Re-envisioning the Concept of Gods and Goddesses in Iranian

Transcription

Re-envisioning the Concept of Gods and Goddesses
in Iranian Culture
Nazanin Kani
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Master of Fine Arts in Illustration
at
Savannah College of Art and Design
© January 2014, Nazanin Kani
The author hereby grants SCAD permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly
paper and electronic thesis copies of document in whole or in part in any medium now
known or hereafter created.
Nazanin Kani
_______________________________________________________________
Mohamed Danawi , Committee Chair
Date
_______________________________________________________________
Richard Lovell, Committee Member
Date
_______________________________________________________________
Alessandro Imperato, Committee Member2
Date
Re-envisioning the Concept of Gods and Goddesses
in Iranian Culture
A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the Illustration Department
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
Degree of Master of Fine Arts in Illustration
Savannah College of Art and Design
By
Nazanin Kani
Atlanta, Georgia
January 2014
Re-envisioning the Concept of Gods and Goddesses in Iranian Culture
Table of Contents
List of illustrations and figures
1
Abstract
2
Introduction
3
Verethragna
4
Anahita
6
Mitra
8
Ahura Mazda
10
Amesha Spentas
12
Cultural Implications
13
Conclusion
15
References
16
Appendices
17
List of Illustrations and Figures
Figure 1. Sassanid silver plate of a Senmurv
5
Figure 2. Anahita vessel
6
Figure 3. Lion, Sun and Anahita Emblem
7
Figure 4. Mithras within the Bas-Relief of Ardeshir II's Investiture
10
Figure 5. Ahura Mazda Image in the Faravahar
11
Figure 6. Zoroastrian Calendar
12
1 Re-envisioning the Concept of Gods and Goddesses in Iranian Culture
By
Nazanin Kani
January 2014
Abstract
Throughout history, Gods, heroes and mythical creature conventions identify and help
explain how humans approach solving problems, seeking progress and achieving
excellence and success in their lives. The hierarchy of the Gods has always been
created by humanity’s own imagination. Undoubtedly, these creations played a
fundamental role in the lives of many cultures.This thesis provides an exploration of
Iranian culture along with humanity’s life desires.
Introduction
God, Allah, Khoda (Persian: ‫)ﺥخﺩدﺍا‬, Deus (Latin), Waheguru (Sikhism)… Ahura Mazd
(Zoroastrianism) and… There are many different names understood by different
religions and cultural beliefs for this invisible supreme power/ superior energy.
Like most cultures, the conceptualization of deities in the Iranian culture emerged
as a product of religious foundations. During the pre-Zoroastrian period, Iran (with its
ancient name Persia) was largely a polytheistic civilization. People attributed natural
events, calamities, and life cycles to pagan gods and goddesses. The “old religion” in
Iran also personified various gods and goddesses to represent humanity’s goals and
ideals such as fertility, wisdom, strength, healing, and conquest, to name a few. As Iran
embraced more organized religion through Zoroastrianism (The first monotheist
religions in the world, 1200-1500 BCE.) when the Stone Age was moving into the
Bronze Age, the hierarchy and relevance of existing deities also changed to
accommodate the dominance of other gods and goddesses (Curtis, 1993). These
religious shifts allowed certain changes in terms of the attributes of various deities. As
the Iranian civilization accommodated more organized religion, particularly toward
monotheistic faith, the independent ideals and traits found in older deities were
transferred and imbibed by fewer deities. In any period, however, various
representations of Iranian gods and goddesses have been evident in this civilization’s
material culture—from pantheons and calendars to literature and conventional
iconography. Any representation also conveyed human desires for certain virtues,
blessings, and visions of the afterlife. To further discusss on these and other insights,
the subsequent parts of this paper examine the cultural implications, representation, and
meaning of major deities in ancient Iran vis-à-vis their role in the rich and colorful culture
of this civilization. Verethragna: Ideals of Strength and Victory
In understanding the foundations and dynamics of gods and goddesses in
Iranian culture, it is imperative to cite some of the major religious or mythical figures,
starting with Verethragna. Verethragna is known as the Persian/Iranian God of victory.
