Doping and Neuro-Enhancement in Elite and Leisure Times Sports

Doping and Neuro-Enhancement in Elite and Leisure Times Sports

Doping and Neuro-Enhancement in Elite and Leisure
Times Sports: a Severe Danger for Girls and
Women
Giselher Spitzer (Berlin / Odense)
Main Arguments against Doping as Misuse of Pharmacy in Sports and Body Culture:
The scientific construct of “Doping” focuses on misuse of pharmacy in sports and leisure times sports in order to enhance performance:
The construct presents mainly three arguments against misuse of pharmacy in sports:
• The principal of equal chances for all competitors are in danger by doping which
is therefore unfair -- doping as a mean in training or competition that fore has the
value like cheating or to bribe the arbiter;
• And: Health is in danger by misuse of pharmacy as an enhancer – the research
on “side effects” after 20 Years has brought more and more proves for that hypotheses. We can find more then 25 dangerous side effects for females, which
are not reversibel.1 Also, by that reason substances and methods are banned by
IOC and Intnernatuionale Federations of Sports, today by WADA-Decisions.
• The third argument gainst Doping on male and female individuals focuses on the
different sexes and obvious Gender-disturbances: Doping is especially a severe
danger for girls and women, comparable with criminal sexual abuse or heavy
body damage.
Anti-Doping Mainstream in longitudinal section: Rules, Controls, Punishment
The reconstruction of the Doping phenomenon is possible through the means of social
science2 - Doping is basically the abuse of performance-enhancing drugs (P.E.D.) for a
1
2
25 dangerous side effects for female athletes; cf. in English language: G. Spitzer, ‘Doping
with Children’, in C. Peters, T. Schulz, H. Michna (Ed.), Biomedical Side Effects of Doping,
Project of the European Union, Cologne : Sport und Buch Strauss, p. 127-139 . G. Spitzer,
‘Doping in the former GDR’, in C. Peters et al., Biomedical Side Effects, p. 115-125. Spitzer,
G. (2006). „Wunden und Verwundungen”. Opfer des DDR-Dopingsystems. Eine Dokumentation. Köln: Sport und Buch Strauss.
Cf. first a woman fought against Doping and dangers for male and especially female athletes: B. Berendonk, Dopingdokumente, Von der Forschung zum Betrug Berlin Heidelberg :
Springer, 1991. See also: J. Hoberman, Sterbliche Maschinen. Doping und die Unmenschlichkeit des Hochleistungssports, Aachen : Meyer & Meyer Verlag, 1994 (Original
Giselher Spitzer
better achievement in competition sports of humans (but also giving it animals, e.g.
horses for cheating in a race).
The word “abuse” of pharmacy demonstrates that Doping means are not used for the
medical goal, they are constructed and sold in order to heel illness. Abused are means
like male sexual hormone or “pep-pills” of the amphetamine type (which are todays
“neuro enhancers” outside sports!).
Because the pharmacy is used for other then medical reasons the intake causes unwanted effects on health of athletes: “Side effects” (“S.E.”). Especially girls and women
suffer more than male athletes – it is only to remind on male hormone change to male
body shape and to the male type of behaviour. Beside that the gynaecological organs of
the biological female body suffer, most cases irreversible.3
Growing abuse caused regulations against Doping as well as (first :) drug testing system in competition since about 30 Years and then (secondly :) as reaction of new practises Random Doping Controls in the process of training since about 18 Years. The latter
seem to be very effective, because suddenly the average achievement in elite sports
went down (!) since the, e.g. in shot putting especially of female throwers.4 That fact
proves that even by better forms of coaching and training the abuse of e.g. Steroids are
lowered since then.
Venen in history terms: Slowly, a system of national or IOC-punishment regulations
started. It depends on International Sport Federation and / or national law system if
there are differences between the way of intake: self administered misuse or mandatory
against the own will or without knowing of the athlete by others, namely a coach or a
medical doctor, like in the GDR. Even the punishment differed, until Doping definitions
3
4
2
„Mortal engines“). B. Hoolihan, Dying to Win. Doping in Sport and the Development oft
Anti-Doping Policy, Strasbourg, 1999. I. Waddington, Sport Health and Drugs. A Critical
Perspective, London / New York : Taylor & Francis, 2000.
