MCM, pers. comm.).
An inshore species on the WC, abundant in St Helena Bay and Saldanha Bay, on the Agulhas
Bank usually in waters shallower than 100 m, rarely to 280m (Smale and Compagno 1997).
Extends to southern KZN (Compagno et al. 1989, Smale and Cliff Unpubl. data)
HABITAT
ADULTS: Usually found in shallow water over sand or shale plains and on rocky reefs down to
100m (Smale and Compagno 1997)
JUVENILES: Found in sheltered bays (M. Kroese, MCM, pers. comm.)
MIGRATION: Adults migrate inshore to sheltered bays such as Saldanha and Algoa Bay where
pupping occurs. Details of habitat use by newborns, adolescents and adults are unclear (M.
Smale, PEM, pers. comm.)
FISHERY: Caught by shore anglers, recreational and commercial boat fishers and by longlining
and trawling (Smale and Compagno 1997). They are also taken in the WC set net fishery, some
of which is illegal and unmonitored (Smale 1997, W. Sauer, DIFS, Unpubl. data)
GROWTH CURVE: Males: Lt = 1451mm TL (1-e-0.12/yr(t+2.14 yrs)) SEC (Goosen and Smale 1997)
Females: Lt = 2050mm TL (1-e-0.06/yr(t+3.55 yrs)) SEC (Goosen and Smale 1997)
Combined sexes Lt = 1989mm TL(1-e-0.06/yr(t-3.82 yrs)) SEC (Goosen and Smale 1997)
LENGTH-WEIGHT: Males: Wt(g) = 9.87 x 10-7 TL(mm)3.190 SEC (Smale and Compagno 1997)
-7
3.498
SEC (Smale and Compagno 1997)
Females: Wt(g) = 1.186 x 10 TL(mm)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: PCL(mm) = 0.821TL(mm) – 21.472 SEC (Smale and Compagno
1997)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Maturity is reached at 950-1300mm TL in males and 12501400mm TL in females (Smale and Compagno 1997)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Approximately 7 and 12 years for males and females respectively
(Goosen and Smale 1997)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Placental viviparity (Smale and Compagno 1997)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1.18 (Smale and Compagno 1997)
SPAWNING SEASON: October – January (Smale and Compagno 1997)
SPAWNING LOCALITY: Throughout distribution but not north of Port Elizabeth (M. Kroese,
MCM, pers. comm.)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: 1732mm TL (Goosen and Smale 1997)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 25kg (Goosen and Smale 1997)
MAXIMUM AGE: Males 17 years and females 24 years (Goosen and Smale 1997)
227
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: < 1 year (M. Kroese, MCM, pers. comm.)
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN MEAN SIZE:
Unknown
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: May receive some protection within the Sardinia Bay,
Tsitsikamma and De Hoop Marine Reserves
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Validation of growth data, stock identity, habitat use of juveniles and adults, mortality estimates
Although this species is likely to be less vulnerable to fishery pressure than other species of
shark, the absence of management could threaten the viability of this fishery. Confusion exists
among anglers and some fisheries official about the identification of this and other Triakidae,
limiting the reliability of such monitoring and volunteer tagging data
228
TRIAKIDAE
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Triakis megalopterus (Smith No. 9.36)
COMMON NAME: Spotted gullyshark
COMPILER: J. Boulle (UCT)
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: Endemic to southern Africa, from SEC (rarely to KZN) to
Northern NAM in shallow water <50m deep (Compagno et al. 1989a), extending to southern
Angola (Penrith 1978)
DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK: SEC, SWC, and WC, little known about stock integrity
HABITAT
ADULTS: Prefers shallow marine rocky reefs <50m, may penetrate into estuaries that are
effectively marine inlets, e.g. Kromme estuary (Goosen 1997, Smale and Goosen 1999)
MIGRATION: Unclear, there is catch variation which may be a result of them avoiding warm
water (Goosen 1997, M. Smale, PEM, pers. comm.). However, results of the
Sedgwicks’/ORI/WWF Tagging Programme are suggestive of extremely resident behaviour
FISHERY: Caught primarily by shore-based and skiboat anglers in shallow (<50m) waters
(Smale and Goosen 1999). Sometimes targeted during shore angling competitions (van der Elst
1988)
GROWTH CURVE:
Lt = 3520mm TL(1-e-0.028/yr(t+4.2yrs)) (Goosen 1997)
-7
3.4307
(Goosen 1997)
LENGTH–WEIGHT: Wt(g) = 2.2104 x 10 TL(mm)
LENGTH RELATIONSHIPS: Unknown (see Goosen 1997)
LENGTH AT 50% MATURITY: Males 1320mm TL, females 1450mm TL (Goosen 1997)
AGE AT 50% MATURITY: Unknown (see Goosen 1997)
REPRODUCTIVE STYLE: Aplacental viviparity, 5 to 15 pups (Smale and Goosen 1999)
M:F SEX RATIO: 1:1 embryos, 1:2.5 fishing catch (Smale and Goosen 1999)
BREEDING SEASON: Mating and fertilization from October to early December. Estimated
gestation period is 20 months, the entire reproductive cycle may be 2-3 years (Smale and
Goosen 1999)
BREEDING LOCALITY: A possible nursery site is in the area of East London, where
unconfirmed reports indicate high concentrations of small juvenile sharks (Goosen 1997)
MAXIMUM LENGTH: Males 1520mm TL, females 2075mm TL (Smale and Goosen 1999)
MAXIMUM WEIGHT: 17.7kg for males, 51kg for females (Goosen 1997)
MAXIMUM AGE: Males 15 years, females 21 years (Goosen 1997)
LENGTH AT FIRST CAPTURE: 576mm TL (Smale and Goosen 1997)
AGE AT FIRST CAPTURE: 2 years (Goosen 1997)
229
FSB25: Unknown
FSB40: Unknown
F0.1: Unknown
FMSY: Unknown
CURRENT STATUS
Fcurrent: Unknown
TREND IN CPUE: Unknown - available catch data and historical records are unreliable due to
the confusion in identifying Triakis megalopterus from Mustelus mustelus (Goosen 1997)
TREND IN CATCH COMPOSITION: Unknown – see above
CURRENT REGULATIONS
-1
-1
MINIMUM SIZE: None
CLOSED SEASON: None
EFFECTIVE MARINE RESERVES: Probably receives some protection in the MPAs along the SEC
and SWC where fishing is prohibited
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Growth, validation, catch and effort data, stock assessment and modeling
This endemic species shark is distributed close inshore in temperate waters, probably has small
stock size, low reproductive capacity and late maturity make it highly vulnerable to
overexploitation by shore-based and inshore fishers
230
REFERENCES
AHRENS, R.L. 1964 - A preliminary report on the biology of the seventy four Polysteganus
undulosus (Regan) in Natal waters. M.Sc. thesis, University of Natal, Durban: 77pp.
ALDONOV, V.K. and A.D. DRUZHININ 1978 - Some data on scavengers (Family: Lethrinidae)
from the Gulf of Aden region. J. Ichth. 18(4): 527-535.
ALLEN, G.R. and F.H. TALBOT 1985 - Review of the snappers of the genus Lutjanus (Pisces:
Lutjanidae) from the Indo-Pacific, with the description of a new species. Indo-Pacific Fishes.
11: 1-87.
AMBAK, M.A., MOHSIN, A.K.M. and M.Z.M. SAID 1985 – Growth characteristics of Lutjanidae
off the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. In Ekspedisi Matahari ’85: a study on the offshore
waters of the Malaysian EEZ. Mohsin, A.K.M., Mohomed, M.I.H. and M.A. Ambak (Eds.)
Occas. Publ. Fac. Mar. Sci. Univ. Pertanian Malays. 3: 165-174.
AMORIN, A.F., ARFELLI, C.A. and L. FAGUNDES 1998 - Pelagic elasmobranchs caught by
longliners off southern Brazil during 1974-97: an overview. Mar. Freshwater Res. 49: 621632.
ANSA 1996 - Sportfish Tagging Report 1995/96. Australian National Sportfishing Association
QLD INC, Reflections Media, Bundall: 1-36.
ARDILL, D. 1999 – Seventh Expert Consultation on Indian Ocean Tuna. In Indian Ocean Tuna
News. Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, Victoria, Seychelles, 2(1): 7pp.
AROCHA, F. and D.W. LEE. 1996 – Maturity at size, reproductive seasonality, spawning
frequency, fecundity and sex ratio in swordfish from the northwest Atlantic. Collve Vol.
scient. Pap. Int. Commn Conserv. Atl. Tunas 45(2): 350-357.
ATTWOOD, C.G. and B.A. BENNETT 1990 - A simulation model of the sport-fishery for galjoen
Coracinus capensis: an evaluation of minimum size limit and closed season. S. Afr. J. mar.
Sci. 9: 359-369.
ATTWOOD, C.G. and B.A. BENNETT 1994 - Variation in dispersal of the surf-zone teleost
Coracinus capensis from a Marine Reserve. Can. J. Fish. Aqua. Sci. 51: 1247-1257.
ATTWOOD, C. and B.A. BENNETT 1995a - Modelling the effect of marine reserves on the
recreational shore-fishery of the south-western Cape, South Africa. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 16:
227-240.
ATTWOOD, C.G. and B.A. BENNETT 1995b - A procedure for setting daily bag limit on the
recreational shore-fishery of the south-western Cape, South Africa.S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 15:
241-251.
ATTWOOD, C.G. and M. WILHELM (In prep.) - Comparison of shore-angling catch per unit
effort and size structure data between protected and unprotected areas of the Southern
Cape.
AUDIBERT, K. 1988 - Natal offshore Sciaenidae and Serranidae. Unpubl. Rep. Oceanogr. Res.
Inst. 54: 24-29.
BADDAR, M.K. 1987 - A preliminary study of the population dynamics of a sheiry, the starry
pigface bream, Lethrinus nebulosus. Kuwait Bull. Mar. Sci. 9: 215-220.
BAIRD, D. 1977. Age, growth and aspects of reproduction of the mackerel, Scomber japonicus
in South African waters (Pisces: Scombridae). Zool. Afr. 12(2): 347-362.
BAIRD, D. 1978. Catch composition and population structure of commercially exploited
mackerel Scomber japonicus, 1954-1975. Fish Bull. S. Afr. 10: 50-61.
BAIRD, D., MARAIS, J.F.K. and C. DANIEL 1996 - Exploitation and conservation of angling fish
in two South African estuaries. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems.
6: 319-330.
BANNISTER, J.V. 1976 - The length-weight relationship, condition factor and gut contents of
the dolphin-fish Coryphaena hippurus (L.) in the Mediterranean. J. Fish. Biol. 9(4): 335-338.
BARD, F.X. 1981 - Le thon germon (Thunnus alalunga) de l'ocean Atlantique. PhD thesis, Paris.
336pp.
BARTOO, N.W. and S. UEYANAGI 1980 – Striped marlin, Tetrapturus audax. In Summary report of the
billfish stock assessment workshop Pacific resources. Shomura, R.S.(Ed). Honolulu Laboratory,
Southwest Fisheries Center, Honolulu, Hawaii, 5-14 December 1977. NOAA Tech. Mem. NMFS: 2029.
231
BASS, A.J., D'AUBREY, J.D. and N. KISTNASAMY 1973 - Sharks of the east coast of southern
Africa. I: The genus Carcharhinus (Carcharhinidae). Investl Rep. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 33: 1168.
BASS, A.J., D’AUBREY, J.D. and N. KISTNASAMY 1975a - Sharks of the east coast of
southern Africa, II: The families Scyliorhinidae and Pseudotriakidae. Investl. Rep. Oceanogr.
Res. Inst., 37: 1–64.
BASS, A.J., D'AUBREY, J.D. and N. KISTNASAMY 1975b - Sharks of the east coast of
southern Africa. III: The families Carcharhinidae (excluding Mustelus and Carcharhinus) and
Sphyrnidae. Investl Rep. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. S. Afr. 38: 1-100.
BASS, A.J., D'AUBREY, J.D. and N. KISTNASAMMY 1975c - Sharks of the east coast of
southern Africa. IV. The families Odontaspididae, Scapanorhynchidae, Isuridae,
Cetorhinidae, Alopiidae, Orectolobidae and Rhiniodontidae. Investl Rep. Oceanogr. Res.
Inst. 39: 1-102.
BAUCHOT, M. L. and J.C. HUREAU 1990 - Sparidae. In Check-list of the fishes of the eastern
tropical Atlantic (CLOFETA). Quero, J.C., Hureau, J.C., Karrer, C., Post, A. and L. Saldanha
(Eds.). JNICT, Lisbon; SEI, Paris; UNESCO, Paris. 2: 790-812.
BAUCHOT, M.L., HUREAU, J.C. and J.C. MIQUEL 1981 – Sparidae. In FAO species
identification sheets for fishery purposes. Eastern Central Atlantic (Fishing Areas 34 and
47). Fischer, W., Bianchi, G. and W.B. Scott (Eds). Dept. Fisheries and Oceans Canada,
FAO, Rome, 4.
BEARDSLEY, G.L. 1967 – Age, growth and reproduction of the dolphin, Coryphaena hippurus,
in the Straits of Florida. Copeia 2: 441-451.
BEARDSLEY, G.L. 1971 - Contribution to the population dynamics of Atlantic albacore with
comments on potential yields. Fish. Bull. 4: 845-857.
BEARDSLEY, S.A. 1979 - Report of the billfish stock assessment workshop Atlantic session.
Mimeographed report. NOAA/NMFS, SEFC, Miami Florida. 47 pp.
BEARDSLEY, G.L., MERRETT, N.R. and W.J. RICHARDS 1975 - Synopsis of the biology of
the sailfish, Istiophorus platypterus (Shaw and Nodder, 1791). In Proceedings of the
International Billfish Symposium, Part 3. Species Synopses. Shomura, R.S. and F. Williams
(Eds). Kailua-Kona, Hawaii, 9-12 August 1972. NOAA Technical Report NMFS SSRF - 675:
95-120.
BECKLEY, L.E. 1983 - The ichthyofauna associated with Zostera capensis (Setchell) in the
Swartkops estuary, South Africa. S. Afr. J. Zool. 18: 15-24.
BECKLEY L.E. 1984a - The ichthyofauna of the Sundays estuary, South Africa, with particular
reference to the juvenile marine component. Estuaries. 7(3): 248-258.
BECKLEY L.E. 1984b - Shallow water trawling off the Swartkops estuary, Algoa Bay. S. Afr. J.
Zool. 19(3): 248-250.
BECKLEY, L.E. 1985a - Tidal exchange of ichthyoplankton in the Swartkops estuary mouth,
South Africa. S. Afr. J. Zool. 20: 15-20.
BECKLEY, L.E. 1985b - The fish community of East Cape tidal pools and an assessment of the
nursery function of this habitat. S. Afr. J. Zool. 20: 21-27.
BECKLEY, L.E. 1985c - Tidal pool fishes: recolonization after experimental elimination. J. Exp.
Mar. Biol. Ecol. 85: 287-295.
BECKLEY L.E. 1986 - The ichthyoplankton assemblage of the Algoa Bay nearshore region in
relation to coastal zone utilization by juvenile fish. S. Afr. J. Zool. 21(3): 244-252.
BECKLEY, L.E. 1989 – Larval development of Spondyliosoma emarginatum (Curvier &
Valenciennes) (Pisces: Sparidae) from southern Africa. S. Afr. J. Zool. 24(3): 187-192.
BECKLEY, L.E. 1993 – Linefish larvae and the Agulhas Current. In Fish, Fishers and Fisheries.
Beckley, L.E. and van der Elst R.P. (Eds.). Proceedings of the Second South African Marine
Linefish Symposium, Durban, 23-24 October 1992. Spec. Publ. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 2: 5763.
BECKLEY, L.E. 1994 - Natal tidal pool fishes. Unpubl. Rep. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 100: 55-56.
BECKLEY, L.E. and C.D. BUXTON 1989 - Underwater observations of reef fish in and around
Algoa Bay, South Africa. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Afr. 47: 29-38.
232
BECKLEY, L.E. and A.D. CONNELL - 1996 - Early life history of Pomatomus saltatrix off the
East coast of South Africa. Austr. J. Mar. Fres. Res. 47: 319-322
BECKLEY, L.E. and S.T. FENNESSY 1996 - The beach-seine fishery off Durban, KwaZuluNatal. S. Afr. J. Zool. 31(4): 186-1992.
