Volltext - Universität Trier

Australian Reflections in a Mirror Clouded by Dust:
The Search for Self, Soul and the ‘Other’
in the Asian Novels of
Blanche d’Alpuget and Christopher J. Koch
Dissertation zur Erlangung der Würde eines Doktors der Philologie
vorgelegt
dem
Fachbereich II: Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaft
der Universität Trier
von
David S. La Breche (M.A.)
Im Schammat 11
54294 Trier
Trier, im August 2000
Die Dissertation wurde selbständig und nur mit den angegebenen
Hilfsmitteln angefertigt und wurde bislang in dieser oder anderer
Form noch zu keinem anderen Prüfungszweck vorgelegt.
This book is dedicated to Colonel George Joseph La Breche (U.S.A.F., ret.), a soldier whose
life has been dedicated to a selfless sense of duty, honor and country which would have
pleased Arjuna’s charioteer, though he has almost certainly never read the Bagavad Gita. The
belief in education, which he instilled in all of his children, and the good advice to not even
begin this study without a firm commitment to bringing it to a successful end are due a large
portion of the credit for its completion.
Zusammenfassung
Vom ersten Tag der Existenz Australiens als Sträflingskolonie an bis zum Ende des
Vietnamkriegs bezogen sich weiße Australier auf den Westen, was Sichtweise, Einstellung und
Stereotypen ihrer Welt betraf, einschließlich der Wahrnehmung ihrer eigenen Rolle darin. Das
britische Weltreich unterteilte sich in angelsächsische Eroberer und die eroberten ‚Anderen‘,
und obwohl weiße Australier ihre europäischen Wurzeln nie in Frage stellten, verstanden sie
ihre Rolle als die eines ‚Vorpostens der Zivilisation‘ und betrachteten sich letztendlich gerne
als die ‚Anderen‘ unter den Eroberern. Der Buscharbeiter wurde zum Nationalhelden erhoben,
als ‚The Coming Man‘ bezeichnet und zur Rettung der altersschwachen Mutter England in
deren Kriege in ferne Länder geschickt. Die Australier erkannten bzw. waren sogar stolz
darauf, dass sie am äußersten Ende des Globus lebten, und nannten ihr Land ‚Oz‘ und sich
selbst ‚Ozzies‘, als ob Australien das magische Land der Hexen, Zauberer und seltsamen
kleinen Menschen wäre. Als sich das Empire aus Ozeanien zurückzog, verlor man damit auch
die europäische Perspektive, und eine Neudefinition der australischen Identität nach außen hin
wurde notwendig. Es konnte keinen Vorposten eines Weltreiches geben, das nicht mehr
existierte, und die weißen Australier mussten sich nunmehr fragen, ob sie in politischer,
wirtschaftlicher, kultureller oder sogar spiritueller Hinsicht der alten Ordnung der Eroberer
angehörten oder der neuen Ordnung der einst kolonisierten Nachbarländer.
Die Wiedererlangung einer Identität ist zu einem australischen Kreuzzug geworden.
Viele Schriftsteller richteten dabei ihre Aufmerksamkeit auf alte europäische Wurzeln. Andere
hingegen glaubten, diese Wurzeln entbehrten jeglicher Vitalität, und richteten deshalb ihren
Blick nach innen, auf die in mythologischer und metaphorischer Hinsicht reiche, wenn auch
extrem ‚andere‘ Landschaft der Ureinwohner Australiens. Andere wiederum stießen bei ihrer
Suche in den ozeanischen Bereich vor, in jene Region also, die in geographischer Hinsicht ihre
eigene war und ebenso Jahrtausende an Kulturgeschichte mit dem Westen teilte, die aber
immer noch eher eine alte Bedrohung als eine neue Möglichkeit darstellte. Zwei Schriftsteller,
die sich nach Asien vorwagten, um dort die Mittel zur kulturellen und spirituellen
-i-
Regeneration zu finden, von denen sie glaubten, dass sie notwendig seien, um Australien in der
postkolonialen Welt wieder zu entdecken, sind Blanche d’Alpuget und Christopher J. Koch.