English Summary about GDR: G. Spitzer, ‘Remarks to the Hidden System of Stately Organized Doping in the German Democratic Republic (G.D.R.)’, in Buschmann, J., Pfister, G. (ed.)
Sports and Social Changes, Sankt Augustin : Academia-Verlag, 2001, p. 161-170. Summary
in Danish language cf. G. Spitzer, ‘Sejrskode, oekonomi og politik som begrundelse for
sundhedsfare og regelbrud - doping-historie og doping i DDR’, in J. Hansen og T. Skovgaard (ed.) Sportens vaesen og uvaesen, Odense, 2002, p. 95-117.
G. Spitzer, ‘Auswirkungen von Doping bei Frauen. Ethische Grenzen und ihre Missachtung
im DDR-Leistungssport’, in G. Anders, E. Braun-Laufer (ed.), (2001a) . Grenzen fuer Maedchen und Frauen im Sport. Wissenschaftliche Berichte und Materialien des Bundesinstituts
fuer Sportwissenschaft, 2001 Bd. 6, Cologne : Sport und Buch Strauss, p. 83-100. Cf. W. W.
Franke, ‘Funktion und Instrumentalisierung des Sports in der DDR: Pharmakologische Manipulationen (Doping) und die Rolle der Wissenschaft’, in Enquete-Kommission (ed.), Aufarbeitung von Geschichte und Folgen der SED-Diktatur in Deutschland: Bd. III, 2, BadenBaden : Nomos, 1995, pp. 987-1089.
Scientific German studies are, even to doping international Top-10-Level statistics: A.
Singler, G. Treutlein, Doping im Spitzensport, Sportwissenschaftliche Analysen zur nationalen und internationalen Leistungsentwicklung, Aachen : Meyer & Meyer Verlag, 2000. To
have scientific work against Doping the „International Network on Humanistic Doping Research” was built 2001 at the University of Southern Denmark, Odense (Steering Committee
J. Hoberman, G. Spitzer V. Moeller).
DOPING AND ENHANCEMENT AS A DANGER FOR GIRLS AND WOMEN.
were centred to the actual W.A.D.A.-World Anti-Doping Code which is accepted by the
Olympic Sports Federations.5 The new universal Code in roughly shortening words
deals with use of forbidden drugs or methods in competition or Training (testing by accredited I.O.C.-Anti-Doping-Laboratories. Even hiding the abused pharmacy against
doping control6 or denying or refusal to give the urine sample to a controller are positive
cases. Highest institution in the decision is the C.A.S. in Switzerland (Court of Arbitration). The CAS work is well known sinc the posuitive case by indirect blood testing of
Claudia Springstein. (even if it is not proved if it was self administered or a case of doping without knowledge!)
On the other hand there is an basically important institution “Therapeutic use exemption
committee” (“TUEC”) which supervises the use of banned substances as real medical
treatment. Nowadays also the first regulations allow Transsexuals to take part under
male hormones treatment (because Testosterone “TE” is a powerful Doping mean, in
this case as a medical substance for transformed biological women or, striking, for
male competitors with a section of the TE producing testicals in the scrotum after Cancer).
In many states Anti-Doping-Laws exist, some punish with Jail: France, Italy. Other nations like Germany have a prosecution on the line of Medical distribution regulations.
Public health: body damages by Doping and prevention against misuse
E.g. we can find more then 25 dangerous side effects for female. In a first phase a
model like the (West German) Deutscher Sportaerzte-Bund Doping defines performance enhancing by drugs, which are not in physiological (“normal”) concentration in
ones body or which are given to the goal as performance enhancer. So, substances and
methods are banned, as well as mimetic which do not enhance but cover doping (like
male post cancer treatment in Italy, forgiving for women who normally have no male
prostate).
Because of the fundamental meaning of P.E.D. every enthusiast of body culture should
inform her/himself about this great danger for ethics of sports as well as the danger for
health, especially biological women. That goes also for IOC-world of “Classic” sport
disciplines, normally represented at the Olympic arenas, as well as sports in the Fitness
sector (with a growing meaning into wellness and anti-aging treatment which are based
on drug which are forbidden in Olympic sport like male sexual hormone).
The unique GDR-System7 brought data which can give a picture of the short- and long
term side effects of drug abuse in sports as well as causal medical links between health
5
6
7
See www.WADA-AMA.Org. The German Foundation N.A.D.A. has published a unique approach: an authorized translation of the WADA-Code for the German speaking audience
(www.NADA.de).
