Professor Yosef Mamo SHORT BIOGRAPHY AND SELECTED

Transcription

SHORT BIOGRAPHY AND SELECTED
PUBLICATIONS OF
Professor Yosef Mamo
Adult Male Mountain Nyala
(Tragelaphus buxtoni: Lydekker, 1910)
SHORT BIOGRAPHY
February, 2016
Name: Yosef Mamo Dubale
Academic rank: Professor.
Nationality: Ethiopian.
Date of birth: Dec. 10, 1967.
Marital status: Married.
Contact address:
Email: [email protected]
[email protected]
Mob Tel: +251 916580266
P.O. Box 1838, Hawassa, Ethiopia.
Hawassa University Corporate Communication and Marketing
Directorate would like to appreciate the University for all rounded
support during production of this material and Prof. Yosef Mamo
Dubale for happily sharing his rich experience and contacts with the
wider public for future academic communications.
HU – CCMD
The Publisher
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Forward
It gives me a great privilege and honor to write a forward for Prof. Yosef
Mamo’s Professorial biography booklet. It is very well known by our College
and University community at large that Prof. Yosef maintained excellence in
Science as well as leadership which can be labeled as exemplary.
Prof. Yosef has been an inspirational instructor while he was at Wendo Genet
College of Forestry as academic staff and Head of Basic Science Department,
but most of his publications appeared after he came to our College as staff
member of Department of Biology, Hawassa University. Moreover, he advised
and examined many graduate students and is doing so right now as well. This
is quite extraordinary as many people decrease their performance in research
and general academics as they come to senior leadership positions.
I wish him future greater achievement in his academic engagement especially
research on his favorite study subject Mountain Nyala and I hope he will
inspire us by generating and publicizing cutting edge scientific evidences in
his research area.
Kindest regards,
Mulugeta Kebede (PhD)
Dean, College of Natural and Computational Science
Hawassa University
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Professor Yosef Mamo Dubale
1- SUMMARY OF QUALIFICATION AND PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE
Professor Yosef Mamo has started his carries as graduate assistant just after graduation from Addis
Ababa University in Bachelor of Science (BSc) in Biology in 1989. Since then he served the University
academically at different ranks as: Graduate Assistant, Assistant Lecturer, Lecturer, Assistant Professor
and Associate Professor until he was appointed as full Professor in March, 2015. He also served the
University at different administrative positions in different times as: Department Head, Associate
Registrar, Main Registrar and Vice-President for Business and administration, and as President Since
2011. As a President and Chief Executive Officer of the University, he held different administrative
responsibilities mainly serving as Chairman of the Senate, highest decision making body of the
University and Chairman of the Managing and University Councils. Moreover, Prof. Yosef has served
as advisor, co-advisor and examiner for many post-graduate students including PhD students. He taught
many courses to undergraduate and postgraduate students like: Wildlife Management; Wildlife Ecology;
Wildlife Population Dynamics, Conservation Genetics, etc.
Prof. Yosef has completed Master of Science (MSc) degree from Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences (SLU) In Uppsala, Sweden in 1997. He studied for Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree
in University of Aberdeen, Scotland, United Kingdom and completed his study in 2007. His thesis
title was on ‘Ecology and conservation of mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni: Lydekker, 1910) in
Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia’. Prof. Yosef has long years of research experience in areas
of Endangered mammals, particularly on antelopes such as Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni,
Lydekker, 1910); Menelik’s bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus meneliki, Neumann 1902); and Birds of
conservation importance.Moreover, in his research Prof. Yosef explores the effects of land use and land
cover changes by humans on conservation of wildlife species. He has produced more than 43 scientific
research papers for publications, where their titles are listed in this biography. For the sake of space only
three selected scientific research publications are fully presented in this biography.
Under Prof. Yosef’s leadership as a President, Hawassa University has been rated as the 2nd best
University among the first generation public Universities in Ethiopia for two consecutive academic
years of 2012/13 and 2013/14; and in the following 2014/15 academic years rated as the best (1st and top)
University among the public Universities in Ethiopia, and was warded Gold Medal for extraordinary
contribution in Education and Training sector in Ethiopia.
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2- EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND
Jan. 2003 – Nov. 2007:
Postgraduate study at University of Aberdeen, Scotland, UK,
for Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). Thesis title ‘Ecology and
conservation of mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni: Lydekker,
1910) in Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia’.
Aug. 1995 -June, 1997:
Postgraduate study at Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
in Master of Science (M. Sc.) in Forestry, Uppsala, Sweden.
Sept. 1985 - July, 1988:
Undergraduate study at Addis Ababa University for Bachelor of
Science (B. Sc) in Biology, Ethiopia.
Sept. 1973 - June, 1984: Primary, junior secondary & comprehensive senior secondary
school attended mainly at Addis Ababa and Yirgalem cities,
Ethiopia.
3- WORK EXPERIENCE
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March, 2011- present:
Serving as President of Hawassa University, Ethiopia.
Jan. 2011- Feb. 2011:
Served as Vice President for Administration and Student Service
at Hawassa University.
October-Dec. 2011:
Served as acting Vice President for Administration and Business
Development at Hawassa University.
Aug. 2008-Sept. 2011:
Served as Director of Admission and Alumni Directorate (Main
Registrar) of Hawassa University and Secretary of the University
Senate.
April, 2008-July 2008: Served as Associate Registrar of Hawassa University.
Feb. 2008 – Present:
member of teaching staff at Biology Department, Hawassa
University.
June, 1997 - Dec. 2002:
Served as a lecturer at the then Debub University, now
HawassaUniversity, Wondo Genet College of Forestry.
Nov. 1997 – Aug. 2002:
Served as Head of Department of Basic Sciences at the then
Debub University, Wondo Genet College of Forestry, in addition
to teaching duty.
Oct. 1992 - Jan. 1995:
Served as Head of Department of Basic Sciences at the then Debub
University, Wondo Genet College of Forestry; and member of the
Academic Commission in addition to teaching duty.
Sept. 1989 - Jan. 1995:
Served as an assistant lecturer and then lecturer at the then Debub
University, Wondo Genet College of Forestry, Ethiopia.
4- PROJECTS WRITING AND COORDINATION
• Prof. Yosef co-authored and won internationally competitive research project grant in 2005. The
project entitled: “Biodiversity Monitoring in Forest Ecosystems in Bale Mountains National
Park, Ethiopia, a Darwin Initiative Project (Sept. 2005 – August, 2008)”.
• Coordinator of BOWCYA-III (Bureau of Women, Children and Youth Affairs) Project in Southern
Nations and Nationalities Regional State: The youth development package implementation and
impact assessment projectthat run between 2013 and 2014.
• Coordinator of Norwegian Institutional support project (NORAD-III) to Ethiopia since March
2011 to October 2010.
• Involved in drafting and coordinatingthe Norwegian Institutional Support (NORAD-IV)
project (2015-2019): An academic partnership for sustainable land management and improved
livelihoods of the rural poor communities in the Rift Valley and arid highlands of Ethiopian.
• Supervisor of Norwegian Program for Capacity Development in Higher Education and Research
for Development (NORHED) project since 2013 to present.
• Supervisor of Norwegian Program for ‘Research and Capacity building in climate smart
agriculture in the Horn of Africa (NORHED-ETH-13/0016) project since 2013 to present.
• Coordinator of a Norwegian financial support project (MRV-WGCF&NR) focusing on forestry
and environment since 2014 to present.
5- BOARD, PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION AND OTHER MEMBERSHIP
1. March 2011 to present: Board member and secretary of Hawassa University,
Ethiopia.
2. Oct. 2013 to April 2014: Board member of Dilla University, Dilla, Ethiopia.
3. May 2012 to present:
Supervisory board member of Hawassa Institute of
Technology of Hawassa University, Ethiopia.
4. Aug. 2013 to present:
Board member of South Nations and Nationalities Peoples’
Regional State (SNNPR) Management Training Academy,
Hawassa, Ethiopia.
5. Feb. 2013 to present:
Member of the ‘General Assembly of Centre for
Development studies’ at national level, Ethiopia.
6. Oct. 2013 to present:
Board member of ‘Hayole Model Teaching Academy’ in
Hawassa, Ethiopia.
7. Feb. 2014 to present:
Board Chairman of community radio (FM 97.7)
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8. Jan. 2011 to Mar. 2012: Board member of Hawassa Flour Share Company in
Hawassa, Ethiopia.
9. Nov. 2013 to present:
‘Sidama-Gudumale City Park’ establishment central
committee member at Sidama Zonal level, SNNPR, Ethiopia.
10.2007/08 academic year:
Member of National Council for Curriculum Development
AndImplementation, Ethiopia.
11.March 2011 to present:
Council member Public Higher Learning Institutional
Change Council.
12.2013 to present:
Council member of “Entoto Space Science Consortium”.
13.1996 to present:
Member of Biological Society of Ethiopia;
14.2002 to present:
Member of Forestry Association of Ethiopia.
15.2013 to present: Member of Sidama Zonal Administration council, in
SNNPRS, Ethiopia.
16.2013 to present: Member of Hawassa City Administration Council, in
SNNPRS, Ethiopia.
6- AWARDSAND LETTERS OF ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
• As a President, he led Hawassa University to achieve the 2nd best position among the first
generation public Universities in Ethiopia for two consecutive academic years of 2012/13 and
2013/14. In the following academic year of 2014/15, he led Hawassa University to further higher
position to achieve the top (1stranking) position among the first generation public Universities
in Ethiopia as rated by Ministry of Education (MoE). And warded Gold Medal for extraordinary
contribution in Education and Training sector in Ethiopiaby Ministry of Education (MoE).
• Fulbright award: He have won internationally competitive award and been selected by the J.
William Fulbright Foreign Scholarship Board for a Fulbright Grant in 2013 for six months. Host
institution: Oklahoma State University, USA.
• Letters of acknowledgements from some key personalities:
From: Karen Chad, PhD, Vice President of Research at University of Saskatchewan
on November, 19, 2012 for excellent collaboration he established between two
sisterly institutions.
From: Greg Dorey, British Ambassador to Ethiopia on April 27, 2012 for
successful accomplishment of projects in Hawassa Universitythat were supported
by American Government.
From: YoheiSasakawa, Chairman of the Nippon Foundation on December 14,2012
for successful execution and accomplishment of the SasakawaAfrica Fund for
Extension Education (SAFE) program in Hawassa University.
From Dr. Carlo Lope, Executive Secretary, United Nations Economic Commission
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for Africa, on July 20, 2015 by acknowledging the rapid growth and expansions in
different fronts atHawassa University under Prof. Yosef’s leadership.
Award presented to President Yosef Mamo in recognition and appreciation of his
support for the successful cooperation between Hawassa University, Ethiopia and
Oklahoma State University, USA, 2016.
7- ON GOING REASEARCHES AND AREAS OF RESEARCH INTERESTS
• Biopsy sampling methods using darts of mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni).
• Genetic variability analysis among sub-populations of mountain nyala (Tragelaphus
buxtoni) using Micro-satellite.
• Habitat networks of mountain nyala’s (Tragelaphus buxtoni) within its existing bigger
habitat range.
• Demography and population dynamics of antelopes.
• Genetic analysis on mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni).
• Habitat uses of antelopes in afro-montane areas.
• Social issues affecting wildlife conservation.
• Land-use and livestock grazing effects on birds.
8- SOME OF TRAINING COURSES AND SEMINARS ATTENDED
1. April, 2012: Training and awarded a Diploma on successful completion of International Seminar
on ‘Project Management’, held at Galilee International Management Institute, Israel from March,
20 to April, 2, 2012. A total of 112 academic hours were covered,
2. September, 1984: Certificateon successful completion of the four year senior Secondary Courses
of studying focusing on ‘Agriculture’ from Sept. 1973 to 1984.
3. July, 2008: Certificate on Active involvement in Public Higher Learning Institutions(Universities’)
curriculum drafting and development process organized by Higher Education Strategic Center
(HESC), Ethiopia.FromSept.2007 and July, 2008 academic year.
4. Sept. 1996: Training and received acertificate on a doctoral course ‘Research Tools and Skills I’,
Department of Rural Development Studies, Uppsala, Sweden from Sept. 16 to 27, 1996.
5. June, 1995: Six months training and received a certificate on basic forestry courses training for
non-forestry students for joining the SUAS/AUA Master of Science Degree in Forestry Program,
arranged with collaboration of Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SUAS) in Sweden
and Alemaya University in Ethiopia from Jan. 1995 to June, 1995.
6. April, 1994: Certificate on Agroforestry seminar organized by Kenyan Ministry of Agriculture
held in Kenya from April 17 to 19.
7. August, 1991: Workshop attended and received a certificate on Research Methodology training
held at Debre-Zeit Management Institute organized by the then Higher Education Main
Department, Ministry of Education, Debre-Zeit, Ethiopia from August 5 to 17.
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8. December, 2009: APEDIA (Academic Partnership for Environment and Development Innovations
in Africa) workshop on “Land-use and conflicts: sources and solutions” held in Makarare
University, in Kampala, Uganda from December 13 to 16, 2009.
9. November, 2011: A symposium marking the 25th anniversary of Sasakawa Global 2000 and
of the Sasakawa African Association (SAA) on “Agricultural Extension: TAKE IT TO THE
FARMERS” held on 3rd and 4th of November, 2011 in Bamako, Mali.
10.December, 2011: Third APEDIA (Academic Partnership for Environment and Development
Innovations in Africa) workshop on “Land-use and water: governing a scarce resource” held in
Potchefstroom, South Africa on 16th and 17th of December, 2011.
11.November, 2011: Workshop on “Strategic Planning workshop on Strengthening Higher Education
Stakeholder Relations in Africa (SHESRA)” held in Kenya School of Monetary Studies (KSMS),
Nairobi, Kenya on 29th and 30thNovember, 2011.
12.September, 2011: Southern Africa-FAIMER Regional Institute: Experience sharing visit to four
Universities (University of Stellenbosch, Cape Town, Witwatersrand and Pretoria) in South
Africa to establish Medical Education Unit and Skill Laboratories at Medical School at Hawassa
University, Ethiopia. The visit held from 11 to 17, September, 2011 in South Africa.
13.December, 2012: Fourth APEDIA (Academic Partnership for Environment and Development
Innovations in Africa) conference on “Land-use and food security, held in Hawassa University,
Ethiopia in November 2012.
14.May, 2013: Fulbright (J. William Fulbright) Grant in 2013 for six months. Host institution:
Oklahoma State University, USA.
9- LISTS OF SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS
1. Yosef Mamo, Michelle A. Pinard, and Afework Bekele (2010). Demography and dynamics of
mountain nyala Tragelaphus buxtoni in the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. Current
Zoology, 56(6): 660-669.
2. Yosef Mamo and Afework Bekele (2011). Human and Livestock encroachments on habitat of
mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) in Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. Tropical Ecology,
52(3): 265-273.
3. Dereje Yazezew, Yosef Mamo and Afework Bekele (2011). Population ecology of Menelik’s
bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus meneliki, Neumann 1902) from Denkoro Forest Proposed National
Park, northern Ethiopia. International Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, 37(1): 1-13.
4. Girma Mengesha, Yosef Mamo and Afework Bekele (2011). A comparison of terrestrial bird
community structure in the undisturbed and disturbed areas of the Abijata-Shalla Lakes National
Park, Ethiopia. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation, 3(9): 389-404.
5. Mosissa Geleta, Yosef Mamo and Afework Bekele (2011). Species richness, abundance and habitat
preference of rodents from Komto Protected Forest, Western Ethiopia. Journal of Agriculture and
Biological Sciences, 2(6): 166-175.
6. Mesele Admassu, Yosef Mamo and Afework Bekele (2011). Damage caused by large mammals on
sugarcane plantation, Ethiopia. Journal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences, 2(6): 151-157.
7. Yosef Mamo and Michele A.P. (2011). A Summary of the Conservation Status of the Mountain
Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) in Bale Mountains National Park. Walia - Special Edition on the Bale
Mountains: 94-96.
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8. Yosef Mamo, Girma Mengesha, Aramede Fetene, Kefyalew Shale and Mezemir Girma (2012).
Status of the Swayne’s Hartebeest, (Alcelaphus buselaphus swaynei) meta-population under land
cover changes in Ethiopian Protected Areas. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation,
4(12): 416-426.
9. Yosef Mamo, Afework Bekele and Girma Mengesha (2012). Habitat use of mountain nyala
(Tragelaphus buxtoni, Lyddeker, 1911) in the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. International
Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation, 4(15): 642-651.
10. Zerihun Girma, Yosef Mamo and Mateos Ersado (2012). Species Composition, Distribution and
Relative Abundance of Large Mammals in and around Wondo Genet Forest, Southern Ethiopia.
Asian Journal of Applied Sciences, 5(8): 538-551.
11. Girma Mengesha, Afework Bekele and Yosef Mamo (2012). Diet preferences of sub-species of
ostrich (Struthio camelus camelus and Struthio camelus molybdophanes) at Langano ostrich farm,
Abijata-Shalla Lakes National Park, Ethiopia. Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci. (Short communication),11(1):
57-64.
12. Girma Mengesha Debeshu, Afework Bekele Simegn, Gail S Fraser and Yosef Mamo Dubale (2013).
Attitude of local people to land use and climate change impacts on water bird community structure
at Lake Zeway. International Journal of Ecosystem, 3(3): 37-54.
13. Girma Mengesha, Afweork Bekele, Gail Fraser and Yosef Mamo (2014). Land use, land cover and
climate change impacts on the bird community in and around Lake Zeway, Ethiopia. International
Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation, 6(3): 256-270.
14. Aramde Fetene, Demelash Alem and Yosef Mamo (2014). Effects of land use and land cover
changes on the extent and distribution of Afroalpine vegetation of Northern Western Ethiopia: The
case of Choke Mountains. Research Journal of Environmental Sciences,8(1): 17-28.
15. Mesele Admassu, Yosef Mamo and Afework Bekele (2014). Abundance of Hamadryas Baboon
(Papio hamadryas hamadryas) and its conflict with humans in Awash National Park, Ethiopia.
International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation, 6(3): 200-209.
16. Yosef Mamo, Girma Mengesha and Addisu Asefa (2014). Abundance and habitat preference of the
near-threatened Ethiopian endemic Abyssinian Long-claw (Macronyx flaricollis) in the Northern
montane grasslands of the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. International Journal of Development
Research, 4(9) 1887-1893.
17. Girma Mengesha, Chris Elphick, Kefeyalew Shale, Yosef Mamo and Afework Bekele (2014).
Effects of land-use on birds’ diversity in and around Lake Zeway, Ethiopia. Journal of Science &
Development, 2(4): 5-19.
18. Girma Mengesha, Chris S. Elphick, Christoper R. Field, Afework Bekele, and Yosef Mamo (2015).
Abundance and temporal pattern in wetland birds in and around lake Zeway, Ethiopia. Journal of
Biodiversity Management & Forestry, 4(1):1-9.
19. Yosef Mamo (2015). Demography and population dynamics of mountain nyala (Tragelaphus
buxtoni) population before its population crash in 1991 in the Bale Mountains National Park,
Ethiopia. International Journal of Development Research, 5(1): 3085-3094.
20. Yosef Mamo (2015). Attitudes and perceptions of the local people towards benefits and conflicts they
get towards conservation in the Bale Mountains National Park and the mountain nyala (Tragelaphus
buxtoni), Ethiopia. International Journal of Biodiversity & Conservation, 7(1): 28-40.
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21. Mateos Ersado, Zerihun Girma, Yosef Mamo and Megersa Debele (2015). Community attitudes
towards African Civet Civettictiscivetta conservation in eastern sub-catchment of Lake Hawassa
basin, Southern Ethiopia. Discovery: International Journal, 27(96): 2-7.
22. Mohammed Kasim, Zebene Asfaw, Abayneh Derero, Matewos Melkato and Yosef Mamo (2015).
The role of area closure in the recovery of woody species composition in degraded land and its socioeconomic importance in Central Rift Valley area, Ethiopia. International Journal of Development
Research,5(2): 3348-3358.
23. Yosef Mamo, Addisu Asefa and Girma Mengesha (2015). Social organization in the Mountain nyala
(Tragelaphus buxtoni) population in the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. International
Journal of Biodiversity & Conservation, 7(2): 103-111.
24. Addisu Asefa, Yosef Mamo, Girma Mengesha and Anteneh Shimelis (2015). Woody plant diversity
along disturbance gradients in the northern Afro-montane forest of the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia.
International Journal of Development Research, 5(3): 3745-3754.
25. Addisu Asefa, Girma Mengesha, Anteneh Shimelis and Yosef Mamo (2015). Livestock grazing
in Afromontane Grass land in the Northern Bale Mountains, Ethiopia: Implications for bird
conservation.Sci. Technol. Arts Res. J. (STAR), 4(2): 112-121.
26. Abiot Hailu, Abdella Gure, Girma Mengesha, Yosef Mamo and Addisu Asefa (2015). Response of
Swayne’s Hartebeest to fire-induced habitat change in Senkelle Sanctuary, Ethiopia. Sci. Technol.
Arts Res. J. (STAR), 4(2): 122-126.
27. Yosef Mamo, Addisu Asefa and Girma Mengesha (2015). Habitat use of ungulates in Bale Mountains
National Park, Ethiopia. African Journal of Ecology, 53(2): 512-520.
28. Zerihun Girma, George Chuyong, Paul Enangelista and Yosef Mamo (2015). Habitat characterization
and preferences of the Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni, Lydekker 1990) and Menelik’s
Bushbuck (Tragelaphuss criptus Meneliki, Neumann, 1902) in Arsi Mountains National Park,
South-Eastern Ethiopia. International Journal of Current Research, 7(11): 23074-23082.
29. Yosef Mamo, Girma Mengesha and Addisu Asefa (2016). Effects of livestock grazing on species
richness, taxonomic diversity, and taxonomic distinctness of Montane grassland bird community
in the northern Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. Accepted for publication in African Journal of Ecology,
54(-).
30. Adisu Asefa, Girma Mengesh and Yosef Mamo (2016). Ecological traits predict the susceptibility
of an Afro-montane grassland bird species to livestock grazing in the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia.
Accepted for publication in African Journal of Ecology, 54(-):
31. Addisu Asefa, Girma Mengesha and Yosef Mamo (2016). Local and landscape scale effects of
land use change on bird diversity in Abijata-Shalla Lakes National Park, Ethiopia. Accepted for
publication in Sci. Technol. Arts. Research J (STAR), 5(-).
32. Addisu Asefa, Girma Mengesha and Yosef Mamo (2016). Application of birds as bio-indicators of
habitat change: the case of Abiata-Shalla lakes national park, Ethiopia. Accepted for publication in
International Journal of Development Research, 6(-)
33. Alemtsehay Teklay and Yosef Mamo (2016). Seasonal availability of common bee flora in relation
to land use and colony performance in Gergera Watershed Atsbi-Wembwrta District eastern zone of
Tigray, Ethiopia. Manuscript under preparation for submission to a Journal.
34. Yosef Mamo, Kedir Nino, Girma Mengesha and Kefeyalew Sahele (2016).GIS (Geographic
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Information System) based ecotourism potential assessments in Munessa-Shashemene concession
forest and its surrounding areas, Ethiopia. Manuscript under preparation for submission to a Journal.
35. Zerihun Girma, George Chuyong, Paul Enangelista and Yosef Mamo (2016). Attitude and awareness
of local community about the conservation of mountain nyala and Menelik’s bushbuck, in Galama
Mountains, Arsi Mountains National Park South eastern Ethiopia. Manuscript under preparation for
submission to a Journal.
36. Zerihun Girma and Yosef Mamo (2016). Species composition and diversity of birds of Wondo
Genet, southern Ethiopia. Manuscript under preparation for submission to a Journal.
37. Addisu Asefa, Girma Mengesha and Yosef Mamo (2016). Effects of climate and land-use change on
animal diversity of the Harenna Forest in the Southern Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. Manu script under
preparation for submission to a Journal.
38. Zerihun Girma, George Chuyong, Paul Enangelista and Yosef Mamo (2015). Diet composition and
preferences of Mountain nyala in Galama Mountains, Arsi Mountains National Park South eastern
Ethiopia. Manuscript under preparation for submission to a Journal.
39. Zerihun Girma, George Chuyong, Paul Enangelista and Yosef Mamo (2015). Diet composition and
preferences of Menelik’s bushbuck in Galama Mountains, Arsi Mountains National Park South
eastern Ethiopia. Manuscript under preparation for submission to a Journal.
40. Zerihun Girma, George Chuyong, Paul Enangelista and Yosef Mamo (2015). Tree stump count,
livestock encroachments versus mountain nyala and Menelik’s bushbuck abundance in Galama
Mountains, Arsi Mountains National Park South eastern Ethiopia.Manuscript under preparation for
41. Zerihun Girma, Ashok Verma, Tsion Asfaw and Yosef Mamo (2015). Species composition and
diversity of birds of Wondo Genet, southern Ethiopia. Manuscript under preparation for submission
to a Journal.
42. Zerihun Girma, George Chuyong, Paul Enangelista and Yosef Mamo (2015). Analysis of Land Use
and Land Cover Change and Its Drivers in the habitat of mountain nyala and Menelik’s bushbuck
Using GIS and Remote Sensing: The Case of Galama Mountains, Arsi Mountains National Park,
South eastern Ethiopia. Manuscript under preparation for submission to a Journal.
43. Yosef Mamo and Ron-Vander Bush. (2016). Genetic variability analysis among sub-populations
of mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) using Micro-satellite. Manuscript under preparation for
List of Books
1. Ecology and Conservation of Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) in Bale Mountains
National Park in Ethiopia (2013), Yosef Mamo Dubale & Afework Bekele. LAP LAMBERT
Academic Publishing. PP 132 (ISBN-13: 978-3-659-38558-2; ISBN-10: 3659385581. EAN:
9783659385582).
2. Untapped potentials of Biological, Ecological, and Geological resources of Ethiopia for tourism
development (2015).Yosef Mamo, Writingin progress.
3. Lately discovered big antelope (Mountain Nyala: Tragelaphus buxtoni, Lydekker 1990) of the
Twentieth Century. Yosef Mamo, Writing in progress.
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References
• Prof. Afework Bekele (Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia); email: [email protected]
• Prof. M. Balakrishnan (Addis Ababa University, Oklahoma, USA; email: [email protected]
• Dr. Paul Evangelista (Colorado State University, Colorado, USA); email: paulevan@nrel.
colostate.edu
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FIRST PAGES CONTAINING ABSTRACTS AND THREE FULL
PUBLICATIONS OF Prof. Yosef Mamo
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Journal of Science & Developemnt 2(2)
2014
Effects of Land-use on Birds Diversity in and around Lake Zeway,
Ethiopia
Girma Mengesha1⃰, Yosef Mamo2, Kefyalew Sahle4 Chris Elphick4and Afework Bekele5
1. Hawassa University, School of Wildlife and Ecotourism, PO Box 5/128,
Shashemene, Ethiopia. Email: [email protected]
2. Hawassa University, Department of Biology, P.o.box 5. Emial: [email protected]
3. Hawassa University, School of Natural Resource Management , PO Box 5/128, Shashemene,
Ethiopia. Email: [email protected]
4. Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Center for Conservation and Biodiversity,
University of Connecticut, 75 North Eagleville Rd.U-3043, Storrs, CT 06269, USA: Email:
[email protected]
5. Addis Ababa University, Department of Zoological Sciences, PO Box 1176, Addis Ababa. Email:
[email protected]
Abstract
Girma Mengesha⃰, Yosef Mamo, Kefyalew Sahle, Chris Elphick and Afework Bekele
Effects of Land-use on Birds Diversity in and around Lake Zeway, Ethiopia.Journal of
Science & Development 2(2)2015, 5-22.
Anthropogenic factors can have major impacts on ecosystem functioning and stability,
which are often reflected in changes to the biodiversity that includes wildlife. Land-use is a
dynamic process that changes in space and time depending on prevailing socio-economic
and biophysical conditions. This study aims at investigating anthropogenic effects of landuse on bird species diversity and abundance in and around Lake Zeway. Systematic random
sampling techniques at an interval of 4km were used to select sampling blocks. A transect
line of 1.65km and a sighting distance of 300m on both sides of a given transect, depending
on species and habitat types, were laid along each block to count birds. Satellite images and
Environment for Visualizing Image (ENVI) were used to analyze and detect land-use and
cover changes in the surrounding areas of the Lake. The study revealed that land-use and
cover related to bird community have changed during the analysis period in the area.
Relatively low bird species diversity was recorded in blocks with less vegetation cover as
compared to blocks with relatively intact vegetation cover. Bird species diversity showed
significance difference among different species (F = 39.326, df =11, P < 0.05). In terms of
feeding guild, carnivorous had the highest species richness and diversity, while Piscivorous
feeding guild had the least. Diversity of birds community with changes in vegetation cover
showed significant difference (F = 6.613, df =21, P < 0.05). Moreover, abundance of bird
species was relatively higher in dense vegetation cover sites and areas with permanent
ponds. From the results, it can be concluded that variations in the diversity and abundance
of bird species variably affected by land-use and land cover types. The major reason for
such change is conversion of land to irrigated agricultures in the surrounding areas of the
lake. Thus, urgent conservation measures that could reduce the impact of land-use/cover
changes are needed to conserve the bird species at the lake.
Key words: Abundance, birds, diversity, impacts, land-use
⃰
Corresponding author [email protected]
16
5
International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation Vol. 4(15), pp. 642-651, December, 2012
Available online http://www.academicjournals.org/IJBC
DOI: 10.5897/IJBC12.059
ISSN 2141-243X ©2012 Academic Journals
Full Length Research Paper
Habitat use of mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni,
