Ancient Portraits in the J. Paul Getty Museum Vol. 1

Transcription

Occasional Papers on Antiquities, 4
Ancient Portraits
in the J. Paul Getty Museum Volume 1
MALIBU, CALIFORNIA 1987
J i ř íFrel, former Curator o f Antiquities;
A r t h u r Houghton, Acting Curator o f Antiquities; and
M a r i o n True, Curator o f Antiquities, Editors
Sandra Knudsen Morgan, Managing Editor
Benedicte Gilman, Manuscript Editor
Karen Schmidt, Production Coordinator
Elizabeth Burke, Photograph Coordinator
Patrick Dooley, Designer
Patricia Inglis, Assistant Designer
Kathe Flynn, Production Artist
Donald H u l l , Penelope Potter, Photographers, The
J. Paul Getty Museum
Typography by Andresen's Tucson Typographic
Service, Tucson
Printed by Alan Lithograph Inc.
Photographs reproduced i n this book have been
provided by the institution that owns the object
unless otherwise specified.
© 1987 The J. Paul Getty Museum
17985 Pacific Coast Highway
Malibu, California 90265-5799
(213) 459-7611
Information about other Getty Museum publica
tions may be obtained by w r i t i n g to the Bookstore,
The J. Paul Getty Museum, P.O. Box 2112, Santa
Monica, California 90406.
Cover: Portrait o f Caligula. White marble. Malibu,
The J. Paul Getty Museum 72.AA.155
Library o f Congress Cataloging i n Publication Data:
Ancient portraits i n the J. Paul Getty Museum.
(Occasional papers on antiquities ; 4)
English and German.
Includes bibliographies.
1. Portrait sculpture, Greek—Catalogs. 2. Por
trait sculpture, Roman—Catalogs. 3. Portrait sculp
ture, Ancient—Greece—Catalogs. 4. Portrait
sculpture, Ancient—Rome—Catalogs. 5. Portrait
sculpture—California—Malibu—Catalogs. 6. J. Paul
Getty Museum—Catalogs. I . Frel, Jiří.
I I . Houghton, A r t h u r Amory.
I I I . True, Marion. IV. J. Paul Getty Museum.
V. Series: Occasional papers on antiquities ;
no. 4, etc.
NB1296.3.A53 1987
733'074'019493
87-5647
I S B N 0-89236-071-2 (v. 1)
Contents
Non traditus vultus: B i l d n i s eines griechischen
Philosophen i m G e t t y M u s e u m
Joachim
5
Raeder
T h e Portraits i n M a r b l e o f Gaius Julius Caesar:
A Review
17
Flemming S. Johansen
T h e Portrait o f B r u t u s the Tyrannicide
Sheldon
41
Nodelman
T h e Sculpted Portraits o f Caligula
87
E i n antoninischer Frauenkopf aus Palmyra i n M a l i b u
Klaus
107
Parlasca
C h i l d - E m p e r o r s and H e i r s to Power i n T h i r d C e n t u r y Portraiture
115
Susan Wood
T w o Female Portraits f r o m the Early
Gallienic Period
Siri
Sande
137
This page intentionally left blank
Non traditus vultus
Bildnis eines griechischen Philosophen
im Getty Museum
Joachim Raeder
D i e Satire des Juvenal (Sat. 2,4f.) hat bis heute n i c h t
b i l d n i s s e n . T r o t z der i n d i v i d u e l l scheinenden
physio-
ihre Scharfe verloren. E n t l a r v t sie doch die B i l d n i s g a -
gnomischen M e r k m a l e sind diese Bildnisse n i c h t als rea-
lerien u n d Sammlungen von Originalmanuskripten
l i s t i s c h i m S i n n der p e r s o n l i c h e n A h n l i c h k e i t z u b e -
griechischer GeistesgroBen i n den V i l l e n romischer N o -
zeichnen. V i e l m e h r handelt es sich u m Charakterbilder
die zu der
oder Spiegelbilder der philosophischen Lehren u n d l i t e -
tatsachlichen Kulturbeflissenheit der Besitzer i m krassen
rarischen Werke der dargestellten Personlichkeit—um die
biles als sinnentleerte Reprasentationsobjekte,
W i d e r s p r u c h stehen. Seit d e m spaten H e l l e n i s m u s ge-
Visualisierung des geistigen Wesens der Person. Diese
horten Dichter-, Philosophen- und Politikerbildnisse
i n t e r p r e t i e r e n d e Gestaltungsweise
zur Ausstattung offentlicher B i l d u n g s z e n t r e n sowie p r i -
festgelegtes physiognomisches
1
setzt n a t i i r l i c h e i n
Typenrepertoire voraus,
vater V i l l e n u n d Palaste. GroB war der B e d a r f an diesen
d u r c h dessen a l l g e m e i n b e k a n n t e B i l d z e i c h e n d e m
imagines illustrium,
B e t r a c h t e r die Aussage des B i l d n i s s e s
die das philosophische W e l t b i l d , die
Belesenheit u n d B i l d u n g des Villenbesitzers oder Stif2
ters herausstellen s o l l t e n . I n der Regel hat m a n bei der
wurde.
7
verstandlich
Es sei i n diesem Z u s a m m e n h a n g
n u r a u f die
l i t e r a r i s c h e n Versuche solcher T y p e n b i l d u n g h i n g e -
Z u s a m m e n s t e l l u n g einer B i l d n i s g a l e r i e K o p i e n nach
3
wiesen: a u f die Gestalten der N e u e n K o m o d i e oder a u f
vorhandenen Bildnisstatuen verwendet,
die v o n alters
die Charaktere des Theophrast.
her als Ehren-, Weihe- oder Grabstatuen i n den A k a d e -
A u c h i n der B i l d n i s k u n s t war d e m antiken Betrachter
m i e n u n d H e i l i g t u m e r n oder a u f d e n o f f e n t l i c h e n
die T y p i s i e r u n g etwa des Philosophenbildnisses, die z.B.
4
Platzen standen. N i c h t selten j e d o c h diirften d e m B i l d -
den K y n i k e r allein durch die auBere Erscheinung klar
hauer alte Vorlagen fur ein B i l d n i s gefehlt haben. Fiir
v o n d e m Stoiker unterscheidet,
diesen Fall weiB P l i n i u s der A l t e r e (N.H.
35,9) v o n
w o h l vertraut. I n der m i t t l e r e n Kaiserzeit beschreibt A l -
folgender Praxis zu berichten: " Q u i n i m m o etiam, quae
k i p h r o n (Ep. 19 [ I I I 55]) f i i n f Philosophen so pragnant,
bis i n die
Spatantike
n o n sunt, f i n g u n t u r , pariuntque desideria n o n traditos
daB m a n v e r s u c h t ist, w e n n es e i n e n S i n n ergabe,
vultus, sicut i n H o m e r o evenit" (Sind keine Bildnisse
entsprechende Portrats unter d e m erhaltenen
vorhanden,
er-
lerbestand zu suchen. So w i r d der Epikureer als eitler
w e c k e n das Verlangen nach nicht iiberlieferten Gesichts-
M a n n m i t gepflegten Haaren u n d m a c h t i g e m V o l l b a r t
so w e r d e n solche sogar erdacht u n d
ziigen, w i e es bei H o m e r der Fall ist). D i e Bildnisse
des H o m e r
5
u n d der Sieben Weisen
6
geben uns
Denkma-
oder der Pythagoraer m i t bleicher Gesichtsfarbe,
langen
eine
Haarstrahnen, die v o m Scheitel bis a u f die B r u s t fallen,
V o r s t e l l u n g v o n derartigen p o s t u m e n R e k o n s t r u k t i o n s -
m i t l a n g e m , s p i t z e m B a r t , m i t einer Hakennase u n d
Abkiirzungen:
Raeder
othek von Pergamon m i t Portrats von Dichtern und Historikern:
Lorenz (a.O., A n m . 1), 3f., 35.
4. V g l . H . Wrede, AM 97 (1982), 235ff.
5. Richter 1, 45ff.
6. Richter 1, 81ff.; H . v. Heintze, Gymnasium 84 (1977), 437f£;
dieselbe, i n Festschrift F. Brommer, Hrsg. U . Hockmann und A. K r u g
(Mainz, 1977), 163ff.; allgemein zu Darstellungen der Sieben Weisen s.
zuletzt: K . Gaiser, Das Philosophenmosaik in Neapel. Abhandlungen der
Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften (1980).
2. E i n erbarmliches Versatzstiick war z.B. das Menander(?)Bildnis i m Peristyl der Casa degli A m o r i n i dorati: Richter 2, 230£, Nr.
14, Abb. 1561-1563; s. dazu P. ZankerJ<//94 (1979), 492f.
3. Die alteste iiberlieferte Bildnisgalerie befand sich i n der B i b l i -
7. Z u diesem wichtigen Problem vgl.: E. Voutiras, Studien zu In
terpretation und Stil griechischer Portrats des 5. und frtihen 4. Jhs. (Bonn,
1980), 19f£; L. Giuliani, Gnomon 54 (1982), 51ff.
J. Raeder, Die statuarische Ausstattung der Villa
Hadriana bei Tivoli (Frankfurt, 1983).
Richter
G. Richter, The Portraits of the Greeks, Bd. 1—3
(London, 1965).
1. Einen Uberblick bietet hierzu: T h . Lorenz, Galerien von
griechischen Philosophen- und Dichterbildnissen bei den R'omern (Mainz,
1965); vgl. vor allem die Ausstattung der Villa dei Papiri: D. Pandermalis, AM 86 (1971), 173ff.
6
Raeder
Abb. la. Bildnis ernes Philosophen. Malibu, The J. Paul Getty Museum 71. AA.284.
Abb. lc. Seitenansicht des Philosophen i n Abb. la.
Abb. lb. Seitenansicht des Philosophen i n Abb. la.
zusammengekniffenen
L i p p e n beschrieben. A h n l i c h e
C h a r a k t e r b i l d e r geben L u k i a n u n d bereits 500 Jahre
zuvor T h e o k r i t .
Das
8
festgelegte
Zeichensprache
S c h e m a der
physiognomischen
g i l t es bei der B e u r t e i l u n g jedes g r i e
chischen Bildnisses i m A u g e zu behalten, z u m a l die
T y p i s i e r u n g sich n i c h t allein a u f die p o s t u m e n R e k o n struktionsbildnisse beschrankte. So ist es bei der I n t e r
pretation eines Bildnisses w e n i g sinnvoll, nach i n d i v i d u e l l e n Z t i g e n z u suchen.
D e n n o c h beherrscht
die
E r f o r s c h u n g des griechischen Portrats fast a l l e i n die
Frage nach der Identitat des Dargestellten u n d nach der
B i l d n i s t r e u e . D i e k u n s t h i s t o r i s c h e E i n o r d n u n g eines
griechischen Bildnisses blieb daher w e i t h i n u n g e k l a r t
(oder w a r v o n der B e n e n n u n g abhangig); Probleme der
Bildnisaussage beachtete m a n k a u m . M i t e n z y l o p a d i schen W e r k e n w i e Gisela Richters The Portraits
of the
Greeks w a r beabsichtigt, d e m aus historischen Q u e l l e n
bekannten
L e b e n s l a u f der G r o B e n des A l t e r t u m s
m o g l i c h s t j e w e i l s das ' G e s i c h t ' der P e r s o n l i c h k e i t
gegeniiberzustellen.
9
Unbenannte Bildnisse f i n d e n f o l -
gerichtig i n diesem System keinen Platz. D o c h erlauben
8. Lukian, Timon 54; Theokrit, Eidyllia 14,5; vgl. auch Athen. I V
163e-164a.
9. S. Richter 1, S. X ; dieses Werk hat jiingst einen Nachfolger i n
Taschenbuchformat gefunden: G. Hafner, Prominente der Antike (Dus-
Abb. Id. Riickansicht des Philosophen i n Abb. la.
7
8
Raeder
gerade die n i c h t benannten
Bildnisse einen
un-
O b e r l i d i n e i n e m unorganisch steilen B o g e n v o n der
befangenen, n i c h t m i t einem groBen N a m e n belasteten
T r a n e n k a r u n k e l auf; es ( i b e r s c h n e i d e t
B l i c k a u f die ktinstlerische F o r m des plastischen Werkes
A u g e n w i n k e l das U n t e r l i d , das zur Wange h i n leichte
u n d a u f die t y p i s i e r t e n p h y s i o g n o m i s c h e n
T r a n e n s a c k e b i l d e t . D i e I n n e n z e i c h n u n g der A u g e n
Chiffren,
am
auBeren
b i l d e n e i n groBerer u n d ein kleinerer H a l b k r e i s , die u n
d u r c h die der Dargestellte charakterisiert ist.
Das J. Paul G e t t y M u s e u m erwarb 1971 aus d e m N e w
ter d e m Rand des Oberlids sitzen, w o b e i aber auch der
Yorker K u n s t h a n d e l (friiher romischer Kunsthandel) die
groBere den Rand des unteren Lids nicht bertihrt. D i e
e t w a l e b e n s g r o f i e B i l d n i s b i i s t e eines M a r i n e s ( A b b .
lineare F i i h r u n g der Lider u n d Brauen, das d e k o r a t i v -
la—d), die v o n e i n e m machtigen V o l l b a r t u n d i i p p i g e n
ornamentale Schema ihrer Anlage, die U m r i B z e i c h n u n g
Haupthaar
beherrscht
wird.
1 0
W i e zu einem K r a n z
der Iris u n d der Pupille u n d der ziellose, leicht k o n -
aufgebauscht, umschreiben die Haare das breite Gesicht.
v e r g i e r e n d e B l i c k datieren die N e u g e s t a l t u n g
U b e r der S t i r n , an den Schlafen u n d i m N a c k e n ist das
Gesichtes i n das fruhe 5. Jh. n . C h r .
Haar i n s i c h e l f o r m i g gebogene L o c k e n aufgelost u n d
des
12
D e r kraftige, zur Seite gestrichene Schnurrbart,
der
scheint w i r r durcheinander zu w i r b e l n , w a h r e n d die K a -
v o n d e m k l e i n e n M u n d n u r die U n t e r l i p p e erscheinen
l o t t e n u r v o n ganz flach geschichteten Strahnen bedeckt
laBt, scheint ebenfalls v o n der U m a r b e i t u n g betroffen
ist. I n langen, dicken Strahnen fallt das Barthaar breit
zu sein. Ebenso ist die Anlage des Gewandes a u f der
gefachert a u f die Brust. D e r K o p f sitzt ungebrochen a u f
l i n k e n B r u s t h a l f t e verandert w o r d e n . D i e schrag z u r
der b r e i t e n B i i s t e , deren A u s s c h n i t t die Ansatze der
M i t t e der Brust fuhrenden, grob eingeschnittenen Falten
O b e r a r m e u n d ein GroCteil der B r u s t einschlieBt. U b e r
gehoren sicher nicht z u m urspriinglichen Bestand.
13
die l i n k e Schulter u n d die l i n k e B r u s t ist i n einer fur
I m Z u g e der W i e d e r v e r w e n d u n g des Bildnisses i n der
Philosophenbildnisse konventionellen A r t ein M a n t e l
Spatantike oder n o c h spater w u r d e die Biiste an i h r e n
gelegt, der a m R i i c k e n entlang gefuhrt ist u n d a u f der
Randern beschnitten. W i e a u f der Riickansicht zu e r k e n -
Riickseite der rechten Schulter wieder erscheint.
nen, ist m i t groben Schlagen ein Teil der l i n k e n Schulter
Das B u s t e n b i l d n i s ist stark bestoCen u n d mehrmals
m i t d e m aufliegenden Gewand u n d i n unsauberer
iiberarbeitet w o r d e n . E i n e n tiefen E i n g r i f f i n die
F i i h r u n g der ehemals zugehorige Biistensockel entfernt
u r s p r u n g l i c h e Substanz bedeutete die U m g e s t a l t u n g des
worden.
Gesichtes.
Biiste an der Wand einen Eisendiibel m i t e i n e m R i n g i n
A m Rand des Gesichtes verlauft ein roher
14
Erst i n der Neuzeit hat m a n zur Sicherung der
Steg, der darauf hinweist, daB das gesamte Gesicht fur
die Riickseite der Biistenstiitze getrieben, w i e m a n es
eine W i e d e r v e r w e n d u n g des Bildnisses u m g e a r b e i t e t
v o r allem aus romischen S a m m l u n g e n k e n n t .
w o r d e n ist. Dieser Steg m a r k i e r t den U b e r g a n g v o n der
alten, zur neuen, tiefer i m M a r m o r liegenden Schicht
des Gesichtes.
15
Weiter f i i h r t eine bisher nicht beriicksichtigte R e p l i k
(Abb. 2a—b).
16
Sie ist i n der Sala dei B u s t i des M u s e o
Pio C l e m e n t i n o i m Vatikan ausgestellt, hatte aber nach
11
deut-
der unzureichenden A b b i l d u n g i m V a t i k a n - K a t a l o g v o n
Wangen-
W. A m e l u n g k a u m identifiziert werden k o n n e n , z u m a l
k n o c h e n senkt sich schon unter d e m G e w i c h t des A l t e r s
sie i m K a t a l o g t e x t w e g e n der w e n i g i n d i v i d u e l l e n
Das 'neue' Gesicht des Mannes kennzeichnen
liche Altersziige. U n t e r den hervorstehenden
das Fleisch der Wangen ein w e n i g hinab u n d staut sich
Gesichtsziige u n d "nach d e m Charakter des Ganzen" als
v o r der Nasolabialfalte zu einem leichten W u l s t . D i e
Gotterbuste, insbesondere des Poseidon,
angesprochen
A u g e n b r a u e n sind, zu einer F o r m e l erstarrt, als d i i n n e r
w u r d e . Sie e r s c h e i n t h i e r nach N e u a u f n a h m e n
Grat wiedergegeben u n d i n h o h e m B o g e n w e i t i n die
Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts, R o m , die i c h Ste-
S t i r n gezogen. D i e A u g e n liegen etwas schrag i n relativ
phan Steingraber verdanke.
g r o B e m A b s t a n d v o n der schmalen Nasenwurzel. D u r c h
die U m a r b e i t u n g b e d i n g t , s t e i g t das
bandformige
seldorf und Wien, 1981). V g l . hierzu die Bemerkungen von B.
Schmaltz, MarbWPr, 1985, 17ff.
10. Malibu 71. AA.284; C. Vermeule und N . Neuerburg, Catalogue of
the Ancient Art in the J. Paul Getty Museum (1973), 10, Nr. 17; Greek and
Roman Portraits from the f. Paul Getty Museum (1973), 17, Nr. 11; J. Frel,
Greek Portraits in the J. Paul Getty Museum (Malibu, 1981), 94f., Nr. 44.
Ellen Weski, die das Bildnis i n Malibu studieren konnte, danke ich fur
einige wichtige Hinweise.
11. U m wieviel tiefer das 'neue Gesicht' liegt, laBt sich auch aus der
konkaven Profillinie der Stirn ermessen; zu umgearbeiteten Portrats
vgl. zuletzt: H . Jucker, Jdl 96 (1981), 236ff; M . Bergmann und P.
des
Das B i l d n i s gehorte ehemals zur Ausstattung der V i l l a
Hadriana bei T i v o l i . D o r t hat es G a v i n H a m i l t o n 1769
Zanker, fdl 96 (1981), 317ff.
12. V g l . vor allem das Miinchener Portrat, Glyptothek 379 ( H . P.
L'Orange, Studien zur Geschichte des spantantiken Portrats [Oslo, 1933],
75f., 142, N r . 101, Taf. 192 und 193; derselbe, AntK 4 [1961], 69f£, Taf.
28,3 und 4; W. v. Sydow, Zur Kunstgeschichte des spdtantiken Portrats im
4. fh. n. Chr. [Bonn, 1969], 93ff; Spatantike und fruhes Christentum,
Ausstellungskatalog [Frankfurt, Liebieghaus, 1983], Nr. 58).
13. In der Gewandanlage vgl. die Biiste eines Evangelisten i n Istan
bul: W. F. Volbach, Fruhchristliche Kunst (Miinchen, 1958), Taf. 74. Es
muB offen bleiben, ob es sich bei der Wiederverwendung der Biiste i n
der Spatantike immer noch u m das Bildnis eines griechischen Phi-
Abb. 2a. Bildnis eines Philosophen. Vatikan, Museo Pio
Clementino 627. Photo: D A I , Rom.
i m sogenannten
Pantanello gefunden u n d k u r z darauf
9
Abb. 2b. Seitenansicht des Philosophen i n Abb. 2a. Pho
to: D A I , Rom.
groBeren Biiste verbunden gewesen sein, die vielleicht
d e m Vatikan als " B u s t o f a Philosopher, singular for its
w e g e n des beschadigten Randes neu beschnitten w u r d e .
h i g h preservation" z u m K a u f angeboten.
Vollkommen
D i e etwas hoher liegende l i n k e Schulter, der i m rechten
i n t a k t (abgesehen v o n einer fehlenden B a r t l o c k e a m
W i n k e l nach u n t e n umbiegende Armansatz u n d z a h l -
l i n k e n E n d e des Schnurrbarts) u n d ohne
Erganzung
reiche Spuren a u f der O b e r f l a c h e weisen a u f e i n e n
sitzt das B i l d n i s ungebrochen a u f d e m a n t i k e n B r u s t -
ehemals hier aufliegenden M a n t e l , w i e er zur k o n v e n -
stiick. Freilich ist auch diese K o p i e m o d e r n iiberarbeitet:
t i o n e l l e n Ausstattung v o n Philosophenbiisten gehorte.
A n der O b e r f l a c h e w u r d e n die V e r w i t t e r u n g s s p u r e n
beseitigt, u n d der Bustenausschnitt ist verandert.
A m e l u n g hielt den Btistenabschnitt fur den m o d e r n
17
Welch ganz anderen Charakter besitzt n u n das Portrat
i m Vatikan: W i i r d e u n d gebieterische W u c h t kennzeichnen diese Replik. D i e Strenge m a g z u m Teil der Ver-
bearbeiteten Rest einer Statue. N a c h m e i n e n Beobach-
scharfung
t u n g e n k a n n diese V e r m u t u n g wegen des Verlaufs der
K o p i s t e n anzurechnen sein; der E i n d r u c k w i r d aber v o r
u n d V e r h a r t u n g der F o r m e n d u r c h
den
Schulterlinie u n d der F o r m des Armansatzes n i c h t r i c h -
a l l e m d u r c h die h o c h uber der S t i r n sich t i i r m e n d e n
t i g sein. V i e l m e h r muB der K o p f u r s p r u n g l i c h m i t einer
H a a r l o c k e n hervorgerufen. W i e eine toupierte Periicke
losophen handelte oder u m eine christliche Figur.
14. Die Biiste ist m i t Sockel etwa vorzustellen wie Richter 1, Abb.
52-54, 129; B d . 2, Abb. 1306-1309; Bd. 3, Abb. 2034-2037 und 2038.
15. K . Fittschen und P. Zanker, Katalog der romischen Portrats in den
Capitolinischen Museen und anderen kommunalen Sammlungen der Stadt
Rom, B d . 3 (Mainz, 1983), Nr. 10, 13, 19, 20, 33, 50, 63, 116, 145, 155
und 171.
gehabt haben wie die i n Erbach, auf der ein Metrodor-Bildnis sitzt: K .
Fittschen, Katalog der antiken Skulpturen in Schlofi Erbach (Berlin, 1977),
Nr. 9.
Der merkwiirdig runde Verlauf der Schulterlinie findet sich ganz
ahnlich wieder bei einem trajanischen Portrat i n Privatbesitz: H .
Jucker und D. Willers, Hrsg., Gesichter: Griechische und romische
Bildnisse aus Schweizer Besitz, Ausstellungskatalog (Bern, Historisches
Museum, 1982/83), Nr. 48.
16. Vatikan, Museo Pio Clementino 627. W. Amelung, Die Sculpturen des Vaticanischen Museums, Bd. 2 (Berlin, 1908), 546, N r . 356 A ,
Taf. 71; Raeder, 103f., Kat. Nr. 1119.
17. Die Biiste diirfte i m urspriinglichen Zustand etwa die Form
10
Raeder
w i r k t die bewegte Haarmasse, die i n einzelne dicke,
sicher i n die hadrianische Z e i t . C h a r a k t e r i s t i s c h f u r
b i s w e i l e n w i e aufgeblasen erscheinende L o c k e n geglie-
hadrianische K o p i e n
dert ist. I n die S t i r n fallen i n leicht schrager L i n i e ver-
Gegensatz der w e i t g e s p a n n t e n ,
1 8
i s t der b e w u B t a n g e s t r e b t e
fein geglatteten
Fla-
haltnismaBig flache, nach l i n k s gebogene Sichellocken,
c h e n k o m p a r t i m e n t e des Gesichtes zur
deren V e r l a u f bei der Biiste i n M a l i b u gerade n o c h zu
d u r c h L i c h t - u n d Schatteneffekte
aufgerauhten,
erkennen ist. I n einer Gegenbewegung sind daruber die
D i e k a u m d i f f e r e n z i e r t e n u n d g r o B f l a c h i g angelegten
L o c k e n i n mehrere Ebenen iibereinander geschichtet, so
Gesichtspartien sind an den Randern klar v o m H a a r -
daB die S t i r n besonders h o c h u n d steil w i r k t . I n dicken
saum begrenzt u n d i n ein scharf konturiertes A c h s e n -
belebten
Haarkappe.
B i i s c h e l n b e d e c k e n die H a a r e die S c h l a f e n u n d die
system eingespannt,
O h r e n ; a u f der rechten Kopfseite sind sie nach i n n e n
Brauen, die hart geschnittenen A u g e n u n d der kantige
das d i e h o r i z o n t a l g e f i i h r t e n
z u m Gesicht h i n gebogen, a u f der l i n k e n stehen sie nach
Nasenriicken b e s t i m m e n . D i e A u g e n sind i n der fur die
auBen ab. Diesen aufgebauschten H a a r r i n g schlieBen i m
hadrianische Z e i t typischen F o r m gestaltet: D e r l i n s e n -
N a c k e n enger zusammengerollte L o c k e n , w a h r e n d die
f o r m i g e Augapfel ist durch eine Furche leicht v o n der
K a l o t t e n u r ganz flach angelegt ist (Abb. 2b). D e r voile
T r a n e n k a r u n k e l abgesetzt u n d v o n s c h a r f k a n t i g v o r -
W a n g e n - u n d K i n n b a r t ist i n lange, w u l s t i g e L o k -
springenden, i n einem gleichmaBig flachen B o g e n ge
kenstrahnen unterteilt, die i n e i n e m vergleichsweise re-
fiihrten Lidern umschlossen.
gel maBi gen R h y t h m u s geordnet sind. O h n e U b e r g a n g
k r u m m e n d e n Haar- u n d B a r t l o c k e n sind auBerst massig
geht der Wangenbart i n den starken, gleichmaBig nach
g e b i l d e t . D i e e i n z e l n e L o c k e ist v o n s p a r s a m v e r -
u n t e n gestrichenen Schnurrbart iiber.
wendeten,
19
D i e etwas trage sich
flachen R i t z l i n i e n s k i z z e n a r t i g u n t e r t e i l t .
I n d e m breiten Gesicht sind die meisten i n d i v i d u e l l e n
Gegeneinander sind die L o c k e n klar d u r c h tiefe, schat-
Z u g e z u g u n s t e n idealer F o r m e n u n t e r d r i i c k t ; g l a t t e
tenbildende Einschnitte abgegrenzt. Zipflige L o c k e n s i -
F l a c h e n u n d s y m m e t r i s c h verlaufende L i n i e n b e s t i m -
cheln dieser A r t finden sich v o r allem bei den Portrats
m e n die Physiognomie. A l l e i n die leicht zusammenge-
des A n t i n o o s .
zogenen,
a u f f a l l e n d s c h m a l e n B r a u e n u n d die t i e f
2 0
I m Vergleich dazu ist die Haargestaltung des
Bild-
liegenden k l e i n e n A u g e n lassen etwas v o n d e m strengen
nisses i n M a l i b u weniger reprasentativ, kraftloser u n d
Wesen des Dargestellten verspiiren, die leicht eingefal-
v o n d e m K o p i s t e n ohne Verstandnis fiir das L o c k e n -
lenen Wangen weisen a u f das schon hohere A l t e r h i n .
system ausgefiihrt. D e r B a r t ist i n lange, a u f der O b e r -
Es m u B k a u m h e r v o r g e h o b e n
w e r d e n , daB
das
seite abgeflachte Bander zerlegt, die g l e i c h f o r m i g v o n
romische B i l d n i s i n der Giite u n d Genauigkeit der A u s -
langgezogenen
f i i h r u n g w e i t iiber der Biiste i n M a l i b u steht. I n den
Einschnitte u n d tiefe Unterschneidungen versuchte der
Details v o n Haar u n d B a r t enthalt es eine Fulle kleiner
K o p i s t v o r allem d e m B a r t plastische Kraft zu geben, die
Z i i g e , die an der K o p i e i n M a l i b u verwischt oder ver-
die Einzellocke selbst nicht besitzt. I n der F o r m g e b u n g
nachlassigt sind. M a n betrachte n u r die genau i n der
der Haare ist die antoninische Hermenbiiste des H o m e r
M i t t e l a c h s e v o m K i n n ausgehenden B a r t l o c k e n : E i n e
(Apollonios-Typus) i m K a p i t o l i n i s c h e n M u s e u m
kurze u n d eine lange Strahne sind d o r t bei der Biiste i n
K o p i e i n M a l i b u nah verwandt. I n die m i t t l e r e Kaiserzeit
M a l i b u zu e i n e m langen B a n d zusammengefaBt;
w e i s e n der B i i s t e n a u s s c h n i t t
links
F u r c h e n begleitet s i n d . D u r c h g r o b e
m i t den w e i t
2 1
der
her-
davon a u f halber H o h e erscheint bei der qualitativ bes-
abreichenden
seren R e p l i k i n e i n e m Z w i c k e l eine kleine Locke, die bei
B i l d u n g der B r u s t m u s k u l a t u r u n d des Fleisches i n der
der anderen fehlt. I n der Gestaltung der Bartspitzen, die
Armachsel.
a u f der B r u s t aufliegen, geht allerdings die K o p i e i n
A r m a n s a t z e n s o w i e d i e sehr w e i c h e
Z w e i f e l l o s i i b e r l i e f e r t die s o r g f a l t i g e h a d r i a n i s c h e
M a l i b u iiber die an d e m B i l d n i s i m V a t i k a n erhaltenen
K o p i e i m V a t i k a n das griechische V o r b i l d genauer. D o c h
M o t i v e hinaus. D e r m e r k w i i r d i g schiefe V e r l a u f des
unverkennbar ist auch sie v o n S t i l m e r k m a l e n gepragt,
Bartendes
an der vatikanischen R e p l i k scheint j e d o c h
die d e m O r i g i n a l sicher n i c h t eigen w a r e n . D i e k o -
eine Folge der m o d e r n e n Z u r i c h t u n g der Biiste zu sein.
p i e n k r i t i s c h e n Untersuchungen der letzten Jahre haben
D i e vatikanische R e p l i k gehort nach Stil u n d F u n d o r t
gezeigt, daB die K o p i e n hadrianischer Z e i t zwar sehr
18. Z u m hadrianischen Stil: Raeder, 205ff.
19. V g l . die Korenkopie aus der Villa Hadriana, Inv. Nr. 2233 ( V H
3): AntPl 13 (1973), Taf. 24; Raeder, 216f., Taf. 9.
20. C. W. Clairmont, Die Bildnisse des Antinoos (Rom, 1966), N r . 3,
Taf. 5; Nr. 33, Taf. 25. V g l . unter den Skulpturen aus der Villa
Hadriana besonders die Kopfe von einer Polyphemgruppe: Raeder,
Taf. 21.
21. R. und E. Boehringer, Homer: Bildnisse und Nachweise (Breslau,
1939), 56f, N r . 1, Taf 21a, 22, 23, 43a, 44b und e; Richter 1, 48, Kat.
Nr. I l l 1, Abb. 25-27.
22. V g l . vor allem V. Kruse-Berdolt, Kopienkritische Untersuchungen
zu den Portrats des Epikur, Metrodor und Hermarch (Gottingen, 1975),
Abb. 3b. Kopf der Statue des Tiber. Photo: D A I , Rom.
Abb. 3a. Seitenansicht der Statue des Tiber. Tivoli, Villa
Hadriana, Museum 2261. Photo: D A I , Rom.
treu
d i e m o t i v i s c h e n E i n z e l h e i t e n des
Vorbildes
i i b e r l i e f e r n , aber d o c h stark d e m h a d r i a n i s c h e n
wollen unterworfen sind.
2 2
D i e starre,
11
Stil-
formelhafte
A n l a g e der Gesichtsteile, die Glatte der Gesichtsflachen
B i l d n i s a u f den ersten B l i c k an das Portrat des
sthenes ( A b b . 4a—c)
(Abb. 5)
2 5
2 4
Anti-
v o r a l l e m aber an den Krates
dessen v o n sechs Repliken iiberliefertes B i l d
d u r c h das b e k a n n t e
G e m a l d e aus der
Farnesina
2 6
u n d die K a n t i g k e i t der E i n z e l g l i e d e r s i n d k e n n z e i c h -
gesichert zu sein scheint. H i e r w i e d o r t handelt es sich
n e n d fur den hadrianischen Z e i t s t i l u n d lassen z.B. den
u m e i n Philosophenportrat m i t bewegtem, das Gesicht
K o p f eines FluBgottes aus der V i l l a H a d r i a n a
23
zu e i n e m
u m s c h r e i b e n d e n Haupthaar, das w i e eine K a p p e d e n
engen Verwandten des vatikanischen Bildnisses w e r d e n
breit zerflieBenden Gesichtsformen e n t g e g e n w i r k t , m i t
(Abb. 3 a - b ) .
e i n e m kraftigen, nach u n t e n gestrichenen
Schnurrbart,
K e i n Z w e i f e l durfte dariiber a u f k o m m e n , daB es sich
der stufenlos i n den langen Vollbart iibergeht. Sieht m a n
bei diesem durch z w e i K o p i e n iiberlieferten Typus u m
genauer h i n , kann—abgesehen v o n einer allgemeinen
das B i l d n i s eines Philosophen handelt. N i c h t n u r der
t y p o l o g i s c h e n oder stilistischen Verwandtschaft—keine
Bustenabschnitt der R e p l i k i n M a l i b u u n d der machtige,
Rede v o n einer engeren Beziehung, oder i m Fall des
W i i r d e evozierende Vollbart verraten diesen Rang, auch
Krates sogar v o n e i n e m Replikenverhaltnis, sein. So be-
der h o c h g e w o l b t e Schadel u n d die B e t o n u n g der steilen
fmdet sich b e i m Krates an der Stelle des h o h e n L o c k e n -
Stirn als Sitz des Geistes durch die aufgebauschten
toupets iiber der S t i r n eine flache Lockenspinne, deren
Stirn-
haare charakterisieren den Dargestellten als Denker.
Glieder w i e z u f a l l i g i n die S t i r n zu fallen scheinen; k e i n
D i e I n t e r p r e t e n der B i i s t e i n M a l i b u e r i n n e r t e das
e i n z i g e r L o c k e n z u g auch an den Seiten hat b e i d e m
103f., 106, 126f. und 172f. Kruse betont, daB die Gesichtsmodellierungen hadrianischer Kopien fur die Rekonstruktion des Originals
auBer Betracht bleiben mussen; s. auch Raeder, besonders 227.
23. Raeder, Taf. 24.
24. Richter 2, 179f£, Abb. 1037-1056; B. Andreae, i n Eikones: Fest
schrift H. Jucker, 12. Beiheft, AntK, 1980, 40f£, Taf. 12-13.
25. H . Fuhrmann, RomMitt 55 (1940), 86ff; L. Curtius, RomMitt 59
(1944), 61f£; Richter 2, 185f, Abb. 1076-1078, 1080 und 1083. Das
Krates-Bildnis w i r d i m allgemeinen i n das 4. Jh. datiert, s. zuletzt: E.
Voutiras (a.O., A n m . 7), 191.
26. Richter 2, Abb. 1079; I . Bragantini und M . de Vos, Museo
Nazionale Romano: Lepitture, Bd. 2.1 (Rom, 1982), 93£, Taf. 29.
12
Raeder
Abb. 4a. Bildnis des Antisthenes. Vatikan, Museo Pio
Clementino 2888.
Abb. 4c. Seitenansicht des Antisthenes.
Abb. 4b. Seitenansicht des Antisthenes.
Abb. 5. Bildnis des Krates. Neapel, Museo Nazionale
6162. Photo: nach Arndt-Bruckmann, Taf. 623.
anderen B i l d n i s eine E n t s p r e c h u n g ; der V o l l b a r t
des
w u l s t i g e Einzelgebilde aufgelost,
die sich
13
dennoch
Krates ist dartiberhinaus geschlossener i n der Gesamt-
d u r c h die gleichformige A n o r d n u n g u n d den geschlos-
f o r m u n d lauft nach u n t e n spitz zu.
senen G e s a m t u m r i B zu einem einheitlichen Gefiige z u -
Ganz anders—auch i n der G e s a m t e r s c h e i n u n g — d a s
sammenschlieBen.
M i t v o r w i e g e n d optischen M i t t e l n ,
B i l d n i s des Antisthenes (Abb. 4a—c), dessen D a t i e r u n g
d.h. d u r c h tiefe, schattenerzeugende Einschnitte, w i r d i n
i n das 2. V i e r t e l des 2. Jhs. v . C h r . k i i r z l i c h B . Andreae
den Haaren u n d i m B a r t eine k l e i n t e i l i g e B e w e g u n g der
uberzeugend darlegte.
27
Das Gesichtsrelief des K y n i k e r s
Oberflache
erzielt. H i e r b e i handelt es sich u m
ist selbst bei der hadrianischen K o p i e an keine strenge
staltungsmittel, die erst b e i m GroBen Fries des
Achse g e b u n d e n ,
altars v o n Pergamon Parallelen fmden.
stark b e w e g t u n d k l e i n t e i l i g . V i e l -
faltige Wechsel v o n H o h e n u n d Tiefen sowie b e w u B t
a u f A s y m m e t r i e angelegte Gesichtshalften,
A u g e n p a r t i e b e i m ZusammenstoBen
die i n der
GeZeus-
B e i den klassischen Bildnissen, besonders ausgepragt
beim Platon-Bildnis,
28
betonen markante Zasuren
den
der ungleich be-
kubischen Gestaltblock des Schadels. D i e flache S t i r n
w e g t e n B r a u e n zu einer m e r k w u r d i g e n V e r s c h i e b u n g
b r i c h t a m auBeren Rand der Brauenbogen u n d der J o c h -
der K n o r p e l an der Nasenwurzel fuhrt, lassen i n d e m
b e i n e h a r t z u d e n Schlafen u m ; ebenso b i e g e n
Antisthenes einen echten Vertreter hochhellenistischen
W a n g e n u n d der B a r t i n der H o h e der auBeren B e -
die
Stils erkennen. D i e h o c h i n die S t i r n gezogenen B r a u e n -
g r e n z u n g des Schnurrbartes
bogen u n d die iiber der S t i r n m i t t e aufsteigende L o c k e n -
diese Weise besitzt der K o p f klar k o n t u r i e r t e Flanken
t o l l e s p i e g e l n das u n r u h i g e , d r a n g e n d e Wesen
des
D a r g e s t e l l t e n w i d e r , w o an derselben Stelle b e i d e m
m i t e i n e m eigenen,
artikuliert einwarts. A u f
f u r die P l a s t i z i t a t des
w i c h t i g e n Aussagewert.
Kopfes
D i e reale r a u m l i c h e T i e f e n -
B i l d n i s M a l i b u / V a t i k a n e i n g l e i c h m a B i g verlaufendes,
erstreckung, die die klassische Plastik kennzeichnet, ist
strenges L i n i e n s y s t e m u n d k a l l i g r a p h i s c h e
b e i d e m B i l d n i s M a l i b u / V a t i k a n a u f eine b i l d h a f t e ,
Ordnung
b e s t i m m e n d s i n d . B e i der G e g e n i i b e r s t e l l u n g
der
Bildnisse fallt bei unserem Typus die Ruhe, A b g e k l a r t -
zweidimensionale Erscheinung reduziert. D e r K o p f ist
v o l l i g i n die Flache a u s g e b r e i t e t .
29
D i e Wangen u n d
heit, j a auch E r s t a r r u n g u n d V e r a r m u n g des F o r m e n -
Schlafen sind w i e nach v o r n geklappt; die Schlafenhaare,
reichtums
der Wangenbart u n d selbst die Haare iiber der S t i r n sind
auf.
Gegeniiber
der a u f B e w e g u n g
Dissonanz der E i n z e l f o r m e n beruhenden
und
Gestaltungs-
so ausgestellt,
daB sie m i t der Gesichtsflache i n einer
weise, die den Bart, die Haare, die P h y s i o g n o m i e u n d
Ebene zu liegen scheinen. A l l e Elemente sind allein a u f
den K o p f u m r i B
die Vorderansicht ausgerichtet,
des A n t i s t h e n e s - B i l d n i s s e s
erfiillt,
k n i i p f t die k l a r e G l i e d e r u n g des A u f b a u e s
unseres
den R a u m nach h i n t e n u n d lassen s o m i t das V o l u m e n
Bildnisses an klassische N o r m e n an. N i c h t ohne G r u n d
des Kopfes n i c h t erkennen. D e r fassadenhafte A u f b a u
ftihlte sich A m e l u n g an Gotterbilder der 2. Halfte des 4.
d e g r a d i e r t die F l a n k e n des K o p f e s z u v o l l i g e r B e -
sie v e r m i t t e l n n i c h t i n
deutungslosigkeit. D a r i n unterscheidet
Jhs. erinnert.
Z w e i f e l l o s steht unser Typus mehr i n der T r a d i t i o n
klassischer P h i l o s o p h e n b i l d n i s s e als der
Antisthenes.
sich unser
B i l d n i s t y p u s auch v o n K o p f e n der hochhellenistischen
Z e i t . Das Gesicht des A t t a l o s - B i l d n i s s e s ( A b b . 6) i n
3 0
Streng h o r i z o n t a l u n d v e r t i k a l verlaufende Achsen glie-
Berlin z.B.
dern die Physiognomie; Gesicht, B a r t u n d
Sanft z u r Flanke abgerundete W a n g e n , B r a u e n
Haarkappe
ist aus k o n v e x e n T e i l f o r m e n aufgebaut.
und
sind deutlich voneinander geschiedene, eigengewichtige
Schlafen u n d eine zur M i t t e sich v o r w o l b e n d e S t i r n m a
Kompositionselemente. N a t u r l i c h weisen andere K e n n -
cho n f u r d e n B e t r a c h t e r
zeichen—die Oberflachengestaltung
der
Frontalansicht
die
plastische
Tiefenerstreckung des Gesichtes i n feinen A b s t u f u n g e n
Formgefuge des Kopfes—weit iiber die nachklassische
bis h i n zu den O h r e n erfahrbar. Erst i m Spathellenismus
u n d fruhhellenistische K u n s t hinaus: D i e L o c k e n sind i n
m i t den Figuren des Telephosfrieses
27. Gegen diese Datierung sprachen sich, ohne neue Argumente
vorzubringen, aus: K . Schefold, i n Praestant Interna: Festschrift U.
Hausmann, Hrsg., B. von Freytag, D. Mannsperger und F. Prayon
(Tubingen, 1982), 88, A n m . 56; E. Bayer, Fischerbilder in der
hellenistischen Plastik (Bonn, 1983), 34ff.; vgl. jetzt auch G. de Luca,
AvP, Bd. 11.4 (Berlin, 1984), 103, Nr. S24.
Suisse Romande (Geneva, 1975), Nr. 264.
29. Wie bei der Vorderansicht ergibt auch der UmriB des Profils ein
klares Rechteck; vgl. auch die scharf von der Front abgesetzten
Flanken des Epikur-Bildnisses.
u n d das
ZumVergleich m i t dem Philosophenbildnis i m Vatikan ziehe man
die Replik aus der Villa Hadriana i n der Galleria Geografica i m Va
tikan heran: Andreae (a.O., A n m . 24), Taf. 12,1; 13,1 und 5.
28. M a n vgl. die Replik i m Schweizer Privatbesitz: Richter 2, Abb.
942—944; R. Boehringer, Platon: Bildnisse und Nachweise (Breslau,
1935), 28f., Taf. 78-92; J. Dorig, Art Antique: Collections privies de
u n d des k l e i n e n
30. AvP, Bd. 7.1, 144ff., Nr. 130, Taf. 31 und 32; L. Alscher,
Griechische Plastik, Bd. 4 (Berlin, 1957), 153f., Abb. 75; M . Bieber, The
Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age, rev. Ausgabe (Locust Valley, N Y , 1961),
113, Abb. 454, 456-457; R. Lullies und M . Hirmer, Griechische Plastik,
4. Ausgabe (Miinchen, 1979), Nr. 262; R. Ozgan, A A, 1981, 502ff.,
Abb. 10 und 12; W. Geominy und R. Ozgan, A A, 1982, 125f. Ozgan
datiert den Kopf—meines Erachtens zu friih—um 220 v.Chr.
14
Raeder
den spaten H e l l e n i s m u s datierten W e r k e n z.B. der K o p f
des alten K a p i t o l i n i s c h e n Kentauren (Abb. 7a—b)
des Satyrs Borghese.
33
32
oder
A u c h bei diesen K o p f e n hat die
Flanke v o l l i g an B e d e u t u n g verloren, k o m m t das
be-
wegte, das Gesicht r a h m e n d e L o c k e n g e w i r r , das b e i
d e m alten Kentauren i n ganz ahnlicher Weise w i e bei
unserem Philosophen kranzartig u m die flache K a l o t t e
w i r b e l t , a l l e i n i n der F r o n t a l a n s i c h t des Kopfes z u r
G e l t u n g . D e r H a a r k r a n z des alten K e n t a u r e n ist i n
einzelne L o c k e n b u s c h e l aufgelost,
die sich i n e i g e n -
w i l l i g e n B e w e g u n g e n uber der S t i r n a u f t u r m e n u n d an
den Schlafen w e i t abstehen, w a h r e n d b e i d e m
Satyr
Borghese—hierin dem Philosophenbildnis ahnlich—
H a u p t - u n d Barthaar eine einheitlichere
Lockenmasse
b i l d e n . D e r Physiognomie der beiden ' w i l d e n
Gestalten
fehlen i n gleicher Weise das fur die hellenistische K u n s t
typische Pathos, die vielfaltigen H e b u n g e n ,
u n d asymmetrischen
Senkungen
V e r s c h i e b u n g e n des
Gesichts-
reliefs. Feste Achsen gliedern hier das Gesicht i n k l a r
umgrenzte Teile, i n die die buschigen Augenbrauen, die
Stirnfalten u n d die Falten an der N a s e n w u r z e l w i e O r namente eingesetzt erscheinen. Eine a u f Ausgleich v o n
Dissonanzen bedachte RegelmaBigkeit des
Formgefuges
lassen es zu einer starren Maske werden, die v o n der
Abb. 6. Bildnis des Attalos I . Berlin-Ost,
Museen, Antikensammlung.
heftigen B e w e g u n g des Kopfes gegenuber d e m K o r p e r
Staatliche
v o l l i g u n b e r i i h r t ist. I n denselben
gehoren auch der Poseidon J a m e s o n
attalischen Weihgeschenks w e i c h t die schwellende Plas t i z i t a t der Z e i t des G r o B e n Frieses einer
flachigen
erstarrten,
u n d fassadenhaften Gesichtsstruktur,
die das
Stilzusammenhang
34
u n d der K e n t a u r
a u f e i n e m Kassettenrelief v o m H i e r o n i n Samothrake,
das d u r c h auBere A n h a l t s p u n k t e i n die 2. H a l f t e des 2.
Jhs. v . C h r . d a t i e r t w i r d .
3 5
SchlieBlich kann hier
das
P h i l o s o p h e n b i l d n i s M a l i b u / V a t i k a n so ausgepragt k e n n -
K r a t e s - B i l d n i s (Abb. 5) angefugt werden. B e i der w o h l
zeichnet. E t w a i n demselben A b s t a n d v o n hochhelle-
flavischen K o p i e i n N e a p e l
nistischen K o p f e n sah G. K r a h m e r den K o p f des A n y t o s
G e s i c h t s f o r m e n i n der Frontalansicht besonders
3 6
ist das Z e r f l i e B e n der
auf-
an d e m er
fallig, d e m die nach innen gerichteten Lockenzipfel der
v o r a l l e m die Verhartung u n d Entseelung der Gesichts-
Haarkappe entgegenwirken. Weit gespannte, undifferen-
teile u n d das Fehlen der "schwellenden Weichheit" der
zierte W o l b u n g e n anstelle der fur den hohen Hellenismus
F o r m e n bemangelte. Es ist hinzuzufugen, da8 w i e bei
bezeichnenden
d e m P h i l o s o p h e n b i l d die Stirn, die Wangen, die Haare
l i c h e m Fleisch b e s t i m m e n das Gesicht. I n einer
u n d der B a r t allein i n der vorderen Ebene des Gesichtes
Philosophenbildnis M a l i b u / V a t i k a n ganz verwandten A r t
i h r e plastische W i r k u n g entfalten u n d a u f diese aus-
fallt der voile Bart sehr breit v o n den Wangen, bieten die
aus der K u l t b i l d g r u p p e v o n L y k o s o u r a ,
31
dem
Flanken des Kopfes keine die Vorderansicht erganzenden
gerichtet sind.
D a 6 es sich h i e r b e i n i c h t u m die E i g e n a r t
Polaritat v o n Knochengeriist u n d beweg-
eines
a k r o l i t h e n K u l t b i l d e s sondern u m e i n Stilelement h a n delt, das die kunstgeschichtliche Stellung eines Werkes
A s p e k t e u n d l i e g e n a u f d e m H i n t e r k o p f ganz f l a c h
tibereinander
geschichtete
Haarstrahnen.
D i e bei der vergleichenden Stilanalyse beobachteten
zu definieren erlaubt, belegen unter den allgemein i n
Gesichtsziige,
d i e d i e S t i l s t u f e des V o r b i l d e s
des
31. G. Krahmer, Hellenistische Kopje. Nachrichten von der
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen, Neue Folge 1 (Gottingen, 1936), 239; BrBr, 480; Alscher (a.O., A n m . 30), 79f£, Abb.
26c; Bieber (a.O., A n m . 30), 158, Abb. 665-667.
32. Raeder, Taf. 28.
33. C. Weickert, AEphem, 1953/54, 151ff., Taf. 1 und 2.
34. J. Charbonneaux, MonPiot 46 (1952), 25ff; Hommes et Dieux de
la Grece Antique, Ausstellungskatalog (Briissel, Musees Royaux d A r t
et d'Histoire, 1982), 80ff, Nr. 32.
35. Ph. W i l l i a m Lehmann, The Pedimental Sculptures of the Hieron in
Samothrace (Locust Valley, N.Y., 1962), 23, Abb. 39 und 40; Samothrace,
Bd. 3.1, 237f, 248f, Abb. 187 und 204; W. Oberleitner u.a., Funde aus
Ephesos und Samothrake: Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, Katalog der
Antikensammlung, Bd. 2 (Wien, 1978), Nr. 238, Abb. 118.
Abb. la. Seitenansicht des Kapitolinischen Kentauren.
Rom, Museo Capitolino 658. Photo: D A I , Rom.
15
Abb. 7b. Kopf des Kapitolinischen Kentauren. Photo:
D A I , Rom.
B i l d n i s t y p u s M a l i b u / V a t i k a n kennzeichnen, seien n o c h
d e m S a t y r n Borghese weisen das P h i l o s o p h e n b i l d n i s
e i n m a l k u r z zusammengefaBt:
Das flachig i n die V o r -
M a l i b u / V a t i k a n etwa i n das 3. V i e r t e l des 2. Jhs. v . C h r .
deransicht ausgebreitete Gesichts-, H a a r - u n d B a r t -
E i n weiterer Vergleich laBt diese Einschatzung fast zur
geftige
bestimmen
den
plastischen
Aufbau
des
G e w i B h e i t werden. D e m bereits genannten B i l d n i s A t -
B i l d n i s s e s . D i e G l i e d e r u n g der P h y s i o g n o m i e i n
talos' I (Abb. 6) w u r d e i n einer j i i n g e r e n , sicher j e d o c h
gegengleiche Teile u n d die strenge, fast kalligraphische
vor
O r d n u n g der Haare verraten den erstarrten, k o n v e n -
datierenden Fassung ein Haarkranz aufgesetzt, der d e m
t i o n e l l e n Stilcharakter, der an 'klassischen N o r m e n o r i -
unseres P h i l o s o p h e n b i l d n i s s e s i n frappierender Weise
das
Ende
des
pergamenischen
Reiches
zu
entiert ist. D e m steht n u r scheinbar die A u f l o s u n g der
gleicht. D i e dicken, zahfliissig sich w i n d e n d e n L o c k e n -
Haare i n E i n z e l l o c k e n entgegen,
da sie sich t r o t z der
biischel an den Schlafen u n d i m N a c k e n besonders aber
k l e i n t e i l i g e n Oberflachenbewegung zu e i n e m v o l l k o m -
das tiber der S t i r n sich aufturmende 'Toupet' s t i m m e n
m e n geschlossenen Gewolbe, welches das Gesicht u m -
(iberraschend genau i i b e r e i n u n d s i n d b e i d e m
s p a n n t , u n d der B a r t z u e i n e m d i c h t e n
losophen n u r d u r c h die schonlinige B o r t e der untersten
Rechteck
zusammenfugen.
S t i r n l o c k e n bereichert.
Phi
37
D e r stilistische Abstand z u m Antisthenes-Bildnis
Individualisierende Merkmale, Kategorien w i e U n -
sowie zu anderen hochhellenistischen K o p f e n u n d die
verwechselbarkeit, Ahnlichkeit u n d Wiedererkenn-
V e r w a n d s c h a f t m i t W e r k e n des m i t t l e r e n 2. Jhs. w i e
barkeit des Dargestellten spielen bei diesem B i l d n i s eine
d e m K o p f aus L y k o s o u r a , d e m alten K e n t a u r e n u n d
g e r i n g e R o l l e . I n seiner a k a d e m i s c h e n ,
V g l . weiterhin das Bildnis einer Ptolemaerin ( H . Kyrieleis, Bildnisse
der Ptolemder [Berlin, 1975], M 13, Taf. 105) und den 'Poseidon aus
Pergamon (AvP, Bd. 7.1, 165f., Nr. 149, Taf. 36; Alscher [a.O., A n m .
30], 85ff., Abb. 30; J. Schafer, AntPl, Bd. 8 [Berlin, 1968], 62, Abb. 17).
37. E i n ahnlich aufgeturmtes Toupet iiber der Stirn scheint auch ein
spathellenistisches Herrscherbildnis i m Schweizer Privatbesitz zu tragen, das i n der klassizistischen Ausgeglichenheit und Fassadenhaftigkeit des Gesichtes unserem Philosophen gleicht: Gesichter (a.O., A n m .
17), N r . 7.
36. Gute Frontal- und Seitenansicht: P. Arndt und F. Bruckmann,
Griechische und Romische Portrats (Miinchen, 1891-1912), Taf. 623 und
624; vgl. Richter 2, Abb. 1083.
stilistisch
16
Raeder
r u c k g e w a n d t e n Erscheinung ist es v i e l m e h r B i l d e r n des
tat u n d G l e i c h f o r m i g k e i t entspricht, geben d e m B i l d n i s
Zeus, Poseidon u n d A s k l e p i o s nahe. W i e b e i v i e l e n
k i i h l e Ruhe u n d gebieterische Strenge.
r e t r o s p e k t i v e n B i l d n i s s e n des spaten H e l l e n i s m u s ,
denen e i n a h n l i c h 'leerer' A u s d r u c k eigen i s t ,
38
k a n n die
U n t e r den bekannten philosophischen S c h u l r i c h t u n g e n k o n n t e m a n i n d e m B i l d n i s wegen des gepflegt
Frage nach der u r s p r i i n g l i c h intendierten Aussage des
a n m u t e n d e n AuCeren a m ehesten einen Vertreter des
Bildnisses n u r m i t allgemeinen Schlagworten b e a n t w o r -
E p i k u r e e r t u m s v e r m u t e n , aber es fehlt i h m die l e i d e n -
tet w e r d e n . V o n selbstbewuBter W i i r d e zeugen die hohe,
schaftlich geistige Spannung, die d e m B i l d n i s des S c h u l -
d u r c h das ' L o c k e n t o u p e t ' betonte S t i r n u n d der m a c h -
g m n d e r s eigen ist, auch die M i l d e u n d Gtite u n d die
tige V o l l b a r t . Das k u n s t v o l l frisierte, zur K a l l i g r a p h i e
A t t i t u d e des Lehrers. Eher diirfte es sich u m das B i l d n i s
n e i g e n d e H a u p t - u n d Barthaar v e r r a t selbstgefalliges
eines P h i l o s o p h e n der F r i i h z e i t h a n d e l n ,
Pathos. D i e unbewegte Augenpartie m i t den k l e i n e n ,
B i l d h a u e r des 2. Jhs.
dem
i n E r m a n g e l u n g einer
der
indi-
k r i t i s c h blickenden A u g e n u n d die einfache A n l a g e des
v i d u e l l e n B i l d n i s v o r l a g e den Habitus einer Vater- oder
Gesichtes, das d e m klassizistischen Streben nach A x i a l i -
H e i l s g o t t h e i t gab.
39
Archaologisches I n s t i t u t
der U n i v e r s i t a t K i e l
38. Offensichtlich kam es i m spaten Hellenismus i n erster Linie
darauf an, die zu dieser Zeit beliebten Bildnisgalerien m i t Kopfen zu
fullen, da die Identitat des Dargestellten ja durch Beischriften angegeben werden konnte. Beispiele fur verwandte retrospektive, u n serem Philosophen auch stilistisch nahestehende Bildnisse: Herodot
(Richter 1, Abb. 795-818), Euripides Typus Rieti (Richter 1, Abb.
768-778), sogenannter Lykurg (Richter 1, Abb. 370-375).
39. Da immerhin die eine Buste aus einer Bildnisgalerie der Villa
Hadriana stammt, war es sicher ein Mann von Rang. Erneut konnte
man den Namen des Heraklit ins Spiel bringen, dessen Bildnis i n der
hadrianischen Galerie der 'Pisonenvilla bei Tivoli (Lorenz [a.O., A n m .
1], 23) und auch i n spatantiken Zyklen (Zeuxippos-Thermen i n K o n stantinopel; Philosophenmosaik i n Antalya: s. zu beiden R. Stupperich, IstMitt 32 [1982], 210ff.) nicht fehlte. Vorschlage fur das noch
nicht identifizierte Heraklit-Bildnis machten: J. J. Bernoulli, Griechische Ikonographie, Bd. 1 (Miinchen, 1901), 84£; Richter 1, 80£; Suppl.
18; J. Frel, Contributions a Vlconographie Grecque (Prague, 1969), 17f£;
G. SchwarzundJ. Frel, GettyMusJ 5 (1977), 161ff.
The Portraits in Marble of Gaius Julius Caesar:
A Review
I n 1824 E. Q. V i s c o n t i and A . M o n g e z first treated the
problem of the portraits of Caesar in Iconographie
sar
Ro-
is the
marble bust i n the
Vatican, Sala dei
Busti,
1
f o r m e r l y M u s e o C h i a r a m o n t i 107 (figs, la—b). T h e
total
maine. I n 1882 J. J. B e r n o u l l i made the first large s t u d y o f
h e i g h t is 0.52 m , the h e i g h t o f the head alone 0.26
m . It
all
is o f w h i t e marble. T h e nose, neck, breast, and
the
preserved
Ikonographie,
portraits
of
Caesar i n
Romische
i n w h i c h he c o u n t e d s i x t y Caesar portraits.
modern. The
surface o f the
face has
chin
are
been cleaned,
and
I n the one h u n d r e d years since that p u b l i c a t i o n , another
the
seventy Caesar portraits have been added. I n some cases
d r i l l e d hole. T h e head is a copy, p r o b a b l y A u g u s t a n , o f a
the a t t r i b u t i o n s date back to the Renaissance, and several
b r o n z e o r i g i n a l that can
o f the portraits were i n fact carved i n that p e r i o d . O t h e r s
gustus. A s to the i d e n t i t y , there can be no d o u b t that this
are w o r k s o f the seventeenth, eighteenth, or n i n e t e e n t h
is
c e n t u r y ; a n u m b e r are m o d e r n fakes, b u t some are
bles Caesar as he appears o n the denarius c o i n e d by
gen
uine, ancient heads, t h o u g h n o t representations o f Cae
sar.
Portraits o f Caesar s t i l l appear o n the art m a r k e t ,
at least p o r t r a i t s that are
i d e n t i f i e d as such by
or
wishful
m o u t h has
been recut. I n the
be
r i g h t ear
dated to the
a p o r t r a i t o f Caesar, since the
M e t t i u s i n 44 B.C. (figs. 2 a—b).
is a deeply
reign o f
head closely
Au
resem
M.
2
T h r e e portraits are related to the C h i a r a m o n t i p o r t r a i t
and
m u s t be considered replicas o f the
same type.
The
t h i n k e r s . D e s p i t e this large n u m b e r , there are at present
f i r s t is a p o r t r a i t i n V i e n n a , N e u e B u r g ,
o n l y about t w e n t y ancient portraits that can
S a m m l u n g (figs. 3a—b). T h e bust and the l o w e r part o f
definitely
be i d e n t i f i e d as Julius Caesar.
The
m o s t i m p o r t a n t s u r v i v i n g p o r t r a i t o f Julius Cae
Recent bibliography:
F. Johansen, "Antichi ritratti di C. Giulio Cesare nella scultura," Analecta Romana Instituti Danici 4 (Copenhagen, 1967), pp. 7—68 (with
older bibliography).
F. Johansen, "Den skaldede Caesar," MeddNC 25 (1968), pp. 1-14.
U . Jantzen, "Caesar M a t t e l , " RomMittlS (1968), pp. 170ff.
T h . Lorenz, "Das Jugendbildnis Caesars," AthMitt 83 (1968), pp.
242ff.
D . Kiang, "Colonia Iulia Viennensium," SchwMbll 19, cahier 74
(1969), pp. 33ff.
H . Seyrig, " U n portrait de Jules Cesar," RevNum 6.2 (1969), pp.
53-54.