Sie nahmen ostasiatische Konzepte des ‚Selbst‘ und der ‚Seele‘ und verschmolzen sie mit der
australischen Besessenheit mit der Angst vor und dem Wunsch nach Kontakt mit dem
‚Anderen‘. Durch den so entstehenden Spiegel (‚looking glass‘) eines hybriden australoasiatischen Mythos, hofften sie die wahre Seele der australischen Identität aufzudecken.
Es ist eben dies der Grund, weshalb sich die Hauptfiguren in den Asienromanen von
Blanche d’Alpuget und C. J. Koch westlichen Standardinterpretationen widersetzen. Die
Protagonisten sind gefangen in psychologischen Dilemmata, die sie erbarmungslos an einen
Punkt zu treiben scheinen, den das westliche späte 20. Jahrhundert als ‚Wahnsinn‘ bezeichnen
würde, der aber in Wirklichkeit mit seinen Konflikten die Grenzen ihrer eigenen Psyche
übersteigt. Ihre Leben sind gekennzeichnet von extremer Mehrdeutigkeit, die ihre Morde und
Selbstmorde, ihre Aufgabe persönlicher Werte zugunsten stammesgebundener oder
materialistischer Sicherheit, ihre Denkweisen und Handlungsentscheidungen hinter einem
Schleier der Paradoxie verbirgt, wobei dennoch für viele die Suche nach einer Identität von
Erfolg gekrönt zu sein scheint. Eine angemessene Interpretation der Romane ist deshalb nur
möglich, wenn man eine östliche Perspektive einzunehmen bereit ist und östliche Archetypen
zu Rate zieht. Der Leser, dem es nicht gelingt, sich in östliches Denken hinein zu versetzen,
wird die Protagonisten von Koch und d’Alpuget als frustrierte und desillusionierte Geschöpfe
postmodern-absurdistischen Fabulierens verstehen. Er wird Asien noch stärker verurteilen: als
Gebiet unwissenden und bösartigen Heidentums, als Gebiet der Korruption und Habgier als
Ergebnis ungezügelten Kapitalismus, als Gebiet der Tyrannei, die sich selbst mit Hilfe solcher
Greuel wie Armut, Hass und Rachsucht am Leben erhält. Letztendlich wird die Wahrnehmung
seiner selbst darunter leiden, denn Australien und Asien sind nicht nur geographisch und
wirtschaftlich, sondern auch symbolisch miteinander verbunden. Die Spiegelmetapher trifft
deshalb zu, das Bild, das Australien von Asien hat, spiegelt – im Sinne von bedingt und ist
bedingt durch – das Bild, das es von sich selbst hat.
- ii -
Die vorliegende Arbeit gliedert sich anhand einer thematischen Einteilung der Symbole,
Metaphern und Mythen, die Koch und d’Alpuget aus den östlichen und westlichen Traditionen
beziehen. Es entsteht ein Überblick über die intertextuellen Bezüge der beiden, die als Punkte
gegenseitiger Reflektion fungieren, vergleichbar mit parallelen Spiegeln oder dem Bau des
Weißen Hasen, der vom England der kleinen Alice ins Wunderland führt, das zugleich am
anderen Ende der Weltkugel liegt. Ziel der Arbeit, neben einer kurzen historischen und
literarischen Einführung in die Beziehungen zwischen Australien, Asien und dem Westen
sowie deren gegenseitige Wahrnehmung, soll es sein, einige der hinduistischen und
südostasiatischen Symbole, Mythen und literarischen Strukturen zu ermitteln, die Blanche
d‘Alpuget und C. J. Koch verwenden. Weiter soll gezeigt werden, wie sie diese wiederum in
die westliche Tradition integrieren, in die man sie zu Recht einordnen muss, die aber ihrem
Dafürhalten nach ihre mythologische Grundlage verloren hat.
Die Dualität der Identität eines ‚Selbst‘ und eines ‚Anderen‘, die sich auf der einen
Ebene in der Gestalt Australiens und Asiens manifestiert, auf der anderen Ebene in Dualitäten
der Persönlichkeit, der Gerechtigkeit und der Tugend, führt zur Metapher des Spiegels, die
Zutritt erlaubt zu dem, was Koch die ‚andere Welt‘ nennt, in der man zu Selbstoffenbarung
gelangen kann, jedoch mit dem Risiko, dabei der Selbsttäuschung zu verfallen. In d’Alpuget
führt sie zu einem Konflikt zwischen den Bewusstseinsebenen, der sich häufig in Form eines
emotionalen Dilemmas äußert, das darin besteht, sich zwischen einem unvoreingenommenen
Wahrnehmen der Realität und immer wiederkehrenden Vorurteilen entscheiden zu müssen.