Lyddeker, 1911) in the Bale Mountains National Park,
Ethiopia
Yosef Mamo1*, Afework Bekele2 and Girma Mengesha1
1
Department of Wildlife and Ecotourism, Hawassa University, P. O. Box 5, Hawassa, Ethiopia.
2
Department of Biology, Addis Ababa University, P. O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Accepted 5 September, 2012
A study on habitat use of the mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni), an endemic ungulate known to
science in 1908, was conducted from May to June 2007 in the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP).
The study area was divided into three major habitat group based upon the dominant vegetation and
relative location. Vegetation use by the animal were accessed in randomly laid 171 square plots of 100
2
m area size along randomly established transects. Of 171 plots 69 were in Gaysay grassland, 71 in
Adelay and 31 in Dinsho woodland habitat. As related to the species use, of the habitat ground cover,
incidence of browsing, vegetation height, slope, altitude, canopy openness, tree density and visibility
were measured. Six vegetation types were identified and ranked for their use by T. buxtoni. The largest
proportion (58%) of the Gaysay grassland habitat, was covered by grasses. In this habitat, Hypericum
revolutum bush was the most used while open grassland was the least. Among the four vegetation
groups that were identified in Dinsho woodland habitat, Hagenia and Juniperus and vegetable type
covered the largest proportion (68%) in terms of area. In this habitat, open montane grassland
vegetation was the most used by the animal; while Euphorbia and Solanum bushy vegetation were the
least. Although the least used, in Adelay woodland habitat, Hagenia and Juniperus vegetation types
covered the largest proportion (65%) of the area. In most obervation, levels of browsing decreased with
increased in vegetation height. Greater availability of a given vegetation type did not necessarily result
in higher use by the study animal. Proper conservation measures that could restore or rehabilitate the
preferred habitats and vegetation types for the study animal are needed in the Park.
Key words: Browse, habitat use, mountain nyala, preference, vegetation.
INTRODUCTION
An intimate and complex relationship can be observed
between a given species of animal and its habitat with
certain biotic and abiotic requirements for persistence
(Pullin, 2002). Ecological research has shown how key
resources such as vegetation, water and shelter drive the
distribution of herbivores (Illius and O’Connor, 2000;
Apps et al., 2001). The broad-scale relationships
between vegetation and animals have long been
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected].
recognized. Important elements of the habitat of an
animal are often provided by the vegetation of an area
(Morrison et al., 1998). Vegetation provides essential
requirements for animals such as cover and food.
An endemic antelope of Bale Mountains National Park
(BMNP), mountain nyala (MN) (Tragelaphus buxtoni),
was known to science in 1908 (Lydekker, 1911). The
main range of MN is the Bale and Arsi Mountains. Areas
outside of these mountains support only relic population
in isolated areas, which include sites of Asebe Teferi,
Arba Gugu and Mount Gara Muleta (Brown, 1966; Wilson
and Reeder, 1993). A high-altitude woodland mosaic,
17
DOI : ht t p://dx .doi.org/1 0 .4 3 1 4 /st a r.v4 i2 .0 0
I SSN : 2 2 2 6 -7 5 2 2 (Print ) a nd 2 3 0 5 -3 3 7 2 (Online )
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Sc i. T e c hnol. Art s Re s. J ., April-J une 2 0 1 5 , 4 (2 ): 0 0 0 -0 0 0
J ourna l H om e pa ge : ht t p://w w w .sta rjourna l.org/
Original Research
Response of Swayne’s Hartebeest to Fire-induced Habitat Change in Senkelle
Sanctuary, Ethiopia
Abiot Hailu1,3, Abdella Gure1, Girma Mengesha1, Yosef Mamo2 and Addisu Asefa3*
1
Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, Post Box: 128, Shashamane, Ethiopia
2
Department of Biology, Hawassa University, Post Box: 05, Hawassa, Ethiopia
3
Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority, Post Box 386, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract
Fire disturbance is one principal conservation tool to improve wildlife habitat quality in
savanna ecosystems, but it can also have the opposite effect if unregulated as it favors
the growth and establishment of invasive alien species and bush encroachment by
indigenous species. The main aim of the present study was to examine the response of
Swayne’s Hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus swaynei)—a globally endangered
Ethiopian endemic subspecies—to fire-induced habitat disturbance in Senkelle
Swayne’s Hartebeest Sanctuary. We specifically assessed how the abundances of the
species differ between fire-burnt (hereafter referred to as disturbed sites) and unburnt
(hereafter referred to as undisturbed) sites across season, and how their responses
coincide with that of some co-existing mammal species. Both disturbance and season,
as well their interaction had statistically significant effects on mean number of
individuals of Swayne’s hartebeest; disturbed sites had greater number of individuals
than undisturbed sites and greater mean number was recorded during wet season
compared to dry season. This trend was also revealed when different age categories of
the species were separately considered. The findings of this study highlights the
importance of fire as a potential habitat management tool for effective conservation of
Swayne’s Hartebeest population in Senkelle Sanctuary, perhaps due to its effect on the
growth of new grass and increased forage species diversity. However, this result should
be interpreted cautiously as fire in the area are often unplanned and set illegally by local
people. Although we suggest that regulated/planned burning of the habitat is needed for
effective conservation of this globally threatened, endemic subspecies, application of
fires should be conducted based on adequate knowledge (i.e. using the results of
experimentally executed studies as a guide) of the frequency and severity of fire
required to get optimum outcome.
Copyright@2015 STAR Journal, Wollega University. All Rights Reserved.
Article Information
Article History:
Received : 12-05-2014
Revised
: 13-09-2014
Accepted : 18-11-2014
Keywords:
Alcelaphus buselaphus swaynei
Fire
Savanna
Conservation management
Endangered
Hartebeest Sanctuary
Wildlife habitat
*Corresponding Author:
Addisu Asefa
E-mail:
[email protected]
INTRODUCTION
Swayne’s
Hartebeest
(Alcelaphus
buselaphus
swaynei) is one of the eight subspecies of Kongoni
hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus; family: Bovidae)
(Kingdon, 2003; IUCN, 2013). Although its geographical
distribution was wide in the past (occurring in Ethiopia,
Somalia and Sudan), it only occurs in Ethiopia at present;
thus is endemic to the country (IUCN, 2013). Even in
Ethiopia, its distribution and population size has been
declining substantially and the two largest populations
remaining in the country are found in Senkelle Swayne’s
Hartebeest Sanctuary (SSHS) and Maze National Park
(Abiot Hailu, 2013). Currently it is globally considered as
an endangered subspecies due to declining population
and habitat degradation (IUCN, 2013). Swayne’s
Hartebeest prefers to live in open, slightly bushed and tall
grass woodland areas. They are social animals living in
herds of 4 to 30 animals and sometimes aggregate up to
300 to 10,000 individuals (Tewodros Kumssa, 2006;
18
Vreugdenhil et al., 2012). Generally they are grazers but
sometimes browse low shrubs and herbaceous plants
(Kingdon, 2000; Tewodros Kumssa, 2006).
SSHS was established in 1971 to protect the
endangered and endemic Swayne’s Hartebeest
population (Hillman, 1993). However, their habitat in the
sanctuary has been dramatically decreasing through time
2
2
(e.g. from 200 km to 50 km only in 1972/73) due to the
expansion of illegal settlements and mechanized farming
(Tischler, 1975; Messana and Bereket Netsereab, 1994).
This has resulted to decline in population size of the
species (e.g. its population size in the Sanctuary was
2379 individuals in 1988 but declined to 123 individuals
1998 (Messana and Bereket Netsereab, 1994; Nishizaki,
2004). Therefore, effective management strategies (e.g.
increasing suitable habitat size and improving habitat
A Peer-reviewed Official International Journal of Wollega University, Ethiopia
1
Tropical Ecology 52(3): 265-273, 2011
© International Society for Tropical Ecology
www.tropecol.com
ISSN 0564-3295
Human and livestock encroachments into the habitat of Mountain
Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) in the Bale Mountains
National Park, Ethiopia
1
2*
Y. MAMO & A. BEKELE
1
Department of Wildlife and Ecotourism, Hawassa University, P.O. Box 5, Hawassa, Ethiopia
2
Department of Biology, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract: A study to assess the impacts of livestock grazing and human encroachments on
the habitat of Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) was carried out in the Bale Mountains
National Park, Ethiopia during 2003-2005. Parameters such as the presence or absence of both
livestock and Mountain Nyala dung, extent of browsing, vegetation height and evidence of wood
extraction by the local communities were assessed from 171 randomly laid plots (each covering
100 m2). Additional 25 plots were used to measure spatial changes of vegetation structure and
cover across Gaysay grassland area. Presence of livestock and other human activities in the
area negatively affected habitat availability and quality for Nyala.
Resumen: Se llevó a cabo un estudio para evaluar los impactos del ramoneo del ganado y la
invasión humana en el hábitat del nyala de montaña (Tragelaphus buxtoni) en el Parque
Nacional de las Mountains Bale, Etiopía, durante 2003-2005. Se evaluaron parámetros como la
presencia o ausencia de estiércol tanto de ganado como del nyala de montaña, la magnitud del
ramoneo, la altura de la vegetación y evidencia de extracción de madera por las comunidades
locales, en 171 parcelas establecidas al azar (cada una de 100 m2). Se usaron 25 parcelas más
para medir los cambios espaciales de la estructura y la cobertura de la vegetación a través del
área de pastizales de Gaysay. La presencia de ganado y otras actividades humanas en el área
afectaron negativamente la disponibilidad y la calidad del hábitat del nyala.
Resumo: Um estudo do impacte de pastagem de gado e humanos no habitat do Nyala de
montanha (Tragelaphus buxtoni) foi levado a efeito no Parque Nacional das Montanhas Nyala,
Etiópia durante 2003-2005. Parâmetros como a presença ou ausência de gado ou de excrementos
de Nyala de montanha, extensão da zona pastada, altura da vegetação e evidência de extracção
de madeira pelas comunidades locais foram avaliadas em 171 parcelas (cada uma de 100 m2),
casualmente distribuídas. Umas 25 parcelas adicionais foram utilizadas para medir as
mudanças espaciais na estrutura da vegetação e no coberto através da área de pasto de Gaysay.
A presença de gado e de outras actividades humanas na área afectou negativamente a
disponibilidade e qualidade do habitat para o Nyala.
Key words: Browsing, encroachment, habitat, livestock, Mountain Nyala, vegetation.
N
*
Corresponding Author; e-mail: [email protected]
19
Journal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences Vol. 2(6) pp.166 - 175, September 2011
Available online Available online http://www.globalresearchjournals.org/journal/?a=journal&id=jabs
Copyright ©2011 Global Research Journals.
Full Length Research.
SPECIES RICHNESS, ABUNDANCE AND HABITAT PREFERENCE OF
RODENTS FROM KOMTO PROTECTED FOREST, WESTERN ETHIOPIA
1
Mosissa Geleta1, Yosef Mamo2 and Afework Bekele3*
Department of Biology, Wollega University, PO Box 395, Nekemte, Ethiopia,
email:[email protected]
2
Hawassa University, PO Box 5, Hawassa, Ethiopia, e-mail: [email protected]
3
Department of Biology, Addis Ababa University, PO Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
*
Corresponding author:[email protected]
Accepted 16th July 2011.
A study on the species richness, abundance and habitat preference of rodents of Komto Protected Forest
was carried out from July, 2009 to Feburary, 2010 encompassing both wet and dry seasons. The study
investigates rodent species richness and their habitat preference in the study area. Furthermore, the role of
different soil types associated with rodent habitat preference and abundance was also investigated. The study
was carried out using Sherman live and snap traps in maize farm, grassland, bushland and forest habitats. A
total of 312 individual rodents (live traps) and 66 (snap traps) were captured over 2352 and 1200 trap nights,
respectively. The species composition and relative abundance were: Stenocephalemys albipes (48.4%),
Lophuromys flavopunctatus (27.6%), Lemniscus. striatus (10.3%), Pelomys harringtoni (7.7%), Rattus rattus
(5.1%) and Mus mahomet (0.9%). In addition, a shrew Crocidura flavescens was also captured. Mastomys
natalensis and Arvicanthis species were absent which was unexpected as these species were most common in
sub-Saharan Africa. Most of the rodent species preferred grassland and maize farm to bushland and forest.
Bushland and forest habitats provided more number of individual rodents with few species. This is because
environmental variables, for example, plant species composition might not favor all animals equally. Males
comprised 52.9% and females 47.1% of the total capture. Among the total rodents captured, adults, subadults
and juveniles comprised 60.6 %, 28.8% and 10.6%, respectively. Loamy soil formed the grassland and forest
habitats, whereas the maize farm had sandy clay soil. Active or new burrows were not recorded in all habitats
during the wet season. This might be a mechanism of avoiding the effect of flooding, and due to the presence of
suffcient ground cover in wet season. However, during both seasons, new burrows or/and abandoned burrows
were not recorded from grassland and forest habitats because of sufficient ground cover. Therefore, the effect of
soil should be considered in ecological based rodent management in agricutural system.
Keywords: Diversity, Ethiopia, habitat preference, Komto Protected Forest, rodents
INTRODUCTION
Mammals are evolutionarily the most successful
groups of animals with the possible exception of
arthropods (Stanbury, 1972). Among mammals, the
order Rodentia represents the most diverse group
(Kingdon, 1997; Vaughan et al., 2000). Approximately,
44% of all mammals are rodents with 30 extant families
(Casanovas-Villar, 2007), 468 genera and about 2,052
species (Nowak, 1999). Rodents of Africa are the most
ubiquitous and numerous among mammals (Delany,
1986). There are about 14 families, 89 genera and 381
species of rodents in Africa (Singleton et al., 2007).
Ethiopia has varieties of different species of animals and
plants. The country is known in having diverse faunal
community. The diverse topographic features of Ethiopia
produce a range of climate which affects the distribution
of both plants and animals (Yalden and Largen, 1992). In
Ethiopia, there are 84 species of rodents that account for
20
30% of all mammalian species (Afework and Leirs, 1997).
Rodents are cosmopolitan in distribution and show great
diversity in morphology, ecology and behavior (Delany
and Happold, 1979). Rodents breed rapidly and make
quick response to environmental changes. Their small
body size, fast life history and behavioral plasticity
enables them respond quickly to habitat qualities such as
climate, food, vegetation cover and rainfall. Their
response to climatic changes depended on their dispersal
ability and acclimatization (Auffray et al., 2009). Rodents
are good subjects for study because of their great
ecological values such as pruning vegetation, aerating
soil, spreading pollens, seeds and fungal spores allowing
colonization of new habitats and habitat modification
(Kingdon, 1997; Pearson et al., 2001). They also have an
economical and medical value. Their study is very easier
as they have short lifespan (Delany, 1986; Kingdon,
Available online at http://www.journalijdr.com
International Journal of
DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH
ISSN: 2230-9926
International Journal of Development Research
Vol. 5, Issue, 02, pp. 3348-3358, February, 2015
Full Length Research Article
THE ROLE OF AREA CLOSURE ON THE RECOVERY OF WOODY SPECIES COMPOSITION ON
DEGRADED LANDS AND ITS SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE IN CENTRAL RIFT
VALLEY AREA, ETHIOPIA
1Mohammed
Kasim, 2Zebene Assfaw, 3Abayneh Derero, 4Mateos Melkato and 5*Yosef Mamo
1Arsi
University/College of Agriculture and Environmental Science Department of Natural Resources, P.O. Box,
193 Assela, Ethiopia
2,4Hawassa University, Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, P.O. Box 128,
Shashemene, Ethiopia
3Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research/Forestry Research Centre, P.O. Box 30708 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
5Hawassa University, Department of Biology, P.O. Box 05, Hawassa, Ethiopia
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Article History:
The study was carried out in degraded lands in Central Rift Valley area of Ethiopia in 2012. The
main aims of the study were to assess the woody species composition, structure, regeneration,
density and diversity in the area closures and in an open area; and to assess the socioeconomic
importance of area closures to the local communities. Three area closures and one open area were
considered. For vegetation survey, randomized sampling technique was used to locate the sample
plots in each area. A total of 60 circular sample plots of each 314 m2area were used. In each plot,
heights, diameters and numbers of existing woody species were recorded. To assess socioeconomic importance of the area closures, group discussion with 10 key informants, and 40
household heads survey were made using semi structured questionnaire. A total of 26 species
belonging to 14 families were identified in the study area. The number of species recorded in an
open area, and area closures of four-year, seven-year and 25-years were 13, 20, 23 and 15
respectively. The majority of the local people (85%) expressed positive attitude towards the
benefits of area closures in rehabilitation woody species in the area. About 65% of the
respondents confirmed that they had benefited from the area closures in one way or another.
Thus, it can be concluded that, the area closures in the Central Rift Valley brought changes by
rehabilitating degraded lands and eventually brought economic, social and ecological benefits to
the local communities. In addition to what is covered with this study, further studies on dynamics
of soils physical and chemical properties should be made to understand wide-ranging benefits of
area closures. For sustainable maintenance of the rehabilitated areas and their contribution to the
livelihood of to the local communities, setting tangible benefit sharing schemes from the closures,
and diversify alternative sources of income are vital.
Received 17th November, 2014
Received in revised form
23rd December, 2014
Accepted 31st January, 2015
Published online 27th February, 2015
Key words:
Area closure,
Density,
Diversity,
Population Structure,
Regeneration,
Socio-economic,
Woody species.
Copyright © 2015Mohammed Kasim et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
INTRODUCTION
The Ethiopian Central Rift Valley (CRV) is part of the Great
African Rift. Varied topography, the mountain massifs, the
CRV and the surrounding lowlands have given Ethiopia a
wide spectrum of habitats and a large number of endemic
plants and animal species (Zerihun, 1999). The CRV consist
of a chain of lakes, streams and wetlands, and being a closed
*Corresponding author: Yosef Mamo
Hawassa University, Department of Biology, P.O.Box 05, Hawassa,
Ethiopia
basin, the CRV is one of the environmentally very vulnerable
areas in Ethiopia (Jansen et al., 2007). Ethiopia has one of the
largest driest landmass in developing countries in the world,
which account for about 70 % of its landmass, of which it
consists of 46% of the total arable land of the country (FAO,
2000).The vegetation in the central Rift Valley is characterized
by Acacia open woodland, now extensively overgrazed, while
deciduous forest occupy the ridges and slopes (ValletCoulomb et al., 2001). Human pressure in the Rift valley is
very high and the natural flora and fauna is disappearing
rapidly (Feoli and Zerihun, 2000). The increased human
21
Ethiop. J. Biol. Sci. 11(1): 57-64, 2012
© The Biological Society of Ethiopia, 2012
ISSN: 1819-8678
SHORT COMMUNICATION
DIET PREFERENCES OF SUB-SPECIES OF OSTRICH (STRUTHIO CAMELUS
CAMELUS AND STRUTHIO CAMELUS MOLYBDOPHANES) AT LANGANO
OSTRICH FARM, ABIJATA SHALLA LAKES NATIONAL PARK, ETHIOPIA
Girma Mengesha 1,*, Afework Bekele 2 and Yosef Mamo3
ABSTRACT: This study investigated diet preferences of two sub-species of
ostriches (Struthio camelus camelus and S. c. molybdophanes) at Langano
Ostrich Farm during the dry and wet seasons of 2009. Observations on the
food items consumed and food leftovers were recorded. Observations were
made five hours a day for 40 days for the natural food items consumed by the
ostriches during morning (06:00 h-10:00 h) and in the afternoon (16:00 h18:00 h). Twenty observations at an interval of five minutes were made to
determine the frequency of natural diet consumed by the ostriches. Prepared
food and wheat bran were given to the ostriches for five days and the
frequency of consumption was recorded for 100 minutes. Ostriches consumed
various parts of eight major plant species of eight families. On an average, the
leaves of succulent grass, Cenchrus ciliaris was consumed most (41%) during
both seasons. The leaves of Acacia tortilis, Balanites aegyptiaca and pods of
A. tortilis were the most frequently consumed plant materials. Though both
sub-species preferred the succulent grass during both seasons, the frequency
of consumption was higher for the blue-necked ostrich (43-49%). Wheat bran
was the most preferred (93.7%) by both sub-species among the prepared food
items. The ostriches also consumed mineral salt and faeces of other animals
and their own.
Key words/phrases: Diet preferences, Food items, Ostriches, Plant species.
INTRODUCTION
Ostriches are flightless birds. They originated in Africa and were introduced
to Europe, Middle East, Asia and Australia (Shanawany and Dingle, 1999).
In Africa, particularly the desert areas provide ample space for them (Floch,
1992). Africa harbours four ostrich species (Struthio camelus, S.
molybdophanes, S. massaicus and S. augtralis). However, some scholars
realize the presence of six sub-species of ostriches differing slightly in size,
skin colour of the bare thighs, head, neck, size and texture of the eggs
1
Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, P.O. Box 128, Shashemene, Ethiopia. E-mail:
[email protected]
2
Department of Zoological Sciences, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. E-mail:
[email protected]
3
Hawassa University, P.O. Box 15, Hawassa, Ethiopia. E-mail: [email protected]
* Author to whom all correspondence should be addressed
22
International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation Vol. 3(9), pp. 389-404, September 2011
Available online http://www.academicjournals.org/IJBC
Full Lenght Research Paper
A comparison of terrestrial bird community structure in
the undisturbed and disturbed areas of the Abijata
Shalla lakes national park, Ethiopia
Girma Mengesha1*, Yosef Mamo2 and Afework Bekele3
1
Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resource, P. O. Box 128, Shashemene Ethiopia.
2
Hawassa University P. O. Box 5, Hawassa, Ethiopia.
3
Department of Biology, Addis Ababa Univeristy, P. O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa Ethiopia.
Accepted 6 July, 2011
A study to determine the terrestrial bird community structures in the undisturbed and disturbed areas
of the Abijata Sahlla Lakes National Park was conducted during the wet and dry seasons. A
representative area of 57% was randomly sampled in each of the undisturbed and disturbed habitats. A
transect line of 1 or less km at a distance of 50 to 100 m on one side of the line was used to count birds.
Counting was carried out in the morning and afternoon on the same line transect. Data were analyzed
using Estimate S, Shannon-Wiener, Past, SPSS and Excel software. The disturbed habitat had the
higher species richness but lower species diversity of birds during both seasons. However, bird
species richness and diversity was high in the undisturbed habitat during the wet season. Lower
species richness with higher species evenness was recorded in the disturbed habitat during this
season. During the dry season, higher species richness was recorded in the disturbed habitat. The
relative abundance of bird species in the two habitats at different seasons showed significant
2
difference (χ 84 = 168.384, P<0.01). Blue-napped mouse bird (Urocolius macrourus) and village weaver
(Ploceus cucullatus) had the highest relative abundance in the undisturbed habitats during the dry
season. During the wet season, the highest relative abundance was recorded for superb-starling
(Lamprotornis superbus). These bird species had strong guild and seasonal relationship in the area.
Insectivore birds were the most abundant guild in both of the habitats. The Park’s terrestrial habitat
sustains various species of birds, but loss of habitat is affecting their occurrences. Urgent conservation
measures could reduce habitat loss.
Key words: Bird species, community structure, terrestrial habitat.
INTRODUCTION
An increase in complexity of vegetation structure, floristic
composition and heterogeneity can increase niche
diversity of birds and vice versa (Leito et al., 2006). Both
natural and human induced disturbances such as floods,
drought, deforestation change in land use, natural
resources and seasonal climatic changes affect
vegetation and bird community structures (Maurer, 1981;
Wiens, 1989; Rahayuninagsih et al., 2007). The change
in vegetation community structure alters the availability of
nest, cover and food for birds. Furthermore, change in
vegetation community structure could affect the quantity
and quality of food, water and cover which in turn alters
the diversity, abundance and distribution of birds
(Western and Grimsdell, 1979). However, at present the
vegetation community structure is increasingly disrupted
mainly due to high human population growth and their
impacts. Therefore, understanding the effect of habitat
disturbance on bird community structure is important to
23
24
Journal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences Vol. 2(6) pp.151-157, August 2011
Available online Available online http://www.globalresearchjournals.org/journal/?a=journal&id=jabs
Copyright ©2011 Global Research Journals.
Full Length Research.
DAMAGE CAUSED BY LARGE MAMMALS ON SUGARCANE
PLANTATION, ETHIOPIA.
Mesele Admassu1, Yosef Mamo2 and Afework Bekele1*
1
Biology Department, Addis AbabaUniversity. PO Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia E-mail:
[email protected]
2
Yosef Mamo, Hawassa University, PO Box 5, Hawassa, Ethiopia, e-mail: [email protected]
*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected]
th
Accepted 4 July 2011
A study to determine the extent of damage by large mammals on sugarcane plantation was carried
out in Wonji-Shoa Sugarcane Plantation, central Ethiopia, from August 2006 to March 2007. Three sample
sites were randomly selected in the sugarcane plantation to collect data on sugarcane and faecal droppings
of the animals. Strip line transect method was used to estimate hippopotamus population while total count
method was utilized for warthog and grivet monkeys. Data were analysed using descriptive statistic, chisquare and t-test. There was a seasonal variation in the population number of the three species in the area.
The estimated hippopotamus population was 129 and 99 during the wet and dry seasons. The variation was
significantly different ( χ
2
= 3.947, df =1, P < 0.05). The estimated warthog populations was 180 and 140
during the wet and dry seasons which was significantly different ( χ
2
= 5.000, df = 1, P < 0.05). The
2
estimated grivet monkey population was 882 and 630 during the wet and dry seasons ( χ = 42.00, df = 1, P
< 0.01). More number of individuals was recorded during the wet season than the dry season. Grivet
monkey population was most abundant and hippopotamus number was the least. Sugarcane damage
caused by hippopotamus was 2745 and 3089 stalk per ha during the wet and dry seasons which was
significantly different (t = 16.96, df = 1, P < 0.05). Damage caused to the sugarcane plantation was more for
warthog than hippopotamus and grivet monkey. Damage caused by warthog was 3988 and 4025 stalk per
ha and that of grivet monkey was 3148 and 3590 stalk per ha during wet and dry seasons, respectively.
Keywords: Sugarcane plantation, Pest mammals, Ethiopia
INTRODUCTION
Ethiopia is one of the most physically and
biologically diverse countries of the world (Leykun, 2000).
It comprises highland massive surrounded by arid
lowlands. It contains various wildlife and wildlife habitats
ranging from 110 m below sea level at Afar depression to
over 4,500 m at Ras Dejen (Shibru, 1995). Most
highlands harbour many endemic plants and animals, but
possess fewer species diversity than the lowlands. The
main reason for the presence of diverse wildlife and large
number of endemic species is the rugged topography.
This helped to create isolated and varied ecological
conditions (Yalden, 1983). For millenia, the natural
habitats of the country have been altered because of
human settlement. Most of the highlands and some of the
lowlands have been modified into agricultural and
pastoral lands. This has further led to encroachment into
wildlife habitats. The constriction of wildlife habitats
resulted in severe competition for natural resources
between wild animals and the local communities. This in
turn resulted in human - wildlife conflict (Yalden and
Largen, 1992).
As in other parts of the world, in Ethiopia, large
herbivore mammals cause damage to agricultural crops
and plantations. The extent of damage varied depending
on the species of the pest mammal in different parts of
the country. There are wide varieties of pest mammal
species such as hippopotamus, warthog, baboons,
monkeys, gazelles, bushbucks and rodents. These
mammals cause serious damage to agricultural crops in
different parts of the country. Wonji-Shoa Sugarcane
Plantation is among those areas affected by these pest
25
International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation Vol. 4(12), pp. 416-426, September 2012
Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/IJBC
DOI: 10.5897/IJBC12.024
Status of the Swayne’s Hartebeest, (Alcelaphus
buselaphus swaynei) meta-population under land cover
changes in Ethiopian Protected Areas
Yosef Mamo1, Girma Mengesha2*, Aramede Fetene3, Kefyalew Shale2 and Mezemir Girma4
1
Hawassa University, P.O.box 5, Hawassa, Ethiopia.
College of Forestry and Natural Resources, Hawassa University, Wondo Genet, P.O. Box 128, Ethiopia.
3
Debere Markos University, P. O. box 269, Debre Markos, Ethiopia.
4
Mezemir Girma, Southern Nation Nationalities People Region, P.O. Box 69, Hawassa, Ethiopia.
2
Accepted 6 April, 2012
This study aims to understand status and population structures of Swaynes’ Hartebeest (SHB)
(Alcelaphus buselaphus swaynei) meta-population under land cover changes in Maze National Park
(MaZNP), Nech Sar National Park (NNP) and Senkele Swayne’s Hartebeest Sanctuary (SHBS) from 2008
to 2009. A total, with direct count method based on silent detection of vehicles along roads was used to
count SHB in the Protected Areas (PAs) within 5 blocks of the entire SHBS. In each of the lager MaZNP
and NNP, 6 blocks were randomly sampled following habitat types such as grasslands. One wildlife
expert, six scouts and one researcher were assigned to each of the block for counting the Hartebeest
during early morning and late in the afternoon. A SPSS, Excel software and Landsat satellite imagery of
the PAs was used for the SHB populations and land cover data analysis. Of the 840 SHB individuals