Datsoulis-Stavrides, "Tete de Jules Cesar au Musee de Corinthe,"
AAA 3 (1970), pp. 109ff.
Alfoldi, Caesar in 44 v. Chr.: Das Zeugnis der Mtinzen, m i t einer
Revision der Stempel und Stempelverbindungen von D r . Wendelin Kellner, v o l . 2, Antiquitas, Reihe 3 (Bonn, 1974).
J C. Baity, " U n nouveau portrait de Cesar aux Musees royaux d'art
et d'histoire de Bruxelles," i n J. S. Boersma et al., eds., Festoen:
opgedragen aan A. N. Zadoks-Josephus Jitta (Groningen, 1976), p.
49.
J. Frel, "Caesar," Getty Musf b (1977), pp. 55-62.
J- M . C. Toynbee, Roman Historical Portraits (London, 1978), pp.
30-39.
H . von Heintze, " E i n spatantikes Bildnis Caesars," i n G. Kopcke and
M . Moore, eds., Studies in Classical Art and Archaeology: A Tribute
to Peter H. von Blanckenhagen (Locust Valley, N . Y . , 1979), pp.
291ff.
Estensische
3
the neck, the nose, and the ears are m o d e r n . T h e
overall
h e i g h t is 0.31 m ; the h e i g h t o f the head alone, 0.17 m .
It
G. Siebert, " U n portrait de Jules Cesar sur une coupe a medallion de
Delos," BCH104 (1980), pp. 189ff.
K . P. Erhart et al., Roman Portraits: Aspects of Self and Society, First
Century B.c.-Third Century A.D., ex. cat. (Santa Cruz, University o f
California, and Malibu, The J. Paul Getty Museum,. 1980), pp.
26-29.
J. Frel, Roman Portraits in the f. Paul Getty Museum, ex. cat. (Tulsa,
Oklahoma, Philbrook A r t Center, and Malibu, The J. Paul Getty
Museum, 1981), pp. 16-19.
F. Johansen, Ber0mte romerefra republikkens tid (Copenhagen, 1982).
L. Cozza, " U n nuovo ritratto di Cesare," Analecta Romana Instituti
Danici 12 (1983), pp. 64-69.
Abbreviations:
Bernoulli
J. J. Bernoulli, Romische Ikonographie, vol. 1 (Stuttgart,
1882).
Johansen
F. Johansen, " A n t i c h i ritratti di C. Giulio Cesare nella
scultura," Analecta Romana Instituti Danici 4 (Copenhagen,
1967), pp. 7-68.
Poulsen
V. Poulsen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek: Les Portraits Romains,
vol. 1 (Copenhagen, 1962; 2nd ed., Copenhagen, 1973).
Zanker
P. Zanker, "Das Bildnis des M . Holconius Rufus," AA,
1981, p. 349.
A l l photographs, except where noted, are from the photo archives o f
the N y Carlsberg Glyptotek.
1. Bernoulli, p. 156, no. 6 and p. 174, no. 6; Johansen, p. 25, pi. 1.
2. A . Alfoldi (supra, recent bibliography), pi. 6.
3. Bernoulli, no. 27; Johansen, p. 27, pi. 3.
18
Johansen
Figure la. Vatican, Sala dei Busti (formerly Museo Chiaramonti 107).
Gains Julius Caesar
Figure lb. Profile o f bust, figure la.
19
20 johnsen
Figure 2a. Denarius o f M . Mettius. Obverse. Venice,
Museo Archeologico.
Figure 3a. Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Neue
Burg, Estensische Sammlung 1 1493 (II 5530).
Figure 2b. Reverse o f denarius, figure 2a.
Figure 3b. Profile o f bust, figure 3a.
Gains Jnlius Caesar
Figure 4a. Turin, Museo di Antichitä 129.
Figure 5a. Parma, Museo Nazionale d'Antichitä, Palazzo
Farnese.
21
22
Johansen
Figure 6a. Pisa, Camposanto.
is m a d e o f w h i t e marble. A second p o r t r a i t , also o f
w h i t e m a r b l e , is i n T u r i n , M u s e o d i A n t i c h i t a (figs.
4
4a—b). T h e top o f the head is missing along a cleanly
6
(figs. 6a—b). T h e Camposanto head is made o f w h i t e
marble and is 0.295 m h i g h ; the face is 0.17 m h i g h . I n
1979 Helga v o n Heintze expressed the o p i n i o n that the
cut surface, and the missing part was p r o v i d e d i n a n t i q
Camposanto
u i t y either i n marble or i n plaster. T h e t o t a l height is
V i l l e n - D e k o r a t i o n s Stuck."
0.32 m ; that o f the head alone, 0.21 m . T h e t h i r d replica
and its m o d e r n restorations removed, i t w o u l d be pos
o f the C h i a r a m o n t i type is a p o r t r a i t i n Parma, M u s e o
p o r t r a i t is a m o d e r n copy, " e i n ublisches
7
I f the p o r t r a i t was cleaned
sible to see h o w m u c h o f i t is ancient. O n e x a m i n a t i o n ,
Nazionale d A n t i c h i t a , Palazzo Farnese (figs. 5a—b). It is
however, i t is clear that the Camposanto p o r t r a i t is an
5
a small portrait, o n l y 0.11 m h i g h , o f w h i t e marble. T h e
ancient replica o f the C h i a r a m o n t i type. I n consequence,
bust and h a l f o f the nose are m o d e r n . T h e Parma head
the portraits that have f o r m e r l y been taken to be replicas
was f o u n d i n 1812 i n the excavations o f the O l d V i l l a o f
o f the Camposanto
Velleia, near Piacenza.
replicas o f the C h i a r a m o n t i portrait. These are:
For a l o n g t i m e i t was generally accepted that
p o r t r a i t must rather be considered
the
C h i a r a m o n t i p o r t r a i t type existed i n o n l y four replicas
F l o r e n c e , Palazzo P i t t i , Sala d i G i o v a n n i da
and that the type was separate f r o m the g r o u p o f p o r
G i o v a n n i (figs. 7a—b); very m u c h restored
8
traits that f o l l o w e d a portrait i n the Camposanto i n Pisa
4. N o t i n Bernoulli; Johansen, p. 26, pi. 2.
5. Bernoulli, no. 23; Johansen, p. 27, pi. 4.
6. Bernoulli, no. 22, fig. p. 172; Johansen, p. 28, pi. 6. S. Seddis,
ed., Camposanto Monumentale di Pisa. Antichita, vol. 2 (Modena, 1984),
no. 68.
7. von Heintze (supra, recent bibliography), p. 291.
8. N o t i n Bernoulli; Johansen, pi. 7.
9. The bust, nose, and mouth are modern. The surface is harshly
L e i d e n (figs. 8a—b); no restorations
San
9
10
cleaned. White marble. Total H : 0.59 m ; H o f head alone: 0.30 m .
10. W. C. Braat, OudhMeded 20 (1939), pp. 24f£, figs. 20-22;
Johansen, p. 30, pi. 8; Romer am Rhein: Ausstellung des RomischGermanischen Museums Koln, ex. cat. (Cologne, Kunsthalle, 1967), A6,
p. 134; Artefact: 150 Jaar Rijksmuseum von Oudheden, Leyden 1818-1968,
ex. cat. (Leiden, Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, 1968), pi. 92. In the
nose is drilled a hole that seems to be ancient. White marble w i t h
grayish patina, traces after fire on the back. H : 0.28 m .
Gains Julius Caesar
Figure la. Florence, Galleria Palatina de Palazzo Pitti,
Sala di Giovanni da San Giovanni.
Figure 8a. Leiden, Rijksmuseum van Oudheiden
1931/32, 46.
Figure lb. Profile of bust, figure 7a.
Figure 8b. Profile of bust, figure 8a.
23
24
Johansen
Figure 9a. Rome, Palazzo dei Conservatori, Museo
Nuovo, Sala 35, no. 2538.
Rome, Palazzo dei Conservatory M u s e o N u o v o , Sala
35,
no. 2538 (figs. 9a—b); a s m a l l b u t f i n e free
copy
Copenhagen,
N y C a r l s b e r g G l y p t o t e k 565
14a—b); n o t Caesar b u t an u n k n o w n R o m a n
(figs.
1 6
11
T h e C h i a r a m o n t i - C a m p o s a n t o p o r t r a i t t y p e is the
Rome,
Museo Nazionale Romano
10a-b)
12.4466
(figs.
standard Caesar portrait. It was created shortly before or
12
after 44 B . C . , and all existing copies m u s t be considered
R i e t i , Palmegiani collection (figs. 11a—b)
13
A u g u s t a n or later.
Three portraits f o r m e r l y considered o f the C h i a r a m o n t i Camposanto
t y p e s h o u l d be r e m o v e d f r o m
that
We can n o w t u r n to another portrait type o f Caesar.
T h e p r i m e example comes f r o m T u s c u l u m where i t was
excavated i n the F o r u m by L u c i e n Bonaparte i n 1825 and
identification:
later transferred to Castello d'Aglie close to T u r i n (figs.
L e n i n g r a d , State H e r m i t a g e M u s e u m A 251 (figs.
12a—b); i f i t is n o t a fake, i t is so badly damaged
and restored that i t has lost all academic v a l u e
(figs. 13a—b); so badly damaged that i t is o f l i t t l e
15
11. A. Hekler, Ikonographische Forschungen, vol. 51, ArchErt. (1938),
pp. Iff.; Johansen, p. 31; von Heintze (supra, recent bibliography), p.
297. It is a small head o f white marble. H : 0.15 m.
12. N o t i n Bernoulli; B. M . Felletti Maj, Museo Nazionale Romano: I
Ritratti (Rome, 1953), no. 53; Johansen, p. 31, pi. 10; A. Giuliano,
Museo Nazionale Romano: Le Sculture, vol. 1, part 2 (Rome, 1981), no.
11. White marble. H : 0.35 m .
13. U . Tarchi, L'Arte Etrusco-Romano nell'Umbria e nella Sabina, vol.
1 (Milan, 1936), pi. 277; Johansen, p. 32, pi. 12.
14. Bernoulli, no. 59; Johansen, p. 31, pi. 11; A. Vostchinina et al.,
Musee de l Ermitage: Le Portrait Romain (Leningrad, 1974), no. 3, Inv.
A 251.
15. G. H . Wallis, Catalogue of Classical Antiquities from the Site of the
}
Borda.
17
18
where i t was discovered i n 1940 by M a u r i z i o
I t is 0.33 m h i g h , o f fine-grained w h i t e marble,
14
N o t t i n g h a m , T h e Castle M u s e u m and A r t G a l l e r y
use
15a—b),
and completely preserved apart f r o m m o d e r n cleaning
on the left side.
B o r d a observed that the top o f the head was p r o
l o n g e d i n the back, thus f o r m i n g a saddle. Saddle cra-
Temple of Diana, Nemi (Nottingham, 1891), no. 605; Johansen, p. 33;
Zanker, p. 357, n. 27; Mysteries of Diana: The Antiquities from Nemi in
Nottingham Museums, ex. cat. (Nottingham, 1983), p. 41.
16. Poulsen, no. 23; Johansen, p. 33, pi. 15; E. Buschor, Das
hellenistische Bildnis, 2nd ed. (Munich, 1971), no. 251; S. Angiolillo,
RömMitt 78 (1971), p. 120, n. 2; Zanker, p. 357, no. 27.
17. L. Canina, Descrizione delVAntico Tuscolo (Rome, 1841), pp. 149ff.
and pi. 38.9; M . Borda, BMusImp 11 (1940), pp. 3 f f ; Johansen, pi. 16; P.
Zanker, " Z u r Rezeption des hellenistischen Individualporträts," i n P.
Zanker, ed., Hellenismus in Mittelitalien (Göttingen, 1976), p. 590, fig. 1;
K. Vierneisel and P. Zanker, Bildnisse des Augustus (Munich, 1979), p.
83.
18. Borda (supra, note 17), pp. 3ff. ( = BullCom 68 [1940]).
Gains Julius Caesar
Figure 10a. Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano 12.4466.
Figure 11a. Rieti, Palmegiani collection.
Figure lib. Profile o f bust, figure 11a.
25
26
Johansen
Figure 12a. Leningrad, State Hermitage Museum A 251.
Figure 13a. Nottingham, The Castle Museum and A r t
Gallery.
Gains Julius Caesar
Figure 14a. Copenhagen, N y Carlsberg Glyptotek 1788,
cat. no. 565.
n i u m is caused by premature ossification o f the sutures
W o b u r n Abbey, Bedfordshire (figs. 16a—b)
between the parietal bone and the t e m p o r a l bone. I t is
Private collection, Florence (figs. 17a—b)
clear w h e n one looks at the portrait f r o m the f r o n t that
the left side o f the s k u l l is more developed than the r i g h t
side. T h e former d e f o r m i t y is called clinocephalia, w h i l e
27
Private collection, Rome (figs. 18a—b)
19
20
21
T h e T u s c u l u m Caesar is closely connected stylistically
the latter is called plagiocephalia and is due to a b n o r m a l
w i t h the p o r t r a i t o f Poseidonios i n the M u s e o Nazionale
ossification o f the collar suture o n that side. T h e p o r t r a i t
i n Naples (fig. 19)
is dolichocephalic, and the forehead is strongly arched as
f i c a t i o n . Poseidonios,
o n a w o m a n . T h i s k i n d o f a b n o r m a l i t y i n a s k u l l is o f n o
B.C., was a stoic philosopher and orator. I n the years
2 2
whose i n s c r i p t i o n secures its i d e n t i
f r o m A p a m e a i n Syria, 134—45
interest f r o m a pathological p o i n t o f view. I t exists all
f o l l o w i n g 97 B.C. he l i v e d o n Rhodes and was Cicero's
over the w o r l d i n all races and is w i t h o u t any medical
teacher. F r o m 51 B.C. u n t i l his death he l i v e d i n Rome.
i m p o r t a n c e for the i n d i v i d u a l w h o has this abnormality.
H i s p o r t r a i t can be dated to about 60 B.C.; i t is older than
B o r d a considered the T u s c u l u m p o r t r a i t an o r i g i n a l
the Caesar f r o m Tusculum, b u t the realistic style is the
f r o m Caesars last years, b u t the p o r t r a i t is a copy after
a bronze o r i g i n a l made shortly before or after the death
o f Caesar. T h e connection to the M e t t i u s denarius is
same i n b o t h portraits.
T h e C h i a r a m o n t i type and the T u s c u l u m type are the
o n l y t w o m a i n Caesar p o r t r a i t types. T h e
following
as close as can be desired. T h e T u s c u l u m p o r t r a i t type
comments o n some o f the famous so-called Caesar p o r
exists i n three other copies:
traits show w h y i t is difficult to change this o p i n i o n .
19. Bernoulli, p. 177, no. 47; Johansen, p. 35, pi. 17. White marble.
H : 0.24 m .
20. H . Diitschke, Antike Bildwerke in Oberitalien, vol. 2 (Leipzig,
1873), p. 171, no. 396; Johansen, p. 36, pi. 18; W. H . Schuchhardt,
Gnomon 40 (1968), p. 410. Total H : 0.31 m ; H o f head alone: 0.22 m .
21. Cozza (supra, recent bibliography), pp. 65ff.
22. A B r , pi. 239-240; K . Schefold, Bildnisse der antiken Dicker, Denker und Redner (Basel, 1943), p. 150; Buschor (supra, note 16), p. 47; G.
Hafner, Spdthellenistische Bildnisplastik (Berlin, 1954), p. 10 R 1; G . M . A .
Richter, The Portraits of the Greeks, vol. 2 (London, 1965), p. 282, fig.
2020; T h . Lorenz, Galerien von griechischen Philosophen und Dichterbildnisse (Mainz, 1965), p. 8, pi. 2,4.
28
Johansen
Figure 15a. Turin, Museo di Antichitä. Photo: Courtesy D A I , Rome.
T h e over l i f e - s i z e p o r t r a i t o f Caesar i n the
Nazionale i n N a p l e s
23
Museo
(figs. 20a—b) has been considered
21a—b)
2 5
F. W i l l e m s e n also regarded i t as a w o r k f r o m
the seventeenth
century, b u t i t was k n o w n already i n
but, as B . A s h -
1550 w h e n i t was d r a w n by Giovannantonio D o s i o
m o l e has indicated, i t was the p o r t r a i t b e i n g restored
A p o r t r a i t i n the M u s e o T o r l o n i a (figs. 22a—b)
a w o r k f r o m the seventeenth c e n t u r y ;
24
2 6
27
with
i n the studio o f the sculptor A l b a c c i n i i n Rome, w h e n
large staring eyes has been proposed as Julius Caesar by
V i s c o n t i p u b l i s h e d his Iconographie
i n 1821.
E r i k a S i m o n , w h o suggested that the head belonged to
T h e Naples Caesar has been considerably restored, b u t
the statue that M a r k A n t o n y erected o n the Rostra after
i t has an ancient core.
the m u r d e r o f C a e s a r
Romaine
28
O n e o f Cicero's letters m e n
R o m e is closely connected to the Naples Caesar (figs.
tioned that this statue carried the inscription PARENT
OPTEME MERITO (Cicero, Ad Farn. XII.31). The statue
23. P. E. Visconti, Iconographie Romaine, vol. 2 (Paris, 1824), pp.
19-20, pis. 17-18; Bernoulli, no. 1; Johansen, p. 37, pi. 20a-b. White
marble. Total H : 0.91 m; H . o f the face: 0.45 m .
24. B. Ashmole, Forgeries of Ancient Sculpture: Creation and Detection,
The First J. L. Myres Memorial Lecture Delivered i n N e w College,
Oxford, May 9, 1961 (Oxford, 1961), p. 6.
25. Clarac, 912 B 2318 A ; Bernoulli, no. 2, pi. 14; Johansen, p. 38,
pi. 20c, d.
26. Ch. Hülsen, Das Skizzenbuch des Giovannantonio Dosio (Berlin,
1933), p. 32, pi. 90. Total H : 3.1 m.
27. P. E. Visconti, I Monumenti del Museo Torlonia di Sculture Antiche, (Rome, 1884), pi. 131, no. 512; Bernoulli, no. 12; Johansen, p. 39,
T h e p o r t r a i t o f Caesar i n the Palazzo Senatorio i n
Gains Julius Caesar
29
Figure 15b. Profile o f bust, figure 15a. Photo: Courtesy D A I , Rome.
a i m e d at r a i s i n g c o m p a s s i o n i n e v e r y b o d y w h o saw
the early J u l i o - C l a u d i a n period. It is o f Greek marble
it, and the T o r l o n i a portrait was clearly i n t e n d e d to do
and was probably made i n Greece, for a r o u n d 1600 i t be
the same. However, the w h o l e face and the hair are r a d
l o n g e d t o Federico C o n t a r i n i , w h o was procurator i n
ically recut, and I f i n d i t hard to see h o w one can use
San M a r c o .
3 0
I t has close similarities to a p o r t r a i t i n
i t for any iconographic purpose. I t is j u s t a nameless
Sparta, w h i c h has d r i l l holes i n the forehead, probably
Republican portrait.
for fastening a c r o w n (figs. 24a—b).
I n 1900 the G l y p t o t e k i n C o p e n h a g e n
acquired a
p o r t r a i t f r o m Venice, w h i c h came f r o m the
Giustiniani-Recanati (figs. 23a—b).
29
Palazzo
T h i s fragmentary
31
F r o m Thera, f o u n d i n the Stoa one h u n d r e d years ago
and republished i n 1968 by T h u r i Lorenz, comes a p o r
trait o f a y o u n g m a n (fig. 25)
3 2
Lorenz considers i t t o be
statue is an independent Caesar portrait type made i n
Caesar, and there is a slight possibility that i t is indeed a
pi. 21; Zanker, p. 357, n. 27. H . o f the face: 0.20 m .
28. E. Simon, AA (1952), pp. 138ff.
29. Poulsen, p. 61, no. 30, figs. 43—45; Vierneisel and Zanker
(supra, note 17), 8.5; Johansen, p. 42, pi. 25; Zanker, p. 357, n. 27. Total
H : 0.44 m ; H o f face alone: 0.25 m.
30. Poulsen, p. 61, no. 30.
31. Johansen, p. 42, pi. 26. Total H : 0.33 m ; H o f head alone:
0.22 m .
32. F. Hiller v. Gaertringen, Them, vol. 1 (Berlin, 1899), p. 224, pi.
17; Lorenz (supra, recent bibliography), pp. 242ff, pis. 85—86. Total H :
0.40 m ; H o f head alone: 0.225 m.
30
Johansen
Figure 16a. Woburn Abbey.
Figure 17a. Florence, private collection.
Figure lib. Profile of bust, figure 17a.
Gains Julius Caesar
Figure 18a. Rome, private collection. From
Analecta
Romana 12 (1983), p. 66, fig. 2.
Figure 18b. Profile of bust, figure 18a. From Analecta
Romana 12 (1983), p. 67, fig. 3.
p r o v i n c i a l p o r t r a i t o f Caesar.
A p o r t r a i t i n C o r i n t h , f r o m the first century b u t re
used i n the t h i r d century w i t h the a d d i t i o n o f an e n
graved beard, cannot be identified as Caesar (fig. 26)
3 3
A portrait i n the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m , Athens (fig. 27)
3 4
w h i c h has recently been identified as C a e s a r
35
also can
not be Caesar. It is close i n style to the T u s c u l u m p o r
trait, b u t I d o u b t that i t is i n fact a p o r t r a i t o f Caesar.
It is, rather, an u n k n o w n Greek or R o m a n f r o m about
50 B.C.
F r o m Thasos comes a portrait w i t h a c r o w n
3 6
It has
been called Caesar, b u t I t h i n k i t is a local p o r t r a i t o f
Claudius (figs. 28a—b).
33. Corinth S 2771: A. Datsoulis-Stavrides (supra, recent bibliogra
phy), pp. 109—110, fig. 1; C. E. de Grazia, "Excavations o f ASCS at
Corinth, The Roman Portrait Sculpture" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia U n i
versity, 1973), no. 7; B. S. Ridgway, Hesperia 50 (1981), p. 430, n. 31.
34. ABr, pis. 395-396; Hafner (supra, note 22), A8, pi. 26; E. B u schor, Das hellenistische Bildnis (Munich, 1949), fig. 47,2; idem, (supra,
note 16), pp. 50ff, 56, fig. 59.
35. A. Datsoulis-Stavrides, Deltion 28 (1973), pp. 243-245; ArchRep,
1975-1976; Zanker (supra, note 17), p. 590, fig. 2; A. Stewart, Attika.
Studies in Athenian Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age (London, 1979), p. 83,
pi. 26c.
36. E. W i l l and R. Martin, BCH 68—69 (1944-1945), p. 133, fig. 4;
Johansen, p. 43, pi. 27.
Figure 19. Portrait o f Poseidonios. Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale.
31
32
Johansen
Figure 20a. P r o f i l e o f Naples, Museo A r c h e o l o g i c o
Figure 20b. Head from Naples, figure 20a.
Nazionale 6038.
Figure 21a. Profile o f head from Rome, Museo Capitolino, Palazzo Senatorio.
Figure 21b. Head from Rome, figure 21a.
Gains Julius Caesar
Figure 22a. Rome, Museo Torlonia 512.
T h e Caesar i n the Vatican, Sala dei B u s t i 272, is possi
b l y the m o s t frequently identified p o r t r a i t o f Caesar i n
the w o r l d today (figs. 29a—b).
37
It is, however, a m o d e r n
w o r k f r o m the seventeenth or eighteenth century.
T h e famous dark green slate portrait o f Caesar i n East
B e r l i n , Staatliche Museen, came to B e r l i n i n 1767 f r o m
the Julienne c o l l e c t i o n
38
33
Bankes collection i n K i n g s t o n Lacy, W i m b o r n e (figs.
31a—b)?
40
T h e K i n g s t o n Lacy p o r t r a i t has been i d e n t i
fied as Caesar by M o b i u s ,
4 1
b u t i t presents the same
problems as the Caesar i n B e r l i n : is i t an ancient p o r
trait? I f so, can w e call i t Caesar? T h i s l o n g l i n e o f ques
tions m u s t r e m a i n unanswered for now.
(figs. 30a—b) together w i t h a
I n 1933 E r i c h Boehringer w r o t e a w h o l e b o o k to p u b
m o d e r n p o r t r a i t o f Augustus. C a r l B l u m e l said i n his
l i s h a p o r t r a i t w h i c h he named Caesar. I t is a marble
catalogue that the w h o l e surface had n o t been cleaned,
p o r t r a i t i n the Biblioteca Zelantea i n Acireale i n Sicily
and o n the back o f the head there is, i n fact, a c h a l k l i k e
(fig. 3 2 ) .
layer.
39
4 2
T h e p o r t r a i t was f o u n d i n 1676 near Acireale
It is one o f the most difficult portraits to assess i n
together w i t h vases, coins, and a piece o f marble w i t h
any m u s e u m o f the w o r l d : is i t a w o r k f r o m the e i g h
the i n s c r i p t i o n C.IVL.CAESAR. T h e i n s c r i p t i o n has dis
teenth century? C o u l d i t be an E g y p t i a n w o r k f r o m the
appeared, b u t the bust is ancient, perhaps an E g y p t i a n
R o m a n period, first century B.C., that has been recut,
w o r k ; however, i t is n o t Caesar b u t a nameless p o r t r a i t
especially the nose and the mouth? Has i t any connec
f r o m the m i d d l e o f the first century B.C.
t i o n w i t h the so-called M a r k A n t o n y i n the H . J. R.
I n 1957 L u d w i g C u r t i u s published a p o r t r a i t w h i c h
37. Bernoulli, no. 5; ABr, pp. 511—512; Johansen, p. 43.
38. Bernoulli, no. 57, p. 164, pi. 18; ABr, 265-266; Johansen, p. 49;
W. Kaiser, " E i n Statuenkopf der agyptischen Spatzeit," JBerlM
8
(1966), pp. 27—28, figs. 25—26; K . Fittschen, Pompeji: Leben und Kunst
in den Vesuvstadten, ex cat. (Essen, Villa Hiigel, 1973), pp. 28—29; Baity
(supra, recent bibliography), p. 53, pi. 2.2. It is o f dark green slate.
H : 0.41 m . Parts o f the left ear and the dress are restored. The eyes are
inlaid i n marble but either they or the drilling is modern.
tion; A. Michaelis, Ancient Marbles in Great Britain (London, 1882),
p. 416, no. 2; B. V. Bothmer, A]A 58 (1954), p. 143; C. C. Vermeule
and D. von Bothmer, A]A 60 (1956), p. 330, pi. 108, figs. 18-19;
G. G r i m m , Jdl 80 (1970), p. 164, figs. 9-10.
39. C. Blumel, Romische Bildnisse (Berlin, 1933), R 9 pi. 5.
40. Kingston Lacy, Wimborne, Dorsetshire: H . J. R. Bankes collec-
41. G. G r i m m (supra, note 40), p. 164; H . Mobius, Alexandria und
Rom (Munich, 1964), p. 41; K . Parlasca, Jdl 82 (1967), p. 176, n. 26,
opposed the identification as Caesar.
42. E. Boehringer, Der Caesar von Acireale (Stuttgart, 1933), pis.
1-7; Johansen, p. 52; Zanker, p. 357, n. 27. White marble. Total H : 0.52
m ; H o f head alone: 0.32 m.
34
Johansen
Figure 23a. Copenhagen, N y Carlsberg Glyptotek 1811,
cat. no. 598.
Figure 24a. Sparta, Archaeological Museum.
Gaius Julius
Figure 25. Thera, Archaeological M u s e u m .
Courtesy D A I , Athens.
Caesar
Figure 26. Corinth, Museum. From AAA 3(1970), p.
Photo:
109, fig. 1.
was at that t i m e i n the collection o f C o u n t Blucher van
Wahlstatt b u t is n o w i n the Getty M u s e u m (fig. 33) ,
4 3
T h e p o r t r a i t is ancient. Frel writes, " A b o v e the forehead
o n b o t h sides are t w o s m a l l r o u n d e d i n d e n t e d
pro
tuberances (puntelli) that were n o t effaced after the p r o
cess o f reproduction. T h e y demonstrate that the Blucher
Caesar is a r e p r o d u c t i o n o f a w e l l - k n o w n type and thus
a celebrity."
44
T h e t w o puntelli actually demonstrate that
the head is a rather r o u g h w o r k , and there are m a n y
examples i n Republican portraiture o f s i m i l a r leftovers.
T h e p o r t r a i t is a nameless Republican and a rather u n i n
teresting one at that.
T h e so-called Z u r i c h Caesar, f o r m e r l y i n the collec
t i o n o f the late E m i l B i i h r l e , has been k n o w n since 1931,
w h e n i t was i n the collection o f Countess L u x b u r g (figs.
34a—b)
4 5
I t is fake, and there is n o w a copy o f this fake
o n the L o n d o n art m a r k e t .
46
43. L. Curtius, " E i n neues Bildnis des Julius Caesar," i n , E.
Boehringer and W. Hoffman, eds., Robert Boehringer: Ein Freundesgabe
(Tubingen, 1957), p. 153; Johansen, p. 54; J. Frel, "Caesar" (supra,
recent bibliography); ibid., Roman Portraits (supra, recent bibliogra
phy), no. 6; Zanker, p. 357, n. 27; J. Chamay, J. Frel, andJ.-L. Maier,
Le Monde des Cesars, ex. cat. (Geneva, Musee d A r t et d'histoire, 1982),
pi. 4. Malibu, the J. Paul Getty Museum 75.AA.46, pentelic marble, H :
0.365 m .
44. Frel, Roman Portraits (supra, recent bibliography), no. 6.
45. Antike 1 (1931), p. 247; Johansen, p. 58; Zanker, p. 357, n. 27.
Figure 21. Athens, National Archaeological Museum.
fROM bUSCHOR, dAS HELLENISTICHE bILDNIS
(1949), pi. 47.
36
Johansen
Figure 28a. Thasos, Archaeological Museum 105.
Figure 29a. Vatican, Sala dei Busti 272.
Gaius Julius Caesar
Figure 30a. Profile o f East Berlin, Staatliche Museen SK
342 R.9.
Figure 31a. Kingston Lacy, Wimborne, Dorsetshire, H .
J. R. Bankes collection.
Figure 30b. Head from East Berlin, figure 30a.
37
38
Johansen
Figure 32. Acireale, Biblioteca Zelantea.
Figure 34a. Zurich, formerly Bührle collection.
Figure 33. Malibu, The J. Paul Getty Museum 75.AA.46.
Gaius Julius Caesar
Figure 35. Private collection. From Kopeke and Moore,
Figure 36. Switzerland, private collection.
Studies in Classical Art and Archaeology, pi. 79.
I n 1979 Helga v o n Heintze published a p o r t r a i t o f a
m a n (fig. 3 5 )
4 7
w i t h d r i l l e d eyes that she dates to circa
A.D. 300. I t h i n k the portrait is a fake. Even i f i t should
happen to be ancient, i t has n o t h i n g to do w i t h
the
iconography o f Caesar.
I n 1965 there appeared o n the art market i n M u n i c h a
p o r t r a i t called Caesar, w h i c h was b o u g h t by a Swiss
private collector and is n o w i n Geneva (fig. 36)
4 8
I t is
life-size and almost completely preserved. A l t h o u g h i t
w o u l d appear to be o f the same quality as C h i a r a m o n t i
107, i t is a fake. U n f o r t u n a t e l y i t copies even the m o d e r n
parts o f the C h i a r a m o n t i portrait: the nose, neck, c h i n ,
and m o u t h .
T h e so-called M c L e n d o n Caesar i n the G e t t y M u
seum has been dated as A u g u s t a n (fig. 37)
4 9
It has been
said that the head is a replica " o f the o n l y p o r t r a i t repre46. W. Burchard, 95 Meadway, London N W 2 .
47. Von Heintze (supra, recent bibliography), pp. 29Iff., pis. 79—80.
White marble. H : 0.32 m.
48. Formerly H . Herzer and Co. Apollo (Sept. 1965), p. xiv;
Johansen, p. 55.
49. Malibu, the J. Paul Getty Museum 78.AA.266. White marble
w i t h large crystals, probably Thasian. H : 0.27 m . Said to have been
found i n Asia Minor. Erhart et al. (supra, recent bibliography), no. 2;
Frei, Roman Portraits (supra, recent bibliography), pp. 16—17, no. 5;
Chamay, Frei, and Maier (supra, note 43), p. 47.
Figure 37 Malibu, The J. Paul Getty Museum 78. AA.266.
40
Johansen
Figure 38a. Three-quarter view o f Malibu, The J. Paul
Getty Museum 73. AA.46.
senting Julius Caesar made d u r i n g his l i f e t i m e , "
50
Figure 38b. Head from Malibu, figure 38a.
which
T u s c u l u m type. W i t h some reason i t has been said by
w o u l d mean that the head should have s o m e t h i n g to do
Jale Inan that i t is i n the t r a d i t i o n o f the T u s c u l u m p o r
w i t h the T u s c u l u m portrait and be a free variant o f the
trait, and i t resembles i n size the portraits i n Naples and
Castello d'Aglie-Tusculum portrait, b u t the head is that
the Palazzo Senatorio, Rome. Because o f its damaged
o f a nameless private i n d i v i d u a l .
c o n d i t i o n , w e do n o t learn m u c h f r o m an iconographie
I n 1973 the G e t t y M u s e u m acquired an over life-size
marble p o r t r a i t f r o m Asia M i n o r , w h i c h was published
that same year as Julius Caesar (fig. 3 8 )
51
p o i n t o f v i e w , b u t the p o r t r a i t is i n t e r e s t i n g
as a
document.
and called
I n this l o n g list o f Caesar portraits, no m e n t i o n is
" T h e G e t t y Caesar." It was b r o u g h t to Switzerland f r o m
made o f several portraits that have been called Caesar i n
the Istanbul bazaar. A l t h o u g h i t is almost ruined, i t m u s t
catalogues and publications. I consider the present list o f
o r i g i n a l l y have been part o f a large statue i n one o f
Caesar p o r t r a i t s comprehensive
the major t o w n s i n western Asia M i n o r , l i k e Pergamon
i d e n t i f y o n l y the C h i a r a m o n t i and the T u s c u l u m types
or M i l e t u s . I t is an i m p e r i a l portrait made locally. T h e
as Caesar.
neck is l o n g , and the shape o f the face resembles the
and w o u l d prefer
to
N y Carlsberg G l y p t o t e k
Copenhagen
50. Chamay, Frei, and Maier (supra, note 43), p. 47.
51. Malibu, the J. Paul Getty Museum 73. AA.46. White largegrained marble from Asia Minor. Total H : 0.53 m ; H o f head alone:
0.29 m . Burlington Magazine (June 1973), fig. 14; Frei, "Caesar" (supra,
recent bibliography), figs. 2—5; E. Alföldi-Rosenbaum, i n Greece and
Italy in the Classical World, Acta o f the X I . International Congress o f
Classical Archaeology (London, 1979), p. 978; J. Inan and E. AlföldiRosenbaum, Römische und Frühbyzantinische Porträtplastik aus der Türkei
(Mainz, 1979), p. 53, no. 1, pl. 1; Frei, Roman Portraits (supra, recent
bibliography), no. 7; J. Meischner, Bonnjbb 181 (1981), p. 144.
The Portrait of Brutus the Tyrannicide
Sheldon Nodelman
I n 1924 a bust that had l o n g been displayed above a
w i t h t i g h t l y pursed l i p s t u r n e d d o w n at the corners.
d o o r w a y i n the second-story loggia o f the Palazzo della
A thick cap o f hair is combed i n long, undulating strands
Cancelleria i n Rome caught the eye o f W. A m e l u n g , was
indicated by shallow chiselwork u p o n the sides o f the
taken d o w n , photographed,
head. T h e hair curls f o r w a r d heavily at the nape and
and subsequently
trans
ferred to the M u s e o C h i a r a m o n t i o f the Vatican, where
attains its greatest v o l u m e over the forehead.
Here,
it has remained (figs, la—d). A b o v e the small breast-
deeply undercut to produce a strong shadow-contrast, i t
1
segment, the head is t u r n e d sharply to its left. T h e bust
falls i n t o three heavy, p o i n t e d locks: a central one over
represents a m a n o f m a t u r e years b u t s t i l l r e l a t i v e l y
the nose, c u r l i n g f r o m left t o r i g h t , f r a m e d b y t w o
y o u t h f u l appearance (estimates as t o the a p p r o x i m a t e
smaller i n w a r d - p o i n t i n g locks located above the outer
age vary, as w i l l be seen) w i t h craggy, strongly m o d e l e d
corners o f the eyes. A slight beard descends the sides o f
features. Beneath the straight forehead the l o n g , rather
the cheeks to f o l l o w the line o f the j a w t o w a r d the c h i n ,
l o w - b r i d g e d nose j u t s sharply out; its unrestored p o r
f r i n g i n g the u p p e r l i p as w e l l . D e s p i t e some surface
t i o n — a b o u t h a l f o f the entire length—is straight. T h e
wear and relatively m i n o r restorations, the head is w e l l
brows are strongly contracted, the tense musculature i n
e n o u g h preserved that the h i g h quality o f its w o r k m a n
dicated by the t w o vertical creases above the b r i d g e o f
ship and its vigorous sculptural conception, no less than
the nose. T h e deep-set eyes are narrowed i n an intense
the dramatic and i m p o s i n g presentation o f the p o r t r a i t
gaze, w h i c h follows the d i r e c t i o n o f the t u r n o f the head.
subject, cannot fail to impress the viewer.
T h e r e m a i n i n g features add to the effect o f m o m e n t a r y
A m e l u n g dated the ex-Cancelleria bust to the first
e x c i t a t i o n and i n t e r i o r tension. A b o v e a deeply i n
years o f the E m p i r e and made some shrewd observa
dented, f o r w a r d - j u t t i n g chin, the cheeks are creased b y
tions u p o n its psychology to w h i c h I w i l l r e t u r n . I n
strong labio-nasal lines w h i c h frame a rather f u l l m o u t h
1939 L . C u r t i u s p r o p o s e d the b u s t as a p o r t r a i t o f
Abbreviations:
Aspects
Kiss
K . P. Erhart et al., Roman Portraits: Aspects of Self
and Society, First Century B.C—Third
Century A.D., ex.
Buschor
cat. (Santa Cruz, U n i v e r s i t y o f California, and
Malibu, The J. Paul Getty Museum, 1980).
A. Alfoldi, "Die stradtromischen Miinzportrats des
Jahres 43 v. Chr." Eikones. Studien z u m g r i e
chischen und romischen Bildnis, AK, Beiheft 12
(Bern, 1980).
J. Baity, " M . Junius Brutus. Stoicisme et revoke
dans le portrait romain de la fin de la republique,"
Academie royale de Belgique. Classe des Beaux-Arts.
Bulletin, 5th ser., no. 61 (1971).
E. Buschor, Das hellenistische Bildnis (Munich, 1949).
Carson
R.A.G. Carson, Principal Coins of the Romans, vol. 1.
Greek Portraits
(London, 1978).
J. Frel, Greek Portraits in the f. Paul Getty
(Malibu, 1981).
Museum
Hafner
G. Hafner, Spathellenistische Bildnisplastik
(Berlin,
Alfoldi
Baity
Hekler
Helbig
Johansen
1954).
A. Hekler, Greek and Roman Portraits (New York,
1912).
W. Helbig, Filhrer durch die offentlichen Sammlungen
klassischer Altertumer in Rom, H . von Heintze, ed.,
4th ed., vol. 1 (Tubingen, 1963).
F. Johansen, "Ritratti antichi di Cicerone e Pompeo
Magno," Analecta Romana Instituti Danici 8 (1977).
2
Z. Kiss, LTconographie des princes julio-claudiens au
temps dAuguste et de Tibere (Warsaw, 1975).
Massner
A. Massner, Bildnisangleichung (Berlin, 1982).
Poulsen
V. Poulsen, Les Portraits romains, vol. 1 (Copenhagen,
1962).
Roman Portraits J. Frel, Roman Portraits in the f. Paul Getty Museum ,
ex. cat. (Tulsa, Oklahoma, Philbrook A r t Center,
and Malibu, The J. Paul Getty Museum, 1981).
Stewart
A. Stewart, Attika. Studies in Athenian Sculpture of the
Hellenistic Age (London, 1979).
Sydenham
E. A. Sydenham, Coinage of the Roman Republic, rev.
ed. (London, 1978).
Toynbee
J. M . C. Toynbee, Roman Historical Portraits (Ithaca,
1978).
Zanker
P. Zanker, Studien zu den Augustus-Portrdts, vol. 1,
Der Actium-Typus. AbhGott, 1973.
1. Museo Chiaramonti XLVII.17., inv. 1977. H : 41 cm. Restored:
lower half o f nose, most o f lock over center o f forehead, small part o f
lock to left, patch o f left brow and eyelid, edges and lobes o f both ears,
part o f left shoulder. G. Lippold, Die Skulpturen des Vatikanischen Mu
seums, vol. 3, pt. 2 (Berlin, 1956), pp. 502f, pi. 228; W. Amelung,
"Ritratto romano," RendPontAccl (1923/24), pp. 91f, pi. 5; L. Curtius,
"Ikonographische Beitrage..., X I : M . Claudius C. F. Marcellus,"
RomMitt 54 (1959), pp. 131ff, figs. 1-4; Buschor, pp. 59, 61; V. Poulsen,
"Billeder af Nero og hans Far," MedNC 6 (1949), pp. 15f, figs. 10-11;
Helbig, p. 285, no. 373; Kiss, pp. 28ff, figs. 25-26.
2. See p. 60, w i t h note 64.
42 nODELMAN
Figure la. Front view o f bust o f a man, here identified as M . Junius Brutus. Vatican, Museo Chiara
m o n t i 1977. Photos: Courtesy D A I , Rome.
Brutus the Tyrannicide
Figure lb. Three-quarters view o f bust, figure la.
43
44
Nodelman
Figure lc. Right profile o f bust, figure la.
bRUTUS THE tYRAMNICIDE 45
Figure Id. Left profile o f bust, figure la.
46
Nodelman
Claudius Marcellus, the y o u n g nephew, son-in-law, and
stylistic, having to do w i t h the sculptural properties o f the
i n t e n d e d successor o f Augustus, whose death i n 23 B.C.
t w o heads and w i t h the dramatic conception governing
at the age o f t w e n t y was to be o n l y the first o f the
the presentation o f the portrait subject to the viewer.
princeps'
l o n g series o f dynastic frustrations.
3
Curtius'
Nero's portraits—especially his p e n u l t i m a t e type, best
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n c o u l d o n l y be a purely h y p o t h e t i c a l one,
k n o w n f r o m the splendid head f r o m the Palatine, M u s e o
impossible o f c o n f i r m a t i o n , since he c o u l d adduce no
Nazionale Romano 618 —like certain other artistic
c o i n p o r t r a i t or otherwise d o c u m e n t e d image o f M a r
manifestations d u r i n g the reign o f that p h i l h e l l e n i c and
cellus for c o m p a r i s o n .
4
It was based o n acceptance o f
1 0
art-crazed prince, e x h i b i t a revival o f H e l l e n i s t i c artistic
A m e l u n g ' s dating, o n the reasonable supposition that
t r a d i t i o n , b o t h f o r m a l l y and psychologically. Indeed, the
the p o r t r a i t subject was an outstanding personage o f his
i n h e r i t e d f o r m a t o f the J u l i o - C l a u d i a n dynastic p o r t r a i t
t i m e , o n an estimate o f age based i n part o n the assump
is thereby stretched t o its l i m i t s . T h i s is t r u e o f the
t i o n that the beard represented the first barbula o f the
v i b r a n t plasticity o f the m o d e l i n g , f u l l o f strongly c o n
adolescent,
trasted accents and o f the t u m u l t u o u s r e n d e r i n g o f per
and o n fancied resemblances to other p o r
traits whose i d e n t i t y as Marcellus was no less h y p o t h e t i
sonal e m o t i o n , most s t r i k i n g i n the pathos-filled gaze o f
cal than that o f the C h i a r a m o n t i bust itself. There were
eyes set i n deep shadow beneath contracted brows. Such
o f course other occasions for the w e a r i n g o f a beard
are precisely the characteristics that the C h i a r a m o n t i
d u r i n g the later Republic and early E m p i r e than the first
p o r t r a i t shares w i t h that o f Nero.
g r o w t h o f the adolescent,
5
even i f a s u r v i v i n g e p i g r a m
6
celebrates M a r c e l l u s ' first shave i n 25 B . C . ; and I w o u l d
D o m i t i u s Ahenobarbus, l i k e Marcellus, has left be
h i n d n o k n o w n e p i g r a p h i c a l l y or c o n t e x t u a l l y i d e n
n o t m y s e l f estimate the age o f the C h i a r a m o n t i p o r t r a i t
tifiable image by means o f w h i c h Poulsen's proposed
subject as a n y w h e r e nearly so y o u n g as the a p p r o x i
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the C h i a r a m o n t i bust c o u l d be p r o v e n
m a t e l y s i x t e e n t o eighteen years that this h y p o t h e s i s
or disproven.
i m p l i e s . Nevertheless C u r t i u s ' p r o p o s a l has m o r e re
i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f such an identification, propose for the
cently been revived by Z . Kiss i n his study o f the i c o
C h i a r a m o n t i p o r t r a i t a date i n the years o f Tiberius or
n o g r a p h y o f t h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n princes.
7
11
However, I do n o t t h i n k anyone w o u l d ,
Caligula. (Ahenobarbus died i n A.D. 40.) I t w o u l d be
T h e question o f the C h i a r a m o n t i p o r t r a i t was next
d i f f i c u l t to f i n d c o n v i n c i n g parallels a m o n g the reliably
taken up i n 1949 by V. Poulsen. T h o u g h the identifica
datable artistic p r o d u c t i o n s o f the t i m e . Rather,
t i o n he suggested cannot be accepted, Poulsen's article
H e l l e n i s t i c affinities that i t evinces do n o t seem to be
8
the
contained i m p o r t a n t clues for a more appropriate place
those o f a secondary and l i m i t e d revival b u t testify to a
m e n t o f the w o r k . Rejecting the A u g u s t a n date f i r s t
still-living Hellenistic tradition. The powerful torsion o f
proposed by A m e l u n g and f o l l o w e d by C u r t i u s and b y
the neck, i m p l y i n g the suddenly arrested m o t i o n o f the
E. B u s c h o r , Poulsen attributed the bust to the C l a u d i a n
entire b o d y ; the finely balanced, m o m e n t a r y play o f the
p e r i o d and i d e n t i f i e d the p o r t r a i t as that o f Gnaeus
facial musculature, w i t h the contracted brows and c o m
D o m i t i u s A h e n o b a r b u s , father o f the e m p e r o r N e r o .
pressed m o u t h f r a m i n g the b l i s t e r i n g intensity o f the
9
T h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n was m o t i v a t e d b y the
resemblance
gaze; the b o l d , free m o d e l i n g o f the facial planes; and
that Poulsen discerned between the C h i a r a m o n t i bust
the v o l u m e t r i c fullness o f the cap o f hair,
and the s u r v i v i n g sculptured portraits o f N e r o himself.
against the shape o f the head, all reflect the f o r m a l and
contrasted
U n s u p p o r t e d by other evidence, such a conjectural f a m
psychological vocabulary o f Hellenistic art. T h e y cannot
i l y resemblance hardly offers stringent grounds for an
readily be paralleled i n the sculpture o f the first c e n t u r y
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . T h e resemblance noted by Poulsen is nev
A.D. nor, indeed, i n that o f the A u g u s t a n p e r i o d , i n
ertheless a real one. B u t i t is not so m u c h physiognomic as
w h i c h a more static posture, a more closed, less c o n -
3. Curtius (supra, n o t e l ) .
4. The sole numismatic evidence for Marcellus' portrait is his (pre
sumed) profile facing that o f a young woman presumed to be Julia on
the reverse o f an as struck at Byzacena i n Africa i n the year o f their
marriage: M . Grant, From Imperium to Auctoritas (Cambridge, 1946), pi.
1, no. 23; A . Banti and L. Simonetti, Corpus Nummorum Romanorum,
vol. 8 (Florence, 1975), pp. 183f, no. 1; it is not adduced by Curtius.
Poor as it is, the coin profile clearly cannot represent the same i n d i v i d
ual portrayed i n the Chiaramonti bust.
D i o Cassius XLVIII.34,3 reports that Octavian retained his u n t i l age
twenty-four. For the campaigning beard and the beard as emblem o f
the rebel or pretender, see A. Linfert, "Bartige Herrscher," Jdl 91
(1976), pp. 157—174. The younger Cato allowed his beard to grow as an
ostentatious political display o f grief over the state o f the Republic:
Plutarch, Cato Minor, 53. For further instances o f barbam promittere as
political demonstration during this period, see J. Marquardt, Das Privatleben der Romer, vol. 7, pt. 1, Handbuch der romischen Alterthumer, J.
Marquardt and T. Mommsen, eds. (Leipzig, 1879), pp. 582f.
5. See i n general RE, vol. 3, pt. 1, cols. 33f., s.v. "Bart" (A. Mau).
Fashionable young men sometimes affected a light beard well past the
usual age o f depositio barbae during the late Republic and early Empire;
6. Anth. Pal. VI.161 (Krinagoras o f Mitylene).
7. Kiss, pp. 28ff, figs. 25-26.
8. Poulsen (supra, note 1), pp. 15f, figs. 10—11.
47
trast-filled m o d e l i n g , and a more sober and composed
be situated s i m i l a r l y ; they are precursors s t i l l invested
r e n d e r i n g o f personality are the rule.
w i t h a m o b i l i t y and sense o f organic i n t e r a c t i o n that
W i t h the exception o f Poulsen, most
commentators
have nonetheless seen i n the w o r k a p r o d u c t o f A u
w o u l d be increasingly abstracted and r i g i d i f i e d i n the
decades to come.
gustan art, and certain considerations can i n d e e d be
Such a combination o f a still-living Hellenistic tradition
urged i n favor o f such a date. I n a d d i t i o n to its m o r e
w i t h an incipient neoclassicism l o o k i n g forward to that o f
o u t s p o k e n l y Hellenistic components, i t manifests
cer
the Augustan period points to an age just prior to that o f
tain stylistic features suggestive o f the A u g u s t a n p e r i o d .
Augustus—the mid-first century B . C , the epoch o f the
T h e a b r u p t l y contrasted, even discordant shapes o f the
C i v i l Wars and the Second Triumvirate. A similar conclu
head are contained w i t h i n a clearly p r o p o r t i o n e d and
sion has already been reached by H . v o n Heintze i n her
severely balanced overall contour, and the facial planes
b r i e f entry o n the piece i n the new edition o f Helbig,
are b r o a d and clear, u n m a r r e d by extraneous,
proposing a date i n the t h i r d quarter o f the century.
merely
13
anecdotal detail. These are signs o f a neoclassic f o r m a l
Poulsen's article contains another i m p o r t a n t observa
o r i e n t a t i o n such as w o u l d d o m i n a t e A u g u s t a n art, and
t i o n . H e n o t e d the close connection between the C h i a r a
they are c o n f i r m e d by the treatment o f the hair i n l o n g ,
m o n t i p o r t r a i t and the bust o f a l i g h t l y bearded m a n i n
s h a l l o w l y cut, and sharply o u t l i n e d strands l y i n g u p o n
the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m i n S t o c k h o l m (figs. 2a—b) .
the even surface o f the hair-cap. T h i s is an unmistakable
sen considered the S t o c k h o l m portrait to represent the
evocation o f the rendering characteristic o f the second
same i n d i v i d u a l as does the C h i a r a m o n t i bust b u t at a
1 4
Poul
h a l f o f the fifth century B.C., notably o f the w o r k s o f
m o r e advanced age. W h i l e I believe this v i e w to be cor
Polykleitos. Finally, the fall o f the hair over the forehead
rect, i t does n o t sufficiently define the relationship be
i n t o an egregious pattern o f comma-shaped
locks can
t w e e n the t w o pieces. T h e S t o c k h o l m and C h i a r a m o n t i
hardly fail to recall the distinctive "badge" o f forehead
busts are n o t independently conceived portraits h a v i n g
locks that is a notorious feature o f A u g u s t u s ' portraits
i n c o m m o n o n l y the p h y s i o g n o m i c i d e n t i t y o f their sub
and w o u l d be emulated by his f a m i l y and successors i n
ject. Rather they share a c o m m o n design that c o m p r e
endless permutations. However, these features are insuf
hends most o f the major s t r u c t u r i n g elements o f the t w o
ficient i n themselves to indicate an A u g u s t a n date. I n
heads and m a n y significant details as w e l l . T h i s is clear
fact the treatment o f that forehead-lock design is i t s e l f a
est i n the profile, where the overall shape o f the head,
persuasive argument to the contrary. N o t o n l y is the cap
the v o l u m e , contour, and i n t e r i o r p a t t e r n i n g o f the h a i r -
o f hair m u c h fuller i n v o l u m e than is c o m m o n i n p o r
cap set u p o n i t , and the r h y t h m o f the facial profile
traits o f the A u g u s t a n period, b u t the locks spill u p o n
( w i t h allowance for the r e s t o r a t i o n o f the noses) are
the forehead i n a free movement responsive to the sud
manifestly the same. I n frontal v i e w the layout o f the
den t w i s t o f the head i t s e l f T h e analogous f o r m a t i o n i n
face and the expressive a r t i c u l a t i o n o f its musculature
A u g u s t u s ' portraits is stylized i n t o a s y m m e t r i c a l f i x i t y
are alike. T h e weakened echo o f the C h i a r a m o n t i p o r
that alludes o n l y r e m o t e l y to such a concrete m o t i v a
trait's deep-set eyes, contracted forehead m u s c u l a t u r e ,
t i o n . ( T h i s s t y l i z a t i o n is m o r e extreme i n the P r i m a
and t i g h t l y compressed lips can easily be made o u t i n
Porta type and i n the portraits o f the y o u n g princes o f
the S t o c k h o l m piece.
the late A u g u s t a n p e r i o d and less s o — s t i l l r e t a i n i n g
There are nevertheless considerable differences. M a n y
some reference to the o r i g i n a l , naturalistic m o t i v a t i o n —
o f these are attributable to the very unequal q u a l i t y and
i n the earlier, so-called " A c t i u m ' ' t y p e . )
12
state o f preservation o f the t w o pieces, and to their dif
T h e other stylistic features o f the C h i a r a m o n t i bust
ferential relationship to their prototypes—for b o t h are
that b r i n g to m i n d the portraits o f A u g u s t u s ' f a m i l y can
surely copies executed at some remove f r o m the date o f
9. Buschor, pp. 59, 61.
10. B. M . Felletti Maj, / ritratti (Rome, 1953), p. 73, no. 123; U .
Hiesinger, "The Portraits o f Nero," AJA 79 (1975), p. 119, pi. 24, figs.
34—35; M . Bergmann and P. Zanker "Damnatio Memoriae. Umgearbeitete Nero und Domitiansportrats," Jdl 96 (1981), pp. 322-326,
fig. 5.
11. For a recent attempt to identify Ahenobarbus i n the loricate
figure at the left i n the well-known Julio-Claudian relief i n Ravenna,
see J. Pollini, "Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and the Ravenna Re
lief," RomMitt 88 (1981), pp. 117-140.
12. O n the A c t i u m type see Zanker, passim; U . Hausmann, " Z u r
Typologie und Ideologie des Augustusportrats," i n H . Temporini, ed.,
Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt, vol. 12, pt. 2 (Berlin and
N e w York, 1981), pp. 535-550.
13. Helbig, p. 285, no. 373.
14. N M SK 80. H : 36 cm. Restored: entire nose, front section o f
hair above forehead, half o f left ear, r i m o f bust. Ex-Barberini collec
tion, acquired i n Rome by Gustaf I I I o f Sweden i n 1783/84. F. Poulsen
i n Tidskrift for Konstvetenskap, 1916, figs. 12—13; Poulsen (supra, note
1), p. 16; O. Antonsson, ed., Antik Konst. En Konstbok frdn Nationalmuseum (Stockholm, 1958), pp. 122f£, fig. p. 123; C. Nordenfalk
et al., Stockholm (South Brunswick and New York, 1969), p. 18, no. 3,
pi. 3.
48
Nodelman
Figure 2a. Bust o f a man, here identified as M . Junius
Brutus. Stockholm, National Museum SK 80.
t h e i r originals. T h e C h i a r a m o n t i bust itself is n o t an
ous surface, and d i m i n i s h e d plastic contrasts evoke late
o r i g i n a l w o r k o f the m i d - f i r s t century B.C. I t is o f Italian
Flavian and early Trajanic p o r t r a i t sculpture and suggest
marble, and the e x p l o i t a t i o n o f the Carrara quarries t o
a date o f ca. A.D. 100. (The n a r r o w bust is i n c o n g r u o u s
any significant degree had then n o t yet begun. T h e v i o
w i t h the stylistic date o f the copy and suggests that i t
lent t u r n i n g o f the head is incommensurate w i t h
the
was executed n o t after the o r i g i n a l statuary p r o t o t y p e
l i m i t e d and static f o r m o f the bust and presupposes a
b u t after a bust version o f late first-century B.C. or A u
statuary o r i g i n a l i n w h i c h i t could be m o t i v a t e d b y the
gustan date.) I t is also more extensively restored than the
stance o f the figure as a w h o l e . Nevertheless i t is surely
C h i a r a m o n t i piece and appears to have suffered f r o m a
n o t v e r y far removed f r o m its o r i g i n a l either i n date o f
heavy cleaning, w h i c h destroyed its o r i g i n a l surface and
execution or i n faithfulness o f transcription. T h e size
removed whatever nuances were thereby o r i g i n a l l y c o n
and shape o f the bust segment and the sculptural execu
veyed. B u t even i n its p r i m e i t c o u l d hardly have c o m
t i o n o f the piece concur i n suggesting a date for the copy
pared w i t h its counterpart either i n artistic quality or i n
n o m o r e than t w o or three generations removed f r o m
faithfulness to its original.
the o r i g i n a l , at latest the early first century A.D. T h e
T h e S t o c k h o l m bust is a m i r r o r image o f the C h i a r a
stylistic attitudes that i n f o r m e d the o r i g i n a l were s t i l l
m o n t i , the head swiveled to the r i g h t rather than t o the
readily accessible, and the copyist was b o t h scrupulous
left. Such reversals are a familiar c o n c o m i t a n t o f the
i n his task and an accomplished sculptor i n his o w n
c o p y i n g process and o f no great significance. M o s t d i f
r i g h t . T h e result was a w o r k o f distinguished quality,
ferences b e t w e e n the t w o reveal a consistent p a t t e r n :
capable o f t r a n s m i t t i n g the appearance and spirit o f the
w h a t i n the C h i a r a m o n t i piece are clearly articulated,
o r i g i n a l w i t h a m i n i m u m o f loss or o f i n t r u s i o n o f alien
f o r m a l l y and m o t i v i c a l l y coherent features o f the facial
stylistic features.
design survive i n the S t o c k h o l m bust o n l y vestigially, as
T h e S t o c k h o l m p o r t r a i t is a different affair, m o r e re
incoherent remnants b l u r r e d i n t o an overall generality.
m o t e f r o m its o r i g i n a l b o t h i n date o f execution and i n
For example, the sharply rendered play o f the b r o w s and
q u a l i t y and faithfulness o f t r a n s c r i p t i o n t h a n is the
the forehead musculature can barely be traced i n the
C h i a r a m o n t i piece. Its closed contours, more c o n t i n u -
S t o c k h o l m replica, and the same is true o f the expressive
concatenation o f the labio-nasals and the t i g h t l y pursed
49
T h e close correspondences, w h i c h w o u l d seem t o pre
m o u t h . T h e facial expression has lost its effect o f force
clude an independent o r i g i n for the t w o , can best be
and v i v i d instantaneity and has become merely dour. A s
explained neither o n the hypothesis o f t w o separately
o f the hair over the forehead, the
conceived originals n o r o n that o f t w o divergent r e n d i
p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f c o m p a r i s o n are l i m i t e d since m o s t o f
tions after the same o r i g i n a l , b u t rather o n the assump
t o the arrangement
the relevant area o f the S t o c k h o l m p o r t r a i t is restored;
t i o n o f t w o closely related originals, the later one
b u t insofar as the o r i g i n a l arrangement is preserved, i t
p r e s e r v i n g the f o r m a t a n d style o f the earlier, w h i l e
w o u l d seem that this n o longer fell i n t o a pattern o f
i n t r o d u c i n g s e c o n d a r y m o d i f i c a t i o n s i n response t o
clearly i n d i v i d u a t e d and movemented locks, b u t was re
p h y s i o g n o m i c changes i n the subject and perhaps shifts
tracted i n t o a u n i f i e d mass. T h e generalized c o n t o u r is
i n rhetorical i n t e n t as w e l l . T h i s procedure is f a m i l i a r
b r o k e n o n l y b y a slight p a r t i n g over the center o f the
d u r i n g the E m p i r e i n the portraiture o f emperors and
forehead and vestigial tufts t o the far r i g h t and left as
other members o f the r u l i n g house. T h e b e s t - k n o w n
shadowy remnants o f the o r i g i n a l t r i p l e - l o c k c o n f i g u r a
instance is the succession o f portrait types o f Augustus
t i o n . T h e reductive and schematizing m e t h o d o f the
across his l o n g public career, w h i c h variously inflect a
sculptor o f the S t o c k h o l m bust and the l o w e r level o f
single basic fomat and style established at the start.