Reflecting the ideas of the (Western) German sport medical doctors organisation Doping is
performance enhancing by drugs, which are not in physiological (“normal”) concentration
in ones body or which are given to the goal as performance enhancer. So, substances and
methods are banned, as well as mimetic which do not enhance but cover doping (like male
post cancer treatment in Italy, forgiving for women who normally have no male prostate).
Historical and sociological analyse in German language: G. Spitzer, Doping in der DDR.
Ein historischer Ueberblick zu einer konspirativen Praxis. Genese – Verantwortung – Ge-
3
Giselher Spitzer
and abuse; the re=analyzing produces strong and grounded arguments against Doping:
Nearly 1,500 persons were active in „research” or „application” of Doping means, working for the leading Communist party aimed to win against the Western state, the today
even existing Federal Republic of Germany. The leaders of the East began to set the
goal higher: Ranking as No 3 in the world. Internal plans for 1984 and 1988 saw World
Mastery in Summer Olympics, caused by Mandatory Doping.8 The functional „maling“
of female sport as success model of GDR-sport9 is one aspect. The sex transformation of
a female short-putter represents only the top of the iceberg, reminding on the disturbances of sexual drive and orientation by sexual hormones. About 10.000 athletes were
victims of that industrial doping. 2000 a Year since 1970.
•
As a rule athletes were exposed to mandatory (or compulsory) doping because
of affiliation to cadres – without active cooperation: Only few athletes knew about
doping practice.
•
Every selected athlete was doped – it was impossible to refuse.
•
At the same time we see a paradox: In soccer on national leagues Doping was
forbidden – because of guarantying equal chance within the GDR. But the National Team had to abuse drugs to get better than other nations, even the Club
teams in the European Cup competitions.10
An Official Doping manual proves that side effects were well known, but kept as a secret. Generally, doping means had (nearly in every case on women) negative effects on
health status.11 Typical S.E. are described in a Secret Manual from 1982 of male and female athletes: „inhibition of production of sperms as well as Gynaecomastia at the
man“ and „Cycle-anomalies and Virilisation (if high dosage and long treatment: partly
8
9
10
11
4
fahren. Wissenschaftliche Berichte und Materialien des Bundesinstituts fuer Sportwissenschaft. 1998 Bd. 3 [ISBN 3-89001-315-5], Cologne : Sport und Buch Strauss, 1998, 434 S.; 2nd.
edition 2000; 3d. edition May 2004. Results about side effects: G. Spitzer, ‘Spaetschaeden
durch Doping bei Sportlern der ehemaligen DDR’, in Mueller-Platz, C. (ed.), Leistungsmanipulation: eine Gefahr fuer unsere Sportler. Wissenschaftliche Berichte und Materialien
des Bundesinstituts fuer Sportwissenschaft. 1999 Bd. 12. Cologne : Sport und Buch Strauss,
1999, p. 27-46. Pfister, G., Frauen und Sport in der DDR, Cologne : Sport und Buch Strauss,
2002.
Cf. about Stasi-Volunteers or Blood Doping practise, an reflexes on blood doping before
and after the end of the GDR: G. Spitzer, ‘Blutdoping als Domaene im Wintersport. Eine
Therapie, die in der DDR der Leistungsmanipulation seit 1972 gebraeuchlich war’, in Neue
Zuercher Zeitung, 16th of March, 2002.
Brigitte Berendonk and Werner W. Franke have named it so strikingly as „androgenization“
and „Virilisation“ of the woman, especially in the book “Dopingdokumente”.
Cf. G. Spitzer, Fussball und Triathlon, Sportentwicklungen in der DDR, Aachen: Meyer &
Meyer, 2004, 208 pp. [3891248636]. It is not surprising that the knowledge about doping in
soccer went „down“ to the first and second division, but not as stately mandatory doping
but individual financed mean of the clubs themselves. The Victims – the players -- even got
no information.