recorded in these PAs, 364 occurred in MaZNP, 464 in SHBS and 12 individuals in NNP. The adult male
SHB was 47% (MaZNP), 39% (SHBS) and 42% in NNP. The relationship between the adult males and
adult females is highly significant for the MaZNP (2t=0.969, P<0.01). The study revealed that SHB
population size is increasing in MaZNP and SHBS. However, there is dramatic decrease in the NNP.
Since 1970s, the species population size has fluctuated from 865 to 480 to 840 in the PAs. This might be
associated to decreases in grasslands such as from 75 to 48% in the MaZNP and 37 to 34% in the NNP
during 1986 to 2005. Conservation measures that increase the population size of this endangered
species is urgently needed to conserve the endemic species in Ethiopia.
Key words: Population size, Protected Areas, Status, Swayne’s Hartebeest.
INTRODUCTION
Though most antelope species still exist in large number
in the Sub-Saharan Africa, three quarter of the
hartebeests are declining (Eastes, 1999). The
hartebeests are large antelopes grouped in the Bovidae
family. Of the nine sub-species recognized, two are
extinct and the remaining seven are confined to
26
dramatically contracted habitats (Lewis and Wilson,
1979). Previously, they occupied in a wider areas of
Morocco up to north eastern Tanzania to south of Congo
and from Southern Angola to South Africa. However,
habitat destruction has drastically reduced their range.
Therefore, at present, hartebeest occurs only in parts of
Botswana, Namibia, Ethiopia, Tanzania and Kenya
(Refera, 2005).
The term meta-population was first defined by Levins
(1969) as sub-populations that exist in discrete habitat
ISSN: 2230-9926
Vol. 5, Issue, 03, pp. 3745-3754, March, 2015
WOODY PLANT DIVERSITY ALONG DISTURBANCE GRADIENTS IN THE NORTHERN AFROMONTANE FORESTS OF THE BALE MOUNTAINS, ETHIOPIA
1Addisu
Asefa, *2Yosef Mamo, 3Girma Mengesha and 4Anteneh Shimelis
1Ethiopian
Wildlife Conservation Authority, P.O Box 386, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
University, Department of Biology, P.O Box 05, Hawassa, Ethiopia
3Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, P.O Box 128, Shashamane, Ethiopia
4Department of Zoology, Addis Ababa University, P.O Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
2Hawassa
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Article History:
The effects of human disturbances on woody plant species diversity was assessed by comparing
species richness, Shannon diversity and evenness, population abundance and composition along
three disturbance gradients in the northern Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. Data on woody plant
species were collected in six forest patches along three levels of disturbances in 20 by 20 m-2
quadrates in each forest patches. Plant species richness peaked at the Moderately Disturbed (MD)
site either when trees and shrubs were treated separately or pooled together, but similar between
the Low disturbed (LD) and Heavily Disturbed (HD) sites. Overall population density of woody
plants was also significantly higher in the MD site, followed by the LD site. The three site groups
had distinct species assemblages. Species that contributed most to the differences between the
MD and the others were shrubs, which were degradation tolerant; while the difference between
LD and HD sites were due to degradation and/or local disappearance of some tree species in the
HD site. This result suggest that the consequence of human disturbance on woody plant diversity
appeared to be both positive and negative depending on the type and intensities of the
disturbances. In comparison to the LD sites, disturbances such as high selective logging and
grazing had resulted in increased richness and density of woody plants in the MD sites, while
these and crop cultivation and settlement encroachments in the HD site resulted in decreased
population abundances. However, the increased diversity in the moderately disturbed site was due
to additions of shrub species, which have affinities to disturbed habitats. Since the central goal of
conservation is to maintain maximum diversity of native species, but there is a potential of nonnative species displacing the native ones in the long-run, and hence the high diversity reported
here in the MD site should, therefore, be interpreted cautiously.
Received 22nd December, 2014
28th January, 2015
Accepted 02nd February, 2015
Published online 31st March, 2015
Key words:
Abundance,
Conservation,
Disturbance,
Diversity,
Gradient,
Invasion,
Woody species.
Copyright © 2015 Addisu Asefa et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
INTRODUCTION
Degradation and deforestation of tropical forests due to
anthropogenic activities are the major causes of decline in
global biodiversity (Heywood, 1995). This is exacerbated in
developing countries like Ethiopia where the livelihood of
their nations is directly or indirectly linked to the natural
resources (van Schaik et al., 1997 and Struhsaker et al., 2005).
Therefore, in many areasmitigating of the impacts and
restoration of disturbed ecosystems is being taken up on
a priority basis both for biodiversity conservation and for
Hawassa University, Department of Biology, P.O Box 05, Hawassa,
Ethiopia
maintaining ecosystem functions (Bleher et al., 2006). This, in
turn, requires detailed understanding of the relationship
between human activities and biodiversity. Human-induced
disturbances such as conversion of forest land to cultivation
fields, livestock over grazing, selective logging and settlement
encroachments are generally considered to be among the
major causes for habitat alterations (Sekercioglu, 2002,
Sinclair et al., 2002, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment,
2005, Chown, 2010). However, research on this subject,
particularly in the developing countries, has been limited
(Chown 2010) and results are often controversial (Li et al.,
2004, Chown 2010). Some studies reveal clearly reduced
species richness in degraded forests (Parthasarathy 1999;
Addo-Fordjou et al., 2009), while in other studies it is
increased (Kappelle et al., 1995; Fujisaka et al., 1998, Molino
27
Discovery
ANALYSIS
The International Daily journal
ISSN 2278 – 5469
EISSN 2278 – 5450
Community attitudes towards African Civet Civettictis
civetta conservation in eastern sub-catchment of Lake
Hawassa basin, Southern Ethiopia
Mateos E1, Zerihun G2҉, Yosef M3, Megersa D4
1. Lecturer, School of Wildlife and Eco-tourism, Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, Hawassa
Hawassa, Ethiopia
Hawassa, Ethiopia
3. Associate Professor, School of Wildlife and Eco-tourism, Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources,
P.O.B, 5 Hawassa, Ethiopia
Hawassa, Ethiopia
University, P.O.B, 5
Hawassa University,
☼
Corresponding author: Lecturer, School of Wildlife and Eco-tourism, Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, Hawassa
University, P.O.B, 5 Hawassa, Ethiopia, email: [email protected]
Publication History
Received: 24 September 2014
Accepted: 30 November 2014
Published: 1 January 2015
Citation
Mateos E, Zerihun G, Yosef M, Megersa D. Community attitudes towards African Civet Civettictis civetta conservation in eastern sub-catchment
of Lake Hawassa basin, Southern Ethiopia. Discovery, 2015, 27(96), 2-7
28
Page
Mateos et al.
Community attitudes towards African Civet Civettictis civetta conservation in eastern sub-catchment of Lake Hawassa basin, Southern Ethiopia,
Discovery, 2015, 27(96), 2-7,
www.discovery.org.in
www.discovery.org.in/d.htm
© 2015 Discovery Publication. All Rights Reserved
2
ABSTRACT
The African Civet Civettictis civetta is known for its production of civet musk that is used as fixative in perfume industry. Ethiopia is the world’s
main supplier of civet musk. In spite of such a remarkable economic importance, little is known about the current status of the indigenous
population and traditional knowledge of African Civet in the wild. Indigenous traditional knowledge and community attitudes towards African
Civet were surveyed qualitatively and quantitatively in the eastern sub-catchment of Lake Hawassa Basin, from December 2011 to May 2012. A
‘focus group discussion’ involved 10 discussants were selected by group of researchers from the two target Woreda administration offices of
the study area. More formal/quantitative survey targeted 96 rural households in two adjoining Woreda units. Interviewees were selected by
stratified direct sampling. Local people apparently are highly familiar with behaviour and economic use of the species. Most people described
their relationship with African Civet as neutral (44%) or positive (40%), respectively, and only 16% of 96 interviewees claimed an antagonistic
relationship. Most respondents (92% of 66) identified maize as the most damaged crop. More than two-third (71%) of 70 respondents
identified guarding, fencing and repellents as a means of minimizing the damage caused by the species, while others indicated that they use
lethal trapping (10%), spearing/shooting (7%) and poisoning (3%), respectively. The remaining 9% mentioned that they tolerate civet damage.
z
Available online at http://www.journalcra.com
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL
OF CURRENT RESEARCH
International Journal of Current Research
Vol. 7, Issue, 11, pp.23074-23082, November, 2015
ISSN: 0975-833X
RESEARCH ARTICLE
HABITAT CHARACTERIZATION AND PREFERENCES OF THE MOUNTAIN NYALA (TRAGELAPHUS
BUXTONI, LYDEKKER 1910) AND MENELIK’S BUSHBUCK (TRAGELAPHUS SCRIPTUS MENELIKI,
NEUMANN 1902) IN ARSI MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK, SOUTH-EASTERN ETHIOPIA
1, 2,*Zerihun
Girma, 1George Chuyong, 3Paul Evangelista and 2Yosef Mamo
1Department
ARTICLE INFO
of Botany and Plant physiology, University of Buea, Cameroon
of Wildlife and Eco-tourism, Hawassa University, Ethiopia
3Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University, USA
2School
Article History:
Received 04th August, 2015
05th September, 2015
Accepted 07th October, 2015
Published online 30th November, 2015
Key words:
Diversity,
Habitat use,
Intensive-Modified Whitaker plot,
Preferences,
Mountain nyala,
Menelik’s bushbuck.
ABSTRACT
Tragelaphus buxtoni and Tragelaphus scriptus meneliki are spiral-horned antelopes endemic to
highlands and south eastern highlands of Ethiopia respectively. The ranges of both species often
overlap and are threatened by the loss and degradation of their montane habitats. The objective of the
study was to identify their preference and associated vegetation characteristics of montane habitats in
Arsi Mountains National Park. Intensive-Modified Whitaker nested plot design was used to sample
vegetation and scat across habitats. The Intensive-Modified Whitaker plot had four 1-m2 nonoverlapping sub plots and one 10-m2 non-overlapping subplot, all nested within a 100-m2 exterior
plot. In each of the 1-m2 sub plots, we recorded the presence and estimated percent cover for all plants
encountered. In the 10-m2 and 100-m2 plots, unique plant species and scat piles of the wildlife species
were recorded. The highest plant α-diversity was recorded in the natural forest (130 species). The
highest Shannon-Wiener Diversity (4.509) was recorded from the mixed plantation. The highest
habitat preference index for the mountain nyala (0.44) and Menelik’s bushbuck (0.58) were recorded
in the mixed plantation and natural forest during dry season respectively. Urgent conservation of
natural forest and mixed plantations are required for the survival of both wildlife species.
Copyright © 2015 Zerihun Girma et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use,
Citation: Zerihun Girma, George Chuyong, Paul Evangelista and Yosef Mamo, 2015. “Habitat characterization and preferences of the
mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni, Lydekker 1910) and menelik’s bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus meneliki, Neumann 1902) in Arsi
mountains national park, south-eastern Ethiopia”, International Journal of Current Research, 7, (11), 23074-23082.
INTRODUCTION
The concept of animal-habitat interaction is cornerstone in
effective conservation and management of wildlife
populations. Hall et al. (1997) defined habitats as the resources
and conditions present in an area that provides occupancy –
including survival and reproduction of a given organism. The
concept of habitat goes beyond vegetation or vegetation
structure as it encompasses all the specific resources (biotic
and abiotic) that are needed by organisms (Thomas, 1979).
These resources include food, cover, water, and special factors
needed by a species for survival and reproductive success.
Habitat preference is the consequence of habitat selection,
resulting in the disproportional use of some resources over
others there by contributing to the individual’s fitness
(Johnson, 1980, 2007). Habitat use by an individual, group or
population is strongly influenced by habitat essentials, such as
food, cover, and escape access (Stephens and Krebs, 1986;
Kotler et al., 1994; Tadesse and Kotler, 2013).
*Corresponding author: Zerihun Girma,
Department of Botany and Plant physiology, University of Buea,
Cameroon.
In most habitats, plant communities determine the physical
structure of the environment, and therefore, have a
considerable influence on the distributions and interactions of
animal species (Balakrishnan et al., 1986). Our understanding
of these interactions will help determine those environmental
features that guarantee or predicts fitness and survival of
wildlife species in given spatial and temporal scales.
Mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) is a spiral-horned
antelope endangered and endemic to south eastern highlands of
Ethiopia. Tragelaphus buxtoni are commonly reported to range
between 2,700 m and 4,300 m and prefer variety of montane
forest types, heath land and alpine habitats (Brown, 1969;
Yalden and Largen, 1992; Evangelista et al., 2008). Forested
habitats are utilized for their good cover, food source and as
breeding sites (Evangelista et al., 2007). Menelik’s bushbuck
(Tragelaphus scriptus meneliki) is a sub-species of the
common bushbuck, and also a spiral-horned antelope endemic
to Ethiopia’s highlands. Menelik’s bushbuck has been reported
to inhabit forested areas with thick under growth montane
vegetation than relatively open habitats like Erica scrubland
29
Vol. 6(3), pp. 256-270, March 2014
DOI: 10.5897/IJBC2013.0635
ISSN 2141-243X © 2014 Academic Journals
http://www.academicjournals.org/IJBC
International Journal of Biodiversity
and Conservation
Land use, land cover and climate change impacts on
the bird community in and around Lake Zeway, Ethiopia
Girma Mengesha1⃰, Afweork Bekele2, Gail Fraser3 and Yosef Mamo1
1
School of Wildlife and Ecotourism, Hawassa University, P.O. box 5/128, Shashemene, Ethiopia.
2
Department of Zoological Sciences, Addis Ababa University, P.O. box 1176, Addis Ababa.
3
Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Canada.
Accepted 16 December, 2013
This study aimed to show impacts of land use and land cover change (LULCC) and climate on waterbird
community structure of Lake Zeway and the surrounding areas. Purposive sampling techniques were
used to collect primary data. Based on the purposive sampling techniques, 12 key informants and 12
focus group discussants were selected. A semi-structured questionnaire prepared in English and
translated into Afan Oromo was used to interview the focus groups. The key informants participated in
the interview under close inspection of the researcher. Field observations and literatures searches were
also carried out on the impacts of LULCC, climate changes, lake hydrodynamics and biodiversity. Most
(92%) of the discussants indicated decreases in the level and width of Lake Zeway during the last 3-4
decades. The lake water withdrawal for irrigated agricultural activities in the surrounding areas was the
main reason for decreases. Eleven groups (92%) reported temperature increases and lower and
unpredictable rainfall patterns as cause for the decreases. These changes reportedly resulted in
decreased waterbird species diversity and abundance and changed distribution patterns across the
lake and the surrounding areas. The FGD identified fish production and irrigated farm and bird habitat
as the three most important values of the lake. The discussants also reported the combination of landuse and climate, or climate changes, as important drivers that altered the lake water level, wetland
habitats and bird community structure. Urgent conservation measures that could reduce the impacts
are needed to conserve the bird species at the lake.
Key words: Bird community, climate, changes, impacts, irrigated agriculture, land use.
INTRODUCTION
Although human-induced changes in Earth’s terrestrial
surface is not a recent phenomenon, the present rate,
extent and intensity of land use and subsequent changes
to land cover are unprecedented (Ellis and Pontius,
2011). Land use and land cover changes (LULCC) are
linked to climate change, biodiversity loss and pollution of
water, soil and air (Waltert et al., 2004; Ellis and Pontius,
2011).
The LULCC affect the climate of an area which in turn
affects natural resources such as water, wetlands and
30
biodiversity (IPCC, 2001; Gibbard et al., 2005). Though
wetlands are important in the global cycling of water and
chemicals, including greenhouse gases and stabilize
climate changes, wetlands and their biota are at risk from
the combined effects of the changes (Sanz, 2002;
Finlayson et al., 2006). Thus, degradation of the environment, which negatively impact ecosystem processes and
function, especially conversion of wetlands to irrigated
lands, represent significant challenges to biodiversity
(Sharsm et al., 2007). Changes to wetlands threaten bird
Vol. 6(3), pp. 200-209, March 2014
DOI: 10.5897/IJBC2014.0690
ISSN 2141-243X © 2014 Academic Journals
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article
http://www.academicjournals.org/IJBC
International Journal of Biodiversity and
Conservation
Abundance of hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas
hamadryas) and conflict with humans in Awash
National Park, Ethiopia
Mesele Admassu1*, Yosef Mamo2 and Afework Bekele1
1
Addis Ababa University, P. O Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Department of Biology, Hawassa University, P. O. Box 5, Hawassa, Ethiopia.
2
Receive 04 February 2014; Accepted 20 February, 2014
A study on population size of hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas hamadryas) and its conflict with
people was carried out from August 2011 to December 2013 in Awash National Park, Ethiopia.
Abundance was estimated using total count method at five counting sites. To assess the species
conflict with humans, questionnaires and structured interview methods were used. Data were analyzed
using descriptive statistical methods SPSS version 15. The total number of individuals from August
2011 to November 2013 was 1581 and 1845, respectively. Abundance has no significant difference
between wet and dry seasons (P < 0.05). There was no significant difference between the population of
hamadryas baboon in 2011/2012 and 2013 (P < 0.05). There was no significant change in the rate of
change in the population (P < 0.05). However, there was significant difference between male and female
population of hamadryas baboon in 2011/2012 (P < 0.05). In 2012/2013 count, the number comprised of
26% adult male, 19% adult female, 9% sub-adult male, 14% sub-adult female, 11% juvenile male, 18%
juvenile female and 3% infants. The proportion of female population was more in all age groups except
for infants where sex identification was not possible. The species in the study area was highly
influenced by forage resource distribution and hence, the high proportion of individual number was
found in the northern part of the park, where more forage was available. The result of human survey
showed that the overwhelming number (93%) of respondents felt that there was high conflict between
people and hamadryas baboon. 92% of the respondents also noted that there was habitat
encroachment including deforestation, overgrazing, charcoal production for fuel, and vegetation
clearance for settlement in the park. Moreover, majority of the respondents witnessed frequent killing of
baboons by farmers as a measure against alleged crop raiding by the species and also considerable
number of species are killed by reckless vehicle and truck drivers on the high way crossing the park.
About 64% of the respondents also felt that little was done by the park authority to create awareness on
the local people about the economic and ecological benefits of wildlife species. Therefore, to minimize
human-hamadryas baboon conflict, conservation measures that would ease human encroachment
pressure on the habitat and increased local people’s awareness should be practiced.
Key words: Abundance, conflict, conservation, hamadryas baboon, park.
INTRODUCTION
Hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas hamadryas) is
distributed along mountainous areas of northeastern
Africa and southwestern Arabia. However, in Ethiopia
hamadryas baboon lives in semi-desert areas of Awash
National Park, particularly in Filwoha area (Kummer,
1968; Swedell, 2002). Hamadryas baboon also lives at
31
32
Mengesha, et al. J Biodivers Manage Forestry 2015, 4:1
http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2327-4417.1000135
Review Article
Abundance and Temporal
Patterns in Wetland Birds in and
Around Lake Zeway, Ethiopia
Girma Mengesha1*, Chris S Elphick2, Christopher R Field2,
Afework Bekele3 and Yosef Mamo4
Abstract
The aim of the study was to describe the abundance and temporal
patterns of wetland bird species in and around Lake Zeway, an
Important Bird Area and potential Ramsar site in Ethiopia. Nine
years of wetland bird data of the area, collected by the African
Waterbird Census, were used for the study. Surveys were made
to examine the bird abundance, diversity and temporal patterns.
We recorded 129 wetland bird species from 23 families; including
two globally vulnerable and 6 near threatened species. The
results revealed no clear trend or pattern in the abundance of
the birds. However, some bird species such as Black Crowned
Crane, Common Moorhen, and Ruff showed significant (α<0.10)
decline over the observed period, while others like African Fish
Eagle, African Pygmy Goose, European Herring Gull and Pallid
Harrier showed an increase. Carnivores and omnivores were the
largest feeding guilds identified. The study provides a preliminary
understanding of wetland bird population changes in and around
Lake Zeway, but the time series were too short to make strong
inferences about how birds have been affected by recent changes
in land use surrounding the lake. Continued monitoring of these
birds, especially those of high conservation concern is essential.
Keywords
Abundance; Feeding guilds; Lake Zeway; Trends; Wetland; Bird
population
Introduction
Most wetland birds depend, partially or entirely, on aquatic
habitats to complete their life cycles. Many of these bird species are
migratory [1] and the variety and numbers of such birds, on their
breeding grounds, migration stop-over sites, and wintering grounds,
have been reduced due to several factors. According to Wetland
International [2], 47% of global waterbird populations are decreasing
or heading towards extinction.
Thirty-four of the 38 African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement
(AEWA) species that feature in the IUCN (International Union for the
Conservation of Nature and Natural resources) Red List of threatened
species occur in Africa [3]. Moreover, 13% of all AEWA populations
occurring in Africa are classified as globally threatened or near
threatened by the IUCN, compared to 7% in Europe and 12% in Asia
[3]. Threats that alter waterbird population include loss of shoreline
*Corresponding author: Girma Mengesha, School of Wildlife and
Ecotourism, Hawassa University, PO Box 5/128, Shashemene, Ethiopia
Email: [email protected]
Received: August 21, 2014 Accepted: November 27, 2014 Published:
December 01, 2014
International Publisher of Science,
Technology and Medicine
Journal of Biodiversity
Management & Forestry
a SciTechnol journal
habitat, decreased food availability, and disturbance [4].
Wetlands of Eastern Africa support internationally important
assemblages of plants and animals that include many waterbird
species [5]. Ethiopia has 0.00744‰ of land covered by shallow lakes,
rivers, swamps, floodplains, ponds, and dams [6], of which some are
considered critical sites or areas for migratory waterbirds [7]. The
Ethiopian Rift Valley (ERV) runs from Eritrea in the northeast to Lake
Turkana on the Kenya border in the southwest. The ERV consists of
chains of lakes and associated wetlands, which serve as wintering and
stopover sites for many bird species of sub-Saharan and Palearctic
origin [8,9]. For example, Lake Zeway and associated wetlands were
once supported more than 20,000 waterbirds and are considered an
important bird area in Ethiopia [8,10]. The Lake Zeway may also
qualify as a Ramsar site under Ramsar criteria 3 and 4. Ramsar sites
are internationally important wetlands that are selected according to
sets of criteria [11]. Criterion 3 refers to wetland that on a regular
basis supports 20,000 waterfowl, individuals from particular group
of waterfowl and 1% of individuals in a population of one species.
Criterion 4 refers to wetland that should support a significant
proportion of indigenous fish, sub species, species and important
sources of food for fishes [10,11]. The Lake’s shoreline, lake water, and
associated wet grasslands and riverine woodlands provide important
feeding and breeding habitat for birds [6]. As a result, a diverse group
of bird species that differ in habitat and food requirements occurs at
Lake Zeway.
Deforestation for expansion of agriculture, human settlement,
overgrazing, soil erosion and land degradation are the main threats
to the ERV lakes, including Lake Zeway [9]. Land development for
irrigated agriculture has affected the Meki and Katar Rivers, which
drain into Lake Zeway causing a decline in the lake level [12,13].
Expansions of irrigated agriculture for the production of fruit,
vegetables and cut flowers and the use of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides with aim to boost agricultural productivity have been
thought to affect negatively the numbers of wetland birds that
use the lake [8]. Moreover, there have been observations in local
climate changes, which could negatively influence natural resources
availability at Lake Zeway [14].
Although Lake Zeway and the surrounding areas are known
to support many wetland bird species, under alarmingly changing
habitat conditions of the area, there is little scientific information on
the status of individual bird species, their abundance and diversity.
There are concerns that waterbirds are declining [15]. Among the
reasons for the absence of sound conservation endeavors for the birds
at Lake Zeway is the lack of information on the status of waterbird
populations, which is often critical for the successful management
and conservation of waterbird species [16]. Besides functioning at
international, regional and national levels, effective conservation
of migratory waterbirds needs to focus on individual sites [17].
Therefore, site-specific information is needed to inform conservation
planners and professionals to enable them make sound conservation
decisions. Thus, the aim of this study was to describe population
abundance, diversity and trends for a wide variety of wetland bird
species at Lake Zeway.
All articles published in Journal of Biodiversity Management & Forestry are the property of SciTechnol, and is protected by
copyright laws. Copyright © 2014, SciTechnol, All Rights Reserved.
33
ISSN: 2230-9926
Vol. 4, Issue, 9, pp. 1887-1893, September, 2014
ABUNDANCE AND HABITAT PREFERENCE OF THE NEAR-THREATENED ENDEMIC ABYSSINIAN
LONG-CLAW (Macronyx flavicollis IN THE NORTHERN MONTANE GRASSLANDS OF THE BALE
MOUNTAINS, ETHIOPIA
1Yosef
University, Department of Biology, PO Box 05, Hawassa, Ethiopia
Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, Po Box 128, Shashamane, Ethiopia
3Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority, Po Box 386, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
2Wondo
ARTICLE INFO
Mamo, 2*Girma Mengesha and 3Addisu Asefa
1Hawassa
Article History:
Received 24th June, 2014
19th July, 2014
Accepted 25th August, 2014
Published online 30th September, 2014
Key words:
Abundance,
Abyssinian long-claw,
Bale Mountains,
Habitat preference,
Montane grasslands,
Threat.
ABSTRACT
Abyssinian long-claw (Macronyx flavicollis Rüppell, 1840) is a near-threatened bird species
endemic to the highlands of Ethiopia. Little is known of the species demography, biology and
ecology. This study was conducted in the northern montane grasslands of the Bale Mountains,
southeast in Ethiopia, to determine abundance, habitat preferences and potential threats to
Abyssinian long-claws. Survey was carried out along 53 transects established in three (open
grassland, marsh grassland and shrubland) vegetation types in protected (low-moderate grazed)
and unprotected (heavily grazed) areas in June 2014. The birds were observed only in open
grasslands of both areas, with significantly greater density in the protected open grasslands. The
estimated overall mean density was 0.57 ± 0.08 birds per ha, yielding an estimated an overall total
population size of 815.67 ± 114.48 individuals in the northern montane grasslands of the Bale
Mountains. Vegetation measurements varied among vegetation types and between land-use types
(i.e. grazing levels). This may indicate the possible effects of livestock grazing regime on
abundance and habitat preferences of the species. However, more research is required to estimate
the population size of the species in the Bale Mountains region as a whole and to determine
effects of grazing on the species.
Copyright © 2014 Yosef Mamo et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use,
INTRODUCTION
Abyssinian long-claw (Macronyx flavicollis authority of name;
Rüppell, 1840) family Motacillidae) is an endemic bird species
to the highlands of Ethiopia (Ash and Gullick, 1989; Keith,
Urban and Fry, 1992; BirdLife International, 2014). It has
brownish-black upper parts with buff fringes, buff under parts
with black streaks at sides of breast, yellowish throat with
broad black necklace, and white tail corners in flight(Fig. 1)
(Redman, Stevenson and Fanshawe, 2009). The species
inhabit treeless open grasslands and tussock-grassland on
moorlands from 1600-4100 m a.s.l. (Ash and Gullick, 1989;
Keith et al., 1992; BirdLife International, 2014). Their food
consists of ground insects and other invertebrates (Keith et al.,
1992; BirdLife International, 2014). Although the population
size of the species has not been quantified, Keith et al. (1992)
*Corresponding author: Girma Mengesha
Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, Po Box
128, Shashamane, Ethiopia
34
described as locally scarce to abundant and EWNHS (1996) as
locally uncommon. Abyssinian long-claw is a globally
threatened species, currently classified as near-threatened
under IUCN criteria (BirdLife International, 2014). As related
to the continuing expansion of human population in Ethiopia,,
conversion of grassland ecosystems to cultivated and livestock
grazing (pasture) lands are considered to be the main threats to
the species. These have lead the species to decline in
population size (BirdLife International, 2014). BirdLife
International (2014) also suggested that its small, declining
population and alterations of its habitat might qualify the
species for a higher threat category. Therefore, there is an
urgent need of data on the ecology and conservation biology
of the species to understand its conservation status and
develop appropriate conservation measures. Despite critical
need of information on the abundance, habitat preferences and
threats to Abyssinian long-claw, little is known of the species
(BirdLife International, 2014). As a result, its population size,
habitat preferences, main threats and its behavioral response to
different types and levels of disturbances across its ranges





