BENNETT, B.A. 1985 - A mass mortality of fish associated with low salinity conditions in the Bot
River estuary. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Afr. 45(3/4): 437-447.
BENNETT, B.A. 1987 - The rock-pool fish community of Koppie Alleen and an assessment of
the importance of Cape rock-pools as nurseries for juvenile fish. S. Afr. J. Zool. 22(1): 25-32.
BENNETT, B.A. 1988 - Some considerations for the management in South Africa of galjoen
Coracinus capensis (Cuvier), an important shore-angling species off the south-western
Cape. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 6: 133-142.
BENNETT, B.A. 1989a - The fish community of a moderately exposed beach on the
southwestern Cape coast and an assessment of this habitat as a nursery area for juvenile
fish. Est. Coast. & Shelf Sci. 28: 293-305.
BENNETT, B.A. 1989b - A comparison of the fish communities in nearby permanently open,
seasonally open and normally closed estuaries in the south-western Cape, South Africa. S.
Afr. J. mar. Sci. 8: 43-55.
BENNETT, B.A. 1990 - Has rock and surf fishing in the southwestern Cape deteriorated? In
Marine recreational fishing: resource usage, management and research. Van der Elst, R.P.
(Ed.). S. Afr. Nat, Sci. Prog. Rep. 167: 68-70.
BENNETT, B.A. 1991- Long-term trends in the catches by shore anglers in False Bay. Trans.
Roy. Soc. S. Afr. 47(4 & 5): 683-690.
BENNETT, B.A. 1993a – The fishery for white steenbras Lithognathus lithognathus off the Cape
coast, South Africa, with some considerations for its management. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 13: 114.
BENNETT, B.A. 1993b – Aspects of the biology and life history of white steenbras Lithognathus
lithognathus in Southern Africa. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 13: 83-96.
BENNETT, B.A. and C.G. ATTWOOD 1991 - Evidence for recovery of a surf-zone fish
assemblage following the establishment of a marine reserve on the southern coast of South
Africa. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 75(2/3): 173-181.
BENNETT, B.A. and C.G. ATTWOOD 1993 - Shore-angling catches in the De Hoop Nature
Reserve, South Africa, and further evidence for the protective value of marine reserves. S.
Afr. J. mar. Sci. 13: 213-222.
BENNETT, B.A., ATTWOOD, C.G. and J.D. MANTEL 1994 - Teleost catches by three shoreangling clubs in the south-western Cape, with an assessment of the effect of restrictions
applied in 1985. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 14: 11-18.
BENNETT, B.A and C.L. GRIFFITHS 1986 - Aspects of the biology of Coracinus capensis
(Cuvier) off the south-western Cape, South Africa. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 4: 153-162.
BENETTI, D.D., IVERSEN, E.S. and A.C. OSTROWSKI 1995 - Growth rates of the captive
dolphin, Coryphaena hippurus, in Taiwan. Fish. Bull. 93(1): 152-157.
BERRY, P.F. VAN DER ELST, R.P., HANEKOM, P., JOUBERT, C.S.W. and M.J. SMALE 1982
- Density and biomass estimates of the ichthyofauna of a Natal littoral reef. Mar. Ecol. Prog.
Ser. 10(1): 49-55.
BEYER, J. E., KIRCHNER, C. H. and J. A. HOLTZHAUSEN 1999 - A method to determine sizespecific natural mortality applied to westcoast steenbras (Lithognathus aureti) in Namibia.
Fish. Res. 41: 133-153.
BIRNIE, S. and E. BULLEN 1994 – Segdwick’s/ORI/WWF Tagging Program data on galjoen
(Dichistius capensis), blacktail (Diplodus sargus capensis) and white steenbras
(Lithognathus lithognathus). Data Rep. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 94.2: 17pp.
BLABER, S.J.M. 1973 – Population size and mortality of juveniles of the marine teleost
Rhabdosargus holubi (Pisces: Sparidae) in a closed estuary. Mar. Biol. 21: 219-225.
BLABER, S.J.M. 1974 – The population structure and growth of juvenile Rhabdosargus holubi
(Steindachner) (Teleostei: Sparidae) in a closed estuary. J. Fish Biol. 6: 455-460.
BLABER, S.J.M. 1984 - The diet, food selectivity and niche of Rhabdosargus sarba (Teleostei:
Sparidae) in Natal estuaries. S. Afr. J. Zool. 19(3): 241-246.
233
BLABER, S.J.M. 1986 - Feeding selectivity of a guild of piscivorous fish in mangrove areas of
North-west Australia. Austr. J. Mar. Fres. Res. 37(3): 329-336.
BLABER, S.J.M., BREWER, D.T. and J.P. SALINI 1989 – Species composition and
biomasses of fishes in different habitats of a tropical northern Australian estuary:
Their occurrence in the adjoining sea and estuarine dependence. Est. Coastl. and
Shelf Sci. 29: 509-531.
BLABER, S.J.M., BREWER, D.T. and J.P. SALINI 1995 - Fish communities and the nursery role
of the shallow inshore waters of a tropical bay in the Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia. Est.
Coastl. and Shelf Sci. 40(2): 177-193.
BLABER, S.J.M. and D.P. CYRUS 1983 - The biology of Carangidae (Teleostei) in Natal estuaries.
J. Fish. Biol. 22(2): 173-188.
BLABER, S.J.M. and D.P. CYRUS 1987 - The influence of turbidity on juvenile marine fishes in
estuaries. Part 1. Field studies at Lake St. Lucia on the south-eastern coast of Africa. J. Exper.
Mar. Biol. Ecol. 109(1): 53-70.
BOOTH, A.J. 1998 - Spatial analysis of fish distribution and abundance: A GIS approach. In
Fisheries stock assessment models. Alaska Seagrant College Program, AK-SG-98-01: 719740.
BOOTH, A.J. and C.D. BUXTON 1997a - The biology of the panga, Pterogymnus laniarius
(Teleostei: Sparidae), on the Agulhas Bank, South Africa. Env. Biol. Fish. 49: 207-226.
BOOTH, A.J. and C.D. BUXTON 1997b - The management of the panga Pterogymnus laniarius
(Pisces: Sparidae) on the Agulhas Bank, South Africa using per-recruit models. Fish Res.
32: 1-11.
BOOTH A.J. and T. HECHT 1997 - Description of gametogenesis in the panga Pterogymnus
laniarius (Pisces: Sparidae) with comments on changes in maturity patterns over the past
two decades. S. Afr. J. Zool. 32: 49-53.
BOOTH, A.J. and T. HECHT 1998 - Changes within the Eastern Cape demersal inshore
trawlfishery from 1967-1995. In Benguela Dynamics: Impacts of Variability on Shelf-sea
Environments and their Living Resources. Pillar, S.C., Moloney, C.L., Payne, A.I.L. and F.A.
Shillington (Eds). S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 19: 341-353.
BOOTH, A.J. and A.E. PUNT 1998 - Evidence for rebuilding in the panga stock on the Agulhas
Bank, South Africa. Fish. Res. 34: 403-421.
BOOTH A.J., BROUWER, S.L. and T. HECHT 1999 - Considerations on the feasibility of a
directed fishery for panga Pterogymnus laniarius (Pisces: Sparidae). S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 21:
77-88.
BRANCH, G.M., GRIFFITHS, C.L., BRANCH, M.L. and L.E. BECKLEY 1994 - Two Oceans: A
guide to the marine life of southern Africa. David Philip, Cape Town, 360pp.
BRANSTETTER, S. 1999 - The management of the United States Atlantic shark fishery. In
Case studies of the management of elasmobranch fisheries. R. Shotton (Ed.). FAO Fish.
Tech. Pap. 378(1): 109-148.
BRANSTETTER, S. and J.D. MCEACHRAN 1986 - Age and growth of four carcharhinid sharks
common to the Gulf of Mexico: a summary paper. In Indo-Pacific Fish Biology - Proceedings
of the Second International Conference on Indo-Pacific Fishes, Tokyo. Uyeno, T., Arai, R.,
Taniuchi, T. and K Matsuura (Eds). Ichthyological Society of Japan: 361-371.
BRILL, R.W. and K.N. HOLLAND. 1990 - Horizontal and vertical movements of yellowfin tuna
associated with fish aggregation devises. Fishery Bulletin (US) 83(3): 493-507.
BRILL, R.W., HOLTS, D.B., CHANG, R.K.C., SULLIVAN, S., DEWAR, H. and F.G. CAREY 1993 Vertical and horizontal movements of striped marlin (Tetrapturus audax) near the Hawaiian Islands,
determined by ultrasonic telemetry, with simultaneous measurement of oceanic currents. Marine
Biology 117(4): 567-576.
BRINCA, L, BUDNITCHENKO, V.A., JORGE DA SILVA, A. and C. SILVA 1983 - A report on a
survey with the RV Ernst Haeckel in July-August 1980. Instituto de InvestigaÇao Pesqueira,
Revista de InvestigaÇao. 6: 1-105.
BROUWER, S.L. 1997a - An assessment of the South African east coast linefishery from Kei
Mouth to Stil Bay. M.Sc. thesis, Rhodes University, Grahamstown: 120 pp.
234
BROUWER, S.L. 1997b - Evaluation of participation in and management of the South African
Linefishery in the south-east Cape. Final Report for the Sea Fisheries Research Institute.
38pp.
BROUWER, S.L., MANN, B.Q., LAMBERTH, S.J., SAUER, W.H.H. and C. ERASMUS 1997 - A
survey of the South African shore-angling fishery. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 18: 165-177.
BROWNELL, C.L. 1979 - Stages in the early development of 40 marine fish species with pelagic
eggs from the Cape of Good Hope. Ichthyol. Bull. J.L.B. Smith Inst. Ichthyol. 40: 1-84.
BURGER, L.F. 1990 - The distribution patterns and community structure of the Tsitsikamma
rocky littoral ichthyofauna. M.Sc. thesis, Rhodes University, Grahamstown: 116pp.
BUSAKHIN, S.V. 1980 - Some data on the biology of the dentex Polysteganus
coeruleopunctatus Klunzinger (Family Sparidae). In Fishery investigations in the Western Indian
Ocean. Druzhinin, A.D. (Ed.), Moscow, VNIR: 27-31.
BUTTERWORTH, D.S., PUNT, A.E., BORCHERS, D.L., PUGH, J.G. and G.S. HUGHES 1989 A manual of mathematical techniques for linefish assessment. Rep. S. Afr. Nat. Sci.
Progms. 160: 89pp.
BUXTON, C.D. 1985 - South coast reef fish project. Unpublished report to SANCOR.
BUXTON, C.D. 1987 – Life history changes of two reef fish species in exploited and unexploited
marine environments in South Africa. PhD thesis, Rhodes University, Grahamstown.
BUXTON, C.D. 1989 – Protogynous hermaphroditism in Chrysoblephus laticeps (Cuvier) and C.
cristiceps (Teleostei: Sparidae). S. Afr. J. Zool. 24(3): 212-216.
BUXTON, C.D. 1990 - The reproductive biology of Chrysoblephus laticeps (Cuvier) and C.
cristiceps (Teleostei: Sparidae). J. Zool. Lond. 220: 497-511.
BUXTON, C.D. 1992 - The application of yield-per-recruit models to two South African sparid
reef fishes, with special consideration to sex change. Fish. Res. 15: 1-16.
BUXTON, C.D. 1993 - Life-history changes in exploited reef fishes on the east coast of South
Africa. Environ. Biol. Fish. 36: 47-63.
BUXTON, C.D. and J.C. ALLEN 1989 – Mark and recapture studies of two reef sparids in the
Tsitsikamma Coastal National Park. Koedoe, 32(1): 39-45.
BUXTON, C.D. and J.R. CLARKE 1986 - Age, growth and feeding of the blue hottentot
Pachtymetopon aeneum (Pisces:Sparidae) with notes on reproductive biology. S. Afr. J.
Zool. 21: 33-38.
BUXTON, C.D. and J.R. CLARKE 1989 - The growth of Cymatoceps nasutus (Teleostei :
Sparidae), with comments on diet and reproduction. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 8: 57-65.
BUXTON, C.D. and J.R.CLARKE 1991 - The biology of the white musselcracker Sparodon
durbanensis (Pisces:Sparidae) on the Eastern Cape coast, South Africa. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci.
10: 285-296.
BUXTON, C.D. and J.R. CLARKE 1992 - The biology of the bronze bream, Pachymetopon
grande (Teleostei:Sparidae) from the south-east Cape coast, South Africa. S. Afr. J. Zool.
27: 21-32.
BUXTON, C.D. and P.A. GARRATT 1990 - Alternative reproductive styles in seabreams
(Pisces: Sparidae). Envir. Biol. Fish. 28(1-4): 113-124.
BUXTON, C.D. and M.J. SMALE 1984 - A preliminary investigation of the ichthyofauna of the
Tsitsikamma Coastal National Park. Koedoe 27:13-24.
BUXTON, C.D. and M.J. SMALE 1989 – Abundance and distribution patterns of three
temperate marine reef fish (Teleostei: Sparidae) in exploited and unexploited areas off the
southern Cape coast. J. Appl. Ecol. 26: 441-451.
BUXTON C.D., SMALE M.J., WALLACE J.H. and V.G. COCKCROFT 1984 - Inshore smallmesh trawling survey of the Cape south coast. Part 4. Contributions to the biology of some
Teleostei and Chondrichthyes. S.Afr. J. Zool. 19(3): 180-188.
CALKINS, T.P. 1980 – Synopsis of the biological data on the bigeye tuna Thunnus obesus
(Lowe, 1839), in the Pacific Ocean. In Synopsis of biological data on eight species of
Scombrids. Special Report 2. W.H. Bayliff (Ed). La Jolla, California: Inter American Tuna
Commission: 215-259.
CAREY, F.G. and B.H. ROBINSON 1981 – Daily patterns in the activities of swordfish, Xiphias
gladius, observed by acoustic telemetry. Fishery Bulletin (US) 79(2): 277-292.
235
CAREY, F.G. and J.V. SCHAROLD 1990 - Movements of blue sharks (Prionace glauca) in
depth and course. Mar. Biol. 106: 329-342.
CASEY, J.G. 1985 - Transatlantic migrations of the blue shark; a case history of cooperative
shark tagging. In World angling resources and challenges. Stroud, R.H. (Ed.). Proc.1st World
Angling Conf., Cap d'Adge, France, 1984. Int. Gamefish Ass., Ft Lauderdale, Florida: 253268.
CASTRO, J.I. 1993 - The shark nursery of Bulls Bay, South Carolina, with a review of the shark
nurseries of the southeastern coast of the United States. Envir. Biol. Fishes 38: 37-48.
CASTRO, J.I., WOODLEY, C.M. and R.L. BRUDEK. 1999 - A preliminary evaluation of the
status of shark species. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap. 380: 72 pp.
CAVERIVIERE, A. 1976 - Longueur predorsale, longueur a la fourche et poids des albacores
(Thunnus albacares) de l’Artlantique. Cahiers de l’Office de Recherche Scientifique et
Technique Outre – Mer. Serie Oceanographie, 15(4): 389-419.
CAYRE, P. and T. DIOUF 1984 - Croissance du thon obese (Thunnus obesus) de l’Atlantique
d’apres les resultats de marquage Collve Vol. scient. Pap. Int. Commn Conserv. Atl. Tunas
20(1): 180-187.
CHALE-MATSAU, J.R. 1996 - Age and growth of the queen mackerel (Scomberomorus
plurilineatus) and seventy-four (Polysteganus undulosus) off KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
MSc thesis, University of Natal, Durban: 110pp.
CHALE-MATSAU, J.R., GOVENDER, A. and L.E. BECKLEY 1999 – Age and growth of the
queen mackerel Scomberomorus plurilineatus from KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Fish. Res.
44(2): 121-127.
CHATER, S.A., BECKLEY, L.E., GARRATT, P.A., BALLARD, J.A. and R.P. VAN DER ELST
1993 - Fishes from offshore reefs in the St Lucia and Maputaland Marine Reserves, South
Africa. Lammergeyer 42: 1-17.