He personifies the aggressive triumph that early Iranians desired in the context of war
and battles. In material culture, Verethragna appears in ten various forms such as wind,
camel, bull, boar, ram, white horse, stallion, predatory bird, a 15-year-old robust youth,
and a warrior holding a golden sword (Davaran, 2010). The swiftness and strength of
this deity were largely popular through his images as a boar and bird. Relative to his
origin in the Persian texts, Verethragna is depicted as “the mighty warrior” and the
“dragon killer” (Waerden, 1974, p.190). The accomplishment of this god as a victorious
warrior has been often linked to his nature as one of the four yazatas, or beings worthy
of worship.
It must be reiterated that the overriding trait of Verethragna, as a God, has been
associated with his strength, courage, and relentless desire for victory. When Iranian
culture welcomed Zoroastrianism as a religion, Verethragna retained this role and
representation, even when he was “demoted” to lesser status (Brosius, 2006). Also
known as Bahram in latter Iranian culture, Verethragna continues to hold his warrior
status. The twentieth day of each month in
the Zoroastrian calendar is dedicated to this
god. He was also ascribed as an archangel,
a name for a class of fire, and divinated as a
patron saint of the travellers in the Iranian
culture. In the last Iranian empire, the
Sassanid, derivative names of Verethragna
were applied to the names of six kings
(Brosius, 2006). In subsequent
Figure 1. Sassanid silver plate of a
Senmurv (Simurgh), 7th or 8th century CE
(Google Images, 2013)
iconographies of the Sassanid kings,
Verethragna or Bahram is constantly depicted as a mighty warrior who is ready to face
a battle, true to one of his reincarnations. Throughout history, Verethragna has been
illustrated through its incarnation, the Iranian senmurv, a lion-headed beast with fish’s
tail and bird’s wings (Daniel & Mahdī, 2006). The senmurv has been a staple cultural
symbol seen in various Iranian tools and objects such as jugs, silver plates, bowls, and
textiles (See Figure 1). Now, it can be analyzed that this cultural representation of
Verethragna has been constanly linked to strength, courage, and other traits that
foreshadow victory. In various eras of Persian culture, people looked up to these ideals
because this civilization was substantially a warrior culture that relied upon the skills and
capacities of its leaders. This also explains why the kings of the last Persian Empire
was named after Bahram, particularly to preserve this cultural hallmark of strength and
symbol of victory.
Anahita: The Ideal of Fertility and Bounty
In the flourishing ancient Iranian culture, people also looked up to symbols and
icons that represented their desires for a progressive and bountiful life. In other cultures,
this aspiration has been materialized through female deities. The Old Persian culture did
not depart from such conventions by hailing Ardvi Sura Anahita, or simply Anahita, as
the goddess of the waters and the “cosmic ocean” (Daniel & Mahdī, 2006). In the
traditional representation, Anahita is driving a
chariot drawn by four horses that, in turn, represent
the sub-elements of water. During the polytheistic
period of Iran’s history of religion, the goddess was
associated with activities or sources of life—
enabling the fertile seeds of male and females.
In succeeding cultural iconographies,
Anahita is vividly depicted as a fair woman whose
physique and body embellishments are largely
suggestive of her divine status (See Figure 2). She
wears gold clothing and accessories to represent
her noble roots and progressive Persian culture
(Waerden, 1974). Some scholars note that in the
6 Figure 2. Anahita vessel, 300-500 AD,
Sassanid, Iran, silver and gilt Cleveland Museum of Art (Google
Images, 2013)
pre-Zoroastrian period, evidences for the cult rituals dedicated to this goddess was
relatively sparse, particularly on how she was venerated or worshipped by the early
Persians (Brosius, 2006). Nonetheless, the nature of this goddess, particularly her
connection with earthly life, was seen as
an important trait by warriors. In fact, in the
Avesta, or the sacred texts of Persian
Zoroastrianism, heroes, enemies, and
common warriors prayed to Anahita for
survival and triumph in a battle. Votive
offerings were dedicated to this goddess to
Figure 3. Lion, Sun and Anahita Emblem,
4th Century B.C. (Google Images, 2013)
ensure that prayers offered to her were
heard.