1
Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority, Po
Post Box: 386, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
2
Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, Po
Post Box: 128, Shashamane, Ethiopia
3
Department of Zoological Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Post Box: 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
4
Department of Biology, Hawassa University, Post Box: 05, Hawassa, Ethiopia



The aim of this study was to examine the effects of livestock grazing on Afromontane
grassland bird assemblages in the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. Birds were counted along 28
transects both during wet season (in June
(14 in ungrazed site and 14 in grazed site) 1km
1
2014) and dry season (November 2014). In addition, height and cover of shrubs, grasses
and herbs were recorded within 10m ×10m quadrats established along each transect at a
distance of 250m. These data were used to compare bird species richness, evenness and
abundances of overall assemblages and guilds (habitat, feeding and/or conservation
priority guilds) between the ungrazed site and grazed site, and to examine how these
patterns are related to grazinginduced
changes. Although the ungrazed site
induced vegetation
veg
showed relatively greater species evenness compared to the grazed site, both observed
difference in overall
and rarefied species richness estimators showed nonsignificant
non
assemblage richness between the two sites.
s. Bird assemblage abundance was significantly
greater in the grazed site than the ungrazed site, especially during wet season and when
seasons were pooled. At guild level however, species richness and/or abundances of
grassland habitat specialist, insectivore
vore dietary, and high conservation priority guilds were
significantly greater in the ungrazed site compared to the grazed site. Bird assemblages
significantly differed between sites and showed significant positive relationships with shrub
and grass height.. These findings suggest that the effect of grazing on birds of the area is
changing assemblage composition rather than resulting into declined assemblage species
richness. Thus allowing livestock grazing in the ungrazed site in the future will lead to los
loss
of several grassland specialist and high conservation priority species.






 13042015
19062015


23062015



Bird assemblages
Conservation priority species
Ecological traits
Guilds
Land use change





[email protected]

The degradation and destruction of natural habitats
due to humaninduced
induced actions are major causes of global
biodiversity decline (Brooks   2006; Chown, 2010).
This is expected to be increasing in future in developing
Tropical countries like Ethiopia, coupled to the ever
ever
increasing rate of population growth, where there is a high
demand for extensive arable land and grazing areas to
meet theirr basic life needs (Mckee, 2005; Chown, 2010).
Understanding the associated threats these actions cause
and the way in which plants and animals respond to them
is thus important for efficient and effective conservation
decision making and management actionss (Bleher  .,
2006; Brooks ., 2006).
Grazing by livestock has been considered to be one of
such major factors that lead to habitat alteration in
different ecosystems worldwide (e.g. Martin and
Possingham, 2005, in Australian woodlands; Whittingham
Whittingha
and Devereux, 2008, in grasslands in UK; Yosef Mamo 
.,
., 2014, in Ethiopian Afromotane grasslands). It causes
changes in
the vertical and horizontal structural
composition of vegetation through a combination of
trampling, grazing, changes in nutrient fluxes and loss of
recruitment (Jensen, 1985; McIntyre  ., 2003), and
facilitates encroachments of nonnative
native species (Kimball
and Schiffman, 2003). Further, as a result of the
differential responses of different plant species (some
respond positively while others respond negatively) to
grazing, it can also alter species composition (Rasran 
., 2007; Whitehorn  .,
., 2011; Yosef Mamo  .,
2014). Such grazinginduced
induced changes in vegetation
structure and composition can in turn impact animal
diversity,
sity, including bird communities. Covering more than
40% of Earth’s land surface, grasslands are the most
converted biome due to grazing (Hoekstra et al., 2005),
resulting to a more rapid decline in diversity and
population of grassland birds than birds of any other
habitat type worldwide (Hoekstra  .,
 2005; Rahmig 