15
craftsmanship at w h i c h he operated are apparent i n the
T h a t this device was b e i n g practiced already i n the late
coarse, s k e t c h y c h i s e l w o r k b y w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l
Republic is witnessed by the close relationship between
strands w i t h i n the overall hair-mass are i n d i c a t e d , i n
the t w o s u r v i v i n g p o r t r a i t types o f Pompey, the earlier
contrast t o their finely differentiated, carefully p r o f i l e d
Venice type and the later represented by the w e l l - k n o w n
rendering i n the C h i a r a m o n t i portrait. T h e same c o n
head i n Copenhagen.
trast can be seen i n the S t o c k h o l m piece's treatment o f
earlier p o r t r a i t is recapitulated, w i t h suitable m o d i f i c a
the beard, w i t h its mechanical pattern o f short incised
tions, i n the later portrait. A s i m i l a r relationship may be
lines as against the C h i a r a m o n t i bust's l o n g , u n d u l a t i n g
envisaged for the t w o portrait types o f the C h i a r a m o n t i -
16
Here, too, the basic design o f the
S t o c k h o l m personage. Regrettably, u n l i k e the cases o f
locks described i n subtly graduated l o w relief.
nature,
the portraits o f Augustus and o f Pompey, o n l y one o f the
e n t i r e l y subtractive and negative, and easily explicable as
types survives i n a replica adequate t o convey a g o o d
the results o f the accumulation o f i n v o l u n t a r y errors and
idea o f t h e s t y l i s t i c character o f its o r i g i n a l . M a n y
careless expediencies i n the course o f a l o n g process o f
nuances o f design that w o u l d have m a r k e d the o r i g i n a l
M o s t o f these differences are o f a secondary
repeated c o p y i n g . Nevertheless, certain positive features
o f the S t o c k h o l m p o r t r a i t are surely obscured or lost i n
o f t h e S t o c k h o l m p o r t r a i t are n o t explicable i n such
the replica. Nevertheless, given the close dependency o f
terms. T h e greater prominence o f the cheekbones and
the one o n the other i t is probably safe t o draw u p o n the
the heavier m o d e l i n g o f the folds o f flesh f r a m i n g the
characteristics o f the stylistically cogent and e v i d e n t l y
corners o f the m o u t h are n o t paralleled i n the C h i a r a
reliable C h i a r a m o n t i piece t o reconstruct m e n t a l l y the
m o n t i portrait. I t is p r i n c i p a l l y these features that create
lost o r i g i n a l o f the S t o c k h o l m portrait.
the i m p r e s s i o n o f greater age i n the p o r t r a i t subject.
We have thus t w o successive and closely related p o r
Were i t n o t for t h e m , i t w o u l d be possible t o regard the
trait types o f an e m i n e n t personage o f the late Republic,
S t o c k h o l m b u s t as n o m o r e t h a n a late a n d r a t h e r
w h o s e r e n o w n earned r e n e w e d c o m m e m o r a t i o n i n
mechanical replica after the same o r i g i n a l as the C h i a r a
sculpture d u r i n g the first century o f the E m p i r e . T h e
m o n t i portrait, offering a reduced and schematized ver
modest artistic quality o f the S t o c k h o l m bust i t s e l f w i t
sion o f a design far better and more faithfully reflected
nesses t o the extent o f this r e n o w n . I t is suggestive n o t
i n the latter. B u t i t is difficult t o explain w h y so scru
o f a u n i q u e c o m m i s s i o n for a special client b u t o f r o u
p u l o u s l y executed and stylistically coherent a replica as
tine p r o d u c t i o n o f a k i n d suitable for a broader public,
the C h i a r a m o n t i bust should o m i t such salient features
l i k e the mass-produced
o f the o r i g i n a l , or conversely w h y the otherwise weak
philosophers. T h e conventions according t o w h i c h the
and reductive S t o c k h o l m bust should retain t h e m . T h e i r
p o r t r a i t subject is characterized, however, are n o t those
presence makes i t impossible t o regard the t w o pieces as
t r a d i t i o n a l for a m a n o f letters or intellect b u t rather
replicas after the same original.
those o f a statesman. I t is a m o n g the p r o m i n e n t p o l i t i c a l
15. See the works cited i n note 12; also P. Zanker, Die Bildnisse des
Augustus. Herrschenbild und Politik im kaiserlichen Rom (Munich and
Berlin, 1979).
16. Venice, Museo Archeologico: G. Traversari, / ritratti (Rome,
1968), pp. 27f., no. 10, pi. 10a—c; Copenhagen, N y Carlsberg Glyptotek: Poulsen, pp. 39ff., no. 1, pis. 1—2. O n Pompey's portraiture see
most recently Johansen, pp. 49—69.
portraits o f famous poets and
50 Nodelman
figures o f the end o f the Republic, the viri illustri,
that
his i d e n t i t y m u s t be sought.
T h e C h i a r a m o n t i - S t o c k h o l m ignotus j o i n s the select
c o m p a n y o f w h a t F. Poulsen a p t l y t e r m e d
"celebres
visages i n c o n n u s " — u n i d e n t i f i e d personalities
posthumous
whose
fame is attested b y the s u r v i v a l o f t h e i r
portraits i n m u l t i p l e copies o f later date.
17
A m o n g those
datable by the style o f their originals to the first h a l f
or m i d d l e o f the first century B.C. are the p o r t r a i t o f an
o l d m a n represented by replicas i n the U f f i z i , i n v . 1914,
and i n the N y Carlsberg G l y p t o t e k , cat. no. 429;
18
the
so-called "pseudo-Cicero" type w i t h its replicas i n F l o
rence, C o p e n h a g e n ,
bulo,"
Figure
3. Aureus struck by Pedanius Costa. Reverse.
Head o f Marcus Brutus. From Sutherland,
Roman Coins, p. 115, no. 197.
2 0
and N a p l e s ,
19
the
"pseudo-Cor-
and the p o r t r a i t o f a fleshy-faced m a n w i t h rep
licas i n Paris, Rome, Naples, and N e m i , for w h i c h V.
Poulsen has suggested the name o f Crassus.
21
All of
these m u s t represent p r o m i n e n t historical figures whose
names, c o u l d w e b u t apply t h e m , w o u l d be f a m i l i a r
f r o m o u r l i t e r a r y sources. A l l share the m i s f o r t u n e o f
l a c k i n g any e p i g r a p h i c a l or n u m i s m a t i c a t t e s t a t i o n o f
their identities. T h e case may n o t be quite so i r r e m e d i a
ble for the subject o f the C h i a r a m o n t i - S t o c k h o l m p o r
traits. A l r e a d y a first glance suggests a resemblance to
the profile images o f one o f the handful o f p o l i t i c a l f i g
ures o f the C i v i l War period, whose p o r t r a i t is recorded
for us o n coins. T h i s is none other than Marcus Junius
B r u t u s , the murderer o f Julius Caesar and last standardbearer o f the cause o f the senatorial Republic.
T h e n u m i s m a t i c evidence for the p o r t r a i t iconography
o f B r u t u s , t h o u g h confined to the last year, or at most
year and a half, o f his life, is fairly extensive. Portraits
Figure
4. Aureus struck by Servilius Casca. Obverse.
Head o f Marcus Brutus. From Kent-Hirmer,
Roman Coins, p i 28, no. 99o.
expressly identified as B r u t u s by the accompanying l e g
end appear u p o n coins issued under his i m p e r a t o r i a l au
t h o r i t y d u r i n g his c o m m a n d i n the East and were struck
o n his b e h a l f by subordinates at m i n t s i n Macedonia and
Greece. I n all cases the inscriptions describe B r u t u s as
imperator and m u s t be subsequent to his assumption o f
that title d u r i n g the summer o f 43 B . C . — a n d o f course
p r i o r to P h i l i p p i , October 23, 42 B.C. N u m i s m a t i s t s ha
b i t u a l l y attribute t h e m all to 42, t h o u g h the grounds for
such precision do n o t seem c o m p e l l i n g .
B r u t u s ' p o r t r a i t appears i n three d i f f e r e n t variants,
each struck by a different lieutenant and each clearly the
w o r k o f a different engraver or g r o u p o f engravers. Ped-
Figure
5. Aureus struck by Servilius Casca. Obverse.
Head o f Marcus Brutus. From Wealth of the
Ancient
World, p. 227.
17. F. Poulsen, "Celebres visages inconnus," RA, 5th ser., 35 (1932),
pp. 44—76. See also Zanker, pp. 38f, w i t h n. 85; P. H . von
Blanckenhagen, review o f B. Schweitzer, Bildniskunst der romischen Republik, i n Gnomon 22 (1950), p. 325.
18. Copenhagen: V. Poulsen, Les portraits grecs (Copenhagen, 1954),
pp. 71f, no. 48, pi. 33; Hafner, p. 61, no. A4, pi. 25; Florence: G.
Mansuelli, Galleria degli Uffizi. Le sculture, vol. 2 (Rome, 1961), p. 39,
no. 25, figs. 25a—b.
19. Copenhagen: Poulsen, pp. 42f, no. 3, pis. 6—7; Florence: M a n -
Brutus the Tyrannicide 51
Figure
6. Denarius struck by Plaetorius Cestianus.
Obverse. Head o f Marcus Brutus. From
Toynbee, Roman Historical
Figure
Portraits,
Figure 7. Denarius struck by Plaetorius Cestianus.
fig. 87.
Sutherland, Roman Coins, p. 116, fig. 200.
Obverse. Head o f Marcus Brutus. F r o m
A l f o l d i , "Stadtromischen M i i n z p o r t r a t s , "
pi. 2, no. 4.
Figure
Obverse. Head o f Marcus Brutus. F r o m
A l f o l d i , "Stadtromischen M i i n z p o r t r a t s , "
pi. 2, no. 9.
anius Costa, w h o signs as legatus, issued aurei bearing
head runs vertically o n either side o f the head rather
o n the obverse the bearded head o f Lucius B r u t u s , the
than c i r c l i n g r o u n d i t ; the reverse shows a c o m b i n e d
fabled first consul, whose head and legend are enclosed
m i l i t a r y and naval trophy, referring to skirmishes i n c i
w i t h i n an oak-leaf wreath; the reverse, w i t h i n the same
dent u p o n B r u t u s ' fund-raising depredations i n Greece
format, shows the head o f Marcus B r u t u s (fig. 3 ) .
2 2
Ser-
and Asia M i n o r (figs. 4, 5)
2 3
Plaetorius Cestianus struck
v i l i u s Casca, one o f B r u t u s ' co-conspirators, struck au
denarii, whose obverses show B r u t u s ' head surrounded
rei w i t h an obverse similar i n format to Costa's, t h o u g h
by legend w i t h o u t w r e a t h (figs. 6, 7, 8, 9 ) ;
the w r e a t h is n o w laurel and the legend f r a m i n g B r u t u s '
reverse is that described by D i o Cassius: the l i b e r t y cap
suelli (supra, note 18), pp. 46f£, no. 34, figs. 34a—b; Naples, Museo
Nazionale: Hekler, p. 326, pi. 146b.
20. E. Schmidt, Romerbildnisse vom Ausgang der Republik. 103.
WinckProgr (1944), pp. 15ff. See most recently H . Jucker, " A Republi
can Ancestor o f the Empress Domitia Longina," Apollo (May 1976),
pp. 350—357. (On the basis o f the photographs published by Jucker,
there seems room for doubt as to the antiquity o f the recently acquired
Montreal replica; cf. Baity, p. 299, n. 3.)
Hekler, p. 318, pi. 148a.
22. Sydenham, p. 202, no. 1295; Carson, p. 71, no. 269; C. H . V.
Sutherland, Roman Coins (New York, 1974), p. 115, figs. 196-197.
23. Sydenham, p. 203, no. 1297; Carson, p. 73, no. 272; J. P. C.
Kent, M . Hirmer, and A. Hirmer, Roman Coins (New York, 1978), p.
274, no. 99, pi. 27, fig. 99r, pi. 28, fig. 99o.
24. Sydenham, p. 203, no. 1301; Carson, p. 72, no. 274; Sutherland
(supra, note 22), p. 116, figs. 200—201; Kent-Hirmer (supra, note 23),
p. 274, no. 98, pi. 27, no. 98. O f the portrait obverses illustrated i n the
21. Schmidt (supra, note 20), p. 29; Poulsen, pp. lOf. Naples replica:
2 4
the famous
52
Nodelman
Figure
10. Denarius struck by L . Servius Rufus.
A l f o l d i , "Stadtromischen Miinzportrats,"
pi. 2, no. 12.
flanked by a pair o f daggers, w i t h the legend E I D M A R T
—as b o l d a reference as c o u l d be i m a g i n e d to the m u r d e r
o f Caesar.
25
m o r e strongly arched, the eye larger, and the lips thicker
and more protrusive. Costa's aurei steer a m i d d l e course
b e t w e e n the d r y realism o f Cestianus' p o r t r a i t and the
A l l three o f these issues agree i n s h o w i n g a head o f
characteristic profile: the s k u l l
Figure 11. Denarius struck by L. Servius Rufus. Obverse.
Head o f Marcus B r u t u s . F r o m A l f o l d i ,
"Stadtromischen Miinzportrats," pi. 3, no. 4.
flat-topped
with promi
baroque exaggeration o f Casca's; one is t e m p t e d t o call
t h e m neoclassic i n style. I n a d d i t i o n to these, a f o u r t h
nent occiput; a t h i c k cap o f hair combed f o r w a r d over
c o i n p o r t r a i t o f about the same date, u p o n the u n i n -
the forehead and c u r l i n g heavily at the nape o f the neck;
scribed obverse o f a local M a c e d o n i a n bronze issue, is
a l i g h t beard descending the cheek and f o l l o w i n g the
u s u a l l y a t t r i b u t e d t o B r u t u s ; i t displays a head
l i n e o f the j a w ; a l o n g , straight nose w i t h b u l b o u s t i p ,
appears to be a crude, provincial t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f that
l o w - b r i d g e d and set at a m a r k e d l y c o n t r a s t i n g angle
o n the aurei o f C o s t a .
to the forehead; deep-set eyes; a strong c h i n ; and f u l l ,
ographic value and needs no further consideration here.
p u r s e d lips. H o w e v e r , they differ considerably i n the
r e n d e r i n g o f these features.
T h e soberest and
most
27
that
T h i s rare type has scant i c o n -
O n e more n u m i s m a t i c p o r t r a i t g r o u p remains to be
discussed.
T h i s consists o f the bearded heads o n o b
precise appears to be that o f Plaetorius Cestianus, w h i c h
verses o f denarii struck at the m i n t o f R o m e b y the
also has the advantage o f b e i n g the largest, since i t dis
moneyer L . Servius Rufus (figs. 10, l l ) .
2 8
Estimates o f
penses w i t h the w r e a t h , w h i c h elsewhere occupies a
t h e i r date have varied between 43 and 41 B.C., and the
substantial part o f the field. Cestianus' dies fall i n t o t w o
personage represented has usually been identified as an
g r o u p s , one m o r e plastic (figs. 6, 7) and the o t h e r
harsher and more linear i n treatment (figs. 8, 9 )
2 6
but
ancestor o f the moneyer, whose o w n name accompanies
i t o n the otherwise uninscribed field. However, the head
b o t h accenting the angularity o f the profile and sharing
has a s t r i k i n g resemblance
s i m i l a r p r o p o r t i o n s and r h y t h m . T h e r e can be l i t t l e
n u m i s m a t i c portraits o f B r u t u s and has been i d e n t i f i e d
d o u b t that they reflect the same sculptural p r o t o t y p e ;
as his by a n u m b e r o f scholars.
w h e t h e r they descend f r o m the same o r i g i n a l m o d e l die
exhaustively demonstrated this identification and argued
is less certain. T h e head o n Casca's aurei is m u c h m o r e
persuasively for Servius' m e m b e r s h i p i n a college o f
heavily modeled, the features
w i t h the b r o w
four moneyers i n office d u r i n g the first h a l f o f 43. H e r e
works cited above, all are executed i n the "plastic" style-subdivision o f
Cestianus' issues; for obverses executed i n the "harsh" style see infra,
note 26.
25. D i o Cassius XLVII.25.
26. For examples o f the "linear" version o f Cestianus' portrait ob
verses, see Alfoldi, pi. 2, figs. 9, 12; M . L . Vollenweider, Die Portrdtgemmen der romischen Republik, vol. 1, Katalog (Mainz, 1972), pi. 93, figs.
4—8, pi. 94, figs. 5—6, w i t h commentary pp. 57f.
27. J. J. Bernoulli, Romische Ikonographie, vol. 1 (Stuttgart, 1882),
Miinztafel 3, fig. 75.
28. Sydenham, p. 179, no. 1082; Carson, p. 74, no. 285; Alfoldi, pi.
2, figs. 4, 7, 8, 11, pi. 3, figs. 1—5; Vollenweider (supra, note 26), pi.
123, figs. 5-6, 8-13, pi. 124, figs. 2-4, w i t h commentary pp. 72f.
29. Initially by Sydenham, p. 179, no. 1082 and note to no. 1081; cf.
Alfoldi, p. 21.
30. Alfoldi, passim. A n earlier version o f these arguments appeared
as A . Alfoldi, "Portratkunst und Politik i n 43 v. Chr.," Nederlands
Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek 5 (1954), pp. 151—171.
fleshier,
t o the already
29
discussed
T h e late A . A l f o l d i has
B r u t u s ' p o r t r a i t and those o n the obverses o f the three
pressive features o f the face. B e t w e e n these extremes
other moneyers w o u l d f i n d their appropriate n u m i s m a
stand the t w o closely related versions i n the coinage o f
tic and political c o n t e x t .
30
Servius' obverses are a v a l u
Plaetorius Cestianus. O f these the more plastically r e n
able supplement to B r u t u s ' n u m i s m a t i c iconography as
dered s u b g r o u p displays a s t a b i l i t y and s i m p l i c i t y o f
p r o v i d e d by the i n s c r i p t i o n a l l y identified portraits.
shape that, despite the more p o i n t e d and i n d i v i d u a l i z e d
L i k e the three Eastern issues, the various dies o f Ser
treatment o f the features, connect i t w i t h the p o r t r a i t o n
vius Rufus' denarii display a certain range o f v a r i a t i o n i n
the coins o f Pedanius Costa. T h e other subgroup e m
their rendering, reflecting the temperaments and skills
ploys its sometimes rather sketchy rendering as the v e h i
o f various engravers as w e l l as the a c c u m u l a t i o n o f i n
cle for a harder, more abrupt, and emphatic version o f
v o l u n t a r y disparities as the l i n e o f descent f r o m
the
the facial features, w h i c h may provide a bridge to the
o r i g i n a l master die grows more distant i n the process o f
inflated, almost caricatural extreme o f some o f the p o r
repeated copying. Nevertheless they are rather consis
traits o n the aurei o f Casca.
tent i n t h e i r distinctive style o f rendering and i n the
Despite i n d i v i d u a l differences i n conception and ex
t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f the sculptural o r i g i n a l that they provide.
ecution, all o f these versions share certain stable and
T h e essential features are the same as those described
fundamental traits. T h e characteristic shape o f the s k u l l ,
above for the Eastern issues. T h e rendering, however, is
the v o l u m e and o u t l i n e o f the cap o f hair, and the dis
q u i t e different, w i t h a s m o o t h e r e x t e r n a l c o n t o u r , a
t i n c t i v e facial profile are h e l d i n c o m m o n , as a r e — w i t h
more compact shape, and a more u n i f i e d treatment o f
the exception n o t e d above—the l e n g t h and treatment o f
the facial structure. Some o f Rufus' obverses are dis
the beard. I t m u s t be asked to w h a t extent these versions
t i n g u i s h e d by rather more elongated p r o p o r t i o n s , and
represent a single, o r i g i n a l m o d e l . D o their differences
o n some o f these the l i g h t beard lengthens i n t o a tuft at
reflect n o more than the stylistic idiosyncracies o f the
the p o i n t o f the c h i n .
3 1
T h i s presumably reflects a m o d i
master engravers, or do they betray the existence o f
fication i n t r o d u c e d i n t o the u l t i m a t e sculptural p r o t o
m o r e than one sculptural prototype? Were i t n o t for the
type;
3 2
b u t its l i m i t a t i o n to a small fraction o f one o f
coins o f Servilius Casca, the question w o u l d seem easy
B r u t u s ' four p o r t r a i t issues shows that this version was
to answer. T h e other four versions present a range o f
restricted i n d u r a t i o n , circulation, or b o t h . T h e Eastern
v a r i a t i o n n o greater than can readily be explained by the
c o i n portraits, certainly later i n date than those o f Rome,
different mannerisms o f engravers variously reproduc
are u n a n i m o u s l y short-bearded.
i n g a single p r o t o t y p e i n another m e d i u m and format.
There are thus basically five n u m i s m a t i c variants o f
Some o f the coins o f Casca are more difficult to accom
B r u t u s ' portrait, each w i t h a certain i n t e r n a l range o f
modate w i t h i n this assumption. B r u t u s appears older,
variation. Each appears to originate f r o m a master e n
heavier-featured,
graver w i t h a distinctive glyptic style and a particular
exaggerated to the extreme. The question arises whether
the pathos o f the facial
expression
v i s i o n o f the sculptural o r i g i n a l , whose profile aspect he
Casca's obverses are not based u p o n a different sculptural
was transposing i n t o m i n i a t u r i z e d relief. T h e y can be
prototype, physiognomically and stylistically distinct f r o m
arranged i n t o s o m e t h i n g o f a c o n t i n u u m . A t one ex
that reflected by the other numismatic versions.
treme stands the R o m a n version o f Servius Rufus, w i t h
A n u m b e r o f considerations w e i g h against this sup
its compact p r o p o r t i o n s , s m o o t h l y flowing o u t l i n e , and
p o s i t i o n . N o t all o f Casca's dies, despite their shared
relatively u n m a r k e d treatment o f the features.
Among
general style, are equally extreme i n their r e n d e r i n g o f
the Eastern examples, the c o i n p o r t r a i t s o f Pedanius
the p o r t r a i t features; the more moderate examples
Costa are closest to this i n their s m o o t h , even treatment,
n o t far removed f r o m , e.g., the treatment i n Plaetorius
are
b u t they break the c o n t i n u i t y o f the c o n t o u r l i n e to
Cestianus' coinage. Moreover, some o f the expressive
stress the angularity o f the facial profile. A t the other
effects achieved by Casca's engraver are possible o n l y
extreme stands the "baroque" version o f Servilius Casca
w i t h i n the small-scale glyptic m e d i u m and cannot have
w i t h its fleshy m o d e l i n g and its exaggeration o f the ex-
been features o f the full-size sculptural p r o t o t y p e . W h i l e
31. Alfoldi, pi. 2, figs. 7-8; Vollenweider (supra, note 26), pi. 123,
figs. 5-6, 8, 11-12, pi. 124, figs. 3-4. The style, proportions, and
glyptic rendering o f this group o f Servius Rufus' obverse dies are
closely matched i n two portrait gems (Vollenweider [supra, note 26],
pi. 94, figs. 1-4; ibid., vol. 2, Text [Mainz, 1974], p. 139), which
however, lack the lengthened tuft at the chin shown by most o f these
coins.
both i n numismatic portraits and i n sculpture i n the round—within
portrait types whose characteristics are otherwise constant. This ob
servation permits interesting inferences w i t h regard to the mechanisms
o f production and distribution o f the Imperial portraiture, and to the
relationship between sculptural and numismatic portraits, which I plan
to discuss elsewhere. Servius Rufus' coinage suggests comparable pro
cedures during the first century B.C..
32. I n the Imperial portraiture o f the second and third centuries
A.D., stages i n the growth o f beard o f adolescent princes are recorded—
54 Nodelman
necessary for our purposes. I f a decisive pattern o f re
semblances c o u l d be identified between the shared basic
characteristics o f the four " n o r m a l " n u m i s m a t i c variants
o f B r u t u s ' p o r t r a i t and the profile o f an appropriate p o r
trait head i n the r o u n d , this should suffice as grounds
for an identification. T h e question o f the possible exis
tence o f yet another, stylistically and p h y s i o g n o m i c a l l y
distinct, sculptural portrait o f B r u t u s that m i g h t have
served as the m o d e l for Casca's coin portraits w o u l d i n
n o way invalidate such a result.
T h e shared f u n d a m e n t a l characteristics o f the C h i a r a m o n t i and S t o c k h o l m portraits e x h i b i t j u s t such a
pattern o f resemblances to the coins. T h e shape and p r o
p o r t i o n s o f the skull, w i t h its flat top and p r o n o u n c e d
Figure
12. Gold stater o f King Pharnaces I I . Obverse.
Portait o f the king. From Wealth of the Ancient
World, no. 113.
occipital development, concur s t r i k i n g l y i n the n u m i s
matic and sculptured profiles. So does the t h i c k cap o f
hair, whose v o l u m e is set o f f against that o f the s k u l l
and whose c o n t o u r across the forehead and d o w n the
the high-arched b r o w and w i d e - o p e n eye and the fleshy
side o f the head correspond closely as w e l l . Such details
m o d e l i n g o f the cheek are perfectly imaginable w i t h i n
as the i n d i c a t i o n o f separate locks f a l l i n g over the fore
the m i m e t i c repertory o f late Hellenistic sculpture, an
head, the t h i c k f o r w a r d - c u r l i n g locks gathered at the
equally i m p o r t a n t element
nape, and the pattern o f the l o n g u n d u l a t i n g hair strands
o f the same
expressive
scheme, the caricatural exaggeration o f the t h i c k and
o n the side o f the head agree as closely as c o u l d be
p r o t r u s i v e lips, is n o t . G r o s s l y exceeding n a t u r a l i s t i c
w i s h e d . As to the facial profile itself, the height and
p r o p o r t i o n s , this is imaginable o n l y w i t h i n the m i n i a
angle o f the straight forehead correspond exactly, as does
t u r e scale a n d p i c t o r i a l l y c o n c e i v e d r e l i e f o f t h e
the abrupt break o f the contour at the l o w bridge o f the
n u m i s m a t i c image. Finally, there is the obvious concor
nose. C o m p a r i s o n o f the shape o f the nose is l i m i t e d by
dance b e t w e e n the s c u l p t u r a l s e n s i b i l i t y o f t h e e n
the fact that the lower h a l f o f that o f the C h i a r a m o n t i
graver—his love o f succulent m o d e l i n g , v i o l e n t c o n
p o r t r a i t and almost all o f that o f the one i n S t o c k h o l m
trasts,
are restored. Nevertheless enough survives to show the
flickering
chiaroscuro—and the "baroque" pathos
o f expression w i t h w h i c h the portrait subject is invested.
s i m i l a r i t y o f the change o f angle between forehead and
It is interesting that a s i m i l a r "baroque" style o f n u
nose and that o f the l i n e o f the nose so far as i t is
mismatic portraiture, featuring comparable depth o f m o d
preserved. Some o f the c o i n profiles indicate a c r o o k i n
e l i n g and i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c effects, had been e m p l o y e d
the nose at about its m i d p o i n t and most agree i n g i v i n g
o n l y a few years previously i n the g o l d coinage o f K i n g
it a d r a w n - o u t t i p . These features are n o t available for
Pharnaces I I o f Bosporus, son o f Mithradates E u p a t o r
c o m p a r i s o n i n the sculptured replicas, b u t the overall
(fig. 12), whose attempt to recover his father's
empire
shape o f the nose i n the better preserved instance o f the
T h i s question does n o t seem at present to be resolv
and its extrapolation i n the restorer's a d d i t i o n , agrees
able o n the n u m i s m a t i c evidence alone. I t w o u l d require
w e l l w i t h that attested by the coins. T h e deep-set eyes
was defeated by Julius Caesar at Zela i n 47 B . C .
3 3
C h i a r a m o n t i bust, as witnessed by the s u r v i v i n g p o r t i o n
a comprehensive analysis o f entire issues w i t h a v i e w to
are a n o t h e r
d e t e r m i n i n g the sequence o f d i e - l i n k s and e v e n t u a l l y
head musculature o f the sculptured portraits is e x p l i c i t l y
i d e n t i f y i n g the o r i g i n a l master dies or their i m m e d i a t e
n o t a t e d i n the p r o f i l e s o f the " l i n e a r " s u b g r o u p o f
progeny. T h i s w o u l d hardly be feasible i n the present
Plaetorius Cestianus' issues, w h i c h o f all the n u m i s m a t i c
c o m m o n feature,
a n d the tensed f o r e
case o w i n g to the rarity o f B r u t u s ' coins and the t i n y
variants o f B r u t u s ' portrait provide the greatest w e a l t h o f
fraction o f each issue that survives. Fortunately i t is n o t
i n t e r n a l detail.
33. See K . C . Golenko and P.J. Karyszkowski, "The Gold Coinage
o f K i n g Pharnaces o f the Bosporus," NC, 1972, pp. 25—38, pis. 2—3;
also, Wealth of the Ancient World. The Nelson Bunker Hunt and William
Herbert Hunt Collection, ex. cat. (Fort Worth, Kimball A r t Museum,
1983), p. 222, no. 113 (C. Lorber). There seems nothing else compar-
able i n the numismatic style o f the contemporary Hellenistic world.
Could engravers formerly i n the service o f K i n g Pharnaces have found
employment a few years later w i t h Casca's newly established mint?
34. Bernoulli (supra, note 27), pp. 187-195.
35. EAA 2 (1959), pp. 193ff, s.v. "Bruto," "Marco."
T h e same close resemblances persist i n the l o w e r h a l f
dence helps to c o n f i r m the posited relationship between
o f the face, i n c l u d i n g the compressed, f u l l - l i p p e d , p o u t
the originals o f the t w o portraits as w e l l as the differing
i n g m o u t h w i t h its t u r n e d - d o w n inner corner; the j u t
evidential status o f the s u r v i v i n g replicas. I n w h a t f o l
t i n g c h i n w i t h its deep i n d e n t a t i o n beneath the l o w e r
lows, the stylistic and iconographic evaluations o f
l i p ; the pronounced labio-nasal line; and the c o n t o u r o f
B r u t u s ' p o r t r a i t w i l l be based p r i m a r i l y o n the C h i a r a
the j a w l i n e up to the s i m i l a r l y placed ear. T h e sculp
m o n t i bust, w i t h some confidence that inferences d r a w n
t u r e d portraits' l i g h t fringe o f beard, c u r l i n g d o w n the
f r o m i t apply, mutatis mutandis, to the o r i g i n a l o f the
cheek i n front o f the ear and f o l l o w i n g the j a w l i n e t o
S t o c k h o l m type as w e l l .
w a r d the c h i n , is f a i t h f u l l y m i r r o r e d i n m o s t o f the
H u m a n i s t i c scholarship has, o f course, l o n g sought to
coins, t h o u g h i n a few i t is so s u m m a r i l y i n d i c a t e d
i d e n t i f y the image o f one o f the most fascinating and
as h a r d l y t o be visible i n r e p r o d u c t i o n ; and i n some
tragic figures a m o n g the viri illustri o f the late Republic.
o f Servius Rufus' R o m a n dies i t is prolonged—as
T h e older attempts were reviewed by J. J. B e r n o u l l i i n
was
m e n t i o n e d above—into an additional tuft at the c h i n .
So far the salient characteristics held i n c o m m o n by
the " n o r m a l " n u m i s m a t i c p o r t r a i t s can be
matched
1882 and were w i t h g o o d reason d i s m i s s e d .
34
A more
recent survey, by A . L o n g o i n 1959, reached s i m i l a r l y
negative results.
35
Since that t i m e there have been several
p o i n t for p o i n t i n b o t h the C h i a r a m o n t i and S t o c k
renewed attempts to i d e n t i f y the p o r t r a i t o f B r u t u s . T h e
h o l m busts. However, the p r o m i n e n t cheekbones and
first o f these and, surprisingly, that w h i c h has f o u n d the
strongly m a r k e d fold r o u n d the corner o f the m o u t h ,
greatest echo i n the scholarly literature, is also the most
w h i c h are featured w i t h v a r y i n g degrees o f emphasis i n
farfetched. A bearded head at the Prado i n M a d r i d , ad
most o f the n u m i s m a t i c profiles—notably i n those o f the
vanced as B r u t u s by H . M o b i u s ,
3 6
was surely never i n
issue—
tended as a portrait. A copy o f a Hellenistic w o r k o f the
are d i s t i n c t i v e traits o f the S t o c k h o l m p o r t r a i t alone;
late t h i r d or early second century B.C., i t belongs to a
they are n o t comparably accented i n the C h i a r a m o n t i
f a m i l i a r genre type, whose gross features and u n c o u t h
portrait. Hence i t is the second and older o f the t w o
expression were e m p l o y e d t o characterize barbarians,
" l i n e a r " subgroup w i t h i n Plaetorius Cestianus'
versions o f B r u t u s ' portrait that is reproduced i n the
slaves, and r o u g h c o u n t r y f o l k . M o b i u s was presumably
coins o f 43—42 B.C. T h i s is indeed w h a t one m i g h t ex
inspired by the rather remote resemblance—more a m a t
pect, inasmuch as these coins were struck i n the final
ter o f stylistic affinity than o f p h y s i o g n o m y — b e t w e e n
year to year-and-a-half o f B r u t u s ' life.
the Prado head and the "baroque" or neo-Hellenistic
Nevertheless the younger C h i a r a m o n t i p o r t r a i t is n o t
variant o f B r u t u s ' n u m i s m a t i c p o r t r a i t o n the coins o f
i r r e l e v a n t i n e v a l u a t i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the
Casca. However, the shape and p r o p o r t i o n s o f the head,
coins and their sculptural p r o t o t y p e . A s has been seen,
the o u t l i n e o f the cap o f hair, and the r h y t h m o f the
except for these v e r y same i n d i c a t i o n s o f a d v a n c i n g
facial profile are completely u n l i k e , even to such a detail
age—the h o l l o w i n g o f the cheeks and the sagging o f the
as the Prado head's open m o u t h compared to B r u t u s '
muscles r o u n d the m o u t h — t h e S t o c k h o l m p o r t r a i t ap
t i g h t l y compressed lips. T h e d i s s i m i l a r i t y w i t h
pears to have repeated the format, and, so far as can be
other, m o r e n o r m a l variants o f B r u t u s ' n u m i s m a t i c p o r
j u d g e d , the style o f its predecessor. Since the latter sur
trait is even more marked.
the
vives i n a replica o f far higher quality, representing its
V. Poulsen once suggested that B r u t u s m i g h t be rep
o r i g i n a l w i t h m u c h greater fidelity, w e are e n t i t l e d to
resented i n the p s e u d o - C o r b u l o p o r t r a i t type, w h o s e
assume that the stylistic nuances that i t preserves—but
o r i g i n a l was o f the appropriate date, and whose subject
w h i c h are coarsened or lost i n its S t o c k h o l m counter
is indicated by the replica series itself as an o u t s t a n d i n g
part—were characteristic o f the latter's o r i g i n a l as w e l l .
historical f i g u r e .
A n d indeed, i n such a detail as the r e n d e r i n g o f the
m i t t e d , i t bears no resemblance to the coins: pseudo-
beard, the n u m i s m a t i c profiles resemble n o t the s u m
C o r b u l o is clean-shaven w i t h c l o s e - c r o p p e d h a i r , a
m a r y indications o f this feature i n the S t o c k h o l m p o r
s l o p i n g forehead, aquiline nose, and receding c h i n , as
t r a i t b u t the m o r e f l o w i n g and delicately g r a d u a t e d
o p p o s e d t o B r u t u s ' t h i c k cap o f hair, bearded
t r e a t m e n t o f the C h i a r a m o n t i piece. T h i s c o r r e s p o n -
straight forehead, straight nose, and j u t t i n g c h i n . T h e
36. Arndt-Brunn, nos. 507-508; A. Blanco, Museo del Prado. Catdlogo de la Escultura (Madrid, 1957), p. 83, no. 122-E, pi. 51. H . Mobius,
" M . Junius Brutus," AE 1953/54, vol 3. (1961), pp. 207-211 (idem,
Studia Varia [Wiesbaden, 1967], pp. 210-215). O. Vessberg's proposed
identification as T. Quinctius Flamininus is at least closer to the date
o f the piece (Studien zur Kunstgeschichte der romischen Republik [Lund
and Leipzig, 1941], pp. 125f.). Cf. the well-taken remarks o f Baity,
pp. 198f. Mobius' proposal has been followed by Toynbee,
pp. 62f.
37. Poulsen, pp. 13ff.
3 7
H o w e v e r , as Poulsen h i m s e l f a d
face,
56 Nodelman
resemblance o f a head i n Philadelphia f r o m the excava
c o n t i n u e d to circulate freely d u r i n g the first c e n t u r y o f
tions at M i n t u r n o , suggested as a possible B r u t u s by C.
the E m p i r e and b e y o n d .
Vermeule, is b u t l i t t l e greater.
38
43
T h a t his and Cassius' statues
M o r e recently A . M a s s -
were n o t systematically o v e r t h r o w n by order o f the t r i
ner has seen B r u t u s i n a head i n the N y Carlsberg G l y p -
u m v i r s n o r o f Augustus is attested i n the speech p u t b y
totek i n Copenhagen.
3 9
T h e beardless head, w i t h its
Tacitus i n t o the m o u t h o f C r e m u t i u s C o r d u s i n A.D. 25.
short, strongly h o o k e d nose, n a r r o w jaw, and small c h i n
H e r e they are referred to as a f a m i l i a r sight to the p u b l i c
shows l i t t l e i f any s i m i l a r i t y to B r u t u s ' n u m i s m a t i c p o r
in Tiberius' t i m e .
traits. T h e G l y p t o t e k head is surely n o t a w o r k o f the
tus stood i n M i l a n , evidently a relic o f his
procurator-
late R e p u b l i c a n p e r i o d b u t , as P o u l s e n h a d
ship o f G a l l i a C i s a l p i n a i n 46 B . C . I t was
apparently
already
p o i n t e d out, a private p o r t r a i t o f the first h a l f o f the first
century A . D .
4 0
F o l l o w i n g a s u g g e s t i o n o f R. B i a n c h i
on
4 4
A pa rtic ula rly notable statue o f B r u
p r o m i n e n t v i e w i n the f o r u m or basilica and
was
the object o f a rhetorical appeal by C. Albucius Silo w h e n
B a n d i n e l l i , J. B a i t y has p u t f o r w a r d as B r u t u s the w e l l -
he defended a case before the p r o c o n s u l L u c i u s Piso
k n o w n bronze head i n L e n i n g r a d , w h i c h has sometimes
i n 15 B . C .
been called Sextus P o m p e i u s .
41
T h i s fine piece is o f the
proper date and is bearded to boot; unfortunately,
shape o f s k u l l , hair-cap,
forehead,
nose, m o u t h ,
4 5
T h e same statue is the centerpiece o f a piquant
anecdote about Augustus recounted by Plutarch
4 6
the
I n a d d i t i o n to the s u r v i v i n g h o n o r a r y statues i n p u b l i c
and
places, images o f the tyrannicides c o n t i n u e d to be pre
c h i n have l i t t l e i n c o m m o n w i t h B r u t u s ' head shape and
served, and no d o u b t reproduced, for e x h i b i t i o n a m o n g
distinctive, angular profile. M o s t recently a head i n the
the f a m i l y imagines o f the n o b i l i t y w h o c o u l d c l a i m de
G e t t y M u s e u m w i t h incised, and perhaps secondary,
scent f r o m or relation to t h e m ,
beard has been discussed i n archaeological circles as a
be p r i v a t e l y cherished even by those w h o had n o such
possible B r u t u s , t h o u g h n o t published as such. I t has
family links
l i t t l e resemblance t o the c o i n p o r t r a i t s .
4 2
Despite
4 8
4 7
and their images m i g h t
Indeed, B r u t u s , t o g e t h e r w i t h Cassius
the
and w i t h his uncle Cato o f U t i c a , became the object o f a
e r u d i t i o n deployed i n their behalf, none o f these a t t r i b u
sort o f m a r t y r cult o n the part o f members o f the c o n
tions is v e r y c o n v i n c i n g ; nor has any w o n general accep
servative aristocracy nostalgic for the glories o f the libera
tance. N o n e shows a n y t h i n g l i k e the coherent pattern o f
res publica.
resemblances to the n u m i s m a t i c
Tiberius i t m i g h t be p r u d e n t n o t to make excessive p u b
portraits
that
the
C h i a r a m o n t i and S t o c k h o l m busts exhibit.
49
I n the suspicious atmosphere o f the r e i g n o f
lic display o f images o f the t y r a n n i c i d e s . Tacitus
de
C a n portraits o f one regarded by the v i c t o r i o u s t r i u m
scribes the splendid funeral i n A.D. 22 o f Junia, sister o f
v i r s and subsequently by the I m p e r i a l regime as hostis
B r u t u s , niece o f Cato, and w i f e o f Cassius, at w h i c h the
publicus and a r c h c r i m i n a l indeed have survived? T h e l i t
ancestral effigies o f t w e n t y noble families were paraded:
erary sources p e r m i t this question to be answered w i t h a
Sed praefulgebant
Cassius atque Brutus
eo ipso quod effigies
definite yes. There is no i n d i c a t i o n o f an official damnatio
eorum
h a v i n g been inflicted o n B r u t u s ' m e m o r y . H i s w r i t i n g s
Trajan's principate w e learn f r o m the younger P l i n y that
38. C. Vermeule, "Greek and Roman Portraits i n N o r t h American
Collections," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, no. 108
(1964), p. 109, p. 120, fig. 4.
39. Massner, pp. 24£, pis. 8b, 12a.
40. Poulsen, p. 121, no. 89, pis. 162-163.
41. A . Vostchinina, Musee de VErmitage. Les portraits romains
(Leningrad, 1974), frontispiece, pis. 4—5, p. 138, no. 4; R. Bianchi
Bandinelli, Rome: The Center of Power (New York, 1970), pp. 80, 84,
fig. 91; Baity, pp. 191—220. The Hermitage bronze has been proposed
recently as a possible Marcus Antonius: F. Johansen, " A n t i k k e portraetter af Kleopatra V I I og Marcus Antonius," MedNC 35 (1978),
pp. 73ff, figs. 27a-c, 77.
46. Plutarch Dion and Brutus V. Augustus asks the citizenry o f
M i l a n w h y they are harboring an enemy o f his. They react w i t h con
sternation; he explains that he is referring to the statue o f Brutus and
commends them for their loyalty to their benefactor o f old. Plutarch
praises the statue for its good likeness and fine workmanship.
47. C. Cassius Longinus (cos. A.D. 30), the eminent jurist and lineal
descendant o f the tyrannicide, is recorded by Tacitus Annales XVI.7, as
cherishing an effigy o f Cassius among his imagines maiorum. Nero i n a
speech to the senate used the fact that this image was inscribed Duci
partium as a motive for ascribing treasonable intentions to the younger
Cassius (A.D. 65). Cf. also Suetonius Nero X X X V I I .
42. Aspects, pp. 30ff, no. 3; Roman Portraits, pp. 20£, no. 8; J. Frel,
i n Le monde des Cesars, ex. cat. (Geneva, Musee d A r t et d'histoire,
1982), pp. 52f£ None o f the above commentators accepted the head as
Brutus.
43. The characters i n Tacitus' Dialogus de Oratoribus exhibit famil
iarity w i t h Brutus' speeches. See also Quintilian V.10,9; Seneca Epistulae XCV.45; further references i n RE, vol. 10, pt. 1 (1917), cols. 974£,
s.v. "Iunius no. 53" ( M . Gelzer).
44. Tacitus Annales IV.34.
45. Suetonius De Rhetoribus V I ; cf. RE, vol. 1, pt. 1 (1893), col. 1331,
s.v. "Albucius" (vonRohden).
non visebantur.
50
I n the m o r e l i b e r a l c l i m a t e o f
48. Cf. Appian's story (Bell. Civ. IV.51) o f Brutus' former quaestor
Publius, who i n later life was visited by Augustus at his home, ex
hibited to the emperor the portraits o f Brutus that he kept there, and
was praised by Augustus for so doing. D i o Cassius LIII.32,4 has a
similar account o f one Lucius Sestius, another old comrade-in-arms o f
the tyrannicide, who, as o f A.D. 23, kept images o f Brutus and deliv
ered addresses eulogizing h i m .
49. See especially R. MacMullen, Enemies of the Roman Order
(Cambridge, Mass., 1966), pp. 1—45; M . L . Clarke, The Noblest Roman
(Ithaca, 1981), pp. 79-85; E. Wikstrand, "The Stoic Opposition to the
Principate," Studii Clasice 18 (1979), pp. 93—102, esp. 95; also references
collected i n RE, vol. 10, pt. 1 (1917), col. 1019, s.v. "Iunius no. 53"
his f r i e n d T i t i n i u s C a p i t o m a i n t a i n e d a veritable
57
i n the aftermath o f the Pulcher affair—which led Cicero
shrine i n w h i c h the images o f the Republican t r i n i t y
to characterize B r u t u s as the outstanding figure o f the
were honored: est omnino Capitoni in usu claws viros colere.
younger generation —the
Mirum est, qua religione, quo studio imagines
does not predate i t by more than a few years. Its creation
Cassiorum,
Brutorum,
56
C h i a r a m o n t i p o r t r a i t surely
may reasonably be dated i n the late fifties, and that o f
51
Catonum domi, ubi potest, habeat.
T h e C h i a r a m o n t i and S t o c k h o l m p o r t r a i t s can be
the Stockholm type to the mid-forties B.C.
dated fairly closely. T h e latter type, w h i c h is p l a i n l y that
T h e n e w l y recovered p o r t r a i t o f B r u t u s is surprising
o f the coins, was therefore i n existence d u r i n g 43—42 B.C.
i n m o r e than one respect. Its seeming a n t i c i p a t i o n o f
O n e w o u l d estimate the age o f the subject as a r o u n d
certain aspects o f A u g u s t a n portraiture have led to esti
forty; this corresponds w e l l w i t h the age o f B r u t u s , b o r n
mates o f its date that n o w prove at least t w o or three
Several portrait statues o f B r u t u s are
decades t o o low. I n a d d i t i o n , i t hardly seems to f i t the
attested by the literary and archaeological record, b u t
conventional image o f the die-hard " o l d - R o m a n " t r a d i
i n either 85 or 7 9 .
52
none o f these instances need necessarily have been the
tionalist, w h i c h w e may have projected u p o n the sketch-
occasions for the creation o f the portrait types t h e m
i l y rendered c o i n profiles. Rather than a g r i m " v e r i s t i c "
selves. It is indeed t e m p t i n g to associate the S t o c k h o l m
p o r t r a i t o f the k i n d often supposed typical o f the conser
type w i t h the statue o f B r u t u s set up by the Athenians i n
vative aristocracy i n the first century B.C., the p o r t r a i t o f
44- togetherw i t h one o f Cassius—in proximity to tthe
the f u t u r e m u r d e r e r o f Caesar is elegant and
high-
during
toned, c o m b i n i n g a neoclassic precision and clarity o f
B r u t u s ' several m o n t h s ' residence i n Athens d u r i n g the
c o n t o u r w i t h the vigorous movement and dramatic pre
monument
o f the Tyrannicides,
53
presumably
a u t u m n o f 44. T h i s is p r i o r to all o f the n u m i s m a t i c
sentation o f personality that w e associate w i t h H e l l e n
portraits, and c o u l d have served as their m o d e l , b u t the
istic art. These characteristics are w o r t h e x a m i n i n g m o r e
type may equally w e l l already have been i n existence to
closely O n e m i g h t b e g i n by l o o k i n g at B r u t u s ' p o r t r a i t
serve for the statue o f 46 B.C. i n M i l a n . However i t cannot
i n the context o f those w i t h w h i c h i t came i n subsequent
predate the latter by very m u c h , for the C h i a r a m o n t i
generations to be most closely grouped, w i t h those o f
t y p e — u n d o u b t e d l y some years earlier, as the marks o f
B r u t u s ' t w o associates i n the R e p u b l i c a n " t r i n i t y o f
aging that distinguish the Stockholm type f r o m i t have not
m a r t y r s , " his fellow leader i n the anti-Caesarian
yet appeared—represents not a y o u t h but a fully mature
spiracy, Caius Cassius, and his uncle, the younger Cato.
man
5 4
and is unlikely to predate the decade o f the fifties,
w h i c h saw the beginnings o f Brutus' public career.
55
By
the end o f the decade, through his role i n the successful
con
T h e p o r t r a i t o f Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis has
been restored to us i n the f o r m o f the fine and i n s c r i p t i o n a l l y i d e n t i f i e d b r o n z e bust f r o m V o l u b i l i s
(figs.
defense i n 51 o f Appius Claudius Pulcher i n one o f the
13a—b)
great political trials o f the last years o f the Republic, B r u
p e i i and one i n marble f r o m Castel Gandolfo, n o w i n
tus had emerged to real prominence. I f not actually created
Florence, have since been added
( M . Gelzer).
50. Tacitus Annates 111.76.
51. Pliny Epistulae 1.17,3.
52. See RE, vol. 10, pt. 1 (1917), cols. 973£, s.v. "Iunius no. 53" ( M .
Gelzer); A . E . Douglas, ed., Cicero, "Brutus" (Oxford, 1966), note to
324.11, pp. 229£; Clarke (supra, note 49), pp. 11, 137, n. 4. The later date
w o u l d accord better w i t h the pattern o f Brutus' political career; he was
quaestor only i n 53.
53. D i o Cassius XLVII.20. What may be a fragment o f the dedica
tory inscription was found i n the Agora excavations: A . E .
Raubitschek, "The Brutus Statue i n Athens," Atti del Terzo Congresso
Internazionale di Epigrafia Greca e Latina, Roma 1957 (Rome, 1959),
pp. 15ff. Cf. Baity, pp. 194-196.
54. Most commentators following Amelung, have been content to
qualify the subject o f the Chiaramonti portrait as " y o u n g " w i t h o u t
further specification. (Curtius' [supra, note 1] proposed identification
as Marcellus implies an age i n the late teens, which seems to me most
improbable.) The impression o f youthfulness is conditioned i n no
small part by the portrait's idealizing neoclassical style. I n reality, the
rendering o f muscle-tone i n the face, the creases i n the brow, the labio
nasal folds, and the puckered corners o f the mouth are discreet indica
tions o f a more advanced age, one o f full maturity though prior to the
onset o f middle age. A n appropriate term o f comparison might be the
" A c t i u m " type o f Octavian, another neoclassicizing portrait, which has
much i n common stylistically w i t h the Chiaramonti Brutus. The gen
erally accepted dating o f this type is to the years around 30 B.C.; i n any
case this can hardly be wrong by more than a very few years either
way. O n this estimate Octavian—born i n 63 B.C.—would be i n his
early thirties. The A c t i u m type and the Chiaramonti Brutus seem to
represent subjects o f roughly the same age—Brutus might be at most a
few years younger.
55. RE, vol. 20, pt. 1 (1917), cols. 976-980 ( M . Gelzer); Clarke
(supra, note 49), pp. 14ff
56. Cicero, ad Earn. 111.11,3: Alterius [Pompeius] omnium saeculorum et
gentium principis, alterius [Brutus] iam pridem iuventutis, celeriter, ut spero,
civitatis.
57. C. Picard, "La date du buste en bronze de Caton d'Utique
trouve a Volubilis, Maroc," Festschrift Bernhard Schweitzer (Stuttgart,
1954), pp. 334—340; C. Boube-Piccot, Les bronzes antiques du Maroc,
vol. 1 (Rabat, 1969), pp. 76ff, pis. 7-12; H . von Heintze, i n T h . Kraus,
ed., Das rbmische Weltreich, vol. 2, Propylden Kunstgeschichte (Berlin,
1967), pp. 254f, no. 293, pi. 293; most recently Massner, pp. 19£,
pis. 4b, 7a-b.
5 7
to w h i c h a further bronze replica f r o m P o m
5 8
As for Cassius, there
58. Jucker (supra, note 20), pp. 352f, 357, figs. 14—15; Massner, pp.
19f, pis. 7c—d, l i b ; E. Zwierlein-Diehl, "Gemmenbildnisse des M .
Porcius Cato Uticensis," AA, 1973, p. 284, fig. 9, p. 285. (Massner's
58
Nodelman
Figure
13a. Three-quarter view o f bronze bust o f Cato
Figure
of Utica, from Volubilis. Rabat, Musee des
13b. Three-quarter view o f bust o f Cato, figure
13a. From Boube-Piccot, Les Bronzes an-
antiquites preislamiques. From Massner,
tiques du Maroc, pi. 7.
Bildnisangleichung, pl. 7b
Figure
14a. Front view o f bust o f a man: C. Cassius
Longinus? ("Pseudo-Corbulo"). Rome,
Palazzo dei Conservatori 561. Photo: Courtesy D A I , Rome.
Figure
14b. Three-quarter view o f bust, figure 14a.
Photo: Courtesy Musei Capitolini, Barbara
Maker,
are c i r c u m s t a n t i a l g r o u n d s f o r r e g a r d i n g
the
well-
Against these t w o portraits and s i m i l a r ones o f m e n
k n o w n pseudo-Corbulo
a famous
o f the same class and background, the p o r t r a i t o f B r u t u s
type—undoubtedly
personage o f the last days o f the Republic—as i n fact his
p o r t r a i t (figs. 14a—b).
59
T h e portraits o f Cato and o f the
strikes
a v e r y different note.
H e r e the m o d e l i n g
is
b r o a d l y scaled, w i t h b o l d displacements o f plane and
probable Cassius p l a i n l y belong to the same genre, s i m i
sharp contrasts o f decisively b o u n d e d v o l u m e t r i c units.
lar i n sculptural style, i n the rhetorical means e m p l o y e d
However, these oppositions do n o t b u i l d u p o n one an
to characterize the subject, and i n the format chosen to
other i n the earlier Hellenistic fashion b u t are checked
display h i m to the viewer. B o t h e m p l o y rather shallow
b y a stable overall c o n t o u r ,
m o d e l i n g contained w i t h i n a f i r m overall contour,
in
a f i r m c o m p o s i t i o n a l skeleton o f i n t e r l o c k i n g verticals
w h i c h the short-cropped hair allows the o v o i d shape o f
and horizontals. O n l y the larger muscle groups are i n d i
clear surface planes,
the s k u l l to dominate. Nuances o f facial expression are
cated. P h y s i o g n o m i c
registered t h r o u g h a scheme o f elaborately
by l i m i t e d b u t t e l l i n g modulations o f the large,
differentiated
and
particularities are accommodated
sculp
m u s c u l a r i nt e ra c t i o n s o f H e l l e n i s t i c ancestry, b u t the
tural units o f w h i c h the head is comprised, w i t h l i t t l e
d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f personality takes place w i t h i n n a r r o w l y
interest i n surface m i n u t i a e . Nevertheless the effects o f
d e f i n e d l i m i t s . T h e subject's a t t i t u d e is one o f self-
i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f character and appearance, o f concrete
conscious restraint, c o n t a i n i n g the internal flux o f feel
presence and narrative vividness are v i g o r o u s l y realized.
ings as i f the presence o f the i n t e r l o c u t o r and the social
T h e pose o f the bust implies the narrative situation i n
demands he represents have i m p o s e d a certain f o r m a l i t y
w h i c h B r u t u s appears before the viewer. T h e sharp t u r n
and distance. T h e result is an expression o f w a t c h f u l ,
o f the head, the apparently m o m e n t a r y facial expression,
i r o n i c superiority i n Cato's portrait, a barely suppressed
and the directedness o f the gaze recall those p o r t r a i t stat
nervous agitation i n that o f the probable Cassius. T h e
ues—like m a n y o f the D e l i a n p o r t r a i t s
features are rendered w i t h a k i n d o f d r y r e a l i s m , i n
o f the so-called
w h i c h p h y s i o g n o m i c p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s are i n c i s i v e l y b u t
about 100 B . C . — w h i c h showed the w h o l e b o d y i n strong
economically noted, w i t h o u t the descriptive m i n u t i a e o f
m o t i o n and particularized situation. B u t the relationship
the veristic style. T h e e m o t i o n a l tone, d o u r and
o f head and neck to the shoulders o f the C h i a r a m o n t i
con
60
"Borghese General"
or the o r i g i n a l
i n Naples
61
of
strained, is rather closer to that o f the veristic portraits,
bust makes clear that its statuary o r i g i n a l was n o t o f this
t h o u g h w i t h o u t the dejection or desperation that
k i n d . T h e bust is frontal, the o u t l i n e o f the t w o s h o u l
they
so often show; these after all are m e n o f stature and
ders i n d i c a t i n g an equilibrated standing
resource, accustomed to c o m m a n d .
f r o m so m a n y civic h o n o r a r y statues. T h e abrupt t u r n o f
attempt to identify a bronze portrait i n the Louvre as a further replica
o f the type [p. 19, w i t h n. I l l , pis. 8a, lOf] is unconvincing.)
59. Schmidt ([supra, note 20], pp. 15ff.) pointed out i n 1944 that the
"Corbulo" type could not be Flavian, as the traditional identification
required, but must on grounds o f style represent a personality o f the
late Republic. A t least one and perhaps two replicas o f the type were
found at Gabii i n a commemorative chapel dedicated i n A.D. 140 to
Domitia Longina, daughter o f Corbulo and widow o f the emperor
Domitian. W i t h Corbulo excluded, the type ought to represent an
other, earlier ancestor o f Domitia. Jucker ([supra, note 20], pp. 355f.)
has suggested two candidates as appropriate in date and o f suitable
renown: Cassius the tyrannicide and L. Domitius Ahenobarbus (cos.
54 B.C.), who died at Pharsalus in 48. I f it is he, as seems likely, who is
represented i n the older o f the two portraits upon the obverses o f coins
struck i n 40 by his son Gnaeus (Sydenham, p. 191, no. 1176; Toynbee,
p. 60, fig. 83; the commemoration o f Pompey on the contemporary
coins o f the latter's sons Gnaeus and Sextus affords an obvious parallel;
cf. G. Lahusen, "Das Bildnis des Konsuls Cn. Lentulus Marcellinus,"
AA, 1985, pp. 113—117, who shows that the obverse portraits on late
Republican coins usually commemorate the moneyers' fathers rather
than more remote ancestors), then the identification can be excluded.
In any case Ahenobarbus' end was hardly a glorious one, and he does
not seem to have enjoyed such posthumous renown outside his o w n
family as would motivate such a replica series as has survived. Cassius,
however, fits very well the criteria o f posthumous fame, appropriate
age, and date o f original. The physical type (lean!) o f the portrait also
suits the literary accounts o f Cassius' appearance. Baity, p. 199, has
objected that the angle o f head to neck i n the surviving replicas o f the
pseudo-Corbulo type indicates a seated statue, and that this ought to
connote a man o f letters rather than a political figure. This objection
does not seem compelling. The sella curulis was o f course one o f the
chief insignia o f a Roman magistrate. Aside from the frequent i n
stances o f seated Imperial statues (see, e.g., H.G. Niemeyer, Studien
zur statuarischen Darstellung der romischen Kaiser [Berlin, 1968],
pp. 59ff; also the representation o f a seated togate statue o f Trajan on
one o f the Anaglypha Traiani: M . Hammond, " A Statue o f Trajan
Represented on the 'Anaglypha Traiani,' " MAAR
21 [1953], pp.
127—183), a relevant Republican example is the statue o f Sulla on the
Bocchus Monument. The coins show h i m seated: Carson, p. 54, no.
186; Kent-Hirmer [supra, note 23], pi. 18, no. 69, p. 270; cf. T.
Holscher, "Romische Siegesdenkmaler der spaten Republik," in H . A .
Cahn, ed., Taenia. Festschrift Roland Hampe (Mainz, 1980), pp. 357ff; T.
Schafer, "Das Siegesdenkmal von Kapitol," i n H.G. H o r n and C.B.
Riiger, eds., Die Numider: Reiter and Konige nordlich der Sahara (Co
logne and Bonn, 1979), pp. 247ff. Quite apart from this, the character
ization o f the portrait subject is hardly that typical for a poet or
philosopher.
60. E. G. C. Michalowski, Les portraits hellenistiques et romains, vol.
13, Exploration archeologique de Delos (Paris, 1932), pis. 9—10, 23; Stew
art, pis. 18b-c, 19b, 22a-b.
61. Naples, Museo Nazionale 6141: Guida Reusch, no. 1087; Hekler,
pi. 73b, p. 316; Zanker, p. 37, pi. 31; Hafner, pp. 31f, no. M K 3 , pi. 11.
The most famous example o f this sort—if one concedes to Hafner's
opinion that it is indeed a portrait—is none other than the Borghese
Warrior o f the Louvre: Hafner, p. 30, no. M K 1 , pi. 10.
pose f a m i l i a r
60
Nodelman
t i g h t l y set, d r a w n d o w n w a r d at the corners i n a disap
p r o v i n g expression to w h i c h the p u r s i n g o f the f u l l lips
adds a note o f inner tension or doubt. T h e c h i n is thrust
defiantly f o r w a r d . There is a classical p r o t o t y p e for this
a t t i t u d e : the D i o m e d e s , w h o t u r n s t o c o n f r o n t
t r e a c h e r o u s assault o f O d y s s e u s .
62
the
B r u t u s is s h o w n
standing his g r o u n d . T h e character is framed i n a dra
matic vignette.
T h i s parade o f intransigence is an element i n the p o r
trait's calculated personality display, intended to p r o v o k e
astonishment
and a d m i r a t i o n o n the part o f the spec
tator. It w e l l suits the u n b e n d i n g and m o r a l l y superior
—even harsh and arrogant—tone
that was affected b y
B r u t u s h i m s e l f according to the literary t r a d i t i o n , and
w h i c h emerges v i v i d l y i n Cicero's correspondence and i n
B r u t u s ' o w n letters to C i c e r o .
63
I t m i g h t be taken as
particularly appropriate to the stern v i n d i c a t o r o f the
Republic i n the aftermath o f the Ides o f M a r c h ; yet the
character traits were o f l o n g standing. T h e subtlety o f
the sculptor's characterization, however, has c o n t r i v e d t o
suggest a greater psychological c o m p l e x i t y than the he
r o i c stereotype
requires. A m e l u n g already
remarked
o n the e m o t i o n a l contradictions, the cleavage between
Figure
inner and outer self, w h i c h are to be read i n the facial
15. Octavian. Aries, Musee Lapidaire 51-1-22
From Massner, Bildnisangleichung,
m i m e t i c s o f the C h i a r a m o n t i p o r t r a i t
pi. 4c.
6 4
T h e scowl, the
f l a s h i n g gaze, the toss o f the head have a b o u t
them
the head and the e m o t i o n a l force o f the expression are all
s o m e t h i n g self-conscious,
deliberately w o r k e d u p t o
the m o r e surprising i n a statue whose b o d i l y stance re
i n t i m i d a t e , as i f B r u t u s is acting out a role. T h e y are
flects the d i g n i f i e d composure o f a magistrate or senator
c o n t r a d i c t e d b y the e x p r e s s i o n
o f the
compressed,
i n a public situation. T h e heavy locks u p o n the forehead
d o w n t u r n e d m o u t h , w h i c h affects t o p r o c l a i m disap
seem to shake i n response to the movement o f the head.
proval and resolve, b u t whose p o u t i n g , f o r w a r d - t h r u s t
S o m e t h i n g unexpected and u n w e l c o m e has caught B r u
lips suggest instead insecurity, self-indulgence, c h i l d i s h
tus' attention. T h e brows are k n i t sharply together,
petulance. T h i s , surely, is the vulticulus to w h i c h Cicero
contracted
musculature
forming
the
t w o deep v e r t i c a l
ironically refers
65
These psychological clues may sug
creases above the bridge o f the nose. T h e deep-set eyes
gest a more complex reading o f B r u t u s ' character and
glower at an object i n the near distance. T h e m o u t h is
motives than that to w h i c h the historiographic t r a d i t i o n ,
62. A. Furtwangler, Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture, rev. ed. (Chi
cago, 1964), pp. 146-156, figs. 60-62, pi. 21; G. Lippold, Griechische
Plastik, vol. 3, pt. 1, Handbuch der Archaologie (Munich, 1950), p. 184,
pi. 48, fig. 4.