Die Wahl, die man trifft, kann in gleicher Weise entweder zu einem tieferen Verständnis des
Selbst oder zu katastrophaler Entmenschlichung führen.
Zentrale Elemente dieser Themen der Suche nach Identität sind: Archetypen des
göttlichen Prinzips des Weiblichen aus dem Hinduismus, das als lebende mythologische
Gestalt ein subtiles metaphorisches System an die Hand gibt, das dazu beiträgt, die harten
Paradoxien der menschlichen Realität in poetischer Vorstellungskraft aufzulösen; die östlichen
Wurzeln von Kochs Themen um den ‚doppelten Mann‘; die lebenspendende und todbringende
- iii -
Landschaft und die offensichtlich lebenserhaltende ‚andere Welt‘, wo das ‚Selbst‘ und das
‚Andere‘ die Rollen tauschen, eins werden und manchmal gegeneinander kämpfen; Konzepte
der Mächte des ‚Lichtes‘ und des ‚Dunkels‘; die Semiotik von Zeit und Bedeutung; und die
Verurteilung durch die Deorientalisten, die glauben, dass die Art und Weise wie d’Alpuget und
Koch all das Genannte verwenden, ein orientalistisches Zwängen in Klischees ist.
Untersucht werden intertextuelle Beziehungen zwischen den Romanen sowie ihre
östlichen und westlichen Modelle, zu denen Lewis Carrolls Alice in Wonderland und Through
the Looking-Glass gehören, außerdem Orwells 1984, Washington Irvings Rip Van Winkle und
bedeudende heilige Schriften wie die Evangelien, das Mahabharata und das Bhagavad Gita.
Besondere Aufmerksamkeit erhält das javanesische Schattentheater, das wayang kulit,
aufgrund seiner strukturellen Modellhaftigkeit für Kochs Charakterisierungen, seine Motive
der Macht, des Gesichts, der Loyalität und der Rache, sowie seine doppelte Sicht der Realität,
in welcher die illusorische materielle Welt und das auf magische Weise transzendente Reich
sich gegenseitig bedingen. D’Alpuget verdankt viel der Hindu-Tradition von Biographien über
deren Heiligen, dem Heldenepos Ramayana und seinem Thema der Verrohung der Götter und
Menschen, was im Zusammenhang betrachtet wird mit der geschickten Verwertung der
Autorin der alten orientalistischen Klischees.
Die literarische Besonderheit an Kochs und d’Alpugets Romanen ist, dass sie die
intertextuellen Beziehungen so manipulieren, dass sie ihr Ziel der Betrachtung des australoasiatischen Spiegels zur Seele weiter verfolgen können.
Sie zeigen wie östliches und
westliches sowohl kulturelles als auch mythologisches Erbe in einer neuen mythopoetischen
Formel zusammengefasst werden kann, die Hindernisse auf dem Weg, Harmonie zu
erlangen, überwindet, verschaffen uns Zugang zu der auf erschreckende Weise erleuchtenden
‚anderen Welt‘ der Seele und geben der modernen westlichen Welt ein Gefühl geistiger
Klarheit zurück.
- iv -
Contents
Chapter 1.
Introduction
1.1.
The Initial Dilemma
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
1.2.
The Title
.
.
.
.
.
.
2
1.3.
Why an Asian Connection?
.
.
.
.
.
5
1.4.
The Problem of Describing the Western/Eastern Liaison
.
6
1.5.
The Problem of Intertextuality .
.
.
.
.
7
1.6.
The Approach, and its Goal
.
.
.
.
.
9
1.7.
A Chapter Preview
.
.
.
.
.
.
10
1.8.
A Textual Note .
.
.
.
.
.
.
17
.
.
.
.
.
19
Chapter 2.
.
The Historical Environment
2.1.
Introduction
2.2.
From the Edge of the Known World, to Hell on Earth, to Paradise
19
2.3.