112
35
International Journal of Ecosystem 2013, 3(3): 37-54
DOI: 10.5923/j.ije.20130303.04
Attitude of Local People to Land Use and Climate Change
Impacts on the Waterbird Community Structure at Lake
Zeway, Ethiopia
Girma Mengesha Debsu1,* , Afweork Bekele Simegn2 , Gail S. Fraser3 , Yosef Mamo Dubale 4
1
Hawassa University, School of Wildlife and Ecotourism P.O. Box 5/128, Shashemene, Ethiopia
2
Addis Ababa University, Department of Zoological Sciences, P. O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa
3
Gail Fraser, York University, Faculty of Environmental Studies, 4700, Keele Street, Toronto, Canada
4
Hawassa University, School of Wildlife and Ecotourism, P.O. Box 5. Hawassa, Ethiopia
Abstract This study aimed to understand impacts of land use and climate changes on waterbird co mmun ity structure at
the Lake Zeway. Purposive sampling techniques, field observations and literatures were used to collect data. Based on the
purposive sampling, 12 key informants and 12 focus groups discussants (FGD) were selected for primary data collection
through interviews. The key informants interviewed the d iscussants using semi-structured questionnaires. All the FGD
identified land use and climate changes as the major factors that altered the Lake hydrodynamics. The majority (92%) of the
discussants indicated a decrease in the level and width of Lake Zeway. Most (92%FGD) stated land conversion to agriculture
in the surrounding areas; temperature increase and lo wer rainfall as the main reasons for the decrease. These changes have
resulted in the decrease of waterbird species diversity 9 (75%), abundance 11 (92%) and changed the distribution 10 (83%) at
the lake. The d iscussants identified the b ird habitat to have tertiary value of the lake. They also revealed land-use change, 5
(42%) and climate changes, 5 (42%) as the major drivers that altered the bird co mmunity structure. The observations and
literatures supported the FGD v iews. Urgent conservation measures should be taken to reduce the impacts.
Keywords Impacts, Land Use and Climate Changes, Lake Zeway, Waterbird Co mmunity Structure
1. Introduction
Although human induced changes to the earth’s terrestrial
surface are not a recent phenomenon, the present rate, extent
and intensity of land use and subsequent changes to land
cover at local, regional and global scales are
unprecedented[11]. Land use and land cover changes
(LULCC) are lin ked to climate change, biodiversity loss,
pollution of water, soil and air.
LULCC affects the climate of an area which in turn either
coupled with the LULCC or independently affects natural
resources such as water and biodiversity[21; 16]. Climate
change in creases uncertainty associated with the futu re
availability and variability of freshwater resources, and may
even lead t o des ert ificat ion o f cert ain reg ions o f t he
world [49]. Wetlands including freshwater and their biota are
at risk fro m the co mbined effects of LULCC and climate
changes[41];[17]. However, wetlands play important roles in
t he g lobal cy cling o f water and chemicals , in clud ing
greenhouse gases and also stabilize climate changes. Thus,
* Corresponding author:
[email protected] (Girma Mengesha Debsu)
Published online at http://journal.sapub.org/ije
Copyright © 2013 Scientific & Academic Publishing. All Rights Reserved
36
transformations which negatively impact ecosystems process
and function, especially hydrological performance, represent
significant challenges[43]. Changes to wetlands threaten bird
species of conservation-concern and the impacts vary with
specific land use type[6]. Lukkarinen[29] showed changes in
the structure of waterfowl co mmunit ies with changes in land
use in 15 different lakes. Therefo re, land frag mentation at the
local scale can negatively impact the richness and
composition of waterbird species[18] and land cover changes
alter bird distributions locally and regionally[24].
Land cover change Impacts on African climate include
reduction in surface water transpiration and increase in
surface temperature[30], affecting the hydrological systems,
particularly in East Africa. The East African Rift Valley
Lakes, such as Lakes Zeway and Abijta in Ethiopia, have
experienced fluctuations in lake size in tens to hundreds
meters[35]. Climate changes in turn coupled with, water for
domestic use, fisheries, small and large scaled agriculture,
floriculture and horticulture have altered the lake
hydrodynamics[1; 20; 36]. Moreover, as in[36] revealed that
the water balance of the lake is dominated by rainfall and
surface inflow wh ich are sensitive to climate change. A
change in lake water balance will have negative
consequences on the water inflow volu me into lake and its
size. Zeray[51] showed 19.47% decline in total average
International Journal of Ecosystem 2013, 3(3): 37-54
DOI: 10.5923/j.ije.20130303.04
Attitude of Local People to Land Use and Climate Change
Impacts on the Waterbird Community Structure at Lake
Zeway, Ethiopia
Girma Mengesha Debsu1,* , Afweork Bekele Simegn2 , Gail S. Fraser3 , Yosef Mamo Dubale 4
1
Hawassa University, School of Wildlife and Ecotourism P.O. Box 5/128, Shashemene, Ethiopia
2
Addis Ababa University, Department of Zoological Sciences, P. O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa
3
Gail Fraser, York University, Faculty of Environmental Studies, 4700, Keele Street, Toronto, Canada
4
Hawassa University, School of Wildlife and Ecotourism, P.O. Box 5. Hawassa, Ethiopia
Abstract This study aimed to understand impacts of land use and climate changes on waterbird co mmun ity structure at
the Lake Zeway. Purposive sampling techniques, field observations and literatures were used to collect data. Based on the
purposive sampling, 12 key informants and 12 focus groups discussants (FGD) were selected for primary data collection
through interviews. The key informants interviewed the d iscussants using semi-structured questionnaires. All the FGD
identified land use and climate changes as the major factors that altered the Lake hydrodynamics. The majority (92%) of the
discussants indicated a decrease in the level and width of Lake Zeway. Most (92%FGD) stated land conversion to agriculture
in the surrounding areas; temperature increase and lo wer rainfall as the main reasons for the decrease. These changes have
resulted in the decrease of waterbird species diversity 9 (75%), abundance 11 (92%) and changed the distribution 10 (83%) at
the lake. The d iscussants identified the b ird habitat to have tertiary value of the lake. They also revealed land-use change, 5
(42%) and climate changes, 5 (42%) as the major drivers that altered the bird co mmunity structure. The observations and
literatures supported the FGD v iews. Urgent conservation measures should be taken to reduce the impacts.
Keywords Impacts, Land Use and Climate Changes, Lake Zeway, Waterbird Co mmunity Structure
1. Introduction
Although human induced changes to the earth’s terrestrial
surface are not a recent phenomenon, the present rate, extent
and intensity of land use and subsequent changes to land
cover at local, regional and global scales are
unprecedented[11]. Land use and land cover changes
(LULCC) are lin ked to climate change, biodiversity loss,
pollution of water, soil and air.
LULCC affects the climate of an area which in turn either
coupled with the LULCC or independently affects natural
resources such as water and biodiversity[21; 16]. Climate
change in creases uncertainty associated with the futu re
availability and variability of freshwater resources, and may
even lead t o des ert ificat ion o f cert ain reg ions o f t he
world [49]. Wetlands including freshwater and their biota are
at risk fro m the co mbined effects of LULCC and climate
changes[41];[17]. However, wetlands play important roles in
t he g lobal cy cling o f water and chemicals , in clud ing
greenhouse gases and also stabilize climate changes. Thus,
* Corresponding author:
[email protected] (Girma Mengesha Debsu)
Published online at http://journal.sapub.org/ije
Copyright © 2013 Scientific & Academic Publishing. All Rights Reserved
transformations which negatively impact ecosystems process
and function, especially hydrological performance, represent
significant challenges[43]. Changes to wetlands threaten bird
species of conservation-concern and the impacts vary with
specific land use type[6]. Lukkarinen[29] showed changes in
the structure of waterfowl co mmunit ies with changes in land
use in 15 different lakes. Therefo re, land frag mentation at the
local scale can negatively impact the richness and
composition of waterbird species[18] and land cover changes
alter bird distributions locally and regionally[24].
Land cover change Impacts on African climate include
reduction in surface water transpiration and increase in
surface temperature[30], affecting the hydrological systems,
particularly in East Africa. The East African Rift Valley
Lakes, such as Lakes Zeway and Abijta in Ethiopia, have
experienced fluctuations in lake size in tens to hundreds
meters[35]. Climate changes in turn coupled with, water for
domestic use, fisheries, small and large scaled agriculture,
floriculture and horticulture have altered the lake
hydrodynamics[1; 20; 36]. Moreover, as in[36] revealed that
the water balance of the lake is dominated by rainfall and
surface inflow wh ich are sensitive to climate change. A
change in lake water balance will have negative
consequences on the water inflow volu me into lake and its
size. Zeray[51] showed 19.47% decline in total average
37
38
39
Current Zoology
56 (6): 660669, 2010
Demography and dynamics of mountain nyala Tragelaphus
buxtoni in the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia
Yosef MAMO1, Michelle A. PINARD2, Afework BEKELE3*
1
Hawassa University, Department of Wildlife and Eco-tourism, PO Box 5, Hawassa, Ethiopia
University of Aberdeen, Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Aberdeen, AB24 3UU, UK
3
Addis Ababa University, Department of Biology, PO Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
2
Abstract We studied the population dynamics of endangered mountain nyala Tragelaphus buxtoni between 2003–2005 in the
Bale Mountains National Park. Line-transect sampling and total count methods were used to gather data on demographics and
movement patterns. The population’s age-group composition was 58% adults, 25% sub-adults, 9% juveniles, 5% calves and 3%
unidentified with a female-male sex ratio of 2:1. Population density was found to be significantly different between the two
sub-populations (Dinsho Sanctuary and Gaysay/Adelay). A significant difference was found for age-group composition across the
two sub-populations except adult females, sub-adult males and calves. The Dinsho sub-population was an isolated group. Separation and containment of the mountain nyala population could have negatively affected their ability to search for habitat requirements and mates from distant areas. The population varied between 830–908 individuals (95% CI), a reduction of 45% from earlier
reports. However, the mean population density increased due to contraction of the species’ habitat range. We observed a population
decrease of 2%–5% per year over the course of our study. Many of the assessed demographic parameters did not significantly change
over the three years. This suggests that the decrease in nyala population was not due to random variations in reproduction. Anthropogenic factors such as competition with livestock for forage, habitat encroachment and poaching by the local people might have been
partly responsible for the depleted population in our study areas [Current Zoology 56 (6): 660–669, 2010].
Key words Density, Dynamics, Group size, Mountain nyala, Movement, Sex ratio
African forest ungulates have received less attention
than their counterparts in savanna grassland (Hart,
2001). It is important to understand their ecology and
population dynamics to properly manage and conserve
these species (Hart, 2001; Baillie et al., 2004). Demographic information has become a vital tool in the
conservation of antelopes (East, 1988), particularly for
endangered species such as mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni). However, information is currently
lacking (Bekele, 1982, Hillman, 1993) except for a few
sporadic studies that estimated total population and
density (Brown, 1969a, 1969b; Stephens, 1997;
Stephens et al., 2001). Few researchers have described
populations’ sex and age characteristics (Hillman,
1986b; Gebrekidan, 1996; Refera, 2001; Refera and
Bekele, 2004). Past population estimates derived by
ecologists vary due to the different methods used and
areas studied, but the estimates nevertheless provide
useful historical data.
Mountain nyala were brought to the attention of the
Received Jan. 21, 2010; accepted Apr. 24, 2010
 Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
© 2010 Current Zoology
40
scientific community in 1908 by Major Ivor Buxton
(Lydekker, 1911). They belong to the spiral-horned
family of Bovidae (Genus Tragelaphus), and are endemic to Ethiopia. This species has no recognized subspecies or synonyms (Wilson and Reeder, 1993), and
there are no records of animals in captivity (Hillman,
1986a). The International Union for the Conservation of
Nature (IUCN) designated the conservation status of the
animal as endangered in 2002. Males possess horns
typical of the spiral-horned antelopes. An adult male
may weigh over 300 kg at the age of 4–5 years, but the
typical range is from 180–300 kg. Females weigh between 150–200 kg. Each individual is uniquely patterned with spots and stripes (Kingdon, 1997).
Habitat fragmentation caused by human settlement
and agricultural cultivation has negatively affected the
animals’ potential to inhabit its suitable range. A number
of individuals were observed in relatively isolated areas
of Dinsho Sanctuary, Gaysay/Adelay areas, Web Valley
and the highlands in the central part of the Bale Moun-
MAMO Y et al.: Demography and dynamics of mountain nyala
tains National Park (BMNP). Web Valley and the highlands now support only relics of the original population
due to extensive grazing and human settlement. Small
populations are more vulnerable to human interference
than larger groups (Pullin, 2002), so the future viability
of these isolated individuals is bleak. As Primack (2002)
noted, the long term persistence of small and isolated
subpopulations of a given species is limited. The limitations of a species’ potential for dispersal and colonization caused by habitat fragmentation have been widely
reported (Kingdon, 1989; Rochelle et al., 1999; Debinski and Holt, 2000; Trombulak and Frisell, 2000; Primack, 2002, Pullin, 2002). Habitat fragmentation may
also affect population dynamics by enhancing population decline and dividing widespread populations into
sub-populations within restricted areas (Rochelle et al.,
1999; Primack, 2002; Pullin, 2002). The density of
mountain nyala in the northern part of BMNP, particularly in Gaysay and its surrounding areas, has steadily
increased over the past 30 years (Brown, 1969b; Hillman, 1986a; Refera and Bekele, 2004), although the
population has decreased across the entire area of
BMNP. Previous accounts show that the species was
virtually absent in the study site 35 years ago (Brown,
1969a). Historic evidence suggests that most of the areas that were once inhabited by the species in the Bale
Mountains are now settlements, or agricultural and
grazing land (Brown, 1969 a, b; Hillman, 1986b, 1988;
Stephens et al., 2001; Malcolm and Evangelista, 2002).
As a result, the habitat and range of mountain nyala has
decreased, leaving the animal confined to well protected
areas.
There is evidence that small and isolated wild populations are at risk of inbreeding depression, and this
severely affects the viability of endangered species
(Hedrick and Kalinowski, 2000; Keller and Waller, 2002;
Primack, 2002; Pullin, 2002). Garner et al. (2005) noted
that substantial losses in genetic diversity are most
likely to occur at the herd and/or population level before
conservation action is taken at the species level. A
fragmented habitat may have different resources than
the original habitat., such as food, cover and breeding
sites. These can result in an entirely different population
structure, even for small populations (Caughley and
Gunn, 1996).
A fence encircling the Dinsho Sanctuary physically
separates the inhabiting mountain nyala sub-population
from the relatively larger sub-population in the Gaysay/Adelay sites. The Sanctuary is also surrounded by
human settlements and cultivated land. These physical
661
barriers and the separation they cause might influence
the population dynamics and other life history parameters of the isolated sub-population.
The general objective of this study was to characterize and describe the demographic parameters of mountain nyala in the northern region of the BMNP, Ethiopia.
The study’s aims were to: 1) estimate the population
density of the species; 2) determine and compare age
group composition, sex-ratio, calving rate, and group
size between the sub-populations of Dinsho Sanctuary
and the Adelay/Gaysay areas, and 3) measure changes
in the population numbers and movement patterns of the
animal in relation to the available habitats, including
crop lands, especially between the Sanctuary and outside habitat.
1 Materials and Methods
1.1 Study area
The study area is located within 620–740N,
3930–3958E along the southeastern highlands of
Ethiopia (Fig. 1).
The study area is within the montane grassland and
woodland eco-region, along the northern part of the
Park, and contains different elevation and vegetation
types. Montane grassland (3000–3100 m asl) occurs on
flat terrain, located on the extreme northern part of the
Park. The area is further subdivided into different vegetation communities of open grassland, swampy grassland, Artemesia/Helichrysum bush and Hypericum bush
(Hillman, 1986b). Montane woodland (3100–3400 m asl)
is subdivided into four zones based on the major vegetation structure and/or plant communities (Hillman,
1986b). These include Hagenia/Juniperus woodland,
Hypericum bush, montane grassland and Hypericum
woodland. Erica heatherland habitat (3400–3800 m asl)
occurs adjacent to the montane woodland above the
tree line.
Line-transect sampling and total count methods were
used to collect mountain nyala demographics in the
study area from 2003–2005. Surveys were conducted
every two weeks in July and August (wet season), and
November and December (dry season) for the three
years of the study. Two three-hour surveys were run
each day, from 08:00–11:00 h and 14:00–17:00 h. All
mountain nyala observed during the census were sexed,
and their age was assessed according to their coat color
and body size, along with horn shape for males. Individuals were assigned into age groups following Gebrekidan (1996), Kingdon (1997), and Yalden and Largen
(1992).
41
Current Zoology
662
Fig. 1
Location map of the study area with the proposed extension
1.2 Total count
We counted the total nyala population in the 1.2 km2
Dinsho Sanctuary (Norton-Griffith, 1978; Melton, 1983;
Caughley and Sinclair, 1994; Sutherland, 1996; Wilson
et al., 1996). The small size of the area meant we
searched rather than sampled the Sanctuary. The area
was divided into four equal sized blocks (by a parallel
line in the north-south direction), 190 m wide by 1500 m
long to avoid recounting animals. The borders and limits
of each block were marked using white ribbons at 100 m
intervals. Two observers and one recorder were assigned
to each block and they searched the area by walking
from the south to the north of the block. Counting was
carried out simultaneously in all four blocks.
1.3 Line-transect sampling
Line-transect sampling was used to collect mountain
nyala demographics (Smith, 1979, Burnham et. al., 1980;
Southwell and Weaver, 1993; Plumptre, 2000). A pilot
survey was carried out to determine the appropriate
transect length. The desired transect length (L) was estimated using the formula:

L
b
CV ( D)
2

L0
n0
where: b ≈ [var (n)/n + n. var {f(0)}/{f(0)}2]; f(0) is
value of the probability density function of detecting
42
Vol. 56 No. 6
distances at zero distance; the value of b ranges from
1.5–3.0 and the most recommended value is 3.0, which
we used; CV(D) = coefficient of variation for population
density during the pilot survey; D = population density
of the animals from the pilot survey; Lo = the total transect line length covered in the pilot survey; no = number
of animals encountered during the pilot survey (Buckland et al., 1993).
Accordingly, the estimated transect length for the
Gaysay grassland was 6.2 km (CV = 40%, n0 = 18 and
L0 = 6) and 6.8 km for the Adelay woodland (CV = 47%,
n0 = 12 and L0 = 6). During the pilot survey, animals
were counted at different points along the transects.
Then distances where counting were carried out (stop
points) along the transects (x-axis) were plotted against
sighting distances (on y-axis) where animals were observed perpendicular to the observer at each point. Then
the sighting distance on the y-axis where the number of
animals sharply declined (drop-off point) were taken as
the sighting distance to calculate the density. Sighting
distances for the Gaysay/Adelay study sites were determined from the pilot-survey data by plotting the probability of detecting g(y) an animal, given that it is a distance y from the random transect lines on the y-axis and
detection distance y on the x-axis. The distance at which
the animal number sharply declined (drop off point) was
sho Sanctuary was monitored to determine the ‘closedness’ or ‘openness’ of the sub-population. Regular observations were made at points along the four sides of
the Sanctuary where mountain nyala commonly travel.
Encountered individuals were categorized into sex and
age groups. Observations were made once a week from
05:30–07:30 h and from 17:30–18:30 h for three months.
To determine the temporal abundance of the species in
the Gaysay area, the sub-population was monitored
from 06:00–18:00 h six times between July–December
along the five established transects.
considered as the limit of sighting distances. The sighting distances for Gaysay was 380 m and for Adelay, it
was 200 m.
The Gaysay grassland was divided into five equal 1.2
km wide blocks. The first transect in the first block was
laid at a distance of 950 m plus a random distance of
1–50 m from the western edge of the block. The transect
line ran north-south at a 20o bearing. The other four
transects were laid parallel to each other, separated by a
distance of 950 m plus a random distance of 1–50 m.
The Adelay woodland was divided into three equal
1.6 km wide blocks. The first transect was selected using the same method as in the Gaysay grassland. The
other two transects were laid parallel to each other
separated by a distance of 1500 m plus a random distance of 1–50 m.
Data collection was carried out through direct observation of free-ranging animals using 735 binoculars.
All sightings were made at a perpendicular angle from
the transect line. Perpendicular angles were determined
using Silva Compass. Sighting distances between the
observer and the individual or groups of mountain nyala
were determined using a Yardage Pro 500 range finder
(Yardage Pro, Palm Springs, USA). When groups of
mountain nyala were encountered, the distance to the
center of the group was estimated following the procedures used by Burnham et al. (1980):

D
1.4 Secondary census data sources
Secondary demographic data for the species were
collated from published studies (Hillman, 1986a, 1986b;
Gebrekidan, 1996; Stephens, 1997; Refera, 2001) for
long-term comparisons of demographics.
1.5 Data analysis
The statistical software SPSS version 14 (SPSS Inc,
Chicago, USA) was used to analyze the data. Descriptive statistics was used to calculate the mean and standard error. As there were no physical barriers or settlements between the sub-populations of mountain nyala in
the Gaysay and Adelay study sites, we assumed that the
individual animals in both sites would mix, so we
pooled data from both sites for analysis. Selected variables were compared across years and study sites using
one-way ANOVA to obtain F and P values.
n

; a 2 wL ;
2wLPa
2
Year
2003
Total population number and population density estimates of mountain nyala per km2 in each of the study sites during 2003–2005
Site
Mean population
density
95% Confidence Interval
Confidence interval (CI)
Upper Bound
Mean population
estimate
Lower bound
Lower bound
Upper bound
Gaysay/Adelay
21
16
28
714
672
756
Dinsho Sanctuary
130
123
138
157
154
160
871
826
916
Gaysay/Adelay
22
19
25
748
726
770
Dinsho Sanctuary
128
117
139
154
149
159
902
875
929
Gaysay/Adelay
20
15
23
680
640
720
Dinsho Sanctuary
127
117
137
Total
2004
Total
2005
Results
The number of mountain nyala in the study area varied between 830 and 908 individuals (Table 1). There
were no significant differences in the population density
of mountain nyala across years (F2, 34 = 0.002, P = 0.998)
but the difference was significant between the study
sites (F1, 34=18.738, P < 0.0001) (Fig. 2).
where: D = density; n = number of animals detected or
observed; w = truncation distance (sighting distance); L
= total transect length; a = surveyed area (observed
area); Pa = the probability that a randomly chosen animal is within the surveyed area.
Movement of mountain nyala in and out of the DinTable 1
663
153
148
158
Total
833
788
878
Mean (three years)
869
830
908
43
Current Zoology
664
Fig. 2 Population density of mountain nyala in Dinsho
and Gaysay/Adelay sites
The box-plots show error bars at 95% CI.
Dinsho fielded a higher population density of mountain nyala (129/km2) than the Gaysay/Adelay sites
(21/km2) (Fig. 2). The age group composition was significantly different between the study sites for male
adults, female sub-adults and juveniles (Table 2).
The female to male sex ratio of the species was 2:1
(range 1.7–2.3:1 at 95% CI). There were a higher proportion of females in Gaysay/Adelay than in Dinsho.
The proportion of nyala in each age-group was not
Vol. 56 No. 6
significantly different across the three years of our
study (Table 3). Adult males made up 19% of the total
population, and adult females made up 39%. Sub-adult
males comprised 9% and sub-adult females 16% of the
population.
The annual mean calving rate was nine calves per
100 adult and sub-adult females (range 8–10 at 95% CI).
The calving rates between Dinsho (range 8–12), and
Gaysay/Adelay (range 7–10) were not significantly different (F1, 34 = 0.029, P = 0.091). The recruitment, which
is the proportion of immature (juvenile) age groups to
female (adult & sub-adult females) to the population,
was also not significantly different (F1, 34=0.670, P=
0.419) although a relatively higher rate (0.19) was recorded in Gaysay/Adelay sites than in Dinsho (0.17).
The historical mean calving rate based on data recorded
between 1983–1994 and 2003–2005 was 12 calves per
100 adult females, and the calving rates were significantly different across years (F14,123 = 1.802, P = 0.040).
The proportion of calves observed per 100 female
adults and sub-adults was significantly different across
years (F14,123 = 1.048, P = 0.041) (Fig. 3), but not between seasons (F2,123 = 2.123, P = 0.051). The proportion of calves was not significantly different between
the study sites (F1,34 = 0.042, P = 0.594) (see Table 2) or
across the years of the study (F2,34 = 0.154, P = 0.858)
(see Table 3).
Table 2 Age group compositions from Dinsho Sanctuary and Gaysay/Adelay sites, and comparison between sub-populations
Age group and sex category
Study sites
Mean (%) ± SE
F
P
Male adult
Gaysay/Adelay
12 ± 0.7
0.335
<0.0001
Dinsho Sanctuary
25 ± 0.8
Total
19 ± 1.3
Gaysay/Adelay
39 ± 1.3
0.007
00.772
Dinsho Sanctuary
40 ± 1.4
Total
39 ± 1.0
Gaysay/Adelay
10 ± 0.7
1.282
00.063
0.655
<0.0001
0.067
00.017
0.042
00.594
Female adult
Male sub-adult
Female sub-adult
Juvenile
Calf
44
Dinsho Sanctuary
09 ± 0.5
Total
09 ± 0.5
Gaysay/Adelay
20 ± 0.9
Dinsho Sanctuary
11 ± 0.8
Total
16 ± 1.0
Gaysay/Adelay
10 ± 0.7
Dinsho Sanctuary
08 ± 0.6
Total
09 ± 0.5
Gaysay/Adelay
05 ± 0.4
Dinsho Sanctuary
05 ± 0.3
Total
05 ± 0.3
Table 3
Age groups of mountain nyala across years (2003–2005)
Age groups
Male adult
Female adult
Male sub-adult
Female sub-adult
Juvenile
Calf
Fig. 3
665
Year of census
Mean(%) ± SE
2003
22 ± 2.4
2004
18 ± 2.5
2005
16 ± 2.4
2003
41 ± 1.8
2004
38 ± 2.2
2005
37 ± 1.0
2003
08 ± 1.0
2004
09 ± 1.3
2005
11 ± 1.0
2003
16 ± 1.3
2004
15 ± 1.3
2005
18 ± 2.6
2003
09 ± 1.6
2004
08 ± 2.5
2005
10 ± 1.8
2003
05 ± 1.1
2004
05 ± 0.7
2005
06 ± 1.3
F2, 51
P
0.177
0.838
0.066
0.936
0.790
0.459
0.325
0.724
0.158
0.854
0.154
0.858
Proportion of calves per 100 adult females mountain nyala across years
Source: Hillman, 1985, 1986a, 1986b; Gebrekidan, 1996; Stephens, 1997; Refera, 2001; Refera and Bekele, 2004; the present study from 2003–2005.
The population trend shows an increase between
1983–1986; a sharp decline between 1986–1991; increase during 1991–2004 and decline between
2004–2005. Between 1991 and 1994, the population
dropped below 150 individuals, the lowest reported
number mountain nyala during the Park’s history (Table
4). The rate of change in the population size
(log-transformed) is shown below (Fig. 4). The population declined by an average of 2% per year.
The preferred habitat of the species in the Park con-
tracted considerably, while population density decreased
from mid-1980 to early 2000 (Table 4).
On average 94% of surveyed mountain nyala moved
from Dinsho to the villages at dusk, and a similar proportion returned at dawn the following day. The number
of animals moving into and out of Dinsho were not significantly different across the four routes monitored
(Table 5). However, a few solitary individuals were observed moving along routes or tracks that were not
commonly used by the species.
45
Current Zoology
666
Table 4
Vol. 56 No. 6
Estimates of mountain nyala population density and habitat ranges in the species stronghold area (1983–2005)
Years
The species stronghold area (km2)
Sampled area (km2)
Density
Estimated population
Source
1983–1985
51
17.2
21.3
1320
Hillman, 1985, 1986a, 1986b
1986–1990
106
22.6
16.6
1760
Gebrekidan,1996
1991–1994
48
14.6
3.0
145
Gebrekidan,1996
1997
51
10.4
530
Stephens,1997
2001–2002
13
13.0
54.0
704
Refera and Bekele, 2002
2003
34
15.1
21(130)*
909
the present study
2004
34
15.1
22(128)*
964
the present study
2005
34
15.1
20(127)*
915
the present study
*values outside the bracket indicate Gaysay/Adelay’s mountain nyala density while those in brackets show Dinsho Sanctuary’s mountain nyala
density.
Fig. 4
Population rate of change (log-transformed) of the mountain nyala population from 1983–2005
Source: Hillman, 1986a, 1986b; Gebrekidan, 1996; Stephens, 1997; Refera, 2001; Refera and Bekele, 2004; the present study, 2003–2005.
Table 5
Movement of mountain nyala between Dinsho Sanctuary and the surrounding villages through four major routes
Exit and entry routes of the
mountain nyala between Dinsho
Sanctuary and the villages
Direction of movement with
reference to the Sanctuary
Average no. of
animals traveled
Lower bound
Upper bound
Dinsho vs north-west of Gojera
Out at dusk
068
62
74
In at dawn
071
67
75
Out at dusk
018
16
20
In at dawn
018
16
21
Out at dusk
039
33
44
In at dawn
039
36
42
Out at dusk
013
11
15
In at dawn
014
13
15
Dinsho vs Zaloabeba
Dinsho vs Karare
Dinsho vs south-west of Gojera
Average animals moved outwards from Dinsho
138
Average animals moved inwards to Dinsho
143
Total mean number of animals moved
141
The overall activity of the nyala did not differ between
the wet and dry seasons. A bimodal-peak temporal abundance pattern was observed during daylight hours (Fig. 5).
The first peak occurred at 1000 h and the second at 1500 h.
The mean number of animals observed was not significantly different for each hour of the day (F11,184 = 1.228, P
= 0.267), although higher variations in abundance were
46
95% confidence Intervals
F1, 22
P
1.028
0.322
0.190
0.667
0.035
0.853
0.612
0.442
observed in the afternoon period than in the morning.
Nyala group sizes were significantly different between the study sites (F1, 34 = 12.657, P＜0.001, but not
across years (F2, 34 = 0.083, P = 0.774). The mean group
size in Gaysay/Adelay was 7, and 12 for Dinsho. The
maximum group size observed in Gaysay/Adelay was
38, and in Dinsho it was 24.
Fig. 5 Temporal changes in the abundance of mountain
nyala population during daylight (06:00–18:00 h) in Gaysay grassland area
3
Discussion
Estimates of the number of mountain nyala in the
northern part of BMNP prior to 2003 have been relatively inconsistent. The differences may be due to the
use of different sampling methods, and the estimates of
nyala numbers from Gaysay area traditionally being
used to project the total population size for the entire
northern part of the Park. Hillman (1986a) noted that the
density of mountain nyala observed in Gaysay only
cannot be taken as a representative of the northern part
of the Park.
Brown (1969b) reported a female to male ratio of
4.5:1, which is a higher proportion of females than our
study. However, Refera (2001)1 and Refera and Bekele
(2004) reported sex ratios relatively similar to our results, with 1.24:1 during the wet season and 1.25:1 during the dry season. A higher proportion of females than
males in a given population is beneficial because recruited offsprings increase the population size (Wedekind, 2002), although the role of males in the dynamics
of ungulate population is crucially important (Mysterud
et al., 2002).
The calving rate we found is lower than the 17.3%
reported by Brown (1969b). Mountain nyala are known
to produce calves year-round, with the main calving
667
season over the wet season between June–September,
and a peak in August–September (Brown, 1969b; Hillman, 1986a, 1986b; Hillman and Hillman, 1987; Kingdon, 1997). Mothers hide the calves for first few weeks
postpartum in dense vegetation, while they feed and
then return to suckle at regular intervals.
Although the average group size of the species remained relatively constant over the course of our study,
large groups were less common. Brown (1969a) also
reported that mountain nyalas generally do not form
large herds, but are commonly found in small family
units or bachelor groups.
The Dinsho and Gaysay/Adelay subpopulations had
distinct population structures. The movement survey
data from the Dinsho Sanctuary clearly indicated that
the same number of animals moved into and out of the
Sanctuary. Moreover, the sex ratio and age composition
of the population that moved into and out of the Sanctuary was not significantly different. These observations
indicate that the Dinsho group of mountain nyala is a
‘closed’ population, disconnected from the Gaysay/Adelay sub-populations, probably due to human
settlement and agricultural barriers. A high density
population in a confined area is likely to experience
enhanced inbreeding, loss of genetic variability and diminished survival. Similar scenarios concerning small
populations of wild animals have been raised in other
studies (Hedrick and Kalinowski, 2000). Evidence
shows that inbreeding occurs commonly in nature and
can be severe enough to affect the viability of small and
isolated populations (Keller and Waller, 2002, Garner et
al., 2005).
Male-biased hunting practices as well as poaching of
the species by the local communities in the northern part
of the Park and its surroundings might have contributed
to the observed lower number of adult males in Gaysay/Adelay than in Dinsho Sanctuary. Brown (1969a)
supported this assumption, and stated that the population decline was caused by hunting. Adult male mountain nyala horns are cultural significant and used in local
community rituals. This may have encouraged local
communities to kill more adult males than females
(Mamo, 20072). Some studies suggest that male-biased
hunting pressure limits population size because female
fecundity may be reduced when males are selectively