Cf. the manual of FKS, 1982, in Spitzer, „Sicherungsvorgang Sport“
DOPING AND ENHANCEMENT AS A DANGER FOR GIRLS AND WOMEN.
not reversible“.12 We see changes of phenotype: Side effects on the Skin, organs like the
Liver, the heart, high blood pressure, increasing of water-storage in body cells and connective tissue. We find strong disturbances of the psyche. Some specific Side effects of
female athletes are moustache or beard, male hair growing at the body-trunk, abasement of the sexual hormones and thereby increasing Virilisation, reduction of the
breast-gland and deep lowering of the voice. Problems with the menstruation and hypertrophy of the Clitoris to some centimetres are followed by polycystic Ovary-syndrome
and loss of the ability to get pregnant or to have living children. The damage on the
germ line was discussed secretly by athletes: The children of doped athletes have to a
high percentage typical diseases (research is not ended to that topic, which is strong
impressive for prevention.
Drug abuse in Leisure Time Sports
The international debate on the phenomenon of doping has not reached at a definite
end; and first studies in prevention activities arrived.13
Beginning with investigations in the USA14 the abuse of doping substances like anabolic
steroids is a phenomenon beyond Olympic sports (or a parallel one?), namely in the Fitness Centres or the Body building scene (e.g. Californian “Muscle Beach”). Since two
decades Doping practices are increasing in Youth culture of mostly male High Scholars
abusing drugs “like” in sports, maybe about 10 % of the boys in U.S. or Canada.
Systematic investigations in Germany brought clear figures: In 58 commercial sports
studios dangerous anabolic steroids were abused established in 22% of the men and
8% of the women – by there own will! The products were in 88% of cases anabolic,
mainly bought illegal. In 19 % the steroids were prescribed by medical doctors. The
study of Boos & Smith proved: Drug abuse in Fitness studios has a positive correlation
with a low educational and professional status; even a doping “career” shows up.15
A European Study, financed by the E. U., resulted with lower number of drug abuse in
leisure sports, but with a clear tendency, seen as qualities in drug abuse. Also the work
of Prof. Sandro Donati proved Drug abuse in Italy, as well as black market and criminal
12
13
14
15
Cf. Spitzer (ed.), Doping in Europe, 2006.
A University course at France and many activities like anonymous “Telephone vert” for
seeking help; information’s by regional Anti-Doping-Centres. See also a book about prevention against Doping of younger athletes: N. Arndt, A. Singler, G. Treutlein, G. Spitzer and
T. Rous, Sport ohne Doping! Argumente und Entscheidungshilfen fuer junge Sportlerinnen
und Sportler sowie in deren Umfeld, 2004 [„Arguments against Doping to young athletes“;
Austrian version in print; cf. www.dsj.de]. A. Singler, G. Treutlein, Doping – Analyse und
Praevention, Aachen : Meyer & Meyer Verlag, 2001. See also: “Dopingbekaempfung in
kommerziell gefoerderten Fitnessstudios”. This project has bee carried with the support of
the European Community 2001 (on www of BISP.de or EU.org).
E.g. T. L. Dezelsky, J. V. Toohey, R. S. Shaw, ‘Non-medical drug use behaviour at five United
States universities: a 15-year study’, in Bulletin Narcotics; 37 1985 (2-3), p. 49-53.
Cf. C. Boos, P. Wulff, ‚Medicament abuse by leisure sportsmen and women in the field of
physical fitness’, in G. Spitzer (Ed): Doping in European Sport, Routledge : London 2005, in
Prep.
5
Giselher Spitzer
ways of distribution16 - Massive Doping outside IOC and WADA! More clear than in
sports the aspect of Addiction shows up.
Public Health in General as well as helping girls and women in society makes it necessary to fight against legal and mostly illegal buying and abusing pharmacy to other
reasons than the were designed. Other aspects are the use of pharmacy for schoolers
against abnormal activity: Ritalin© is a pharmaceutical product using Methylphendiate a derivate of Amphetamine. Anti-Aging medicine with hormonal treatment (real Testosterone!) and so called Nutrition Supplements (in reality containing Steroids or Prohormones and thereby forbidden in Germany) are increasing in selling.
Here is a link for struggle against social drugs and the tendency of “Over-medication”
by abusing pharmacy to feel better or avoid pain or moods, which are natural and help
to stand a life, even in industrial societies which claim “tough” and “strong” behaviour.
16
6
Cf. A. Donati in G. Spitzer (Ed): Doping in European Sport,
DOPING AND ENHANCEMENT AS A DANGER FOR GIRLS AND WOMEN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Arndt, N., Singler, A., Treutlein, G., Spitzer, G. and Rous, T. (2004), Sport ohne Doping!