CHATER, S.A., BECKLEY, L.E., VAN DER ELST and P.A. GARRATT 1995a - Underwater visual
census of fishes in the St Lucia marine reserve, South Africa. Lammergeyer 43: 15-23.
CHATER, S.A., FERGUSON, R., VAN DER ELST, R.P., GOVENDER, A. and L.E., BECKLEY
1995b - Catch statistics and notes on the biology of two knifejaw species (Teleostei:
Oplegnathidae) from Natal, South Africa. Lammergeyer 43: 6-14.
CHRISTENSEN, M.S.1978 - Trophic relationships in juveniles of three species of sparid fishes
in the South African marine littoral. Fish. Bull. 76(2): 389-401.
CLARK, E. and K. VON SCHMIDT. 1965 - Sharks of the central Gulf coast of Florida. Bull. Mar.
Sci. 15(1):
CLARKE, J.R. 1988 – Aspects of the biology of the musselcracker, Sparodon durbanensis, and
the bronze bream, Pachymetopon grande, (Pisces: Sparidae), with notes on the Eastern
Cape recreational rock-angling and spear fisheries. M.Sc. thesis, Rhodes University,
Grahamstown: 141pp.
CLARKE, J.R. and C.D. BUXTON 1989 - A survey of the recreational rock-angling fishery at
Port Elizabeth, on the south-east coast of South Africa. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 8: 183-194.
CLIFF, G., COMPANGO, L.J.V., SMALE, M.J., VAN DER ELST, R.P. and S. WINTNER (In
press) - First records of white sharks Carcharodon carcharias from Mauritius, Zanzibar,
Madagascar and Kenya. S. Afr. J. Sci.
CLIFF, G. and S.F.J. DUDLEY 1991 - Sharks caught in the protective nets off Natal, South
Africa. 4. The bull shark Carcharhinus leucas Valenciennes. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 10: 253-270.
CLIFF, G. and S.F.J. DUDLEY 1992 - Sharks caught in the protective nets off Natal, South
Africa. 6. The copper shark Carcharhinus brachyurus (Günther). In Benguela Trophic
functioning. Payne, A.I.L., Brink, K.H., Mann, K.H. and R. Hilborn (Eds). S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci.
12: 663-674.
CLIFF, G., DUDLEY, S.F.J. and B. DAVIS 1989 - Sharks caught in the protective gill nets off
Natal, South Africa. 2. The great white shark Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus). S. Afr J.
mar. Sci. 8: 131-144.
236
CLIFF, G., DUDLEY, S.F.J. and M.R. JURY 1996a - Catches of white sharks in KwaZulu-Natal,
South Africa and environmental influences. In Great White Sharks: The biology of
Carcharodon carcharias. Klimley, A.P. and D.G. Ainley (Eds.). Academic Press, New York:
351-362.
CLIFF, G., VAN DER ELST, R.P., GOVENDER, A., WHITTHUHN, T.K. and E.M. BULLEN
1996b - First estimates of mortality and population size of white sharks on the South African
coast. In Great White Sharks: The biology of Carcharodon carcharias. Klimley, A.P. and
D.G. Ainley (Eds.). Academic Press, New York: 393- 400.
CLIFF, G. and R.B. WILSON 1986 - Natal Sharks Board’s Field Guide to Sharks and other
Marine Animals. Natal Sharks Board, Durban: 57pp.
COETZEE, P.S. 1983 - Seasonal histological and microscopical changes in the gonads of
Cheimerius nufar (Ehrenberg, 1820) (Sparidae: Pisces). S. Afr. J. Zool. 18(2): 76-88.
COETZEE, P.S. 1986 - Diet composition and breeding cycle of blacktail, Diplodus sargus
capensis (Pisces: Sparidae), caught off St Croix Island, Algoa Bay, South Africa. S. Afr. J.
Zool. 16: 137-143.
COETZEE, P.S. and D. BAIRD 1981a - Catch composition and catch per unit effort of anglers’
catches off St Croix Island, Algoa Bay. S. Afr. J. Wildl. Res. 11(1): 14-20.
COETZEE, P.S. and D. BAIRD 1981b - Age, growth and food of Cheimerius nufar (Ehrenberg,
1820) (Sparidae), collected off St Croix Island, Algoa Bay. S. Afr. J. Zool. 16(3): 137-143.
COETZEE, P.S., BAIRD, D. and C. TREGONING 1989 - Catch statistics and trends in the shore
angling fishery of the east coast, South Africa, for the period 1959-1982. S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci.
8: 155-171.
COIMBRA, M.R.M. 1999 - Proposed movements of Albacore Thunnus alalunga, in the south
Atlantic. Collve. Vol. scient. Pap. Int. Commn Conserv. Atl.Tunas. 49(3): 97-136.
COLLETTE, B.B. and C.E. NAUEN. 1983 - Scombrids of the world. An annotated and illustrated
catalogue of tunas, mackerels, bonitos and related species known to date. FAO species
catalogue. FAO Fish. Synop. 125 (2): 137pp.
COLLETTE, B B and J.L. RUSSO - 1984. Morphology, systematics and biology of the spanish
mackerels (Scomberomorus, Scombridae). Fish. Bull. 82(4). 545-692.
COMPAGNO, L.J.V. 1984 - Sharks of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark
species known to date. FAO Fisheries Synopsis (125), 4(1-4): 665pp.
COMPAGNO, L.J.V. (In press) - An overview of chondrichthyan systematics and biodiversity in
southern Africa. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Afr.
COMPAGNO, L.J.V., EBERT, D.A. and M.J. SMALE. 1989a - Guide to the Sharks and Rays of
Southern Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape Town: 160 pp.
COMPAGNO, L. J. V., SMALE, M. J., DAVIS, B. CLIFF, G. and S.F.J. DUDLEY 1989b - Sharks
and the Natal Sharks Board. In Oceans of Life off Southern Africa. A. I. L. Payne & R. J. M.
Crawford (Eds.). Vlaeberg Publishers, Cape Town: 198–231.
CONNELL, A.D. 1996 – Sea fishes spawning pelagic eggs in the St Lucia estuary. S. Afr. J.
Zool. 31(1): 37-41.
COUTIN, P. 1992 – Sharks…and more sharks. Australian Fisheries 5(6): 41-46.
COWLEY, P. D. 1990 - The taxonomy and life history of the blue stingray Dasyatis marmorata
capensis (Batoidea: Dasyatidae) from southern Africa. M.Sc. thesis, Rhodes University,
Grahamstown.
COWLEY, P. D. 1997 - Age and growth of the blue stingray Dasyatis chrysonota chrysonota
from the south-eastern Cape coast of South Africa. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 18: 31–38.
COWLEY, P.D. 1999 – Preliminary observations on the movement patterns of white steenbras
Lithognathus lithognathus and bronze bream Pachymetopon grande (Teleostei: Sparidae) in
the Tsitsikamma National Park Marine Reserve. In Proceedings of the Third Southern
African Marine Linefish Symposium. Mann, B.Q. (Ed.), 27 April to 1 May 1999, Arniston,
Western Cape. SANCOR Occ. Rep. Ser. 5.
COWLEY, P.D., BROUWER, S.L. and R.L. TILNEY (In prep.) – The role of the Tsitsikamma
National Park in the management of four important shore angling fishes along the southeastern Cape coast of South Africa. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci.
237
COWLEY, P. D. and L.J.V. COMPAGNO 1993 - A taxonomic re-evaluation of the blue stingray
from southern Africa (Myliobatiformes: Dasyatidae). S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 13: 135–149.
CRAWFORD, R.J.M. 1981 - Distribution, availability and movements of mackerel Scomber
japonicus off South Africa, 1964-1976. Fish. Bull. S. Afr. 15: 123-166.
CRAWFORD, R.J.M. 1989 - Snoek and Chub Mackerel. In Oceans of Life off Southern Africa.
Payne, A.I.L. and Crawford, R.J.M. (Eds). Vlaeberg Publishers, Cape Town: 177-187.
CRAWFORD, R.J.M. and H.B. CROUS 1982 – Trends in commercial handline catches of
redfishes along the Southern Cape coasts, Republic of South Africa. Koedoe 25: 13-31.
CRAWFORD, R.J.M. and G. DE VILLIERS 1984 - Chub mackerel Somber japonicus in the
south-east Atlantic – its seasonal distribution and evidence of a powerful 1977 year-class.
S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 2: 49-61.
CYR, E.C., DEAN, J.M., JEHANGEER, I. and M. NALLEE 1990 – Age, growth and reproduction
of blue marlin and black marlin from the Indian Ocean. In Planning the future of billfishes,
research and management in the 90s and beyond. 2nd International Billfish Symposium,
Kailua-Kona, Hawaii, 1-5 August 1988. Mar. Rec. Fish. 13(2): 309-316.
CYRUS, D.P. and S.J.M. BLABER 1987 - The influence of turbidity on juvenile marine fishes in
estuaries. Part 1: Field studies at Lake St. Lucia on the southern coast of Africa. J. Exp. Mar.
Biol. & Ecol. 109(1): 53-70.
DAVIE, P.S. and I. HALL 1990 - Potential of dorsal and anal spines and otoliths for assessing the age
structure of the recreational catch of the striped marlin. In Planning the future of billfishes, research
and management in the 90s and beyond. 2nd International Billfish Symposium, Kailua-Kona, Hawaii,
1-5 August 1988. Mar. Rec. Fish. 13(2): 287-294.
DAVIS, J.A 1997 - Investigations into the larval rearing of two South African sparid species.
M.Sc. thesis, Rhodes University Grahamstown: 140pp.
DE JAGER, B.V.D. 1955 - The South African sardine (Sardinops ocellata). The development of
the snoek (Thyrsites atun) a fish predator of the sardine. Investl. Rep. Div. Fish. S. Afr. 19:111.
DENTON, N. and VAN DER ELST, R.P. 1987 - The squaretail kob - a species profile. Poster
Series, Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 3.
DITTY, J.G., SHAW, R.F., GRIMES, C.B. and J.S. COPE 1994 - Larval development,
distribution, and abundance of common dolphin Coryphaena hippurus and pompano dolphin
C. equiselis (family: Coryphaenidae) in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Fish. Bull. 92(2): 275291.
DOI, M. and T. SINGHAGRAIWAN 1993 - Biology and culture of the red snapper, Lutjanus
argentimaculatus. The Eastern Marine Fisheries Development Center, Department of
Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Thailand. 51pp.
DOMEIER, M.L. and P.L. COLINS 1997 - Tropical reef fish spawning aggregations: Defined and
reviewed. Bull. Mar. Sci. 60(3): 698-726.
DRUZHININ, A.D. 1975 - Some data on sparid fishes (Fam. Sparidae) of the Gulf of Aden
region. J. Ichthyol. 15(4): 531-541.
DUDLEY, S.F.J. 1999 - Shark catch trends in the KwaZulu-Natal shark nets 1966–1998.
Unpublished Report, Natal Sharks Board: 17pp.
DUDLEY, S.F.J. and G. CLIFF 1993a - Some effects of shark nets in the Natal nearshore
environment. Env. Biol. Fish. 36: 243-255.
DUDLEY, S.F.J. and G. CLIFF 1993b - The shark net fishery: past misconceptions, present
policies and future plans. In Fish, fishers and fisheries. Proceedings of the 2nd South African
Marine Linefish Symposium. L.E. Beckley and R. P. van der Elst (Eds). Durban, 23-24
October 1992. Spec. Publ. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 2: 122-126.
DUDLEY, S.F.J. and G. CLIFF. 1993c - Sharks caught in the protective nets off Natal, South
Africa. 7. The blacktip shark Carcharhinus limbatus (Valenciennes). S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 13:
237-254.
DUDLEY, S.F.J. and G. CLIFF 1993d - Trends in catch rates of large sharks in the Natal
meshing program. In Shark Conservation. J. Peperell, J. West and P. Woon (Eds.).
Zoological Parks Board of NSW: 59-70.
238
EBISAWA, A.1990 - Reproductive biology of Lethrinus nebulosus (Pisces: Lethrinidae) round
the Okinawan waters. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries 56(12): 19411954.
EDWARDS, R.R.C., BAKHADER, A. and S. SHAHER 1984 - Growth, mortality, age
composition and fisheries yields of fish from the Gulf of Aden. J. Fish Biol. 27: 13-21.
EHRHARD, N.M., ROBBINS, R.J. and F. AROCHA. 1996 – Age validation and growth of
swordfish, Xiphias gladius, in the northwest Atlantic. Collve Vol. scient. Pap. Int. Commn
Conserv. Atl. Tunas 45(2): 358-367.
FAO 1999 – Fishery statistics – 1997 Yearbook. FAO, Rome 84: 688pp.
FENNESSY, S.T. 1992 - Exploratory trawling on the Natal coast: October to December 1992. Data
Rep. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 92.3: 1-9.
FENNESSY, S.T. 1994a - The impact of commercial prawn trawlers on linefish off the north coast of
Natal, South Africa. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 14: 263-279.
FENNESSY, S.T. 1994b - An investigation of the ichthyofaunal by-catch of the Tugela Bank prawn
trawlers. M.Sc. thesis, University of Natal, Durban: 103 pp.
FENNESSY, S.T. 1994c - Report on the FRS Algoa scad survey cruise off Mozambique in June
1994. Data Rep. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 94.3: ii + 22 pp.
FENNESSY, S.T. 1998 - Biology and stock assessment of Serranidae. Unpubl. Rep. Oceanogr.
Res. Inst. 153: 35-41.
FENNESSY, S.T. 2000 – Aspects of the biology of four species of Sciaenidae from the east coast
of South Africa. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 50: 259-269.
FENNESSY, S.T., LOTTER, P. and CHATER, S.A. 1998 - Fish species composition and
abundance on a subtropical, artificial reef on the east coast of South Africa. S. Afr. J. Zool.
33(3): 147-155.
FENNESSY, S.T., VILLACASTIN, C. and J.G. FIELD 1994 - Distribution and seasonality of
ichthyofauna associated with commercial prawn trawl catches on the Tugela Bank of Natal,
South Africa. Fish. Res. 20: 263-282.
FISCHER, W. and G. BIANCHI, G. (Eds). 1984 - FAO species identification sheets for fishery
purposes. West Indian Ocean (Fishing Area 51). FAO, Rome, 1-6.
FISCHER, W.I., SOUSA, I., SILVA, C. DE FREITAS, A., POUTIERS, J.M., SCHNEIDER, W.,
BORGES, T.C., FERAL, J.P. and MASSINGA, A. 1990 - Fichas FAO de identifacaÇao de
especies para actividades de pesca. Guia de campo das especies comerciais e de aguas
salobras de MoÇambique. Roma, FAO: 424pp.
FISHBASE 1998 – FishBase CD-ROM. Manila, Philippines.
FRANCIS, M.P. 1996 - Observations on a pregnant white shark with a review of reproductive
biology. In Great White Sharks: The biology of Carcharodon carcharias. Klimley, A.P. and
D.G. Ainley (Eds.). Academic Press, New York: 157-172.
FREER, D.W.L. 1992 - The commercial fishery for sharks in the south western Cape, with
analysis of the biology of the two principal species, Callorhinus capensis (Demeril) and
Galeorhinus galeus (Linn.). M.Sc. thesis, University of Cape Town: 103pp.
GARRATT, P.A. 1984 - The biology and fishery of Chrysoblephus puniceus (Gilchrist and
Thompson, 1971) and Cheimerus nufar (Ehrenberg, 1830), two offshore sparids in Natal
waters. M.Sc. thesis, University of Natal, Durban: 139pp.
GARRATT, P.A. 1985a - The offshore linefishery of Natal: I: Exploited population stuctures of
the sparids Chrysoblephus puniceus and Cheimerius nufar. Invest. Rep. Oceanogr. Res.
Inst. 62: 18pp.
GARRATT, P.A. 1985b - The offshore linefishery of Natal: II: Reproductive biology of the
sparids Chrysoblephus puniceus and Cheimerius nufar. Invest. Rep. Oceanogr. Res. Inst.
63: 21pp.
GARRATT, P.A. 1986 – Protogynous hermaphroditism in slinger Chrysoblephus puniceus
(Gilchrist and Thompson, 1971) (Teleostei: Sparidae). J. Fish Biol. 28(3): 297-306.