63. Cf. Cicero ad Att. VI.1,7; VI.3,7.
64. Amelung (supra, note 1), p. 92. He attributed this to the emo
tional strain engendered by the false position o f the aristocracy during
the early principate (with a rather daring comparison to contemporary
political circumstances).
cessively must have portrayed the young triumvir during the decade
and a half preceding the appearance o f the " A c t i u m " type around
30 B.C. K . Fittschen's (supra, this note) attempt to distinguish them is
only partially successful. This task cannot be undertaken here. Nev
ertheless, it is possible to isolate an internally consistent "hard core" o f
replicas—with the Aries and Verona heads as its centerpieces—which
match the early coin portraiture o f Octavian quite satisfactorily and
provide us w i t h the public image o f Caesar's heir i n the years follow
ing the dictator's assassination. That is sufficient for purposes o f this
study. Cf. the judicious remarks o f Poulsen, pp. 21f.
65. Cicero ad Att. XIV.20,5.
66. Recently Hausmann (supra, note 12), pp. 526—535; Massner,
pp. 10—18; H . Jucker i n Gesichter: Griechische und romische Bildnisse aus
Schweizer Besitz (Bern, 1982), p. 69 to no. 24; and S. Walker and A .
Burnett, The Image of Augustus, ex. cat. (London, British Museum,
1981), p. 18, have accepted Type B as the portrait o f Caesar's heir. It is
still rejected by Zanker, pp. 42, 47f£, and by K . Fittschen, Katalog der
antiken Skulpturen in Schlofl Erbach (Berlin, 1976), pp. 34ff. The prob
lem is complicated by the fact that Type B as usually envisioned is an
amalgamation o f three distinct but closely related types that suc-
67. Appian Bell. Civ. 111.51 and 64; D i o Cassius XLVI.29,2, cf. RE,
vol. 10, pt. 1 (1917), col. 287, s.v. "Julius" (O. Seeck); Massner, pp. 8f.
68. H . Kahler, Rom und seine Welt (Munich, 1962), p. 132, pi. 85 left;
idem, Art of Rome and Her Empire (New York, 1963), p. 81, pi. p. 80;
Kiss, p. 165, figs. 578, 604 (not 577); Massner, p. 11, pis. 4c-d, 5b.
69. Hausmann (supra, note 12), p. 533 comments on the stylistic
resemblance between Type B and the coin portraits o f Brutus.
70. A. Boyce "The Gold Staters o f T Quinctius Flamininus," i n M .
Renard, ed., Hommages a Albert Grenier (Brussels, 1962), pp. 342—350;
61
ancient and m o d e r n , has familiarized us. I n any case, the
m i t t e d t o the u p h o l d i n g o f R e p u b l i c a n i n s t i t u t i o n s .
h i n t o f p o s t u r i n g , the disharmony o f inner and outer
A l o n e a m o n g the leaders o f the senatorial party, B r u t u s
selves that the portraitist has i n t i m a t e d o n l y c o n t r i b u t e
was to place his p o r t r a i t u p o n the coinage struck under
further to the flaunted display o f personality and w i l l f u l
his i m p e r a t o r i a l a u t h o r i t y i n the East. T h e o n l y prece
ness that distinguishes B r u t u s ' portrait f r o m those o f his
dent for this was the remote and doubtless l o n g f o r g o t
uncle Cato, his collaborator Cassius, or others o f their
ten example o f the " l i b e r a t o r " o f Greece, T Q u i n c t i u s
i l k . A m o n g the so-far identifiable portraits o f the actors
F l a m i n i n u s , i n 196 B . C .
i n the great p o l i t i c a l d r a m a o f 44—43 B . C . , there is,
action is the appearance t w o years previously u p o n the
however, one that exhibits a notable k i n s h i p i n j u s t this
official coinage o f the R o m a n state o f the p o r t r a i t o f
aspect o f self-dramatizing personalism.
Julius Caesar, the first l i v i n g person to be so honored.
T h i s is the w e l l - k n o w n portrait type k n o w n as " T y p e
B " after the classification by O. Brendel, w h i c h schol
7 0
Far more relevant to B r u t u s '
T h i s h a d o c c u r r e d i n the c o n t e x t o f extravagant
and
quasi-regal honors heaped u p o n the dictator i n the final
arly o p i n i o n after decades o f hesitation is n o w t e n d i n g
m o n t h s o f his life, and its monarchical i m p l i c a t i o n s were
to a d m i t as the first portrait type o f Octavian, Caesar's
easily recognizable: such c o i n portraiture was a f a m i l i a r
eighteen-year-old heir. G i v e n the close c o n f o r m i t y o f
prerogative o f the Hellenistic k i n g s .
the type to Octavian's n u m i s m a t i c portraiture, the cer
o w n p o r t r a i t had already appeared i n o n l y slightly less
71
I n fact, B r u t u s '
t a i n t y that the image o f the ruler o f h a l f the R o m a n
explicit f o r m u p o n the coinage o f the m i n t o f R o m e
w o r l d d u r i n g more than a decade was w i d e l y diffused,
i t s e l f d u r i n g 43 B.C. As A l f o l d i has s h o w n , i t figured
and the absence o f any rival type w i t h a better c l a i m to
represent h i m , the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n seems secure.
66
The
p o r t r a i t was perhaps created for the statues decreed for
c o n j o i n t l y w i t h the portraits o f Octavian and t w o other
personages i n an issue reflecting a short-lived p o l i t i c a l
alliance directed against A n t o n y T h e quartet was c o m
The
pleted by portraits o f a middle-aged m a t r o n ( t h i n l y dis
fine replica f r o m the c r y p t o p o r t i c u s at Aries can repre
guised as a V i c t o r y ) , w h o i n the contemporary p o l i t i c a l
sent the type satisfactorily for comparative purposes (fig.
context can hardly be anyone other than B r u t u s ' mother,
Octavian by the Senate o n N e w Year's D a y o f 4 3 .
67
T h e very qualities that caused the C h i a r a m o n t i
S e r v i l i a , and o f a m a n conjectured b y A l f o l d i t o be
B r u t u s to be misjudged as A u g u s t a n relate i t to this
the consul C. V i b i u s Pansa. Rather than this ephemeral
early p o r t r a i t o f the future Augustus: the classicizing
figure, however, the latter plainly is none other than
15)
6 8
elegance o f the f o r m a l conventions, the g l a m o r i z a t i o n o f
O c t a v i a n ' s a d o p t i v e father, the late d i c t a t o r Caesar,
personality t h r o u g h the devices o f swivelled head and
represented
i m p e t u o u s gaze, and the r o m a n t i c m o t i f o f the h a i r
type, w h i c h here makes its earliest appearance
locks over the forehead. I n this rhetoric o f self-display
the r e c o g n i t i o n o f Caesar's portrait, the p r o g r a m m a t i c
the t w o archopponents
seem more alike than is either
to the m a j o r i t y o f his senatorial contemporaries.
T h i s m a y be less i n e x p l i c a b l e t h a n f i r s t
72
With
scheme o f the issue emerges even more clearly than i n
A l f o l d i ' s o w n reconstruction. T h e p o r t r a i t o f each o f the
69
appears.
B r u t u s ' subsequent c o n d u c t diverges n o t a b l y
i n his C h i a r a m o n t i - C a m p o s a n t o p o r t r a i t
from
w h a t m i g h t be expected o f a severe traditionalist c o m R.A.G. Carson, "Roman Coins Acquired by the British Museum
1939-1959," NC, 1959, pp. 4-6, pi. 1.4; Toynbee, pp. 19£; Kahler, Rom
und seine Welt (supra, note 68), pi. 59.1. For a recent attempt to identify
Flamininus i n the bronze "Hellenistic Ruler" o f the Museo Nazionale
Romano by means o f comparison w i t h the gold staters, see J. Baity,
"La statue de bronze de T. Quinctius Flamininus," MEFRA
90 (1978),
pp. 669-686.
71. This momentous gesture was apparently made as part o f the
extravagant honors voted to Caesar by the senate after the battle o f
Munda i n March o f 45: D i o Cassius XLIV.4,4; H . Kruse, Studien zur
ojfiziellen Geltung des Kaiserbildes im romischen Reich (Paderborn, 1934),
pp. 12f, and especially S. Weinstock, Divus Julius (Oxford, 1971),
pp. 274ff. The significance o f Caesar's coinage i n the events o f 44 is
examined i n great detail by A. A l f o l d i , Studien iiber Caesars Monarchie
(Lund, 1953) and by K . Kraft, "Der goldene Kranz Caesars und der
K a m p f u m die Entlarvung des Tyrann," Jahrbuch fiir Numismatik und
Geldgeschichte 3—4 (1952—1953). The apparent precedents o f the occa
sional portraits o f ancestors o f the mint officials during the preceding
generation and o f Pompey on the contemporary coinages o f his sons
t w o rival faction leaders, precariously allied for the m o
ment, is paralleled w i t h that o f a parent, one i n the guise
o f a d i v i n i t y , the other publicly recognized as
divus.
73
carry no real weight. The former (mostly, w i t h the exception o f Sulla,
political nonentities) were safely dead; the latter, also dead, appeared
upon imperatorial issues o f very dubious legality struck i n provincial
mints—a far cry from the portrait o f a living person upon the official
coinage o f the Roman state. Cf. also Sutherland (supra, note 22),
pp. 95f, idem, Coinage in Roman Imperial Policy (London, 1951), p. 8.
72. Alfoldi, passim. Compare the profiles o f the alleged "Pansa" on
the denarii o f Numonius Vaala, ibid., pi. 4, nos. 1—5, 8, 9 to those o f
Caesar o f the Camposanto-Chiaramonti type i n F. Johansen, " A n t i c h i
ritratti di Caio Giulio Cesare nella scultura," Analecta Romana Instituti
Danici 4 (1967), pis. 1—4, 6, 7. Correctly identified already by Syd
enham, p. 180, no. 1087.
73. A. Alfoldi, "La divinisation de Cesar dans la politique d A n toine et d'Octavien entre 44 et 40 av. J.C.," RN, 6th ser., no. 15 (1973),
pp. 97ff. ( = idem, Caesariana [Bonn, 1984], pp. 229ff.) has made a
strong case that the official divinization o f Caesar dates not to 42, as is
the prevailing modern view, but already to 44 during the dictator's
lifetime. In any case, whether legally sanctioned or not, the popular
cult o f the deified Caesar was well established immediately after his
62
Nod elm an
Figure 16a. Profile o f head o f a man: C. Julius Caesar?
Vatican, Museo Chiaramonti 1550. Photos:
Courtesy D A I , Rome.
Figure 16b. Profile of head, figure 16a.
T h a t D i v u s Julius was the a l l - i m p o r t a n t l e g i t i m i z i n g
source o f Octavian's political p o s i t i o n is t o o obvious for
c o m m e n t . W h a t confounds expectation is that B r u t u s
s h o u l d have p r o m o t e d or countenanced the appearance
o f Servilia i n such a role—no matter h o w great her so
cial eminence and de facto political influence. T r a d i t i o n
alist o p i n i o n c o u l d o n l y have been left aghast at this first
i n t r u s i o n o f the portrait o f a w o m a n — l i v i n g or dead—
o n the coinage o f the R o m a n state.
74
I n a show o f discre
t i o n these portraits were n o t identified by i n s c r i p t i o n —
the names o n the obverses are those o f the moneyers—
but they were unmistakable and were surely i n t e n d e d to
be r e c o g n i z e d . T h e autocratic and even dynastic i m
plications o f this issue are evident. I n its l i g h t , and i n
that o f B r u t u s ' subsequent i m p e r a t o r i a l c o i n portraiture,
death: Appian Bell. Civ 11.148,616. The Chiaramonti-Camposanto por
trait type w i t h its idealized and rejuvenated features (e.g., the forehead
o f hair i n place o f the well-known baldness, which is acknowledged i n
the Tusculum type) can hardly be other than the posthumous image o f
the divus. Its numismatic reflection w i t h i n this issue, early i n 43,
though unrecognized by Alfoldi, strengthens his case.
Figure 16c. Front view o f head, figure 16a.
74. Even the setting up i n public o f portrait statues o f women
had long been a sore point w i t h conservative opinion: Pliny NH
X X X I V . 3 1 . A few years later the freewheeling Marcus Antonius
would indeed advertise his dynastically significant marriage to Octavia
Figure 17a. Profile o f head o f a man: C. Julius Caesar?
Lidingo (Sweden), Millesgarden collection.
Figure 17b. Profile o f head, figure 17a.
the self-aggrandizing tone o f his sculptured p o r t r a i t and
the extent to w h i c h its rhetoric resembles that employed
i n the portraiture o f Octavian are less surprising.
D i s r u p t i v e as i t may be o f the t r a d i t i o n a l conception
o f B r u t u s and o f expectations regarding m i d - f i r s t - c e n t u r y portraiture i n Rome, the C h i a r a m o n t i p o r t r a i t is
n o t an isolated phenomenon.
It is one o f a g r o u p o f
w o r k s distinguished by their shared sculptural style and
by t h e i r s i m i l a r use o f the dramatic conventions o f p o r
traiture, and w h i c h are associated as w e l l by their l i k e l y
dates, place o f o r i g i n , and patronage. A l l are portraits
o f leading political figures i n the m i d d l e decades o f the
first century B.C. Perhaps the earliest is a p o r t r a i t k n o w n
i n t w o s u r v i v i n g replicas, one i n the Vatican, M u s e o
C h i a r a m o n t i 1550 (figs. 16a—c), the other i n the M i l l e s
on the reverses o f his coins (e.g., Kent-Hirmer [supra, note 23], pi. 29,
no. 103, reverse, p. 274) w i t h her portrait, even though uninscribed.
But a truer measure o f the significance o f Servilia's numismatic por
traits is offered by the more prudent example o f Augustus. Livia had to
wait sixty years—until A.D. 22—23, well after her husband's death and
her o w n elevation to augusta—for her first appearance on the state
coinage, and even then disguised as a personification, salus augusta ( H .
Mattingly, British Museum. Coins of the Roman Empire, vol. 1 [London,
1923], p. 131, nos. 81f, pi. 24.2). O n the outstanding role and influence
o f Servilia, see Friedrich Miinzer, Romische Adelsparteien und Ade-
Figure 17c. Front view o f head, figure 17a.
63
64
Nodelman
Figure 18a. Profile o f bust o f M . Tullius Cicero. London,
Apsley House.
collection at L i d i n g o i n Sweden (figs. 17a—c).
75
V. P o u l -
sen and F. Johansen have proposed to i d e n t i f y the type
as Julius Caesar o n the basis o f its p h y s i o g n o m i c
re
semblance t o the dictator's established T u s c u l u m and
Chiaramonti-Camposanto
portrait types.
76
This identi
fication seems quite persuasive, t h o u g h i n the absence o f
n u m i s m a t i c or epigraphic c o n f i r m a t i o n i t cannot be cer
tain. I n any case, the i m p o s i n g portrait must represent
an outstanding personality o f the relevant p e r i o d (it had
previously been suggested as a portrait o f Sulla).
Like the Chiaramonti Brutus, the Chiaramonti-Lidingo
p o r t r a i t combines l i v e l y m o d e l i n g and a differentiated
b u t n o t overly m i n u t e rendering o f facial
musculature
w i t h a continuous planar envelope o f neoclassic inspira
t i o n , and w i t h an organization o f the features t h r o u g h a
f i r m g r i d o f i n t e r l o c k i n g verticals and horizontals.
The
v o l u m e t r i c treatment o f the hair cap, the a r t i c u l a t i o n o f
the locks i n l o n g , shallow strands, and the m o t i f o f locks
Figure 18c. Front view o f bust, figure 18a.
Isfamilien (Stuttgart, 1920), pp. 336ff, 358ff, 362, 372, 426ff; B.
Fortsch, "Die politische Rolle der Frauen i n der romischen Republik," Wurzburger Studien zu Altertumswissenschaft 5 (1935), pp. 86ff.
75. Johansen (supra, note 72), pp. 40ff, pi. 23 (with earlier literature).
76. Ibid., pp. 21f; more recently idem, Ber0mte Romerefra Republikkens Tid (Copenhagen, 1982), pp. 50f.
77. The fundamental modern treatment o f Cicero's portrait is
Johansen, pp. 39-49 (with earlier literature); cf. Toynbee, pp. 28—30;
65
Figures 19a-b. Front and three-quarter views o f bust o f M . Tullius Cicero. Copenhagen, N y Carlsberg Glyptotek, no. 461a.
tossed w i t h apparent carelessness across the forehead, all
A further t e r m o f comparison is offered by one o f the
bear close comparison w i t h the B r u t u s p o r t r a i t as do the
most famous, and most problematic, R o m a n portraits o f
dramatic intensity and concentration o f the facial m i m e -
the late Republic, that o f Marcus Tullius C i c e r o .
t i c s — t h e steely gaze p r o j e c t e d f r o m b e n e a t h
close relationship o f the Cicero portrait to that o f B r u t u s
over
77
The
s h a d o w i n g brows, the resolve and i r o n i c self-possession
and to the C h i a r a m o n t i - L i d i n g ö type has been obscured
o f the compressed m o u t h . I f the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is correct,
by t w o factors. T h e w e l l - k n o w n replicas that have deter
this p o r t r a i t should antedate by some years the other
m i n e d our image o f the type have all been so altered by
wise earliest k n o w n portrait type o f the dictator,
r e s t o r a t i o n and cleaning that their o r i g i n a l stylistic
the
T u s c u l u m type, first n u m i s m a t i c a l l y attested i n 44, the
character has been severely compromised, so m u c h so
last year o f Caesar's life, b u t w h i c h may w e l l have been
that some critics have dismissed most o f t h e m — a n d i n
i n existence for some years previously. T h e C h i a r a m o n -
the e x t r e m e v i e w the e n t i r e type—as m o d e r n
t i - L i d i n g ö p o r t r a i t has m a n y fewer o f the marks o f age
ondly, all b u t one have preserved the head alone, v a r i
7 8
Sec
than does the T u s c u l u m type, and i t s t i l l retains e n o u g h
ously m o u n t e d o n restored or n o n p e r t a i n i n g busts, so
hair to be combed d o w n over the forehead ( t h o u g h the
that the o r i g i n a l attitude o f the head and intended angle
receding hair a r o u n d the w i d o w ' s peak foretells b a l d
o f v i e w are misrepresented.
ness); i t has the air o f a m a n i n his m i d - or late forties.
H o u s e retains its o r i g i n a l bust and hence enables us to be
T h i s w o u l d refer the o r i g i n a l to the mid-fifties B.C., the
sure o f the correct attitude o f the head (figs. 18a—c)
p e r i o d o f the Gallic wars.
T h i s is indeed the name piece o f the type, b u t i t is very
H . Goette, " Z u m Bildnis des 'Cicero,' " RömMitt 92 (1985), pp.
291—318 now seeks to reattribute the Cicero type to an unidentified
dignitary o f the Augustan period, on grounds o f its resemblance to the
relief portrait o f a balding man (sometimes called "Maecenas") located
in the south processional frieze o f the Ara Pacis (and on grounds o f its
resemblance to the portrait o f Agrippa!). Goette's article has reached
me too recently to be dealt w i t h here.
Portraits, p. 117, to no. 96. I formerly inclined to this view myself: S.
Nodelman, i n Aspects, p. 97. The condition o f the replica is such as to
have misled even such a connoisseur as B. Schweitzer (Bildniskunst der
römischen Republik [Leipzig, 1948], pp. 91—103) into distinguishing
Cicero's portrait into three independent types, supposedly o f different
dates and stylistic affiliation.
79. Johansen, pp. 41f, w i t h earlier literature.
78. Poulsen, pp. 15f; J. Frei, i n Aspects, pp. 96f, to no. 20; Roman
O n l y the replica at Apsley
7 9
66
Nodelman
Figure 20a. Profile o f bust o f Marcus Agrippa. Paris,
Musee du Louvre M A 1208. Photos: Cour
tesy Chuzeville, Paris.
heavily restored and somewhat o f f the beaten track; i t is
u s u a l l y i g n o r e d as a basis for s t y l i s t i c c o m p a r i s o n i n
favor o f the more prepossessing and ostensibly better
preserved replicas i n the major Italian collections.
Recently Johansen has i n t r o d u c e d i n t o the discussion
o f the Cicero p o r t r a i t a h i t h e r t o unrecognized piece that
can r e v o l u t i o n i z e o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the a u t h e n t i c
stylistic character o f the type. T h i s is a head n o w i n the
N y Carlsberg G l y p t o t e k , no. 461a (figs. 19a—b),
80
which
derives f r o m the n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c o l l e c t i o n o f the
D a n i s h s c u l p t o r J e r i c h a u ; i t was a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y
acquired i n Rome. A l t h o u g h badly battered, the head
has the m e r i t o f b e i n g unrestored and unquestionably
antique. E l e m e n t for element, its preserved features cor-
Figure 20c. Three-quarter view o f bust, figure 20a.
80. Poulsen, pp. 52f., no. 16, pi. 26; Johansen, pp. 45—46, fig. 11.
81. The modern comprehensive study o f Agrippa's portraiture is F.
Johansen, "Ritratti marmorei e bronzei di Marco Vipsanio Agrippa,"
Analecta Romana Instituti Danici 6 (1971); to be supplemented by N .
Kunisch, i n N . Kunisch and M . Imdahl, Plastik: Antike und moderne
Kunst der Sammlung Dierichs in der Ruhr-Universitdt Bochum (Kassel and
Bonn, 1979), pp. 66—75. Cf. also Toynbee, pp. 63—67, and most re
cently J.-M. Roddaz, Marcus Agrippa, BEFAR, no. 245 (Rome, 1984),
pp. 612—633. For the Gabii bust i n the Louvre: Johansen (supra, this
note), pp. 26f, p. 27, fig. 9; Roddaz (supra, note this note), pp. 617f,
respond t o those o f the previously k n o w n replicas o f the
67
A f o u r t h w o r k can be added t o this group. T h i s is the
type, i n c l u d i n g the s u r v i v i n g antique portions o f the
p o r t r a i t o f Marcus A g r i p p a , i n the familiar G a b i i type,
A p s l e y H o u s e bust.
beyond
k n o w n i n over a dozen replicas, o f w h i c h the name piece
question the antique o r i g i n o f the type itself, i f n o t nec
i n the L o u v r e is preeminent b o t h i n quality and preser
essarily that o f all o f its more familiar
v a t i o n ; i t is quite adequate to stand d u t y for its o r i g i n a l
It thus demonstrates
representatives.
81
Furthermore, despite its damaged c o n d i t i o n , the G l y p -
(figs. 20a—c).
t o t e k head is a w o r k o f unusually h i g h quality. O f Greek
series. T h e o r i g i n a l should date to some t i m e i n the
Agrippa's p o r t r a i t is the latest i n the
organic
thirties B.C. Here too, the head is t u r n e d t o w a r d its left,
sensibility that are hallmarks o f the best Greek sculp
i n a slower and more stolid m o t i o n than the heads o f
m a r b l e , i t evinces the v i b r a n t p l a s t i c i t y and
tural w o r k m a n s h i p . T h e familiar schoolbook replicas o f
Cicero or B r u t u s , f i x i n g its l o w e r i n g gaze o n an invisible
the type have n o t merely lost m u c h o f their o r i g i n a l
target f r o m beneath f r o w n i n g ,
style characteristics t h r o u g h restoration but, as products
brows. W i t h its massive cranial structure and heavy layer
o f p e r i o d s r a n g i n g f r o m the J u l i o - C l a u d i a n t o
o f flesh, the head is most readily comparable to that o f
the
deeply
overhanging
A n t o n i n e , they were already somewhat remote echoes
Cicero. T h e similarities i n the m o d e l i n g are s t r i k i n g , as
o f their original. The Copenhagen
head, however, is
is the way i n w h i c h the fleshy layer is differentiated i n t o
u n m i s t a k a b l y late H e l l e n i s t i c n o t o n l y i n c o n c e p t i o n
i n t e r a c t i v e m u s c l e g r o u p s over the u n d e r l y i n g b o n y
but also i n execution. Alone among the surviving replicas,
structure. (Poulsen h a d already r e m a r k e d i n 1962 o n
i t is a p r o d u c t o f the m i d - f i r s t century B.C., more or less
the strong resemblances between the then s t i l l anony
c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h its o r i g i n a l , w h o s e t r u e s t y l i s t i c
mous Cicero, Copenhagen
character i t allows us to envisage for the first t i m e . I f w e
A g r i p p a . ) T h e C h i a r a m o n t i - L i d i n g o Caesar is a par
m e n t a l l y i n v e s t the A p s l e y H o u s e
which
t i c u l a r l y relevant comparison i n this regard, as i t is also
u n i q u e l y the correct o r i g i n a l relationship between head
f o r t h e f o r m i d a b l e , even i n t i m i d a t i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l
bust,
in
461a, and the p o r t r a i t s o f
82
and bust is preserved, w i t h the sculptural properties o f
characterization. I n frontal view, the s i m i l a r i t y o f the
the Copenhagen
rectilinear layout o f the facial design is particularly evident
head, we w i l l arrive at a fairly g o o d
O t h e r design features described repeatedly above, e.g., the
idea o f the character o f the original.
Cicero's p o r t r a i t represents h i m t o w a r d the end o f his
life; p h y s i o g n o m i c indications suggest an age o f about
treatment o f the hair, w i t h the patterned array o f locks
u p o n the forehead, recur i n Agrippa's portrait as well.
sixty, and the portrait should therefore date to the end o f
T h e four portraits j u s t described f o r m a cohesive s t y l
the fifties or early forties B.C. A l l o w i n g for the marks o f
istic group. W h a t m i g h t be a fifth contemporary p o r t r a i t
age and Cicero's broader, fleshier face, the p o r t r a i t dis
o f this sort—that o f the t r i u m v i r Marcus A n t o n i u s — i s
plays a m a r k e d stylistic resemblance to those o f B r u t u s
so far k n o w n o n l y t h r o u g h its n u m i s m a t i c echo.
and o f Caesar ( i f i t be he) o f the C h i a r a m o n t i - L i d i n g o
coins (fig. 21) show a head o f broad, quadratic structure,
The
type. There is a s i m i l a r depth and freedom o f m o d e l i n g
r i c h l y m o d e l e d w i t h i n f i r m c o n t o u r s ; h a i r treated i n
d i s c i p l i n e d w i t h i n the clear, classically d e r i v e d planar
l o n g , flat locks animated by a sweeping r h y t h m ; a pierc
envelope, the same play o f r h y t h m i c contrast
i n g gaze c o m b i n e d w i t h set m o u t h — a l l distinctive traits
between
the v o l u m e o f the hair-cap, subdivided i n t o shallow, v i g
o f the p o r t r a i t style o f our group. T h i s p o s s i b i l i t y cannot
orously c u r l i n g locks, and that o f the s k u l l itself, the
be tested u n t i l a sculptured portrait i n the r o u n d be
same e x p l o i t a t i o n o f the drama o f the gaze, projected
comes available for c o m p a r i s o n .
f r o m beneath overshadowing, contracted brows, and the
R o m a n p o r t r a i t sculpture i n the first century B.C.
same i n t e g r a t i o n o f the facial m i m e t i c s w i t h the ener
c o m b i n a t i o n o f style-characteristics
getic t w i s t o f the head i n t o a compressed b u t v i v i d
g r o u p is n o t a commonplace, b u t distinctive and u n
narrative m o m e n t .
usual. Its members were created over a p e r i o d o f perhaps
figs. 6-9.
82. Poulsen, pp. 52f, no. 16, pi. 26.
83. Kent-Hirmer (supra, note 23), pi. 29, fig. 103, obverse, p. 274
( = H . Grueber, British Museum. Coins of the Roman Republic, rev. ed.,
vol. 2 [London, 1970], no. 499; Sydenham, no. 1196; cf. Sutherland
[supra, note 22], fig. 169, p. 104). However, the results o f recent en
deavors to identify the sculptured portrait o f the triumvir are dis
couraging (O. Brendel, "The Iconography o f Marc Antony," Hommages a Albert Grenier, vol. 1. Collection Latomus, no. 58 [Brussels,
1962], pp. 359-367; H . Kyrieleis, " E i n Bildnis des Marcus Antonius,"
A A, 1976, pp. 85-90; Johansen [supra, note 41], pp. 62-81; B.
Holtzmann and F. Salviat, "Les portraits sculptes de Marc-Antoine,"
BCH105 [1981], pp. 265-288; cf. Toynbee, pp. 41-47). Between them
these authors propose as assured or possible portraits o f Marcus A n
tonius a total o f at least sixteen works o f various physiognomies,
styles, and likely dates. N o two are replicas, nor is it very likely that
any two can represent the same individual. None i n my opinion (not
even the most credible, the basalt bust at Kingston Lacy) shows a
convincing resemblance to the coin portraits.
83
W i t h i n the range o f
that defines
the
this
68
Nodelman
the distinctive characteristics shared by these portraits
seem sufficient to m a r k t h e m o u t as the p r o d u c t o f a
single atelier. W h e t h e r they may be the w o r k o f a single
artist as w e l l need n o t be argued. C o m m o n authorship
o f at least some o f the four portraits is quite possible:
e.g., the C h i a r a m o n t i - L i d i n g o Caesar and the p o r t r a i t
o f A g r i p p a appear particularly closely related i n t h e i r
sculptural language. Nevertheless the more inclusive h y
pothesis o f an atelier, i n w h i c h a c o m m o n general c o n
c e p t i o n a n d s c u l p t u r a l style a c c o m m o d a t e t h e i d i o
syncrasies o f i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s o f the team, seems
w e l l fitted to characterize the m i x o f basic s i m i l a r i t i e s
and secondary dissimilarities that the g r o u p evinces.
Such workshops, usually composed o f members o f
the same f a m i l y , are a c o m m o n feature o f s c u l p t u r a l
p r o d u c t i o n d u r i n g the last t w o centuries B . C .
8 5
T h e style
practiced by this atelier was able to u n i t e i n a subtle and
singularly effective way a n u m b e r o f usually opposed
tendencies i n first-century art. It was able to i n v o k e the
c u l t u r a l prestige associated w i t h the classical s t y l e
Figure 21. Aureus o f M . Antonius. Obverse. Head o f
Marcus Antonius. From Kent-Hirmer, Ro
man Coins, pi. 29, no. 103o.
86
and
t o avail i t s e l f o f the effects o f balance and c o n t r o l that its
planar and rectilinear schemata afforded, w h i l e r e t a i n i n g
the richness and i m m e d i a c y o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l effect
perfected i n H e l l e n i s t i c art. T h e interpenetration o f clas
sical and H e l l e n i s t i c elements is carried here to a p o i n t
t w e n t y to t w e n t y - f i v e years between the fifties and the
o f synthesis, far surpassing the unresolved c o m b i n a t i o n s
t h i r t i e s B.C. Three o f those portrayed, Cicero, Caesar,
or mere a w k w a r d j u x t a p o s i t i o n s o f the t w o f o u n d i n
and B r u t u s , m o v e d i n the same society and were o n
m u c h c o n t e m p o r a r y portraiture and other s c u l p t u r e .
87
fourth,
Such a creative and so to speak " o r g a n i c " use o f classical
A g r i p p a , emerged u p o n the scene t h r o u g h the patronage
forms has l i t t l e i n c o m m o n w i t h the d r y and academic
o f Caesar's heir i n the years j u s t f o l l o w i n g the disappear
neoclassicism represented, for example, by such a w o r k
ance o f the older three. H i s p o r t r a i t has always l o o k e d
o f the previous generation as the p o r t r a i t o f Cicero's
somewhat o u t o f place a m o n g those o f Augustus and his
teacher, the R h o d i a n philosopher Poseidonios
t e r m s o f the closest personal i n t e r a c t i o n . A
family, w i t h w h i c h i t is l i n k e d by c h r o n o l o g y and h i s
torical association.
84
I t is n o w clear that this is so because
its stylistic affinities are w i t h a preceding generation.
8 8
O n e o f the most distinctive innovations o f this p o r
trait g r o u p is n o t its sculptural style per se b u t rather the
dramatic scenario w i t h i n w h i c h its p o r t r a i t subject is
I n the context o f contemporary portraiture at large,
presented t o the viewer. T h e d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f person-
84. See the perceptive remarks o f L. Curtius, "Ikonographische
Beitrage..., X I I : Z u m Bronzekopf von Azaila und zu den Portrats des
jugendlichen Augustus," RomMittSS (1940), pp. 48ff.
no. A 17, pi. 29), which Hafner has identified as a copy after an Attic
original o f the first century B.C.; or, i n a Roman milieu, the contempo
rary portrait o f Cato o f Utica (here p. 57 w i t h note 57, supra) i n which
the academically precise linear treatment o f the hair jars w i t h the softer
more plastic rendering o f the face itself. Examples could easily be
multiplied.
85. For example, the family teams cited infra, i n notes 120 and 121;
also the activities o f Pasiteles and his group: M . Borda, La scuola de
Pasitele (Bari, 1953).
86. F. Coarelli has commented on the ideological significance o f the
neo-Attic style for the Roman aristocracy beginning as early as the
second century B.C.: "Architettura e arti figurative i n Roma 150—50
a.C," i n P. Zanker, ed., Hellenismus in Mittelitalien, vol. 1, AbhGott,
1976, pp. 21—51, esp. pp. 28f., 33, 34, 37; idem, "Classe dirigente
romana e arti figurative," Dialoghi di Archeologia, vols. 4—5, nos. 2—3
(1970/71), pp. 241-279, esp. pp. 264£, 277f. See also H . Jucker, Vom
Verhdltnis der Rbmer zur bildenden Kunst der Griechen (Frankfurt, 1950),
p. 167; Zanker, p. 45.
87. Compare the portrait o f a philosopher or poet i n Naples from
the Villa dei Papiri at Herculaneum (Hekler, pi. 94a; Hafner, p. 70,
88. A r n d t - B r u n n , nos. 239-240; Hekler, pi. 126; Hafner, pp. 10f,
no. R l , pi. 1; M . Bieber, The Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age, rev. ed.
(New York, 1961), p. 163, figs. 696-697; Buschor, pp. 47, 50, 58f, 62;
C M . Havelock, Hellenistic Art (New York, 1979), p. 45, no. 32, fig. 32.
89. One need not necessarily accept J. Balty's proposed identifica
tion o f the bronze "Ruler" as T. Quinctius Flamininus (see supra,
note 70) to agree that the subject must be a Roman conqueror rather
than a Hellenistic monarch; cf. Zanker, pp. 36f, 40. Very much i n the
same manner though perhaps a half-century later i n date is a bronze
head i n the Getty Museum that surely also represents a Roman com
mander: Roman Portraits, pp. 12f. no. 1 (suggested as Sulla); Frel (supra,
ality t h r o u g h the m i m e t i c s o f posture, movement,
and
m a y represent Cato the Censor, deceased i n 149.
92
69
Traces
facial expression and the claims thus advanced u p o n the
o f this manner persist a m o n g the D e l i a n portraits, m a n y
a d m i r a t i o n o f the spectator were u l t i m a t e l y d e r i v e d
o f w h i c h surely represent Romans and the m a j o r i t y o f
f r o m the c o n v e n t i o n s o f H e l l e n i s t i c r u l e r p o r t r a i t u r e .
w h i c h m u s t date to the decades a r o u n d 100, i n any case
For a R o m a n audience, however, a m o n g w h o m sober
p r i o r to the M i t h r a d a t i c sack o f 8 8 .
gravitas and stern self-control were standards for aristo
p a r t i c u l a r l y close i n the t w o extraordinary deep busts
93
T h e resemblance is
cratic deportment, such a display m i g h t w e l l be counter
f r o m Skardhana, recently excavated and s t i l l essentially
productive. For a t i m e d u r i n g the m i d - s e c o n d
unpublished
century
9 4
B u t for the most part the b o d i l y stances
B . C . — t h e heady years o f Rome's n e w eastern hegemony
are less movemented, the e m o t i o n a l excitation less ex
and the o p e n i n g o f the
treme, and the exaggerated " r e a l i s m " m u c h
floodtide
o f Hellenistic c u l t u r a l
and artistic influence—successful
R o m a n generals and
s i g n i f i c a n t l y the m o u t h s are m o s t l y
softened;
closed—unlike
a m b i t i o u s politicians seem indeed to have t r i e d to appro
the Syracusan portraits and the " A l b i n u s " — e v e n i f n o t
priate the f o r m a t o f the heroized H e l l e n i s t i c ruler p o r
c o m p r e s s e d . Such a b a n d o n m e n t , o r at least t o n i n g
trait en bloc. T h e so-called Hellenistic Ruler o f the Terme
d o w n , o f this exaggerated theatricality after the t u r n o f
M u s e u m — o f R o m a n provenance and l a c k i n g the d i
the century, and its apparent r a r i t y i n Rome itself—
adem o f H e l l e n i s t i c k i n g s h i p — i s the b e s t - k n o w n
n o t the o n l y example o f this procedure.
89
but
" A l b i n u s " seems so far to be an isolated instance—sug
D u r i n g the
gests that i t may have had l i m i t e d success i n the capital.
latter part o f the century an attempt was made to adapt
I n the portraits o f the B r u t u s group, facial m i m e t i c s
this H e l l e n i s t i c p o r t r a i t scenario more closely t o the c i r
are reorganized so as to accord w i t h w h a t was acceptable
cumstances o f a R o m a n clientele. T h e genre thus created
to a R o m a n public. T h e gaze is n o t lifted and directed
featured s t r o n g l y m o v e m e n t e d
far
postures and
extreme
m o m e n t a r y excitation o f the facial expression c o m b i n e d
away t o w a r d an indeterminate goal so as to testify
m o r e t o the subject's exalted inner state than t o a c o n
w i t h a near-caricatural sharpness o f p h y s i o g n o m i c par-
crete s i t u a t i o n r o o t e d i n social reality. Rather, i t and the
t i c u l a r i z a t i o n w i t h o u t parallel a m o n g k n o w n examples
focused a t t e n t i o n that i t represents are s h o w n as i f d i
o f the H e l l e n i s t i c parent genre. A r e m a r k a b l e
o f p o r t r a i t heads i n l i m e s t o n e ,
n o w i n the
N a z i o n a l e i n Syracuse, illustrates this g e n r e
9 0
group
rected u p o n a tangible object i n the near distance. I m
Museo
p l i c i t l y this is a h u m a n i n t e r l o c u t o r envisioned i n the
Their
specific terms o f contemporary society, whose presence
o r i g i n a l provenance seems to have been Africa, and they
manifests a n e t w o r k o f reciprocal recognitions, u n d e r
s h o u l d thus postdate the large-scale c o l o n i z a t i o n o f the
standings,
n e w province p r o m o t e d by Caius Gracchus i n the late
and e m o t i o n that the p o r t r a i t subject projects, the other
120s.
A m e t r o p o l i t a n portrait comparable
and o b l i g a t i o n s .
95
Despite the force o f w i l l
t o these
and the constraints that he embodies are acknowledged.
p r o v i n c i a l w o r k s is the w e l l - k n o w n type o f a famous
W h i l e the w i l l is projected, as before, p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h
contemporary,
the m e d i u m o f the gaze, these constraints are signaled
preserved
i n several m a r b l e copies o f
I m p e r i a l date, w h i c h is usually, t h o u g h u n c o n v i n c i n g l y ,
especially i n the m i m e t i c s o f the l o w e r h a l f o f the face;
i d e n t i f i e d as A u l u s Postumius A l b i n u s (cos. 99 B . C . ) o n
here the muscles are tensed and the m o u t h t i g h t l y c o m
grounds
numismatic
pressed, i n contrast to the relaxed musculature and p a r t
Poulsen made the t e m p t i n g suggestion that i t
ed lips characteristic o f Hellenistic ruler portraits i n the
note 42), pp. 40—43. Also a portrait preserved i n two marble copies
after an original o f the later second century B.C.: 1) Museo Nazionale
Romano: Felletti Maj (supra, note 10), p. 26, no. 32, fig. 32; E. Berger,
"Ein Vorlaufer Pompeius' des Grossen i n Basel," Eikones. Festschrift
Hans Jucker. AK, Beiheft 12 (Bern, 1980), p. 72; 2) location u n
known: Berger (supra, this note) and pi. 22, 1—4.
90. G. Gentili, "Ritratti republicani i n calcare del Museo Nazionale
di Siracusa," Siculorum Gymnasium, n.s. 6 (1953), pp. 208—221; N . B o nacasa, Ritratti greci e romani delta Sicilia (Palermo, 1964), pp. 22—26,
nos. 22--27, pp. 33f, nos. 35—36. Cf. the review o f Bonacasa by H .
Jucker, Erasmus 20 (1968), col. 104.
Stewart, pp. 65—78.
94. G. Daux, i n BCH 93 (1969), pp. 1042, 1043, fig. 22; G. Sieberg,
in BCH 99 (1975), pp. 719, fig. 5, 721; Stewart, p. 68, nos. 16-17,
pp. 70f, pi. 2 0 a - k
95. Cf. S. Nodelman, " H o w to Read a Roman Portrait," Art in
America 63 (Jan.—Feb. 1975), pp. 30f. Earlier stages o f this process
o f opening the narrative scenario to the spectator are described by
L. Curtius, Die Antike Kunst, vol. 2, Die klassische Kunst Griechenlands
(Berlin, 1938), pp. 399f, and by P. von Blanckenhagen i n the impor
tant article, "Der erganzende Betrachter," i n Wandlungen. Festschrift
Ernst Homann-Wedeking (Waldsassen-Bayern, 1975), pp. 193—201.
Nevertheless the distinction is crucial between the Hellenistic device
analyzed by von Blanckenhagen, i n which the viewer must imag
inatively supply missing components o f the (ideal) scenario implied by
the statue and that described here, i n which the narrative scenario
implied by the statue and that manifest i n the actual situation and
conduct o f the viewer are superimposed upon one another.
portrait.
o f its resemblance to the latter's
91
91. Schweitzer (supra, note 78), pp. 59ff, figs. 53, 55, 57; Vessberg
(supra, note 36), pp. 219f, pi. 56; V. Poulsen, "Eine verkannte Beruhmtheit," Theoria. Festschrift W.-H. Schuchhardt (Baden-Baden,
1960), pp. 173-178.
92. Poulsen (supra, note 91).
93. Michalowski (supra, note 60), passim; recently re-examined by
70
Nodelman
A l e x a n d e r t r a d i t i o n . T h e i m p l i e d i n t e r l o c u t o r is n o t
narrative transaction i n w h i c h the superior qualities and
necessarily the viewer himself, for the p o r t r a i t subject's
status o f the portrait subject are put o n display.
gaze is often averted f r o m h i m ; i t is rather his fictional
T h e p h y s i o g n o m i c characterization o f the p o r t r a i t
c o u n t e r p a r t , i n h a b i t i n g a c o n g r u e n t social and p s y
subject is designed to contribute to the same equivocal
chological space. T h i s space is i m p l i c i t l y a civic one,
rhetoric. Particularities are rendered sharply e n o u g h to
w i t h i n w h i c h certain n o r m s o f public conduct, reflected
create an effect o f concrete i n d i v i d u a l i t y and the insis
i n an appropriate discretion o f bearing and facial expres
tent i r r e g u l a r i t y o f "real life," apparently g r o u n d i n g the
sion, are u n d e r s t o o d to apply. B y contrast, the m i m e t i c s
p o r t r a i t representation i n unquestionable facticity.
97
Sag
o f the h e r o i z e d H e l l e n i s t i c p o r t r a i t i n v o k e a m y t h i c
g i n g j o w l s and f u r r o w e d flesh serve this p u r p o s e i n
h o r i z o n b e y o n d the l i m i t s o f the city, a w o r l d o f p r i m a l
the p o r t r a i t o f Cicero and to a lesser extent i n those o f
struggle unconstrained by the d e c o r u m o f civic i n t e r
Caesar and A g r i p p a . I n B r u t u s ' case i t is the somewhat
course. H e r e the disjuncture between the i m p l i e d narra
j u m b l e d , discordant structure o f the craggy face, w i t h its
tive s i t u a t i o n o f the p o r t r a i t and the r e a l - w o r l d context
b e e t l i n g brows, deep-set eyes, abruptly angled nose, and
i n w h i c h the v i e w e r encounters i t is m a x i m i z e d and
j u t t i n g c h i n ; and, o n the psychological plane, the sug
forms the very basis o f the status-claim that the p o r t r a i t
gestions o f anxiety i n the f r o w n i n g forehead, and o f u n
asserts o n b e h a l f o f its subject. T h e so-called " b o u r
certainty and petulance i n the pursed, protrusive m o u t h .
geois" p o r t r a i t , as developed i n the H e l l e n i s t i c w o r l d
These i n t i m a t i o n s are far removed f r o m the p r o l i x i t y o f
d u r i n g the second and first centuries B.C. and n o w o m
detail or the e m o t i o n a l bathos that characterize " v e r i s
nipresent i n m i d - f i r s t - c e n t u r y Italy, sought to m i n i m i z e
t i c " portraiture and even f r o m the incisive i f reserved
t h a t d i s j u n c t u r e , a p p r o x i m a t i n g the p o r t r a i t n a r r a t i v e
p h y s i o g n o m i c and psychological " r e a l i s m " o f such c o n
t h r o u g h attitude, gesture, and expression as closely as
t e m p o r a r y artistocratic portraits as the pseudo-Cicero or
possible t o everyday civic situations and
sometimes
the pseudo-Corbulo. A d m i n i s t e r e d i n nicely calculated
specifying quite n a r r o w l y the conditions under w h i c h
dosage, so as n o t to i m p a i r the claims o f physical and
the encounter w i t h the viewer was i m a g i n e d to take
m o r a l prepossession that the p o r t r a i t schema as a w h o l e
place. ( T h e F l o r e n t i n e " A r r i n g a t o r e " is an egregious
asserts, they serve to n a r r o w the psychological distance
example o f this, b u t so i n lesser degree are the i n n u m
between the represented subject and the viewer, to i n
erable d i g n i f i e d togati presented to us as i f at some public
gratiate the former w i t h the latter by the display o f fa
occasion, i n the f o r u m or law courts.) T h e gain i n c o n -
m i l i a r foibles and marks o f shared h u m a n fate, and to
creteness and f a m i l i a r i t y was usually accompanied by a
establish for the p o r t r a i t itself a strengthened c r e d i b i l i t y
sacrifice o f dramatic force. T h e portraits o f the B r u t u s
by a show o f apparent frankness and honesty. T h e r h e t
group, however, are s k i l l f u l l y contrived to preserve the
orical structure o f these portraits is thus carefully ad
arresting prepotency o f the heroized p o r t r a i t w i t h i n a
j u s t e d to the requirements o f the m i l i e u and the patrons
narrative scenario adapted f r o m that o f the citizen p o r
for w h o m they were produced. Despite their H e l l e n i s t i c
trait, t u r n i n g to advantage b o t h the latter's greater credi
lineage they have no precise equivalent i n c o n t e m p o r a r y
b i l i t y and its acceptability w i t h i n a society i m b u e d , as
H e l l e n i s t i c portraiture. Rather they represent a u n i q u e
that o f first-century Rome s t i l l was, w i t h Republican
adaptation o f the stylistic and rhetorical possibilities o f
values. T h u s the civic space and its c o n v e n t i o n s are
late H e l l e n i s t i c art to the ideological and social c o n d i
i n v o k e d as a stage, w i t h i n whose l i m i t s a " d e m y t h o l o -
tions o f the city o f Rome.
g i z e d " adaptation o f the heroic d r a m a — n o w a drama o f
p e r s o n a l i t y rather t h a n o f d e s t i n y — c a n be
enacted.
T h e identifiable patrons o f our portrait atelier were n o
96
o r d i n a r y members o f the senatorial oligarchy b u t o u t
T h e viewer is made the privileged observer o f a condensed
standing personalities i n the front rank o f p o l i t i c a l and
96. Cf. the masterly analysis o f this device by R. Barthes, "L'Effet
de Reel," Communications 11 (1968), pp. 84—89.
pp. 267-278.
101. V. Poulsen, Vergil, Opus Nobile, no. 12 (Bremen, 1959); Poul
sen, pp. 44f, no. 5, 45f, no. 6, pis. 10—13. Poulsen's proposal (Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek. Ees portraits grecs [Copenhagen, 1954], pp. 73ff.) was
arrived at after a complex series o f inferences based i n important part
on the belief that the partner o f the pseudo-Seneca i n the Naples
bronze double herm from the Villa dei Papiri was to be identified as
Callimachus; it is now incontrovertibly established (by the inscribed
bronze bust i n the Getty Museum: B. Ashmole, "Menander: A n I n
scribed Bust," AJA 77 [1973], p. 61, pis. 11-12; Greek Portraits, pp. 82f,
no. 34, 115) that the traditional identification o f the type as Menander
is correct. Stylistic considerations (with which I fully concur) have led
97. Nodelman (supra, note 95).
98. A valuable beginning has been made by P. Zanker, " Z u r Rezeption des hellenistischen Individualportrats i n Rom und i n den italischen Stadten," i n Zanker (supra, note 86), vol. 2, pp. 581—609, and
by J. Baity, "Portrait et societe au ler siecle avant notre ere," i n
Romisches Portrat: Wege zur Erforschung eines gesellschaftlichen Phanomens,
Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Humboldt-Universitat zu Berlin,
Gesellsch.- und Sprachwiss. Reihe 2/3, 1982, pp. 139-142.
99. See supra, pp. 57—59.
100. V. Poulsen, "Notes on a Group o f Attic Portraits," RA, 1968,
11
social life. T h e atelier's finely balanced rhetoric was ad
R o m a n portrait sculpture o f its time. O n grounds o f sculp
m i r a b l y suited to subjects w h o w i s h e d to advertise an
tural style, one w o u l d not hesitate to ascribe these w o r k s
auctoritas
c o m p o u n d e d o f superior force o f w i l l ,
seeing intellect, and even the felicitas
far-
o f d i v i n e favor,
to a Greek rather than to a native Italian atelier. However, I
believe i t is possible to be more specific.
tempered nevertheless by reassuring acknowledgment o f
T w o decades ago Poulsen attempted to l i n k together a
h u m a n l i m i t s and the b i n d i n g force o f R o m a n t r a d i t i o n ,
g r o u p o f eight portraits that demonstrably or conjec-
and packaged i n a sculptural style that carried its o w n
t u r a l l y represented personages o f the final t h i r d o f the
connotations o f status and culture. I n this they differed
first c e n t u r y B.C. (all, indeed, members o f the entourage
s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m the d r i l y " r e a l i s t " p o r t r a i t m o d e
o f Augustus) as the w o r k o f a single artist, an A t t i c
chosen by m a n y contemporaries o f the same class: C a t o
sculptor w o r k i n g i n Athens and " f i g h t i n g a heroic rear
o f U t i c a , the subjects o f the pseudo-Cicero and pseudo-
guard action for the g o o d o l d Hellenistic t r a d i t i o n . "
C o r b u l o types and their i l k , as w e l l as f r o m the o u t
Poulsen's attempt is o f signal importance, even t h o u g h I
spokenly Hellenistic mode favored by, e.g., Pompey, all
do n o t believe that the group i n fact coheres as the w o r k
100
o f w h i c h advertise very different sets o f claims o n the
o f a single sculptor, nor can all o f the identifications, and
regard o f the spectator, to say n o t h i n g o f the exponents
consequent datings, o n w h i c h i t is based be sustained.
o f the o u t - a n d - o u t " v e r i s t i c " style. To w h a t extent these
differences may compare to real differences i n status or
p o l i t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n awaits i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
98
Nevertheless
Its p o i n t o f departure, the n o w famous type o f a poet
that Poulsen has the m e r i t o f having first isolated and
w h i c h he identified as Vergil, is i n all p r o b a b i l i t y a w o r k
a clearer picture o f the sort o f portraiture espoused by a
o f the t h i r d century B . C .
s i g n i f i c a n t element o f the r u l i n g class emerges. Such
a poet i n the Palazzo dei Conservatori, w h i c h was f o u n d
p o r t r a i t s w i l l have i n s p i r e d b o t h e m u l a t i o n and c o n
i n the so-called " a u d i t o r i u m " o f Maecenas' v i l l a o n the
testation, h e l p i n g to polarize the system o f associations
Esquiline, and i n w h i c h Poulsen saw a possible p o r t r a i t
by w h i c h c o n t e m p o r a r y p o r t r a i t u r e o f a l l sorts a d
o f Maecenas h i m s e l f .
dressed its various audiences. T h e separation o f the p o r
t w e e n this p o r t r a i t and the " V e r g i l " are indeed close, as
traiture o f first-century Italy i n t o its c o m p o n e n t genres,
Poulsen h i m s e l f stresses. I n m y o p i n i o n b o t h also show
101
102
So also is the h e r m p o r t r a i t o f
T h e stylistic resemblances be
the analysis o f the r h e t o r i c a l stance and s t y l i s t i c re
a strong relationship to the portrait o f Menander, whose
sources o f each, and their ascription to their relevant
i d e n t i t y is n o w c o n c l u s i v e l y established,
social contexts is a task as yet hardly begun. T h e recog
t h i r d - c e n t u r y date is hence no longer i n d o u b t .
n i t i o n o f the B r u t u s g r o u p and its i m p l i c a t i o n s s h o u l d
portraits o f A g r i p p a and o f Augustus o f the " A c t i u m "
aid i n this process.
type are, o f course, contemporary and are n o t w i t h o u t
and
whose
103
The
T h e distinctive sculptural style and p o r t r a i t concep
certain stylistic as w e l l as historical relationships; nev
t i o n o f this atelier set its products apart f r o m other p o r
ertheless I believe that i t is impossible for t h e m to be the
trait modes employed by the R o m a n aristocracy d u r i n g
the final decades o f the R e p u b l i c
9 9
I n the w i d e r spec
w o r k o f the same artist. T h e p r o f o u n d difference be
t w e e n t h e m was e l o q u e n t l y characterized b y C u r t i u s
104
t r u m o f R o m a n portraiture o f the first century B . C . , as
h a l f a century a g o .
one leaves the ensemble o f portraits demonstrably be
neaux, identified the V i l l a A d r i a n a - L o u v r e p o r t r a i t type
Poulsen, f o l l o w i n g J. C h a r b o n -
l o n g i n g t o the l i m i t e d circle o f the h i g h aristocracy,
o f a f r o w n i n g m a n w i t h a r o w o f p o i n t e d locks f a l l i n g
its distinctiveness and isolation are yet more noticeable.
over his forehead as M a r c e l l u s , A u g u s t u s ' s o n - i n - l a w
Despite its close attunement to the requirements o f an elite
who
died i n 23 B . C .
1 0 5
However, the identification can
c i t y - R o m a n clientele, i t seems to have no local roots;
not
rather i t stands out as a foreign body i n the ensemble o f
appear to b e l o n g o n stylistic grounds to the A u g u s t a n
a number o f scholars to identify the "Vergil" as a third- or secondcentury Greek poet. K . Schefold (in Gnomon 35 [1963], pp. 811f; idem,
Griechische Dichterbildnisse [Zurich and Stuttgart, 1965], p. 29, fig. 17)
has suggested Philemon; G. Hafner (Das Bildnis des Q. Ennius [BadenBaden, 1968]) has suggested the Roman Ennius; and most recently U .
Hausmann ( " Z u m Bildnis des Dichters Theokrit," Stele: Tomos eis
mnemen Nikolaou Kontoleontos [Athens, 1980], pp. 511—524) has pro
posed Theokritos.
102. Poulsen (supra, note 100), p. 268; H . Stuart Jones, The Sculptures
of the Palazzo dei Conservatori (Oxford, 1926), p. 70, pi. 24; H . von
Heintze, "Neue Beitrage zu V. Poulsen's Vergil," RomMitt 67 (I960),
pp. 103-110, pis. 31-33.
be sustained,
106
and although the type does indeed
103. See supra, note 101.
105. J. Charbonneaux, " U n portrait presume de Marcellus," MonPiot
51 (1960), pp. 53—72. Charbonneaux's identification has been widely
followed, e.g. by G. Saflund, " I I Germanico del Museo del Louvre,"
Opuscula Romana, vol. 9, pt. 1 (1973), pp. 7 f f ; by J. Baity, "Notes
d'iconographie julio-claudienne, I V : M . Claudius Marcellus et le 'Type
B ' de l'iconographie dAuguste jeune," ^4K20 (1977), pp. 112ff; and by
Kiss, pp. 24ff.
106. Charbonneaux's sole ground for the identification was the dis
covery o f the Villa Adriana portrait i n the same excavation as a bearded
head o f Hadrianic date i n which he saw a portrait o f Hadrian's i n -
12
Nodelman
Figure 22a. Front view o f bust o f a man w i t h priestly
crown: "Fabius Maximus." Vatican, Sala dei
Busti, inv. 716.
Figure 23a. Front view o f head o f a man: "Fabius M a x imus." Athens, National Museum, no num
ber. Photos: Courtesy D A I , Athens.
Figure 22b. Left profile o f bust, figure 22a. Photo: Cour
tesy D A I , Rome.
Figure 23b. Left profile o f head, figure 23a.
73
p e r i o d , I d o u b t that i t represents someone o f the f a m i l y
o f the princeps. I n any case, such similarities as i t evinces
t o other portraits i n the group, such as those o f A g r i p p a
and Augustus, seem t o me t o o distant to support a c l a i m
o f c o m m o n authorship. T h e g r o u p is extended t o i n
clude the p o r t r a i t o f the y o u n g K i n g Juba I I o f M a u r i
tania, i n that first type best represented by the m a g n i f i
cent bronze bust f r o m V o l u b i l i s
107
and the p o r t r a i t o f
a m a n adorned w i t h a priestly c r o w n k n o w n i n replicas
i n the Vatican (figs. 22a—b) and i n the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m
i n Athens (figs. 23a—b). Poulsen suggests that this may
be Paullus Fabius M a x i m u s , a relative by marriage o f
Augustus and consul i n 11 B . C .
1 0 8
Despite the failure o f
the w o r k s c o m p r i s i n g this g r o u p i n g to cohere as closely
as Poulsen believed, he p o i n t e d o u t certain i m p o r t a n t
r e l a t i o n s h i p s for the f i r s t t i m e . W i t h the e x c e p t i o n
o f the " V e r g i l " and the Conservatori poet, the w o r k s
he assembled
do i n d e e d f o r m a s i g n i f i c a n t l y
related
g r o u p t h o u g h not, I believe, related i n quite the w a y
that Poulsen proposed.
Poulsen's association o f this g r o u p w i t h Athens was
largely based o n stylistic i n t u i t i o n ; he had already some
years before ascribed the " V e r g i l " to an A t t i c s c u l p t o r .
109
N o n e o f the i n d i v i d u a l pieces or types so far m e n t i o n e d ,
w i t h the exception o f the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m replica o f
Figure 24. Head o f a man. Athens, National Museum
3266. Photo: Courtesy D A I , Athens.
the "Fabius M a x i m u s , " had an A t h e n i a n provenance or
other secure connection w i t h Athens (and the prove
i n i s o l a t i o n cannot be conclusive, but, as w i l l be seen, b y
nance o f a particular replica o f a m u l t i p l i e d type is o f
its stylistic context. Poulsen t h o u g h t its resemblance i n
course no i n d i c a t i o n o f the place o f o r i g i n o f the o r i g i
style to his " V e r g i l " particularly close. Here I m u s t dis
n a l ) . N o r c o u l d any conclusive h i s t o r i c a l l i n k a g e be
agree, b u t i t does evince m a r k e d resemblances to others
s h o w n . Poulsen was obliged to conjecture occasions o n
o f the group, notably the A g r i p p a and "Fabius
w h i c h various o f the personages i n v o l v e d m i g h t have
i m u s , " and t o a lesser extent t o the A c t i u m t y p e o f
visited the city so as to have the o p p o r t u n i t y o f h a v i n g
Augustus. T h i s piece thus suggests A t h e n i a n connec
their portraits made. I t was left to the final piece i n the
tions for a g r o u p o f portraits that i n terms o f identities
g r o u p t o p r o v i d e an unquestionable l i n k to Athens i t
(so far as these are k n o w n ) and o f actual provenances
self. T h i s is the splendid t h o u g h b r o k e n head o f a l o n g
have l i t t l e or n o association w i t h Athens, and also opens
haired m a n , perhaps a poet, w h i c h was f o u n d l o n g ago
u p connections w i t h other portraits that are demonstra
i n the Stoa o f Attalos and w h i c h is n o w i n the N a t i o n a l
bly Attic i n origin.
M u s e u m , no. 3266 (fig. 24) .
1 1 0
Max
Its A t t i c character is guar
R e c e n t l y A . Stewart has r e - e x a m i n e d this q u e s t i o n
anteed n o t by the fact o f provenance alone, w h i c h taken
w i t h i n an o v e r a l l study o f s c u l p t u r a l a c t i v i t y i n late
tended successor, Aelius Verus (supra, note 105, pp. 57ff.); Hadrian is
imagined to have set up a commemorative monument l i n k i n g Aelius
w i t h another prematurely deceased heir, Marcellus. Obviously this is
the merest conjecture. However, the argument has lost even this fragile
basis: N . Hannestad, i n his systematic study o f Aelius Verus' icono
graphy ("The Portraits o f Aelius Caesar," Analecta Romana Instituti
Danici 1 [1974], pp. 95f.) makes clear that the head from the Canopus
has nothing to do w i t h Hadrian's heir. I hope to treat the very interest
ing Louvre-Villa Adriana type elsewhere.
Die Skulpturen des Vatikanischen Museums, vol. 2 (Berlin, 1908),
p. 475, no. 275; Hekler, pi. 124b; Helbig, p. 118, no. 155 ( H . von
Heintze).
107. Poulsen (supra, note 100), pp. 275ff; cf. K . Fittschen, " D i e
Bildnisse der mauretanischen Konige und ihre stadtromischen Vorbilder," MadMittlS (1974), pp. 157f, 160ff, pis. 15a, 16a, 17a-b.