In the Zoroastrian period, Persians continued to consecrate Anahita, both in
terms of religious functions and cultural representation. The “liturgical” rite of this
religion, known as Yasna, is directed toward Anahita because she represents the
waters (Daniel & Mahdī, 2006). In the contemporary period, Zoroastrians in Iran
continue to venerate bodies of waters such as streams to pray for fertility, bounty, or
good harvest. Therefore, Anahita has been a quintessential deity in Iranian culture,
despite changes in the status and hierarchy of the gods and goddesses. In the first
millennium, bronze clips with circular plates were popular. Majority of these objects
depicted an imprint of Anahita’s head. In the Sassanid Empire, Anahita, now named as
Nahid, was also a popular religious and mythic figure imprinted in tablets (Davaran,
2010). In the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, some coins depicted the goddess’ head
with a halo of light on top of it. However, the most common, and probably the oldest,
cultural symbol that illustrates Anahita is the Iranian emblem known as the Lion, Sun
and Anahita, which dates back to 4th century B.C. (See Figure 3). This emblem was
originally a wall carving that shows Artaxerxes II (from the Achaemenid Dynasty)
praying to Anahita (Brosius, 2006). Here, the goddess is positioned on top of a lion to
suggest her position as a divine. This ancient emblem has been seen as one of the
origins of some elements of the Iranian flag till the Islamic revolution (1979).
Considering such representations, the Iranian culture represented Anahita as the
source of life, particularly through the nourishment of the waters. The ancient Iranians
had a very high devotion and respect for water because again, it was the concrete and
abstract source of life. In both early and modern Iranian cultures, water was and
continues to be a means of spiritual purification (Waerden, 1974; Brosius, 2006). As
mentioned earlier, Zoroastrians are worshippers of water. Since Anahita personifies the
function of the waters in various aspects, this goddess remains to be an esteemed
cultural, if not religious symbol in Iran.
Mitra: Contracts, Honesty, Justice, and Friendship
Aside from Anahita, the Iranian goddess Mitra is also well-represented in Iran’s
religious, material, and visual culture. Mitra has been known as the daughter of the
virgin goddess Anahita. In terms of universal representation or symbolism, Mitra is
known as the Sun goddess. As the goddess of the sun, she represents friendship,
pacts, honesty, and contracts (Brosius, 2006). Like Anahita, she also maintains the socalled cosmic order, this time, through the light. She was also venerated and
worshipped as a deity during the pre-Vedic period. Prior to the introduction of
Zoroastrianism in Iran, Mitra was a major goddess. With cultural shifts toward
Zoroastrianism, her status diminished to a yazata. Meanwhile, in discussing Mitra’s
position as a deity in the Iranian culture, one should also take into account that Mitra is
genderless or neutral, which means that this deity may represent both female and male.
Take the description of a visual representation (Saadi-Nejad, 2009), below as a starting
point:
… Parthian-period wall-paintings from Dura-Europos in modern Syria depict the
Iranian god Mithra engaged in a hunt. The composition of this scene has been
used over and over again by subsequent Iranian artists to portray royal hunts, the
figure of Mithra simply being replaced by an image of the particular king being
memorialized. (p.236)
In the above description, Mitra was referred to as Mithra, the Sun God of ancient Iran.
When translated to her male alternate persona, Mitra still retains the same function: the
control of the cosmic order, building of friendships, and respect for contracts. In terms of
visual representation, however, Iranian artisans had more elaborate descriptions on
Mithra. He has been depicted as a warrior riding a white horse, carrying weapons made
of gold and silver (Waerden, 1974). Mithra is also symbolized through a club that,
according to Iranians, was a powerful weapon to fight dishonest humans as well as
Angra Mainyu, an evil entity (Daniel & Mahdī, 2006). In Iran, cultural symbols such as
the bas-relief sculpture of Ardeshir II’s investiture show the anthropomorphic form of
Mithras (See Figure 4). In this image, Mithras, with his signature solar motif on the head,
is sanctifying the investiture of this king (Saadi-Nejad, 2009). These representations of
Mithra—including other statues of Iranian
kings—depict the unity of human and divine
justice as well as the enforcement of contracts.