GARRATT, P.A. 1988 – Notes on seasonal abundance and spawning of some important
offshore linefish in Natal and Transkei waters, southern Africa. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 7: 1-8.
GARRATT, P.A. 1991 - Spawning behaviour of Cheimerius nufar in captivity. Envir. Biol. Fish.
31(4): 345-353.
239
GARRATT, P.A. 1993a - Spawning of riverbream, Acanthopagrus berda, in Kosi estuary. S. Afr.
J. Zool. 28(1): 26-31.
GARRATT, P.A. 1993b - Comparative aspects of the reproductive biology of seabreams
(Pisces: Sparidae), Vol 1. PhD thesis, Rhodes University, Grahamstown: 175pp.
GARRATT, P.A. 1993c - Slinger - the final analysis? In Fish, Fishers and Fisheries.
Proceedings of the Second South African Marine Linefish Symposium. Beckley, L.E. and
van der Elst, R.P.(Eds.). 23-24 October 1992, Durban. Spec. Publ. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 2:
28-31.
GARRATT, P.A., BIRNIE, S.L. and CHATER, S. A. 1994 - The fishery for englishman
Chrysoblephus anglicus and scotsman Polysteganus praeorbitalis (Pisces: Sparidae) in
Natal, South Africa, with notes on their biology. Unpubl. Rep. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 96: 1-25.
GARRATT, P.A., CHATER, S. and J. BALLARD 1989 - Preliminary investigation into rearing
santer seabream Cheimerius nufar Ehrenberg, 1830 (Pisces: Sparidae). Aquaculture
81(3): 285-289.
GARRATT, P.A., GOVENDER, A and PUNT, A.E. 1993 - Growth acceleration at sex change in
the protogynous hermaphrodite Chrysoblephus puniceus (Pisces: Sparidae). S. Afr. J. mar.
Sci. 13: 187 - 193.
GASCUEL, D., FONTENEAU, A. and C. CAPISANO. 1992 - Modelisation d’une croissance en
deux stances chez ‘l’albacore (Thunnus albacares) de l’Atlantique est. Aquatic Living
Resources 5(3): 155 –172.
GILMORE, R.G., DODRILL, J.W. and P.A. LINLEY.1983 - Reproduction and embryonic
development of the sand tiger shark, Odontaspis taurus (Rafinesque) Fish. Bull. 81(2): 201225.
GISLASON, H. 1985 - A short note on the available information about demersal fish on the shallow
part of the Sofala Bank. Instituto de InvestigaÇao Pesqueira, Revista de InvestigaÇao. 13: 8395.
GOODMAN, M. and M.H. GRIFFITHS (In prep.) – Population dynamics and stock status of
South African hottentot, Pachymetopon blochii. Research project being conducted by Marine
and Coastal Management.
GOOSEN, A.J.J. 1997 - The reproduction, age and growth, and feeding habits of the spotted
gullyshark, Triakis megalopterus off the Eastern Cape coast. M.Sc. thesis, University of Port
Elizabeth: 97pp.
GOOSEN, A.J.J. AND M.J. SMALE 1997 - A Preliminary study of age and growth of the
smoothhound shark Mustelus mustelus (Triakidae). S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci. 18: 85-91
GOVENDER, A. 1992 - Biology and population dynamics of the king mackerel (Scomberomorus
commerson, Laceped, 1800) off the coast of Natal. M.Sc. thesis, University of Natal,
Durban: 117pp.
GOVENDER, A. 1994 - Growth of the king mackerel (Scomberomorus commerson) off the
coast of Natal, South Africa — from length and age data. Fish. Res. 20: 63-79.
GOVENDER, A. 1995 - Mortality and biological reference points for the king mackerel
(Scomberomorus commerson) fishery off the coast of Natal, South Africa (based on a perrecruit assessment). Fish. Res. 23: 195-208.
GOVENDER, A.1996 - Mark recapture models for determination of mortality, migration and
growth in Pomatomus saltatrix (Teleostei). PhD thesis. University of Natal, Durban: 148pp.
GOVENDER, A.1997 - The simulation effects of newly proposed regulatory measures on the
sustainability of the KwaZulu-Natal shad (Pomatomus saltatrix) fishery. Consultancy Report:
Oceanogr. Res. Inst.: 17pp.
GOVENDER, A. 1999 - A statistical procedure for validating age estimates from otolith bands
using mark-recapture data, with an illustration for Pomatomus saltatrix. S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci.
21: 1-8.
GOVENDER, A. and S.L. BIRNIE 1997 - Mortality estimates for juvenile dusky sharks
Carcharhinus obscurus in South Africa using mark-recapture data. S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci. 18:
11-18.
GOVENDER, A., KISTNASAMY, N and R.P. VAN DER ELST 1991 - Age and growth of captive
spotted ragged-tooth sharks. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 11: 15-20.
240
GRAVES, J.E. and J.R. MCDOWELL 1995 - Genetic analysis of striped marlin, Tetrapturus audax
population structure in the Pacific Ocean. Can. J. Fish. Aqua. Sci. 51(8): 1762-1768.
GREENOUGH, J.W. and B.K. ROTHSCHILD 1989 - Billfish management in the Pacific and
Indian Oceans. Planning the future for Billfishes: Mar. Rec. Fish. 13(1): 293-311.
GRIFFITHS, M.H. 1988 - Aspects of the biology and population dynamics of the geelbek
Atractoscion aequidens (Cuvier) (Pisces: Sciaenidae) off the South African coast. M.Sc.
thesis, Rhodes University, Grahamstown: 149pp.
GRIFFITHS, M.H. 1996a - Life history of Argyrosomus japonicus off the east coast of South Africa.
S. Afr. J. mar. Sci., 17: 135-154.
GRIFFITHS, M.H. 1996b - Age and growth of South African silver kob, Argyrosomus inodorus
(Sciaenidae), with evidence for separate stocks based on otoliths. S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci. 17: 37-48.
GRIFFITHS, M.H. 1996c – (Length-weight relationships for snoek and carpenter)
GRIFFITHS, M.H. 1997a - Life-history and stock separation of the silver kob, Argyrosomus
inodorus, in South African waters. Fish. Bull. U.S. 95: 47-67.
GRIFFITHS, M.H. 1997b - The application of per-recruit models to Argyrosomus inodorus, an
important South African sciaenid fish. Fish. Res. 30: 103-115.
GRIFFITHS, M.H. 1997c - The management of South African dusky kob Argyrosomus japonicus
based on per-recruit models. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 18: 213-228.
GRIFFITHS, M.H. 1999 (In press) - Development of the Cape commercial linefishery through
th
the 20 Century: evidence for over-exploitation. In Proceedings of the Third Southern
African Marine Linefish Symposium. Mann, B.Q. (Ed.). 27 April to 1 May 1999, Arniston,
Western Cape. SANCOR Occ. Rep. Ser. 5.
GRIFFITHS, M.H. (In prep.) - Life history of the South African snoek Thyrsites atun (Pisces:
Gempylidae): a pelagic predator of the Benguela Ecosystem.
GRIFFITHS, M.H., ATTWOOD, C.G. and R. THOMSON 1999 – New management protocol for the
South African Linefishery. In Proceedings of the Third Southern African Marine Linefish
Symposium. Mann, B.Q. (Ed.). Arniston 27 April – 1 May 1999. SANCOR Occ. Rep. Ser. 5
GRIFFITHS, M.H. and S.L. BROUWER (In prep.) – The life-history, population dynamics and
management of Argyrozona argyrozona, an endemic South African reef fish. Research project
being conducted through Marine and Coastal Management and Rhodes University.
GRIFFITHS, M.H. and T. HECHT 1995a - On the life-history of Atractoscion aequidens, a migratory
sciaenid off the east coast of southern Africa. J. Fish Biol. 47: 962-985.
GRIFFITHS, M.H. and T. HECHT. 1995b - Age and growth of South African dusky kob
Argyrosomus japonicus (Sciaenidae) based on otoliths. S. Afr. J. mar Sci. 16: 119-128.
GRIFFITHS, M.H. and P.C. HEEMSTRA. 1995 - A contribution to the taxonomy of the marine fish
genus Argyrosomus (Perciformes: Sciaenidae), with descriptions of two new species from
southern Africa. Ichthyol. Bull. J. L. B. Smith Inst. Ichthyol. 65: 40 pp.
GRIFFITHS, M.H., PENNEY, A.J. and C. WILKE. (In prep.) - Life history of the white stumpnose
Rhabdosargus globiceps.
GRIMES, C.B. 1987 - Reproductive biology of the Lutjanidae: a review. In Tropical snappers
and groupers: Biology and fisheries management. Polovina, J.J. and S. Ralston (Eds).
Westview Press, Boulder and London: 239-294.
GUASTELLA, L.A.M. 1994 – A quantitative assessment of recreational angling in Durban
Harbour, South Africa. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 14: 187-203.
HANEKOM, N., MANN-LANG, J.B., MANN, B.Q. and T.V.Z. CARINUS 1997 - Shore angling
catches in the Tsitsikamma National Park, 1989-1995. Koedoe. 40(2): 37-56.
HARRIS, J. 1997 - Report on the 2nd KwaZulu-Natal Reef Fishery Workshop. Krantzkloof Nature
Reserve, Durban, 26 August 1997. Natal Parks Board Unpublished Report: 1-5.
HARRIS, S.A. and D.P. CYRUS 1995 – Occurrence of fish larvae in the St Lucia estuary,
KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 16: 333-350.
HARRIS, S.A. and D.P. CYRUS 1996 – Larval and juvenile fishes in the surf zone adjacent to
the St Lucia estuary mouth, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Mar. Freshwater Res. 47: 465482.
HARRIS, S.A. and D.P. CYRUS 1997 – Composition, abundance and seasonality of larval fish
in Richards Bay Harbour, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. S. Afr. J. aquat. Sci. 23(1): 56-78.
241
HARRISON, T.D. 1991 - A note on the diet and feeding selectivity of juvenile riverbream,
Acanthopagrus berda (Forskal, 1775), in a subtropical mangrove creek. S. Afr. J. Zool.
26(1): 36-42.
HASSLER, W.W. and W.T. HOGARTH 1977 - The growth and culture of dolphin Coryphaena
hippurus, in northern California. Aquaculture 12(2): 115-122.
HECHT, T 1976 - The general biology of six major trawl fish species of the Eastern Cape coast
of South Africa, with notes on the demersal fishery, 1967 - 1975. PhD thesis, University of
Port Elizabeth, South Africa: 353 pp.
HECHT, T. and C.D. BUXTON 1993 – Catch trends in the Transkei commercial fishery. In Fish,
Fishers and Fisheries. Proceedings of the Second South African Marine Linefish
Symposium. Beckley, L.E. and van der Elst, R.P. (Eds.). 23-24 October 1992, Durban,
Spec. Publ. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 2: 127-133.
HECHT, T. and R.L. TILNEY 1989 - The Port Alfred fishery: a description and preliminary
evaluation of a commercial linefishery on the South African East Coast. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 8:
103–117.
HEDGEPETH, M.Y. and JOLLEY, J.W. 1983 – Age and growth of sailfish, Istiophorus
platypterus, using cross sections from the fourth dorsal fin spine. In Proceedings of the
International workshop on age determination of oceanic pelagic fishes: Tunas, Billfishes and
Sharks. NOAA Technical Report NMFS 8: 131-135.
HEEMSTRA, P.C. and J.E. RANDALL 1993 - FAO Species Catalogue, Vol. 16. Groupers of the
world (family Serranidae, subfamily Epinephelinae) - An annotated and illustrated catalogue
of the grouper, rockcod, hind, coral grouper, and lyretail species known to date. FAO
Fisheries synopsis 125 16: 1-382.
HILL, B. and E. BURSIK 1997 - Our gamefish species. Part 1 Targeting on sailfish, the silver
assassin of the sea. Ski boat 13(4): 21-23.
HOLTS, D.B., JULIAN, A., SOSA-NISHIZAKI, O, and N.W. BARTOO 1998 - Pelagic shark
fisheries along the west coast of the United States and Baja California, Mexico. Fish. Res.
39: 115-125.
HOLTZHAUSEN, J. A. 2000 - Population dynamics and life history of westcoast steenbras
Lithognathus aureti (Sparidae), and management options for the sustainable exploitation of
the steenbras resource in Namibian waters. PhD thesis, University of Port Elizabeth, South
Africa: 233 pp.
HOLTZHAUSEN, J. A. and C. H. KIRCHNER 1998 - Kob Fishery in Namibia. Namibia Brief. 20:
130-133.
HOPPER, C.N. 1990 – Patterns of Pacific blue marlin reproduction in Hawaiian waters. In
Planning the future of billfishes, research and management in the 90s and beyond. 2nd
International Billfish Symposium, Kailua-Kona, Hawaii, 1-5 August 1988. Mar. Rec. Fish.
13(2): 29-39.
HUGHES, G. 1986 - Examining methods of fitting age/length data to the von Bertalanffy growth
curve with a view to applying a simplified version of Beverton and Holt yield per recruit
model. Int. SANCOR Linef. Prog. Doc. 98pp.
HUNTER, J.R., ARGUE, A.W., BAYLIFF, W.H., DIZON, A.E., FONTENEAU, A., GOODMAN, D.
and SECKEL, G.R. 1986 – The dynamics of tuna movements: an evaluation of past and
future research. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap. 277: 78pp.
HUTCHINGS, K. and S.J. LAMBERTH 1998 - Management and socio-economic considerations
for the drift and beach-seine net fisheries on the West and southwestern coasts of South
Africa. Progress Report for the Sea Fisheries Research Institute.
HUTTON, T., GRIFFITHS, M.H., SUMAILA, U.R. and T.J. PITCHER (In prep.) Co-operative versus
non-cooperative management of shared linefish stocks in South Africa: an assessment of
alternative management strategies for geelbek (Atractoscion aequidens, Sciaenidae).
IBRAHIM, M.A., EL-BARY, K.A. and AL-KHAYAT, J.A. 1988a - Age determination and growth
studies of Lethrinus nebulosus (Family: Lethrinidae) for Qatar waters, Arabian Gulf. Bulletin
of the National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (Egypt) 14(2): 87-98.
242
IBRAHIM, M.A., EL-BARY, K.A. and AL-KHAYAT, J.A. 1988b - Stock assessment and
management of Lethrinus nebulosus (Family: Lethrinidae) of Qatar waters, Arabian Gulf.
Bulletin of the National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (Egypt) 14(2): 99 -111.
ICCAT 1997a – Bigeye Tuna 1996. Collve Vol. scient. Pap. Int. Commn Conserv. Atl. Tunas
46(4): 45-94.
ICCAT 1997b – Report of the ICCAT swordfish stock assessment session (Halifax, Nova Scotia,
Canada – October 2-9, 1996). Collve Vol. scient. Pap. Int. Commn Conserv. Atl. Tunas 46
(3): 165-298.
ICCAT 1999a - Detailed report on Yellowfin tuna. Collve Vol. scient. Pap. Int. Commn Conserv.
Atl. Tunas 49(3): 1-94.
ICCAT 1999b - Bigeye Tuna – 1998 Detailed report. Collve Vol. scient. Pap. Int. Commn
Conserv. Atl. Tunas 49(3): 95-99.
ICCAT 1999c - Albacore - 1998 Detailed report. Part 4. Meeting on the Precautionary Approach,
Miami 1998. Collve Vol. scient. Pap. Int. Commn Conserv. Atl. Tunas. 49(3): 1-94.
IGFA 1983 - World Record Gamefishes, Freshwater, Saltwater, and Flyfishing. International
Game Fish Association.
JAPP, D.W. 1997 - Management of shark fisheries in South Africa. Internal Report, Sea
Fisheries Research Institute, Cape Town: 26 pp.
JAPP, D.W., SIMS, P. and M.J. SMALE 1994 – A review of the fish resources of the Agulhas
Bank. S. Afr. J. Sci. 90: 123-134.
JOUBERT, C.S.W. 1981a - Aspects of the biology of five species of inshore reef fishes on the
Natal coast, South Africa. Invest. Rep. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 51: 1-16.