Refera B, 2001. Population status, structure and diurnal activity pattern of mountain nyala Tragelaphus buxtoni in the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. M.Sc. thesis.
2
Mamo Y, 2007. Ecology and Conservation of Mountain Nyala Tragelaphus buxtoni in Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. PhD Thesis, Aberdeen, University of Aberdeen.
47
668
Current Zoology
removed (Fairall, 1985; Ginsberg and Milner-Gulland,
1994). Milner-Gulland et al. (2001) reported that reproductive collapse in a Saiga antelope population occurred
because of sex-biased harvest.
The mountain nyala population has steadily decreased in the study area, although the cause of decline
is not fully understood. Existing evidence shows that the
BMNP population of mountain nyala has been reduced
considerably over the past three decades. Many of the
demographic parameters of mountain nyala did not
change significantly over time, suggesting the observed
decline is not due to an innate demographic characteristic of the species. Therefore, anthropogenic factors may
have affected the population dynamics. Similar assumption was noted by East & IUCN (1999) that Africa will
lose a substantial portion of its remaining antelope
populations during the 21st century due to anthropogenic
pressures. Mountain nyala are typically not a forest
dwelling animal, so the high number of nyala found in
the forested Dinsho Sanctuary could suggest that the
species was forced to occupy a less preferred habitat.
The observed high density of nyala in the Dinsho Sanctuary is not favorable for the existence of a viable
population in the future. Creation of a migration corridor that would connect the Dinsho sub-population to the
rest of the study area should be considered. Further
study is needed to assess inbreeding and loss of genetic
variability in the population due to the high density of
animals in Dinsho. It is also important to establish a
genealogical relationship for the sub-populations in
other areas, for conservation of the meta-population of
the species in a wider geographic range.
Acknowledgements We would like to express our gratitude
to Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources,
and Swedish International Development Authority for their
financial and logistic assistance. We would also like to thank
Kefyalew Sahle and staff members of BMNP.
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49
Habitat use of ungulates in Bale Mountains National
Park, Ethiopia
Yosef Mamo1, Addisu Asefa2 and Girma Mengesha3*
1
Department of Biology, Hawassa University, P. O. Box 05, Hawassa, Ethiopia, 2Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority Project, P.O. Box 386,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and 3Department of Wildlife & Eco-tourism, Wondo Genet College of Forestry & Natural Resources, P.O. Box 128,
Shshemene, Ethiopia
Abstract
This study was conducted to determine habitat use,
distribution and diversity of five ungulate species in the
Bale Mountains National Park. Habitat use by each
ungulate species was assessed using a total count method
in 11 vegetation types between August and October 2009.
Results showed the ungulates had wide and uneven
distribution except for mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) that mainly recorded in Adellay and Dinsho hill open
lands. This nyala occupied all of the habitats, while
Menelik’s bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus meneliki) occupied
nine habitats. Most species pairs had significant positive
correlations regarding habitat use and preferences. Computed similarity index revealed the presence of considerable overlap in habitat among the ungulates (between
28% and 74%). The ungulates’ habitat-use diversity index
was 0.57–0.85, and mountain nyala had the highest and
Menelik’s bushbuck the lowest and the most habitat
selective species. However, species known to be grazers had
lower overlaps among themselves than between them and
browsers, and vice versa reflecting a strategy used to avoid
competition in some wildlife. The study provides useful
information about ungulates and their habitats in the
area. However, future research that focuses on their
feeding behaviour is needed to enhance our understanding
of the ungulates relationships with their habitat.
Key words: distribution, diversity, habitat overlap, habitat
use, park, ungulates
R�esum�e
Cette �etude a �et�e faite pour d�eterminer la fr�equentation de
l’habitat, la distribution et la diversit�e de cinq esp�eces
*Correspondence: E-mail: [email protected]
512
50
d’ongul�es dans le Parc National du Mont Bale. La
fr�equentation de l’habitat a �et�e �evalu�ee pour chaque
esp�ece en utilisant une m�ethode de comptage total dans
cinq types de v�eg�etation entre ao^
ut et octobre 2009. Les
r�esultats ont montr�e que les ongul�es avaient une distribu� l’exception du nyala (Tragetion �etendue et irr�eguli�ere a
laphus buxtoni) qui �etait surtout signal�e dans les zones
ouvertes d’Adele et de la colline de Dinsho. Le nyala
occupait tous les habitats alors que le guib harnach�e de
M�en�elik (Tragelaphus scriptus meneliki) en occupait neuf. La
plupart des paires d’esp�eces avaient des corr�elations
significativement positives en ce qui concerne la fr�equentation et la pr�ef�erence de l’habitat. L’indice de similarit�e
calcul�e a r�ev�el�e l’existence d’un chevauchement consid�erable de l’habitat des ongul�es (entre 28 et 74%).
L’indice de diversit�e de la fr�equentation de l’habitat par les
ongul�es allait de 0,57 �
a 0,85, le nyala ayant le plus �elev�e et
le guib harnach�e de M�en�elik ayant le plus bas et �etant
l’esp�ece la plus s�elective en mati�ere d’habitat. Cependant,
les esp�eces qui broutent l’herbe avaient moins de
chevauchement entre elles qu’entre elles et les esp�eces
qui mangent aussi des branchages, et vice-versa, ce qui
refl�ete une strat�egie pour �eviter la comp�etition entre
certaines esp�eces sauvages. L’�etude donne des informations int�eressantes sur les ongul�es et sur leurs habitats
dans cette r�egion. Mais il faudra de nouvelles recherches
sur leur comportement alimentaire pour am�eliorer notre
compr�ehension des relations des ongul�es avec leur habitat.
Introduction
Complex relationships exist among animal species in a
community, between them and their biotic and abiotic
environments (GREEN, 1987; Barker, 2005). Such interactions are crucial for the maintenance of the structure
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Afr. J. Ecol., 53, 512–520
Habitat use of ungulates in the BMNP
and function of ecosystems which they are part, suggesting
that changes in these relationships could lead to disruption
of proper ecosystem functions (Hirst, 1975; Illius &
O’Connor, 2000). Thus, owing to unprecedented rate of
wildlife habitat degradation and destruction in protected
areas globally, understanding the distribution and habitat
use of wildlife species in such areas has received great
attention among protected area managers (Hirst, 1975;
Latham, 1999; Stensland, Angerbj}
orn & Berggren, 2003;
Barker, 2005; Cromsigt, Prins & Olff, 2009; Heinze et al.,
2011). This is especially the case in developing countries
like Ethiopia where rich and unique wildlife species occur;
however, lack of resources (expertise and funding) hampered sustainable management and use of their wildlife
resources for the socio-economic development of their
nations (Stephens et al., 2000; Struhsaker, Struhsaker &
Siex, 2005; Yosef, Afework & Girma, 2012a). Consequently, due to such poor management, many of the
wildlife species are facing a great risk of extinction by direct
(e.g. poaching) and indirect (e.g. destruction of wildlife
habitats) human activities (Stephens et al., 2000; Williams
et al.,2004; Struhsaker, Struhsaker & Siex, 2005; Stankowich, 2008; Yosef et al., 2012b; Yosef, Afework & Girma,
2012a). Thus, improving the effectiveness and proper
management of wildlife and their habitat through appropriate allocation of the limited resources is needed in such
conservation areas. This in turn requires availabilities of
reliable ecological information, such as the distribution
and use of habitat by wildlife. Such information, if collected
at regular intervals, would help managers detect changes
taking place over time, thus enabling protected area
managers to make appropriate conservation decisions
(Fetene, Mengesha & Bekele 2011).
Distribution of ungulates in available habitats is often
influenced by several factors such as habitat quality and
suitability (Hirst, 1975; Stensland, Angerbj}
orn & Berggren, 2003; Fetene, Mengesha & Bekele, 2011; Heinze et al.,
2011; Yosef et al., 2012b; Yosef, Afework & Girma,
2012a), presence of other species (Latham, 1999; Stensland, Angerbj}
orn & Berggren, 2003; Barker, 2005) and
human disturbances (Stankowich, 2008). Habitat quality
and suitability refers to accessibility and ability of a given
habitat to offer necessary requirements for a species (such
as safe site for resting and reproduction) to survive and
reproduce (Fritz, Garine-Wichatitsky & Letessier, 1996;
Morrison, Marcot & Mannan, 1998; Illius & O’Connor,
2000). Thus, a species’ use or avoidance for a particular
habitat depends on the degree to which that habitat fulfils
513
these requirements and is accessible to animal species in
question. The presence of other species also affects habitat
occupancy of ungulates in several ways. For instance,
population of a particular ungulate species tend to avoid
occupying its preferred habitat in the presence of its
superior competitors competing for same resources in same
habitat and/or if the rate of predation in that habitat is
high (GREEN, 1987; Latham, 1999; Stensland, Angerbj}
orn & Berggren, 2003; Barker, 2005). Human-induced
disturbances to wild ungulates such as poaching, unrestricted human interferences and domestic animals grazing
and movements in the wildlife habitats also strongly affect
their distribution and behaviour (Stankowich, 2008). This
is becoming an important limiting factor particularly for
species that have a low range of environmental tolerances,
because such human-induced actions push them to exist
outside of their range of tolerance, leading them to
increased threat status (Fetene, Mengesha & Bekele,
2011; Yosef et al.,2012b).
In this paper, a study conducted on habitat use of
ungulates in the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) is
presented. The Park is recognized as a centre of diversity
and endemism, where many of the plant and animal
species are locally endemic (The National Herbarium
[NH], 2004; Asefa, 2011). The BMNP is globally designated as a biodiversity hotspot by Conservation International (Williams et al.,2004). However, like many of
Africa’s protected areas (Struhsaker, Struhsaker & Siex,
2005), the Park has been under increasing human
population pressure from the surrounding area and
immigrants from other regions (Stephens et al., 2000;
NH, 2004; Williams et al.,2004; OARDB, 2007; Yosef &
Afework, 2011a). Consequently, settlement, subsistence
cultivation, fire, livestock grazing and selective logging
have been increasingly threatening biodiversity and
ecosystems within the Bale Mountains (Hillman, 1986;
Stephens et al., 2000; OARDB, 2007; Teshome, Randal &
Kinahan, 2011). Therefore, given the actual and potential
negative impacts of such human disturbances on the
conservation of the ungulates of the park, examining their
habitat use has been identified by the BMNP management
as one of the top research priorities as part of the
ecological monitoring programme of the park (OARDB,
2007).
Studies on species-specific ecological and demographic
aspects of ungulates of the BMNP have been carried out
during the last four decades (e.g. Hillman, 1986; Stephens
et al., 2000; Afework, Bekele & Balakrishnan, 2009; Yosef
51
514
Yosef Mamo et al.
& Michele, 2011b). However, studies at community level
focusing on comparison of habitat-use diversity [niche
breadth; Krebs (1989)] and overlap among the species
have not been conducted so far. The aim of this study was,
therefore, to determine habitat use of five ungulate in the
northern part of the Park. Specifically, this study was
aimed to: (i) determine habitat distribution and use
diversity of each species; (ii) examine how this varies
among the species and overlaps between each pair of
species; and (iii) provide baseline data for future comparisons and studies to be made in line of habitat use at
community level.
Materials and methods
Study area
The Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) is located
between 6°29’–7°10’ north and 39°28’–39°58’ east in the
south-east highlands of Ethiopia. Seventy-eight mammals
and 278 bird species have been recorded from the BMNP;
of which, 17 mammal and 6 bird species are endemic
(Asefa, 2011). The Bale Mountains area is characterized
by 8 months (March–October) of rainy season.
This study was carried out in the northern section of
the Park (6°48’–7°10’ north and 39°31’–39°36’ east), in
a 27.7 km2 that includes two of the vegetation zones (the
northern woodlands and the Gaysay valley) found in the
Park (Hillman, 1986). Although the study area covers a
small proportion of the BMNP (i.e. 0.64%), the area
including Gaysay valley has been considered as the most
critical wildlife habitat in the Park, particularly for
ungulates. As a result, most of patrolling activities in
BMNP has been concentrated to this area as the establishment of the park (Hillman, 1986; OARDB, 2007). This
area supports more than 75% of the total global population of the endemic and endangered mountain nyala
(Refera & Bekele, 2002, 2004; Evangelista et al.,2008;
Yosef, Afework & Girma, 2012a; Yosef et al., 2012b), and
notably high proportion of global population of other
endemic ungulate such as Menelik’s bushbuck (Dereje,
Yosef & Afework, 2011). Despite its importance as a
critical habitat for ungulates, the Gaysay valley and its
surrounding areas have been deteriorating both in
quantity and quality mainly due to livestock grazing
(Refera & Bekele, 2002, 2004; Afework, Bekele &
Balakrishnan, 2009; Yosef & Afework, 2011a). The
landscape in this particular part of the Park is character-
ized by mountainous ranges with a central broad flat
valley and an altitude range of 3000 and 3400 m asl. The
mountainous areas are covered by three patches of
forest [namely Adellay forest (central location, 6°50’ N &
39°33’ E; area = 7.1 km2), Boditti (6°57’ N & 39°33’;
area = 5.48 km2) and Dinsho hill (6°50’ N & 39°36’ E;
area = 1.2 km2)]. The vegetation of these forest patches is
classified as dry evergreen Afromontane forest and dominated by Hagenia abyssinica–Juniperus procera tree species.
The central flat Gaysay valley is generally classified as a
montane grassland ecosystem (6°53’ N & 39°33’ E;
area = 13.92 km2). The vegetation of this grassland is
dominated by swamp grasses and sedges of Cyperus and
Scirpus genera and low bushes of Artemesia afra and
Helichrysum splendidum (Hillman, 1986; OARDB, 2007;
Afework, Bekele & Balakrishnan, 2009; Yosef, Afework &
Girma, 2012a; Yosef et al., 2012b). The five ungulate
species considered in this study are as follows: the
endangered and endemic mountain nyala (Tragelaphus
buxtoni), the endemic subspecies Menelik’s bushbuck
(Tragelaphus scriptus meneliki), bohor reedbuck (Redunca
redunca), common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) and
grey duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia).
Categorization of habitat (vegetation) types
The term vegetation type, which is the major plant species
composition within a given habitat type (Jones, 1986),
was used in this study to denote habitats of the ungulates.
Detailed analysis of vegetation types of the study area has
been made by several authors (Hillman, 1986; Refera &
Bekele, 2004; Afework, Bekele & Balakrishnan, 2009).
Yosef et al. (2012b), Yosef, Afework & Girma (2012a) had
identified 15 vegetation types without including Boditti
forest, which is similar to Adellay forest in vegetation
composition. In this study, similar habitat categorization was used with a slight modification. Accordingly,
11 habitat types were defined and used in the study
(Table 1).
Survey of ungulates
Following the approach used by Refera & Bekele (2004);
Afework, Bekele & Balakrishnan (2009); and Yosef &
Michele (2011b) to survey different ungulate species in the
study area, the three forest patches in the study area and
Gaysay valley were delineated as four separate blocks.
Blocks were surveyed on different days using total count
52
515
Table 1 Habitat types in the study area with their area size and descriptions
Habitat
Code
Area (ha)
Proportion (%)
Adellay open land
Adellay forest
Adellay Bushland
Boditti open grassland
Boditti forest
Boditti bushland
Gaysay grassland
AD OL
AD FR
AD BL
BD OL
BD FR
BD BL
GS GL
14.2
525.4
170.4
89.8
114.6
343.6
946.0
0.5
19.0
6.2
3.2
4.1
12.4
34.2
Gaysay bushland
Dinsho Hill open land
Dinsho Hill forest
Dinsho Hill bushland
Total
GS BL
DH OL
DH FR
DH BL
446.0
10.8
81.6
27.6
2 770.0
16.1
0.4
3.0
1.0
100.0
technique, but within similar time of the day and under
similar weather conditions by same two people between
August and October in 2009. Each block was visited four
times, that is early in the morning, from 07 h30 to
10 h30, and late in the afternoon, from 14 h30 to
17 h30, when the animals are more active (Refera &
Bekele, 2004). Observations were aided by 8 9 40 binoculars. Data regarding date, time, block code, total number
of individuals of each species and habitat type (the 11
habitat types defined) within which they were recorded
whenever an animal or group of animals of a species was
encountered.
Data analysis
Two approaches were used to determine habitat use for
each ungulate species. The first approach was by testing
the deviations of the observed distribution from expected
even distribution using chi-square tests (Hirst, 1975). The
second approach was based on Manly’s technique by
calculating standardized resource selection ratios as a
measure of habitat selection for the different ungulate
species (Manly et al., 2002). Resource selection functions
(Bis) were calculated as the proportion of available habitat
units of habitat i that was selected by species s. Bis was
estimated as:
Bis = Ois/ai where Oi, is the proportion of abundance for
species s that was found in units of habitat i, and ai is
the proportion of habitat i among all sampled habitat
units. Then, the selection functions were standardized
according to:
Description
Open montane grasslands areas in Adellay
Areas in Adellay forest covered by trees
Areas in Adellay forest covered by shrubs/bushes
Open montane grasslands in Boditti forest
Areas in Boditti forest covered by trees
Areas in Boditti forest covered by shrubs/bushes
Areas in Gaysay valley covered by montane grasslands
(i.e. open and marsh grasslands)
Areas in Gaysay valley covered by bushes/shrubs
Open montane grasslands in Dinsho Hill forest
Areas in Dinsho Hill forest covered by trees
Areas in Dinsho Hill forest covered by bushes/shrubs
Xi¼11
B�is ¼ Bis =
i¼1
Bis
where B*is is the standardized selection ratio for species s.
(Krebs, 1989; Cromsigt, Prins & Olff, 2009).
The diversity of habitat use [i.e. niche breadth, sensu
Krebs, 1989] was measured using Smith’s measure of
niche breadth (Krebs, 1989) as:
FTs ¼ �
Xi¼n pffiffiffiffiffi
ð psi ai Þ
i¼1
where, is the Smith’s measure of habitat-use diversity for
species s; psi is proportion of individuals of species s found
in or using resource state i; ai is proportion that resource i
is of the total resources; and n is the total number of
resource states (Krebs, 1989; Cromsigt, Prins & Olff,
2009). If the standardized selection ratio value for a
particular habitat is equal to 1/m (where m is the total
number of available habitats, which in this case is 11), it
shows no preference; if greater, preference; and if less than,
avoidance (Krebs, 1989; Cromsigt, Prins & Olff, 2009).
The overlaps between each possible pair of species with
respect to their habitat use were determined using two
methods. Firstly, the standardized selection ratio values
that were calculated for each species were used to examine
the relationships between each pair of species with respect
to their overlaps in their habitat use using Spearman’s
rank-based correlations in SPSS version 20. Second,
overlaps with respect to their habitat use were calculated
using S18 Kulczynski similarity index in Primers software
53
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Yosef Mamo et al.
using the proportion of individuals of each species in each
habitat as an input (GREEN, 1987; Clarke & Gorley,
2006).
Results
Habitat distribution and selection
All the ungulate species had wide distribution, occupying
nine (namely Menelik’s bushbuck) to all of the 11
(mountain nyala and common warthog) habitats considered in this study. The highest proportions of bohor
reedbuck (72%) and mountain nyala (43%) populations
were recorded in the two habitats (i.e. Gaysay bushland
[hereafter referred to as GS BL] and Gaysay grassland [GS
GL]) of the Gaysay valley. Common warthog was mainly
concentrated in Adellay forest where 23% and 19% of
them were recorded in Adellay open land (AD OL) and
Adellay forest (AD FR) habitat types, respectively. In
comparison with other habitat types, GS BL habitat
contained the highest proportion (31%) of grey duiker
individuals, while about half (44%) of Menelik’s bushbuck
was recorded in the AD FR (Fig. 1).
Comparison of observed density with expected density
of each species across habitat types showed significant
difference for all species (v2 = 27.000, df = 10, P < 0.001),
except for mountain nyala (v2 = 16.953, df = 10,
P > 0.05), suggesting that most of the ungulates had
uneven distribution and displayed preference of use for a
particular habitat type. Indexes of Manly’s standardized
resource selection ratios of each species for each habitat type
also revealed that all the species showed significant preferences of habitat use (i.e. Bis > 1/m or 0.091) for AD OL and
Dinsho hill open land (DH OL) habitats (Table 2).
Habitat-use diversity and overlap
The ungulates showed moderate to high level of habitatuse diversity, with Smith’s diversity index ranging between
0.57 and 0.85. As expected from its even distribution,
mountain nyala had the highest use diversity (0.85),
followed by grey duiker (0.81) and common warthog and
bohor reedbuck (both had 0.79). Bushbuck had the lowest
habitat-use diversity (0.57).
Considerable overlaps in habitat uses were observed
among the ungulates. The overlap index between each
Fig 1 Distribution of ungulate species
across the 11 habitat types expressed as
percentage of number of individuals in
each habitat type to overall individuals
(= n). **P < 0.001, *P < 0.005, n.s. =
non-significant at a = 0.05. Habitat types
and species codes as defined in Table 2 foot
note
54
517
Table 2 Habitat use index (expressed as Manly’s standardized resource selection ratios, Bis) and habitat use rank for the five ungulate
species in the 11 habitat types
*
BRB
CW
GD
MBB
MN
**
Bi
Rank
Bi
Rank
Bi
Rank
Bi
Rank
Bi
Rank
AD BL
AD FR
AD OL
BD BL
BD FR
BD OL
DH BL
DH FR
DH OL
GS BL
GS GL
0.005
0.002
0.191
0.000
0.010
0.003
0.075
0.083
0.539
0.071
0.022
8
10
2
11
7
9
4
3
1
5
6
0.006
0.012
0.545
0.002
0.037
0.009
0.026
0.037
0.316
0.007
0.002
9
6
1
10
3
7
5
3
2
8
10
0.013
0.015
0.384
0.000
0.057
0.006
0.040
0.040
0.404
0.037
0.005
8
7
2
11
3
9
4
4
1
6
10
0.002
0.038
0.312
0.001
0.059
0.010
0.062
0.081
0.436
0.000
0.000
8
6
2
9
5
7
4
3
1
10
10
0.006
0.007
0.362
0.004
0.004
0.001
0.072
0.063
0.450
0.021
0.009
8
7
2
9
9
11
3
4
1
5
6
Habitat
*
Species names and their codes: Bohor ReedBuck (BRB), Common Warthog (CW), Grey Duiker (GD), Menelik’s BushBuck (MBB) and
Mountain Nyala (MN).
**
Habitat types and their codes: Adellay Open Land (AD OL), Adellay Forest (AD FR), Adellay Bushland (AD BL), Boditti Open Land (BD OL),
Boditti Forest (BD FR), Boditti Bushland (BD BL), Gaysay Grassland (GS GL), Gaysay Bushland (GS BL), Dinsho Hill Open land (DH OL),
Dinsho Hill Forest (DH FR), & Dinsho Hill Bushland (DH BL).
pair of species ranged between 28% and 74%: the highest
being between grey duiker and common warthog and the
least between the latter and Menelik’s bushbuck (Table 3).
Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient also showed a
significant relationship between each pair of species with
respect to their habitat use (rs = 0.000–0.033, P < 0.05
in all cases), except between mountain nyala and common
warthog (rs = 0.600, P > 0.05) and the former and
bushbuck (rs = 0.589, P > 0.05) (Table 3), substantiating
the overlap revealed through the percentage index computed between each pair of the species.
Discussion