108. Poulsen (supra, note 100), pp. 277£, fig. 6, p. 276; W. Amelung,
109. Poulsen, pp. 45f, to no. 6. Hafner, pp. 78f, nos. 31-32 had
already ascribed two portraits o f Agrippa—that i n Copenhagen, N C
609, and that o f the Grimani statue i n Venice—to (two separate) Athe
nian artists. Following L. Curtius, Hafner regarded them as styl
istically distinct from the Gabii type o f Agrippa; however they are
plainly variants exhibiting the closest stylistic as well as typological
dependence upon it.
110. Poulsen (supra, note 100), pp. 269, 278; S. Karouzou i n Archaiologikon Deltion 21 (1966), pp. 8, 202, pis. 7-11; Stewart, pp. 84f,
no. 1, pi. 27a.
74
Nodelman
seem less than c o m p e l l i n g ; they can be disregarded here.
There r e m a i n four closely related pieces whose c o n
n e c t i o n w i t h the city is i n three cases certain, i n the
f o u r t h h i g h l y probable. T h e g r o u p is centered r o u n d the
extremely fine head o f a priest or poet, N a t i o n a l M u
seum 351. Closest i n style o f the r e m a i n i n g three t o this
centerpiece,
is a head i n the L o u v r e , M A 1204, l o n g
famous under the name o f A n t i o c h u s I I I (fig. 25) .
1 1 3
D o u b t s about this identification and i n c l i n a t i o n s t o w a r d
a d a t i n g i n the first century B.C. had never been c o m
pletely s t i l l e d ;
114
Stewart deserves credit for h a v i n g re
stored this r e m a r k a b l e p o r t r a i t to its correct c o n t e x t .
Despite the lack o f A t t i c provenance (the head was ac
quired by N a p o l e o n i n Rome), the c o m m o n a l i t y b o t h o f
sculptural style and o f psychological treatment between
the e r s t w h i l e " A n t i o c h u s " and N M 351 is so close that
they m u s t surely be the products o f the same w o r k s h o p ,
i f n o t o f the same sculptor.
Whatever may be conjectured regarding the
"Anti
ochus" head's R o m a n provenance, i t indeed shares some
n o t a b l e features
Figure25. H e a d o f a m a n w i t h p r i e s t l y c r o w n :
"Antiochus I I I . " Paris, Musee du Louvre M A
1204. Photo: Courtesy Chuzeville, Paris.
o f design w i t h the R o m a n p o r t r a i t
group, w h i c h I have tried to define. T h e contained over
all shape; the strict vertical-horizontal scaffolding i m
posed u p o n the facial mask and c o n t r o l l i n g the a l i g n
m e n t o f brows, nose, and m o u t h ; the precision i n the
H e l l e n i s t i c Athens. Stewart accepts the g r o u p
formu
r e n d e r i n g o f detail; and the h i g h l y articulated yet sober
lated b y Poulsen b o t h as A t t i c i n o r i g i n and as the w o r k
and c o n t r o l l e d description o f the musculature
o f a single artist, "the sculptor to Augustus," m o d i f y i n g
the s k i n are all h e l d i n c o m m o n , as is the effect o f c o n
i t s l i g h t l y by the a d d i t i o n o f the P r i m a Porta Type o f
tained e m o t i o n a l tension. Johansen has already
A u g u s t u s and b y the (surely j u s t i f i e d ) s u b t r a c t i o n o f
m e n t e d u p o n the stylistic affinity between " A n t i o c h u s "
Juba I I and o f " M a r c e l l u s . "
111
M o r e significant is his
and the p o r t r a i t o f A g r i p p a .
115
beneath
com
" A n t i o c h u s " particularly
assembly o f another, i n t e r n a l l y far more coherent group,
resembles the C h i a r a m o n t i - L i d i n g o Caesar as w e l l , n o t
that o f " t h e sculptor o f N M 351 and his circle," active i n
merely i n the strict architectonics o f the face b u t also i n
the forties and thirties B . C .
112
T h i s is far more strongly
the rendering o f the level gaze f r o m beneath a t i g h t e n e d
l i n k e d o n material grounds to Athens itself. O f the six
brow, the f i r m set o f the m o u t h , and even the r h y t h m i c
portraits that i t includes, three are o f A t h e n i a n prove
s w i n g o f the locks o f hair over the forehead.
nance and a f o u r t h fits closely i n t o this A t h e n i a n context
theless, c o m p a r e d t o the R o m a n g r o u p , " A n t i o c h u s "
Never
o n stylistic grounds. T w o members o f the g r o u p — t h e
and his A t t i c congeners, especially N M 351, are some
p o r t r a i t type o f a R o m a n , w i t h replicas i n Copenhagen
w h a t overly d r y and linear i n m o d e l i n g , w i t h less gene
and Florence, and a h e r m p o r t r a i t i n V i l l a A l b a n i — c a n
rous contrasts o f plane, less o f a propulsive c o n t i n u i t y o f
c l a i m n o A t t i c provenance, and the similarities o f style
r h y t h m i c energy; anatomical details are rendered i n a more
111. Stewart, pi. 27a-d.
112. Stewart, pp. 82ff., pi. 26a-d.
113. Bieber (supra, note 88), p. 87, figs. 319-320; Hekler, pi. 123; L.
Laurenzi, Ritratti greci (Florence, 1941), p. 123, no. 79, pis. 31—32;
G . M . A . Richter, Portraits of the Greeks, vol. 3 (New York, 1955), p. 271,
figs. 1878-1879; Havelock (supra, note 88), p. 31, no. 10, fig. 31; Stew
art, pp. 82£, no. 3, pi. 26b.
Demetrios I I , von Syrien," Hefte des archdologischen Seminars der Universitdt Bern 6 [1980]); and o f Antiochus I X (A. Houghton, "The Portrait
o f Antiochus I X , " AK 27 [1984], pp. 123-128, pis. 13-14) for the first
time provide valid comparanda for the putative Antiochus I I I i n the
form o f assured Seleucid royal portraits o f appropriate date. The com
parison is the more telling i n that the coin portraits o f Antiochus I I I
and I V resemble one another very much i n style, format, and even
physiognomy. The new Antiochus I V shows us the kind o f sculptured
portrait from which such a coin-profile derives. It and the portraits o f
Demetrius I I and Antiochus I X are entirely i n the tradition o f
Hellenistic ruler-portraiture deriving from Alexander and based on
late fourth- to early third-century stylistic conventions. They provide
114. A first-century date was already suggested over forty years ago
by K . Schefold, Die Bildnisse der antiken Dichter, Redner und Denker
(Basel, 1943), p. 201. The newly published portrait heads o f Antiochus
I V ( H . Kyrieleis, Ein Bildnis des Konigs Antiochos IV von Syrien, 127.
WinckProgr [Berlin, 1980]); o f Demetrius I I (I. Jucker, " E i n Bildnis
painstaking, small-scale fashion. T h e representation o f
the p o r t r a i t s are cast, r e f l e c t i n g the d i f f e r i n g
75
status
claims o f the subjects and the requirements o f t h e i r d i f
e m o t i o n and action is similarly more constrained.
Stewart's N M 351 g r o u p is i m p o r t a n t i n the present
fering social contexts. I n contrast to the R o m a n charac
context for its relationship to the previously m e n t i o n e d
ters' i m p e r i o u s display o f a u t h o r i t y and w i l l , the m o o d
head f r o m the Stoa o f Attalos, N M 3266. T h e latter is
o f the A t h e n i a n portraits is sober and restrained, b e f i t
particularly close to N M 351 i t s e l f and to the L o u v r e
t i n g the n a r r o w e d horizons o f the H e l l e n i c city-state i n
" A n t i o c h u s . " Stewart indeed suggests a m a s t e r - p u p i l re
the first century B.C.
lationship between the author o f the N M 351 g r o u p and
that o f N M 3266. T h e latter retains the earlier group's
O n e other member
o f the Poulsen-Stewart
group
seems to show enough similarities o f conception and
decisive architectonic f r a m e w o r k b u t dispenses w i t h its
style b o t h w i t h N M 3266 and w i t h the four R o m a n
edgy l i n e a r i t y and is modeled more broadly, w i t h deeper
w o r k s to suggest c o m m o n authorship. T h i s is the so-
planar contrasts; the N M 351 group's tendency t o w a r d a
called "Fabius M a x i m u s . " T h e b e t t e r - k n o w n replica, i n
certain f i x i t y and pedantic over-exactness i n the n o t a t i o n
the Sala dei B u s t i o f the Vatican, has so suffered t h r o u g h
o f the s e c o n d a r y m u s c l e - g r o u p s
is replaced w i t h a
restoration and heavy cleaning that i t preserves more o f
larger-scaled, more organic treatment. N M 3266's close
the o u t w a r d format o f its o r i g i n a l than o f its i n t i m a t e
affiliation w i t h a g r o u p o f portraits o f secure A t t i c o r i
s t y l i s t i c character. T h e A t h e n s replica, however,
g i n reinforces the evidence o f its o w n provenance
t h o u g h so b r o k e n that this format is hard to discern, is
to
al
o f far higher quality. T h e undamaged parts, unrestored,
embed i t f i r m l y w i t h i n an A t h e n i a n t r a d i t i o n .
T h e significance o f N M 3266 for our purposes lies i n
offer a l i v e l y i f discontinuous sense o f the p o w e r f u l ,
its connection w i t h the R o m a n aristocratic portraits o f
v i b r a n t m o d e l i n g and elastic muscular rendering that
the B r u t u s g r o u p . T h e p o r t r a i t o f A g r i p p a is i n d e e d
the o r i g i n a l must have displayed. I f these qualities are
already included w i t h N M 3266 i n the
Poulsen-Stewart
projected back i n t o the overall format preserved b y the
g r o u p o f putatively A t t i c portraits. T h e relationship be
Vatican replica, a close stylistic k i n s h i p emerges n o t o n l y
t w e e n Agrippa's portrait and N M 3266 is i n fact s t r i k i n g .
w i t h the p o r t r a i t o f A g r i p p a (indeed, such k i n s h i p had
T h e r e c t i l i n e a r architectonics o f the facial mask,
already been r e m a r k e d o n the basis, h o w e v e r
the
116
inade
r h y t h m i c ductus o f the m o d e l i n g , the balance o f tension
quate, o f the Vatican replica a l o n e )
and relaxation i n the musculature, and the c o n t r o l l e d
3266. These three i n fact are w h a t remain o f the g r o u p
orchestration o f e m o t i o n a l expression are v i r t u a l l y i d e n
posited by Poulsen and Stewart.
tical i n b o t h . T h e same pattern o f similarities can be
observed
between
N M 3266 and the
m e m b e r s o f the R o m a n g r o u p — t h e
b u t also w i t h N M
T h e Vatican-Athens "Fabius M a x i m u s " type resem
remaining
bles n o t merely N M 3266 and the p o r t r a i t o f A g r i p p a
Chiaramonti-
b u t also other members o f the R o m a n p o r t r a i t g r o u p
L i d i n g o Caesar, the C i c e r o , a n d the B r u t u s o f t h e
w h i c h I have sought t o establish, m o s t n o t a b l y t h a t
C h i a r a m o n t i type. Because o f its level gaze and c o m
a m o n g t h e m closest i n age and somatic type, the p o r t r a i t
posed features, the first o f these offers the closest terms
o f Cicero. C o m p a r i s o n o f the Athens head w i t h the also
o f c o m p a r i s o n w i t h N M 3266, as against the
b r o k e n b u t s i m i l a r l y h i g h - q u a l i t y Copenhagen
more
replica
m o v e m e n t e d Cicero and B r u t u s , b u t the resemblances
o f Cicero's p o r t r a i t makes the similarities o f sculptural
to these as w e l l i n overall format, i n plastic rendering,
style and psychological characterization
and i n psychological conception are sufficient t o a l l o w
clear. "Fabius M a x i m u s " is surely n o t the c o n s u l o f
sufficiently
N M 3266 to be assigned w i t h confidence to the atelier
11 B.C. w h o m Poulsen had i n m i n d b u t must be an e m i
responsible for the R o m a n w o r k s . W h a t sets t h e m apart
nent personage o f the preceding generation.
is p r i n c i p a l l y the differing dramatic scenarios i n w h i c h
mous t h o u g h he remains, his portrait can probably j o i n
no support for the identification o f the stylistically incongruous
Louvre portrait as Antiochus I I I .
Neither can it be argued that the rolled fillet that "Antiochus," like a
number o f other first-century Athenian portrait subjects (e.g. Athens,
National Museum 437: Hafner, pp. 63f, no. A8, pi. 26; Buschor, p. 49,
fig. 47; Stewart, pp. 97f, no. 5, pi. 26c; Agora S 333: Hafner, p. 60, no.
A2, pi. 25; Buschor, p. 49, fig. 44; Stewart, pp. 80f, pi. 24), wears as
the insignia o f priestly office must be assimilated to the flat-band royal
diadem (and hence be evidence o f royal status) because his—unlike
theirs—is knotted at the back w i t h loose-hanging ends such as the
diadem also has. Proof to the contrary is offered by the togate statue o f
a Roman worthy, probably M . Appius Bradua, an ancestor o f Annia
Regilla, from the Nymphaeum o f Herodes Atticus at Olympia; R.
Bol, Das Statuenprogramm des Herodes-Atticus-Nymphdums, Olympische
Forschungen, no. 15 (Berlin, 1984), pp. 165ff, no. 34, pi. 29. Certainly
no Hellenistic monarch, Bradua wears a priestly fillet o f just the same
sort as "Antiochus."
115. Johansen (supra, note 81), pp. 29ff.
116. By von Heintze: see supra, note 108.
117. Paullus Fabius Maximus was born i n 46 B.C. and became consul
i n 11 (RE, vol. 6, pt. 1, cols. 1782ff, s.v. "Fabius no. 102"). The
Vatican-Athens National Museum portrait is that o f a man i n his m i d forties at the youngest; i f it were to represent Fabius, it would have to
have been executed during the last decade B.C. or even later. Styl-
117
Anony
16
Nodelman
those o f the B r u t u s g r o u p and w i t h t h e m the l o n g
That a distinguished Roman clientele—including
haired subject o f N M 3266, w h o by contrast is surely a
some o f the most cultivated as w e l l as most p r o m i n e n t
Greek intellectual rather than a R o m a n statesman.
m e n o f the age, a m o n g t h e m collectors and connoisseurs
I f the above a r g u m e n t a t i o n is valid, a specific atelier,
A t t i c i n o r i g i n , w i t h clearly established roots i n its o w n
o f Greek s c u l p t u r e
122
— s h o u l d have patronized such an
A t t i c p o r t r a i t atelier should n o t be surprising.
Hafner
soil, emerges as creator o f a distinctive p o r t r a i t style
and, more recently, Stewart have emphasized the i m p o r
e m p l o y e d o n b e h a l f o f some leading R o m a n
tance o f Athens as a center o f late H e l l e n i s t i c p o r t r a i t
political
123
figures o f the m i d - f i r s t century B.C.. M u c h i f n o t most
sculpture.
o f its operations m u s t have been carried o n i n Rome. O f
sense o f the resources o f A t t i c sculptural style d u r i n g the
the portraits so far ascribable to i t o n l y o n e — N M 3266,
m i d - f i r s t century B.C. Despite (or perhaps because o f ) its
w i t h n o k n o w n replicas and perhaps r e p r e s e n t i n g
a
T h e B r u t u s group n o w affords us a fuller
deep i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h
the values o f A t t i c art
of
p u r e l y local celebrity—need be assumed actually to have
the H i g h Classic era, the style o f our atelier has l i t t l e
been created i n Athens. (The appearance i n Athens o f a
i n c o m m o n w i t h the c h i l l y , decorative
replica
practiced by the c u r r e n t l y fashionable n e o - A t t i c w o r k
o f a t y p e o t h e r w i s e k n o w n is a n o t h e r
e n t i r e l y . ) T h e others are p r o m i n e n t R o m a n
matter
person
shops.
124
neoclassicism
Instead i t cultivated a v i b r a n t sculptural l a n
alities; o f those w h o are identifiable, t w o at m o s t ( B r u
guage and d r a m a t i c force i n w h i c h l i v i n g H e l l e n i s t i c
tus and possibly A g r i p p a ) are k n o w n to or m i g h t have
traditions were perpetuated. T h a t there was a current i n
v i s i t e d A t h e n s d u r i n g the years w h e n t h e i r p o r t r a i t s
t h e A t t i c art o f t h i s p e r i o d capable o f the
genuine
M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , these p o r
development and creative transformation o f H e l l e n i s t i c
traits present t h e i r subjects, as w e have seen, i n a manner
traditions is c o n f i r m e d by an isolated masterpiece, the
were probably executed.
118
c a l c u l a t e d t o be acceptable t o a R o m a n p u b l i c ; the
Belvedere Torso i n the Vatican (fig. 26). T h e Torso is
H e l l e n i s t i c devices for the d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f character are
dated by consensus to the m i d d l e o f the first
never a l l o w e d to overstep these l i m i t s . T h i s is n o t w h a t
B . C . — t h a t is, precisely t o the floruit
w e f i n d w h e n portraits o f R o m a n leaders are created o n
atelier. T h a t A p o l l o n i o s , son o f Nestor, felt i t necessary
Greek t e r r a i n .
to add the epithet Athenaios
119
T h e portraits o f our R o m a n g r o u p are thus l i k e l y to
have been created i n Rome itself, where their patrons
c h i e f l y resided, w h e r e the p o l i t i c a l careers that
century
o f our portrait
to his signature
indicates
that the w o r k was either made for export or perhaps,
l i k e some o f o u r portraits, actually executed at R o m e .
125
con
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , A p o l l o n i o s ' masterpiece and o u r p o r
sumed t h e i r lives were focused, and for whose social and
trait g r o u p have m u c h stylistically i n c o m m o n . First, the
psychological conditions the portraits themselves were
d r a m a t i c scenario i m p l i e d b y the pose: the hero or
designed.
d i v i n i t y , o f s t i l l problematic identity, is s h o w n t w i s t i n g
Greek artists and workshops are
abundantly
d o c u m e n t e d as w o r k i n g i n Rome and its environs f r o m
as i f to rise f r o m his p o s i t i o n o f rest, and l o o k i n g u p
the second quarter o f the second century B.C. o n w a r d ,
w a r d t o w a r d some unexpected v i s i t o r or event by w h i c h
and sometimes i t has been possible to trace the activities
his a t t e n t i o n has suddenly been engaged. T h e p o w e r f u l
o f such w o r k s h o p s b o t h i n Rome and o n t h e i r
home
t o r s i o n o f the Torso is paralleled i n less v i o l e n t f o r m b y
g r o u n d — t h e A t h e n i a n dynasty o f Polykles and T i m -
the s w i v e l l e d heads o f B r u t u s and Cicero, and to a lesser
archides d u r i n g the second century b e i n g one case i n
extent o f A g r i p p a , all o f w h o m appear to have refocused
point,
1 2 0
the R h o d i a n one o f Hagesandros, Polydoros,
and A t h a n o d o r o s o f the Augustan-Tiberian p e r i o d b e i n g
another.
121
istically, however, it belongs at least a generation earlier. Fabius is
represented on coins o f Hierapolis i n Phrygia (unless indeed the por
trait is intended to be that o f Augustus): B.V. Head, British Museum.
Greek Coins of Phrygia (London, 1906), pp. 243f.; older numismatic
references are cited i n RE (supra, this note), col. 1786. I f they have any
iconographic value, the coin images are strongly unfavorable to the
identification. Poulsen's suggestion that the portrait cameo i n the
crown o f the Vatican portrait shows the subject as priest o f a provincial
cult o f the deified (living) Augustus seems inconsistent w i t h the evi
dence o f provenance. It is the replica i n Rome (where no cult o f the
living Augustus existed) that wears the cameo and the Athenian replica
that does not. It seems most likely that the much worn "youthful"
head on the cameo is not that o f Augustus but o f Julius Caesar i n the
neoclassically rejuvenated Chiaramonti-Camposanto portrait type, and
t h e i r a t t e n t i o n a b r u p t l y i n response t o s o m e i n t e r
r u p t i o n . F o r m a l resemblances are evident as w e l l . T h e
Torso and o u r portraits, especially the somatically m o s t
that the subject is a priest o f Divus Julius, whose cult was established
by 42, i f indeed not earlier; cf. supra, note 73.
118. Brutus was i n Athens i n 44 (see supra, note 53); Agrippa does
not seem to have had any opportunity to visit the city until the time o f
his Eastern command i n 23—21 B.C.
119. Compare e.g. the heroized general (Augustus?) represented by
the head from a bronze statue from Megara (or more probably Eleusis)
in Copenhagen, N y Carlsberg Glyptotek 460a: Poulsen, pp. 79ff, no.
43, pis. 72—73; Hafner, pp. 76ff, no. A 27, pi. 32; Kraus (supra, note
57), p. 252, no. 283 (von Heintze), pi. 283.
120. F. Coarelli, "Polycles," Studi miscellanei 15 (1970), pp. 77-89.
121. W. H . Gross, " Z u r Laokoongruppe und ihren Kunstlern,"
Nachr. Akad. Wiss. Giessen 35 (1966), pp. 107-116; G. Saflund, The
Polyphemus and Scylla Groups of Sperlonga (Stockhom, 1972), pp. 73—77;
Figure 26. Belvedere Torso. Vatican, Sala delle Muse 1192.
comparable Cicero and A g r i p p a , share the same compact
the u n d e r l y i n g bone-structure
v o l u m e s constructed o f broad, e m p h a t i c a l l y
layer characterized by the elasticity and m u t u a l respon
contrasted
as a t h i c k
independent
planes, a c c o m m o d a t i n g a r i c h l y varied surface m o d e l i n g
siveness o f the muscle-groups. Despite the apparent f u l l
and g i v i n g rise t o a r i p p l i n g p r o f u s i o n o f nevertheless
ness o f anatomical d e s c r i p t i o n , a careful selectivity i n
carefully c o n t r o l l e d o p t i c a l effects. T h e anatomical c o n
the treatment
c e p t i o n is r e m a r k a b l y s i m i l a r : the flesh is stretched over
d o m i n a t e : d i s t r a c t i n g m i n u t i a e such as m i n o r w r i n k l e s
B. Conticello, " I gruppi sculturei di soggetto mitologico a Sperlonga,"
Antike Plastik 14 (1974), pp. 41ff., 52f.; B. Andreae, " D i e romischen
Repliken der mythologischen Skulpturengruppen von Sperlonga,"
Antike Plastik 14 (1974), pp. 103ff.
122. Cicero's activities as an art collector are well k n o w n from his
letters; representative passages are collected i n J. J. Pollitt, The Art of
Rome, c. 753 B.C.—337A.D.: Sources and Documents (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,
1966), pp. 76ff. Brutus' collection evidently included an origi
nal bronze by the fifth-century sculptor Strongylion: Pliny N.H.
X X X I V . 8 2 ; Cf. Martial 11.77, IX.50. O n Caesar as art collector, Sue
tonius Divus Julius X L V I I . O n Agrippa as patron o f the art, see most
recently Roddaz (supra, note 81), pp. 245ff.
123. Hafner, pp. 58ff; Stewart, pp. 65ff, 79ff.
124. Surveyed, e.g., by A.Giuliano, La cultura artistica delle provincie
della Grecia in eta romana, Studia Archaeologica, no. 6 (Rome, 1965), pp.
43ff, and recently by B. Ridgway, Roman Copies of Greek Sculpture
(Ann Arbor, 1984) (richly annotated).
o f d e t a i l ensures t h a t the b r o a d
effects
125. Lippold (supra, note 62), p. 380, pi. 134, fig. 1; Helbig, pp. 211ff,
no. 265 (W. Fuchs); W. Fuchs, Skulptur der Griechen, 2nd ed. (Munich,
1979), pp. 284ff, figs. 313-314. Despite its centuries o f fame, the style
o f the Belvedere Torso remains only partially analyzed and its place i n
the development o f sculpture during the first century B.C. insuffi
ciently explored. The proper assessment has been hindered by the
tendency to connate the style o f the Torso w i t h that o f the well-known
bronze Boxer o f the Terme Museum (W. Helbig, Fuhrer durch die bffentlichen Sammlungen klassischer Altertiimer in Rom, H . Speier, ed., 4th
ed., vol. 3 [Tubingen, 1969], pp. 184f., no. 2272 [W. Fuchs]; R. Lullies
and M . Hirmer, Griechische Plastik, 4th rev. ed. [Munich, 1979], pp.
78
Nodelman
or blemishes i n the portraits, or veins i n the Torso, are
w e are vouchsafed o f the narrative transaction and o f the
o m i t t e d . These resemblances f o r m a consistent pattern
subjective experience o f its protagonist—all these l i n k
and establish a close stylistic relationship.
the bronze w i t h o u t portraits and w i t h the Torso. So,
A n o t h e r c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r k exhibits notable m o t i v i c
formally, do the compact volumes and clear c o n t o u r i n g
and f o r m a l connections w i t h the Torso and w i t h o u r
o f the heads and bodies, the contained richness o f the
rep
m o d e l i n g , the elastic musculature and discreet i n d i c a
resenting an artisan—probably the reduced copy o f a
t i o n o f anatomical detail. Such resemblances extend to the
famous m o n u m e n t a l original, since other copies or v a r i
idiosyncrasies o f f o r m a l description: the t i g h t , sharply
ants after the same p r o t o t y p e survive—acquired by the
p r o f i l e d ringlets o f the artisan's hair are paralleled sty
p o r t r a i t group. T h i s is the large bronze statuette
1 2 6
listically, i f n o t motivically, i n the sharply d r a w n h a i r -
A l t h o u g h at first glance i t seems a piece o f conventional
locks o f the p o r t r a i t g r o u p ; b u t the p o i n t e d , c o m m a -
H e l l e n i s t i c genre sculpture, the head is forcefully charac
shaped locks o f his beard have a m a r k e d
terized w i t h h i g h l y i n d i v i d u a l features and is u n m i s t a k
to those f r a m i n g Cicero's head and indeed to the short,
M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m o f A r t i n 1972 (figs. 2 7 a - c ) .
resemblance
ably a p o r t r a i t . T h e short, m u s c u l a r f i g u r e wears an
serried pubic locks o f the Torso, as recent de-restoration
exomis w i t h a w r i t i n g - t a b l e t thrust i n t o the belt, head
has revealed t h e m .
d o w n t u r n e d , and a r m folded i n a reflective, calculating
T h e bronze has aptly been termed "remarkable for its
posture, w h i c h the m i s s i n g r i g h t a r m and leg prevent us
synthesis o f H e l l e n i s t i c i m m e d i a c y and classic c o m
f r o m c o m p l e t e l y grasping. T h e head is b a l d i n g and
posure,"
bearded, w i t h a grave seriousness and inwardness o f ex
for the portraits o f our group and for the Torso as w e l l .
128
a description that c o u l d hardly be bettered
pression unexpected i n such subject matter. A m o n g the
A l t h o u g h the bronze has been called A l e x a n d r i a n (per
conjectures
as to the subject's i d e n t i t y ^ r a n g i n g f r o m
haps as a reflex o f its r u m o r e d N o r t h A f r i c a n provenance
Daedalus to the Stoic Chrysippos—the most persuasive
as w e l l as o f the reputed A l e x a n d r i a n taste for "realistic"
b y far is t h a t o f P h i d i a s ,
127
into whose iconographic
t r a d i t i o n , d e r i v i n g u l t i m a t e l y f r o m the shield o f the Par-
genre-pieces),
129
its style has n o t h i n g i n c o m m o n w i t h
certifiably A l e x a n d r i a n late H e l l e n i s t i c w o r k s , b u t asso
thenos, i t fits very w e l l . T h e unusual gravity and c o n
ciates i t (or its original) f i r m l y w i t h the portraits and
templative attitude, so u n l i k e the typical genre image o f
w i t h the Belvedere Torso as closely related A t t i c p r o d
the craftsman, w o u l d be o n l y appropriate for the revered
ucts. (Indeed the apparent choice o f subject-matter r e i n
fashioner o f g o d l i k e images, the greatest s c u l p t o r o f
forces the bronze's appropriateness to an A t t i c context:
a n t i q u i t y . H o w e v e r this may be, the statuette
evinces
i n an era o f neoclassic leanings, i n w h i c h the f i f t h cen
s i g n i f i c a n t a f f i n i t i e s w i t h the p o r t r a i t s o f o u r g r o u p ,
t u r y l o o m e d as a vanished G o l d e n Age, and at a t i m e
especially w i t h that o f Cicero w h i c h i t greatly resem
w h e n Athens to a great extent lived o f f the r e n o w n o f its
bles i n age and physiognomy, w i t h its high, balding fore
past cultural and artistic glories, the evocation o f the
head and near-identical profile (fig. 27a; cf. fig. 18a). T h e
figure o f Phidias was a gesture o f civic pride as w e l l as a
v i v i d characterization o f subject and m o o d , the action
response to the interests o f the market.)
caught i n a m o m e n t o f transition, the p h e n o m e n o n o f
Together, these w o r k s testify to a previously l i t t l e sus
deflected a t t e n t i o n and hence the s t a r t l i n g close-up v i e w
pected v i g o r and o r i g i n a l i t y i n first-century A t t i c sculp-
142£, pis. 294-295; Fuchs [supra, this note], pp. 281ff., pis. 311-312;
Bieber [supra, note 77], p. 180, figs. 766—767; A. Giuliano, ed., Museo
Nazionale Romano. Le Sculture, vol. 1, pt. 1 [Rome, 1979], pp. 194ff, no.
123 [O. Vassori]). Despite general recognition o f the erroneousness o f
Rhys Carpenter's (MAAR 18 [1941], pp. 84ff.) attempt to make out the
signature o f Apollonios, son o f Nestor, upon the Boxer o f the Terme
Museum, most authorities continue to accept his attribution o f the
Boxer to Apollonios on grounds o f style. I find this incomprehensible.
Aside from the general similarity o f the motif, the sculptural concep
tions o f the two works are so fundamentally different as to preclude
common authorship. The dynamism o f the Torso's movement, its pro
pulsive rhythms, strong asymmetries and modeling exaggerated to a
near-expressionistic intensity contrast w i t h the Boxer's static pose,
rather monotonous evenness o f rhythmic accent, and descriptive so
briety. This additive approach is noticeable also i n the abrupt j u x
taposition o f the incongruously classicistic head to a body utterly dif
ferent i n style. These dissimilarities far outweigh certain shared
characteristics (i.e., the pictorialism o f surface rendering, a neoclassic
selectivity i n the anatomical treatment) o f these no doubt contempo
rary works. For an acute summary o f some o f the stylistic i n
congruities i n the Boxer, see Havelock (supra, note 88), p. 128, no. 101.
126. S. Boucher-Colozier, " U n bronze d'epoque alexandrine," MonPiot 54 (1965), pp. 25-38; N . Himmelmann, "Realistic A r t i n Alex
andria," Proceedings of the British Academy 67 (1981), pp. 205—207; idem,
Alexandria und der Realismus in der griechischen Kunst (Tubingen, 1983),
pp. 76--85, pis. 56-58; J. Mertens, BMMA 43 (Fall 1985), pp. 60ff, no.
41. A number o f terracottas, some o f much later date, seem to be free
variants o f the same original (Himmelmann 1983 [supra, this note], pp.
79ff, pi. 59a—b). Their connection w i t h the N e w York bronze is prob
lematic: from the surviving indications it is difficult to imagine its
attitude completed according to their example. Nevertheless, that there
is some connection can scarcely be denied; and this and the wide
timespan involved are sufficient to establish the celebrity o f the
prototype.
127. Greek Portraits, p. 17. The identification as Daedalus ( H i m m e l
mann, 1983 [supra, note 126], p. 78) finds some support i n the ico-
Figure
27a. Profile o f bronze statuette o f an artisan:
Phidias? N e w
York,
The
Figure 27b. Front o f statuette, figure 27a.
Metropolitan
Museum o f A r t 1972.11.1.
ture. T h e
identification
o f this m o v e m e n t may
be
of
considerable value for our art historical u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
this and
the subsequent p e r i o d . O n
the one
hand, as I
shall argue below, i t provides an i m p o r t a n t part o f
b a c k g r o u n d for
On
the
classicizing A u g u s t a n c o u r t
the
style.
the other hand, by w i t n e s s i n g to the c o n t i n u i t y o f
nographic tradition but not before Roman times; the tradition o f Phi
dias i n this guise seems older and stronger and might have influenced
representations o f the legendary craftsman i n later times. That as
Chrysippos (Boucher-Colozier [supra, note 126], pp. 36ff.) is contra
dicted by the well-known portrait type o f the philosopher.
128. Mertens (supra, note 126), p. 61.
129. As argued at length by Himmelmann, 1983 (supra, note 126).
But the N e w York bronze has very little i n common stylistically—and
nothing at all i n ethos—with the Alexandrian grotesques and genrepieces discussed and illustrated by Himmelmann. Indeed, it appears i n
his book as a quite alien presence. As to the terracottas adduced as
reflections o f the same type (ibid., pp. 79ff, pi. 59a—b), their Egyptian
provenance is far from constituting proof for the homeland o f the
original. Indeed the type seems to appear i n terracottas from mainland
Greece as well (ibid., p. 81, n. 199)—specifically from Elis where an
evocation o f Phidias' memory would be particularly apt owing to the
proximity o f the Olympian Zeus.
Figure
27c. Front view o f head o f statuette, figure 27a.
80
Nodelman
H e l l e n i s t i c traditions deep i n t o the
first
century B.C.,
i t provides a bridge to w h a t have been called the " n e o Hellenistic"
1 3 0
w o r k s o f the f i r s t c e n t u r y A.D.
(e.g.
the M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m i n N e w Y o r k (fig. 28) ,
1 3 4
re
peat the type o f the C a p i t o l i n e Jupiter i n its Sullan f o r m ,
as the n u m i s m a t i c d o c u m e n t a t i o n proves: the S u l l a n
L a o k o o n , Sperlonga), thus h e l p i n g to rescue f r o m isola
Jupiter's
t i o n some o f the most remarkable as w e l l as problematic
lowered and rested across the raised r i g h t upper leg as i n
w o r k s o f ancient art.
the N e w Y o r k statuette; that o f the D o m i t i a n i c cult i m
C a n the context and the authorship o f this m o v e m e n t
be m o r e closely defined? A f i f t h - c e n t u r y A.D.
com
r i g h t a r m , g r a s p i n g the t h u n d e r b o l t ,
age is lifted and outstretched.
135
was
So far as the small scale
o f the N e w Y o r k bronze permits comparison, the style
m e n t a r y o n the Timaeus preserves a t a n t a l i z i n g scrap o f
o f the Sullan Jupiter was n o t at all i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h
i n f o r m a t i o n : one A p o l l o n i o s , n o t otherwise identified,
A p o l l o n i o s , son o f Nestor's, grandiose Torso. A l l o w i n g
h a d executed the g o l d and i v o r y cult statue o f Jupiter
for the differences i n m o t i f , the attitude and r h y t h m o f
Optimus
the t w o seated figures have m u c h i n c o m m o n . T h e au
M a x i m u s for the C a p i t o l i n e t e m p l e i n
Such a c o m m i s s i o n c o u l d have been m o t i v a t e d
t h o r o f the C a p i t o l i n e statue presents the e n t h r o n e d
o n one o f t w o occasions: Sulla's r e b u i l d i n g o f the temple
Jupiter i n a particularized m o m e n t o f action, i n c o r p o r a t
after the fire o f 83 B.C. (necessitating a replacement for
i n g i n t o the pose the u t m o s t degree o f m o v e m e n t c o n
the ancient terracotta cult image ascribed to Vulca o f
sistent w i t h patriarchal dignity. T h e g o d leans f o r w a r d
Rome.
131
Veii), or D o m i t i a n ' s r e b u i l d i n g after the fire o f A.D. 80.
as i f i n response to the appeal o f a petitioner, abandon
( T h e Vespasianic r e b u i l d i n g after the fire o f A.D. 69 was
i n g the solemn f i x i t y o f the P h i d i a n Zeus and o f its
so s h o r t l i v e d as hardly l i k e l y to have left m u c h trace i n
p r i n c i p a l successor, the (Bryaxian?) statuary p r o t o t y p e
the t r a d i t i o n . ) I f the former, the w o r k was presumably
o f the Zeus o f O t r i c o l i ,
c o m p l e t e d either i n t i m e for the rededication o f the t e m
r i g h t leg lifted and flexed, as i f about to rise. W h i l e n o t
1 3 6
and twists u p o n his throne,
ple b y L u t a t i u s Catulus i n 69 B.C. or w i t h i n a few years
so extreme as the t o r s i o n o f the Belvedere statue, this
after. A p o l l o n i o s thus m i g h t w e l l be identical w i t h his
m o v e m e n t is o f very s i m i l a r type, and the resemblance is
c o n t e m p o r a r y and h o m o n y m , A p o l l o n i o s , son o f N e s
heightened i f w e m e n t a l l y restore the Torso's m i s s i n g
However, as has
arms; the left raised probably to the height o f the head,
also been p o i n t e d out, n o t h i n g i n the b r i e f passage i n
the r i g h t lowered and resting across the r i g h t t h i g h j u s t
tor, as has indeed been suggested.
132
C h a l c i d i u s ' c o m m e n t a r y guarantees that A p o l l o n i o s ' ac
as i n the case o f Jupiter. T h e b o d i l y p r o p o r t i o n s o f the
tivities need be referred to the Sullan rather than the
t w o figures also seem quite comparable as does—so far
D o m i t i a n i c r e b u i l d i n g , and n o t h i n g , even i f the former
as c o m p a r i s o n is possible—the a n a t o m i c a l t r e a t m e n t .
were the case, guarantees the i d e n t i t y o f t w o bearers o f a
T h e N e w Y o r k bronze shows the large, compact d i v i
not uncommon name.
133
T h e l i n k between the author o f the statue o f Jupiter
sions and even a suggestion o f the elastic musculature o f
the Torso.
and that o f the Belvedere Torso w o u l d thus appear for
M o r e d e t a i l e d s t y l i s t i c c o m p a r i s o n is offered b y a
ever c o n d e m n e d to the l i m b o o f t e m p t i n g b u t u n p r o v
marble head o f Zeus-Jupiter type i n the N a t i o n a l M u
able conjectures. If, however, i t were possible to f o r m an
seum i n Naples, proposed by M . Bieber as a copy after
idea o f the stylistic character o f the lost C a p i t o l i n e statue
the C a p i t o l i n e statue (fig. 29) .
t h r o u g h the evidence o f copies or w o r k s o f m i n o r art
collection, the head is almost surely o f R o m a n p r o v e
securely referrable to the Sullan version, the question
nance. O n the basis o f sculptural execution, one w o u l d
m i g h t be resolvable. Such evidence is perhaps available.
n o t w i s h to date the copy later than the first c e n t u r y
A g r o u p o f bronze statuettes, the best o f w h i c h is i n
A.D., w h i c h strengthens its connection w i t h the Sullan
130. E. Simon, "Laokoon und die Geschichte der antiken Kunst,"
A A, 1984, pp. 670f.
Sullan version o f Jupiter Capitolinus is provided by a C i v i l War coin o f
A.D. 68 ( H . Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum,
vol. 1, Augustus to Vitellius [London, 1923], p. 307, no. 70, pi. 51, fig.
22), where it is explicitly identified by the legend and shown w i t h i n
the abbreviated facade o f the temple itself. Pose and attributes are those
o f the N e w York bronze. The same pose and attributes were standard
for the seated Jupiter on earlier Imperial coinage, e.g., on that o f Nero
(ibid., pp. 209ff, nos. 67-79, pi. 39, figs. 19-23). When the seated
Jupiter appears w i t h the thunderbolt on Flavian coins and throughout
the second century, the arm is almost always raised; this must surely
reflect a modification introduced i n the Domitianic (and perhaps al
ready Vespasianic) cult statue. Thus the statuette proposed by A .
Zadoks Jitta ("Jupiter Capitolinus" jRS 28 [1938], pp. 50-55) as re
peating the type o f the Sullan statue must on the contrary derive from
131. Chalcidius, in Timaeum, p. 440 (ed. Meurs) = J. Overbeck, Die
antiken Schriftquellen zur Geschichte der bildenden Kiinste bei den Griechen
(Leipzig, 1868), no. 2215.
132. Bieber (supra, note 88), p. 180.
133. Thieme and Becker, Kiinstlerlexikon, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1908), s.v.
"Apollonius I X " (W. Amelung); cf. ibid., s.v. "Apollonius V I I I " ;
Stewart, p. 79.
134. G . M . A . Richter, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Greek, Etruscan
and Roman Bronzes (New York, 1915), pp. HOff., no. 200; idem, Ancient
Italy ( A n n Arbor, 1955), p. 61, fig. 200; Bieber (supra, note 88) p. 180,
fig. 768.
135. O u r sole incontrovertible evidence as to the appearance o f the
1 3 7
As part o f the Farnese
81
Figure 28. Bronze statuette of Jupiter Capitolinus. New
York, The Metropolitan Museum o f A r t ,
Rogers Fund, 1917 (17.230.32).
Figure 29. Head o f Jupiter Capitolinus. Naples, Museo
Nazionale 6260. Photo: Courtesy Fotografia
Foglia.
c o m m i s s i o n , and its quality suggests quite a reasonable
softer, w i t h a benevolent and t h o u g h t f u l , almost c o n
degree o f faithfulness to its o r i g i n a l . T h e hair o f the
t e m p l a t i v e expression—suggestive
Naples head was intended to be completed i n stucco,
occupations o f the age o f Cicero.
o f the e t h i c a l p r e
w i t h indications o f g i l d i n g which—contrasted w i t h the
A l l o w i n g for the o b v i o u s divergencies o f subject-
w h i t e o f the marble face—would have p r o v i d e d a p o l y -
matter, the Jupiter head displays a notable stylistic k i n
c h r o m y evocative o f the chryselephantine o r i g i n a l . T h e
ship w i t h A p o l l o n i o s ' Torso. T h e b i g , rather generalized
head is loosely m o d e l e d o n the f o u r t h - c e n t u r y p r o t o
facial planes, their emphatic demarcations softened b y
type o f the Zeus o f O t r i c o l i , b u t can by no means be
the continuities o f a fluent chiaroscuro, and the t h i c k l y
considered a replica; i t has been transformed i n b o t h
m o d e l e d layer o f flesh w i t h its hints o f the reciprocal
characterization and style. Jupiter inclines his head gra
p u l l o f the muscles beneath the s k i n recall the equivalent
ciously, i n contrast t o the level gaze and regal i m
elements i n the anatomical rendering o f the Torso. Such
passivity o f the f o u r t h - c e n t u r y Zeus; the features
are
similarities extend to the h a n d l i n g o f the creases i n the
one o f the later versions. Zadoks Jitta deserves credit, however, for
having for the first time attempted to establish a distinction between
the Sullan and Domitianic Jupiter types as these have survived through
reflections i n the minor arts.
136. However, as Zadoks Jitta (supra, note 135), p. 55 points out,
following A . B. Cook, there was a fourth-century Zeus type, reflected
in reverses o f the Alexander coinage, w i t h a much more dynamic pose,
which may well have influenced the Sullan cult statue. Zadoks Jitta
conjectures an attribution o f the original to Lysippos. Cf. A. B. Cook,
Zeus, vol. 2, pt. 1 (Cambridge, 1925), pp. 760ff.
137. Inv. 6260. Guida Reusch (Naples, Museo Nazionale), pp. 97f,
no. 296 (rev. ed. [Naples, n.d.], p. 56, no. 203); Brunn-Bruckmann,
text to pi. 605, pp. 2ff. w i t h fig. 3 (J. Sieveking); Bieber (supra, note
88), p. 180, fig. 770. The type o f the Naples head is reflected i n that o f
the Jupiter Verospi o f the Vatican (W. Amelung, Katalog der Skulpturen
des vatikanischen Museums, vol. 2 [Berlin, 1908], p. 519, no. 326, pi. 73;
Lippold [supra, note 1], pp. 380ff; Helbig, pp. 130ff, no. 176 [ H . von
Steuben]), which despite its late date preserves quite a bit o f the stylis
tic character o f the original. The similarities are sufficient to confirm
the Naples head as representative o f a distinct and established type, not
as a casual variant o f the Otricoli Zeus. The surviving original parts o f
the body o f the Verospi statue strengthen the connection o f the type
(and hence o f the Naples head) w i t h the Sullan commission. Given its
probable date o f execution, the Jupiter Verospi can hardly have been
copied directly after the by now long-lost Sullan statue, but numerous
intermediaries must have existed.
82
Nodelman
flesh--those o f Jupiter's forehead and that across the
Belvedere Torso i t s e l f c o u l d scarcely be desired. I t is
stomach o f the Torso j u s t b e l o w the rib-cage. However,
hard to believe that such a t o u r de force w o u l d n o t have
i t is w i t h the heads o f o u r p o r t r a i t g r o u p and w i t h that
evoked f r o m contemporaries the same a d m i r a t i o n that i t
o f the bronze artisan i n N e w Y o r k that the head o f the
has elicited f r o m artists and connoisseurs o f a later age,
C a p i t o l i n e Jupiter shows the most obvious relationships.
from
M i c h e l a n g e l o t o W i n c k e l m a n n and
beyond.
1 3 8
T h i s k i n s h i p is naturally most apparent i n the case o f the
Conversely, the award o f such a c o m m i s s i o n c o u l d o n l y
Cicero and A g r i p p a portraits, particularly the former,
shed f u r t h e r luster o n its r e c i p i e n t and renders u n
w h o s e b r o a d cranial structure and heavy
more
surprising the patronage o f leading figures i n c o n t e m p o
closely approximate the somatic type o f the Naples head
rary society, w h o w o u l d naturally t u r n for their portraits
(cf. figs. 18, 19, 20). A l l o w i n g for the degree o f idealiza
to an artist o f recognized eminence. T h e author o f the
t i o n inherent i n the representation o f a d i v i n i t y , and the
statue o f Jupiter was surely present and available i n Rome.
Jupiter head's deliberate evocation o f its late Classical
C u l t statue, Torso, and portraits were thus all m o s t
p r o t o t y p e , the similarities o f the overall plastic concep
l i k e l y executed i n Rome d u r i n g the m i d d l e decades o f
flesh
t i o n and o f the specific rendering o f anatomical structure
the first century. W i t h the bronze a r t i s a n — w h i c h , i f i t is
are s t r i k i n g . Here again one notices h o w i n all these
indeed Phidias, w o u l d be a subject p a r t i c u l a r l y f i t t i n g
w o r k s the f i r m classicistic scaffolding o f the s k u l l is soft
for a sculptor w h o , as creator o f the C a p i t o l i n e Jupiter,
ened b y the o v e r l y i n g layer o f d o u g h y flesh, whose c o n
was his successor and emulator—and shorn o f the er
sistency is t e l l i n g l y indicated i n the h a n d l i n g o f creases
roneous
and folds—here one m i g h t refer also to the furrows i n
bronze Boxer o f the T e r m e ,
and seriously m i s l e a d i n g a t t r i b u t i o n o f the
the k n o t t e d b r o w o f the bronze artisan i n N e w Y o r k .
t i m e a f a i r l y comprehensive p i c t u r e o f the s c u l p t u r a l
T h e Jupiter head's t h i c k w r e a t h o f corkscrew curls i n
style, thematic range, and narrative-dramatic resources
139
they provide for the first
i n its i c o n o g r a p h i c t r a d i
o f the atelier o f w h i c h A p o l l o n i o s m u s t surely have been
t i o n — f i n d s n o ready m o t i v i c parallel i n the portraits,
the leader. H e emerges as a major figure i n late H e l l e n i s
w i t h t h e i r longer, shallower locks. Here the N e w Y o r k
tic art, very l i k e l y the most i m p o r t a n t A t t i c sculptor o f
artisan offers the best comparison: his b a l d i n g pate is
the first century B.C.
hair and beard—mandated
f r i n g e d w i t h t i g h t ringlets, whose resemblance to those
A m o n g the m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g consequences o f the
o f the Jupiter extends even to the sharply incised, c o n
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f this current and o f the atelier w h i c h
vergent lines that render the i n t e r i o r o f each lock.
seems to have been its principal exponent, is the l i g h t
T h e s u m o f these observations associates the Naples
that i t sheds o n the emergence i n the f o l l o w i n g years o f
head closely i n style w i t h the Belvedere Torso, w i t h the
the A u g u s t a n p o r t r a i t style. T h e widespread reluctance
portraits o f o u r A t t i c - R o m a n group, and w i t h the o r i
to draw the obvious conclusions as to the i d e n t i t y and
g i n a l o f the N e w Y o r k bronze, thus strengthening b o t h
date o f the p o r t r a i t that inaugurates this style, the " T y p e
the head's c l a i m to represent that o f the c o n t e m p o r a r y
B " o f B r e n d e l , has surely been m o t i v a t e d by the d i f f i
Sullan version o f the C a p i t o l i n e statue and the latter's
c u l t y o f i m a g i n i n g this w o r k w i t h i n the accepted picture
connection w i t h an Apollonios w h o is stylistically close to
o f stylistic possibilities i n the late forties B.C. T h e recon
i f n o t indistinguishable from Apollonios, son o f Nestor.
s t r u c t i o n o f the activities o f the A t t i c atelier responsible
are m o s t p r o v o c a t i v e . I f A p o l
for the portraits o f B r u t u s and o f his e m i n e n t c o n t e m
lonios, the author o f the C a p i t o l i n e cult statue, s h o u l d
poraries ends this apparent isolation and provides a c o n
T h e s e associations
be identical w i t h A p o l l o n i o s , son o f Nestor, and w i t h
text w i t h i n w h i c h the appearance o f Type B seems m u c h
the leader o f our p o r t r a i t atelier, m u c h w o u l d be ex
less incongruous. Poulsen and Stewart had already asso
plained. T h e chryselephantine Jupiter, intended, as its
ciated Type B's successors, the A c t i u m and P r i m a Porta
choice o f materials makes plain, as rival and counterpart
types o f Augustus, w i t h certain portraits o f the A t t i c -
o f the famed Zeus o f O l y m p i a , was u n d o u b t e d l y i n its
R o m a n g r o u p that I have tried to define, and I have
t i m e the most prestigious c o m m i s s i o n that the R o m a n
p o i n t e d o u t above the resemblances between Type B and
state c o u l d confer. I t w o u l d presumably be offered to a
the C h i a r a m o n t i Brutus. It w i l l be remembered that the
sculptor o f outstanding reputation and accomplishment.
B r u t u s p o r t r a i t itself has been considered A u g u s t a n i n
A better i n d i c a t i o n o f the basis o f such r e n o w n than the
date o n the grounds o f j u s t such resemblances.
138. See e.g. C. Schwinn, Die Bedeutung des Torsos vom Belvedere fir
Theorie und Praxis der bildenden Kunst vom 16. Jahrhundert bis
Winckelmann (Bern and Frankfurt, 1973); F. Haskell and N . Penny,
Taste and the Antique (New Haven and London, 1981), pp. 311ff, no. 80;
H . Ladendorf, Antikenstudium und Antikenkopie (Berlin, 1953), p. 31.
140. The Lysippan tradition could be found very much alive i n late
Hellenistic ruler portraits such as that i n Boston, dating to the begin-
N o w h e r e else i n c o n t e m p o r a r y p o r t r a i t s c u l p t u r e
n o w shallower and more evenly aligned i n depth, and
except i n the products o f o u r A t t i c - R o m a n atelier c o u l d
the rectilinear pattern that they f o r m w i t h t h e i r intersec
the creator o f Type B have f o u n d the precedent for his
tions is retracted f r o m the outer c o n t o u r t o w a r d the cen
o w n severe architecture o f facial planes, w h i c h are never
ter o f the head. N o longer does i t reach o u t to g r i p
theless animated by a palpitative chiaroscuro. T h e p o r
the w h o l e v o l u m e and to i m p l i c a t e that v o l u m e i n its
trait o f A g r i p p a (whose affinities to Type B's subsequent
m o v e m e n t . T h u s vignetted, the facial mask abandons
d e v e l o p m e n t s i n the A c t i u m and P r i m a Porta
large-scale s c u l p t u r a l p l a s t i c i t y for a k i n d o f p i c t o r i a l
types
has often been p o i n t e d out) and even more s t r i k i n g l y
illusionism.
the C h i a r a m o n t i - L i d i n g o Caesar c o m p a r e r e m a r k a b l y
These changes reflect the broader e v o l u t i o n o f artisitic
closely to Type B (figs. 15, 17). T h e latter's clear overall
style i n the latter part o f the first c e n t u r y (as w e l l as the
contour; decisive v e r t i c a l - h o r i z o n t a l structure f o r m e d b y
i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f certain Lysippan elements absent f r o m
brows, nose, and m o u t h ; neoclassic r e n d e r i n g o f the hair
the A t t i c - R o m a n g r o u p ) .
i n shallow, sharply profiled locks; and the play o f pat
developments i n p a i n t i n g . T h e portraits o f the A t t i c -
terned forehead locks over the b r o w are prefigured i n
R o m a n atelier are comparable i n style t o the
1 4 0
T h e y are p a r a l l e l e d b y
fictive
b o t h . Type B , and even more m a r k e d l y the A c t i u m t y p e
architectures o f the m i d d l e phase o f the Second Style, as
adopt the characteristic dramatic scenario o f the B r u t u s
f o u n d at Boscoreale and at the V i l l a dei M i s t e r i . Type B
g r o u p — t h e head t u r n e d as i f i n response to some i n c i
and its A u g u s t a n successors correspond t o late Second
dent or challenge i n the near distance, a l l o w i n g the sub
Style w a l l paintings o f the k i n d seen i n the H o u s e o f
j e c t to be beheld close at hand, yet absorbed i n his o w n
L i v i a and i n the Farnesina v i l l a , w i t h t h e i r shallow,
sphere o f action, an object o f a d m i r a t i o n for the specta
attenuated linearism and v i g n e t t e d central m o t i f s .
tor.
appearance o f such charcteristics i n Type B as early as 43
T h e same a d r o i t e q u i v o c a t i o n is m a i n t a i n e d
The
between the searching, i m p e r i o u s gaze o f the eyes w i t h
B . C . — w e l l i n advance o f the c o r r e s p o n d i n g
its H e l l e n i s t i c royal associations and the treatment o f the
ments i n Second Style p a i n t i n g — m a r k s the i n c e p t i o n o f
other major expressive organ o f the face, the m o u t h ,
a n e w artistic generation.
here n o t p a r t e d i n self-abandoned
141
firmly
G i v e n the extent o f his debt to the plastic language
closed t o i n d i c a t e the resolve and s e l f - c o n t r o l a p p r o
a n d d r a m a t i c devices o f the A t t i c - R o m a n atelier, the
priate to the disciplina
pathos b u t
develop
Romana.
sculptor o f Octavian's p o r t r a i t seems l i k e l y to have been
G i v e n the n a r r o w t i m e frame, the shared historical
situation, and the closely k n i t corrections a m o n g
the
f o r m e d w i t h i n the atelier itself. Nevertheless, the sharp
linearity, the cool fastidiousness,
and the tendency t o
p o r t r a i t subjects themselves, these resemblances suggest
w a r d ornamental f i x i t y that are such notable
that Type B and the w o r k s I have a t t r i b u t e d to the A t t i c -
o f Octavian's p o r t r a i t are n e w elements, quite foreign t o
features
R o m a n atelier cannot have been created independently.
the style o f the atelier. B u t these were n o t i n n o v a t i o n s ex
Nevertheless, Type B and its successors cannot be p r o d
nihilo
ucts o f the same authorship as the B r u t u s g r o u p itself.
qualities o f a m o d e o f sculptural design d e r i v i n g f r o m
o f the n e w sculptor. T h e y were d i s t i n c t i v e
for
the H e l l e n i s t i c m i n o r arts, w h i c h was m u c h i n evidence
m e r e l y by different physiognomies or by w i l l f u l m a n i p
i n R o m e d u r i n g the first century B.C. T h i s is the elegant
ulations o f style. T h e pattern derived f r o m the p o r t r a i
decorative style, often, i f imprecisely, t e r m e d n e o - A t t i c ,
ture o f the A t t i c - R o m a n g r o u p has been transformed.
t h a t characterizes a large b o d y o f o r n a m e n t a l reliefs,
T h e r e are differences t o o great t o be a c c o u n t e d
Type B has been p u r i f i e d o f the strong contrasts o f f o r m ,
generally a r c h i t e c t u r a l friezes and l u x u r y f u r n i s h i n g s .
t h e b o l d o p p o s i t i o n s o f l i g h t a n d shadow,
at
M o s t o f this p r o d u c t i o n is t o o inexactly datable for its
m o s p h e r i c qualities that are p a r t o f the A t t i c - R o m a n
p r i o r i t y or otherwise to Octavian's p o r t r a i t to be made
the
g r o u p ' s H e l l e n i s t i c heritage. These are replaced b y a
o u t w i t h any confidence. A few instances, however, f i g
severer, m o r e p r o g r a m m a t i c classicism: a m o r e insistent
ure i n public m o n u m e n t s that can be dated w i t h
closure o f the contour, an ornamental f i x i t y i n the r e n
assurance and w h i c h are p r i o r to or c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h
d e r i n g o f the hair and the forehead design, a sharper
the portrait.
fair
l i n e a r i s m t h r o u g h o u t , a r e d u c t i o n o f contrast and i n c i
O n e belongs to the preceding generation: the r e l i e f
dent i n the l u m i n o u s surface planes. These planes are
fallen f r o m the Capitoline, w h i c h f o r m e d the base o f a
ning o f the first century B.C. , which probably represents Ptolemy I X :
K. Parlasca, " E i n verkanntes hellenistisches Herrscherbildnis," Jdl 82
(1967), pp. 167-195; H . Kyrieleis, Bildnisse der Ptolemder (Berlin, 1975),
pp. 71f., 175f, no. H6, pis. 62, 64.1-3.
141. Cf. S. Nodelman, "Roman Illusionism," Art News Annual 37
(1971), pp. 27-28.
142. O n the Bocchus monument, see most recently the works o f T.
Holscher and T. Schafer cited supra i n note 59; also G.-C. Picard,
84
Nodelman
c o m m e m o r a t i v e m o n u m e n t i d e n t i f i e d as that erected i n
o f its subject; here they are assumed a p r i o r i .
h o n o r o f Sulla by the N u m i d i a n k i n g , Bocchus; t h o u g h
T h e portraits o f the A t t i c - R o m a n g r o u p had derived
the m o n u m e n t was dedicated i n 91 B.C., the e x i s t i n g
their dramatic force f r o m the representation o f a narra
remains are t h o u g h t to be those o f a restored version o f
tive transaction s t i l l i n process, one whose o u t c o m e re
circa 82—80, replacing the o r i g i n a l , w h i c h w o u l d have
m a i n e d i n doubt; i n so d o i n g , they c o n t i n u e d a l o n g
T h e second is the
t r a d i t i o n o f Greek art rooted i n the agonistic i d e o l o g y o f
frieze f r o m the Temple o f D i v u s Julius, b e g u n i n 42 and
the polls. Despite a subdued evocation o f t r a n s i t o r y p r o
been destroyed by M a r i u s (fig. 30) .
1 4 2
completed by 29 B.C.; the frieze should have been ex
cess i n its facial m i m e t i c s , the p o r t r a i t o f O c t a v i a n re
A s is typical
flects i n its achieved composure a later narrative stage i n
o f this style, these reliefs display sharply p r o f i l e d forms
w h i c h the o u t c o m e is already decided. T h e n a r r a t i v e
set i n shallow relief planes u p o n a p l a i n g r o u n d , and
openness o f the earlier w o r k s has been foreclosed. F r o m
ecuted closer to the latter date (fig. 31) .
1 4 3
c o m b i n e fluent contours w i t h a strong i n c l i n a t i o n t o
the i m p l i c i t , as i t were "organic" classicism o f the earlier
w a r d abstract s y m m e t r y and an o r n a m e n t a l i z i n g isola
portraits, i n t i m a t e l y b o u n d up w i t h the w h o l e f o r m that
t i o n and f i x i t y o f detail.
is expressed and organized, the n e w sculptor has
T h i s manner does n o t seem previously to have been
stracted a comprehensive
ab
and s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t n e t w o r k
employed for p o r t r a i t sculpture nor indeed generally for
o f outlines, a k i n d o f ideal pattern c o n t i n u o u s l y legible
sculpture i n the r o u n d . I t was the genius o f the n e w
u p o n the surface o f the head, h o v e r i n g as an i m a g e o f
sculptor to grasp the p o t e n t i a l o f this elegant decorative
remote a u t h o r i t y above the f o r m that i t controls b u t i n
manner to convey the effect o f detached superiority de
w h i c h i t no longer participates.
appro
T h e age o f Augustus was w i t n e s s i n g the early stages
priate to one presenting h i m s e l f — f o r the first t i m e i n
o f the process by w h i c h classical c i v i l i z a t i o n was t o be
R o m a n politics—as divifilius,
come academicized, codified i n t o a c u l t u r a l ideal t o be
sired i n the p o r t r a i t o f Caesar's heir, an effect
the son o f a g o d . I n fusing
it w i t h a plastic energy and narrative vividness derived
consciously and laboriously acquired b y a society for
f r o m the p o r t r a i t style o f the A t t i c - R o m a n atelier,
w h i c h i t was no longer a lived, i m m e d i a t e reality. T h e
he
created at one stroke a n e w style, that o f the A u g u s t a n
abstracted,
c o u r t p o r t r a i t — a n d w i t h i t the earliest w o r k o f w h a t
already emblematic o f this situation. Here fetishized c u l
idealized classicism o f Octavian's p o r t r a i t is
ture is a calculated political i n s t r u m e n t , r e i n f o r c i n g the
was to be A u g u s t a n art.