JOUBERT, C.S.W. 1981b - A survey of shore anglers’ catches at selected sites on the Natal
coast, South Africa. Invest. Rep. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 52: 1-13.
JOUBERT, C.S.W. AND P.B., HANEKOM 1980 - A study of feeding of some inshore reef fish of
the Natal coast, South Africa. S. Afr. J. Zool. 15(4): 262-274.
KAILOLA P.J., WILLIAMS, M.J., STEWARD, P.C., REICHELT, R.E., MCNEE, A. and C.
GRIEVE. 1993 - Australian Fisheries Resources. Bureau of Resource Sciences, Department
of Primary Industries and Energy, and the Fisheries Research and Development
Corporation, Canberra, Australia. 422pp.
KIRCHNER, C. 1999 - Population dynamics and stock assessment of the exploited silver kob
(Argyrosomus inodorus) in Namibian waters. PhD thesis, University of Port Elizabeth, South
Africa: 276 pp.
KIRCHNER, C. H., SAKKO, A. L., and J. I. BARNES (In press) - The economic value of the
Namibian recreational rock and surf fishery. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci.
KRALJEVIC, M., DULCIC, J., CETINIC, P. and A. PALAORO 1996 – Age, growth and mortality
of the striped seabream, Lithognathus mormyrus L., in the northern Adriatic. Fish. Res.
28(4): 361-370.
KRAUL, S. 1989 - Review and current status of the aquaculture potential for the mahimahi,
Coryphaena hippurus. Advances in tropical aquaculture, Tahiti. 1989: 445-459.
KRAUL, S. 1991 - Hatchery methods for the mahimahi, Coryphaena hippurus at Waikiki
Aquarium. CRC Handbook of Mariculture, Finnish Aquaculture 2: 227-241.
KRISHNAMOORTHI and I. JAGADIS 1986 - Biology and population dynamics of the grey
dogshark, Rhizoprionodon acutus (Rüppell), in Madras waters. Indian J. Fish. 33(4): 371385.
KROESE, M. 1999 (In press) - An overview of swordfish catches in the South African
experimental Pelagic longline fishery with emphasis on the South-western Atlantic. Collve
Vol. scient. Pap. Int. Commn Conserv. Atl. Tunas SCRS/99/38.
KROESE, M and W.H.H. SAUER 1998 – Elasmobranch exploitation in Africa. Mar. Freshwater
Res. 49: 573-577.
KUO, C. 1988 - The study of fishery biology on Porgies, Lethrinus nebulosus (Forsskal), in
waters of Australia. Acta Oceanographica Taiwanica 19:125-131.
KYLE, R. 1986 - Aspects of the biology and exploitation of the fishes of the Kosi Bay system,
KwaZulu, South Africa. PhD thesis, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg: 245pp.
243
KYLE, R. 1995 - Wise use of wetlands by rural indigenous people - The Kosi Bay Nature
Reserve: a case study. In Wetlands of South Africa. Gowan, G.I. (Ed.) Department of
Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Pretoria: 273-291.
KYLE, R. 1999 - Gillnetting in nature reserves: a case study from Kosi Lakes, South Africa. Biol.
Conserv. 88: 183-192.
KYLE, R. and W.D. ROBERTSON 1997 - Preliminary estimates of the population size and
capture rates of mature, Acanthopagrus berda in the Kosi lakes system, South Africa, using
mark-recapture methods. S. Afr. J. Zool. 32(4): 124-128.
LAMBERTH, S.J. 1994 – The commercial beach-seine fishery in False Bay, South Africa. M.Sc.
thesis, University of Cape Town.
LAMBERTH, S.J. 1996 – The distribution of total catch and effort between all sectors of the
linefishery in the south-western Cape. Final Report to the Sea Fisheries Research Institute.
LAMBERTH, S.J., BENNETT, B.A. and B.M. CLARK 1994 – Catch composition of the
commercial beach-seine fishery in False Bay, South Africa. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 14: 69-78.
LAMBERTH, S.J., BENNETT, B.A. and B.M. CLARK 1995a - The vulnerability of fish to capture
by commercial beach-seine nets in False Bay, South Africa. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 15: 25-31.
LAMBERTH, S.J., CLARK, B.M. and B.A. BENNETT 1995b - Seasonality of beach seine
catches in False Bay, South Africa and implications for management. S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci. 15:
157-167.
LAMBERTH, S.J. and A. JOUBERT 1999 (In press) – Prioritising linefish species for research
and management. In Proceedings of the Third Southern African Marine Linefish Symposium.
Mann, B.Q. (Ed.). 27 April to 1 May 1999, Arniston, Western Cape. SANCOR Occ. Rep. Ser.
5.
LAMBERTH, S.J., SAUER, W.H.H., MANN, B.Q., BROUWER, S.L., CLARK, B.M. AND C.
ERASMUS. 1997 - The status of the South African bearch-seine and gill-net fisheries. S. Afr. J.
mar. Sci. 18: 195-202.
LASIAK, T.A. 1981 - Nursery ground of juvenile teleosts: evidence from the surf zone of King’s
Beach, Port Elizabeth. S. Afr. J. Sci. 77(9): 388-390.
LASIAK, T.A. 1983 – Recruitment and growth patterns of juvenile teleosts caught at King’s
Beach, Algoa Bay, South Africa. S. Afr. J. Zool. 18: 25-30.
LASIAK, T.A. 1984a - Sructural aspects of the surf zone fish assemblages at King’s Beach,
Algoa Bay, South Africa: Short term fluctuations. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 18(3): 347-360.
LASIAK, T.A. 1984b - Sructural aspects of the surf zone fish assemblages at King’s Beach,
Algoa Bay, South Africa: Long-term fluctuations. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 18(4): 459-483.
LASIAK T.A. 1986 - Juveniles, food and the surf zone habitat: Implications for teleost nursery
areas. S. Afr. J. Zool. 21(1): 51-56.
LAST, P.R. and J.D. STEVENS 1994 - Sharks and Rays of Australia. CSIRO Australia: 513 pp
+ 84 colour plates.
LEIS, J.M. 1987 - Review of the early life history of tropical groupers (Serranidae) and snappers
(Lutjanidae). In Tropical snappers and groupers: Biology and fisheries management.
Polovina, J.J. and S. Ralston (Eds). Westview Press, Boulder and London: 189-238.
LEIS, J.M., GOLDMAN, B. and S. UEYANAGI 1987 - Distribution and abundance of billfish
larvae (Pisces: Istiophoridae) in the Great Barrier Reef Lagoon and Coral Sea near Lizard
Island, Australia. Fish. Bull. 85(4): 757-765.
LEIS, J.M. and C.D. VAN DER LINGEN 1997 - Larval development and relationships of the
perciform family Dichistiidae (= Coracinidae), the galjoen fishes. Bull. Mar. Sci 60(1): 100116.
LEU, M.Y. 1994 - Natural spawning and larval rearing of silver bream, Rhabdosargus sarba
(Forsskal), in captivity. Aquaculture 120: 115-122.
LICHUCHA, I. 1999 (In press) – The status of slinger exploitation in southern Mozambique. In
Proceedings of the Third Southern African Marine Linefish Symposium. Mann, B.Q. (Ed.). 27
April to 1 May 1999, Arniston, Western Cape. SANCOR Occ. Rep. Ser. 5.
LUCKS, D. K. 1970 - Aspects of the biology of the white steenbras (Lithognathus aureti Smith,
1962) in the Sandwich estuary. M.Sc. thesis (In Afrikaans), University of Stellenbosch, South
Africa: 49 pp.
244
MAKSIMOV, V.P. 1971 - The biology of the sailfish, Istiophorus platypterus in the Atlantic
Ocean. J. Ichthyol. 11(6): 850-855.
MANN, B.Q. 1992 - Aspects of the biology of two inshore sparid fishes (Diplodus sargus
capensis and Diplodus cervinus hottentotus) off the south-east coast of South Africa. M.Sc.
thesis, Rhodes University, Grahamstown: 125pp.
MANN, B.Q. 1993 – The importance of fish and fishing at Lake St Lucia. In Proceedings of the
workshop on water requirements for Lake St Lucia. Taylor, R.H. (Ed.). Fanies Island, 12 13 May 1992, Department of Environment Affairs, Pretoria: 58-61.
MANN, B Q. 1995 - Quantification of illicit fish harvesting in the Lake St Lucia Game Reserve,
South Africa. Biol. Conserv. 74: 107-113.
MANN, B.Q., BECKLEY, L.E. and R.P. VAN DER ELST 1997a - Evaluation of linefishery
participation and management along the KwaZulu-Natal coast. Unpubl. Rep. Oceanogr.
Res. Inst. 134: 1-17.
MANN, B.Q. and C.D. BUXTON 1992 - Diets of Diplodus sargus capensis and D. cervinus
hottentotus (Pisces: Sparidae) on the Tsitsikamma coast, South Africa. Koedoe 35(2): 2736.
MANN B.Q. and C.D. BUXTON 1997 - Age and growth of Diplodus sargus capensis and D.
cervinus hottentotus (Sparidae) on the Tsitsikamma coast, South Africa. Cybium 21(2): 135147.
MANN B.Q. and C.D. BUXTON 1998 -The reproductive biology of Diplodus sargus capensis
and D. cervinus hottentotus (Sparidae) off the south-east Cape coast, South Africa. Cybium
22(1): 31-47.
MANN, B.Q., SCOTT, G.M., MANN-LANG, J.M., BROUWER, S.L., LAMBERTH, S.J., SAUER,
W.H.H. and C. ERASMUS 1997b - An evaluation of participation in and management of the
South African spearfishery. S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci. 18: 179-193.
MANN, B.Q. and S.T. FENNESSY 1998 – Evaluation of linefishery participation and
management in the Transkei region of the Eastern Cape (Port Edward to Coffee Bay).
Unpublished ORI Report prepared for Marine and Coastal Management: 17pp.
MARAIS, J.F.K. 1981 - Seasonal abundance, distribution and catch per unit effort using gillnets, of fishes in the Sundays estuary. S. Afr. J. Zool. 16: 144-150.
MARAIS, J.F.K. 1984 - Feeding ecology of major carnivorous fish from four eastern Cape
estuaries. S. Afr. J. Zool. 19(3): 210-223.
MARAIS, J.F.K. and D. BAIRD 1980a – Analysis of anglers’ catch data from the Swartkops
estuary. S. Afr. J. Zool. 15: 61-65.
MARAIS, J.F.K. and D. BAIRD 1980b – Seasonal abundance, distribution and catch per unit
effort of fishes in the Swartkops estuary. S. Afr. J. Zool. 15: 66-71.
MASSUTI, E. and B. MORALES-NIN 1995 - Seasonality and reproduction of dolphin-fish
(Coryphaena hippurus) in the Western Mediterranean. Scientia Marina 59(3-4): 357-364.
MASSUTI, E. and B. MORALES-NIN 1997 - Reproductive biology of dolphin-fish
(Coryphaena hippurus L.) off the Island of Majorca (western Mediterranean). Fish. Res.
30(1-2): 57-65.
MCDONALD, A. 1998 – Evaluation of the linefishery in the Transkei region of the Eastern Cape
(Kei Mouth to Coffee Bay). Unpublished DIFS Report prepared for Marine and Coastal
Management, 20pp.
McGRATH, M.D., HORNER, C.C.M., BROUWER, S.L., LAMBERTH, S.J., MANN, B.Q., SAUER,
W.H.H. and C. ERASMUS 1997 – An economic valuation of the South African linefishery. S. Afr.
J. mar. Sci. 18: 203-212.
MCLACHLAN, A. 1986 - Ecological surveys of sandy beaches on the Namib coast. UPE Instit.
Coastl. Res. Rep. University of Port Elizabeth, South Africa, 13: 1-134.
MEHL, J.A.P. 1973 – Ecology, osmoregulation and reproductive biology of the white steenbras,
Lithognathus lithognathus (Teleostei, Sparidae). Zoologica Afr. 8(2): 157-230.
MEJUTO, J., IGLESIA, S., REY, J.C., ALOT, E. and B. GARCIA. 1988 – Relaciones talla-peso
del pez espada (Xiphias gladius, L.) en las areas BIL-94 y BIL– 95, por estratos –
temporales. Collve Vol. scient. Pap. Int. Commn Conserv. Atl. Tunas 27: 214-221.
MEJUTO, J., DE LA SSERNA, J.M. and B. GARCIA. 1995 - An overview of the sex-ratio of the
245
swordfish (Xiphias gladius L.) around the world: Similarity between different strata. Collve
Vol. scient. Pap. Int. Commn Conserv. Atl. Tunas 40: 197-205.
MELVILLE-SMITH, R and D. BAIRD 1980 - Abundance, distribution and species composition of
fish larvae in the Swartkops estuary. S. Afr. J. Zool. 15(2): 72-78.
MERRETT, N.R. 1971 – Aspects of the biology of billfish (Istiphoridae) from the equatorial
western Indian Ocean. J. Zool. (London) 163: 351-395.
MOHN, R. 1992 – Length-based virtual population analysis. A review and swordfish example.
Collve Vol. scient. Pap. Int. Commn Conserv. Atl. Tunas. 39(2): 503-513.
MOLLETT, H.F. and G.M. CAILLIET 1996 - Using allometry to predict body mass from linear
measurements of the white shark. In Great White Sharks: The biology of Carcharodon
carcharias. Klimley, A.P. and D.G. Ainley (Eds.). Academic Press, New York: 81-89.
MOLLETT, H.M., CAILLIET, G.M., KLIMLEY, A.P., EBERT, D.A., TESTI, A.D. and L.J.V.
COMPAGNO 1996 - A review of length validation methods and protocols to measure large
white sharks. In Great White Sharks: The biology of Carcharodon carcharias. Klimley, A.P.
and D.G. Ainley (Eds.). Academic Press, New York: 91-108.
MORALES-NIN, B. 1988 - Age determination in a tropical fish, Lethrinus nebulosus (Forsskal,
1775) (Teleostei: Lethrinidae) by means of otolith interpretation. Invest. Pesq. (Barc.) 52(2):
237-244.
MORITA, Y and T. KOTO. 1971 – Some consideration of the population structure of yellowfin
tuna in the Indian Ocean based on longline fishery data. Bull. Far Seas Fish. Res. Lab. 4:
125-140.
MUSICK, J.A. 1999 - Ecology and conservation of long-lived marine animals. In Life in the slow
lane: ecology and conservation of long-lived marine animals. J. A. Musick (Ed.). American
Fisheries Society Symposium 23, Bethesda, Maryland: 1-10.
NAKAMURA, I. 1975 – Synopsis of the biology of the black marlin Makaira indica (Curvier), 183.
In Proceedings of the International Billfish Symposium, Kailua-Kona, Hawaii, 9-12 August
1972. Part 3. Species Synopses. Shomura, R.S. and F. Williams (Eds.). NOAA Technical
Report NMFS SSRF - 675: 17-27.
NAKAMURA, I. 1985 - FAO species catalogue. Vol 5. Billfishes of the world. An annotated and
illustrated catalogue of marlins, sailfishes, spearfishes and swordfishes known to date. FAO
Fish. Synop. 5(125): 65pp.
NAKAMURA, I., and N.V. PARIN. 1993. Snake mackerels and cutlassfishes of the world
(Families Gempylidae and Trichiuridae). FAO species catalogue 15: 136pp.
NATANSON, L.J. and N.E. KOHLER 1996 - A preliminary estimate of age and growth of the
dusky shark Carcharhinus obscurus from the south-western Indian Ocean, with comparisons
to the western North Atlantic population. S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci. 17: 217-224.
NELSON, W.R., BROWN, B.E., CONSER, R.J., HOEY, J.J., NICHOLS, S., POWERS, S.J.E.
SISSENWINE, M.P., TURNER, S.C. and D.S. VAUGHAN. 1990 – Report of the NMFS
swordfish stock assessment workshop (March 20-24, 1989). Collve Vol. scient. Pap. Int.
Commn Conserv. Atl. Tunas 32(2): 287-352.
NEPGEN, C.S. DE V. 1977 - The biology of the hottentot Pachymetopon blochii (Val.) and the
Silverfish Argyrozona argyrozona (Val.) along the south-west coast. Invest. Rep. Div. Sea
Fish. S. Afr. 105: 1-35.