Whether represented through the sun or
weapons, Mitra or Mithra established and
protected the ideals for worthy Iranian kings by
emphasizing on righteousness. The month of
Mihr (October) is named after Mithra in
Figure 4. Mithras (Left) within the BasRelief of Ardeshir II's Investiture, 3rd
Century CE (Google Images, 2013)
Zoroastrian calendar. Ahura Mazda: Divinity and Wisdom
As Iran shifted its religious orientation to Zoroastrianism, especially in its dualist
“version” of monotheism, it also focused on the persona of one deity named Ahura
Mazda, who is considered as the source of ultimate knowledge, wisdom, goodness,
happiness, who is perfect, the god of order, the supreme being, the god of absolutes,
the god of truth, the source of light, the ultimate god, omniscient, omnipotent, eternal
being, creator of all humans, animals, sun, sky, earth, plants, water, fire, light and the
cosmos. He is the personification of all goodness and righteousness, and thus opposed
to all forms of suffering and evil deeds. To highlight the spiritual, religious, and moral
function of this god, he is contrasted against, the Evil Spirit known as Angra Mainyu. In
turn, this evil entity has the relentless desire to harm men, distort the truth, and destroy
the world. In the Zoroastrian texts, Ahura Mazda will eventually defeat Angra Mainyu,
symbolizing the power of goodness over evil.
‘Ahura’, meaning literally "High Being", is masculine
‘Mazda’, meaning the Most Wise Creator, is a feminine noun.
The two names are sometimes used separately, but most often used together as
Ahura Mazda. Zoroaster begins to see God as genderless and abstract in nature, Ahura
Mazda like many other gods in Persian culture shares many of the same non-genderneutral characteristics.
Compared to other early Iranian
deities, including the ones discussed in
this paper, Ahura Mazda has a “universal”
description/illustration, primarily through
the Faravahar (See Figure 5). Faravahar
refers to an iconographic symbol of
Zoroastrianism and is considered as a
staple cultural symbol, particularly within
Figure 5. Ahura Mazda Image in the Faravahar
Iranian iconography (Brosius, 2006). The
icon is composed of an image similar to the image of a man (Skjærvø, 2002). There is a
winged solar disk that surrounds the image and is symbolized by four elements. The
circular disk represents the everlasting power of the Good Spirit, alongside the other
representations of the deity including knowledge, wisdom, and righteousness (Skjærvø,
2002). Although the Faravahar is a direct description of the Spirit, more than Ahura
Mazda, it is nonetheless considered as the main visual representation of this god.
Amesha Spentas: Multiple Virtues
The concept of Amesha Spenta is derived from the early roots of Zoroastrianism.
They are known as the highest spirits or immortal sages that align with Ahura Mazda’s
goal to defeat the evil. The consists of Khshathra vairya, Asha vahishta, Haurvatat,
Ameretat, Armaiti, Vohu Manah, and Sraosa (Brosius, 2006). They are known as the
pure Zarathustra or priests in the protoZoroastrian religion in Iran. In texts and
hymns, these “holy spirits” appear as the
most important traits of Ahura Mazda
(Curtis, 1993). Eventually, latter Iranian
cultures personified the to represent them
as deities. Appearing as deities, these
spirits, usually represented as “angels,” are
symbolic of virtue, truth, possession, good
idea, wisdom/humility, maturity, and longevity or
health.
12 Figure 6. Zoroastrian Calendar, Ancient
Also symbolized as the Amesha Spentas in Zoroastrianism, the has been
represented in the visual culture as the six or seven divine sparks, each one carrying a
different virtue. Functioning as archangels, the come after Ahura Mazda in the
hierarchy of Zoroastrian gods (Jackson, 2002). They are neither gods nor creatures but
they also fight against the Evil Spirit. While there are no direct or popular visual
representations showing the relationship between Ahura Mazda and the , the
Zoroastrian calendar (See Figure 6) shows this connection. The first seven days of this
calendar was named after Ahura Mazda and the Amchaspand. As a cultural symbol, the
Zoroastrian calendar illustrates the divinity of the by placing their names (and symbolic
images) next to Ahura Mazda (Skjærvø, 2002; Brosius, 2006). In contemporary visual
arts, the is depicted as independent “beings” with anthropomorphic qualities, each one
“stylized” with different robes, background, and objects for differentiation (Curtis, 1993).
Cultural Implications
The conceptualization and function of various deities in the ancient Iranian
culture provide a lens that can examine the culture of this civilization, including the
extent to which they allowed these concepts or beliefs to influence their way of life. First
and foremost, the polytheistic origin of most gods and goddesses, especially before the
period of Zoroastrianism, suggests that ancient Iranians, like most cultures and
civilizations, also depended on pagan worship on the elements of the natural world.