T h e appearance o f Type B , perhaps its sculptor's first
brute reality o f power w i t h the c l a i m o f an i n t e l l e c t u a l
independent w o r k , signified no i m m e d i a t e break i n the
and m o r a l auctoritas preemptive o f all debate. T h e n e w
a c t i v i t y o f the atelier. Its older g e n e r a t i o n
remained
portrait presupposes a monarchical ideology, whose sur
active for some years more, as the p o r t r a i t o f A g r i p p a
p r i s i n g l y rapid development can be traced d u r i n g the
attests. T h e creation o f Type B nevertheless marks a
final years and months o f Caesar's dictatorship—despite
n e w phase i n the art o f the ancient w o r l d . Despite its
the hesitation o f m o d e r n scholarship to accept the t e s t i
obvious debt to its predecessors, the p o r t r a i t o f O c t a v i a n
m o n y o f the sources—and w h i c h was acquired b y the
is n o longer w o r k o f a Hellenistic art. I t employs a n e w
n e w Caesar w i t h the rest o f his inheritance.
rhetoric, w h i c h presupposes a changed set o f r e l a t i o n
There w o u l d soon be no r o o m i n the w o r l d o f i m
ships between the p o r t r a i t and the viewer, correspond
p e r i a l a b s o l u t i s m for p o r t r a i t s o f the k i n d the A t t i c -
i n g to a changed set o f power-relationships i n the o u t
R o m a n atelier had created, as there w o u l d be none for
side w o r l d and a n e w ideology charged w i t h j u s t i f y i n g
the political careers they had served.
that power. I n its self-conscious stylistic p u r i s m , its p r o
their peers w o u l d soon appear i n the l i g h t o f senatorial
144
Its patrons and
g r a m m a t i c i n v o c a t i o n o f the l e g i t i m i z i n g a u t h o r i t y o f a
nostalgia as ultimi Romanorum—the
classical past, its air o f correctness and r i g o r , i t bids
portraits remain, i l l u m i n a t i n g a crucial stage i n the ad
last R o m a n s .
The
farewell to the dramatic immediacy, the direct engage
aptation o f Hellenistic art to n e w realities and its u l t i
m e n t w i t h space, the essential f r e e d o m i m p l i c i t i n
mate transformation i n t o the art o f the R o m a n E m p i r e .
H e l l e n i s t i c sculpture. Hellenistic portraiture sought t o
demonstrate and j u s t i f y to the viewer the status claims
U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , San D i e g o
"Recherches sur la composition heraldique dans l'art du ler siecle av.
D C , 1968), pp. 512ff w i t h literature.
144. For a concise account o f the aristocracy's progressively more
restricted opportunities and scope for public monumental self-expres
sion after the establishment o f the principate, see W. Eck, "Senatorial
Self-Representation: Developments i n the Augustan Period," i n F.
Millar and E. Segal, eds., Caesar Augustus (Oxford, 1984), pp. 129-168.
J.-C," MEFRA
85 (1973), pp. 181-195.
143. W. Helbig, Fiihrer durch die offentlichen Sammlungen klassischer
Altertumer in Rom, 4th ed., vol. 2 (Tubingen, 1966), pp. 828f., no. 2057
(E. Simon). O n the temple o f Divus Julius see E. Nash, Pictorial
Dictionary of Ancient Rome, rev. ed., vol. 1 (New York and Washington,
85
Figure 30. Frieze w i t h Victories and Shield. Rome, Palazzo dei Conservatori, Braccio Nuovo 2750. Photo: Courtesy D A I , Rome.
Figure 31. Frieze o f the Temple o f Divus Julius. Rome, Antiquario del Foro Romano. Photo:
86
Nodelman
ADDENDUM
A portrait o f Brutus corresponding to the type o f the
Chiaramonti bust appears upon a bronze ring preserved i n the
Cabinet des Medailles, Paris. The profile o f the ring portrait
matches that o f the bust w i t h remarkable fidelity, especially
considering the latter's vastly reduced scale—showing the
characteristic head-shape, the volume and contouring o f the
hair-mass, and the distinctive facial profile complete w i t h com
pressed, protrusive lips and jutting chin. The marks o f age that
distinguish the Stockholm portrait from the more youthful
Chiaramonti type are absent. Brutus' head is associated upon
the ring w i t h emblems which, in default o f an inscription,
nevertheless identify it incontrovertibly as a portrait o f the
tyrannicide. Conjoined w i t h the image o f a serpent—a symbol
145
145. Cabinet des Medailles 566; Vollenweider (supra, note 26),
pi. 98.1-2 w i t h pp. 59f.
of good fortune—these are the liberty cap and the dagger, just
as they appear on Brutus' famous reverses struck by Plaetorius
Cestianus w i t h inscriptional reference to the Ides o f M a r c h .
Since Brutus' coin images appear exclusively to reflect the later
version o f his portrait w i t h its marks o f greater age (repre
sented i n sculpture only by the qualitatively inferior Stock
holm bust), the ring provides additional and direct confirma
tion o f the identity o f the more youthful Chiaramonti portrait.
It is also useful i n respect to the chronology o f the two types,
for it shows that the younger portrait remained i n vogue until
some time subsequent to the Ides o f March, which suggests
that the Stockholm type may not have been created until a later
date—perhaps for the Athenian dedication which seems to
have occurred in late 44.
146
147
146. See supra, p. 51 and note 24.
147. See supra, p. 57.
The Sculpted Portraits of Caligula
Gaius Iulius Caesar Germanicus, the son o f G e r m a n i cus and A g r i p p i n a M a i o r , was b o r n o n A u g u s t 31, A.D.
12, i n A n t i u m , present-day A n z i o . H e received the n i c k
name Caligula i n a R o m a n a r m y camp o n the Rhine,
where he spent his early c h i l d h o o d w i t h his parents.
There he w o r e m i l i t a r y u n i f o r m , w h i c h i n c l u d e d caligae,
b o o t l i k e shoes w i t h ties. Because o f those boots,
the
soldiers gave h i m the nickname by w h i c h he is k n o w n to
this day: Caligula means " l i t t l e b o o t " or " l i t t l e soldier."
Caligula's father died i n A.D. 19. F r o m then u n t i l he
was sixteen years o l d , Caligula lead a very protected life
i n his mother's house i n Rome. For the next t w o years,
70—140, describes Caligula i n his De vita Caesarum,
pub
lished i n A.D. 121.
Height: tall; complexion: pallid; body: hairy and badly
built; neck: thin; legs: spindling; eyes: sunken; and tem
ples: hollow; forehead: broad and forbidding; scalp: al
most hairless, especially on the top. Because o f his bald
ness and hairiness he announced that it was a capital
offense for anyone either to look down on h i m as he
passed or to mention goats i n any context. He worked
hard to make his naturally forbidding and uncouth face
even more repulsive, by practising fearful and horrifying
grimaces i n front o f a mirror.
(Suet., Calig. 50)
w h i l e he was seventeen and eighteen, he l i v e d i n his
grandmother Livia's house. H e delivered her funeral ora
A t the t i m e Suetonius w r o t e , Caligula had been dead for
t i o n w h e n he was seventeen. H e t h e n stayed
eighty years, so i t is possible that he l o o k e d quite dif
his other grandmother,
with
A n t o n i a , u n t i l he was t w e n t y
years o l d .
ferent f r o m this description.
Suetonius also tells us that Caligula stole the breast
T h e y o u n g C a l i g u l a lived a very secluded life, almost
a r m o r f r o m the t o m b o f Alexander the Great i n A l e x
h i d d e n away, u n t i l E m p e r o r Tiberius t o o k h i m i n t o his
andria and w o r e i t . I n one passage the historian w r i t e s :
house i n A.D. 34. T h e previous year, at the age o f twenty,
C a l i g u l a had received permission to m a r r y I u n i a C l a u dilla, a daughter o f M . Iunius Silanus; she died o n l y
three years later. I n 37 Tiberius made Caligula and his
He even dressed up as Venus and, even before his expe
dition wore the uniform o f a triumphant general, includ
ing sometimes the breastplate which he had stolen from
Alexander the Great's tomb at Alexandria.
cousin Gemellus his j o i n t heirs.
(Suet., Calig 53)
B y M a r c h o f that year Caligula became the emperor,
s k i l l f u l l y s u p p o r t e d by the prefect o f the
Praetorian
S l i g h t l y closer i n t i m e to Caligula was the R o m a n h i s t o
Guard, M a c r o . Gemellus was adopted by Caligula, b u t
rian Tacitus (A.D. 55—115), whose Annals
was w i s e e n o u g h t o c o m m i t suicide s o o n
thereafter.
seventy-five years after Caligula's death. B o o k s seven
T h a t summer, o n July 1, 37, Caligula made his sisters
and eight, w h i c h were o n Caligula, are unfortunately lost.
D r u s i l l a , L i v i l l a , and A g r i p p i n a vestal v i r g i n s . I n the
were w r i t t e n
P l i n y the Elder (A.D. 23—79) published his Natural
His
a u t u m n o f 37 Caligula became seriously i l l . A f t e r this
tory i n the year 77, o n l y t h i r t y - s i x years after Caligula's
illness his attitude became more and more despotic. H e
assassination. U n f o r t u n a t e l y all that P l i n y relates is that
m a r r i e d his sister D r u s i l l a , and w h e n she died i n June
C a l i g u l a had staring eyes (Pliny, NHXl.
144).
38, his g r i e f was extreme to the p o i n t o f exaggeration.
Lucius Annaeus Seneca (A.D. 4—65), orator and p h i
T h e f o l l o w i n g year, 38—39, Caligula m a r r i e d L o l l i a
losopher, was a c o n t e m p o r a r y o f C a l i g u l a . A f t e r the
Paulina. H e then w e n t to Germania, where shortly after
emperor's death he p u b l i s h e d De constantia
wards, a m i l i t a r y revolt broke out i n w h i c h the senate,
w h i c h contains a shocking first-hand description o f the
sapientis,
Iulia, and A g r i p p i n a t o o k part. I n 40 Caligula returned
psychopathic c o n d i t i o n o f the y o u n g tyrant:
to Rome, and i n January o f 41 the officers o f the Prae
So repulsive was the whiteness o f his face, which showed
t o r i a n Guard swore fidelity to Callistus to m u r d e r C a
mad escapades, so haggard were his eyes hidden deep
ligula. T h e deed was carried out o n January 21. T h e
under his forehead, which was like that o f an old man,
R o m a n h i s t o r i a n Gaius S u e t o n i u s
and so large was the repulsiveness o f this baldness o f his
Tranquillus, A.D.
88
Johansen
head, which was only partly covered w i t h hair. His neck
was covered w i t h hair, his legs were thin and his feet
enormous.
(De Constantia Sapientis 18)
I n another b o o k , De ira, Seneca says that C a l i g u l a was
able to t o r t u r e people w i t h his eyes (De ira 111.19).
We
k n o w f r o m Suetonius that C a l i g u l a a l l o w e d his
beard to g r o w after the death o f his sister and w i f e D r u silla (Suet., Calig. 24) and that he had this beard gilded,
probably i n i m i t a t i o n o f an image o f Jupiter or N e p t u n e
(Suet., Calig.
52). W h i l e this k i n d o f i n f o r m a t i o n is
helpful for an idea o f Caligula's appearance, i t is n o t
useful for an understanding o f w h a t his portraits may
have looked like. A l l i n all, the ancient literature is o f little
help i n discovering h o w Caligula actually appeared.
Portrait images o n coins are o f more assistance. For
these representations, Caligula placed great i m p o r t a n c e
on his personal status and o n that o f his family. D u r i n g
the four insecure years o f Caligula's reign the p r o d u c t i o n
o f the R o m a n empire's g o l d and silver coins s t i l l t o o k
place i n Lyons ( L u g d u n u m ) where i t had been since the
t i m e o f the emperor Augustus, w h o had transferred i t
there i n 15 B.C. A t the same t i m e the m i n t i n g o f copper
coins, w h i c h t o o k place i n Rome, became m o r e and
m o r e an i m p e r i a l business,
although i t had f o r m e r l y
been i n the hands o f the senate. Walter T r i l l m i c h re
Figure 1. Aureus. Obverse: Caligula. Reverse: Augustus.
London, British Museum. From J. R C. Kent
et al., Roman Coins (New York, 1978), pi.
48.165.
cently devoted a book to the problem of Famileinpropaganda der Kaiser Caligula und Claudius,
published i n
B e r l i n i n 1978. G o l d and s i l v e r coins, w h i c h
were
m a i n l y used as payment for the a r m y and the i m p e r i a l
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , reveal o n l y a small variety o f p o r t r a i t
types. O n these coins, Caligula is j o i n e d w i t h images o f
Augustus; his dead mother, A g r i p p i n a M a i o r ; or his fa
ther, Germanicus. For example, an aureus f r o m Lyons
1
d a t i n g to 37—38 (fig. I ) has Caligula's p o r t r a i t o n the
front and A u g u s t u s ' o n the back; another aureus f r o m
the same year shows Caligula's p o r t r a i t o n the front and
A g r i p p i n a s o n the back (fig.
2
2).
T h e s u r v i v i n g copper coins f r o m the city o f R o m e are
o f consistently higher quality and better draughtsman
ship than the g o l d and silver coins f r o m Lyons, and
therefore more can be discovered f r o m a study o f t h e m
than f r o m the Gallic g o l d and silver issues. T h e most
i m p o r t a n t coins are sesterces d a t i n g to 37—38 w i t h C a
Figure 2. Aureus. Obverse: Caligula. London, British
Museum. From J. R C. Kent et al., Roman
Coins (New York, 1978), pi. 48.166.
ligula's head o n the obverse and a triad o f his sisters
A g r i p p i n a , D r u s i l l a , and L i v i l l a o n the reverse
repre-
This paper is based in part on a lecture given at the J. Paul Getty
Museum February 3, 1983.
1. J.P.C. Kent, B. Overbeck, and A. U . Stylow, Die römischen
Münzen (Munich, 1978), p i . 44.166.
2. Kent, et al. (supra, note 1), p i . 44.167.
3. Kent, et al. (supra, note 1), p i . 44.168.
Sculpted Portraits of Caligula 89
Figure 4. As. Obverse: Caligula. Vente Publique X X V I I I ,
June 19-20, 1964.
Figure 3. Sesterce. Obverse: Caligula. Reverse: A g r i p
pina, Drusilla, Livilla. London, British M u
seum. From J. P. C. Kent et al., Roman Coins
(New York, 1978), pi. 48.167.
sented as the goddesses Securitas, Concordia, and For
3
tuna (fig. 3 ) . O n e o f the most interesting coins o f C a
4
l i g u l a was sold at auction i n 1964 (fig. 4). It is an as, also
f r o m 37—38, w i t h a p o r t r a i t o f Caligula closely resem
b l i n g some o f the extant marble portraits a t t r i b u t e d to
h i m . A n o t h e r interesting sesterce, f r o m Rome, d a t i n g to
Caligula's last year was sold at auction i n Switzerland i n
5
1964. T h e s i t t i n g togatus o n the reverse o f a d u p o n d i u s
o f C a l i g u l a n o w i n the H i s t o r i c a l M u s e u m o f B e r n (fig.
5)
6
probably represents an actual statue o f the emperor.
O n the obverse is a portrait o f Augustus.
Some literary and epigraphical evidence survives o f
the p o r t r a i t statues o f Caligula. D i o Cassius records that
the senate ordered a guard to keep w a t c h at each o f
7
Caligula's statues, w h i c h does n o t i m p l y great p o p u 4. Basel, M ü n z e n und Medaillen, Vente Publique X X V I I I , June
19-20, 1964, lot 269, M .
5. Basel, M ü n z e n und Medaillen, Vente Publique X X V I I I , June
19-20, 1964, lot 270.
6. H . - M . von Kaenel, SchweizMünzbl 28 (1978), pp. 39ff.
7. D i o Cassius LIX.26.
Figure 5. Dupondius. Obverse: Augustus. Reverse: Ca
ligula. Bern, Bernisches Historisches Museum.
90
Johansen
Figure 6. Head o f a y o u n g man. Bronze steelyard
weight. Leningrad, State Hermitage Museum.
Figure 7. Head o f a young man. Marble. Vatican, Galleria dei Candelabri 92. F r o m Kiss, LTco
nographie, fig. 534.
larity. C a l i g u l a also had a golden p o r t r a i t shield, w h i c h
was b r o u g h t every year to the C a p i t o l i n R o m e .
8
Sueto
nius relates that Caligula established a shrine to h i m s e l f
as a g o d w i t h attendant priests and sacrificial animals,
and that he erected a life-size golden image o f himself,
w h i c h was dressed daily i n c l o t h i n g identical to that
w h i c h the emperor w o r e .
9
I n June o f 40 Caligula sent orders to Petronius, the
legate o f Syria, to have a statue o f h i m s e l f as Zeus ex
ecuted and set u p i n J e r u s a l e m .
10
O r d e r s m u s t have
reached Petronius i n Syria by July, and he m u s t have
marched south to the Jewish city i n July or A u g u s t . T h e
statue was no d o u b t to be made d u r i n g the w i n t e r and
set up the f o l l o w i n g spring, b u t the w o r k was never
completed.
11
P h i l o records that a Jewish delegation f r o m
A l e x a n d r i a t r i e d i n vain to change the decision to place a
statue o f Caligula i n their synagogue.
12
Because o f Caligula's insistence o n b e i n g treated as a
god, he sent orders to the temples w i t h the most revered
or artistically famous statues o f the Greek deities, i n
Figure 8. Head o f a young man. Sabratha, Museum o f
Antiquities 19-9-1941. From Kiss, LTconographie,
fig. 536.
c l u d i n g t h a t o f P h i d i a s ' Z e u s at O l y m p i a , a n d d e -
8. D i o Cassius LIX.16.
9. Suet. Calig. 22.
10. Josephus Antiquitates Judaicae 18,8.
11. Philo i Leg. 349-367; Eusebius HE 2.6. J.P.V.D. Balsdon, The
Emperor Gaius (Oxford, 1934; 2nd ed., Oxford, 1964), p. 139.
12. Philo i Leg. 349-367.
Figure 9a. Profile o f a young man. Baltimore, Walters
A r t Gallery 23.102.
Figure 10. Head o f a young man. La Spezia, Museo
Civico e Museo Archeologico Lunense 54.
FromJWalt 40 (1982), p. 11, fig. 21.
Figure 9b. Head o f a young man, figure 9a.
Figure 11. Head o f a young man. Dresden, Staatliche
Kunstsammlungen.
92
Johansen
Figure 13. Head o f a young man. Iraklion, Archaeo
logical Museum.
Figure 12. Portrait o f a young prince. Gortyn, Crete.
From J Walt 40 (1982), p. 5, fig. 10.
m a n d e d that t h e i r heads be replaced w i t h his o w n .
Suetonius says that this became a n o r m a l practice, w h i c h
other R o m a n emperors were to f o l l o w (Suet., Calig. 22).
Elsewhere he w r i t e s :
He threw down the statues o f famous men, which for
the lack o f room Augustus had moved from the court o f
the Capitol to the Campus Martius, and so utterly de
molished them that they could not be set up again w i t h
their inscriptions entire; and therefore he forbade the
erection o f any statue o f any living man anywhere w i t h
out his knowledge and consent.
(Suet., Calig. 34.1)
Suetonius also says that " w h i l e the statue o f O l y m p i a n
Zeus was b e i n g dismantled before removal to R o m e at
his c o m m a n d , i t burst i n t o such a roar o f laughter that
the scaffolding collapsed and the w o r k m e n t o o k to t h e i r
heels" (Suet., Calig. 57).
A f t e r C a l i g u l a was murdered, the senate w a n t e d to
order damnatio
memoriae,
but Claudius prevented it.
However, Claudius allowed all portraits o f C a l i g u l a to
Figure 14. Caligula. Carthage, Musee de Carthage. Pho
to: Courtesy D A I , Rome.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
D i o Cassius LX.4.
D i o Cassius LX.22.
M . Stuart, A]A 43 (1939), pp. 601-617
IGR IV, 1022.
CIL X I I , 1848,1849.
Figure 15a. Three-quarter view o f emperor Caligula.
Fulda, SchloB Fasanerie, cat. no. 21.
be removed at n i g h t .
13
Therefore, i t cannot be said that
C a l i g u l a received an official damnatio memoriae, b u t coins
that carried his hated portrait were melted d o w n by de
cision o f the senate.
Figure 15b. Head o f Caligula, figure 15a.
Athens.
19
B u t the scant n u m b e r o f s u r v i v i n g statues may
w e l l be explained i n the l i g h t o f Claudius' removal o f all
C a l i g u l a statues f r o m Rome. T h e portrait inscriptions
are probably t o o few to offer reliable conclusions,
14
but
I n M e r c u r y street i n P o m p e i i a t r i u m p h a l arch o f
the fact that t w o o f the three datable inscriptions are
h o n o r carried an equestrian statue o f Caligula, as w e
f r o m 37/38 seems to suggest that p r o d u c t i o n o f his p o r
k n o w f r o m the r e m a i n i n g i n s c r i p t i o n . There are also a
trait was greatest at the outset o f his reign.
f e w statue bases preserved w i t h i n s c r i p t i o n s n a m i n g
We can n o w consider the s u r v i v i n g marble portraits
C a l i g u l a . O f the fifteen k n o w n p o r t r a i t i n s c r i p t i o n s ,
attributed to Caligula. T h e Polish archaeologist Z . Kiss
o n l y five can be dated w i t h any accuracy, and o n l y t w o
attempted to i d e n t i f y five portraits o f y o u n g boys as the
o f t h e m to the years before 37 w h e n C a l i g u l a became
young Caligula:
emperor.
15
One, f r o m C a l y m n a i n Asia M i n o r , is dated
t o A.D. 18 w h e n Caligula traveled i n Asia M i n o r w i t h his
father;
16
one is f r o m Vienna f r o m the year 33; and three
are f r o m after 37.
17
20
a small bronze w e i g h t i n L e n i n g r a d
(fig. 6), a marble head i n the Vatican (fig. 7), another i n
Sabratha (fig. 8), one i n the U n i v e r s i t y M u s e u m , P h i l a
delphia, and one o n the art market i n Rome. N o n e o f
T h i s small n u m b e r o f inscriptions
these portraits has any real connection w i t h Caligula;
f r o m 37 c o u l d be explained by the fact that he was desig
they are all s i m p l y nice y o u n g R o m a n boys d a t i n g to the
nated heir o n l y shortly before he actually became e m
same period, probably all grave or funeral portraits.
peror. I t is further k n o w n that Caligula gave the Greeks
p e r m i s s i o n to erect six statues o f h i m ,
1 8
Recently, J. P o l l i n i t r i e d to i d e n t i f y a head o f a y o u n g
one i n D e l p h i ,
m a n i n the Walters A r t Gallery as the y o u n g C a l i g u l a
one each i n Isthmia, Nemea, and O l y m p i a , and t w o i n
(figs. 9a—b) along w i t h a portrait i n La Spezia (fig. 10)
18. D i o Cassius LIX.4; IG V I I , 2711.
19. IG, 2nd ed., vols. 2—3, 3266—3267. Athens together w i t h Drusilla; Graindor, BCH 38 (1914), p. 401, no. 18; Seyng, RA, 1929, p. 90.
See also T. Pekary, Monumentum Chiloniense (Amsterdam, 1975), p. 107;
E. Koberlein, Caligula und die dgyptische Kulte (Meisenheim am Glau,
1962), p. 54.
20. Z . Kiss, LTcohographie des Princes (Warsaw, 1975), p. 150, figs.
533-539.
94
Johansen
Figure 16b. Head o f statue o f Caligula, figure 16a.
Figure 16a. Emperor Caligula. Richmond, Virginia M u seum o f Fine Arts, The Glasgow Fund 71-20.
Figure 16c. Profile o f head o f statue o f Caligula, figure
16a.
Figure 11a. Caligula. Paris, Musee du Louvre M A 1267.
Photos: Courtesy Chuzeville, Paris.
and one i n Dresden (fig. I I ) .
2 1
Figure lib. Profile o f Caligula, figure 17a.
Identifications l i k e these
A m o n g the beautiful collection o f portraits i n SchloB
are always t e m p t i n g , b u t the o n l y portrait o f the three
Fasanerie, near Fulda, West Germany, is a superb p o r
w i t h strong similarities to Caligula's features is the head
trait o f the emperor Caligula (figs. 15a—b)
i n Dresden. There were many R o m a n princes w h o died
p a r t o f this c o l l e c t i o n was assembled by Frederick I I
y o u n g , and I w o u l d therefore suggest that these three
(1760—1785), b u t no precise i n f o r m a t i o n remains to say
last portraits were funeral portraits o f private individuals.
where this portrait was found. Possibly i t is f r o m Rome.
I n 1967 L . Fabbrini republished a portrait o f a y o u n g
I n the 1968 catalogue o f the collection, H . v o n H e i n t z e
prince f o u n d i n G o r t y n o n Crete (fig. 12) ,
2 2
2 5
The main
T h e head o f
w r o t e : " T h e head is the most beautiful portrait o f the
this y o u n g m a n is fitted i n t o a togatus. T h e w o r k m a n
emperor Gaius, called Caligula, that has been preserved
ship is—as can be expected o f local w o r k f r o m C r e t e —
u n t i l today." N o r m a l l y such a statement sounds u n c o n
rather p r o v i n c i a l , b u t i f the portrait is compared w i t h
v i n c i n g , b u t i n this case i t fits. T h e head is 37 c m h i g h
Caligula's coins, the identification seems quite possible.
and was made to j o i n a toga statue. A l t h o u g h the h a i r
A l s o f r o m G o r t y n , b u t n o w i n the m u s e u m i n I r a k l i o n ,
style resembles that o f Augustus and Tiberius, the p o r
is a veiled head o f a y o u n g man, w h i c h Fabbrini has also
trait is m a r k e d by particular physiognomic traits u n l i k e
identified as Caligula (fig. 13). I t was f o u n d i n the agora
those t w o emperors. Very i n d i v i d u a l are the h i g h fore
i n G o r t y n where statues o f Livia, Tiberius, and
head, the small, t h i n m o u t h , the i n - d r a w n l o w e r l i p , the
manicus are k n o w n to have been erected
Ger-
2 3
nose, w h i c h is thicker i n its lower parts, and the p r o
A portrait f o u n d at Carthage has been i d e n t i f i e d as
C a l i g u l a by Fabbrini and m u s t be considered an early
p o r t r a i t o f h i m , before his accession (fig. 14)
2 4
21. J. Pollini, J Walt 40 (1982), pp. Iff.
22. L. Fabbrini, RomMitt 73-74 (1966-1967), pp. 140ff., pis. 44-45;
H . Jucker, Art in Virginia 13, no. 2 (1973), fig. 6; V. Poulsen, MeddNC
14 (1957), p. 45, no. 5; C.C. Vermeule, Roman Imperial Art in Greece and
Asia Minor (Cambridge, Mass., 1966), p. 386.
t r u d i n g c h i n . I n technique, the portrait is typical for the
t i m e , w i t h the excellent quality o f the surface, polished
l i k e porcelain. I t is an open question w h e t h e r the p o r -
23. Fabbrini (supra, note 22), pis. 45.2, 47.2.
24. Fabbrini (supra, note 22), pp. 140ff., pis. 49-50.
25. H . von Heintze, Die antiken Portrdts in Schlofl Fasanerie bei Fulda
(Mainz, 1968), no. 21.
96
Johansen
Figure 18b. Profile o f Caligula, figure 18a. From A. Mass
ner, Bildnisangleichung (Berlin, 1982), fig.
26c.
Figure 18a. Caligula. Gilded bronze. Zurich, Schinz col
lection. From A. Massner, Bildnisangleichung
(Berlin, 1982), fig. 26b.
27
trait can be considered realistic, i n v i e w o f Suetonius'
statue to w h i c h i t does n o t b e l o n g .
statement that Caligula was ugly. Notably, this p o r t r a i t
m o u t h are modern. It was formerly i n the Campana col
T h e nose, ears, and
type is very close to the c o i n portraits o f the
Roman
lection and comes originally f r o m the Aventine i n Rome.
m i n t o n sesterces d a t i n g to 37—38 ( w h i c h , too, are n o t
A n o t h e r example o f this Fulda type is a small g i l d e d
bronze bust, o n l y 20 c m h i g h , f r o m the Schinz collec
appreciably u g l y ) .
I n the V i r g i n i a M u s e u m o f Fine A r t s is a statue,
t i o n i n Z u r i c h (figs. 18a—b).
28
It was f o u n d i n the Tiber,
26
i n t o w h i c h i t either fell or was t h r o w n w i t h o u t h a v i n g
U n t i l 1880 the statue was i n Palazzo C o l o n n a i n Rome,
been d a m a g e d previously. T h e p o r t r a i t resembles the
w h i c h H . Jucker published as Caligula (figs. 16a—c).
b u t i t was then h i d d e n away for almost n i n e t y years
Fulda p o r t r a i t n o t o n l y i n the l o n g combed hair o n the
u n t i l 1971 w h e n i t arrived i n V i r g i n i a . T h e head and the
neck b u t also i n the way the eyebrows are d r a w n t o w a r d
b o d y b e l o n g together. C l a d i n toga, tunic, and sandals,
the nose. These furrows above the nose, i n fact, r e m i n d
the emperor stands i n the pose o f public address. H i s left
us o f Suetonius' description o f Caligula practicing fear
h a n d once held a papyrus scroll (the b o x for such scrolls
ful and h o r r i f y i n g grimaces i n front o f a m i r r o r .
serves as a support at the left foot), and the r i g h t hand is
raised i n a gesture o f address.
A l s o o f the Fulda type is a portrait i n the L o u v r e (figs.
A n o t h e r s m a l l b r o n z e p o r t r a i t , o n l y 9.7 c m h i g h ,
w h i c h was also f o u n d i n the Tiber, is n o w i n a private
collection i n Switzerland (figs. 19a—b)
2 9
I t was damaged
17a—b), w h i c h is n o w placed o n a seated togatus-type
before i t was t h r o w n i n t o the river: the forehead,
26. F. Matz and F. von Duhn, Antike Bildwerke in Rom, vol. 1
(Leipzig, 1882), p. 361, no. 1247; Jucker (supra, note 22), pp. 17ff.; J.
Ternbach, Art in Virginia 14, no. 2 (1974), pp. 28-31; Ancient Art in the
Virginia Museum (Richmond, Virginia, 1973), no. 139; M . JentoftNilsen, Ancient Portraiture: The Sculptor's Art in Coins and Marble, ex.
cat. (Richmond, Virginia Museum o f Fine Arts, 1980), no. 159.
28. H . Jucker and D. Willers, eds., Gesichter: Griechische und römische
Bildnisse aus Schweitzer Besitz, ex. cat., 3rd ed. (Bernisches Historisches
Museum, 1982), no. 116 w i t h bibliography.
29. H . Jucker, "Die Bildnisstrafen gegen dem toten Caligula," Praestant interna: Festschrift fur U. Hausmann, B.v. Freytag et al., eds.
(Tübingen, 1982), pp. llOff, pl. 14; Jucker and Willers (supra, note 28),
no. 117.
27. V. Poulsen, ActaA 29 (1958), p. 179, no. 2.
the
Figure 19a. Profile o f Caligula. Bronze. Switzerland, pri
vate collection. From Jucker and Willers,
Gesichter, p. 258.
Figure 19b. Head o f Caligula, figure 19a. From Jucker
and Willers, Gesichter, p. 258.
nose, and the m o u t h were i n t e n t i o n a l l y m u t i l a t e d , and
the i n l a i d eyes have fallen out. It follows the
bronze
p o r t r a i t i n the Schinz collection and thus the Fulda type.
T h e s i x t h p o r t r a i t o f the Fulda type was purchased b y
the G e t t y M u s e u m i n 1972 (figs. 20a—b).
30
T h e prove
I n 1923 the N y Carlsberg G l y p t o t e k ,
Copenhagen,
purchased a C a l i g u l a portrait i n Paris (figs. 21a—b)
3 1
I t is
o f w h i t e marble, 28 c m h i g h , and i t is said to have come
f r o m Asia M i n o r . Cornelius Vermeule w r o t e that "the
head follows the R o m a n m o d e l so closely that i t m u s t
32
nance o f Asia M i n o r p r o v i d e d by the dealer is possibly
have been made i n I t a l y . "
correct. T h e style, however, is n o t provincial. I w o u l d
p o r t r a i t is such that i t m u s t be considered a w o r k made
I t h i n k that the quality o f the
say r a t h e r t h a t t h i s p o r t r a i t was m a d e i n R o m e
or
i n R o m e (or Italy), w h i c h was then exported to Asia
elsewhere i n Italy and exported to Asia M i n o r . T h e head
M i n o r , unless the alleged provenance is hopelessly i n
is o f a fine-grained w h i t e marble, 41 c m h i g h . A s i t is
accurate. O n l y part o f the neck is preserved,
t u r n e d slightly to the right, i t differs f r o m the Fulda
back o f the head is b r o k e n off. T h e p o r t r a i t is r e m a r k
and the
portrait, w h i c h is t u r n e d to the left. T h e neck was cut
able for the traces o f o r i g i n a l paint that survive i n the
i n t o a conical p o i n t intended to f i t i n t o a statue body.
eyes and hair.
T h e hairstyle resembles the Fulda head. B o t h the Fulda
A p o r t r a i t o f Caligula f r o m A q u i l e i a was i d e n t i f i e d by
and the G e t t y portraits were probably made shortly after
D . Kaspar. T h o u g h i t is o n l y a fragment o f a life-size
Caligula's accession, w h i l e the f o l l o w i n g portraits m u s t
marble head (figs. 22a—b)
be a l i t t l e later, perhaps A.D. 38—40.
O n l y the l o w e r p a r t o f the head, the m o u t h ,
30. Malibu, The J. Paul Getty Musem 72.AA.155, J. Frel, Roman
Portraits in the J. Paul Getty Museum, ex. cat. (Tulsa, Oklahoma, Philbrook A r t Center, and Malibu, The J. Paul Getty Museum, 1981), no.
24; Jucker (supra, note 22), p. 20, fig. 13.; K . Vierneisel and P. Zanker,
Die Bildnisse des Augustus, ex. cat. (Munich, Glyptothek, 1979), p. 96,
no. 10.7; J. Inan and E. Alfoldi-Rosenbaum, Romische und jruhbyzantinische Portratplastik aus der Turkei (Mainz, 1979), pp. 69—70, no. 16,
pis. 13.3—4, 14.2—3; J. Chamay, J. Frel, and J.-L. Maier, Le monde des
Cesars, ex. cat. (Geneva, Musee d A r t et d'histoire, 1982), no. 13.
31. V. Poulsen, Les portraits romains, vol. 1 (Copenhagen, 1962), no. 54
w i t h bibliography; A. De Franciscis, BolldArte 48 (1963), p. 25; G. Haf
ner, RomMitt 71 (1964), p. 176; W. H . Gross, WZHumboldt, 1982, p. 205.
3 3
i t is o f excellent quality.
32. Vermeule (supra, note 22), p. 387, no. 2.
33. Jucker (supra, note 29), p. I l l , pi. 15.1—2.
and
98
Johansen
Figure 20a. Caligula. White marble. Malibu, The J. Paul Getty Museum 72. AA.155.
Figure 20b. Profile o f Caligula, figure 20a.
100
Johansen
Figure 21 a. Profile o f Caligula. W h i t e marble. C o penhagen, N y Carlsberg Glyptotek 2687,
cat. no. 637a.
Figure 22a. Profile o f Caligula. Marble fragment. Aquileia, Museo Archeologico 128, cat. no. 201.
From Jucker, Festschrift fur U. Hausmann, fig.
15.1.
Figure 22b. Head o f Caligula, figure 22a. From Jucker,
Festschrift fur U. Hausmann, fig. 15.2.
Figure 23a. Profile o f Caligula. Iesi, Museo Archeologico. From J d / 7 3 - 7 4 (1981), p. 263, fig. 30.
Figure 24a. Profile o f Caligula. White, large-grained
Greek marble. Copenhagen, N y Carlsberg
Glyptotek 1453, cat. no. 637.
Figure 23b. Head o f Caligula, figure 23a. From Jdl
73 - 74 (1981), p. 263, fig. 29.
102
Johansen
Figure 25.
Caligula. Onyx gem. New York, The Metro
politan Museum o f Art, Rogers Fund, 1911,
11.195.7.
Figure 21a. Caligula. White Italian rriarble. New Haven,
Yale University A r t Gallery, lent by Frank
Brown.
Figure 26.
Caligula. Marble. Paris, Musee du Louvre
M A 1234. Photo: Courtesy Chuzeville, Paris.
Figure 28a. Profile o f Caligula. Venice, Museo Archeologico 142, sala I X .
Figure 29a. Caligula. Trieste, Civico Museo di Storia ed
Arte.
104
Johansen
head, neck, and bust are u n b r o k e n . T h e greatest damage
has been to the ears: the upper parts are b r o k e n off. A
small part o f the neck is missing. T h e p o r t r a i t shows
C a l i g u l a w i t h a c r o w n o f oak leaves around his head and
w e a r i n g a breastplate w i t h a centered gorgoneion.
The
c r o w n is cut partly f r o m the same block o f marble as the
head and partly f r o m a separate block. I n the top o f the
head is an o b l o n g hole where the n o w m i s s i n g part o f
the c r o w n was inserted.
O n the back o f the head are
traces o f ancient paint. T h e m o u t h and possibly the nose
m u s t have been recut i n antiquity. B o t h F u r t w a n g l e r and
L i p p o l d doubted the authenticity o f the portrait. O n e o f
their arguments was that cuirass bust portraits d i d n o t
exist i n the first century. However, several other busts
survive, w h i c h show that the type actually d i d exist.
A l t h o u g h the Caligula bust was cleaned w i t h acid i n the
last century, the acid d i d n o t penetrate to some o f the
deeper areas, where traces o f the very heavy i n c r u s t a t i o n
that o r i g i n a l l y covered the w h o l e bust s t i l l are to
be
f o u n d . T h i s incrustation confirms the dealer's statement
that the portrait was f o u n d i n the Tiber.
I n 1911 the M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m b o u g h t a 4.3-cm
h i g h o n y x gem that was allegedly f r o m R o m e (fig. 2 5 ) ;
3 6
it follows the Copenhagen portrait type i n reduced scale,
and the same can be said o f the small bronze bust i n a
private collection i n Switzerland. T h e Copenhagen p o r
trait is also close to a marble portrait i n the L o u v r e (fig.
26)
3 7
and to one i n the Yale U n i v e r s i t y A r t Gallery f r o m
the collection o f Professor Frank B r o w n (figs. 27a—b).
Figure 30. Caligula. Pegli, Museo Civico 614. From
Athenaeum 51 (1973), fig. 3.
T h e latter is life-size, 33 c m h i g h , o f w h i t e Italian ( p r o b
ably Luna) marble and is said to have been f o u n d i n
the
c h i n are p r e s e r v e d , b u t i t closely
follows
the
Rome, close to the Tiber at Ponte M i l v i o around 1950.
38
C o p e n h a g e n head, w h i c h adds further evidence that the
T h i s p o r t r a i t may, however,
C o p e n h a g e n p o r t r a i t was made i n Italy, p r o b a b l y i n
Venice m o u n t e d o n a Renaissance bust is also o f this
Rome. F r o m a local w o r k s h o p i n Iesi, Marches, west o f
type (figs. 28a—b)
Ancona,
variants o f the Copenhagen type: a portrait bust i n T r i
type,
comes another p o r t r a i t o f the
one
23a—b).
34
w h i c h was
republished
Copenhagen
by Jucker
(figs.
T h e Iesi portrait was f o u n d i n 1784 or 1787 i n a
cistern along w i t h portraits o f Tiberius and Augustus.
A s early as 1897 C a r l Jacobsen, the founder o f the N y
Carlsberg G l y p t o t e k , acquired another marble p o r t r a i t
o f C a l i g u l a f r o m R o m e (figs. 24a—b)
3 5
bust made o f w h i t e , large-grained
Greek marble.
I t is a 51 c m h i g h
3 9
be a fake. A p o r t r a i t i n
There may also be three p r o v i n c i a l
este, C i v i c o M u s e o (figs. 29a—b),
(near Genoa) (fig. 30)
Sabratha (figs. 31a-b)
4 1
40
a portrait i n Pegli
and a very w o r n p o r t r a i t i n
4 2
Q u i t e different f r o m all other Caligula portraits
are
t w o heads that were f o u n d together j u s t before W o r l d
War I near M a r i n o at Lake A l b a n o . O n e is i n the W o r
The
cester C i t y M u s e u m s and Gallery and may be the image
34. H . Jucker, Jdl (1981), p. 263, figs. 29-31.
35. Poulsen (supra, note 31), no. 125; F. Johansen, MeddNC 37
(1981), figs. 17-17c; F. Johansen, WZHumboldt,
1982, p. 223;
1968), no. 20.
40. J. Banko and P. Sticotti, Antikensammlung im erzbischdflichen
Seminare zu Udine, ArchepMitt 18 (1895), p. 69; Johansen, MeddNC 37
(1981), p. 93, fig. 21.
41. C. Saletti, Athenaeum 51 (1973), p. 42, fig. 3; Johansen (supra,
note 35), p. 93, fig. 22.
42. Caputo, Quaderna di Arch, della Libia 1-2 (1950-1951), p. 13,
pi. 1; Johansen (supra, note 35), p. 95, fig. 23.
H . Jucker, JbBerlM
26 (1984), p. 67, n. 98.
36. New York, The Metropolitan Museum o f Art. Poulsen (supra,
note 27), p. 181, no. 12; Johansen (supra, note 35), p. 95, fig. 24.
37. Poulsen (supra, note 27), p. 182, no. 1.
38. Poulsen (supra, note 27), p. 187, I I 2.
39. G. Traversari, Museo Archeologico di Venezia: I Ritratti (Rome,
Figure 31a. Profile o f Caligula. Sabratha, Museum o f
Antiquities. From Johansen, Meddelelser fra
Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, p. 95, fig. 23.
Figure 32a. Caligula. White, large-grained marble. Worcester, Worcester City Museums and Gallery
1914.23.
106
Johansen
Figure 33.
m o s t l i k e C a l i g u l a (figs. 32a—b) .
4 3
Jucker has suggested
that perhaps i t is a later creation f r o m the t i m e o f N e r o .
T h e second atypical portrait, i n the M e t r o p o l i t a n M u
seum o f A r t (fig. 33),
4 4
Caligula (?). White, large-grained marble.
New York, The Metropolitan Museum o f
Art, Rogers Fund, 1914, 14.37.
exist i n marble: the Fulda-Getty type and the
Copen
hagen type. T h e other accepted portraits o f C a l i g u l a are
all either replicas or variants o f these t w o m a i n types,
looks very different f r o m all the
b o t h o f w h i c h m u s t have been made w h i l e C a l i g u l a
other a t t r i b u t e d portraits, perhaps due to the fact that i t
ruled. H i s isolated life as a prince allows o n l y a few
is not C a l i g u l a b u t another J u l i o - C l a u d i a n prince. B o t h
possibilities for portrait p r o d u c t i o n before his accession.
these portraits are carved i n w h i t e large-grained marble.
A s he was emperor for o n l y four years, no great e v o l u
T h e surfaces o f b o t h are very clean, b u t there are traces
t i o n i n Caligula's portraits can be expected. I n fact, the
o f b r o w n patina o n the necks o f b o t h .
Fulda-Getty type and the Copenhagen type actually re
To conclude, t w o fundamental Caligula p o r t r a i t types
semble each other closely.
N y Carlsberg G l y p t o t e k
Copenhagen
43. Worcester City Museums and Gallery 1914.23. M . Milkovich,
Worcester Art Museum, Roman Portraits (Worcester, 1961), no. 9 w i t h
bibliography. C.C. Vermeule, Greek and Roman Sculpture in America
(Malibu, 1981), no. 248.
44. The Metropolitan Museum o f A r t 14.37. G . M . A . Richter, The
Metropolitan Museum: Roman Portraits (New York, 1938), no. 38.
Ein antoninischer Frauenkopf aus Palmyra in Malibu
Klaus Parlasca
D i e i n den letzten Jahren dank der tatkraftigen E r w e r b u n g s p o l i t i k Jiff Frels erheblich vermehrte
Sammlung
romischer Portrats i m J. Paul G e t t y M u s e u m
1
enthalt
auch einen unterlebensgroBen, w e i b l i c h e n R e l i e f k o p f
deckte I r i s r i t z u n g m i t zentraler P u p i l l e n b o h r u n g . Das
Haar w i r d a m S t i r n r a n d v o n z w e i s y m m e t r i s c h h i n t e r
die O h r e n g e k a m m t e n Strahnen begrenzt. E i n e
flache
Kranzflechte b i l d e t den oberen AbschluB des i m i i b r i g e n
aus Palmyra (Abb. la—b) . Dieser a u f den ersten B l i c k
m e l o n e n a r t i g gegliederten Haars. D i e k o k e t t i n die S t i r n
eher b e s c h e i d e n
fallende Locke a m Scheitelansatz
2
anmutende
U b e r r e s t der
reichen
war ein i n der p a l -
Grabplastik dieses bekannten k u l t u r e l l e n Z e n t r u m s i n
myrenischen Haartracht dieser Z e i t beliebtes M o t i v . A l s
der syrischen W u s t e erweist sich b e i genauerer B e -
einzigen Schmuck tragt die j u n g e D a m e schlichte O h r -
unverof-
ringe, bestehend aus z w e i durch einen senkrechten Steg
f e n t l i c h t e Fragment k a n n w e g e n seiner g e r i n g e n A b -
verbundene Perlen. V o n diesem w e i t verbreiteten Typus
messungen nicht zu einem der zahlreichen, sepulkralen
sind auch zahlreiche O r i g i n a l e b e k a n n t .
t r a c h t u n g als sehr interessant.
Das b i s h e r
4
Biistenreliefs gehort haben, die allerdings—ebenso w i e
D i e M a B v e r h a l t n i s s e erlauben es, das F r a g m e n t als
diese ganze G a t t u n g — i n den M u s e e n an der Westkiiste
Teil der Deckelgruppe eines Sarkophags zu b e s t i m m e n .
der U S A n u r i n geringer A n z a h l vertreten s i n d .
3
E i n e anschauliche Parallele b i e t e t e i n S a r k o p h a g i n
5
D e r m i t seinem Halsansatz erhaltene K o p f ist leicht
Damaskus aus d e m Grab des M a l k u . D i e friiheren B e i -
nach seiner l i n k e n Seite h i n gewendet. D i e Gesichtszuge
spiele dieser G a t t u n g zeigen w i e i m vorliegenden Falle
s i n d r e g e l m a f i i g u n d k a u m i n d i v i d u e l l gepragt,
statt einer r u n d p l a s t i s c h ausgearbeiteten
wie
6
G r u p p e eine
es d e m Stilcharakter dieser G a t t u n g entspricht. D a b e i
Reliefkomposition, bei der i m H i n t e r g r u n d ausreichend
f a l l t das runde, w e n i g b e t o n t e U n t e r g e s i c h t auf,
das
Platz f u r die Wiedergabe stehender, j l i n g e r e r F a m i -
ausgesprochen j u g e n d l i c h w i r k t . D i e m a n d e l f o r m i g
l i e n a n g e h o r i g e r des gelagerten T o t e n verblieb. Seine
geschnittenen A u g e n zeigen eine v o m O b e r l i d
G e m a h l i n w u r d e i n der Regel ganz l i n k s a u f e i n e m
uber-
Malibu, The J. Paul Getty Museum, 1981), S. 84 und 129, Nr. 66, Abb.;
der Kopf ebenda S. 85 und 129, Nr. 67 m i t zwei Abb.; und i m Genfer
Ausstellungskatalog, J. Frel, J. Chamay, und J.-L. Maier, Le monde des
CIS
J--B. Chabot, in Corpus Inscriptionum Semiti-Cesars: Portraits romains, Ausstellungskatalog (Genf, Musee d'Art et
d'histoire, 1982), S. 175, Taf. 37 und 37a-b auf S. 172ff. (irrig von
carum, Bd. 3, Teil 2, Fasz. 2, Text (Paris, 1947);
'haut-relief'). Z u dem falschen Relief i m Getty Museum, Inv.
Taf ein (Paris, 1954).
71.AK.319 (Parlasca, a.O, S. 145-146, Abb. 7), vgl. J. Frel, GettyMusJ
Ingholt
H . Ingholt, Studier over palmyrensk Skulptur
9 (1981), S. 79ff, Nr. 19.
(Kopenhagen, 1928).
2. Inv. 81.AA.170; erworben als anonymes Geschenk. H : 16,5 cm
Parlasca, Grabreliefs K . Parlasca, Syrische Grabreliefs hellenistischer
(Kinn bis Oberkante des Haars: 11,7 cm); Relieftiefe: 8 cm; Starke des
und romischer Zeit: Fundgruppen und Probleme, 3.
Reliefgrundes ca. 6,5 cm. Fur das groBziigige Publikationsangebot
Trierer Winckelmannsprogramm (1981).
sei J. Frel auch an dieser Stelle herzlich gedankt. Die erste NiederParlasca, Probleme
K. Parlasca, "Probleme der palmyrenischen
schrift erfolgte i m Friihjahr 1984 wahrend eines Aufenthalts als 'Guest
Grabreliefs: Chronologie und Interpretation,"
Scholar' des Getty Museums, wofur ich mich i h m gleichfalls zu
in Palmyre: Bilan et perspectives, Akten eines C o l
aufrichtigem Dank verpflichtet fuhle.
loquiums i n StraBburg, 18.—20. Oktober, 1973
3. V g l . meinen Beitrag, "Palmyrenische Skulpturen i n Museen an
(StraBburg, 1976), S. 33-43.
der amerikanischen Westkiiste," i n G. Koch, Hrsg., Greek and Roman
1. Der vorliegende Beitrag bildet die Fortsetzung einer Studie, die
Funerary Sculpture. Occasional Papers on Antiquities, 5 (Malibu, i m
ich friiher iiber Skulpturen des Getty Museums veroffentlicht habe:
Druck).
" Z u r syrischen Plastik der Kaiserzeit," GettyMusJ 8 (1980), S. 141-146.
4. Vgl. D. Mackay, "The Jewellery o f Palmyra and Its Significance,"
Hierzu folgende Nachtrage: Das Grabrelief zweier Manner—Vater und
Iraq 11 (1949), S. 171, Abb. 2c; J. El-Chehadeh, "Untersuchungen zum
Sohn—(Malibu, The J. Paul Getty Museum 71. AA.282; Parlasca, a. O.,
antiken Schmuck in Syrien" (Ph.D. Diss., Freie Universitat, Berlin,
S. 141, Nr. 1, Abb. 1) ist erneut besprochen in Parlasca, Grabreliefs, S. 12
1972), Beilage 5, Typus II d.
mit Vorsatztafel, besonders S. 27, A n m . 110 zur Inschrift; die Kopfe i m
5. S. Anhang, Nr. 5.
Getty Museum (71.AA.272) bzw. in Brooklyn (71.36), Parlasca, a. O.,
6. V g l . K. Parlasca, MarWinckProg, 1984, S. 289, Abb. 6 (Paris,
Abb. 3f. bzw. 5 f ; Parlasca, Grabreliefs, S. 13, Taf 15, 15.3 bzw. 15.2. Das
Sammlung Varsano).
Relief ist ferner besprochen in J. Frel, Roman Portraits in the J. Paul
Getty Museum, ex. cat. (Tulsa, Oklahoma, Philbrook A r t Center, and
Abgekiirzt zitierte Literatur:
Colledge
M . A . R . Colledge, The Art of Palmyra (London,
1976).
108
Parlasca
Abb. la. Antoninischer Frauenkopf aus Palmyra. Kalksteinrelief. Malibu, The J. Paul Getty Museum 81. AA.170.
stehend
w u l s t m i t e i n e m b r e i t e n S t i r n d i a d e m eine w i c h t i g e
wiedergegebenen Familienmitglieder waren zumeist
Rolle. Aus diesem G r u n d e steht uns bei den Reliefs v o n
b e s o n d e r e n Sessel s i t z e n d d a r g e s t e l l t . D i e
halberwachsene
K i n d e r des Sarkophaginhabers.
Un-
verheiratete T o c h t e r unterlagen offensichtlich n i c h t den
Frauen n u r selten eine modische Frisur als D a t i e r u n g s hilfe zur Gebote.
t r a d i t i o n e l l e n Trachtgewohnheiten verheirateter Frauen.
Z u der v o n den H a u p t p e r s o n e n k a u m i i b e r s c h n i t -
H i e r z u g e h o r t i n erster L i n i e die strenge V e r h u l l u n g
tenen Madchengestalt des Sarkophags i n Damaskus g i b t
des Haupthaars,
Strahnen
v o n d e m zumeist n u r seitlich einige
herausgekammt
wurden. Abgesehen
es ein Gegenstiick, ein Fragment i n K o p e n h a g e n ( A b b .
von
2); n u r die obere Korperhalfte iiberragte den gelagerten
Stoff-
Toten. Ganz ahnlich ist der B e f u n d eines G r u p p e n f r a g -
7. S. Anhang, Nr. 10; Abb. 2.
8. S. Anhang, Nr. 3.
9. Z u den Bildnissen dieser Kaiserin (zumeist aus dem stadtromischen Bereich), vgl. M . Wegner, Die Herrscherbildnisse in an-
toninischer Zeit (Berlin, 1939), S. 26ff. und 153ff., Taf. 10-13; zuletzt K .
Fittschen und P. Zanker, Katalog der romischen Portrdts in den Capitolinischen Museen und den anderen kommunalen Sammlungen der Stadt
Rom, vol. 3 (Mainz, 1983), S. 13ff. m i t ausfiihrlicher, weiterer
e i n e m K o p f t u c h spielte dabei ein turbanartiger
7
Ein Frauenkopf aus Palmyra 10109
Abb. lb.
Seitenansicht des Kopfes A b b . l a .
merits i n B e i r u t e r Privatbesitz. H i e r sind i n R e l i e f die
bekannt; die erstmals v o n H . I n g h o l t zusammengestell
O b e r k o r p e r einer analogen M a d c h e n f i g u r u n d eines
ten B e l e g e
j u n g e n Mannes m i t Priestermutze oberhalb eines A r m -
fruheren Studie hatte i c h alle diese S k u l p t u r e n i n die
restes des Gelagerten erhalten.
Jahre k u r z v o r oder nach 141 n . Chr., d e m Todesjahr der
8
10
haben sich n o c h etwas v e r m e h r t .
11
I n einer
Zunachst soli die D a t i e r u n g des Kopfchens geklart
genannten Kaiserin, datiert. I n g h o l t hatte sie h i n g e g e n
werden. B e i der Frisur handelt es sich anscheinend u m
i n seine Gruppe I I eingeordnet, die nach seiner C h r o -
die freie W e i t e r b i l d u n g einer H a a r t r a c h t der alteren
n o l o g i e v o n 150—200 n . C h r . gedauert h a t .
12
Dieser
Faustina, der G e m a h l i n des Kaisers A n t o n i n u s Pius. I n
Klassifikation hatte sich auch Colledge
dieser speziellen F o r m sind aus Palmyra einige Parallelen
der aber a u f die Verwandtschaft der Haartracht m i t der-
Literatur.
10. Ingholt, S. 37f, 74f, 142f.
11. Parlasca, Probleme, S. 40. Die Liste der dort i n A n m . 44 und 45
zusammengestellten Beispiele ist hier i n erweiterter Form als Anhang
gegeben.
12. Ingholt, S. 142f.
9
angeschlossen,
110 Parlasca
Abb. 3. Btistenrelief einer Frau. Kalkstein. Damaskus,
Nationalmuseum
12. Photo: Archiv
des
Verfassers.
j e n i g e n der alteren Faustina nicht eingegangen i s t .
13
Das
antiquarische K r i t e r i u m verdient aber, w i e m i r scheint,
den V o r z u g gegeniiber einer globalen E i n o r d n u n g dieser S k u l p t u r e n i n die z w e i t e J a h r h u n d e r t h a l f t e . Jenes
U r t e i l schien allerdings gerechtfertigt d u r c h e i n D o p pelbiistenrelief i m M u s e u m der A m e r i k a n i s c h e n U n i versitat i n B e i r u t m i t Angabe des Jahres 181 n . C h r .
1 4
Das D a t u m bezieht sich j e d o c h , w i e i c h an anderer Stelle
Abb. 2. Fragmentierter Oberkorper eines Madchens.
Relief von einem Kalksteinsarkophag. Kopenhagen, N y Carlsberg Glyptotek 1150.
begrundet
habe, i n W i r k l i c h k e i t a u f d e n T o d
des
iiberlebenden Bruders der m i t dieser Frisur dargestellten
Dame.
15
M e i n e Folgerung, das Relief als solches n i c h t
u n e r h e b l i c h f r u h e r anzusetzen, also spatestens i n das
Jahrzehnt 140/150 n. Chr., Ia8t sich i n dieser F o r m a l
lerdings nicht aufrecht erhalten. D e r besagte Sarkophag
aus d e m M a l k u - G r a b s t a m m t aus einer
Seitenkammer,
13. Colledge, S. 261; vgl. die beilaufige Bemerkung ebendort, S. 70,
daB Reliefs von Frauen m i t unbedecktem K o p f selten sind.
14. Parlasca, Probleme, S. 39f, Taf. 6.2; hier Anhang, Nr. 1.
15. Eine Variante dieser Frisur zeigt die Frau auf einem Biistenrelief
i n Kopenhagen m i t Angabe des Todesjahres 149 n. Chr. (s. Anhang,
N r . 8). Das von m i r damit verglichene Relieffragment i n Gaziantep,
Inv. 2095 (zuletzt Parlasca, Grabreliefs, S. 10f, Taf. 7.1 m i t alterer Literatur), gehort vielmehr i n das mittlere 3. Jahrhundert (freundlicher
Hinweis von M . Bergmann). Mein Urteil stiitzte sich auf die von m i r
Ein Frauenkopf aus Palmyra
Abb. 4. Büstenrelief m i t Mann und Frau. Kalkstein. Kopenhagen, N y Carlsberg Glyptotek 1153.
die nach Aussage einer K o n z e s s i o n s i n s c h r i f t
Jahre 186 n. Chr. verkauft w o r d e n i s t .
16
erst i m
Als wahrschein
lichste D a t i e r u n g für den Sarkophag ergeben sich daraus
die u n m i t t e l b a r folgenden Jahre. D i e besprochene Frisur
w u r d e also n o c h i n den s p ä t e n 80-er Jahren des 2. Jahr
h u n d e r t s getragen. D i e E n t s t e h u n g des
Geschwister
reliefs i n B e i r u t kann deshalb n ä h e r an das inschriftliche
Todesdatum h e r a n g e r ü c k t werden. Anhaltspunkte für
die genauere Festlegung des m u t m a ß l i c h e n V o r b i l d s für
diese spezielle Haartracht fehlen, z u m a l a u ß e r h a l b Pal
myras geeignete V e r g l e i c h s s t ü c k e sehr selten sind. D i e
n ä c h s t e n Parallelen i m O s t e n b i e t e n das P o r t r ä t a u f
einem Intaglio aus A r m a z i s k h e v i i n T i f l i s
M u m i e n p o r t r ä t aus M e m p h i s i n L o n d o n .
17
1 8
sowie ein
H i e r sieht
m a n eine v o n k l e i n e n L ö c k c h e n a m S t i r n r a n d begrenzte
reproduzierte Photographie m i t stark verschattetem Hintergrund, auf
der die Frisur nicht klar genug zu erkennen ist.
16. Ingholt, MelUSJ 38 (1962), S. 102.
17. M . Lordkipanidze, " A u pays de la toison d'or," Les Dossiers:
Histoire et archeologie 88 (November 1984), S. 83, Abb. S. 84 links oben.
18. British Museum, Egyptian Department 29772: A. F. Shore, Por
trait Painting from Roman Egypt (London, 1972), S. 10 und 25, Taf. 7; K .
Parlasca, Ritratti di Mummie, vol. 2, Repertorio dArte delVEgitto grecoromano B (Rom, 1977), S. 43, Nr. 306, Taf. 72.3.
Abb. 5. Büstenrelief einer Frau. Kalkstein. London, B r i
tish Museum 125016.
111
112
Parlasca
Frisur, die v o n einer flachen Kranzflechte b e k r o n t w i r d .
D e r konische Teil der Haarpartie erinnert an die Struk-
Gruppe z w i n g e n d eine D a t i e r u n g i n hadrianische Z e i t .
Diese D a t i e r u n g bestatigt sich i m L i c h t e w e n i g e r
tur der 'Melonenfrisur'! E i n echtes Beispiel derselben
A u s n a h m e n etwas spaterer Z e i t s t e l l u n g , die eine fur die
ohne Kranzflechte ist, soweit ich sehe, i n Palmyra nur e i n -
Frisur der Crispina typische W e l l u n g aufweisen. V e r e i n -
mal belegt. Sie findet sich bei einer Biiste aus der Samm- zelte Vorstufen einer derartigen Haartracht i n R o m w i e
l u n g des auch u m die palmyrenische Epigraphik verdien-
z.B.
ten Semitisten Julius E u t i n g i n der StraBburger U n i v e r s i -
aus d e m H a t e r i e r g r a b
tatsbibliothek.
23
s i n d selbst f u r den
mischen Bereich so w e n i g t y p i s c h ,
19
E i n Teil der Parallelen f u r die besprochene Frisur gehort
wie
die bekannte Reliefbiiste der Z e i t u m 100 n . C h r .
das h i e r v o r g e s t e l l t e F r a g m e n t
Deckelreliefs v o n Sarkophagen
( A b b . la—b) z u
(Abb. 2 ) ;
n o r m a l e Biistenreliefs (Abb. 3—5)
2 1
2 0
andere sind
W i r wissen n i c h t ,
ob es sich hierbei u m unverheiratete j u n g e
Madchen
handelt, da diese Reliefs keine altersmaBig b e s t i m m -
24
stadtro-
daB sie als V o r b i l d
fiir die palmyrenischen Reliefs ausscheiden. Diese lassen
sich auch aus anderen G r i i n d e n , z . B . a u f g r u n d i h r e r
Augenbehandlung,
keinesfalls i n das f r u h e 2. J a h r
h u n d e r t h i n a u f d a t i e r e n . Das c h a r a k t e r i s t i s c h s t e
pal
m y r e n i s c h e B e i s p i e l fur die C r i s p i n a - F r i s u r ist eine
Biiste aus der S a m m l u n g E m i l e Bertone i m L o u v r e
2 5
baren Portrats darstellen u n d i n den Inschriften A n g a -
Das i m AusschlieBungsverfahren aus e i n e m betracht-
ben iiber das A l t e r der Verstorbenen fehlen. H a t t e es
lichen Denkmalerbestand gewonnene Resultat ist i n k u l -
B i i s t e n r e l i e f s j u n g e r M a d c h e n ohne m a t r o n a l e
Kopf-
turgeschichtlicher H i n s i c h t sehr aufschluBreich. D i e l i
tuchtracht ofter gegeben, so m i i B t e n Reliefs w e i b l i c h e r
berate Haarmode, w i e w i r diese A u s n a h m e n bezeichnen
Personen m i t unbedecktem Haupthaar aus alien Perioden
diirfen, ist praktisch a u f r u n d ein halbes Jahrhundert
der p a l m y r e n i s c h e n K u n s t e n t w i c k l u n g e r h a l t e n sein.
beschrankt. I h r B e g i n n fallt sicherlich n i c h t z u f a l l i g m i t
Dies ist aber eindeutig nicht der Fall. V i e l m e h r sind sie
der Zasur zusammen,
n u r A u s n a h m e n v o n der Regel u n d z u d e m a u f einen
des Kaisers H a d r i a n i n Palmyra w a h r e n d des Jahres 129
relativ k u r z e n Z e i t r a u m beschrankt.