NEPGEN, C.S. DE V. 1979 - Trends in the line fishery for snoek Thyrsites atun off the southwestern Cape, and in size composition, length-weight relationship and condition. Fish. Bull.
S. Afr. 12:35-43.
NMFS (National Marine Fisheries Service) 1999 - Final Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic
Tuna, Swordfish, and Sharks. U.S. Dep. Commer. Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., Highly Migratory
Species Management Division, Office of Sustainable Fisheries, Silver Spring, MD 20910.
NMFS (National Marine Fisheries Service) 2000 - 2000 Stock Assessment and Fishery
Evaluation for Atlantic Highly Migratory Species. U.S. Dep. Commer. Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv.,
Highly Migratory Species Management Division, Office of Sustainable Fisheries, Silver
Spring, MD 20910.
OLIVAR, M.P. and D.J.M. FORTUÑO 1991 - Guide to ichthyoplankton of the southeast Atlantic
(Benguela current region). Scientia Marina 55: 1-383.
246
OLIVAR, M.P. and P.A. SHELTON 1993 - Larval fish assemblages of the Benguela current.
Bull. Mar. Sci. 53: 450-474.
OXENFORD, H.A. and W. HUNTE 1986a - A preliminary investigation of the stock structure of
the dolphin, Coryphaena hippurus, in the Western Central Atlantic. Fish. Bull. 84(2): 451460.
OXENFORD, H.A. and W. HUNTE 1986b - Migration of the dolphin (Coryphaena hippurus) and
its implications for fisheries management in the Western Central Atlantic. Proc. Gulf Caribb.
Fish. Inst. 37: 95-111.
OXENFORD, H.A. and W. HUNTE 1987 - Long-term trends in abundance of the dolphin
(Coryphaena hippurus) near Barbados. Proc. Gulf Caribb. Fish. Inst. 38: 510-527.
PARKS, W., BARD, F.F., CAYRE, P., KUME, S. AND A. SANTOS GUERRA. 1982 –
Length/Weight relationship for bigeye tuna captured in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. Collve
Vol. scient. Pap. Int. Commn Conserv. Atl. Tunas 18(2): 343 –346.
PATERSON, A.W. and A.K. WHITFIELD 1996 - The fishes associated with an intertidal salt
marsh creek in the Kariega Estuary, South Africa. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Afr. 51: 195-218.
PENNEY, A.J. 1990 – Yellowtail migration patterns and their management implications. In
Marine recreational fishing: resource usage, management and research. Van der Elst, R.P.
(Ed.). S. Afr. Nat, Sci. Prog. Rep. 167: 63-68.
PENNEY, A.J. 1994 - Morphometric relationships, annual catches and catch-at-size for South
African caught South Atlantic albacore (Thunnus alalunga) Collve. Vol. scient. Pap. Int.
Commn Conserv. Atl. Tunas. 42(1): 371-382.
PENNEY, A.J., BUXTON, C.D., GARRATT, P.A. and M.J. SMALE 1989 - The commercial
linefishery. In Oceans of life off southern Africa. Payne A.I.L. and R.J.M. Crawford (Eds).
Vlaeberg Publishers, South Africa: 214-229.
PENNEY, A.J. and M.H. GRIFFITHS. 1998 - First description of the developing South African
pelagic longline fishery. Collve Vol. scient. Pap. Int. Commn Conserv. Atl. Tunas 49(3): 163173.
PENNEY, A.J., GRIFFITHS, M.H. and C.G. ATTWOOD 1997 - Management and monitoring of the
South African marine linefishery. SANCOR Occ. Rep. 3: 87pp.
PENNEY, A.J., MANN-LANG, J.B., VAN DER ELST, R.P. and C.G. WILKE 1999 – Long-term
trends in catch and effort in the KwaZulu-Natal nearshore linefisheries. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci.
21: 51-76.
PENNEY, A.J. and C. WILKE 1993 – The red steenbras: a species under siege? In Fish,
Fishers and Fisheries. Proceedings of the second South African marine linefish symposium.
Beckley L.E. and R.P. van der Elst (Eds). Durban, 23-24 October 1992. Spec. Publ.
Oceanogr. Res. Inst. S. Afr. 2: 32-35.
PENRITH, M.J. 1972a - Sex reversal in the sparid fish, Chrysoblephus laticeps. Koedoe 15:
135-139.
PENRITH, M.J. 1972b - The behaviour of reef-dwelling sparid fishes. Zoologica Africana, 7(1):
43-48.
PENRITH, M. J. 1978 - An annotated checklist of the inshore fishes of Southern Angola.
Cimbebasia. Ser. A, 4(11): 180-190.
PEPPERELL, J.G. 1990 – Movements and variations in early year-class strength of black marlin
(Makaira indica) off eastern Australia. In Planning the future of billfishes, research and
management in the 90s and beyond. 2nd International Billfish Symposium , Kailua-Kona,
Hawaii, 1-5 August 1988. Mar. Rec. Fish. 13(2): 51-66.
PIOTROVSKI, A.S. 1990 - Preliminary data on the biology of Sparid fishes, Chrysoblephus
puniceus and Cheimerius nufar from the waters of Mozambique. 7th National
Oceanographic Conference, San Lameer, South Africa, 25-28 June 1990, Poster.
PLUMSTEAD, E.E., PRINSLOO, J.F. and H.J. SCHOONBEE 1989 - A survey of the fish fauna
of Transkei estuaries. Part II: The Mbashe estuary. S. Afr. J. Zool. 24(4): 273-281.
PO, L.A., DIONISIO, C and R.P.E. SILVA 1992 – Growth of Skipjack Katsuwonus pelamis from
Mozambique. Rev. de Invest. Pesq. (Maputo). 21: 98-105.
PRADERVAND, P. 1998 – An assessment of recreational angling in Eastern Cape estuaries.
M.Sc. thesis, University of Port Elizabeth, South Africa.
247
PRADERVAND, P. (In prep.) – An assessment of the effectiveness of the daily bag limit in the
recreational boat fishery off the KwaZulu-Natal coast, South Africa. Tenth Southern African
Marine Science Symposium, 22–26 November 1999, Wilderness, Paper.
PRAGER, M.H. 1993 – A non-equilibrium production model of swordfish: data reanalysis and
possible future directions. Collve Vol. scient. Pap. Int. Commn Conserv. Atl. Tunas. 40(2):
433-437.
PRATT, H.L. 1979 - Reproduction in the blue shark, Prionace glauca. Fish Bull. 77: 445-470.
PRINCE, E.D., LEE, D.W., WILSON, C.A. and J.M. DEAN 1986 - Longevity and age validation
of a tag-recaptured Atlantic sailfish, Istiophorus platypterus, using dorsal spines and otoliths.
Fish. Bull. 84(3): 493-502.
PULFRICH, A. 1987 - Aspects of the biology of, and fishery for, the Hottentot, Pachymetopon
blochii (Val.) (Sparidae), in the western and south-western Cape. M.Sc. thesis, University of
Cape Town: 195pp.
PULFRICH, A. and C.L. GRIFFITHS 1988a - Growth, sexual maturity and reproduction in the
hottentot Pachymetopon blochii (Val.). S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 7: 25-36.
PULFRICH, A. and C.L. GRIFFITHS 1988b - The fishery for hottentot Pachymetopon blochii
(Val.) in the south-western Cape . S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 7: 227-241.
PUNT, A.E., BUTTERWORTH, D.S. and A.J. PENNY. 1995 - Stock assessment and risk
analysis for the South Atlantic population of albacore Thunnus alalunga using an age
structured production model. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 16: 287-307.
PUNT, A.E., GARRATT, P.A. and A. GOVENDER 1993 - On an approach for applying perrecruit methods to a protogynous hermaphrodite, with an illustration for the slinger
Chrysoblephus puniceus (Pisces: Sparidae). S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 13: 109-119.
PUNT, A. E., PULFRICH, A., BUTTERWORTH, D. S. and A. J. PENNEY 1996 - The effect of
hook size on the size-specific selectivity of hottentot Pachymetopon blochii (Val.) and on
yield per recruit. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 17: 155-172.
RADEBE, P.V., MANN, B.Q. and L.E. BECKLEY 1999 – Linefish status report: The Natal
stumpnose as an example. Tenth Southern African Marine Science Symposium, 22–26
November 1999, Wilderness, Poster.
RANDALL, J.E. 1995 - Coastal fishes of Oman. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, Hawaii.
439pp.
RESTREPO, V.R., HOENIG J.M., POWERS, S.J.E., BAIRD, J.W. and S.C. TURNER. 1992 – A
simple simulation approach to risk and cost analysis, with applications to swordfish and cod
fisheries. Fish. Bull. 90: 736-748.
RIVAS, L.R. 1975 – Synopsis of biological data on blue marlin, Makaira nigricans Lacepede,
1802. In Proceedings of the International Billfish Symposium, Kailua-Kona, Hawaii, 9-12
August 1972. Part 3. Species Synopses. Shomura, R.S. and F. Williams (Eds.). NOAA
Technical Report NMFS SSRF - 675: 1-16.
ROBINSON, G.A. 1976 - Sex reversal in the dageraad Chrysoblephus cristiceps (Pisces:
Sparidae). Koedoe 19: 43-48.
ROSE, C.D. and W.W. HASSLER 1974 - Food habits and sex ratios of dolphin, (Coryphaena
hippurus) captured in the western Atlantic Ocean off Hatteras, North Carolina. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc. 103(1): 94-100.
ROSSOUW, G.J. 1983 - The biology of the sandshark Rhinobatus annulatus in Algoa Bay with
notes on other elasmobranchs. PhD thesis, University of Port Elizabeth, South Africa:
180pp.
ROSSOUW, G.J. 1984 - Age and growth of the sandshark, Rhinobatus annulatus in Algoa Bay,
South Africa, J. Fish Biol. 25(2): 213-222.
SAMUEL, M. and C.P. MATHEWS 1987 - Growth and mortality of four Acanthopagrus species.
Kuwait Bull. Mar. Sci. 9: 159-171.
SAUER, W.H.H. and C. ERASMUS 1996 - Evaluation of the line and net fisheries along the
West Coast of South Africa. Final report to the Sea Fisheries Research Institute.
248
SAUER, W.H.H., PENNEY, A.J., ERASMUS, C., MANN, B.Q., BROUWER, S.L., LAMBERTH, S.J.
and T.J. STEWART 1997 – An evaluation of attitudes and responses to monitoring and
management measures for the South African boat-based linefishery. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 18: 147164.
SCHULTZ, N. 1992 - Preliminary investigations on the population dynamics of Otolithes ruber
(Sciaenidae) on Sofala Bank, Mozambique. Instituto de InvestigaÇao Pesqueira, Revista de
InvestigaÇao. 21:41-49.
SHANNON, L.V., VAN DER ELST, R.P. and R.M.J. CRAWFORD 1989 - Tunas, Bonitos,
Spanish Mackerel and Billfish. In Oceans of life off Southern Africa. Payne, A.I.L. and R.M.J.
Crawford (Eds.), Vlaeberg Publishers, Cape Town: 188-197.
SHCHERBACHEV, Y.N. 1973 - The biology and distribution of the dolphins (Pisces:
Coryphaenidae). J. Ichthyol. 13(2): 182-191.
SHEAVES, M.J. 1992 - Patterns of distribution and abundance of fishes in different habitats in a
mangrove-lined tropical estuary, as determined by fish trapping. Austr. J. Mar. Fresh. Res.
43: 1461- 1479.
SHEAVES, M. 1995 - Large lutjanid and serranid fishes in tropical estuaries: Are they adults or
juveniles? Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 129: 31-40.
SILAS, E.G. 1989 - Trends in the fisheries for billfishes in the Indian Ocean. In Planning the
future of billfishes, research and management in the 90s and beyond. 2nd International
Billfish Symposium, Kailua-Kona, Hawaii, 1-5 August 1988. Mar. Rec. Fish. 13(1): 81-88.
SIMPFENDORFER, C.A. 1999 - Demographic analysis of the dusky shark fishery in
southwestern Australia. In Life in the slow lane: ecology and conservation of long-lived
marine animals. J.A. Musick (Ed.). American Fisheries Society Symposium 23: 149-160.
SIMPFENDORFER, C.A. and N.E. MILWARD 1993 - Utilisation of a tropical bay as a nursery
area by sharks of the families Carcharhinidae and Sphyrnidae. Env. Biol. Fish. 37(4): 337345.
SKILLMAN, R.A. and M.Y.Y. YONG 1974 – Length weight relationships for six species of
billfishes in the central Pacific Ocean. In Proceedings of the International Billfish
Symposium. Shomura, R.S. and F. Williams (Eds.), Kailua-Kona, Hawaii, 9-12 August 1972,
NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS SSRF-675 (2): 126-137.
SKILLMAN, R.A. and M.Y.Y. YONG 1976 – Von Bertalanffy growth curves for striped marlin,
Tetrapturus audax, and blue marlin, Makaira nigricans, in the central North Pacific Ocean.
Fish. Bull. U.S. 74: 553-566.
SMALE, M.J. 1983 - Resource partitioning by top predatory teleosts in the eastern Cape coastal
waters (South Africa). PhD thesis, Rhodes University, Grahamstown: 285pp.
SMALE, M.J. 1984 - Inshore small-mesh trawling survey of Cape south coast. Part lll. The
occurrence and feeding of Argyrosomus hololepidotus, Pomatomus saltatrix and Merluccius
capensis. S. Afr. J. Zool. 19(3): 170-179.
SMALE, M.J. 1986 - The feeding biology of four top predatory reef fishes off the south-eastern
Cape coast, South Africa. S. Afr. J. Zool. 21(2): 111-130.
SMALE, M.J. 1988 - Distribution and reproduction of the reef fish Petrus rupestris (Pisces:
Sparidae) off the coast of South Africa. S. Afr. J. Zool. 23(9): 272-287.
SMALE, M.J. 1991 - Occurrence and feeding of three shark species, Carcharhinus brachyurus,
C. obscurus and Sphyrna zygaena, on the Eastern Cape coast of South Africa. S. Afr. J.
mar. Sci. 11: 31-42.
SMALE, M.J. 1997 - Trade in sharks and shark products in South Africa . In Trade Review: The
trade in sharks and shark products in the Western Indian Ocean and Southeast Atlantic
Oceans. N.T. Marshall and R. Barnett (Eds.). TRAFFIC East/Southern Africa, Nairobi: 80100.
SMALE, M.J. and A. BADENHORST 1991 - The distribution and abundance of linefish and
secondary trawlfish on the Cape south coast of South Africa. S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci. 11: 395407.
SMALE, M.J. and C.D. BUXTON 1985 - Aspects of the recreational ski-boat fishery off the
Eastern Cape, South Africa. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 3: 131-144.
249
SMALE, M.J. and C.D. BUXTON 1989 – The subtidal gully fish community of the Eastern Cape
and the role of this habitat as a nursery area. S. Afr. J. Zool. 24(1): 58-67.
SMALE, M.J. and L.J.V. COMPAGNO 1997 - Life history and diet of two Southern African
smoothhound sharks, Mustelus mustelus (Linnaeus, 1758) and Mustelus palumbes Smith,
1957 (Pisces: Trikidae). S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci. 18: 229-248.
SMALE, M.J. and A.J.J.GOOSEN 1999 - Reproduction and feeding of spotted gullly shark,
Triakis megalopterus, off the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Fish. Bull. 97(4): 987-998.
SMALE, M.J. and H.M. KOK 1983 - The occurrence and feeding of Pomatomus saltatrix (elf)
and Lichia amia (leervis) juveniles in two Cape south coast estuaries. S. Afr. J. Zool. 18:
337-342.
SMALE, M.J. and A.E. PUNT 1991 - Age and growth of the red steenbras Petrus repestris
(Pisces: Sparidae) on the south-east caost of South Africa. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 10: 131-139.
SMALE, M.J., ROEL, B.A., BADENHORST, A. and J.G. FIELD 1993 - Analysis of the demersal
community of fish and cephalopods on the Agulhas Bank, South Africa. J. Fish Biol.
43(Suppl. A): 169-191.
SMITH, G.C. 1992 - Occurrence and diets of juvenile Caranx ignobilis and Caranx melampygus
(Teleostei: Carangidae) in the Hanalei River estuary, North Kauai, Hawaii. Pac. Sci. 46(1):
103.