Argumente und Entscheidungshilfen fuer junge Sportlerinnen und Sportler sowie in deren
Umfeld, [“Arguments against Doping to young athletes“; Austrian, French and English
version in print; cf. www.dsj.de].y
Berendonk, B. (1991) Dopingdokumente, Von der Forschung zum Betrug Berlin Heidelberg :
Springer.
Boos, C., Wulff, P. (2005) ‚Medicament abuse by leisure sportsmen and women in the field of
physical fitness’, in Spitzer, G. (Ed): Doping in European Sport, Routledge : London, in Prep.
Dezelsky, T. L., Toohey, J. V., Shaw, R. S. (1985) ‘Non-medical drug use behaviour at five United
States universities: a 15-year study’, in Bulletin Narcotics; 37 (2-3), p. 49-53.
Digel, H., Dickhuth, H.-H. (Ed.) (2002), Doping im Sport. Ringvorlesung der Universitaet
Tuebingen, Tuebingen : Attempo, pp. 166-191.
Franke, W. W. (1995) ‘Funktion und Instrumentalisierung des Sports in der DDR:
Pharmakologische Manipulationen (Doping) und die Rolle der Wissenschaft’, in EnqueteKommission (ed.), Aufarbeitung von Geschichte und Folgen der SED-Diktatur in Deutschland:
Bd. III, 2, Baden-Baden : Nomos, pp. 987-1089.
Hoberman, J. (1994) Sterbliche Maschinen. Doping und die Unmenschlichkeit des
Hochleistungssports, Aachen : Meyer & Meyer Verlag (Original „Mortal engines“).
Hoolihan, B. (1999) Dying to Win. Doping in Sport and the Development oft Anti-Doping Policy,
Strassburg.
Pfister, G. (2002) Frauen und Sport in der DDR, Wissenschaftliche Berichte und Materialien des
Bundesinstituts fuer Sportwissenschaft, 2002, Cologne : Sport und Buch Strauss.
Singler, A., Treutlein, G. (2000) Doping im Spitzensport, Sportwissenschaftliche Analysen zur
nationalen und internationalen Leistungsentwicklung, Aachen : Meyer & Meyer Verlag.
Singler, A., Treutlein, G. (2001) Doping – Analyse und Praevention, Aachen : Meyer & Meyer
Verlag.
Spitzer, G. (1994c) ‘Une génération superflue dans le sport allemand? Sportifs de pointe et sport
de compétition dans les circonstances de l'après-guerre’, in LE SPORT ET L’EDUCATION
PHYSIQUE EN FRANCE ET EN ALLEMAGNE. Contribution à une approche socio-historique
des relations entre les deux pays. Sous la direction de J. M. Delaplace, G. Treutlein, G.
Spitzer, Montpellier, p. 188-212.
Spitzer, G. (1999) ‘Spaetschaeden durch Doping bei Sportlern der ehemaligen DDR’, in MuellerPlatz, C. (ed.), Leistungsmanipulation: eine Gefahr fuer unsere Sportler. Wissenschaftliche
Berichte und Materialien des Bundesinstituts fuer Sportwissenschaft. 1999 Bd. 12. Cologne :
Sport und Buch Strauss, p. 27-46.
Spitzer, G. (2001a) ‘Auswirkungen von Doping bei Frauen. Ethische Grenzen und ihre
Missachtung im DDR-Leistungssport’, in G. Anders, E. Braun-Laufer (ed.), Grenzen fuer
Maedchen und Frauen im Sport. Wissenschaftliche Berichte und Materialien des
Bundesinstituts fuer Sportwissenschaft, 2001 Bd. 6, Cologne : Sport und Buch Strauss, p. 83100.
Spitzer, G. (2001b) ‘Doping in the former GDR’, in C. Peters, T. Schulz, H. Michna (Ed.),
Biomedical Side Effects of Doping, Project of the European Union, Bundesinstitut fuer
Sportwissenschaft. Wissenschaftliche Berichte und Materialien 2001 Bd. 13, Cologne : Sport
und Buch Strauss, p. 115-125.
Spitzer, G. (2001c) ‘Doping with Children’, in C. Peters, T. Schulz, H. Michna (Ed.), Biomedical
Side Effects of Doping, Project of the European Union, Bundesinstitut fuer Sportwissenschaft.