(oder 130) n. Chr. m a r k i e r t w i r d
Abgesehen
v o n der besprochenen, d u r c h den
Kopf
die auBerlich d u r c h den Besuch
2 6
Der i m Zusammen-
hang m i t diesem Ereignis gewahrte Status einer freien
fruhantoninischen
Stadt m i t d e m T i t e l 'Hadriana scheint m i t t e l b a r bei den
G r u p p e g i b t es n o c h eine begrenzte A n z a h l anderer
Frauen eine aufgeschlossenere E i n s t e l l u n g zu westlichen
des G e t t y M u s e u m s reprasentierten
Reliefs, die Frauen m i t schlichtem, i n der M i t t e geschei-
M o d e g e w o h n h e i t e n b e w i r k t zu haben. ( B e i den M a n -
22
nern bestanden derartige Tendenzen seit jeher.) Dieser
t e l t e m Haar ohne D i a d e m u n d T u r b a n w u l s t
zeigen.
Diese Frisur ist i n modischer H i n s i c h t w e i t weniger aus-
T r e n d hat sich aber weder durchgesetzt n o c h langere
gepragt als die f n i h a n t o n i n i s c h e K r a n z f l e c h t e n t r a c h t ,
Z e i t h i n d u r c h behaupten konnen. Rein zahlenmaBig
z u m a l die r i i c k w a r t i g e n H a a r p a r t i e n n i c h t v e r g l i c h e n
b i l d e n die Reliefs dieser Gruppe auch i m Z e i t r a u m ihres
w e r d e n k o n n e n . D i e A u g e n b e h a n d l u n g schlieBt s o w o h l
V o r k o m m e n s n u r eine begrenzte M i n d e r h e i t . Fiir die
eine besonders fruhe D a t i e r u n g (1. Jahrhundert) als auch
spatere palmyrenische K u n s t ist eine konsequente, k o n -
eine solche i n die letzte Phase der palmyrenischen K u n s t
servative E i n s t e l l u n g der Frauen beziiglich i h r e r Tracht-
(3. J a h r h u n d e r t )
aus. I m R a h m e n der M o g l i c h k e i t e n
gewohnheiten charakteristisch. Modisch orientiertes Repra-
innerhalb des 2. Jahrhunderts reduziert sich die Frage
sentationsbediirfhis k o n n t e sich n u r n o c h i m B e r e i c h
auf die Alternative, ob hier eine Frisur der Sabina oder
der Schmucks a r t i k u l i e r e n , w o f u r zahlreiche spatere
der C r i s p i n a v o r l i e g t . Das H a a r fast k e i n e r
Bildnisreliefs ein beredtes Zeugnis ablegen.
dieser
schlicht frisierten Palmyrenerinnen weist die ausgepragt
schematische W e l l u n g auf, w i e sie seit der spateren
Friedrich-Alexander-Universitat
A n t o n i n e n z e i t ublich war. Deshalb ergibt sich fur die
Erlangen
19. Seit 1905, dem Todesjahr des Gelehrten (ehemals Direktor der
StraBburger Universitatsbibliothek), uninventarisiert i n seinem dortigen NachlaB. J.-B. Chabot, Choix dTnscriptions de Palmyre (Paris,
1922), S. 131, Taf. 30.9; CIS I I 3, S. 450£, Nr. 4539, Taf. 41; Colledge, S.
71 und 263, Tafelabb. 93 m i t Datierung i n das 3. Jahrhundert (nicht bei
Ingholt).
M . Stokstad, Handbook: Museum of Art (Lawrence, Kansas, 1962), S. 13
mit Abb.; C. C. Vermeule, ProcPhilSoc 108 (1964), S. 106; From the
Collection of the University of Kansas Museum of Art, Ausstellungskatalog
(Houston, 1971), Nr. 5 m i t Abb.
Unberiicksichtigt bleiben i n diesen Zusammenhang Biisten der
selben Zeit, bei denen das ahnlich frisierte Stirnhaar nicht von einem
Diadem verdeckt ist. V g l . eine Stele i n Palmyra: Parlasca, Grabreliefs,
S. 21—22, Taf. 24.4 m i t einem epigraphischen Exkurs von H . Heinen,
S. 33ff.
20. S. Anhang, Nr. 3, 5 und 10 (Abb. 2).
21. S. Anhang, Nr. 1, 2, 4, 6-9, und 11-15 (Abb. 3-5).
22. Ingholt, Berytus 3 (1936), S. 114, hat zuerst einige Beispiele fiir
diese Haartracht i n Palmyra zusammengestellt. V g l . ferner die Biiste
in Lawrence, Kansas, Helen Foresman Spencer Museum o f A r t 51.100:
23. Rom, Vatikan (ex-Lateran) 10126; E. Simon, i n : W. Helbig,
Fuhrer durch die bffentlichen Sammlungen klassischer Altertumer in Rom, 4.
Ein Frauenkopf aus Palmyra
113
Abb. 6. Frauenkopf aus einem Kalksteinrelief. Ehemals
in der Sammlung SchloB Goluchow, Polen.
Photo: Auktionskatalog H . Hoffmann, Paris,
15./16. Juni, 1891, Nr. 49, Taf. 5.
Abb. 1. Frauenkopf aus einem Kalksteinrelief. Kopenhagen, N y Carlsberg Glyptotek 1090.
ANHANG
Bustenreliefs und Sarkophagfragmente
1. Beirut, American University 2733: Ingholt, S. 37f. PS
15, Taf. 5.1 (die Mannerbiiste, S. 74f. PS 15 bis); CIS, B d . 2,
Teil 3, S. 345, Nr. 4256, Taf. 44; A. Champdor, Les mines de
Palmy re (Paris, 1953), Abb. S. 128 oben; Parlasca, Probleme, S.
39f£, Taf. 6.2; derselbe, Grabreliefs, S. 11, 26, A n m . 80: u m 150
n. Chr.
2. Ebendort, Inv. 2753: Ingholt, S. 142 PS 447; Champdor
(a. O., Nr. 1), Abb. S. 107 oben rechts.
3. Beirut, Privatsammlung H . Pharaon: unpubliziert. Eine
Photographie verdanke ich J. Starcky; s. o. Text zu A n m . 8.
Auflage, B d . 1 (Tubingen, 1963), S. 773f, Nr. 1071 (vgl. folgende
Anmerkung).
24. V g l . die von K . Fittschen zusammengestellten Beispiele (a. O.,
A n m . 9), S. 60 zu Nr. 80 (Nr. 6 seiner Liste ist die Biiste aus dem
Hateriergrab).
25. A O 21383; P. Amiet, RevLouvre 17 (1967), S. 297, Abb. 3; Vingt
ans d'acquisitions au Mush du Louvre, 1947-1967, Ausstellungskatalog
(Paris, Musee du Louvre, 1967), Nr. 18, m i t Tafel; Colledge, S. 71 und
294, A n m . 570, Tafelabb. 87 (mit Datierung i n das 3. Jahrhundert;
ohne Literaturangaben); J. Starcky, i n : Au pays de Baal et dAstarte,
Ausstellungskatalog (Paris, Musee du Louvre, 1983), S. 258, Nr. 2301
m i t Abb. Diese Biiste ist nicht identisch m i t dem von Ingholt (a. O.,
A n m . 22), S. 114, A n m . 249 erwahnten Exemplar derselben
Sammlung.
26. W. Weber, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaiser Hadrianus
(Leipzig, 1907), S. 237 ("130 n. Chr."); H . Seyrig, Syria 22 (1941), S.
164f. = AntSyr 3 (1946), S. 151-152; Colledge, S. 19-20 ("towards A.D.
129"); ahnlich J. Teixidor, The Pagan God (Princeton, N.J., 1977), S. 109
und 132; anders A. M . Dobias, Listy filologicke 55 (1928), S. 190ff; vgl.
RA, 1929, vol. 2, S. 398-399.
114
CIS,
Parlasca
4. Damaskus, Nationalmuseum 12: Ingholt, S. 143 PS 453;
Bd. 2, Teil 3, S. 417, Nr. 4449, Taf. 60; S. und A. Abdul-
Hak, Catalogue illustre du Departement
des Antiquites
13. Pittsfield, Mass., Berkshire Museum 03.7.2: Ingholt, S.
142 PS 449.
Greco14. Palmyra, Museum: A. Sadurska, ArchCl 27 (1975), S.
romaines au Musee de Damas (Damaskus, 1951), S. 36f., Nr. 21,
307, Taf. 61.1; dies., Le tombeau de famille
Taf. 15.2a; L. Hahl, Bonnjb 160 (1960), S. 21, Nr. 58; B. Zouhdi,
(1983), S. 316, A n m . 1 (hier Abb. 3).
Palmyre (Warschau, 1977), S. 160ff., Nr. 68, Abb. 108 (Frisur
1
nicht
erkannt, deshalb zu spat datiert in die erste Halfte des 3.
Jhs.).
5. Damaskus 4946 (10940) (Sarkophag aus dem Grab des
Malku): Abdul-Hak (a. Q , Nr. 4), S. 42, Nr. 37, Taf. 19.1; B.
15. Mentana (Rom), Privatsammlung F. Zeri; Ronzevalle
(a. Q , Nr. 9), Taf. 6.3 ( = S. 144), ohne Text.
"La Femme dans l'art de Palmyre," Damaszener
Zouhdi, in: Catalogue du Musee National
de Damas
Mitteilungen
(Damaskus,
1976), S. 121. V g l . die Bemerkungen des Ausgrabers, H . Ing
holt, "Tomb in the Syria Desert," Asia 41 (1941), S. 511; ders.,
"Some Sculptures from the Tomb o f Malku at Palmyra," i n
Melanges
offerts a K. Michafowski
ner J. Ambler, Bulletin,
(Warschau, 1966), S. 459.
City Art Museum
of St. Louis
Fer-
45 (1961),
S. 85, Abb. 3.
6. Istanbul, Archaologisches Museum 3727: Ingholt, S. 142
PS 451.
7. Ebendort 3740 (Doppelbiistenrelief): Ingholt, S. 142 PS
446; CIS, Bd. 2, Teil 3, S. 440, Nr. 4512, Taf. 50.
8. Kopenhagen, N y Carlsberg Glyptotek 2794 (datiert 149
n. Chr.): Ingholt, S. 64f. PS 39, Taf. 12.2; Champdor (a. O.,
Nr. 1), Abb. S. 10; Colledge, S. 71, Abb. 88.
9. Ebendort 1074: Ingholt, S. 142 PS 445; CIS, Bd. 2, Teil
3, S. 403£, Nr. 4408, Taf. 40; S. Ronzevalle, Orientalia 3 (1934),
S. 127, Taf. 6.1.
10. Ebendort 1150 ( O b e r t e i l der Figur einer Sarkophaggruppe): Ingholt, S. 142 PS 450 (hier Abb. 2).
11. Ebendort 1153 (Doppelbustenrelief): Ingholt, S. 143 PS
452; ders., Berytus 2 (1935), S. 80, Taf. 37.2; Colledge, S. 71,
263, Abb. 94 (hier Abb. 4).
12. London, British Museum W A A 125016: Ingholt, S. 142
PS 448; H.-P. Eydoux, Les grandes dames de Varcheologie (Paris,
1964), S. 264, Abb. 300; Colledge, S. 261, Gruppe I I V a (hier
Abb. 5).
Separate
de Alaine,
Bd.
7,
Kbpfe
16. Ehemals Goluchow (Polen), SchloB 149: Ingholt, S. 143
PS 454; Auktionskatalog H . Hoffmann, Paris, 15./16. Juni,
1891, S. 20, Nr. 49, Taf. 5 (beste Abbildung; danach hier Abb.
6); P. Biehkowski, Zapiski Muzealne 4/5 (1920), S. 20£, Nr. 17,
Taf. 10a; Hahl, (a. Q , Nr. 4), S. 22, Nr. 73 (zum Schmuck);
M . Gawlikowski, Studia palmy renskie 4 (1970), S. 87 bezweifelt
zu Unrecht den palmyrenischen Ursprung.
17. K o p e n h a g e n , N y C a r l s b e r g G l y p t o t e k 1090:
Ingholt, S. 143 PS 455; G. Rodenwaldt, Die Kunst der Antike:
Hellas und Rom, 4. Ausgabe (Berlin, 1944), S. 82£, 755, Abb. S.
686 (in den friiheren Aunagen, Abb. S. 666); D. Mackay, "The
Jewellery o f Palmyra and Its Significance," Iraq 11 (1949), S. 179,
Taf. 60.2; H . T h . Bossert u n d R. N a u m a n n ,
Altsyrien
(Tubingen, 1951), S. 37, Abb. 537; Hahl (a. Q , Nr. 4), S. 21,
Nr. 61; Eydoux (a. O., Nr. 12), S. 261, Abb. 297 (hier Abb. 7).
18. Malibu, The J. Paul Getty Museum 81.AA.170 (hier
Abb. l a - b ) .
19. Paris, Musee du Louvre A O 22248: Ingholt, S. 143 PS
456; A. de Ridder, Collection de Clercq, Bd. 4 (Paris, 1906), S.
76, Nr. 55, Taf. 30 (der nicht zugehorige Torso, Louvre A O
22249); Bossert und Naumann (a. Q , Nr. 17), S. 37, Abb. 538.
2 0 - 2 2 . Palmyra, M u s e u m (Magazin) B 539/1742, B
2531/8775 und B 2532/8776: drei unpublizierte Fragmente.
Child-Emperors and Heirs to Power in
Third-Century Portraiture
Susan Wood
T h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f specific c h i l d r e n and y o u n g ado
propaganda and as a means to present the b o y to the
lescents f r o m all periods o f R o m a n sculpture—and i n
public i n a favorable manner made the need for d i g n i t y
deed f r o m all periods o f the h i s t o r y o f art i n w h i c h
p a r t i c u l a r l y strong.
realistic portraiture has been attempted—presents par
These same problems make the identification o f p o r
ticular problems to the m o d e r n historian o f art. These
traits o f y o u n g boys particularly difficult for the art h i s
problems are for the most part the direct result o f the
torian. I n sculpture o f the t h i r d century after Christ, the
special challenges such portraits present to their artists.
i n c r e a s i n g t e n d e n c y t o w a r d abstraction o f a l l organic
T h e task o f the portrait sculptor w h o m u s t create a rec
forms further complicates the task. Yet i t is i n precisely
ognizable likeness is made more difficult w h e n his sub
this p e r i o d that several boys i n their early teens were
ject has the soft and u n f o r m e d features o f y o u t h : m a n y
elevated n o t o n l y to h i g h rank as heirs to power b u t ( i n
o f the traits that can most successfully be exploited to
name, at least) t o supreme c o m m a n d o f the e m p i r e .
signal i d e n t i t y and to express i n d i v i d u a l personality t e n d
Elagabalus was fifteen at the t i m e o f his acclamation b y
to be those that develop w i t h increasing age. F u r t h e r
the a r m y i n A.D. 218; his cousin Alexander Severus was
more, i n a society l i k e that o f I m p e r i a l Rome,
where
appointed as his Caesar at the age o f twelve i n A.D. 221
portraiture tended to be either funerary or public and
and succeeded h i m as Augustus a year later. G o r d i a n I I I
honorific, d i g n i t y w o u l d have been required for the pre
was o n l y fifteen i n A.D. 238 w h e n he was adopted as the
sentation o f most subjects. W h e n the subject was a c h i l d ,
Caesar o f Pupienus and Balbinus, w h o m he succeeded
that need generally insured that he w o u l d be represented
o n l y three m o n t h s later, f o l l o w i n g their assassination.
w i t h a l o o k o f precocious seriousness, regardless o f
A n d m a n y o f the short-lived adult emperors o f the t u r
w h e t h e r such an expression was t r u e t o the c h i l d ' s
b u l e n t century had sons w h o as mere c h i l d r e n or y o u n g
character. W h e n the c h i l d was a member o f the i m p e r i a l
teenagers were appointed to h i g h offices i n the generally
family, and i n particular w h e n he was a designated heir
futile hope o f securing some dynastic stability for the
to power, the importance o f the portrait as a vehicle o f
reigns o f their fathers. M o r e than the antiquarian p u r -
Abbreviations:
Bergmann
PIR
Bernoulli
Felletti Maj, Iconografia
Felletti Maj, I ritratti
Helbig
4
Gordianus III bis Carinus (Berlin, 1979).
M . Bergmann, Studien zum romischen Portrat des 3. Jahrhunderts n. Chr., vol. 18, Antiquitas, 3rd series (Bonn, 1977).
J. J. Bernoulli, Romische Ikonographie, vol.
2, pt. 3 (Stuttgart, 1894).
B. M . Felletti Maj, Iconografia Romana Imperiale (Rome, 1958).
B. M . Felletti Maj, Museo Nazionale Ro
mano: I ritratti (Rome, 1953).
W. H e l b i g , Fiihrer durch die offentlichen
Sammlungen klassischer Altertiimer in Rom,
4th ed., 4 vols, edited by H . Speier
(Tubingen, 1963-1972).
Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 1
H . Wiggers and M . Wegner, Das romische
Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 1, Caracalla bis Bal
binus (Berlin, 1971).
R. Delbrueck, Das romische Herrscherbild,
Poulsen
RIC 4
Roman Portraits
vol. 3, pt. 2, Die Munzbildnisse von Max-SHA
iminus bis Carinus (Berlin, 1940).
M . Wegner (with J. Bracker and W. Real),
Das romische Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3,
Prosopographia Imperii Romani, 1st ed.
(Berlin, vol. 1, 1897; vol. 2, 1897; vol. 3,
1898). 2nd ed., 4 vols. (Berlin and Leipzig,
vol. 1, 1933; vol. 2, 1936; vol. 3, 1943; vol.
4, 1952-1966).
V. Poulsen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek: Les
portraits romains, v o l . 2 (Copenhagen,
1974).
H . Mattingly, E. A. Sydenham, The Ro
man Imperial Coinage, vol. 4, pt. 1 (Lon
don, 1936); H . Mattingly, E. A. Sydenham,
and C. H . V. Sutherland, v o l . 4, pt. 2
(London, 1938), and pt. 3 (London, 1949).
J. Frel, Roman Portraits in the J. Paul Getty
Museum, ex. cat. (Tulsa, Oklahoma, Philbrook A r t Center, and Malibu, The J. Paul
Getty Museum, 1981).
Scriptores Historiae Augustae, 3 vols., The
Loeb Classical Library, trans. David Magie
(Cambridge, Mass. and London, 1953).
116
Wood
Figure 1. Elagabalus. Rome, Capitoline Museum, Stanza
degli Imperatori 470. Photo: Courtesy D A I ,
Rome.
pose o f m a t c h i n g names to faces makes correct i d e n t i
Figure
2. Alexander Severus. Paris, Musee du Louvre
Ma 1051. Photo: Courtesy Alinari.
sculpture and portraiture d u r i n g this period.
fications o f the official portrait types o f these youths an
i m p o r t a n t goal. T h e era o f the last Severans and soldier
SECURELY I D E N T I F I E D PORTRAITS
emperors was one o f rapid and radical changes i n art
T h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f the likenesses o f i m p e r i a l figures
w h i c h cannot be properly analyzed unless w e possess a
i n s c u l p t u r e - i n - t h e - r o u n d must generally be based u p o n
b r o a d selection o f securely dated w o r k s — w h i c h , where
c o m p a r i s o n o f the profiles o f p o r t r a i t heads to the l i k e
p o r t r a i t sculpture is concerned, means identifiable l i k e
nesses that appear w i t h i d e n t i f y i n g legends o n coins.
nesses o f public figures—to serve as guidelines for c h r o
However, coins present certain obvious drawbacks, n o
n o l o g y . H o w e v e r , the special p r o b l e m s presented b y
tably the small scales o f the flan and the freehand
portraits o f c h i l d r e n , the iconography o f the b o y A u -
c u t i o n o f the p r o f i l e s , w h i c h c o u l d v a r y d r a s t i c a l l y
gusti, and p a r t i c u l a r l y that o f the m a n y y o u n g Caesars,
depending u p o n the die-cutter's s k i l l and u p o n his access
has engendered m a n y controversies.
to a reliable p r o t o t y p e . Therefore, other means as w e l l
exe
T h e purpose o f this study w i l l be n o t so m u c h to
m u s t be used: sculptures i n the r o u n d can be c o m
advance any n e w i d e n t i f i c a t i o n for portraits o f any o f
pared to one another, and the i d e n t i t y o f a problematic
these youths as to review and assess some existing theo
object or g r o u p o f objects can often be c o n f i r m e d or dis
ries, and to consider the i m p l i c a t i o n o f various i d e n t i
proved o n the basis o f relationships to more securely
fications for o u r understanding o f the development o f
identified works.
1. Rome, Capitoline Museum, Stanza degli Imperatori 55, inv. 470.
Marble head. H : 0.46 m . Nose, chips from chin and from upper lip
restored. Surface damaged by harsh modern cleaning. Herrscherbild,
vol. 3, pt. 1, p. 151, w i t h complete earlier references; Bergmann, p. 22,
pi. 1, figs. 3—4. The identification originated w i t h Bernoulli, p. 88.
2. Oslo, Nasjonalgalleriet. Head and neck i n marble. H : 0.33 m ; o f
head alone 0.22 m . H . P. L'Orange, " Z u r Ikonographie des Kaisers
Elagabals," SymbOslo 20 (1940), pp. 152-159, figs. 1, 3, 4; H . von
Heintze, "Studien zu den Portrats des 3. Jahrhunderts, 7: Caracalla,
Geta, Elagabal, und Alexander Severus," RomMitt 73-74 (1966-1967),
p. 216; S. Nodelman, "Severan Imperial Portraits, A.D.. 193—217,"
(Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1965), pp. 384-388; Bergmann, p. 22;
Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 1, p. 150. Bergmann raises the possibility that
this work may be a modern forgery; since I have not seen the w o r k
except i n photographs, I am not able to make a definite judgment on
this theory, but based on published information concerning the condi-
Third-Century Child Portraits 117
Figure 3a. Alexander Severus. Rome, Vatican Museum,
Sala dei Busti 632.
Figure 3b. Profile o f Alexander Severus, figure 3a.
A portrait head i n the C a p i t o l i n e M u s e u m (fig. 1) is
generally agreed to represent Varius Avitus Bassianus,
1
c o m m o n l y k n o w n as Elagabalus. B o t h this head and a
replica i n O s l o
his
2
coincide w e l l w i t h the characteristics o f
coins: the compact, r o u n d head, s l i g h t l y c h u b b y
cheeks, large eyes, soft, c h i l d l i k e features, and
full-
3
l i p p e d m o u t h . T h e i m m a t u r e facial hair demonstrates
an age consistent w i t h Elagabalus's age, between fifteen,
w h e n he became emperor, and eighteen at the t i m e o f
his death. Some d o u b t concerning the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n has
been raised by v o n Heintze, w h o argues that the style o f
the C a p i t o l i n e head is t o o abstract to p e r m i t a date as
early as 218—222; she proposes instead that the head rep
resents the deified Alexander Severus i n a likeness made
4
l o n g after his death. B u t t h o u g h the exaggerated size
and
abstract regularity o f the arcs o f the eyes do fore
shadow styles o f the later t h i r d century, the soft and
tion o f its surface, I am inclined to agree w i t h those who accept it as
genuine.
3. RIC 4, pt. 2, pp. 23-44, nos. 1-204, pi. 2, figs. 2-20, and pi. 3,
figs, 1—6; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 1, pis. 38—41.
4. von Heintze (supra, note 2), pp. 218—219. A date for this w o r k
in the Gallienic period was also proposed i n the catalogue by the
British School i n Rome: H . Stuart Jones, ed., The Sculptures of the
Museo Capitolino (Oxford, 1912), p. 160, no. 55.
Figure
4. Alexander Severus. Rome, Capitoline M u
seum, Stanza degli Imperatori 480. Photo:
118
Wood
naturalistic m o d e l i n g o f the hair argues for an earlier
date. M u c h o f this seeming abstraction is due to a harsh
m o d e r n cleaning that has erased the subtleties o f m o d e l
i n g s t i l l visible i n the O s l o head.
A n exceptionally fine bust i n the B o s t o n M u s e u m o f
Fine A r t s ,
5
w h i c h portrays a r o u n d - f a c e d y o u n g b o y
w i t h o u t any facial hair, has recently been identified by
Vermeule as a p o r t r a i t o f Elagabalus at a slightly y o u n
6
ger age, circa A.D. 219. T h o u g h this w o r k does share
certain traits w i t h the C a p i t o l i n e head, such as fleshy lips
and large, wide-set eyes, the resemblances to the C a p
i t o l i n e Elagabalus (fig. 1) are n o t so strong as to prove
b e y o n d a d o u b t that the same person is represented. T h e
same is t r u e o f a less i m p r e s s i v e bust i n the M u s e o
Torlonia, w h i c h H . P. L'Orange has identified as E l a g
7
abalus. O n l y the C a p i t o l i n e - O s l o type, therefore, w h i c h
m u s t portray the boy-emperor near his death at the age
o f eighteen, can be securely accepted.
I n the case o f Alexander Severus i t is s i m i l a r l y those
types that portray h i m as a y o u n g adult that are most
c o m m o n l y accepted. O n the basis these portraits, h o w
ever, i t is quite easy to arrive at a secure i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
o f his c h i l d h o o d portraits. T w o securely established p o r
t r a i t types represent A l e x a n d e r .
8
O n e shows h i m i n
his late teens w i t h a l i t t l e " c h i n - s t r a p " beard, the other
as a y o u n g m a n i n his twenties w i t h a short b u t m o r e
Figure 5. Philip I I . Munich, Glyptothek und Antikensammlung 360. Photo: Hartwig Koppermann.
f u l l y developed beard. T h e former type is exemplified
b y a colossal head i n the L o u v r e (fig. 2), w h i c h s t i l l
example, the L o u v r e head (fig. 2) and the replica o f the
shows some b o y i s h softness i n the broad, fleshy oval
c h i l d type i n the C a p i t o l i n e m u s e u m
9
12
(fig. 4), no ques
f o r m o f the face. T h e latter, best represented by a head
t i o n remains that the same i n d i v i d u a l is p o r t r a y e d .
i n the Vatican (figs. 3a—b), has a more pinched and t h i n
Indeed the later type is an o n l y slightly m o d i f i e d version
ner l o w e r face, t h o u g h the bone structure is s t i l l n o t v e r y
strongly asserted.
10
o f the c h i l d - t y p e . T h e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g characteristics
T h e younger Alexander type bears a
include the overall shape o f the head w i t h its broad,
s t r i k i n g resemblance to a well-established g r o u p o f p o r
s l i g h t l y flat c r a n i u m and long, yet p l u m p , l o w e r face, the
traits r e p r e s e n t i n g
(fig. 4 ) .
1 1
a y o u n g b o y w i t h n o facial h a i r
W h e n these t w o types are c o m p a r e d ,
shape and expression o f the m o u t h w i t h its dreamy,
for
delicate smile, and the f o r m o f the hairline. I n all three
5. Marble bust o f a boy i n contabulate toga, Boston, Museum o f
Fine Arts 77.337. H : 0.71 m ; o f face 0.23 m . Part o f bust restored: spoolshaped base is modern. Most o f the nose is broken away; the break
seems to have been smoothed for a restoration that is now removed.
Preservation otherwise excellent. C. C. Vermeule, Iconographic Studies
(Boston, 1980), pp. 37-38, photographs pp. 49-51.
parts: head and neck. Restored: tip o f nose, small bib-bust. Surface
damaged by modern cleaning. Felletti Maj, Iconografia, pp. 92—93, no.
17, pi. 4, fig. 9; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 1, pp. 182, 190, pi. 52, w i t h full
literature; Bergmann, pp. 27—29.
6. Vermeule (supra, note 5), p. 38.
7. Rome, Museo Torlonia 574. L'Orange (supra, note 2), pp.
156-159; von Heintze (supra, note 2), pp. 216, 219, pi. 73, fig. 11;
Vermeule (supra, note 5), p. 38, no. 4, photographs pp. 55—56. L'Or
ange argues on stylistic grounds that this work is later, not earlier,
than the Capitoline-Oslo type. However, since the bust clearly shows
neither mustache nor sideburns, the boy—if he is indeed the same
subject—must be shown at a younger age than that indicated i n the two
more securely identified works. Vermeule differs from L'Orange i n
identifying this as a portrait o f the young Alexander Severus.
8. For a recent discussion o f these types, and the coin evidence for
their dating, see Bergmann, pp. 28—29.
9. Paris, Musee du Louvre M a 1051. Marble. H : 0.39 m . Original
10. Vatican, Sala dei Busti 361, inv. 632. Head set on modern bust.
Marble. H : 0.28 m . Nose, right ear, part o f left ear, and fragments o f
neck restored. Felletti Maj, Iconografia, pp. 94—95, no. 21, pi. 4, fig. 11;
H e l b i g , no. 186; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 1, p. 197, pi. 54; Bergmann,
pp. 27-29, pi. 2, fig. 3.
4
11. For a recent list o f members o f this type, see Bergmann, p. 26,
and my book, Roman Portrait Sculpture, A.D. 217-260: The Transformation
of an Artistic Tradition, vol. 12, Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition
(Leiden, 1986), pp. 124-125.
12. Rome, Capitoline Museum, Stanza degli Imperatori 69, inv.
480. Marble bust. H : 0.76 m . Foot o f bust restored, surface cleaned.
Provenance: Civita Lavinia. Felletti Maj, Iconografia, pp. 85—86, no. 2,
pi. 2, fig. 5; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 1, pp. 191—192; Bergmann, pp. 26,
28-29, pi. 2, fig. 2; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 43, 46-47, pis. 17a
and 18a, w i t h literature.
Thrid-Century Child Portraits 11119
Figure 6a. Philip I I . Malibu, The J. Paul Getty Museum
79.AB.120.
Figure 6b. Profile of Philip I I , figure 6a.
Figure 6c. Profile of Philip I I , figure 6a.
Figure 6d. Back of Philip I I , figure 6a.
120
Wood
Figure la. Maximus. Copenhagen, N y Carlsberg Glyptotek 819.
Figure lb. Profile o f Maximus, figure 7a.
Alexander types (figs. 2—4) the hair slopes u p w a r d f r o m
i n t e n t i o n a l , designed to r e m i n d viewers o f the last c o m
the left ear and temple i n a gentle diagonal, then rises
paratively stable rule w i t h legitimate dynastic claims to
s o m e w h a t h i g h e r t o w a r d the r i g h t - h a n d side,
p o w e r . B u t as B e r g m a n n has recently
where
demonstrated,
the strands o f hair s w i r l around a curve at the corner o f
several portraits o f P h i l i p I I can be distinguished f r o m
the forehead.
those o f Alexander Severus. T h e finest extant replica o f
17
T h e i d e n t i t y o f Alexander's c h i l d - t y p e was already es
tablished over fifty years ago by H . P. L'Orange,
13
who
has been f o l l o w e d by many scholars, i n c l u d i n g Felletti
Maj
1 4
and B e r g m a n n .
15
T h e authors o f the t w o latest
volumes o f Das römische Herrscherbild,
however, have at
t e m p t e d to revive an older i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f this type as
the type is a head i n the M u n i c h G l y p t o t h e k (fig. 5 ) .
18
T h e characteristic traits o f these sculptured heads i n
clude rectilinear contours, thinner lips, and m o r e reg
ular, h o r i z o n t a l hairlines, features also w e l l attested o n
the coins o f P h i l i p I I .
1 9
T h e s w i r l o f the hair a r o u n d the
r i g h t corner o f the forehead is an element o f s i m i l a r i t y
Philip
to Alexander Severus that the creator o f the type appears
II's portraits do indeed resemble those o f Alexander Sev
t o have stressed, b u t the contour o f Philip's forehead
erus, and the visual reference is very l i k e l y to have been
lacks the fluid, asymmetrical curve f r o m ear to ear o f the
13. H . P. L'Orange, Studien zur Geschichte des spätantiken
(Oslo, 1933), pp. 94-96.
this head to the Toulouse-Ostia-Getty type.
19. Coins o f Philip I I : RIC 4, pt. 3, pp. 95-104, nos. 213-272, pi. 8,
figs. 1-20, and pi. 9, figs. 8-10. Felletti Maj, Iconografia, pp. 182-183,
pi. 26, figs. 85-86; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 42-50, pis. 15-20.
20. Toulouse, Musee St.-Raymond 30.128. Marble head, life-size.
Part o f nose and rims o f ears broken off. Felletti Maj, Iconografia, p. 91,
no. 15, and p. 185; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 44, 49, pi. 15;
Bergmann, pp. 36—38, pi. 5, figs. 1—3.
21. Ostia Antica, Museo Ostiense 1129. Marble head. H : 0.18 m .
Unrestored; nose broken off. Felletti Maj, Iconografia, p. 89, no. 9;
H e l b i g , no. 3070; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 1, pp. 189-190; Bergmann,
pp. 35-38, pi. 4, figs. 1-2; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 25, 46.
P h i l i p I I , son o f P h i l i p the A r a b (A.D. 2 4 4 - 2 4 9 ) .
16
Porträts
14. Felletti Maj, Iconografia, pp. 85—91.
15. Bergmann, pp. 26—28.
16. Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 1, pp. 188, 191-192; Herrscherbild, vol. 3,
pt. 3, pp. 42-50, pis. 15-20.
17. Bergmann, pp. 35—38.
18. Munich, Glyptothek 360. Formerly set on a bust to which it did
not belong. Rims o f ears broken away; preservation otherwise good.
Felletti Maj, Iconografia, p. 85, no. 1, pi. 1, fig. 4 (as Alexander Severus);
Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 1, p. 189; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, p. 46. I am
indebted to S. Nodelman for pointing out to me the relationships o f
4
Figure 8a. Gordian III. Rome, Capitoline Museum, Sala
degli Imperatori 490. Photo: Courtesy D A I ,
Rome.
earlier boy-emperor. Instead, the forehead is o u t l i n e d as
Figure 8b. Profile o f Gordian III, figure 8a. Photo: Cour
tesy D A I , Rome.
suggest the childlike fleshiness o f the cheeks, despite the
a regular trapezoid w i t h nearly straight sides and o n l y
fact that their faces are far more rectangular i n shape than
s l i g h t l y r o u n d e d corners.
i n the portraits o f Alexander Severus. The M u n i c h replica
O t h e r replicas o f this type o f P h i l i p I I that can be
seems to have carried this taste for dry, geometric contours
accepted w i t h reasonable certainty are a life-size head i n
and volumes to greater lengths, giving the large, lunette-
Toulouse,
20
a miniature head i n Ostia,
21
and a recently
acquired b r o n z e i n the J. Paul G e t t y M u s e u m (figs.
shaped eyes a particularly compelling stare. A portrait i n
Castle H o w a r d ( w h i c h appears, unfortunately, to have
6a—d). T h e Getty replica is unfortunately badly damaged
been defaced by modern cleaning), may also belong to
i n the lower face, but i t clearly shows the characteristic
the type
22
2 3
forms o f the hairline and forehead, the same heavy brows
M a x i m u s , the son o f M a x i m i n u s T h r a x (A.D. 235—
and large, intense eyes that can be seen i n the M u n i c h
238), has also been reliably identified i n three p o r t r a i t
head. T h e M u n i c h example (fig. 5) differs f r o m the others
heads, all i n the N y Carlsberg G l y p t o t e k (figs. 7a—b).
i n emphasizing the thinness o f the subject's face and the
T h e p o r t r a i t s represent
angularity o f his delicate bone structure. The other replicas
s m o o t h , softly m o d e l e d face and delicate smile l i k e that
22. Malibu, The J. Paul Getty Museum 79.AB.120. Bronze head. H :
0.22 m . Top o f head missing; projecting flange around cranium may
have supported a radiate crown. Lower face crushed, several cracks and
holes i n center o f face provisionally repaired w i t h plastic. Roman Por
traits, pp. 104 and 131, no. 86.
124, no. 93; H . von Heintze, "Aspekte romischer Portratkunst," Gym
nasium, Beiheft 4 (1964), pp. 160—162; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 1, pp.
232 and 234, pi. 71; Poulsen, pp. 162—163, no. 166; Bergmann, pp.
32-33.
23. Castle Howard, under life-size head and neck set i n modern bust.
H : o f ancient part 0.21 m. Felletti Maj, Iconografia, p. 91, no. 14; Herrscher
bild, vol. 3, pt. 1, p. 187; Bergmann, pp. 36-38, pi. 4, figs. 3-4.
24. A l l three portraits o f Maximus are i n the N y Carlsberg Glyptotek i n Copenhagen:
A ) . Cat. 745, inv. 819. Marble head. H : 0.42m. Restorations now
removed: nose, part o f upper lip, chin, ears. Felletti Maj, Iconografia, p.
an a d o l e s c e n t
24
boy w i t h a
B) . Cat. 746, inv. 823. Marble head. H : 0.42m. Restorations now
removed: nose, lips, ears. Eyes badly damaged. Felletti Maj, Ico
nografia, pp. 123—124, no. 92, pi. 10, fig. 34; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 1,
p. 234, pi. 70a; Poulsen, pp. 162—163, no. 165. Other references as for
preceding.
C) . Cat. 759, inv. 826. Marble head. H : 0.34 m . Nose, chin, ears,
side o f neck damaged. Bernoulli, p. 157; Felletti Maj, Iconografia, p.
125, no. 96; von Heintze (supra, note 24), p. 161, pi. 16a.
122
Wood
o f Alexander Severus, but also w i t h a large and p r o t r u d
o f a b o y o n the w e l l - k n o w n sarcophagus f r o m A c i l i a
i n g jaw. T h i s feature, a f a m i l y characteristic i n h e r i t e d
has also been identified as Gordian, b u t t h o u g h this b o y
f r o m his father, is clearly represented o n his coins and
shares Gordian's t r i a n g u l a r face and s t r o n g l y o u t l i n e d
gives his profile a very characteristic shape sufficient to
secure the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n beyond serious d o u b t .
25
eyes, his hairline, m o u t h , and facial expression
3 2
show
significant discrepancies f r o m Gordian's standard types
3 3
Finally, G o r d i a n I I I (A.D. 238—244) is perhaps the most
O n the basis o f the securely identified portraits, then,
easily recognizable and w i d e l y represented o f the b o y -
w h a t overall conclusions can be d r a w n concerning p o r
emperors o f the t h i r d century. A t least t w e n t y securely
traiture o f children, w h i c h m i g h t be o f use i n dealing
i d e n t i f i e d portraits survive, all characterized by his s t r i k
w i t h the more problematic pieces? Even a m o n g the p o r
i n g l y i n d i v i d u a l features and by a distinctive style, w h i c h
traits o f the five boys w h o s e iconographies are w e l l
The
established, w e can observe the complex pattern o f ad
m a j o r i t y o f the extant portraits represent G o r d i a n I I I as a
vance, reaction, r e v i v a l , and a b r u p t change o f styles,
prepubescent b o y w i t h o u t facial hair (e.g., a bust i n the
w h i c h has led some scholars to despair o f tracing any
was t o prove h i g h l y influential i n later p o r t r a i t u r e .
C a p i t o l i n e M u s e u m , figs. 8a—b),
27
26
but several show a
l i g h t l y engraved mustache and occasionally sideburns as
w e l l (for example, a colossal bust i n Paris).
28
T h e later
coherent development i n sculpture o f this p e r i o d .
34
In
the C a p i t o l i n e (fig. 1) and O s l o portraits o f Elagabalus,
the s i m p l i c i t y o f detail and compactness o f v o l u m e call
p o r t r a i t s also suggest increased m a t u r i t y t h r o u g h a
a t t e n t i o n to the large, intense eyes and b i g , slightly open
t h i c k e n i n g o f the neck and a heavier, broader
treatment
m o u t h . I n the portraits o f Alexander Severus w e see a
o f the j a w . B o t h the b o y h o o d and adolescent types,
rejection o f these dramatic effects, a reduction o f the size
however, have a basically triangular face, tapering f r o m a
o f the eyes i n p r o p o r t i o n t o the o t h e r features,
broad, convex forehead t o w a r d a small, k n o b b y c h i n ; a
longer, more gently curved contours. T h e hair is swept
peaked hairline; r o u n d cheeks; narrow,
s m o o t h l y f r o m left to r i g h t rather t h a n tossed
almond-shaped
eyes that t e n d to slant d o w n w a r d t o w a r d the nose; a
and
and
disheveled.
p r o t r u d i n g upper l i p w i t h a sharp, beaklike d i p at its
T h e portraits o f M a x i m u s show close relationships to
center; and a characteristic f r o w n i n g expression. I n p r o
those o f A l e x a n d e r Severus and m a y conceivably be
file, the r o u n d e d forehead, j u t t i n g l i n e o f the nose,
based o n a p r o t o t y p e by the same master portraitist.
receding l o w e r l i p , and p r o m i n e n t , r o u n d c h i n make
Those o f Gordian, o n the other hand (figs. 8a—b), differ
G o r d i a n ' s p o r t r a i t s r e a d i l y r e c o g n i z a b l e a n d easy t o
m a t c h w i t h his n u m i s m a t i c likeness.
29
s t r i k i n g l y f r o m Alexander's i n the h a r d a n g u l a r i t y o f
their volume, line, and contour. T h e surface is no longer
Several other more controversial identifications have
l u m i n o u s l y polished and u n i t e d by fluid m o d e l i n g , b u t
been made o f Gordian, w h i c h have, however, been gen
i n t e r r u p t e d by sharply cut lines o f shadow that o u t l i n e
erally rejected. A g r o u p o f portraits o f a round-cheeked
or define certain features. Finally, the portraits o f P h i l i p
y o u n g b o y ( i n c l u d i n g fig. 9, a bust i n the Vatican, to be
I I (figs. 5, 6a—d) show a retreat f r o m the abstract effects
discussed at more l e n g t h later) have been i d e n t i f i e d b y
o f Gordian's portraits and a style sufficiently s i m i l a r to
30
the portraits o f Alexander Severus to have caused some
v o n H e i n t z e as the most y o u t h f u l type o f G o r d i a n .
These w o r k s , however, share w i t h the portraits o f G o r
confusion i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e m f r o m the latter's c h i l d
dian neither the characteristic features described above
h o o d type.
n o r t h e i r stiff, subtly abstract p a t t e r n i n g .
25. Coins ofMaximus: RICA,
31
The portrait
I n each o f these cases, o f course, style is i n part dic-
pt. 2, pp. 154-157, nos. 1-18, pi. 10, pl. 38; Felletti Maj, Iconografia, pp. 151-152, no. 152, pi. 19, figs. 61-62;
figs. 11—13, and pi. 11, fig. 9; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 2, pi. 1, figs 11, 12,
14.
26. For a thorough, recent listing o f the extant portraits o f Gordian
I I I , see Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 20—29.
27. Rome, Capitoline Museum, Stanza degli Imperatori 78, inv.
490. Marble bust. H : 0.45 m. Restorations to nose, ears, left temple.
Bernoulli, p. 133, no. 17, pp. 135, 175; Stuart-Jones (supra, note 4), p.
212, no. 78, pi. 52; Felletti Maj, Iconografia, p. 150, no. 150, pi. 20, fig.
60; von Heintze, "Studien zu den Portrats des 3. Jahrhunderts n. Chr;
1: Gordian I I I , " RomMitt 62 (1955), pp. 181-182, pi. 68, figs. 2, 4;
H e l b i g , no. 1321; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, p. 26.
4
28. Paris, Musee du Louvre M a 1063. Half-body bust (possibly cut
down from a statue). H : 0.75 m . Restored: tip o f nose, fragment o f
sword and part o f left hand, chips o f drapery. Right arm broken away
at elbow, restored arm now removed. Bernoulli, p. 131, no. 1, p. 134,
J. Charbonneaux, La Sculpture grecque et romaine au Musee du Louvre
(Paris, 1963), p. 179, no. 1063 and p. 180, w i t h illustration; Herrscherbild,
vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 19, 26, pi. 8, w i t h full literature.
29. Coins o f Gordian I I I : RIC 4, pt. 3, pp. 1-52, pis. 1-4; Herrscher
bild, vol. 3, pt. 2, pp. 70-78, pis. 2 (fig. E), 3-5.
30. von Heintze (supra, note 27), pp. 174—184; idem, "Studien zu
den Portrats des 3. Jahrhunderts n. Chr, 5: Der Knabe des AciliaSarkophags," RomMitt 66 (1959), pp. 177—179. von Heintze identifies
four replicas o f this type: Vatican, Sala dei Busti 345; Florence, Uffizi
Gallery 1914.226; Innsbruck, Archaologische Sammlung der Universitat, head o f a boy (accession number unavailable); Copenhagen, N y
Carlsberg Glyptotek 828, cat. 766. Another portrait, i n Paceco, Sicily,
in the collection o f Baron Curatolo, was identified by K . Fittschen as a
fifth replica, "Bemerkungen zu den Portrats des 3. Jahrhunderts n.
Chr.," J^/84 (1969), pp. 214-216.
tated by political circumstances and by the message that
T h e portraits o f M a x i m u s (figs. 7a —b), l i k e the later
each w o r k was meant to convey. Despite the differences
ones o f P h i l i p I I , appear to make i n t e n t i o n a l references
i m p o s e d by circumstances, however, some stylistic c o n
to those o f Alexander Severus. T h e o n l y hope o f his
tinuities can be traced i n the portraits. Varius A v i t u s
father, M a x i m i n u s T h r a x , for r e c o n c i l i n g the public to
Bassianus was a zealous devotee and priest o f the Syrian
his usurpation o f power was to present h i m s e l f as the
sun g o d Heliogabalus, f r o m w h o m his nickname is de
bearer o f a n e w political and m i l i t a r y stability and as the
rived.
35
T h e rapt and intense expression o f his p o r t r a i t ,
founder o f a new, stable dynasty. For this reason, his son
w i t h its parted lips, w i d e n e d eyes, and suggestion o f
M a x i m u s , w h o embodied his dynastic ambitions, had t o
m o v e m e n t may w e l l be designed to convey a s p i r i t u a l
be represented
and ecstatic character. After the assassination o f E l a g
princes," w i t h an air o f aristocratic grace and detach
abalus, Alexander Severus w o u l d have had an urgent and
ment.
obvious need to distance h i m s e l f f r o m the character and
his predecessor's portraits c o n t i n u e d to be used i n those
r e p u t a t i o n o f his hated predecessor. Hence, the presenta
o f his son, even t h o u g h M a x i m i n u s T h r a x h i m s e l f
t i o n o f Alexander i n all three o f his p o r t r a i t types is
was portrayed w i t h a harsh, b r u t a l realism that expressed
placid and s m i l i n g (figs. 2 — 4). O n the other hand, his
the m i l i t a r y virtues that had enabled h i m to seize and
p o r t r a i t s share w i t h those o f Elagabalus
exercise power
a taste for
closed, simple contours and a treatment o f the hair as a
shallow, almost volumeless mass.
36
37
according to the traditions for " c r o w n
Inevitably, therefore, the f o r m a l vocabulary o f
3 8
3 9
T h e portraits o f M a x i m u s (figs. 7a—b) were o f course
Furthermore, i f the
meant to display a family resemblance w i t h the realistic
head i n O s l o is a representative example o f Elagabalus's
portraits o f his father, w i t h elements borrowed from those
portraits, they seem to have shared w i t h those o f A l e x
o f Alexander Severus. The m o u t h still has its delicate little
ander a subtle b u t rich m o d e l i n g o f the s k i n areas and a
smile, the eyes their elegantly drawn curves, and the sur
c a l l i g r a p h i c elegance i n the o u t l i n i n g o f the eyes. I n
face the same glasslike polish, but the bone structure under
m a n y portraits o f Alexander Severus, the fluidity o f the
the silky skin is far more prominent and angular. N o t o n l y
m o d e l i n g is emphasized by a l u m i n o u s , glasslike p o l i s h
do the chin and j a w j u t strongly forward, but the lower
that gives the " s k i n " a l i v i n g , translucent quality.
h a l f o f the forehead and the eyebrow ridge also protrude,
T h e rather vapid and emotionless appearance o f A l e x
thus calling attention to the eyes. A subtle but telling dif
ander's t w o earlier portrait types (figs. 2 and 4) seems to
ference f r o m the portraits o f Alexander Severus is the hair
have become dissatisfactory once the m e m o r y o f the u n
line, w h i c h i n the portraits o f M a x i m u s forms a neatly
popular Elagabalus had had a chance to fade. T h e last
squared-off trapezoid, w i t h a straight line above the fore
p o r t r a i t type o f Alexander (figs. 3a—b), w i t h its t h i n n e r
head and crisp angles at the corners.
cheeks and more pinched lower face, no longer has the
I n the portraits o f the next boy-emperor, G o r d i a n I I I
s y m m e t r i c a l balance o f the earlier w o r k s , w h i c h i n v i t e d
(238 — 244), the taste for simple, closed c o n t o u r s and
the viewer's gaze to travel over the w h o l e surface. I n
compact volumes is s t i l l evident, b u t the tendency is
stead, the more triangular shape o f the face tends to
t o w a r d angularity o f f o r m and emphasis o n a few ex
d r a w a t t e n t i o n to the level o f the eyes. T h e eyes t h e m
pressive features. T h e decorative grace o f the late Seve-
selves, t h o u g h n o t overly large, have s t r i k i n g l y deep and
ran style has been decisively rejected. T h e abstract style
elongated tearducts, w h i c h dip d o w n t o w a r d the nose
described above seems deliberately harsh, perhaps be
w i t h a calligraphic
cause the creator o f Gordian's p o r t r a i t types felt that a
flourish.
31. Fittschen (supra, note 30), pp. 214—225.
32. Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano 126.372. Marble sarcophagus
o f "bathtub" form, pieced together from fragments discovered i n 1950
near Acilia. Left end well preserved, but from middle o f front to right
end little is preserved o f the figures except their feet. The cover is lost.
The head o f the portrait-figure o f the boy is broken o f f and reset, but
fits neatly along breaklines; it was definitely not recut or substituted
for a different head i n antiquity. O n l y the lower half o f the portrait
face o f the man near the center is preserved. R. Bianchi-Bandinelli,
"Sarcofago da Acilia con la designazione di Gordiano I I I , " BdA 4th
ser., 39 (1954), pp. 200-220; Felletti Maj, Iconografia, pp. 148-149, no.
147, pi. 17, fig. 56; von Heintze (supra, note 30), p. 184, no. 24, and pp.
185-191, pi. 49, fig. 1, pi. 50, fig. 1, pi. 51, fig. 2, p l 55, fig. 2; Herrscher
bild, vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 163—164; M . Sapelli, i n A. Giuliano, ed., Museo
Nazionale Romano: le sculture, vol. 1, pt. 1 (Rome, 1979), pp. 298—304,
no. 182, w i t h full literature.
4
33. Bianchi-Bandinelli (supra, note 32), pp. 204—209.
34. E.g., D. Strong, Roman Art, 2nd ed., edited by J. Toynbee (Harmondsworth, 1980), pp. 228, 250-255.
35. SHA, "Heliogab." I . 5-7, III. 4-5, V I . 6-9.
36. O n the incised pattern o f locks, or "a penna" treatment o f the
hair o f Alexander Severus, see Felletti Maj, Iconografia, p. 86.
37. See von Heintze (supra, note 30), pp. 178, 180.
38. O n the portraits o f Maximinus, see Felletti Maj, Iconografia, pp.
114-121; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 1, pp. 223-228.
39. See B. Schweitzer, "Altromische Traditionselemente i n der
Bildniskunst des 3. nachchristlichen Jahrhunderts," i n E. Wasmuth,
ed., Zur Kunst der Antike: Ausgewdhlte Schriften, vol. 2, (Tubingen,
1963), p. 273.
124
Wood
cool, aristocratic detachment t r a d i t i o n a l i n official p o r
traits o f boys.
T h e portraits o f P h i l i p I I (fig. 5), l i k e those o f his
father, P h i l i p the Arab, m a r k an abrupt change i n style
f r o m that o f the official images o f the preceding r e i g n .
L i k e the portraits o f b o t h his f a t h e r
O t a c i l i a Severn,
43
42
41
and his mother,
they appear superficially to be more
naturalistic than those o f Gordian, s h o w i n g a renewed
softness i n the treatment o f the fleshy parts o f the face.
O n the other hand, despite the obvious allusions to the
portraits o f Alexander Severus, the face definitely does
n o t smile; the lips appear taut and tense. T h e eyes are
subtly enlarged, their upper lids strongly arched to sug
gest that they are very w i d e l y opened, and their curves
emphasized b y the deeply cut grooves o f the o r b i t a l
folds, w h i c h r u n closely parallel to the r i m s o f the eye
lids. A n especially g e o m e t r i c hardness i n the r e c t a n
gular contours can be most clearly seen i n the M u n i c h
p o r t r a i t , b u t even the m o r e s t y l i s t i c a l l y
conservative
Toulouse replica has a noticeably blockier head than the
earlier portraits o f Alexander Severus. T h u s , this p o r
t r a i t t y p e d e m o n s t r a t e s the c o n t i n u e d t r e n d t o w a r d
compact f o r m , t o w a r d angular, geometric v o l u m e and
contour, and t o w a r d expressive emphasis o n a few i m
Figure 9. Bust o f a boy. Rome, Vatican Museum, Sala
dei Busti 345.
p o r t a n t features.
These portraits o f i m p e r i a l c h i l d r e n f o l l o w stylistic
trends that can also be traced i n the images o f adults.
certain degree o f austerity w o u l d be effective for c o n
T h e patterns o f abstraction i n the likenesses o f G o r d i a n
v e y i n g an air o f a u t h o r i t y i n a y o u n g face. I t is most
I I I f i n d very close parallels i n some portraits o f the adult
s i g n i f i c a n t that instead o f the detached and s p i r i t u a l
Balbinus
smile seen i n the portraits o f Alexander Severus and
contemporaries
M a x i m u s , G o r d i a n has a definite f r o w n b o r r o w e d f r o m
traits o f g r o w n m e n c o u l d n o t be applied to those o f
the artistic conventions for the official images o f adult
4 4
as w e l l as i n anonymous private busts o f his
45
B u t other trends evident i n the p o r
children. T h e so-called impressionistic style o f the ear
As adapted for the boyish face o f G o r d i a n ,
lier t h i r d century depended for m u c h o f its effect o n the
however, the scowl has been frozen i n t o a s t i f f pattern,
i n t e r r u p t i o n o f surfaces by deeply carved furrows and
w h i c h allows Gordian's likenesses to retain some o f the
w r i n k l e s and o n the movement o f the resulting pattern
40. The device originated w i t h Caracalla's "Tyrannentypus" (Herr
scherbild, vol. 3, pt. 1, pp. 28—35; Nodelman [supra, note 2], pp.
185—203; Bernoulli, pp. 58—63), and was widely imitated i n portraits
o f the soldier emperors such as Macrinus and Maximinus.
41. For a more thorough discussion o f the differences o f the por
traits o f Gordian and his wife Tranquillina from those o f Philip the
Arab and his family, see my article, "Subject and Artist: Studies i n
Roman Portraiture o f the T h i r d Century," A]A 85 (1981), pp. 59-68.
o f A r t . M . Giitschow, Das Museum der Praetextatkatakombe, vol. 4,
MemPontAcc, 3rd ser. (1938), pp. 77-106, pis. 10-12; B. Schweitzer
(supra, note 39), p. 277; Felletti Maj, Iconografia, pp. 142-143, no. 136,
pi. 15, fig. 50, and pi. 16, figs. 51—52; H . Jucker, "Die Behauptung des
Balbinus," AA 81 (1966), pp. 501-514; H . Jucker, " A Portrait Head o f
the Emperor Balbinus," Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art 54
(1967), pp. 11-16; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 1, p. 247.
emperors.
40
42. See Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 30-41 and pis. 11-14; Felletti
Maj, Iconografia, pp. 169—177, pis. 23—25.
43. O n the identification o f the type that I believe to represent
Otacilia, see Bergmann, pp. 39—41; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, pp.
57-62; Wood (supra note 41), pp. 61-64.
44. The best examples o f the portraits o f Balbinus that display this
style are the figures on the relief o f the box-part o f his sarcophagus i n
Rome, Museo delle Catacombe di Pretestato. Marble. H : 1.17 m ; L:
2.32 m ; D : 1.31 m ; cover: H . 0.83 m ; L: 2.32 m; D : 1.17 m. Recon
structed from fragments discovered during excavation o f the catacomb.
One portrait head, excavated separately, is i n the Cleveland Museum
45. A particularly good example o f an adult portrait similar i n style
to those o f Gordian III is a bust i n Copenhagen, N y Carlsberg Glyp
totek, cat. 761, inv. 827. H : 0.38 m. T i p o f nose chipped and forehead
battered, front cleaned but back still covered w i t h calcareous accre
tions. N o restorations. F. Poulsen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek: Catalogue of
Ancient Sculpture, 2nd ed., trans. W. E. Calvert (Copenhagen, 1951),
no. 761; Poulsen, p. 178, no. 181, pis. 293-294.
46. O n the impressionistic style, see H . P. L'Orange, "PlotinusPaul," i n Likeness and Icon (Odense, 1973), pp. 32—42, originally pub
lished i n Byzantion 25-27 (1955/1957), pp. 473-485.
47. O n the portraits o f the young Gallienus, see L. M c C o u l l , "Two
N e w T h i r d Century Imperial Portraits i n the N y Carlsberg Glyp-
of line.
4 6
Since such devices c o u l d o b v i o u s l y n o t be
portraits i n stone can be more than tentative either.
applied to the faces o f c h i l d r e n , artists were forced to
I f these five p o r t r a i t s represent an i m p e r i a l c h i l d ,
seek other means to achieve expressive force for their
t h e n the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n as D i a d u m e n i a n is b y far the
y o u n g subjects, and for those purposes, the more ab
m o s t plausible yet advanced, and i n d e e d perhaps the
stract and geometric style was very w e l l suited. I t is
o n l y one possible. However, Wegner has argued i n the
perhaps no accident that a b o l d and progressive use o f
latest v o l u m e o f Herrscherbild
that despite superficial re
this style f o u n d its first widespread use i n the portraits
semblances t o one another,
the five p o r t r a i t s o f the
o f G o r d i a n I I I , t h o u g h i t was later developed to a level o f
so-called " D i a d u m e n i a n " type do n o t after all f o l l o w a
m u c h greater sophistication i n those o f the adult e m
common original
peror G a l l i e n u s .
47
5 2
A l l share certain stereotypical c h i l d
l i k e characteristics—soft
features,
r o u n d cheeks, and
large, w i d e eyes, for example—but o n l y the V a t i c a n
(fig. 9) and F l o r e n c e
I D E N T I F I C A T I O N S I N SEARCH OF PORTRAITS
A l l the reasonably secure identifications discussed so
54
53
examples seem to be true replicas
o f a p o r t r a i t type. These busts share an energetic t u r n o f
far b e l o n g t o the f i r s t h a l f o f the t h i r d century. N o
the head to the right, a slight flare o f the eyebrows t o
portrait o f the c r o w n princes after P h i l i p I I has been
w a r d their outer corners, a pattern o f short locks o f hair
identified w i t h any certainty, perhaps due i n part to the
b r u s h e d l e f t - t o - r i g h t across a straight h a i r l i n e , and a
increasingly abstract style o f portraiture f r o m the 250s
bust costumed i n cuirass and p a l u d a m e n t u m . T h e o t h
o n w a r d . O n e prince f r o m the early t h i r d c e n t u r y s t i l l
ers differ i n details o f physiognomy, pose, facial expres
presents a p r o b l e m however: D i a d u m e n i a n , the son o f
sion, and arrangement o f locks o f hair a r o u n d the face.
the s h o r t - l i v e d usurper M a c r i n u s (A.D. 217 — 218). T h e
V o n H e i n t z e dismisses some o f these variations as at
g r o u p o f five portraits that v o n H e i n t z e identified as the
t r i b u t a b l e t o l i b e r t i e s taken by c o p y i s t s .
young Gordian I I I
4 8
and that has also been a t t r i b u t e d
to Saloninus, the son o f Gallienus
4 9
(fig. 9) appears o n
55
W h i l e i t is
true, however, that such variations can be f o u n d w i t h i n
replicas o f a single R o m a n portrait type, the tendency o f
stylistic grounds to b e l o n g close to the appropriate date
c h i l d portraits to f o l l o w standard formulae should make
for portraits o f D i a d u m e n i a n . Fittschen has argued by
us w a r y o f g r o u p i n g t h e m together o n the grounds o f
process o f e l i m i n a t i o n that this is w h o m t h e y m u s t
general physical resemblance alone.
represent, since their style cannot be later than the Sev-
Another portrait type, represented by a head i n W o b u r n
eran period; furthermore, none matches the established
Abbey and one i n the Lenbachhaus i n M u n i c h , has been
likenesses o f any other y o u n g princes o f that t i m e , such
proposed by Meischner as a likeness o f D i a d u m e n i a n
as Caracalla, Geta, or A l e x a n d e r Severus.
50
56
However,
These heads conform somewhat better to Diadumenian's
they differ i n one significant detail f r o m the c o i n p o r t r a i t
coins than does the Vatican-Florence type, and they seem
o f D i a d u m e n i a n : the c h i n l i n e o f the sculptured portraits
to portray the child closer to his age (about nine years old)
is soft and fleshy, w h i l e the coins show a s l i m throat and
at the t i m e o f his father's election by the a r m y
straight j a w l i n e .
5 1
I t is possible,
o f course,
that
the
Lenbachhaus
5 7
The
head, however, like the Vatican-Florence
scarce, hastily m i n t e d coins o f this prince are unreliable
type, appears to have had a soft, fleshy chinline u n l i k e that
as likenesses, b u t i n that case, no i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f his
o f Diadumenian's coin profiles, though the breakage o f
totek," Berytus 17 (1967/1968), pp. 66-71; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, pp.
107-108; Bergmann, pp. 51-53.
49. Felletti Maj, Iconografia, pp. 243—246. For a discussion o f this
identification, see Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 123—125.
50. Fittschen (supra, note 30), pp. 214-225. Poulsen, pp. 140-141,
reaches the same conclusion for different reasons: he argues that the
Copenhagen replica, cat. 766, bears a family resemblance to another
head i n Copenhagen, cat. 750, which Poulsen believes to represent
Macrinus. However, the latter identification has not been widely
accepted.