SMITH, J.L.B. 1951 - A juvenile of the man-eater Carcharodon carcharias (Linn.). Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist. Ser. 124: 729-736.
SMITH, J.L.B. 1959 - Fishes of the Family Lethrinidae from the Western Indian Ocean.
Ichthyological Bulletin JLB Smith Institute of Ichthyology 17: 285-295.
SMITH, M.M. and P.C. HEEMSTRA (Eds.) 1986 – Smith’s Sea Fishes. Macmillan Publishers,
Johannesburg: 1047 pp.
SMITH, S.E., AU, D.W. and C. SHOW 1998 - Intrinsic rebound potentials of 26 species of
Pacific sharks. Austr. J. Mar. Freshwater Res. 49: 663-678.
SPEARE, P. 1994 - Relationships among Black Marlin, Makaira indica, in Eastern Australian
Coastal waters, inferred from Parasites. Austr. J. Mar. Freshwater. Res. 45(1-4): 535-549.
SPEARE, P. and D. WILLIAMS 1992 - How old is a 1000lb black marlin? Special Issue Tagging for the future. Austr. Fish. 51(6): 37-39.
SQUIRE, J.L. 1987 - Striped marlin, Tetrapturus audax, migration patterns and rates in the Northeast
Pacific Ocean as determined by a co-operative tagging program: its relation to resource management.
Mar. Fish. Review 49(2): 26-43.
SQUIRE, J.L. and D.W.K. AU 1990 - Striped marlin in the Northeast Pacific - A case for local depletion
and core area management. In Planning the future of billfishes, research and management in the 90s
and beyond. 2nd International Billfish Symposium, Kailua-Kona, Hawaii, 1-5 August 1988. Mar. Rec.
Fish. 13(2): 199-214.
SQUIRE, J.L. and Z. SUZUKI 1980 – Sailfish, Istiophorus platypterus and shortbill spearfish,
Tetrapturus angustirostris. In Summary report of the billfish stock assessment workshop
Pacific resources, R.S. Shomura (Ed). Honolulu Laboratory, Southwest Fisheries Center,
Honolulu, Hawaii, 5-14 December 1977. NOAA Tech. Mem. NMFS: 31-39.
SQUIRE, J.L. and Z. SUZUKI 1990 - Migration trends of the striped marlin (Tertapturus audax)
in the Pacific Ocean. In Planning the future of billfishes, research and management in the
90s and beyond. 2nd International Billfish Symposium, Kailua-Kona, Hawaii, 1-5 August
1988. Mar. Rec. Fish. 13(2): 67-80.
STEQUERT, B. and F. MARSAC 1989 – Tropical tuna surface fisheries in the Indian Ocean.
FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, No. 282. FAO, Rome: 238pp.
STEVENS, J.D. 1975 - Vertebral rings as a means of age determination in the blue shark
(Prionace glauca L.) J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K. 55: 657-665.
STEVENS, J.D. and K.J. MCLOUGHLIN 1991 - Distribution, size and sex composition,
reproductive biology and diet of sharks from northern Australia. Aust. J. Mar. Freshwater
Res. 42: 151-199.
STEVENS, J.D., G.J. WEST and K.J. MCLOUGHLIN In press - Movements, recapture patterns,
and factors affecting the return rate of carcharhinid and other sharks tagged off northern
Australia. Mar. Freshwater Res.
250
STRASBERG, D.W. 1958 - Distribution, abundance, and habits of pelagic sharks in the central
Pacific Ocean. Fish. Bull. U.S. Fish. Wildl. Serv., 58: 335-361.
SUDEKUM, A.E., PARRISH, J.D., RADTKE, R.L. and S. RALSTON 1991 - Life history and
ecology of large jacks in undisturbed, shallow, oceanic communities. Fish. Bull. 89(3): 493513.
SUZUKI, Z. 1989 – Catch and fishing effort relationships for striped marlin, blue marlin and black marlin
in the Pacific Ocean, 1952 to 1985. In Planning the future of billfishes, research and management in
the 90s and beyond. 2nd International Billfish Symposium , Kailua-Kona, Hawaii, 1-5 August 1988.
Mar. Rec. Fish. 13(1): 165-177.
TALBOT, F.H. 1955 - Notes on the biology of the white stumpnose, Rhabdosargus globiceps
(Cuvier), and on the fish fauna of the Klein River estuary. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Afr. 34: 387407.
TALBOT, F.H. 1960 - Notes on the biology of the Lutjanidae (Pisces) of the East African coast,
with special reference to L. bohar (Forskal). Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 45: 549-573.
TANAKA, S., CAILLIET, G.M. and K.G. YUDIN 1990 - Differences in growth of the blue shark,
Prionace glauca: Technique of Population? In Elasmobranchs as living resources: Advances
in the Biology, Ecology, Systematics, and the Status of the Fisheries. H.L. Pratt, S.H. Gruber
and T. Taniuchi (Eds.). NOAA Technical Report NMFS 90: 177-187.
TANKEVICH, P.B. 1982 – Age and growth of the bigeyed tuna, Thunnus obesus (Scombridae)
in the Indian Ocean. J. Ichthyol. 22(4) 26-31.
TAYLOR, R.G. and M.D. MURPHY 1992 – Reproductive biology of the swordfish Xiphias
gladius in the Straits of Florida and adjacent waters. Fish. Bull. 90: 809-816.
THOMPSON, R and J.L. MUNRO 1983 - The biology, ecology and bionomics of the snappers,
Lutjanidae. In Caribbean Coral Reef Fishery Resources. J.L. Munro (Ed). ICLARM Studies
and Reviews 7: 94-109.
TILNEY, R. 1990. Aspects of the biology, ecology and population dynamics of Galeichthys
feliceps (Valenciennes) and G. ater (Castelnau) (Pisces: Ariidae) off the South-east coast of
South Africa. PhD thesis, Rhodes University, Grahamstown: 278pp.
TILNEY, R.L. and C.D. BUXTON 1994 – A preliminary ichthyoplankton survey of the
Tsitsikamma National Park. S. Afr. J. Zool. 29(3): 204-211.
TIMOCHIN, I.G. 1992 - Preliminary estimation of growth in Cheimerius nufar (Sparidae) from
southern Mozambique. Revista de Investigacao Pesqueira (Maputo). 21: 50-58.
TOBIN, A.J., SHEAVES, M.J. and B.W. MOLONY 1997 - Evidence of hermaphroditism in the
tropical sparid Acanthopagrus berda. J. Fish. Biol. 50(1): 22-33.
THOMSON, R.B. and A.J. PENNEY (In prep.) – Age-structured analysis of the past South
African yellowtail (Seriola lalandi) fishery and implications for the future.
TORRES, F and D. PAULY 1991 – Tabular data on marine fishes from southern Africa, Part II:
Growth parameters. Fishbyte, 9(2): 37-38.
TREWAVAS, E. 1977 – The sciaenid fishes (croakers or drums) of the Indo-West Pacific. Trans.
Zool. Soc. Lond. 33(4): 253-541.
TROW, B.E. 1982 – A preliminary study on the diet and feeding of the ‘Fransmadam’,
Boopsoidea inornata (Sparidae: Pagellinae). Honours project. Rhodes University,
Grahamstown: 81pp.
UCHIDA, S., TODA, M., TESHIMA, K. and K. YANO 1996 - Pregnant white sharks and full-term
embryos form Japan. In Great White Sharks: The biology of Carcharodon carcharias.
Klimley, A.P. and D.G. Ainley (Eds.). Academic Press, New York. 139-155.
UCHIYAMA, J.H., BURCH, R.K. and S.A. KRAUL 1986 - Growth of dolphins, Coryphaena
hippurus and C. equiselis, in Hawaii waters as determined by daily increments on otoliths.
Fish. Bull. 84(1): 186-191.
UEYANGAGI, S. and P.G. WARES 1975 – Synopsis of biological data on striped marlin, Tertapturus
audax (Philippi), 1887. In Proceedings of the International Billfish Symposium, Kailua-Kona, Hawaii,
9-12 August 1972. Part 3. Species Synopses. Shomura, R.S. and F. Williams (Eds.). NOAA Technical
Report NMFS SSRF - 675: 132-159.
VAN BRUGGEN, A.C. 1965. Records and observations in the Port Elizabeth Oceanarium in
1960. Zool. Gart. Leipzig 31(3-4): 184-202.
251
VAN DER ELST, R.P. 1976 - Game fish of the east coast of Southern Africa. The biology of the
Elf, Pomatomus saltatrix (Linnaeus) in the coastal waters of Natal. Invest. Rep. Oceanogr.
Res. Inst. 44: 59pp.
VAN DER ELST, R.P. 1978 - The St Lucia sport fishery - a 21 year catch analysis. Unpubl. Rep.
Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 47: 1-20 (plus figures).
VAN DER ELST, R.P. 1979 - A proliferation of small sharks in the shore-based Natal sport
fishery. Env. Biol. Fish. 4(4): 349-362.
VAN DER ELST, R.P. 1988 - A guide to the common sea fishes of southern Africa (2nd Edition).
Struik Publishers, Cape Town: 398pp.
VAN DER ELST, R.P. 1989 - Marine recreational angling in South Africa. In Oceans of life off
southern Africa. Payne A.I.L. and R.J.M. Crawford (Eds). Vlaeberg Publishers, South Africa,
164-176.
VAN DER ELST, R.P. 1990 – Aspects of the biology and sport fishery for billfish in the S.W.
Indian Ocean. In Planning the future of billfishes, research and management in the 90s and
beyond. 2nd International Billfish Symposium , Kailua-Kona, Hawaii, 1-5 August 1988. Mar.
Rec. Fish. 13(2): 147-158.
VAN DER ELST, R.P. and F. ADKIN (Eds.) 1991 - Marine Linefish. Priority Species and
Research Objectives in Southern Africa. Spec. Publ. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 1: 1-132.
VAN DER ELST, R.P. and B.B COLLETTE. 1984 - Game fishes of the east coast of southern
Africa. 2. Biology and systematics of the queen mackerel Scomberomorus plurilineatus.
Invest. Rep. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 55: 1-12.
VAN DER ELST, R.P. and A.J. DE FREITAS 1988 - Long-term trends in Natal marine fisheries.
In Long-term data series relating to southern Africa’s renewable natural resources.
Macdonald, I.A.W. and R.J.M. Crawford (Eds.). S. Afr. Nat. Sci. Prog. Rep. 157: 76-83.
VAN DER ELST, R.P., DE FREITAS, A.J., FIELDING, P.J., GARRATT, P.A., SCHLEYER, M.
and B. TOMALIN 1992 - Comments on the Transkei Sea Fisheries Regulations of October
1991. Unpubl. Rep. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 79: 1-12.
VAN DER ELST, R.P., GOVENDER, A. and S.A. CHATER 1993 - The biology and
status of the garrick (Lichia amia). In Fish, Fishers and Fisheries. Proceedings of
the Second South African Marine Linefish Symposium. Beckley, L.E. and van der
Elst R.P. (Eds.). Durban, 23-24 October 1992. Spec. Publ. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 2:
28-31.
VAN DER ELST, R.P., GOVENDER, A., FENNESSY, S.T. and N. DENTON 1990 Biology and stock assessment of the squaretail kob, Argyrosomus thorpei. Final
Report to SANCOR: 643-652.
VAN DER LINGEN, C. 1994 - Aspects of the early life history of galjoen Dichistius capensis. S.
Afr. J. mar. Sci. 14: 37-45.
VAN DER WALT, B.A. 1995 - Biology and stock assessment of the coastal fish Sarpa salpa,
(Sparidae) off the KwaZulu-Natal coast, South Africa. M.Sc. thesis, University of Natal,
Durban, 106pp.
VAN DER WALT, B.A. and L.E. BECKLEY 1997 - Age and growth of Sarpa salpa (Pisces:
Sparidae) off the east coast of South Africa. Fish. Res. 31: 241-248.
VAN DER WALT, B.A. and A. GOVENDER 1996 - Stock assessment of Sarpa salpa (Pisces:
Sparidae) off the KwaZulu-Natal coast, South Africa. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 17: 195-204.
VAN DER WALT, B.A. and B.Q. MANN 1998 - Aspects of the reproductive biology of Sarpa
salpa (Pisces: Sparidae) off the east coast of South Africa. S. Afr. J. Zool. 33(4): 241-248.
VENDIKTOVA, L.I. 1988 - On age determination methods for snoek (Thyrsites atun Euphr.
1791) from the southeast Atlantic, rate of growth and von Bertalanffy growth parameters.
Colln scient. Pap. Int. Commn SE Atl. Fish. 1988: 283-288.
VON BONDE, C. 1932 - Report of fisheries and marine biological survey on the R.S. Africana
Union S. Africa, Fish. Mar. Biol. Surv. Rep. 9: 4-128.
WALLACE, J.H. 1967 - The batoid fishes of the east coast of southern Africa. Part I: sawfishes
and guitarfishes. Investgl. Rep. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 15: 1-32.
252
WALLACE, J.H. 1975a - The estuarine fishes of the east coast of South Africa: I Species
composition and length distribution in the estuarine and marine environments. II
Seasonal abundance and migrations. Invest. Rep. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 40: 1-72.
WALLACE, J.H. 1975b - The estuarine fishes of the east coast of South Africa: III
Reproduction. Invest. Rep. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 41: 1-51.
WALLACE, J.H., KOK, H.M., BECKLEY, L.E., BENNETT, B., BLABER, S.J.M. and A.K.
WHITFIELD 1984a – South African estuaries and their importance to fishes. S. Afr. J. Sci.
80: 203-207.
WALLACE, J.H., KOK, H.M., BUXTON, C.D. and B.A. BENNETT 1984b - Inshore small-mesh
trawling survey of the Cape south coast. Part I. Introduction, method, stations and catches.
S. Afr. J. Zool. 19(3): 154-164.
WALLACE, J.H., KOK, H.M. and L.E. BECKLEY 1984c - Inshore small-mesh trawling survey
of the Cape south coast. Part II. Occurrence of estuarine associated fishes. S. Afr. J.
Zool. 19(3): 165-169.
WALLACE, J.H and SCHLEYER, M.H. 1979 - Age determination in two important species of
South African angling fishes the kob (Argyrosomus hololepidotus Lacep.) and the spotted
grunter (Pomadasys commersonnii Lacep.). Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Afr. 44: 15-26.
WALLACE, R.A. and K. SELMAN. 1981- Cellular and dynamic aspects of oocyte growth in
teleosts. Am. Zool. 21: 325-343.
WALLACE, J.H. and R.P. VAN DER ELST 1975 - The estuarine fishes of the east coast of
South Africa: IV. Occurrence of juveniles in estuaries, V. Biology, estuarine dependence
and status. Invest. Rep. Oceanogr. Res. Inst. 42: 1-63.
WALLACE, J.H. and R.P. VAN DER ELST 1983 - Marine linefish programme priority list. SANCOR
Res. Rep. 70: 103pp.
WALTER, J.P. and D.A. EBERT 1991 - Preliminary estimates of the age of the bronze whaler
Carcharhinus brachyurus (Chondrichthyes: Carcharhinidae) from southern Africa, with a
preliminary review of some life history parameters. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 10: 37-44.
WEATHERHALL, J.A. and R.T. YANG 1980 – Black marlin Makaira indica. In Summary report
of the billfish stock assessment workshop Pacific resources, R.S. Shomura (Ed). Honolulu
Laboratory, Southwest Fisheries Center, Honolulu, Hawaii, 5-14 December 1977. NOAA
Tech. Mem. NMFS: 51-57.
WHIBLEY, I. and P.A. GARRATT 1989 - The South African Fisherman - An angler’s guide to
tackle, bait, fish species, first aid, conservation and more than 100 coastal fishing resorts.
Struik Timmins, Cape Town: 220 pp.
WHITFIELD, A.K. 1990 – Estuarine fishes, illustrated by the spotted grunter. In Marine
recreational fishing: resource usage, management and research. Van der Elst, R.P. (Ed.). S.
Afr. Nat. Sci. Prog. Rep. 167: 73-75.
WHITFIELD, A.K. 1998 - Biology and ecology of fishes in Southern African estuaries.