Table 3 Habitat-use overlap (%) and Spearman’s rank correlations (rs) of habitat-use indexes between each pair of the ungulate
species
*
Species pair
%
rs
Sig.
BRB versus CW
BRB versus GD
BRB versus MBB
BRB versus MN
CW versus GD
CW versus MBB
CW versus MN
GD versus MBB
GD versus MN
MBB versus MN
43.49
65.20
27.93
70.64
74.37
66.07
64.92
55.10
71.24
48.08
0.720
0.797
0.642
0.893
0.938
0.922
0.600
0.836
0.689
0.589
*
**
*
**
**
**
n.s.
**
*
n.s.
**Significant at P < 0.01; *P < 0.05; n.s. = nonsignificant.
Species names and their codes: Bohor ReedBuck (BRB), Common
Warthog (CW), Grey Duiker (GD), Menelik’s bushbuck (MBB) and
Mountain Nyala (MN).
This paper presents the first detailed quantitative study on
the habitat use of ungulates of the BMNP, focusing on their
habitat distribution, use diversity and use overlaps. Species
habitat use and distribution reported here agree with
previous studies in the area [e.g. see Hillman (1986) for all
species considered in this study; Refera & Bekele (2004)
and Yosef et al. (2012b), Yosef, Afework & Girma (2012a)
for mountain nyala; Afework, Bekele & Balakrishnan
(2009) for reedbuck)]. This study also demonstrates that
all the species studied showed significant preferences for
those habitats that were the least available in the study
area, and high overlap was found among the species’
habitat use. Several similar studies (GREEN, 1987; Fritz
et al., 1996; Evangelista et al., 2008; Yosef et al., 2012b;
Yosef, Afework & Girma, 2012a) suggest that in addition
to vegetation type other factors, such as vegetation height,
slope, aspect and land-use activities have considerable
influence on how ungulates select and use their habitats.
55
518
Yosef Mamo et al.
In the present study, the surrounding vegetation type
seems to have greater influence on the preference, because
the open grassland habitat in the Gaysay grassland was
less used by all species compared to similar open grasslands
embedded in the surrounding forest areas. Therefore, the
propensity of the ungulates to make use of the forest
habitats for resting, and the grassland and shrubland
habitats within the forests for feeding might have caused
the high observed use of habitats in the open grasslands
found in the forests (Yosef, Afework & Girma, 2012a; Yosef
et al., 2012b).
It has been found that ungulates with high habitat
preference have low diversity of habitat use (Cromsigt,
Prins & Olff, 2009), suggesting that habitat-use diversity
to be a reflection of their distribution. The findings of the
present study support this relationship in that species with
even distribution across the whole habitats had relatively
higher use diversity indexes (e.g. mountain nyala, Bi,
s = 0.85), but those that showed the tendencies for
relatively higher habitat selection had lower use diversity
indexes (e.g. Menelik’s bushbuck, Bi,s = 0.57). Thus, those
species, including the conservation concern mountain
nyala, with low habitat preferences could be considered to
be habitat ‘generalists’, which is beneficial to them as it
enables them to persist under the current changing
environment (Hirst, 1975). However, habitat deterioration
due to cultivation, logging and livestock grazing in the
BMNP would affect the proper use of these habitats by the
ungulates. Previous studies in the area (Refera & Bekele,
2002, 2004; Afework, Bekele & Balakrishnan, 2009;
Yosef & Afework, 2011a) reported that these ungulates
often raid crops from the nearby villages, which they
suggested to be due to lack of food resources in the
protected habitats. Therefore, future persistence of these
ungulates relies on appropriate protection of the Park by
strengthening the regular ranger-based patrolling and
monitoring measures.
The observed high habitat-use overlap between most of
the species pairs was unsurprising as most of them had
wide distribution, high habitat-use diversity and showed
preferences for same habitat types. Nonetheless, a high
range (i.e. 28–74%) of percentage overlap in habitat use
was found for each pair of species, which might be
attributable to the degree of similarities in their feeding
ecology. Lower overlaps were found among species known
to be predominantly browsers (i.e. mountain nyala,
Menelik’s bushbuck and grey duiker); and between grazers
(bohor reedbuck and common warthog) relative to the
overlaps found between browsers and grazers (Table 3; see
also Hillman, 1986; Kingdon, 1997; Refera & Bekele,
2004; and Afework, Bekele & Balakrishnan, 2009; for
general feeding habits of the ungulates). This, on the other
hand, might be a behavioural response by means of which
ungulates of same feeding guilds achieve a considerable
degree of spatial separation and tend to avoid interspecific
competition (Hirst, 1975; GREEN, 1987). However,
detailed knowledge on the feeding habits of these ungulate
species is required to elucidate whether this hypothesis
works or not. This could include the spatial and temporal
variations in plant species and part of it consumed by each
ungulate species and how they overlap in this aspect. This
is particularly important as these ungulate species use
different habitats for different activities during different
seasons and times of a day (Refera & Bekele, 2002;
Afework, Bekele & Balakrishnan, 2009; Yosef et al.,
2012b; Yosef, Afework & Girma, 2012a). Further, in
addition to competition, other ecological factors such as
predation and human disturbances also affect the distribution and habitat use of ungulates (Hirst, 1975; Stensland, Angerbj}
orn & Berggren, 2003; Barker, 2005;
Stankowich, 2008). Thus, the reported habitat overlap
among the ungulates might not necessarily be related only
to food overlap among them.
In conclusion, this study demonstrates that ungulates of
the BMNP generally have widespread habitat distribution,
high habitat-use diversity and overlap. However, lower
overlaps were found among species known to be predominantly browsers; and between grazers relative to the
overlaps found between browsers and grazers. This finding
perhaps reflects the degree of similarities in feeding ecology
of the species considered in the study. In general, the
results of this study provided valuable baseline information
on habitat use of ungulates of the BMNP that would help
managers of the Park to detect changes that might be
occurring in this aspect in order to make effective
conservation decisions and measures.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful for funding of this research by the
Frankfurt Zoological Society-Bale Mountains Conservation Project and Fitzpatrick Institute of Ornithology
Centre of Excellence, University of Pretoria. We are also
thankful to the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority
and the Bale Mountains National Park for the study
permission given.
56
519
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(Manuscript accepted 14 July 2015)
doi: 10.1111/aje.12242
58
ISSN: 2230-9926
Vol. 5, Issue, 01, pp. 3085-3094, January, 2015
DEMOGRAPHY AND POPULATION DYNAMICS OF MOUNTAIN NYALA (Tragelaphus buxtoni)
BEFORE ITS POPULATION CRASH IN 1991 IN THE BALE MOUNTAINS NATIONAL PARK,
ETHIOPIA
*Yosef Mamo
ARTICLE INFO
Department of Biology, Hawassa University, Hawassa, P.O.Box 05, Ethiopia
Article History:
Received 17th October, 2014
28th November, 2014
Accepted 23rd December, 2014
Published online 31st January, 2015
Key words:
Age Structure,
Demography,
Group Size,
Habitat,
Mountain Nyala,
Population
Productivity
Sex Ratio Vegetation/Habitat.
ABSTRACT
This study was conducted to assess demography and dynamics of mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) in
relation to habitats/vegetation, slope, seasons, altitude. The data were collected in 1984 eight years before
population crash of T. buxtoni in 1991 in Bale Mountains National Park. Sample total count method was used
to survey the population in three sites where the species known to be abundant in the northern part of the
Park. The sample total count of mountain nyala numbers were 10,862 (including 634 of unidentified
individuals in to age and sex categories) of which 8,679, 1,349 and 834 were observed from Gaysay,
Adelle/Amacho and Dinsho/Gojera study sites respectively. The total population estimate of the species
including counts outside the three sites were 2400 individuals. The total number of observed among the sites
were significantly different (df = 2, F = 4.886, P <0.01), with the highest number of observation was made in
Gaysay grassland site (8,679). The overall male to female sex ratio of the species was 1:2.7. Sex ratios among
different habitats/vegetation types were significantly different (df = 9, F = 2.112, P < 0.05). Higher
proportions of females per male were observed in montane grassland (15.0) followed by Helichrysum herb
(13.0) habitat types; and the least was observed in Hagenia woodland (3.0) habitat. The overall mean group
size or numbers of the species was 8.33, and mean group sizes among the sites were significantly different
(df= 2, F = 4.962, P < 0.001), Thus, the grassland habitat had the biggest group sizes of mountain nyala than
the forested habitats. Similarly, group size among different vegetation/habitat types were significantly
different (df = 9, F=5.373, P>0.001), with higher group sizes were recorded in Open Grassland (11.52)
followed by Helichrisum herb (10.37); while the lowest was recorded in Juniperus Woodland (5.00). The
average age composition of the species was dominated by adults with a proportion of adults (41%), sub-adults
(26%), juveniles (25%) and calves (8%). High proportion of adults in the present study could indicate higher
degree of survival of sub-adults. Age compositions across the study sites were not significantly different
except for calves (df = 2, F = 2.191, P<0.05). But, the proportions for all age groups were significantly
different across the vegetation/habitat types (df = 9, P<0.05). Calves productivity was 0.16 calves per adult
female (or 16 calves per 100 adult females; while juvenile mean productivity was 0.54 (or 54 juveniles per
100 adult females). Productivity of both calves and juveniles were significantly different across months
(calves: df = 11, F=7.173, P > 0.001; juveniles: df = 11, F=5.098, P>0.001), with the highest calves and
juveniles productivities were recorded in the months of November and March respectively Total number of
mountain nyala observed among different altitudes showed no significance differences (df = 26, F = 1.339, P
> 0.05). More than 95% of the species observed were within the narrow altitudinal ranges between 3100 and
3200 in their habitat. The species number showed significance difference among the slope categories (df= 2,
F= 13.312, P<0.001). Mountain nyala population reduced more than by half in the past three decades, and
thus needs focused conservation attention to reverse the trend. Findings of this study could serve as yardsticks
to make comparison against future research findings on the species.
Copyright © 2015 Yosef Mamo. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use,
INTRODUCATION
The mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) was brought to the
attention of the scientific community in 1908 by Major Ivor
Buxton (Lydekker, 1911), and its extensive range within the
Bale Mountains was only confirmed in 1963 (Brown, 1969).
Department of Biology, Hawassa University, Hawassa, P.O. Box 05,
Ethiopia
The species belongs to the spiral-horned family of Bovidae
(Genus Tragelaphus), and is endemic to Ethiopia and
distributed in South-Eastern highlands of Ethiopia (SilleroZubiri, 2008). This species has no recognized subspecies or
synonyms (Wilson and Reeder, 1993), and there are no
records of the animals in captivity (Hillman, 1986a). The
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN,
2002) designated the conservation status of the animal as
endangered in 2002. The species is largely found in the Bale
59
3086
Yosef Mamo, Demography and population dynamics of mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) before its population crash in 1991 in the bale
mountains national park, Ethiopia
Mountains, one of the few remaining forested landscapes in
Ethiopia. The habitat range of mountain nyala (T. buxtoni) has
become increasingly fragmented and used by the increasing
human and livestock populations (Stephens et al., 2001, and
Yosefand Afework 2011).By the early 1970s, Bale Mountains
National Park (BMNP) was established to protect the
mountain nyala and the region’s unusually high concentration
of endemic fauna and flora (Waltermire 1975). The mountain
nyala, is a relatively understudied (Shuker 1993; Hillman,
1993 and Bekele, 1982) antelope, unlike its closest relatives,
such as the greater kudu (Tragelapus strepsiceros) and nyala
of SE Africa (Tragelapusangasii). Only few demographic
studies have been conducted on the mountain nyala for long
period of time since its discovery by scientific community.
The first formal survey on the species was done 45 years ago
(Brown 1969), and after long pause, two relatively recent
studies were made in small isolated sub-populations in BMNP
(Refera and Bekele 2004, and Yosef et al., 2010, and Yosef
et al., 2012). The first formal study of the mountain nyala, and
arguably the most comprehensive, was conducted by Leslie
Brown who explored the Bale Mountains in November, 1963,
and February and March, 1966 (Brown 1969).
During these years, the Bale Mountains had considerably less
number of people and livestock than today and from Brown’s
description, mountain nyala populations and available habitat
were largely undisturbed by humans. His observations led him
to believe that there was no immediate threat to the species
(Brown 1969), and the mountain nyala was removed from the
International Union’s for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) List
of Endangered Species from 1969 to 1975. However, these
days habitat fragmentation caused by human settlement and
agricultural cultivation has negatively affected the animals’
potential to inhabit its suitable range (Stephens et al., 2001,
Yosefand Afework, 2011, and Evangelista et al., 2012).
Since 2000, some additional populations have been identified
throughout the Bale Mountains (Evangelista et al., 2007,
2008). Although new studies on the mountain nyala are
emerging, there still remain large information gaps that restrict
effective management and conservation of the species. In
particular, recent demographic studies on mountain nyala by
Yosef et al. (2010) occurred in northern part of the Park in
relatively small area, but in terms of mountain nyala numbers,
the area has highest concentration of the population as
compared to rest of the species habitat ranges.
The area includes the Gaysay Valley and Adelay forests, and a
fenced enclosure that surrounds the park headquarters. While
these are important conservation area for the mountain nyala,
the areas were surrounded by settlements and agriculture
(Yosefand Afework 2011). A number of individuals were
observed in relatively isolated areas of Dinsho Sanctuary,
Gaysay/Adelay areas, Web Valley and the highlands in the
central part of the Bale Mountains National Park. Together, on
average they harbor about 900 mountain nyala (Yosef et al.,
2010, Atickem et al., 2011), from worldestimates of not more
than 2000 (Yosef 2007). However, there is mounting concern
that the carrying capacity these areas have reached a
dangerous threshold and conditions that would have adverse
effects on the local mountain nyala populations. Counts
conducted by Yosef et al. (2010) found that mountain nyala
average density in Gaysay and Adelay reached 21/km2, while
it reached a critical level of 129/km2 at the park headquarters.
60
These numbers are alarmingly high when compared to
Brown’s (Brown, 1969) estimates (1.5/km2 to 6.9/km2). High
density of wild animals and their confinement to a small area
poses a number of risks including loss of food resources,
reduction in productivity and genetic diversity, and potential
transmission of disease (Keller et al., 2007). Small
populations are more vulnerable to human interference than
larger groups (Pullin 2002), so the future viability of these
isolated individuals is bleak. As Primack (2002) noted, the
long term persistence of small and isolated subpopulations of a
given species is limited. The limitations of a species’ potential
for dispersal and colonization caused by habitat fragmentation
have been widely reported (Kingdon, 1989; Rochelle et al.,
1999; Debinski and Holt 2000; Trombulak and Frisell,
2000; Primack, 2002, Pullin, 2002). To successfully manage
and conserve any wildlife species, a basic understanding of the
population’s structure and group dynamics are required
(Hebblewhite et al., 2003; Taylor et al., 2005; Bender 2006;
Mech 2006). Gathering demographic information on mountain
nyala in its preferred habitats can be a daunting task.
The elusiveness of the species is well documented by early
trophy hunters and museum collectors (Sanford and
LeGendre 1930; Baum 1935), and its partiality for rugged
terrain and dense vegetation prohibits most standard
observation methods. Mountain nyala have been recorded in
all habitats in the park, except in the southern low lying
Harena Forest, and northern part of the Park harbors the
largest population of the species (Hillman 1986a). Therefore,
this study is the first of its kind to analyze formally collected
intensive data in 1980’s. Population of mountain nyala had
been crashed in 1991 due to widespread lowliness happened
during the overthrow of the previous regime in Ethiopia
(Woldegebriel 1996; Shibru 1995). Then in 1991 formerly
abundant and widespread mountain nyala population in the
Park abruptly declined to less than 200 individuals from an
estimated number of more than 2,200 before 1991 incidence in
the Park (Woldegebriel 1996). The dramatic drop in
population at the end of 1990’s was mainly due to mass
killing, habitat disturbance by local people and then followed
by emigration of the species (Woldegebriel 1996).
Moreover, increasing livestock and human population pressure
have led to massive destruction of wildlife habitats as well as a
drastic reduction in numbers of wildlife in the Protected Areas
across Ethiopia (Shibru 1995). Therefore, this study tried to
investigate mountain nyala’s demographic parameters,
abundance and dynamics before its population crash in 1991 in
the BMNP by analyzing data collected in 1984. Specifically,
the study tried to analyses how demographic parameters of
mountain nyala in different locations, months, seasons,
habits/vegetation, altitudes, terrain (slope) varies in the
northern part of the Park. This study was the first of its kind
with detailed formal investigation on demography and
population dynamics of mountain nyala since any studies on
the species begin.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area and study animal
The Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) is located 400 km
southeast of Capital City in south-eastern Ethiopia. The park
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International Journal of Development Research, Vol. 05, Issue, 01, pp. 3085-3094, January, 2015
area is encompassed within geographical coordinates of
6º29' – 7º10'N and 39º28' – 39º57'E. The Park encompasses
approximately 2,200 km2 of mountains and forest area and
covers the largest area above 3000m asl in Africa. The park
includes an afro alpine plateau over 3500m asl and a major
section of moist tropical forest, the second largest in Ethiopia.
The three main study sites that are located in the northern part
of the Park named as: Dinsho/Gojera, Adelley/Amacho and
Gaysay sites. Only male mountain nyala possess horns typical
of the spiral-horned antelopes. The male horns are spectacular
and can grow as long as 85cm, making 2 graceful twists. An
adult male may weigh over 300 kg when mature at 4-5 years
(often within the range of 180 - 300 kg). Each individual is
uniquely patterned with spots and stripes. The female adult
weighing 150 - 200 kg (Kingdon, 1997).
Methods of data collection
Survey of mountain nyala population following regular
walking tracks and drive ways (lines)was made in 1984 in 19
different locations/sites of the park. Out of these areas, total
sample counts were made only in three sites, where the species
commonly known to be abundant in the Park, and the data
from these sites were considered for analysis. The three sites
were Dinsho/Gojera forested site, Adelley/Amacho forested
site, and Gaysay montane grassland site. Each site was divided
into a number of blocks of areas based on the abundance of
mountain nyala and their distributions and major vegetation
types in the area so as to avoid double counting of animals.
Dinsho/Gojera forested site was divided into three blocks; and
Adelley/Amacho forested site and Gaysay montane grassland
site into six blocks each. In each block maximum efforts were
made to search and locate all mountain nyala as much as
possible so as to have total count (Norton-Griffith 1978;
Melton 1983; Caughley and Sinclair 1994; Sutherland
1996; and Wilson et al., 1996) of mountain nyalas. In each
block two observers and one recorder were assigned to search
and count mountain nyala by walking from the north to the
south direction of each block. Counting was carried out
simultaneously in all blocks. The survey was conducted using
vehicles, horseback and on foot along the walk way lines and
forest roads that were established to monitor the Park.
6 months). The assignment of age range based partly on
literature cited for the species (Yalden and Largen 1992;
Gebrekidan 1996; Kingdon 1997) and for closely related
species of Tragelaphus strepsiceros (Annighofer and Schutz,
2011). Four social groupings were also assigned: Males only
group (only male containing group), Females only group
(Only female containing group), Calf containing group (group
that has more than 2 individuals and containing calf or calves),
and Ordinary or No calf group (groups with no calf or calves).
All sightings of the animals were also noted against slope
gradients, vegetation types, altitudes, where the observed
animals were actually found. Three slope categories were
assigned: Flat (ranges between 0-10%), Moderate (ranges
between 11-30%), and Steep (ranges between 31-75%).
Data Analysis
From the 19 different sites/areas of the park where mountain
nyala were counted, only counts in three sites were considered
for analysis. In estimating total population and altitudinal
distribution of the species, all the 19 sites counts were
considered. In these three sites totally annual sample count
made were 11,496 individuals, whereas in the rest of 16 sites
only 338 individuals were counted. The three sites were
Dinsho/Gojera forested site, Adelley/Amacho forested site,
and Gaysay montane grassland site. The statistical software
SPSS IBM version 19 was used to analyze the data.
Descriptive statistics was used to calculate the mean and
standard error. Selected demographic variables were compared
across months of the year, vegetation types, time of the day
and terrain type using one-way ANOVA to obtain F and P
values.
RESULTS
Total numbers of mountain nyala
The total numbers of mountain nyala estimated in 1984 were
2,400 individuals considering all the 19 localities in the Park
including the three study sites in the northern part of the Park
(Gaysay, Adelley/Amacho and Dinsho/Gojera). The sample
total count of mountain nyala numbers were 10,861 (including
634 of unidentified individuals in to age and sex categories) of
which 8,679, 1,349 and 834 were observed in Gaysay,
Adelley/Amacho and Dinsho/Gojera study sites respectively.
In the rest of 16 localities across the Park only 338 individuals
were counted. The total number of mountain nyala observed
among the three study sites were significantly different (df = 2,
F = 4.886, P <0.01), with the highest number was observed in
Gaysay grassland site (8,679). From the total sample count,
greater proportions animal count were made from Open
Grassland (36%) followed by Artemesia Grassland (30%), and
the least count was from Hygenia/Juniperus Woodland (2%).
The data were kept using excel spreadsheet, and latter
imported to SPSS statistical software. They survey were
carried out at every 1st and 15th day in each month, using the
same techniques of data collection. During a given day,
observations were made beginning from 6:00 am up to 18:00
pm. Data collection was carried out through direct observation
of free-ranging animals using 7x35 magnification power
binoculars. All sightings were made at a perpendicular angle
from the walking and/or drive lines (Smith 1979; Burnham
et al., 1980; Southwell and Weaver 1993; Plumptre 2000).