1908), p. 533, no. 345, pi. 69; Felletti Maj, Iconografia, p. 244, no. 333;
von Heintze (supra, note 27), pp. 175-176, pi. 66; Helbig*, no. 180;
Fittschen (supra, note 30), pp. 204, 214-225, figs. 29 and 39; Herrscher
bild, vol. 3, pt. 1, p. 41, n. 95, and pp. 83, 112; Herrscherbild, vol. 3,
pt. 3, p. 28
54. Florence, Uffizi Gallery 1914.226. Marble bust. H : 0.53 m ; o f
head 0.22 m . T i p o f nose and fragment o f drapery restored, preserva
tion otherwise good. Bernoulli, p. 74; Felletti Maj, Iconografia, p. 245,
no. 334; von Heintze (supra, note 27), p. 176, pi. 67, figs. 1—2;
G. Mansuelli, Galleria degli Uffizi: Le sculture, vol. 2 (Rome, 1961),
pp. 113, no. 139; Fittschen (supra, note 30), pp. 214—225, figs. 27 and
35; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 22 and 125.
51. RIC 4, pt. 2, pp. 13-14, nos. 100-118, p. 22, nos. 211-220, pi. 1,
figs. 17—21, pi. 2, fig. 1, and pi. 5, figs. 13—16. See also Herrscherbild,
vol. 3, pt. 1, p. 142; von Heintze (supra, note 27), p. 178.
52. Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 124-125.
53. Vatican, Sala dei Busti 345. Marble bust. H : 0.44 m., o f head
0.20 m . Nose, fragments o f ears, left cheek, and drapery restored, but
head and cuirassed bust are preserved i n one piece. Bernoulli, p. 65; W.
Amelung, Die Skulpturen des vatikanischen Museums, vol. 2 (Berlin,
55. von Heintze (supra, note 27), p. 177.
56. J. Meischner, "Der Diadumenian Woburn-Munchen," A A 85
(1970), pp. 241—247. For a dissenting opinion, see Herrscherbild, vol. 3,
pt. 1, pp. 144-145.
57. Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 1, p. 141. O n the birth date o f Diadume
nian, Wegner cites SHA, "Diadumenian," V.4—5, and Cassius D i o
LXXIX.20,1.
126
Wood
m a n d e d the army, at least i n name, d u r i n g a campaign i n
I l l y r i c u m against the Goths, w h i c h w o u l d tend to i n d i
cate that he was a y o u n g adult i n 2 5 1 .
59
A l l k n o w n coins
o f Herennius and o f his younger brother, however, show
t h e m as boys w i t h o u t any facial h a i r .
60
As Fittschen has
argued, i f Decius had f u l l - g r o w n sons, i t is u n l i k e l y that
he w o u l d have failed to stress their m a t u r i t y and readi
ness for p u b l i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n t h e i r c o i n i m a g e s .
61
Because o f these c o n f l i c t i n g data, p o r t r a i t s that have
been i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the sons o f Decius range f r o m the
bearded y o u n g general o f the great L u d o v i s i battle sar
cophagus to the portraits o f very y o u n g c h i l d r e n
6 2
V o n Heintze's i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the L u d o v i s i general as
the y o u n g e r son, H o s t i l i a n u s , has been accepted b y
some scholars and amended by others, w h o w o u l d prefer
to i d e n t i f y the figure w i t h the older brother,
nius.
63
Heren
Problems o f age aside, however, there is another
i m p o r t a n t discrepancy between the p o r t r a i t o n the sar
cophagus and the c o i n profiles o f b o t h o f Decius's sons.
A s Fittschen has p o i n t e d out, b o t h boys w o r e their hair
clipped short, w h i l e the L u d o v i s i general's hair forms
l o n g , w a v y locks that lie s m o o t h l y along the scalp b u t
are n o t clipped i n the m i l i t a r y " c r e w c u t " typical o f the
f i r s t h a l f o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y .
64
T h e h a i r s t y l e o f the
L u d o v i s i general does n o t appear to have become fash
Figure 10. Bust o f an unidentified young boy. Rome,
Capitoline Museum, Sala degli Imperatori
481. Photo: Courtesy D A I , Rome.
ionable u n t i l several years later, t o w a r d the end o f the
coregency o f V a l e r i a n and Gallienus (A.D. 253—260).
These identifications o f the portrait o n the battle sar
the piece makes certainty difficult. Again the similarites
cophagus rest p r i m a r i l y o n the cross-shaped m a r k o n the
o f these t w o heads may be due more to conventions for
general's forehead, w h i c h seems to be shared by some
representing
c o i n profiles o f Decius and his sons, and w h i c h may be
y o u t h f u l faces t h a n t o the i d e n t i t y o f
the m a r k o f M i t h r a i c i n i t i a t i o n .
their subject.
65
I f this explanation o f
T h e portraits o f the sons o f Trajan Decius, Herennius
the sphragis is correct, however, the m a r k is l i k e l y to have
Etruscus and Hostilianus, have given rise to more c o n
been borne by other initiates as w e l l . T w o life-size p o r
troversy than those o f any other princes o f the t h i r d
traits i n the r o u n d have been identified as replicas o f the
century. N o t even the birthdates o f the boys are k n o w n ;
same type as the L u d o v i s i general, largely o n the basis o f
the PIR gives a tentative birthdate o f Herennius E t r u s
the sphragis, b u t b o t h differ f r o m i t i n i m p o r t a n t re
cus between 220 and 230, b u t cites no basis for this
spects
information.
58
I f the date is correct, Herennius
would
66
T h e beard o f the Capitoline head is shorter and
more i m m a t u r e , its d o w n y texture suggested o n l y by
67
have been a y o u n g m a n is his twenties w h e n his father
engraving.
became emperor i n 249. It is k n o w n that Herennius c o m -
G l y p t o t h e k is longer, fuller, and curlier than those o f
T h e beard o f the p o r t r a i t i n the M u n i c h
58. PIR, 2nd ed., vol. 4, pp. 73-74, no. 106.
59. F. S. Salisbury and H . Mattingly, "The Reign o f Trajan Decius,"
JRS 14 (1924), p. 18; PIR, 2nd ed., vol. 3, p. 74.
60. RIC 4, pt. 3, pp. 138-150, nos. 138-226, pi. 11, figs. 9-20, pi. 12,
figs. 1-4; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 2, pp. 89-90, pi. 10, figs. 15-21, 24,
25.
61. K . Fittschen, "Sarkophage romischer Kaiser, oder vom Nutzen
der Portratforschung," Jdl 94 (1979), p. 582.
62. von Heintze, "Studien zu den Portrats des 3. Jahrhunderts n.
Chr., 4: Der Feldherr des groBen Ludovisischen Schlachtsarkophages,"
RbmMitt 64 (1957), pp. 69-91. See also G. Rodenwaldt, Antike Denkmdler, vol. 4 (Berlin, 1929), pp. 61-68, pi. 41, figs. 1-18; B. Andreae,
Motivgeschichtliche Untersuchungen zu den romischen Schlachtsarkophagen
(Berlin, 1956), p. 16, no. 17, and pp. 85-86; Helbig*, no. 2354; Herr
scherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 71—72 and 76—77, w i t h full literature.
63. E.g., G. Gullini, Maestri e Botteghe in Roma da Gallieno alia
Tetrarchia (Turin, 1960), pp. 12—15; O. Pelikan, Vom antiken Realismus
zur spdtantiken Expressivitat (Prague, 1965), p. 116. I f this theory is true,
then the sarcophagus would have to be a cenotaph, since the bodies o f
Decius and Herennius were never recovered after their deaths i n battle.
64. Fittschen (supra, note 61), p. 582.
65. von Heintze (supra, note 62), pp. 74—75.
66. Rome, Capitoline Museum, Sala delle Colombe 340, and a head
in the M u n i c h Glyptothek. See Rodenwaldt (supra, note 62), pp.
Figure 11a. Sarcophagus from Acilia. Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano 126.372. Photo: Cour
tesy D A I , Rome.
either o f the other t w o . These may s i m p l y be portraits o f
t w o different m e n w h o b o t h happened to be followers o f
Mithraism.
A t the other extreme o f age, Felletti M a j , f o l l o w i n g
B e r n o u l l i , has tentatively suggested that a bust o f a v e r y
y o u n g c h i l d i n the Capitoline M u s e u m (fig. 10) may
represent one o f the t w o princes, probably the y o u n g e r
brother, H o s t i l i a n u s .
6 8
T h i s p o r t r a i t does s h o w
the
short-cropped, m i l i t a r y hairstyle w o r n by b o t h Decius
and his t w o sons, and o f course i t is beardless. F u r t h e r
more, the b u s t — w h i c h appears to belong to the head
despite a break t h r o u g h the neck—wears n o t o n l y a m i l -
63—66; von Heintze (supra, note 62), p. 74; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3,
p. 76.
67. Wegner, i n Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, p. 76, claims that this head
is so heavily reworked as to be useless for stylistic study, and that both
the beard and the sphragis are the result o f modern recutting. Though
this work, like many i n the Capitoline Museum, may have been
harshly cleaned, I have not detected traces o f such drastic recutting i n
m y observations o f the piece.
68. Felletti Maj, Iconografia, p. 197, no. 251, pi. 33, fig. 104. Marble
bust. Capitoline Museum 481. H : 0.44 m. See also Bernoulli, p. 157;
Stuart-Jones (supra, note 4), p. 210, no. 71, pi. 51; Herrscherbild, vol. 3,
pt. 3, pp. 71, 76; Helbig*, no. 1247.
Figure lib. Detail o f sarcophagus, figure 11a. Photo:
128
Wood
i t a r y cuirass b u t also a fringed p a l u d a m e n t u m ,
which
w o r k shows closer affinities to the portraits o f P r o b u s
w o u l d seem to i m p l y h i g h m i l i t a r y rank, w h i c h o n l y an
and C a r i n u s ,
i m p e r i a l c h i l d c o u l d have held at such an age.
cius, the father o f the y o u n g princes i n questions
71
70
for example, than to those o f Trajan D e
7 2
One
T h e p o r t r a i t o f this l i t t l e b o y is u n m i s t a k a b l y i n f l u
m o r e p o i n t against the identification is that none o f the
enced b y those o f Gordian I I I (figs. 8a—b) i n the severely
coins o f Decius' sons appears to show a peaked hairline.
triangular c o n t o u r o f the face, the peak o f the h a i r l i n e
Some other w o r k s that have been suggested as can
( w h i c h is used to emphasize the central axis o f the face),
didates for the t w o princes include a head i n the Terme
the stiff, stylized f r o w n , and the deeply cut creases o u t
Museum
l i n i n g the eyes. T h e abstraction here is m u c h further
agus (figs. 11a—b).
advanced than i n Gordian's portraits: the eyes are u n r e -
portraits can be traced i n the severely simple triangular
7 3
and the portrait figure o n the A c i l i a sarcoph
74
I n b o t h , the influence o f Gordian's
alistically enlarged, and the cheeks are very flat and s i m
faces and the emphasis o n the eyes, t h o u g h neither ap
ple,
r e d u c i n g the head t o a m o r e p r i s m a t i c shape i n
pears as late as the C a p i t o l i n e bust. I n b o t h , however, the
w h i c h the large, intense eyes stand o u t dramatically. T h e
identifications w i t h Herennius and H o s t i l i a n u s m u s t be
o n l y c u r v i l i n e a r element o f c o m p o s i t i o n besides the arcs
rejected. There is n o t h i n g special about the Terme head
o f the eyes and eyebrows is p r o v i d e d by the hairline,
to suggest i m p e r i a l rank, and no securely identified c o p
w h i c h rises f r o m the ears t o the forehead i n r e g u l a r
ies survive
7 5
T h e sarcophagus o n w h i c h the other p o r
curves, arches s l i g h t l y o n either side, and t h e n dips
trait appears cannot be that o f Decius, for Fittschen has
d o w n to f o r m the central peak. T h i s almost heartshaped
p o i n t e d o u t that the central p o r t r a i t figure o f an adult
pattern reinforces the arches o f the eyelids. T h e hair i t
m a n w o r e a f u l l and c u r l y beard
self is represented
by a dense pattern o f single chisel
sented w i t h such a beard, either i n his sculptured p o r
strokes that n o longer suggest the texture o f stubbly hair
traits or his coins; his beard is invariably clipped t o a
but rather a pattern created for its o w n sake. T h i s l i t t l e
stubble, i n m i l i t a r y fashion.
bust, t h o u g h somewhat crude l o o k i n g at first glance and
7 6
Decius is never repre
O n e more possible "Herennius," a slightly over-life-
n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y pleasing to m o d e r n tastes, is a c o m p e l
size head i n the N y Carlsberg G l y p t o t e k , was tentatively
l i n g and effective w o r k . T h e erect pose o f the s k i n n y
proposed by Vagn Poulsen, whose suggestion, however,
neck and slight, s t i f f t u r n o f the head lend the bust an air
has n o t to m y k n o w l e d g e been accepted by anyone.
o f authority, w h i c h Felletti Maj has cited as evidence that
T h e shape o f this head i n profile is, indeed, reasonably
it m i g h t have had a public, propagandistic f u n c t i o n .
69
77
consistent w i t h the c o i n likenesses o f Herennius: i t has a
Such developments m i g h t be possible i n a w o r k o f
rather l o n g head, a h i g h forehead, straight hairline, and
sculpture j u s t a few years later than the portraits o f G o r
f i r m c h i n . T h e nose is missing and cannot be compared
dian, assuming that at least some sculptors had c o n
w i t h those o f the c o i n images. There is n o t h i n g about
t i n u e d to experiment rapidly w i t h the abstract style. B u t
the p o r t r a i t head, however, to suggest i m p e r i a l rank ex
the v e r y exaggerated and stylized treatment o f the eyes
cept its scale, w h i c h is n o t sufficiently large to be u n
and the inorganically flat, s t i f f planes o f the face suggest
t h i n k a b l e for a private portrait, and there are n o k n o w n
a m u c h later date. T h i s bust was probably made after the
replicas. I t is possible that the w o r k is an i m p e r i a l image
t i m e o f Gallienus (253—268), for abstraction was then
o f an adolescent,
f i r m l y entrenched as a d o m i n a n t style, short hair had
G o r d i a n , since the t r e a t m e n t o f the eyes and m o u t h
made a few years after the t i m e o f
r e t u r n e d to fashion, and some o f the decorative richness
show the influence o f his images. It is equally possible,
o f Gallienic sculpture had been rejected. Stylistically, the
however, that this is a private portrait that reflects the
69. Felletti Maj, Iconografia, p. 197.
70. The over-life-size marble head i n the Capitoline Museum, inv.
493, H : 0.45 m , provides a particularly striking comparison w i t h the
little bust o f a boy displayed nearby, despite the difference i n scale and
in age o f the subjects. O n the portrait o f Probus, see Bernoulli, p. 196;
Stuart-Jones (supra, note 4), pp. 306—307, no. 66, pi. 75; Felletti Maj,
Iconografia, pp. 277-278, pi. 45, fig. 192; HelbigV no. 1245; Herrscher
bild, vol. 3, pt. 3, p. 153, w i t h literature.
pi. 6, figs. 3-4; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 64, 66, pi. 26, w i t h full
literature.
73. Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano 632, cat. 293. Marble head.
H : 0.22 m . Nose restored i n plaster, ears damaged. Felletti Maj, I
Ritratti, p. 147, no. 293; Felletti Maj, Iconografia, pp. 197-198, no. 252,
pi. 34, fig. 105.
71. O n the portraits o f Carinus, see Felletti Maj, Iconografia, pp.
282-285, and Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 157-159, pi. 61.
72. The best extant portrait head o f Decius, and the only one al
most unanimously accepted by scholars, is Capitoline Museum 482.
Marble head. H : 0.24 m . Restored: tip o f nose, ears, part o f upper lip.
Set on bust to which it does not belong. Felletti Maj, Iconografia, p.
189, no. 235, pi. 29, fig. 95; Helbig*, no. 1320; Bergmann, pp. 42-43,
74. C. C. Vermeule, review o f Lullingstone Roman Villa, by G. W.
Meates, A]A 60 (1956), p. 209; Gullini (supra, note 63), pp. 6-8.
75. Felletti Maj, Iconografia, p. 198, proposes that a head on a statue
i n the Villa Albani, Sala del Bigliardo 321, is a replica o f the same type.
N o photographs o f this work are available for comparison, however,
and Wegner, i n Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 72—73, raises questions
as to the antiquity o f the Albani piece, pointing out that neither work
conforms well to the coin profiles o f Herennius.
76. Fittschen (supra, note 61), pp. 584—585.
Figures 12a-b. Profile and portrait o f a young man. SchloB Fasanerie near Fulda. Photo: Courtesy D A I , Rome.
style o f c o n t e m p o r a r y i m p e r i a l portraits o f boys. O n the
a l i t t l e discouraging, therefore, that its application has
basis o f current evidence, i t cannot be identified.
led t o t w o completely different conclusions. F i t t s c h e n
G i v e n the scarce and conflicting evidence about the
has compared the bust o f an adolescent i n V e n i c e
79
78
both
ages and appearances o f Herennius and H o s t i l i a n u s , sev
w i t h the C a p i t o l i n e p o r t r a i t o f Decius and w i t h the coins
eral scholars have attempted to approach the p r o b l e m o f
o f Herennius and concluded that b o t h comparisons j u s
their iconography by c o m p a r i n g possible candidates n o t
t i f y its i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the older son o f Decius. B a i t y
o n l y to the c o i n profiles o f the boys b u t also to the
and B a i t y
securely identified p o r t r a i t o f their father, a w o r k that
reach the same conclusions about a very different p o r
w o u l d p r e s u m a b l y s h o w b o t h s t y l i s t i c parallels
trait head i n SchloB Fasanerie (fig. 12a—b)
and
physical resemblances to the portraits o f his sons. T h i s is
8 0
have used essentially the same m e t h o d to
8 1
B o t h w o r k s appear to represent boys i n their m i d d l e
certainly a sensible and practical methodology, m a k i n g
or late teens w i t h f a i r l y m a t u r e b o n e structures
the fullest possible use o f extant visual i n f o r m a t i o n ; i t is
w i t h o u t facial hair. T h e y thus c o n f o r m w e l l b o t h t o the
77. Copenhagen, N y Carlsberg Glyptotek, cat. 766a. Marble head.
H : 0.32 m . End o f nose formerly restored, but restoration now re
moved, rims o f ears damaged, polish o f surface probably not original.
F. Poulsen, Greek and Roman Portraits in English Country Houses ( O x
ford, 1923), p. 110, no. 110; von Heintze (supra, note 30), p. 176, no. 11;
p. 179, pi. 45, fig. 3; Poulsen, p. 168, no. 172, pis. 275-276; Herrscher
bild, vol. 3, pt. 3, p. 71. Wegner's entry points out that i n profile view
the hairline is not consistent w i t h that o f the coin portraits o f
Herennius.
einer neuen ikonographischen Methode" (Ph.D. diss., Westfalische
Wilhelmsuniversitat, Miinster, 1965), pp. 25-26, 28, 122-123; G. Traversari, Museo Archeologico di Venezia: I Ritratti (Rome, 1968), pp.
92-93, no. 74; Fittschen (supra, note 30), pp. 211-214; Herrscherbild,
vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 29, 50, 73.
80. J. Baity and J. C. Baity, "Notes d'iconographie romaine, I I , "
RbmMitt 83 (1976), pp. 178-180, pis. 43, 44.
81. SchloB Fasanerie near Fulda. Marble head. H : 0.255 m . Surface
root-marked, tip o f nose broken off, parts o f both ears missing; chips
and flecks on forehead, eyebrows, and face, von Heintze, Die antiken
Portr'dts der landgraflich-hessischen Sammlungen in Schlofi Fasanerie bei
Fulda (Mainz, 1968), pp. 77, 108, no. 51, pis. 84, 85, 131b.
78. Fittschen (supra, note 30), pp. 211-214, figs. 22-26.
79. Venice, Museo Archeologico 177. Marble. H : 0.47 m . T i p o f
nose restored, ears chipped, but preservation otherwise good; head
and togate bust preserved intact. The work has also been identified as
Philip I I and Gordian I I I . Bernoulli, p. 151; Felletti Maj, Iconografia, p.
183, no. 229; J. Bracker, "Bestimmung der Bildnisse Gordians I I I nach
but
130
Wood
c o i n evidence and to the historical i n f o r m a t i o n , w h i c h
as the m o s t c o n v i n c i n g i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f H e r e n n i u s
indicates that Herennius must have been more than a
E t r u s c u s yet proposed. Its correspondences w i t h his
mere c h i l d . B o t h also share w i t h the C a p i t o l i n e p o r t r a i t
c o i n profiles, t h o u g h close, are however n o t perfect; the
o f Decius a representation o f the hair t h r o u g h simple
shape and p r o p o r t i o n s o f the head are right, b u t the
chisel strokes scattered rather sparsely o n the surface o f
coins generally show a straight rather than a s l i g h t l y
the scalp, w h i c h suggest b u t do n o t o u t l i n e short locks
arched nose. Unless replicas o f the head are f o u n d ,
o f hair. B o t h portraits, therefore, seem to date to the
therefore, its i m p e r i a l status must r e m a i n u n p r o v e n , and
appropriate years. I n treatment o f the faces, o n the other
the p o s s i b i l i t y that i t represents a private c o n t e m p o r a r y
h a n d , t h e y display some s i g n i f i c a n t differences,
o f Decius remains open.
both
physical and stylistic. T h e cheeks o f the Venice bust are
Gallienus, w h o r u l e d f r o m 253 u n t i l 260 as the core-
f l a t , a n d the angles w h e r e they meet the j a w rather
gent o f his father, Valerian, and f r o m 260 u n t i l 268 as
sharp; the features are stiff, the expression m a s k l i k e ,
sole ruler, also h a d t w o y o u n g sons, V a l e r i a n I I and
the eyes s l i g h t l y enlarged and s t r o n g l y o u t l i n e d . A l l
Saloninus.
these elements are consistent w i t h the t r a d i t i o n o f the
died t w o years later, at w h i c h t i m e his y o u n g e r b r o t h e r
portraits o f G o r d i a n I I I , w i t h w h o m Bracker f o r m e r l y
Saloninus became Caesar. I n 258 he, too, died i n the w a r
i d e n t i f i e d this b u s t .
82
85
T h e elder son became Caesar i n 253, b u t
T h o u g h i t shares m a n y physical
against Posthumus. M u c h o f his b r i e f tenure as c r o w n
features w i t h D e c i u s , such as a l o n g , s l i g h t l y arched
prince was spent i n Cologne. A g a i n , the birthdates for
nose, h i g h forehead and retreating c h i n , i t differs s t r i k
the boys are u n k n o w n , t h o u g h t h e i r coins represent
i n g l y f r o m his portraits i n this apparance o f stiff, c a l m
t h e m as y o u n g c h i l d r e n w i t h o u t any facial hair and w i t h
i m m o b i l i t y . T h e SchloB Fasanerie portrait, o n the other
soft, i m m a t u r e faces
hand, shares w i t h the C a p i t o l i n e p o r t r a i t o f Decius a
m u c h to be o f great value i n i d e n t i f y i n g p o r t r a i t types,
8 6
T h e coins o f Valerian I I vary t o o
m o r e transitory expression o f e m o t i o n , and a m o b i l e ,
and given the b r e v i t y o f his life as a public figure, i t
c u r v i l i n e a r c o n t o u r that sinks i n w a r d at the temples and
w o u l d n o t be surprising i f no portraits o f h i m are ex
swells o u t w a r d i n t o the broad dome o f the c r a n i u m . T h e
tant. B o t h his c o i n portraits and those o f Saloninus i n d i
boy's eyebrows are a n x i o u s l y contracted and d r a w n
cate that these boys, l i k e adult m e n , were w e a r i n g their
s l i g h t l y u p w a r d t o w a r d the nose, the forehead
muscle
hair somewhat longer. T h e i r w a v y locks lie s m o o t h l y
has a subtle b u t distinct bulge, and the corners o f the
along the scalp, short, b u t no longer clipped to a stub
m o u t h droop slightly.
83
ble. T h e coins also indicate that b o t h boys were rather
These similarities to the portrait o f Decius do not, o f
pudgy, t e n d i n g to have pronounced double chins. B o t h
course, prove that the SchloB Fasanerie head portrays
are generally represented
w i t h large, w i d e - o p e n eyes.
Herennius. A s w e have seen i n the case o f P h i l i p I I , i t is
Saloninus generally has a r o u n d e d forehead and soft
possible for the p o r t r a i t o f a y o u n g prince to f o l l o w the
s n u b - n o s e , w h i l e his head has a v e r y
m o r e abstract t r a d i t i o n o f G o r d i a n I I I , w h i l e that o f his
shape: l o n g and almost flat along the top, w i t h a project
father follows the " i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c " t r a d i t i o n i n w h i c h
i n g occiput and a steep diagonal f r o m the occiput to the
effects o f m o v e m e n t and e m o t i o n are a t t e m p t e d .
nape o f the neck.
A
stronger p o i n t against the Venice bust is that its a n t i q
u i t y is somewhat suspect.
84
U n l i k e other t h i r d - c e n t u r y
w o r k s i n t h e m o r e abstract style, its features
seem
characteristic
G i v e n all these h i g h l y i n d i v i d u a l features, i t is i r o n i c
and v e x i n g that no portraits have yet been recognized
that can be identified w i t h Saloninus. T h e o n l y
pos
s l i g h t l y discordant rather t h a n parts o f a c o h e r e n t l y
s i b i l i t y t h a t has r e c e i v e d serious recent a t t e n t i o n is
p l a n n e d schema. I f the Venice bust is e l i m i n a t e d o n
the g r o u p o f portraits i n Florence, the Vatican (fig. 9),
these grounds, then the SchloB Fasanerie head remains
Innsbruck, Copenhagen,
82. Bracker (supra, note 79), pp. 122—123. He has since discarded
the identification: see Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, p. 29.
83. See Baity and Baity (supra, note 80), p. 180.
84. See Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 29, 73; M . Wegner,
"Bildnisbiiste i m 3. Jahrhundert n. Chr.," i n H . Keller and J. Kleine,
Festschrift fir Gerhard Kleiner (Tubingen, 1973), p. 111.
85. Coins offer some scanty evidence for the existence o f a third
son, named Quintus Gallienus, but little is k n o w n o f this obscure
figure. See H . Mattingly, E. Sydenham, and P. H . Webb, Roman Impe
rial Coinage, vol. 5, pt. 1 (London, 1927), pp. 28—29.
86. Roman Imperial Coinage (supra, note 85), pp. 116—128; Valerian I I :
nos. 1—54, pi. 4, figs. 65, 66, 68, and pi. 5, fig. 70; Saloninus: nos.
1-37, pi. 5, figs. 71-75; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 2, p. 120, pi. 13, figs.
20-24, 26, pi. 14, figs. 35, 39-43, pi. 15, fig. 50; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt.
3, pp. 121, 123, pis. 48, 49.
87. See Felletti Maj, Iconografia, pp. 243—246; Herrscherbild, vol. 3,
pt. 3, pp. 123—125; A. Wotschitzky, " E i n Knabenportrat des dritten
Jahrhunderts n. Chr.," 6fh 39 (1952), pp. 128-132.
88. See Fittschen (supra, note 30), pp. 218—219, photo comparisons,
figs. 31—32 and 35—36.
89. See Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, p. 125.
90. PIR 2 (1897), p. 407, s.v. "Nigrinianus," no. 75; A. H . M . Jones,
J. R. Martindale, and J. Morris, The Prosopography of the Later Roman
Empire, vol. 1, A.D. 260-395 (Cambridge, 1971), p. 631; Felletti Maj,
and Paceco (near Trapani, i n
Third-Century Child Portraits 13131
S i c i l y ) , w h i c h were discussed
menian.
style
8 8
8 7
i n relation to D i a d u -
distorted our k n o w l e d g e o f the developments i n p o r t r a i t
A s m e n t i o n e d above, however, n e i t h e r the
sculpture o f this period. D i a d u m e n i a n , Herennius, H o s
n o r the physical features
89
o f any o f these heads
tilianus, Valerian I I , Saloninus, and N i g r i n i a n u s are s t i l l
supports such an i n d e n t i f i c a t i o n , and i t is questionable
w i t h o u t reliably identified extant portraits. T h e head i n
w h e t h e r more than t w o o f t h e m can really be g r o u p e d as
SchloB Fasanerie proposed by the Baltys as a portrait o f
replicas o f a c o m m o n type. A l l five have shorter and
Herennius has perhaps the strongest claim a m o n g the
more r o u n d e d heads than the head shape indicated o n
various candidates, b u t even that is very tenuous. N o n e
the coins o f Saloninus. T h e i r foreheads are n o t convex,
o f the portraits discussed i n this section, then, can be
and a l t h o u g h their cheeks and throats are fleshy, they do
used w i t h any reliability as a dated m o n u m e n t o n w h i c h
n o t actually have double chins.
to base study o f sculpture o f the period. We can assign
Finally, one m o r e rather obscure y o u n g b o y o f an
approximate dates to some o f t h e m , b u t the dates m u s t
i m p e r i a l f a m i l y has yet to be securely identified: N i g r i -
be based o n o n l y stylistic criteria and o n comparison
nianus, the short-lived son o f Carinus. L i t t l e is k n o w n
w i t h the securely identified portraits.
o f this boy except that he died i n 284, was deified, and
was honored o n coins as " D i v u s N i g r i n i a n u s . "
9 0
Von
PORTRAITS I N SEARCH OF I D E N T I F I C A T I O N S
H e i n t z e has attempted to recognize this prince i n the
A c o m m o n theme i n many o f the identifications j u s t
b o y o n the A c i l i a sarcophagus (fig. 11a—b), a r g u i n g that
reviewed is the attempt to attach names to some p o r
the m o n u m e n t is probably that o f his father, Carinus
9 1
traits, n o t because they show any particular s i m i l a r i t y to
T h e circumstance o f Carinus's death and subsequent
c o i n profiles o f i m p e r i a l figures, b u t because some ele
damnatio memoriae, however, make i t most u n l i k e l y that
m e n t o f costume, attribute, scale, or their existence i n
he w o u l d have been honored w i t h such a sumptuous sar
more than one replica suggest i m p e r i a l status. However,
cophagus
9 2
Furthermore, t h o u g h the date o f the A c i l i a
since these assumptions seem i n many cases to have led
sarcophagus r e m a i n s c o n t r o v e r s i a l , one f r a g m e n t a r y
to unacceptable identifications, perhaps they should be
female head f r o m the relief wears a type o f coiffure that
re-examined. M o r e than one extant replica o f a p o r t r a i t
seems no longer to have been i n fashion after the r e i g n
type is particularly strong evidence that i t m u s t repre
o f Gallienus, evidence i n favor o f a date p r i o r to 268
9 3
O n e other possibility may be proposed here, however.
sent a p r o m i n e n t public figure, since the survival today
o f even t w o replicas implies the o r i g i n a l existence o f
T h e little bust i n the Capitoline M u s e u m (fig. 10), w h i c h
many more. It is therefore c o m m o n automatically to as
was discussed and rejected above as a possible likeness o f
sume that such a portrait type represents someone o f i m
Herennius or Hostilianus, has a style consistent w i t h a
perial status, particularly w h e n the subject is a child or
date o f 284. Its association w i t h Nigrinianus finds some
y o u n g adolescent, w h o presumably could not have w o n
support i n the a d m i t t e d l y scarce coin portraits o f this
public distinction through any other means.
child
9 4
some o f w h i c h seem to show a small, pinched
lower face, large, staring eyes, and a peaked hairline
9 5
W h a t conclusions can be d r a w n f r o m this review o f
There exists at least one w i d e l y duplicated p o r t r a i t
type o f a y o u n g boy, however, that contradicts this as
s u m p t i o n : Polydeukion, the favorite student o f Herodes
9 6
theories about the identification o f portraits o f the more
Atticus
problematic y o u n g princes o f the t h i r d century? A t pres
h o n o r by his former mentor, whose private estates were
T h e m e m o r y o f this boy was held i n great
ent, none o f the various identifications that have been
decorated w i t h portraits o f h i m , many o f w h i c h survive.
proposed can be securely accepted, b u t w e can at least
Herodes A t t i c u s was probably n o t the o n l y such p a t r o n
e l i m i n a t e some identifications that have been accepted
o f the arts: even i n the troubled t h i r d century, aristocrats
t o o uncritically, and that have consequently
somewhat
o f Italy as w e l l as o f Greece m i g h t have displayed f a m i l y
Iconografia, p. 287; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, p. 163.
91. von Heintze (supra, note 30), pp. 187—190.
92. Gullini (supra, note 63), p. 6; Sapelli (supra, note 32), p. 300.
93. Gullini (supra, note 63), p. 8; Bianchi-Bandinelli (supra, note
32), pp. 210—211, fig. 6. O n the dating o f female coiffures, see K .
Wessel, "Romische Frauenfrisuren von der severischen bis zur k o n stantinischen Zeit," AA 61-62 (1946/1947), pp. 62-76.
94. H . Mattingly, E. Sydenham, and R H . Webb, Roman Imperial
Coinage, vol. 5, pt. 2 (London, 1927), pp. 124, 202-203, nos. 471-474,
pi. 8, fig. 18; Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 2, pp. 181, 184, pi. 31, fig. 36.
95. Cf. especially the example illustrated i n Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt.
3, pi. 59f, and Roman Imperial Coinage (supra, note 94), pi. 8, fig. 18.
96. See K . Fittschen, " Z u m angeblichen Bildnis des Lucius Verus
i m Thermenmuseum," Jdl 86 (1971), p. 223. For a recent study o f
Polydeukion's portraits, see E. Gazda, " A Portrait o f Polydeukion,"
Bulletin of the Museums of Art and Archaeology 3, University o f Michigan
(1980), pp. 1—8. The type was originally identified by K . A. N e u gebauer, "Herodes Atticus, ein antiker Kunstmazen," Die Antike 10
(1934), pp. 99-100; K . A. Neugebauer, A A 46 (1931), p. 360. For a
publicly displayed group o f portraits o f the family o f Herodes Atticus,
not including Polydeukion but including Herodes Atticus' young sons
and daughter, see R. Bol, Olympische Forschungen, vol. 15, Das Statuenprogramm des Herodes Atticus Nymphaeums (Berlin, 1984), pp. 16,
22-30, 50-58, 84-91.
132
Wood
portraits at more than one house or v i l l a and have used
m e n t o f a consul, k i n g , or figure o f h i g h authority, ap
t h e i r sponsorship o f public w o r k s as an o p p o r t u n i t y to
pear to refer to a toga o f a certain color or to a toga w i t h
display public images o f themselves and their families.
a stripe o f color w o v e n i n t o its f a b r i c .
T h e t w o replicas o f a single p o r t r a i t i n the V a t i c a n
toga c o u l d probably have been w o r n by any male R o m a n
100
T h e contabulate
(fig. 9) and Florence m i g h t represent the c h i l d o f such
citizen, and therefore is n o t strong evidence that princes
a private patron.
or y o u n g emperors are necessarily portrayed by the bust
A feature shared by the Vatican (fig. 9) and Florence
i n B o s t o n tentatively identified as "Elagabalus," the bust
busts that is generally interpreted to indicate i m p e r i a l
i n Venice variously identified as " G o r d i a n I I I , " " P h i l i p
status is t h e i r costume: a m i l i t a r y cuirass w i t h the cloak,
I I , " and " H e r e n n i u s Etruscus," or the c h i l d o f the A c i l i a
o r paludamentum,
sarcophagus.
and sash o f a h i g h - r a n k i n g officer.
Such a c o s t u m e also appears o n the l i t t l e C a p i t o l i n e
T h e c h i l d o f the A c i l i a sarcophagus was n o t the p r i
bust, w h i c h , for that reason, B e r n o u l l i and later Felletti
m a r y focus o f the o r i g i n a l c o m p o s i t i o n , a l t h o u g h the
M a j attempted t o i d e n t i f y w i t h one o f the sons o f D e -
current state o f preservation o f the m o n u m e n t tends to
cius. Wegner has recently cited an example, however, o f
exaggerate his importance, b u t he was the focal p o i n t o f
a p o r t r a i t o f a c h i l d w h o was demonstrably n o t o f i m
the left short side. Figures o n either side o f h i m b e n d
perial rank b u t w h o is represented i n the cuirass and
o u t w a r d f r o m the b a c k g r o u n d and t u r n i n opposite d i
paludamentum.
9 7
T h i s is F l o r e n t i n u s D o m i t i u s M a r i -
rections, m a k i n g the more frontal figure o f the b o y the
nianus, whose name and age (nine years old) are pre
center o f a t r i a d ; the cluster o f p r o j e c t i n g arms
served together w i t h his likeness o n a sarcophagus i n the
serves to draw attention t o w a r d the boy. H i s pose, t u r n
f o r m e r Lateran collection. I n funerary contexts,
i n g backward to v i e w the central scene, and his repre
there
also
fore, i t seems to have been considered appropriate to
sentation i n h i g h relief, insured that he w o u l d be p r o m i
represent y o u n g boys i n m i l i t a r y costume, t h o u g h the
n e n t l y visible f r o m a frontal v i e w o f the sarcophagus as
reasons for this type o f portrayal are n o t readily appar
w e l l . T h e pose o f the Genius Senatus, w h o turns his
ent. T h e u n i f o r m m i g h t represent the accomplishments
head t o w a r d the central couple b u t seems to p o i n t w i t h
that the child's parents believed he w o u l d have achieved
his r i g h t hand to the boy, has been interpreted as a ges
i f he had l i v e d to g r o w up; i t m i g h t indicate m e m b e r s h i p
ture o f presentation, m a r k i n g o u t the boy as a future
i n some p a r a m i l i t a r y y o u t h organization; or i t m i g h t
emperor.
101
have some obsure religious or funerary significance. T h e
B i a n c h i - B a n d i n e l l i has argued, more o n the basis o f
f i r s t e x p l a n a t i o n is perhaps the m o s t plausible, since
h i s t o r i c a l p r o b a b i l i t y t h a n o n the g r o u n d s o f i c o n -
there are o t h e r examples o f f u n e r a r y m o n u m e n t s o f
o g r a p h i c c o m p a r i s o n w i t h Gordian's established
c h i l d r e n i n w h i c h either little boys and girls or p u t t i are
traits, that this sarcophagus is that o f G o r d i a n I l l ' s father,
portrayed engaging i n adult activities. O n e such w o r k ,
whose y o u n g son therefore appears i n a subsidiary p o s i
datable t o the p e r i o d w i t h w h i c h w e are
por
concerned,
t i o n . However, as observed above, the b o y shares l i t t l e
shows the p o r t r a i t - f i g u r e o f a b o y no older than five
w i t h G o r d i a n besides a generally triangular facial shape
d e c l a i m i n g l i k e a philosopher a m i d a g r o u p o f l i t t l e g i r l
muses.
98
and a severe, somewhat abstract m o d e l i n g . H i s forehead
is narrower and flatter than that o f Gordian's well-estab
S i m i l a r skepticism should also be applied to the c o m
lished portraits, his h a i r l i n e more curvilinear, his upper
m o n l y h e l d n o t i o n that the so-called "contabulate" toga
l i p less p r o m i n e n t , and his facial expression
signals consular rank, and that therefore o n l y a c h i l d o f
rather than f r o w n i n g . B i a n c h i - B a n d i n e l l i was aware o f
the i m p e r i a l f a m i l y w o u l d be entitled to wear i t . I n the
these discrepancies
t h i r d century, a variant o f the t r a d i t i o n a l R o m a n gar
d a t i n g the sarcophagus to the early part o f Gordian's
m e n t appears i n w h i c h the fabric is folded and clamped
reign, possibly to the t i m e w h e n he was s t i l l the Caesar
i n t o b r o a d and t h i c k masses o f pleats across the chest
a n d d o w n the left side o f the b o d y .
9 9
This garment
relaxed
b u t attempted to explain t h e m by
o f B a l b i n u s and Pupienus and no official type had yet
been established for h i m .
1 0 2
V o n H e i n t z e has l i k e w i s e
s h o u l d n o t be confused w i t h the "trabeated" toga: the
assumed that this must be the sarcophagus o f an e m
ancient sources describing the toga trabeata as the gar-
peror, whose son is p o i n t e d o u t as his successor, b u t she
97. Wegner, i n Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, p. 125. See also E. Josi,
"Cimitero alia sinistra della via Tiburtina al Viale Regina Margherita,"
RACrist 11 (1934), pp. 214-217, fig. 76.
98. Vatican, Gallerie dei Candelabri I , no. 20, inv. 2422. M . Wegner,
Die antiken Sarkophagreliefs, vol. 5, pt. 3, Die Musensarkophage, edited
by F. Matz (Berlin, 1966), p. 58, no. 139, pis. 59, 69, w i t h full literature.
99. L. Wilson, The Roman Toga (Baltimore, 1924), pp. 89-115; L.
Wilson, The Clothing of the Ancient Romans (Baltimore, 1938), pp. 47—49.
See also Wegner (supra, note 84), pp. 105—121, especially p. 105, no. 1.
100. Wilson, Toga (supra, note 99), pp. 36-39.
101. Bianchi-Bandinelli (supra, note 32), pp. 203-204.
102. Bianchi-Bandinelli (supra, note 32), p. 204.
Figure 13a. Bronze statue o f a boy. Malibu, The J. Paul Getty Museum 71.AB.454.
134
Wood
Figure 13b. Profile o f statue, figure 13a.
O n e other w o r k o f t h i r d - c e n t u r y sculpture that seems
to demand an i m p e r i a l identification yet defies efforts at
identificaton is a statue i n the J. Paul G e t t y M u s e u m
(figs. 13a—c), a provincial bronze o f a twelve-to-fifteen
year o l d b o y .
105
T h e under life-size nude figure stands i n
a p r o u d , c o m m a n d i n g p o s i t i o n , w i t h one a r m raised
above his head. T h i s pose m i g h t be i n t e r p r e t e d as a
106
gesture o f f o r m a l address, or adlocutio.
T h e a r m is
raised unusually h i g h , however, for an oratorical gesture,
w h i l e the p o s i t i o n o f the fingers suggests that they may
o r i g i n a l l y have been wrapped around the shaft o f a l o n g
scepter or spear.
107
I f this is the case, the figure w o u l d be
loosely based o n the m o d e l o f Lysippos's famous " A l e x
ander w i t h the Lance," w h i c h served as an i n s p i r a t i o n
for m a n y later portraits o f r u l e r s .
108
B o t h the gesture and the heroization i m p l i e d by the
n u d i t y (generally reserved for gods or deified mortals)
seem to suggest i m p e r i a l rank. I n that case, however,
w h o m c o u l d the statue represent? T h e boy cannot be
Elagabalus, Alexander Severus, M a x i m u s , G o r d i a n I I I ,
or P h i l i p I I , for his face bears no resemblance to their
well-established portrait types. H e cannot be Herennius
Etruscus, Hostilianus, or N i g r i n i a n u s , for the c o i n p o r
Figure 13c. Profile of head o f statue, figure 13a.
traits o f all three clearly show short-cropped hair, w h i l e
t h i s s t a t u e has s o m e w h a t
Nigrinianus, respectively
103
longer curls, w h i c h lie
and
s m o o t h l y a l o n g the scalp. H i s h a i r s t y l e is consistent
T h e m e r i t s o f this a r g u
w i t h that o f Valerian I I and Saloninus, b u t n o t one o f
suggested that the m a n and b o y were C a r i n u s
m e n t have already been discussed. B o t h these i m p e r i a l
the physical features characteristic o f those boys' c o i n
identifications, however, depend o n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
profiles is evident here. T h e forehead, except for a slight
curvature at the very top, is flat, the nose sharp and
the gesture o f the Genius Senatus.
Andreae has advanced an alternative theory: that the sar
straight, and the c h i n l i n e f i r m , w i t h no trace even o f
cophagus represents a processus consularis, or ceremonial
fleshiness,
procession o n the occasion o f the entry i n t o consular of
c o u l d hardly account for so many deviations f r o m an
fice, o f the man whose portrait appeared near the center.
104
let alone o f a double chin. P r o v i n c i a l style
official type.
I n this case, the gesture o f the personified senate w o u l d
Finally, an identification w i t h D i a d u m e n i a n is possi
merely p o i n t the way along the route o f the procession.
ble b u t u n l i k e l y . T h e hairstyle and features are reason
Even i f the gesture o f the Genius Senatus does indicate the
ably consistent w i t h his coin profiles, w h i l e the probably
boy, that does not necessarily indicate that he must have
eastern provenance w o u l d seem logical for the p o r t r a i t
been an Augustus or Caesar. I f the deceased was a senator
o f the son o f an emperor whose entire reign was spent i n
w h o perhaps had attained consular rank, it w o u l d have
A s i a M i n o r . T h e style, o n the other hand, seems t o
been natural for h i m to hope that his son w o u l d continue
b e l o n g to a later part o f the century, probably no earlier
the family tradition. T h e gesture o f the Genius Senatus,
than the t i m e o f Gallienus. T h e very enlarged and ab
then, w o u l d p o i n t out the y o u t h not as a future ruler but
stracted f o r m o f the eyes, the flattening o f the face and
as a future senator and possible consul.
features almost i n t o a single plane, and the decorative,
103. von Heintze (supra, note 30), pp. 187-190.
104. B. Andreae, "Processus Consularis," i n P. Zazoff, ed., Opus
Nobile: Festschrift zum 60. Geburtstag von U. fantzen (Wiesbaden, 1969),
pp. 3—13; Helbig*, no. 2316 (B. Andreae); Sapelli (supra, note 32), pp.
301-302.
kei: Neue Funde (Mainz, 1979), pp. 334-335, no. 334; J. Frel, Greek and
Roman Portraits from the f. Paul Getty Museum, ex. cat. (California State
University, Northridge, 1973), pp. 30-31, no. 44.
106. Roman Portraits, p. 102; Frel (supra, note 105), pp. 30—31.
107. Inan and Alfoldi-Rosenbaum (supra, note 105), p. 334.
108. O n "Alexander w i t h the Lance," see M . Bieber, Alexander the
Great in Greek and Roman Art (Chicago, 1964), pp. 32—38.
105. J. Paul Getty Museum 71.AB.454. Bronze statue. H : 1.20 m .
Roman Portraits, pp. 102—103, no. 85, p. 113; J. Inan and E. A l f o l d i Rosenbaum, Romische und friihbyzantinische Portrdt-Plastik aus der Tur-
136
Wood
non-naturalistic pattern o f the hair all p o i n t to a date
required to affix a name to a portrait. A n attribute or
after 260, t h o u g h i t must be noted that i n the d a t i n g o f
aspect o f presentation that seems to i m p l y i m p e r i a l rank
p r o v i n c i a l w o r k s , such criteria are n o t always as reliable
is n o t always borne out by other evidence. I f there is a
as for sculpture f r o m Rome and other major artistic cen
c o m m o n factor i n the secure identifications discussed i n
ters. T h e most plausible conclusion appears to be that
the first section, i t is that all o f t h e m are corroborated by
w e are dealing here w i t h a private portrait, probably a
several forms o f evidence. A l l types are represented i n
funerary statue, i n w h i c h the n u d i t y and the pose b o r
m u l t i p l e replicas, and all are closely matched by the c o i n
r o w e d f r o m Lysippos' "Alexander w i t h the Lance" serve
portraits o f the respective boys. Where the specific i d e n
the purpose o f a private rather than a public apotheosis
t i f i c a t i o n is i n doubt, as i n the case o f the y o u n g A l e x
o f the deceased. Precedents do exist for such use o f d i
ander Severus, i t can be corroborated by comparison to
v i n e and i m p e r i a l attributes i n private portraits: m a n y
more securely identified sculptural portraits, as w e l l as
funerary p o r t r a i t statues use b o d y types that are based
to the coins. T h o u g h i t is very m u c h to be hoped that
o n Greek prototypes and that clearly associate their sub
the portraits o f some o f the more problematic y o u n g
jects w i t h d i v i n i t i e s .
109
T h e conclusion d r a w n f r o m all o f the portraits dis
cussed here is that more than historical p r o b a b i l i t y is
Caesars can someday be identified, w e m u s t
proceed
cautiously, always bearing i n m i n d the scarcity and fra
g i l i t y o f the evidence.
Harvard University
C a m b r i d g e , Mass.
109. See M . Bieber, Ancient Copies (New York, 1977), pp. 46-66, on
the uses o f images o f Venus as a model for funerary statues o f women.
See also Bergmann, p. 43, no. 137, on the crescent diadem, a divine
attribute routinely borrowed both for portraits o f empresses and for
private funerary busts and statues.
Two Female Portraits from the Early Gallienic Period
Siri Sande
I n 1976 the N a t i o n a l Gallery i n O s l o acquired a female
coiffure is paralleled i n a portrait o f an elderly w o m a n i n
portrait that had previously been i n a private c o l l e c t i o n
the J. Paul Getty M u s e u m (figs. 2a—c). The similarities are
1
i n N o r w a y (figs, la—c). T h e head, purchased i n R o m e i n
especially noticeable w h e n one compares the backs o f the
1960, is f a i r l y w e l l preserved,
a l t h o u g h n o t as u n
t w o heads (figs. 1c, 2c) and particularly the rendering o f
damaged as the photographs w o u l d lead one to believe.
the twisted hair rolls. The chisel strokes o f b o t h coiffures
Parts o f the lips, the outer h a l f o f the r i g h t eyebrow, and
are o f the same character, very fine along the hairline
the nose are restored i n concrete. T h e restored nose was
i n front and broader and deeper b e h i n d the ears. T h e
attached w i t h a metal p i n w h i c h is n o w visible, for the
eyebrows also appear originally to have been o f the same
nose has b r o k e n again. M o s t o f the o r i g i n a l marble sur
type, composed o f finely drawn hairs. Those o f the Oslo
face is preserved,
p o r t r a i t retain traces o f color. I n b o t h p o r t r a i t s
w i t h patches o f h i g h p o l i s h visible.
de
Traces o f b r o w n paint remain i n the hair and eyebrows.
tails such as the irises, pupils, and the long, d o w n w a r d -
T h e p o r t r a i t is s l i g h t l y over life-size and depicts a
p o i n t i n g lachrymal glands are rendered i n the same m a n
y o u n g w o m a n w i t h a serious, almost melancholy ex
ner. Each w o m a n also displays a slight puffiness under the
pression. H e r comparatively simple coiffure is rendered
eyes. The subtleties o f the treatment o f the marble surface
i n great detail. H e r hair lacks a center p a r t and is
are less marked i n the Getty head, w h i c h was once cleaned
combed backwards and downwards leaving the ears free.
w i t h acid to remove patches o f incrustation. Apparently
It is straight apart f r o m three broad, shallow waves o n
the discoloration o f the Oslo head was not considered to
each side o f the head. A t the nape o f the neck the hair
be t o o disfiguring, for the latter portrait escaped acid
is t w i s t e d i n t o a r o l l and p i n n e d up o n top o f the head
cleaning. However, as far as can be ascertained, before the
w i t h the end f o r m i n g a l o o p i n front. B e h i n d and b e l o w
Getty head was cleaned, the t w o heads seem to have had
each ear a corkscrew curl, n o w b r o k e n off, o r i g i n a l l y
fairly similar surfaces. The heads are i n a similar state o f
emerged f r o m the hair. U n d u l a t i n g lines
preservation, characterized by faint cracks i n the marble
representing
single strands o f hair are carefully rendered w i t h fine,
and similar patches o f incrustation. Some o f the incrusta
sharp chisel strokes. T h e sculptor's interest i n the details
t i o n remains as very small spots i n the chisel strokes. T h e
o f the hair is also evident f r o m his incisions for the
Oslo head retains traces o f the original paint. These s i m
eyebrows and for the fine tendrils escaping f r o m
ilarities may o f course be accidental, but they could also
the
mean that the t w o portraits were buried under identical
hairline i n front.
The highly characteristic rendering o f the details o f this
Abbreviations:
Bernoulli
Bergmann
EA
Felletti Maj, Iconografia
Felletti Maj, / ritratti
Herrscherbild
J. J. Bernoulli, Romische Ikonographie, vol. 2,
pt. 3 (Stuttgart, 1894).
M . Bergmann, Studien zum romischen Portrdt
des 3. Jahrhunderts n. Chr. (Bonn, 1977).
P. Arndt and W. Amelung, Photographische
Einzelaujnahmen antiker Skulpturen (1893—
1940).
B. M . Felletti Maj, Iconografia romana imperi
al, da Severn Alessandro a M. Aurelio Carino
(Rome, 1958).
B . M . Felletti Maj, Museo Nazionale Romano:
I ritratti (Rome, 1953).
M . Wegner (with J. Bracker and W. Real),
physical conditions.
Poulsen
Roman Portraits
Das romische Herrscherbild, vol. 3, pt. 3, Gordianus III bis Carinus (Berlin, 1979).
V. Poulsen, Les portraits romains, v o l . 2
(Copenhagen, 1974).
J. Frel, Roman Portraits
in the J.
Paul
Getty Museum, ex. cat. (Tulsa, Oklahoma,
Philbrook A r t Center, and Malibu, The J.
Paul Getty Museum, 1981).
1. Roman Portraits, no. 88, pp. 106-107, 132; Bergmann, pp. 92-93,
pis. 26.5—6. For the Oslo head, see Bergmann, pp. 95—96, pis. 29.1—2);
K. Fittschen and P. Zanker, Katalog der romischen Portrats in den Capitolinischen Museen und den anderen kommunalen Sammlungen der Stadt
Rom, vol. 3 (Mainz, 1983), p. 114, no. 2d (under no. 172).
138
Sande
Figure la. Profile o f head o f a
Nasjonalgalleriet SK 1526.
Figure lc. Back o f figure la.
woman.
Oslo,
Figure lb. Portrait o f figure la.
Two Early Gallienic Female Portraits 139
Figure 2a. Profile of head of a woman. Malibu, The
J. Paul Getty Museum 73. AA.47.
Figure 2b. Portrait of figure 2a.
Figure 2c. Back o f figure 2a.
140
Sande
Figure 3a. Profile o f head o f a woman, so-called
Etruscilla. Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano
121016. Photos: Courtesy D A I , Rome.
Figure 4a. Portrait head o f a woman.
N y Carlsberg Glyptotek 1493.
Copenhagen,
Figure 3b. Portrait of figure 3a.
Figure 4b. Profile o f figure 4a.
Two Early Gallienic Female Portraits
141
B o t h heads were made to the same scale, s l i g h t l y over
life size. T h e i r measurements are as follows:
O s l o head
Distance f r o m c h i n to top
G e t t y head
25.0 cm 26.0 cm
o f head
Distance f r o m chin to
19.5 c m
ca. 23.0 c m
hairline
Distance between the o u t
9.8 c m
9.6 c m
3.2 c m
3.05 c m
7.0 c m
7.5 c m
7.1 c m
7.7 c m
side eye corners
Distance between the i n
side eye corners
Distance between the left
m o u t h corner and the
outer left eye corner
Distance between the r i g h t
m o u t h corner and the
outer r i g h t eye corner
A p a r t f r o m the distance between the chin and the
hairline (the latter is b l u r r e d i n the G e t t y head and there
fore difficult to establish precisely), the measurements
are v e r y similar. T h e y s h o w that the heads w e r e made
to the same size, the head o f the y o u n g e r w o m a n per
haps a fraction smaller. T h e scale, the state o f preser
v a t i o n , and the s t y l i s t i c and technical s i m i l a r i t i e s a l l
Figure 5. Portrait bust o f a woman.
State Hermitage Museum A 29.
Leningrad,
suggest that the t w o portraits were made at the same
t i m e for the same purpose (presumably a funerary func
The y o u n g w o m a n i n Oslo (figs, la—c) wears a slightly
tion) b y the same hand, or at least i n the same w o r k s h o p ,
richer coiffure that reflects a later stage i n hair fashion,
and that they were b u r i e d together.
b u t i t is still rather uncomplicated. T h e stiff c r i m p e d
T h e h a i r s t y l e o f the t w o p o r t r a i t s , w i t h the h a i r
waves that were popular d u r i n g the forties and fifties o f
gathered i n t o a t w i s t e d r o l l instead o f a series o f t h i n
the t h i r d century A.D. are reduced i n this example to
plaits, was fashionable i n the G a l l i e n i c p e r i o d .
2
The
shallow, barely perceptible undulations. T h e locks o f
coiffure o f the elder w o m a n (figs. 2a—c) is the m o r e
hair descending behind the ears—like the t w i s t e d r o l l , a
conservative o f the t w o . I n its s i m p l i c i t y i t recalls that o f
characteristic o f the G a l l i e n i c p e r i o d —are m o d e s t l y
the presumed p o r t r a i t o f Etruscilla, w i f e o f Trajanus
rendered i n the shape o f t w o small curls. A head i n
Decius (A.D. 249—251), i n the M u s e o Nazionale R o m a n o
Copenhagen
3
5
(figs. 4a—b), w i t h a replica i n V i e n n a ,
6
(figs. 3a—b). T h a t p o r t r a i t , h o w e v e r , shows a different
shows slightly m o r e restraint i n the rendering o f fash
arrangement at the back o f the head, and its hair is parted
ionable features, since the hair is w i t h o u t waves. N o t
i n the m i d d l e . T h e closest comparison for the hair fash
u n l i k e the coiffure o f the O s l o head is that o f the so-
i o n o f the Getty head is a p o r t r a i t i n M u n i c h , w h e r e the
called Salonina i n the M u s e o Nazionale R o m a n o , b u t i n
almost straight hair i n front is c o m b i n e d w i t h a t w i s t e d
roll.
4
2. For examples see Bergmann, pp. 89ff, pis. 24.6, 25.1, 26.1—2,
28.1-6, 29.5, 30.1-2, 4, 6, 31.1-2, 5, and pp. 192-193, pis. 55.3, 56.3
(the dating o f the latter portrait is too late, i n my opinion); Bernoulli,
pp. 155-156, pi. 47; EA, 1025 (text P. Arndt); Felletti Maj, I ritratti, p.
154, no. 309; Poulsen, pp. 173-174, no. 178, pis. 287-288; J. Inan and
E. Alfoldi-Rosenbaum, Roman and Early Byzantine Portrait Sculpture
in Asia Minor (London, 1966), p. 98, no. 87, pi. 53.2—3 (Bergmann,
p. 100, dates it correctly to the Gallienic period).
3, Felletti Maj, J ritratti, pp. 144—145, no. 287; idem, Iconografia, pp.
7
the latter, the fringe o f short hairs escaping along the
hair line i n front is m u c h m o r e p r o n o u n c e d . C u r l s or
193-194, no. 245, pis. 31.100, 32.99; T. Kraus, Das romische Weltreich
(Berlin, 1967), p. 261, fig. 321; Herrscherbild, pp. 79, 81, pi. 33.
4. EA, 1025.
5. Bergmann, pis. 26.1-2, 27.4, 28.1-6, 30.1-3, 31.1-2, 5-6.
6. Bernoulli (see supra, note 2); Poulsen (see supra, note 2); Felletti
Maj, Iconografia, pp. 194-195, nos. 247-248; Herrscherbild, pp. 79-80,
82, 131.
7. Felletti Maj, I ritratti, p. 154, no. 308; idem, Iconografia, p. 236,
no. 319; Herrscherbild, pp. 130, 133, pi. 51.
142
Sande
fringes o f hair f r a m i n g the forehead are f o u n d o n a n u m
8
ber o f Gallienic portraits o f w o m e n . I n some cases the
ated, w h i l e that o f the elder m a t r o n is one that
was
popular around the m i d d l e o f the century and therefore
fine hairs are plastically rendered, i n others m e r e l y i n
slightly out o f date by Gallienic times—a feature often
cised. I n w o r k m a n s h i p , the most outstanding
f o u n d i n portraits o f mature or elderly w o m e n .
example
o f the use o f incisions is that o f a bust o f a w o m a n i n
9
T h e sculptural style o f b o t h heads also favors an early
L e n i n g r a d (fig. 5 ) . Its hairstyle is comparable to that o f
date. T h e v o l u m e t r i c m o d e l i n g w i t h its emphasis o n tac
the O s l o head, t h o u g h i t is rendered i n a m o r e detailed
tile values and textures, the barely perceptible swellings
and complicated manner.
and depressions o f the surface, and the f i n e l y d r a w n
T h e fine hairs escaping f r o m the front hairline o f G a l
hairs are typical o f early Gallienic p o r t r a i t sculpture. T h e
lienic female portraits as w e l l as the general style o f the
t w o portraits, perhaps s h o w i n g a m o t h e r and
coiffures themselves recall certain late Severan fashions.
(despite the lack o f p h y s i o g n o m i c a l resemblance),
daughter
are
10
l i k e l y to have been made i n the m i d d l e fifties o f the t h i r d
j u s t as the style o f Gallienic portraiture itself m a y have
century A.D. T h e i r scale, t h o u g h slightly over life-size, is
A desire to i m i t a t e earlier models is p r o b a b l y reflected,
been influenced b y that o f the Severan p e r i o d .
n o t large enough to identify t h e m as i m p e r i a l portraits.
11
D u r i n g the later part o f G a l l i e n u s ' r e i g n women's
T h a t they represent private individuals is also suggested
coiffures became stiffer and more elaborate. T h e h a i r
by the h i g h quality o f the t w o heads, w h i c h is rarely
styles o f the G e t t y and O s l o heads clearly date the heads
f o u n d a m o n g the mass-produced portraits o f the m e m
t o the early G a l l i e n i c p e r i o d . T h a t o f the
bers o f the i m p e r i a l families.
younger
w o m a n has the n e w l y fashionable details barely accentu
The University
Oslo
8. Bergmann, pis. 27.1-2, 4, 28.1-6, 29.3-4, 30.6, 31.1-6.
9. Bergmann, pp. 89-90, 93-94, pi. 28.1-2; A. Vostchinina, Musee
de VErmitage: Le portrait romain (Leningrad, 1974), pp. 186—187, no. 69,
pis. 92—93, w i t h further bibliography.
10. Already coin portraits o f Etruscilla seem to imitate earlier
coiffures, presumably those o f Julia Mamaea (cf. Herrscherbild, p. 78,
pis. 32a—b).
11. For this question, see especially K . Fittschen, Jdl 84 (1969), pp.
214ff; Bergmann, pp. 72ff; J. Inan and E. Alfoldi-Rosenbaum,
Romische und jruhbyzantinische Portratplastik aus der Tiirkei: Neue Funde
(Mainz, 1979), pp. 9ff.

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