The Difficult Birth of an ‘Australian Spirit’
.
.
.
28
2.4.
The Beginnings of Trade Relations with Asia
.
.
.
29
2.5.
New Commonwealth Seeks Identity: Asians Need Not Apply
.
30
2.6.
The White Australia Policy
.
.
.
.
.
31
2.7.
The Coming Man
.
.
.
.
.
33
2.8.
New Attitudes on the ‘Near North’
.
.
.
.
34
2.9.
The Australian Way of Life
.
.
.
.
37
2.10.
The Cold War, Vietnam, and Deconstruction of the Old Order .
39
2.11.
The Backlash .
.
.
.
.
.
.
43
2.12.
Conclusion
.
.
.
.
.
.
45
.
.
.
Chapter 3.
.
.
.
.
.
The Literary Tradition
3.1.
Introduction
.
.
.
.
47
3.2.
The Outward Search for That which Lies Within
.
.
48
3.3.
The Sense of Loss and ‘Otherness’
.
.
.
.
49
3.4.
The Orientalist Stereotype
.
.
.
.
.
51
3.5.
The ‘Asian Invasion’ Genre
.
.
.
.
.
55
3.6.
The Literary Impact on Perceptions of the East .
.
.
57
3.7.
A Love/Hate Affair
.
.
.
.
60
3.8.
The Australian Vision into the Future .
.
.
.
61
3.9.
Conclusion
.
.
.
63
.
.
.
.
.
.
-v-
Chapter 4.
The Cliché as Writer’s Tool
4.1.
Introduction
4.2.
.
.
.
.
.
.
64
The Queen of Cliché
.
.
.
.
.
.
67
4.3.
The Real Asia .
.
.
.
.
.
.
69
4.4.
Ex-patriots Sacrificing Themselves in a Gentleman’s Hell
.
72
4.5.
Poor Super Women
.
.
.
.
.
76
4.6.
The Oriental Female Stereotype.
.
.
.
.
78
4.7.
Asian Philosophy and Australian Indigenization .
.
.
82
4.8.
d’Alpuget’s Neo-Orientalist Looking-Glass
.
.
.
84
4.9.
Conclusion
Chapter 5.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
87
.
.
.
.
.
88
.
.
Asia as the Looking-Glass World
5.1.
Introduction
.
.
5.2
The ‘National Imaginary’
.
.
.
88
5.3.
The Threatening ‘Other’—the 1984 Paradigm .
.
.
90
5.4.
An Australian Alice in Wonderland
.
.
94
5.5.
Into the Rabbit Hole—Through the Earth to the ‘Antipathies’
.
98
5.6.
Wally O’Sullivan, et al., Inhabitants of Wonderland
.
.
105
5.7.
Koch’s Two Enigmatic Alices .
.
.
.
.
108
5.7.1. Billy Kwan
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
108
5.7.2. Guy Hamilton .
.
.
.
.
.
114
5.8.
Alice on the Highway to War
.
.
.
.
.
115
5.9.
Conclusion
.
.
.
.
.
118
.
Chapter 6.
.
.
The Circular Path of Non-knowing, Doubt, and Faith
6.1.
Introduction
.
119
6.2.
First Steps to Self-discovery in C. J. Koch’s Across the Sea Wall
120
6.3.
d’Alpuget’s Hindu ‘Mirror, Mirror on the Wall’.
.
.
122
6.4.
Conclusion
Chapter 7.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
130
.
.
.
.
132
.
.
.
.
133
The Two Realms of the Wayang Kulit
7.1.
Introduction
.
.
.
7.2.
The Wayang Kulit Structural Model
7.3.
Billy Kwan and the Heroic Protagonists of the Wayang Kulit
.
137
7.4.
Personality Types of the Wayang Kulit .
.
138
.
.
7.4.1. Physical Manifestations of the Qualities Alus and Kasar
138
7.4.2. The Moral Consequences of Alus and Kasar Tendencies.
140
7.5.
The Wayang Kulit’s Dual Points of View
.
.
.
143
7.6.
The Bar on the Edge of Reality .
.
.
.
146
- vi -
.
7.7.
Chapter 8.
Conclusion
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
148
.
.
150
.
151
The Divinisation of History and the Duality of Justice
8.1.