Ichthyological Monographs of the J.L.B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology, 2: 1-223.
WHITFIELD, A.K. BECKLEY, L.E., BENNET, B.A., BRANCH, G.M, KOK, H.M., POTTER, I.C.,
and R.P. VAN DER ELST 1989 - Composition, species richness and similarity of
ichthyofauna in eelgrass Zostera capensis beds of southern Africa. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 8:
251-259.
WHITFIELD A.K. and H.M. KOK 1992 - Recruitment of juvenile marine fishes into permanently
open and seasonally open estuarine systems on the southern coast of South Africa.
Ichthyol. Bull. JLB Smith Inst. Ichthyol. 57: 39pp.
WILKE, C.G. and M.H. GRIFFITHS 1999 (in press) - Movement patterns of offshore linefish based
on mark-recapture. In Proceedings of the Third Southern African Marine Linefish
Symposium. Mann, B.Q. (Ed.), 27 April to 1 May 1999, Arniston, Western Cape. SANCOR
Occ. Rep. Ser. 5.
WILLIAMS, F. 1965 – Further notes on the biology of East African pelagic fishes of the families
Carangidae and Sphyraenidae. East Afr. Agric. For. J. 31: 141-168.
WINTNER, S.P. and G. CLIFF 1996 - Age and growth determination of the blacktip shark,
Carcharhinus limbatus, from the east coast of South Africa. Fish. Bull. 94(1): 135-144.
253
WINTNER, S.P and G. CLIFF 1999 - Age and growth determination of the white shark,
Carcharodon carcharias, from the east coast of South Africa. Fish. Bull. 97(1): 153-169.
WOOD, A.D. 1999 – A contribution towards the taxonomy of the ichthyoplankton and species
community and an understanding of its dynamics along the south-east coast of South Africa.
PhD thesis, Rhodes University, Grahamstown: 338pp.
YEH, S.Y., TRENG, T.C., HUI, C.F. and A. J. PENNEY 1997 - Mitochondrial DNA sequence
analysis on albacore, Thunnus alalunga, meat samples collected from the waters off
western South Africa and the eastern Indian Ocean.
YEUNG, W.S. and S.T. CHAN 1987 - The gonadal anatomy and sexual pattern of the
protandrous, sex reversing fish, Rhabdosargus sarba (Teleostei: Sparidae). J. Zool. 212(3):
521-532.
YOSHIDA, H.O. 1979 - Synopsis of biological data on tunas of the genus Euthynnus. U.S.
Dept. Commer. NOAA Technical Report, NMFS Circ. 429: 57pp.
YOUNG, P.C. and R.B. MARTIN 1982 - Evidence for protogynous hermaphroditism in some
lethrinid fishes. J. Fish. Biol. 21: 475-484.
YUEN, H.S.H. and P.M. MIYAKE 1980 – Blue marlin, Makaira nigricans. In Summary report of
the billfish stock assessment workshop Pacific resources, R.S. Shomura (Ed.). Honolulu
Laboratory, Southwest Fisheries Center, Honolulu, Hawaii, 5-14 December 1977. NOAA
Tech. Mem. NMFS: 13-19.
ZABALA, M., LOUISY, P., GARCIA-RUBIES, A., and V. GRACIA 1997 - Socio-behavioural
context of reproduction in the Mediterranean dusky grouper Epinephelus marginatus (Lowe,
18334)(Pisces, Serranidae) in the Medes Islands Marine Reserve (NW Mediterranean,
Spain). Sci. Mar. 61(1): 79-89.
254
INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES
OSTEICHTHYES
Acanthopagrus berda ........................123
Argyrops spinifer ...............................125
Argyrosomus inodorus ........................79
Argyrosomus japonicus .......................81
Argyrosomus thorpei ...........................83
Argyrozona argyrozona .....................127
Atractoscion aequidens .......................85
Boopsoidea inornata .........................129
Caranx ignobilis ..................................10
Caranx sem.........................................12
Caranx sexfasciatus............................14
Cheimerius nufar...............................131
Chirodactylus jessicalenorum..............27
Chrysoblephus anglicus ....................134
Chrysoblephus cristiceps ..................136
Chrysoblephus gibbiceps ..................139
Chrysoblephus laticeps.....................141
Chrysoblephus puniceus...................144
Coryphaena hippurus..........................34
Cymatoceps nasutus ........................147
Dichistius capensis..............................29
Dichistius multifasciatus ......................32
Dinoperca petersii...............................37
Diplodus cervinus hottentotus...........150
Diplodus sargus capensis .................152
Elops machnata ..................................39
Epinephelus albomarginatus.............113
Epinephelus andersoni .....................115
Epinephelus malabaricus..................117
Epinephelus marginatus ...................119
Epinephelus rivulatus........................121
Euthynnus affinis ................................95
Galeichthys ater ....................................6
Galeichthys feliceps ..............................8
Istiophorus platypterus........................50
Johnius dussumieri .............................87
Katsuwonus pelamis ...........................97
Lethrinus crocineus .............................60
Lethrinus nebulosus ............................62
Lichia amia..........................................16
Lithognathus aureti ...........................155
Lithognathus lithognathus .................158
Lithognathus mormyrus ....................161
Lutjanus argentimaculatus..................64
Makaira indica ....................................53
Makaira mazara ..................................55
Megalops cyprinoides .........................68
Neoscorpis lithophilus.......................111
Oplegnathus conwayi..........................70
Oplegnathus robinsoni ........................72
Otolithes ruber.....................................89
Pachymetopon aeneum ....................163
Pachymetopon blochii .......................165
Pachymetopon grande ......................167
Pagellus bellottii natalensis ...............169
Paracaesio xanthura ...........................66
Petrus rupestris .................................171
Platycephalus indicus..........................74
Polysteganus coeruleopunctatus ......174
Polysteganus praeorbitalis ................176
Polysteganus undulosus ...................178
Pomadasys commersonnii ..................43
Pomadasys kaakan.............................46
Pomadasys olivaceum ........................48
Pomatomus saltatrix............................76
Porcostoma dentata ..........................180
Pterogymnus laniarius.......................182
Rhabdosargus globiceps...................185
Rhabdosargus holubi ........................187
Rhabdosargus sarba.........................189
Sarpa salpa .......................................192
Scomber japonicus..............................99
Scomberoides commersonnianus .......18
Scomberomorus commerson ............101
Scomberomorus plurilineatus............103
Seriola lalandi......................................20
Sparodon durbanensis ......................194
Spondyliosoma emarginatum............196
Tetrapturus audax ...............................57
Thunnus alalunga..............................105
Thunnus albacares............................107
Thunnus obesus................................109
Thyrsites atun......................................41
Trachinotus africanus..........................23
Trachinotus botla.................................25
Umbrina canariensis ...........................91
Umbrina ronchus.................................93
Xiphius gladius ..................................198
255
CHONDRICHTHYES
Carcharhinus brachyurus ..................202
Carcharhinus leucas .........................204
Carcharhinus limbatus ......................207
Carcharhinus obscurus .....................210
Carcharius taurus.............................. 221
Carcharodon carcharias....................219
Dasyatis chrysonota chrysonota .......217
Galeorhinus galeus...........................227
Mustelus mustelus ............................229
Poroderma africanum........................225
Prionace glauca ................................213
Rhinobatos annulatus .......................223
Rhizoprionodon acutus .....................215
Triakus megalopterus........................231
256
INDEX OF COMMON ENGLISH NAMES
African pompano .................................23
Albacore ............................................105
Baardman............................................91
Banded galjoen ...................................32
Bartailed flathead ................................74
Beaked galjoen ...................................70
Belman ................................................91
Bigeye kingfish ....................................14
Bigeye trevally.....................................14
Bigeye tuna .......................................109
Black marlin.........................................53
Black musselcracker .........................147
Black porgy .......................................123
Black seabarbel .....................................6
Black seacatfish ....................................6
Black steenbras.................................147
Blacktail .............................................152
Blacktip kingfish ..................................12
Blacktip shark....................................207
Blue emperor.......................................62
Blue hottentot ....................................163
Blue marlin ..........................................55
Blue shark .........................................213
Blue stingray .....................................217
Bluefish ...............................................76
Blueskin.............................................174
Broadbill ............................................198
Bronze bream.................................... 167
Bronze whaler ................................... 202
Brown-spotted rockcod .....................115
Brusher..............................................194
Bull shark ..........................................204
Butcher's prick...................................121
Cape knifejaw......................................70
Cape salmon .......................................85
Cape stumpnose ...............................187
Captain fine rockcod .........................113
Carpenter ..........................................127
Catface rockcod ................................115
Cave bass ...........................................37
Chub mackerel ....................................99
Common mackerel ..............................99
Copper bream ...................................167
Copper shark.....................................202
Copper steenbras..............................171
Couta ................................................101
Cuckoo bass ..................................70,72
Cuda .................................................101
Daga salmon .......................................81
Dageraad ..........................................136
Damba ................................................29
Dane .................................................180
Dassie ...............................................152
Dolphinfish ..........................................34
Dorado ................................................34
Dusky kob ...........................................81
Dusky shark ......................................210
Eastern little tuna ................................95
Elf........................................................76
Englishman .......................................134
Fransmadam .....................................129
Galjoen................................................29
Garrick ................................................16
Geelbek...............................................85
Giant kingfish ......................................10
Giant queenfish ...................................18
Great white shark ..............................219
Grey nurse ........................................221
Half kob...............................................83
Halfmoon rockcod .............................121
Hottentot ...........................................165
Houndshark.......................................229
Indo-Pacific blue marlin.......................55
Indo-Pacific tarpon ..............................68
Jack.....................................................10
Javelin grunter.....................................46
Kabeljou ..............................................81
Karanteen .........................................192
Karel grootoog...................................129
Kawakawa...........................................95
King mackerel ...................................101
King soldierbream .............................125
Ladyfish............................................... 39
Lampfish .............................................37
Largemouth queenfish ........................18
Largespot pompano ............................25
Leervis ................................................16
Lesser sandshark..............................223
Longfin tuna ......................................105
Mackerel tuna......................................95
Mahimahi ............................................34
Malabar rockcod................................117
Mangrove snapper ..............................64
Marmora............................................161
Mata-hari.............................................62
Milk shark ..........................................215
Mini-kob ..............................................87
Miss Lucy ..........................................139
Mof grunter..........................................46
Moonfish .............................................25
Natal bank steenbras ..........................27
Natal fingerfin ......................................27
Natal knifejaw......................................72
Natal snoek .......................................103
Natal stumpnose ...............................189
Nondi...................................................87
Oceanic bonito ....................................97
Olive grunt...........................................48
257
Oxeye tarpon.......................................68
Panga................................................182
Perch.................................................123
Piggie ..................................................48
Pignose grunter.................................158
Pinky ...................................................48
Poenskop ..........................................147
Protea bream ......................................66
Pyjama catshark................................225
Pyjama shark ....................................225
Queen mackerel................................103
Red roman ........................................141
Red snapper........................................64
Red steenbras...................................171
Red stumpnose .................................139
Red tjor-tjor .......................................169
Ridgeback grey shark .......................210
River gurnard ......................................74
River snapper......................................64
Riverbream........................................123
Roman ..............................................141
Sailfish ................................................50
Sand gurnard ......................................74
Sand soldier ......................................169
Sand steenbras .................................161
Sand tiger..........................................221
Sandfish ..............................................74
Santer ...............................................131
Scavenger ......................................60,62
Scotsman ..........................................176
Seventy-four......................................178
Shad....................................................76
Silver bream ......................................189
Silver kob ............................................79
Silverfish............................................127
Skipjack tuna.......................................97
Slender baardman...............................93
Slender tasselfish................................93
Slimy mackerel....................................99
Slinger ...............................................144
Small kob ............................................87
Smooth-hound shark .........................229
Snapper kob........................................89
Snoek..................................................41
Soldier...............................................131
Soupfin shark ....................................227
Southern pompano..............................23
Southern yellowtail ..............................20
Spotted grunter ...................................43
Spotted gullyshark.............................231
Spotted ragged-tooth shark...............221
Springer ..............................................39
Squaretail kob .....................................83
Steentjie ............................................196
Stinker...............................................111
Stonebream ......................................111
Strepie...............................................192
Striped catshark ................................225
Striped marlin ......................................57
Swordfish ..........................................198
Tailor ...................................................76
Talang queenfish.................................18
Tasselfish............................................91
Tenpounder.........................................39
Tiger....................................................43
Trawl soldier......................................174
Trevally ...............................................10
Wave garrick .......................................25
Westcoast steenbras.........................155
White musselcracker.........................194
White seabarbel ....................................8
White seacatfish....................................8
White shark .......................................219
White steenbras ................................158
White stumpnose ..............................185
White-edge rockcod ..........................113
Yellowbelly rockcod...........................119
Yellowfin bream.................................189
Yellowfin emperor ...............................60
Yellowfin tuna....................................107
Yellowtail.............................................20
Yellowtail emperor...............................60
Yellowtail fusilier..................................66
Yellowtail kingfish................................12
Zambezi shark...................................204
Zebra.................................................150
258
APPENDIX I
AUTHORS AND REFEREES CONTRIBUTING TO THIS DOCUMENT
Department of Ichthyology and Fisheries Science
W.H.H. Sauer
A.J. Booth
JLB Smith Institute of Ichthyology
P. Cowley
PO Box 2083
Port Alfred
6170
Marine and Coastal Management
C.G. Attwood
R.J.M. Crawford
M. Goodman
M.H. Griffiths
M. Kroese
S.J. Lamberth
R.L. Tilney
C. Wilke
Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources
J.A. Holtzhausen
Private Bag X2
Rogge Bay
8012
PO Box 912
Swakopmund
Namibia
Natal Sharks Board
S. Dudley
Private Bag X2
Umhlanga Rocks
4320
L.E. Beckley
S.T. Fennessy
A. Govender
B.Q. Mann
P.V. Radebe
R.P. van der Elst
Port Elizabeth Museum
M.J. Smale
PO Box 10712
Marine Parade
4056
PO Box 13147
Humewood
6013
Pisces cc
A.J. Penney
22 Forest Glade
Tokai Road
Tokai
7945
South African Museum
L. Compagno
University of Cape Town
A.P. Aitkin
J.G.Field
T.P. Jayiya
N.J. Mc Queen
C.R. Sebastian
R. Wright
Rhodes University
PO Box 94
Grahamstown
6140
PO Box 61
Cape Town
8000
J. Boulle
J. Griffin
C. Manicom
I.T. Peters
M. Wilhelm
Department of Zoology
Private Bag
Rondebosch
7701
259
APPENDIX II
ABBREVIATIONS
CPUE
DBL
DIFS
DW
EEZ
F
FL
GSI
I&J
ICCAT
IGFA
IOTC
IRD
JLBSII
LJFL
M
MCM
MFMR
MPA
NMLS
NSB
ORI
PCL
PEM
ppt
SA
SAM
SAMLMA
SASAA
SBPR
SL
TL
UCT
Wt
YPR
Z
Catch per unit effort
Daily bag limit
Department of Ichthyology and Fisheries Science, Rhodes University
Disc width
Exclusive economic zone
Fishing mortality
Fork length
Gonad somatic index
Irwin & Johnson
International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas
International Game Fish Association
Indian Ocean Tuna Commission
Reunion
J.L.B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology
Lower jaw fork length
Natural mortality
Marine & Coastal Management
Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources, Namibia
Marine protected area
National Marine Linefish System
Natal Sharks Board
Precaudal length
Port Elizabeth Museum
Parts per thousand
South Africa
South African Museum
South African Marine Linefish Management Association
South African Shore Angling Association
Spawning biomass per recruit
Standard length
Total length
University of Cape Town
Weight/mass
Yield per recruit
Total mortality
260

Southern African marine linefish status reports

Transcription

Similar documents

VanDerMeulenFINAL NEW2.indd

DER KOMMISSAR hospitality design

I know what`s best for you.

berco express - The African Business Journal

Anatomically shaped foil for hair coloring

grand rapids, mi • van andel arena • sunday, october 16, 2016 • 6:00

Read Article - Designs Adrift

Sign Up Today - Michigan REALTORS

BotSoc KZN Inland Newsletter- Sept. 2015