Anahita, for example, was worshipped as the supreme goddess of the waters while
Mitra or Mithra refers to the sun deity. Notably, ancient Iranians used the internal
attributes of these natural elements to inspire them to win a battle and succeed in their
material or reproductive endeavors. When Iran evolved into a society and culture that
venerated a single ultimate god of goodness, most characteristics of the older gods
were transferred or attributed to Ahura Mazda. Ahura Mazda himself played a central
role in the leadership of Iranian kings and leaders. In his defense for example, Darius I
(Darius the Great) mentions in the Behistun Inscription that he was entitled to rule
because Ahura Mazda was on his favor (Brosius, 2006). In terms of cultural
representations, Iranian artists, over time, have been at the forefront of translating the
role and importance of these deities into their religious and visual culture. Saadi-Nejad
(2009) affirms on this by noting that:
Artists, like anyone else, are affected by and imbued with the myths and symbols
of the culture in which they grow up… The various art forms of Iran, past and
present, offer ample evidence of this influence. The Persian miniature painting
tradition, for example, is rich with reconstructed scenes from ancient Iranian
myths. Often a divine figure from prehistoric times is re-imagined as a hero or a
mythical king, with the myth associated with that particular deity being
transposed to a greater or lesser extent onto the hero. (p. 332)
Conclusion
In synthesis, these cultural functions and illustrations remind the viewers that
Iranian gods and goddesses, similar to how other cultures treated their deities, were
also regarded with utmost respect and reverence because of their active functions.
Zoroastrian as often called the first ecological religion. Air, Water, Earth, and Fire are
the four most revered elements in Zoroastrianism. The four elements and all the
creations are pure, sustain life and growth, cleanse and nourish us, therefore they
should be treated with love, appreciation and respect. Zoroastrians focus on keeping
their minds, bodies and environments pure.
Verethragna’s association with warriors and fierce animals was constantly captured in
statues to provide an object of worship for Iranians who desired for strength and victory.
Anahita, on the other hand, is continually present in one ceremony of Zoroastrianism
because she represents water, the element that has a spiritual and material significance
to both ancient and modern Iranians. Mitra is also positioned as a major deity in ancient
Iran because the sun symbolically oversees contracts, bonds of friendship, honesty, and
justice. With Ahura Mazda, the omniscience and omnipresence of this god is a great
testament to how Iran shifted to a monotheistic faith (Curtis, 1993). The and the
continued presence of other earlier deities also affirm that ancient Iranians
conceptualized these gods and goddesses to mirror the ideals, strengths, and fate that
they envisioned themselves.
References Brosius, M. (2006). The Persians. New York: Routledge. Daniel, E. L., & Mahdī, ʻ. A. (2006). Culture and customs of Iran. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Davaran, F. (2010). Continuity in Iranian identity: Resilience of a cultural heritage. New York: Routledge. Google Images (2013). Retrieved from https://www.google.com/ Jackson, P. (2002). Light from distant asterisks: Towards a description of the Indo-‐
European religious heritage. Numen, 49(1), 61-‐102. Retrieved from ATLAS Religion Database. Saadi-‐Nejad, M. (2009). Mythological themes in Iranian culture and art: Traditional and contemporary perspectives. Iranian Studies: Bulletin of the Society for Iranian Cultural and Social Studies, 42(2), 231-‐246. doi:10.1080/00210860902764946 Skjærvø, P. O. (2002). Ahura Mazdā and Ārmaiti, Heaven and Earth, in the Old Avesta. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 122(2), 399-‐410. Retrieved from MLA International Bibliography. Waerden, B. L. (1974). Science awakening II. Leyden, The Netherlands: Noordhoff International Publishing. Curtis, V. S. (1993). Persian myths. London: British Museum. 16 Re-envisioning the Concept of Gods and Goddesses in Iranian Culture
Verethragna
37x37”
Mixed media on board
18 Anahita, 48"x 37”- Mixed media on board
Mitra
1P- 22x 37”
2P- 22x 11”
Ahura Mazda
36 1/2x 36 1/2”
20 21 Amesha Spentas, 72”x 24”- Mixed media on board

Re-envisioning the Concept of Gods and Goddesses in Iranian

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