Perpendicular angles were determined using Silva Compass.
Sex relations (Sex-ratios) of mountain nyala
All mountain nyala observed during the census were sexed
(male or female), and their age was assessed according to their
coat color and body size, along with horn shape for males.
Accordingly, they assigned to one of the following four age
categories: Adult (animals of 2 years and older), Sub-adult
(animals between 1 and 2 years), Juvenile (animals between
6 months and 1 year), and Calves (animals younger than
The overall female (♀) to male (♂) sex ratio of the species
was 1:2.7. Sex ratios among different habitats/vegetation types
were significantly different (df = 9, F = 2.112, P < 0.01).
Higher proportion of females per male were observed in Open
Grassland (♂3.0) followed by Artemesia Bush (♂2.9) habitat
types; and the least was observed in Hagenia/Juniperus
Woodland (1.4) habitat/vegetation type.
61
3088
Diurnal and annual observed patterns in abundance of
mountain nyala
Age class compositions and proportions of mountain nyala
The average age composition (proportion) of the species
consisted of: adults (41%), sub-adults (26%), juveniles (25%)
and calves (8%). The age-structured more or less appeared as
inverted pyramidal shape having fewer proportion of calves at
the bottom, nearly similar proportions of sub-adults and
juvenile (young of a year) at the middle, and relatively larger
proportion of adults at the top of the inverted pyramid. Age
compositions across the study sites were not significantly
different except for calves (df = 2, F=2.191, P<0.05). But, age
compositions were significantly different across the
vegetation/habitat types (df = 9, P<0.05) (Table 1).
Group sizes and social group types of mountain nyala
Figure 1. Diurnal changes of mean group sizes across hours of the
day. Error bars are standard error values (n = 10,861)
Mean group sizes (±SE): [6: 4.26a (0.59)], [7: 5.14ab (1.22)], [8: 5.38ab (0.80)],
[9: 8.18ab (1.22)], [10: 6.28ab (0.79)], [11: 8.45ab (1.31)], [12: 7.59ab (1.22)],
[13: 10.39ab (1.45)], [14: 11.03b (1.09)], [15: 9.6ab (0.86)], 16: [8.03ab (0.65)],
[17: 6.75ab (0.51)], [18: 9.01ab (1.22)].
Mean values with different superscript letters were significantly different from
each other(Fig. 1).
Mean group sizes (numbers) of mountain nyala observed
among hours showed significance differences (df = 12, F =
2.628, P < 0.01), with the highest number of mountain nyala
was observed in the afternoon around 14:00 O’clock or
2:00pm, while the lowest record was early in the morning at
6:00 O’clock (Fig. 1). The Pearson Correlation showed that
mountain nyla abundance increases as time increases from
early morning of 6:00 am towards late afternoon around 18:00
pm, the correlation was positive (r= 0.042) but not significant
(P > 0.05).
The overall mean group size or numbers of mountain nyala
was 8.33, and mean group sizes among the study sites were
significantly different (df= 2, F = 4.962, P < 0.001), with
group sizes of 8.91, 7.33 and 6.50 were observed in Gaysay,
Dinsho/Gojera and Adelle/Amacho sites respectively. Thus,
the grassland habitat had biggest group sizes of mountain
nyala than the other forested habitats. Similarly, group sizes
among different vegetation/habitat types were significantly
different (df = 9, F=5.373, P>0.001), with higher group sizes
were recorded in Open Grassland (11.52) followed by
Helichrisum Bush (10.37); while the lowest was recorded in
Juniperus Woodland (5.00) (Table 2).
Herds containing largest number of mountain nyala were
observed at Hagenia Woodland (96), followed by Open
Grassland (83), while least herd size was recorded in
Hypericum forest (22) habitat type (Table 2).Mean group
numbers of mountain nyala among the different
vegetation/habitat types showed significance differences
(df = 9, F =2.566, P <0.05). Similarly, Group sizes among
months of a year showed significance differences (df = 11, F =
3.810, P <0.001). Largest herd size was observed in the month
of May (78), while the lowest in December (33) (Table 3). The
group sizes tend to increase from March to September, which
is mainly in the rainy season period, and decrease afterwards
in most of the dry season (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. Annual changes of mean group sizes observed across
months of the year with error bars at 95% CI of the mean (n =
10,861)
Mean group sizes (±SE): [Jan. 6.44abc (0.98)], [Feb. 6.93abc (0.96)], [Mar.
5.97ab (0.92)],[Apr.8.78abc (0.85)], [May. 11.22c (1.04)], [June. 10.85bc
(1.04)], [July. 9.06abc (1.08)], [Aug. 10.16bc(1.13)], [Sept.9.97bc(0.89)], [Oct.
6.82abc (0.91)], [Nov. 8.30abc (1.05)], [Dec. 4.23a (1.62)].
Mean values with different superscript letters were significantly different from
each other (Fig. 2).
62
Figure 3. The distribution of Mountain Nyala across different
altitudes of the study area (n = 11,834, including 16 localities)
Total number of mountain nyala observed among different
altitudinal ranges showed no significance differences (df = 26,
F = 1.339, P > 0.05).
3089
Table 1. Age compositing and structure of mountain nyala in different vegetation/habitat types (n = 10,861)
Adult
Sub adult
Juvenile
Calf
Sample size(n)
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
Open Grassland
1,850(47.5) 958(24.6) 829(21.3)
257(6.6)
3894
Artemesia Bush
1,560(47.3) 736(22.3) 802(24.3)
201(6.1)
3299
Hagenia Woodland
815(47.2)
422(24.4) 380(22.0)
111(6.4)
1728
Hypericum Bush
202(46.5)
92(21.2)
115(26.5)
26(5.8)
435
Swamp Grassland
211(48.1)
97(22.0)
93(21.3)
38(8.6)
439
Helichrysum Bush
148(47.5)
65(20.9)
82(26.3)
16(5.4)
311
Juniperus Woodland
148(51.1)
63(21.7)
68(23.5)
11(3.7)
290
Hypericum Forest
93(53.8)
40(23.4)
30(17.5)
9(5.3)
172
Montane Grassland
77(48.7)
38(24.1)
30(19.0)
13(8.2)
158
Hagenia/Juniper Woodland
77(56.7)
24(17.9)
24(17.9)
10(7.5)
135
All age categories were significantly different (df=9, P<0.05) across habitat types (Table 1).
Vegetation/habitat types
Table 2. Mean group size or number (±SE) of the mountain nyala in different vegetation/habitat types (n = 10,861)
Largest herd
number
Vegetation/
Habitat types
Mean group size across age categories of mountain nyala
Mean
group size
Male
Female
Male subFemale subMale
adult
adult
adult
adult
Juvenile
0.90
4.37
0.84
1.90
0.86
Open Grassland
83
11.52f
(0.79)
(0.10)
(0.30)
(0.08)
(0.16)
(0.08)
0.43
3.97
0.47
1.47
0.80
Helichrysum Bush
42
10.37f
(1.73)
(0.22)
(0.78)
(0.18)
(0.38)
(0.24)
0.60
2.71
0.51
1.05
0.54
Artemesia Bush
64
8.11e
(0.49)
(0.07)
(0.17)
(0.06)
(0.09)
(0.06)
d
0.70
2.54
0.70
0.98
0.69
Hagenia Woodland
96
7.03
(0.6)
(0.09)
(0.22)
(0.08)
(0.12)
(0.10)
0.56
2.69
0.52
0.97
0.65
Hypericum Bush
43
7.02d
(1.06)
(0.12)
(0.37)
(0.09)
(0.21)
(0.14)
d
0.30
3.04
0.48
1.17
0.39
Montane Grassland
27
6.87
(1.58)
(0.13)
(0.57)
(0.20)
(0.38)
(0.15)
0.31
2.79
0.31
1.10
0.36
Swampy Grassland
23
6.55d
(0.72)
(0.09)
(0.33)
(0.09)
(0.17)
(0.08)
c
1.28
1.76
0.44
0.52
0.32
Hagenia/Juniperus Woodland
27
5.40
(1.13)
(0.40)
(0.29)
(0.21)
(0.15)
(0.14)
c
0.88
1.82
0.53
0.65
0.24
Hypericum Forest
22
5.09
(0.86)
(0.29)
(0.33)
(0.18)
(0.16)
(0.09)
0.66
1.74
0.38
0.64
0.26
Juniperus Woodland
27
5.00c
(0.71)
(0.17)
(0.33)
(0.14)
(0.14)
(0.07)
Mean values within the same column given different superscript letters were significantly different from each other (Table 2).
Female
Juvenile
1.50
(0.14)
1.63
(0.40)
1.16
(0.10)
0.82
(0.08)
1.21
(0.26)
0.91
(0.34)
1.01
(0.18)
0.64
(0.16)
0.65
(0.17)
0.84
(0.17)
calf
0.73
(0.07)
0.50
(0.15)
0.43
(0.05)
0.44
(0.07)
0.40
(0.11)
0.57
(0.25)
0.55
(0.10)
0.40
(0.20)
0.26
(0.10)
0.17
(0.06)
Table 3. Mean group and largest herd sizes observed across months of the year (95%CI)
Months
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
No ind.
observed
117
123
134
158
105
104
96
88
141
135
102
43
Mean
group size
6.44
6.93
5.97
8.78
11.22
10.85
9.06
10.16
9.96
6.81
8.30
4.23
Std. Error
0.680
0.817
0.501
0.788
1.355
1.493
1.134
1.264
1.118
0.713
1.052
0.796
95% Confidence Interval for Mean
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
5.10
7.79
5.31
8.54
4.98
6.96
7.22
10.33
8.53
13.91
7.89
13.81
6.81
11.31
7.65
12.67
7.75
12.17
5.41
8.22
6.22
10.39
2.63
5.84
Max.
herd size
40
66
36
69
78
96
62
69
83
49
57
33
Table 4. Mean (±SE) group sizes of different age groups of mountain nyala across slope gradients (out of the total 10,862 observed,
5,624, 3,828 and 1,410 mountain nyala were from Flat, Moderate and Steep slope categories respectively)
Slope category
Flat
Moderate
Steep
Mean
SE
Mean
SE
Mean
SE
Total mean
9.32b
0.50
8.83b
0.49
5.36a
0.37
Male adult
0.70
0.06
0.69
0.07
0.64
0.08
Female adult
3.42
0.19
3.13
0.17
1.99
0.15
0.63
0.05
0.71
0.06
0.40
0.05
Male sub-adult
1.43
0.10
1.23
0.09
0.70
0.08
Female sub-adult
numbers
within
0.66
0.05 More than 95%
0.74 of the species
0.07
0.37were observed
0.05
Male juvenile
altitudinal range
3100 and0.07
3200m asl in
1.32
0.09 the narrow 1.13
0.08 between 0.74
Female juvenile
0.54
0.05 their habitat0.58
0.05 season (March
0.28
0.05
Calf
(Fig. 3). Wet
– October)
mean
Mean values in the same row given different superscript letters were significantly
different
from each
other
4). (November – December)
group size
was 7.82
while
dry(Table
season
Age category of mountain nyala
63
3090
group size average was 6.48. The average group sizes of
mountain nyala were 9.32, 8.83 and 5.36 in Flat, Moderate and
Steep slope categories respectively (Table 4); and the group
size in Steep slope was significantly different from the rest of
slope categories. The mean social group sizes of different age
categories of mountain nyala observed were significantly
different (df = 2, F = 146.968, P < 001) across the slope
gradients (Table 4).From the four social group types
considered, steep slope gradient had smaller, except larger
males only group size, and significantly different group sizes
from flat and moderate slope gradients
while dry season (November – December) average of calves
and juveniles were 0.19 and 0.49 respectively.
DISCUSSION
Unlike the population of mountain nyala in Gaysay and the
park headquarters, the mountain nyala in the other locations of
the study area were much scattered. The population was
abundant before its crash in 1991but since then the population
never recovered and gained the status before its crash. Rather,
the population drastically reduced
Table 5. The distribution of social group types of mountain nyala in different locations habitats/vegetation types
Habitat/vegetation types
Social groups
Calf containing
Females only
Males only
Ordinary/ no calves
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
Artemesia Grassland
100
27.5c
2
66.0b
48
24.0b
257
33.1b
a
a
Hypericum Bush
15
4.1
8
4.0
39
5.0a
Hypericum Forest
7
1.9a
7
3.5a
19
2.4a
a
a
a
Helichrysum Bush
7
1.9
1
33.0
3
1.5
19
2.4a
Hagenia/Juniper woodlands 5
1.4a
3
1.5a
17
2.2a
Hagenia Woodland
62
17.0b
61
30.5b
123
15.9b
Juniperus Woodland
9
2.5a
15
75
34
4.4a
Montane Grassland
6
1.6a
4
2.0a
13
1.7a
Open Grassland
115
31.6c
39
19.5b
184
23.7b
Swamp Grassland
27
7.4a
3
1.5a
37
4.8a
Percentage values within the same column given different superscript were significantly different (Table 5)
Table 6. Mountain nyala mean productivity (number of calves or juveniles per adult female) for both calves and juveniles per
surveyed months of the year
Calves Productivity1
Juveniles Productivity2
Months
±SE(95% CI)
±SE(95% CI)
January
0.17±0.03
(0.11-0.23)
0.37±0.04
(0.29-0.44)
February
0.14±0.03
(0.08-0.19)
0.56±0.06
(0.45-067)
March
0.11±0.02
(0.10-0.15)
0.71±0.05
(0.60-0.81)
April
0.13±0.02
(0.10-0.18)
0.66±0.05
(0.56-0.76)
May
0.12±0.03
(0.10-0.17)
0.62±0.06
(0.49-0.75)
June
0.12±0.02
(0.07-0.17)
0.69±0.07
(0.54-0.83)
July
0.10±0.03
(0.04-0.15)
0.48±0.06
(0.36-0.61)
August
0.04±0.02
(0.01-0.07)
0.44±0.04
(0.35-0.52)
September
0.22±0.03
(0.15-0.28)
0.51±0.04
(0.43-0.59)
October
0.23±0.03
(0.16-0.30)
0.41±0.05
(0.31-0.51)
November
0.36±0.05
(0.27-0.45)
0.38±0.05
(0.29-0.47)
December
0.07±0.04
(0.00-0.16)
0.63±0.12
(0.38-0.88)
Total mean
0.16±0.01
0.54±0.02
1
Total calves divided by adult female; 2Juveniles divided by adult female
Productivity of mountain nyala
Calves productivity was 0.16 calves per adult female (or 16
calves per 100 adult females; while juvenile mean productivity
was 0.54 (or 54 juveniles per 100 adult females) (Table 6).
Productivity of both calves and juveniles were significantly
different across months (calves: df = 11, F=7.173, P > 0.001;
juveniles: df = 11, F=5.098, P>0.001). The highest
productivity of calves (0.36; varies between 0.27-0.45 at
95%CI) was recorded in November, while the lowest (0.04;
varies between 0.01-0.07 at 95%CI) was in August (Table 6).
Relatively higher productivity of calves were observed from
September to November, which is in the period before the
onset of dry season. In terms of Juvenile productivity, the
highest was observed in March (0.71: varies between 0.600.81 at 95%CI); while the lowest was recorded in January
(0.37: varies between 0.29-0.44 at 95%CI). Relatively higher
productivity of juveniles were observed from March to June
(Table 6). Mean productivity of calves and juveniles in wet
season (March – October) were 0.13 and 0.57 respectively;
64
from 2400 individuals estimated in this study to between a
range of 887 to 965 individuals as it was estimated by Yosef et
al. (2010), which showed a reduction in number by 42% in the
last three decades. Larger proportion of females than males,
with average sex ratio of 2.7♀ to 1♂ was recorded before the
population crash than that was reported of an average sex ratio
of 2♀ to 1♂ after its population crash (Yosef et al., 2010;
Refera and Bekele 2004). Although a skew in sex ratios
toward females may increase the number of calves in the
population, but this must be balanced against the negative
effects of reduced calf condition (Holand, 2002). However,
the result of the sex ratios reported in this study not greatly
skewed towards females than necessary for reproduction in
polygamous population like mountain nyala. Because in
polygamous species with a fixed, narrow birth interval, effects
of skewed sex ratios may impose limitations concerning a
male’s ability to fertilize many females within a short breeding
season (Ginsberg and Milner-Gulland, 1994; White et al.,
2001; Laurian et al., 2000). In addition to the relative
proportions of females, what is also important is the spatial
3091
distribution of females during rut may be an important factor
influencing the reproductive success of individual males
(Holand, 2002). Relatively higher proportion of adult female
to male sex ratio of 4.06:1 (95% CI 2.72-6.10:1) were reported
by Brown (1969) in the Bale Mountains during the rutting
season from November to December in the dry season. In
addition to seasonal differences, sex proportion can vary in
age, varying levels of population density and stress (CluttonBrock and Iason, 1986). For related species such as
Tragelaphus
strepsiceros
(Annighofer,
2011)
and
Tragelaphus scriptus (Abebayehu, 2012), relatively lower
proportion of female to male of 1:1.67 and 1:1.5 were reported
respectively. For polygamous animals like mountain nyala
larger number of females needed for increased reproduction,
and hence pre-crash period, the population had better chance
of increased reproduction than post population crash period.
This may true because the proportion of calves from the total
population number was higher before the crash than reported
in different periods after its crash in (Yosef 2007; Yosef
et al., 2010). Moreover, female ungulates usually produce and
raise offspring alone, and they are therefore obvious the most
important component with regard to population dynamics
(Mysterud et al., 2002).
The majority of previous studies on mountain nyala reported
that the sex ratios of females to males were nearer to 2:1
(Brown 1968; Referal and Bekele 2004; Yosef et al., 2010),
these estimates were closer to those reported (1.67:1) for
hunted populations of closely related kudu species
(Annighöfer and Schutz, 2011). The average group size
observed in this study was 8.22 (varies between 6.29 and
10.16 at 95%CI). Estimates closer to this study were reported
by Refera and Bekele (2004) and Yosef et al. (2010) which
they estimated group size in Gaysay and the park headquarters
between 7.9-10.2 individuals and 7.0-12 individuals
respectively. Historical accounts of group size in Gaysay were
estimated at an average of 5.62 individuals (Brown, 1968) and
groups were rarely observed with more than 12 individuals
with most group sizes between 4-12 individuals (Maydon,
1925). Wet and/or rainy season between March and October
often supports larger group sizes of mountain nyala than dry
season between November and February, although the group
sizes between seasons were not significantly different (Refera
and Bekele 2004; Yosef et al., 2010).
Similar findings were obtained by this study with larger group
sizes of 7.82 were observed in wet season, while lower group
sizes average of 6.48 was in dry season. This happen
presumably because, during the dry season the Open
Grassland habitat, which was the most utilized habitat type by
the species (Yosef et al., 2012), naturally dries early in dry
season and becomes less palatable, and accordingly supports
fewer mountain nyala than it supports during the wet season.
Larger herd sizes of mountain nyala that congregate,
sometimes up to 96 individuals, were commonly observed
before population crash of the species in 1991 than reported by
studies that were made afterwards (Refera and Bekele, 2004;
Yosef et al. 2010). The average age composition (proportion)
of the species observed in this study consisted of: adults
(41%), sub-adults (26%), juveniles (25%) and calves (8%).
However, Yosef et al. (2010) reported highly reduced
proportions of juveniles and calves, and increased proportion
of adults, which showed 58% adults, 25% sub-adults,
9% juveniles and 5% of calves. From the 252 mountain nyala
Brown were identified from both expeditions, 37 (14.7%)
were males, 170 (67.8%) were females, and 44 (17.3%) were
calves (Brown, 1969). Age structure is important since young
and old individuals typically have lower survival rates than
prime-aged individuals (Caughley, 1966; Gaillard et al.,
1998, 2000), and for a given age, males frequently have lower
survival rates than females (Coulson et al., 1997; CluttonBrock et al., 1997). With regard to age composition, common
perception is that, large proportion of young indicates an
increasing in population (Abebayehuand Tilaye, 2012;
Dereje, 2011). However, Romano (1991) argues that this may
not be necessarily true. Lower proportion of adults compared
to young could indicate low survival of adults, for example, as
a result of selective hunting by people. Therefore, populations
with such age structure could be declining in actual fact rather
than increasing (Abebayehu and Tilaye, 2012). Accordingly,
the high proportion of adults in the present study could
indicate higher degree of survival of sub-adults.
Higher average productivity of calves (0.16) was observed in
this study, which was double of the estimates made by similar
studies on the species (Yosef et al., 2010). Yosef et al. (2010)
reported productivity estimates for calves to be 0.08 and 0.09
for Gaysay/Adellay and the park headquarters respectively.
For juveniles, this study observed about three times larger
productivity than similar studies made on the species. Yosef
et al. (2010) reported productivity of 0.19 and 0.17 for
Gaysay/Adellay and the park headquarters respectively.
However, the productivity reported by this study was closer to
historical records from Brown (1968), who estimated
productivity across the Bale Mountains between 0.25 - 0.33
calves/adult female. Brown (1968) also observed higher
productivity during the calving season although the exact
calving time period and duration of mountain nyala calving
season is still uncertain and is likely to vary spatially
(Evangelista, 2007, Yosef et al., 2010).Mean productivity of
calves and juveniles in wet season were 0.13 and 0.57
respectively; while dry season average of calves and juveniles
were 0.19 and 0.49 respectively.
Lower productivity of calves in wet season was presumably
because calves born in wet season would not probably big
enough to be observed in the wet season than dry season. The
higher productivities of calves and juveniles reported by this
study from the data collected before population crash of
mountain nyala in 1991 could be the main causes for higher
population numbers observed before its population crash.
Because, variation in proportion of females breeding
(Reimers, 1983, Gaillard et al., 1992), twinning rates
(Andersen and Linnell, 1997; Keech et al., 2000), and
calving dates (Festa-Bianchet, 1988) may have a considerable
impact on population growth rates. More than 95% of the
mountain nyala observed this study were with an altitudinal
range between 3100 to 3200 m asl, which shows that the
species had narrow altitudinal preference that make the species
vulnerable if habitats or vegetation in this range would
affected by human disturbances and livestock grazing.
Unsurprisingly due to anthropogenic pressures in the species
habitat areas, many individuals of the species were pushed out
of their preferred habitats. Divergent to the findings of this
study, Kingdon (1997) has noted wider altitudinal ranges
occupancy by the species from 3,000 up to 4,200m asl with
65
3092
strugglers occur as low as 1,800m. Within the occupied
altitudinal range, mountain nyala tend to dominate low and
moderate slope unlike other endemic antelope of Ethiopia,
which prefers steep slope enclave (Kefeyalew et al., 2011).
Observation of mountain nyala in higher proportions but in
decreasing order from Open Grassland, Artemesia Bush to
Hagenia Woodland habitats, could show that these habitat or
vegetation types were commonly used by the species, and
could be inferred as the most utilized by the mountain nyala
(Yosef et al., 2012). Similar results were noted by Kingdon
(1997), high latitude valley-bottom grassland, woodlands
(mostly Juniper and Hagenia), as heath and bush (dominated
by sage brush, Artemesia and Hypericum) are greater choice
for the species. Mountain nyala often tend to conceal and hide
themselves in the forests and bushes around them in early
hours of the day and their chance of being observed was low.
But after noon around 2:00pm their activities reached its peak.
Conclusions
Mountain nyala population was abundant before its crash in
1991, since the then the population never recovered and
gained the higher abundance before its crash. High proportion
of adults in the present study could indicate higher degree of
survival of sub-adults. Moreover relatively higher productivity
of calves observed in this study than similar recent studies on
the species could indicate that higher productivity of mountain
nyala before its population crash in 1991. In terms of sex
ratios, particularly the proportion of female adults, which
actually calves producing age group, were more abundant in
the past three decades before the population crash in 1991.
This could partly also contributed to the observed higher
population numbers of mountain nyala before 1991.Large
mammal conservation over large spatial extents is becoming
more and more difficult as habitat fragmentation continues
subsequent to human population growth. As the mountain
nyala population continues to become fragmented, all
populations within their geographic range need to be
monitored and evaluated. Understanding and managing subpopulations can improve conservation at broad-scales. Future
conservation and status evaluation efforts would greatly
benefit from delineating and evaluating sub-populations of
mountain nyala across its existing range. This study was the
first of its kind with detailed formal investigation on
demography and population dynamics of mountain nyala since
any studies on the species begin. Hence, the findings could
serve as yardsticks to make comparison against future research
findings on the species.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Dr. Chris Hillman, who kept the data in excel
spreadsheet so as letting me to use the raw data collected by
the financial support from BMNP monitoring project. I also
indebted to the then staff members of BMNP, who collected
the data. My thanks also goes to Dr. Yosef T/Giorgis for his
statistical advice.
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the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. International
Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation,4(15): 642-651.
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Professor Yosef Mamo SHORT BIOGRAPHY AND SELECTED

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