7
Giselher Spitzer
Wissenschaftliche Berichte und Materialien 2001 Bd. 13, Cologne : Sport und Buch Strauss, p.
127-139.
Spitzer, G. (2001d) ‘Remarks to the Hidden System of Stately Organized Doping in the German
Democratic Republic (G.D.R.)’, in Buschmann, J., Pfister, G. (ed.) Sport und sozialer Wandel:
Proceedings of the ISHPES Congress 1998 = Sports and Social Changes. International
Society for the History of Physical Education and Sport : ISHPES Studies Vol. 8. Sankt
Augustin : Academia-Verlag, p. 161-170.
Spitzer, G. (2002a) ‘Sejrskode, oekonomi og politik som begrundelse for sundhedsfare og
regelbrud -- doping-historie og doping i DDR’, in J. Hansen og T. Skovgaard (ed.) Sportens
vaesen og uvaesen. IDRAETSHISTORISK ARBOG 2001, 17. Argang, Odense 2002, p. 95-117.
Spitzer, G. (2002b) ‘Blutdoping als Domaene im Wintersport. Eine Therapie, die in der DDR der
Leistungsmanipulation seit 1972 gebraeuchlich war’, in Neue Zuercher Zeitung, 16th of
March.
Spitzer, G. (2004a), Doping in der DDR. Ein historischer Ueberblick zu einer konspirativen
Praxis. Genese – Verantwortung – Gefahren. Wissenschaftliche Berichte und Materialien des
Bundesinstituts fuer Sportwissenschaft. 1998 Bd. 3 [ISBN 3-89001-315-5], Cologne : Sport und
Buch Strauss, 1998, 434 S.; 2nd. edition 2000; 3d. edition May 2004.
Spitzer, G. (2004b) Fussball und Triathlon. Sportentwicklungen in der DDR, Aachen : Meyer &
Meyer, 208 pp. [3891248636]. [Chapter ion Doping in male soccer.]
Spitzer, G. (2004c) „Sicherungsvorgang Sport“. Das Ministerium fuer Staatssicherheit und der
DDR-Spitzensport. Projektbericht fuer den Vorsitzenden des Sportausschusses des Deutschen
Bundestages im Rahmen des Forschungsprojektes »Die Kontrolle von Sport und
Sportwissenschaft durch das Ministerium fuer Staatssicherheit« (gefoerdert mit
Forschungsmitteln des Bundesinstituts fuer Sportwissenschaft unter dem Geschaeftszeichen
VF 0408/04/02/95), Schorndorf : Hofmann Verlag (in print), 703 pp.
Spitzer, G. (2004d), ‚Sport and the Systematic Infliction of Pain: A Case Study of State
Sponsored mandatory Doping in East Germany’, in Waddington, (ed): Sport and Pain,
Routledge : London,.
Spitzer, G. (2005b). Dopage dans la Republique Democratique Allemagne. S.T.A.P.S.: Special
Sport et Dopage. Staps, 70, Paris, Automne, 49-58.
Spitzer, G. (2005a) A Leninist Monster: Compulsory Doping and Public Policy in the G.D.R. and
the lessons for Today. In Hoberman, J. Moeller, V. (ed.): Doping and Public Policy. University
Press of Southern Denmark : Odense, 133-144.
Spitzer, G. (2006). „Wunden und Verwundungen”. Opfer des DDR-Dopingsystems. Eine
Dokumentation. Köln: Sport und Buch Strauss.
Spitzer, G. (Ed.) (2006a). Doping and Doping Control in Europe. Performance Enhancing Drugs,
elite sports and leisure time Sport in Denmark, Great Britain, East and West Germany,
Poland, France, Italy. Meyer: Oxford / Aachen.
Wanjek, Berit (2006). Doping, Drogen und Medikamente im Sport : Determinanten des
Substanzkonsums bei Thüinger Jugendlichen. Dissertation : FSU Jena : Friedrich-SchillerUniversität Jena, FSU Jena : Fakultät für Sozial- und Verhaltenswissenschaften, URN (NBN) :
urn:nbn:de:gbv:27-20060914-110052-6.
Waddington, I. (2000) Sport Health and Drugs. A Critical Perspective, London / New York : Taylor
& Francis.
8