Introduction
.
.
.
.
.
8.2.
Critical Perspectives on Koch’s use of the Bhagavad Gita
8.2.1. Intertextual Distortions, Third World Anti-heroes,
and Sacrificial Scapegoats
.
.
.
.
152
.
.
.
.
156
8.2.3. A Mischievous Synthesis of Eastern and Western Myth .
158
Eastern Philosophical Keys to the Australian Puzzle
.
161
8.3.1. The Bhagavad Gita and the Spirit of Re-enchantment
.
161
8.3.2. Time and Destiny
8.2.2. The ‘Oedipus’ Interpretation
8.3.
8.4.
.
.
.
.
.
.
165
8.3.3. The Four World Ages .
.
.
.
.
167
Billy Kwan, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Fractured Soul .
.
169
8.4.1. Billy Kwan’s Sacred Battle for the Soul .
.
.
170
8.4.2. Billy’s Spiritual Victory
.
.
173
.
.
8.4.3. The Dilemma of Righteous Action in the Mahabharata
and The Gospels
8.5.
Chapter 9.
Conclusion
.
.
.
.
.
.
177
.
.
.
.
.
.
182
.
.
.
.
.
.
184
.
.
184
.
.
189
The Divine Feminine
9.1.
Introduction
.
9.2.
C. J. Koch’s Fascination with the Divine Feminine
9.3.
Parvati and Durga: Good Wife, Nourishing Mother,
Formidable Protectress .
.
.
.
9.4.
Kali: the Great Dancer of Creation and Destruction
.
.
191
9.5.
Ilsa Kalnins’ Micro-Cosmic Dance
.
.
.
.
193
9.6.
Ly Keang, Koch’s Female Warrior
.
.
.
.
195
9.7.
Dream, Sleep, and the Creative Act
.
.
.
.
196
9.8.
Vera: Billy Kwan’s White Sister of Bliss and Disorder .
.
198
9.9.
Sri Lakshmi
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
202
9.10.
The Apsarasas .
.
.
.
.
.
.
205
9.10.1. Guardian Angels Caught in the Storm .
.
.
206
9.10.2. Ly Keang—Langford’s ‘Other Half’.
.
.
.
208
9.11.
The Goddess as Time and Change
.
.
.
.
214
9.12.
Conclusion
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
216
.
.
.
.
.
.
217
Chapter 10. The Masks of Personality
10.1.
Introduction
.
- vii -
10.2.
Eastern and Western Concepts of ‘Personality’ .
.
.
218
10.3.
d’Alpuget’s Bestiary
.
.
.
.
.
.
223
.
.
.
.
.
223
10.3.2. ‘Brutalised’ Characters .
.
.
.
.
225
10.3.3. Sutrisno—Java’s ‘Coming Man’
.
.
.
231
10.3.4. d’Alpuget’s ‘Conflict between Differing Consciences’ .
234
Koch’s Masks .
10.3.1. The Three Gunas
10.4.
.
.
.
.
.
.
238
10.4.1 Koch’s ‘Dehumanising Search for Paradise’
.
.
238
10.4.2. The Masks of Evil
.
.
.
.
.
244
.
.
.
.
.
245
and the War on the Edge of Reality .
.
248
10.4.2.1. The Crow
10.4.2.2. The ‘People Over There’,
10.4.2.3. The Ogres
.
.
.
.
.
249
10.4.2.4. Vietnamese Forces of dharma.
.
.
251
10.4.2.5. Les Autres—Dehumanised Soldiers of the Dark Age 253
10.5.
Chapter 11
Conclusion
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
255
.
.
.
The Masks of Doubles
11.1.
Introduction
.
.
.
.
257
11.2.
d’Alpuget’s Australo-Asian Sacred Biography .
.
.
258
11.2.1. The Spiritual Journey of Alex Wheatfield
and Her ‘Dark Brother’ .
.
.
.
.
259
.
.
.
.
265
C. J. Koch’s Eclectic Heroic Construction
.
.
.
267
11.3.1. Guy Hamilton .
.
.
.
.
.
268
11.3.2. Billy Kwan
.
.
.
.
.
270
11.3.2.1. The Masks of Kwan .
.
.
.
270
11.3.2.2. The Dwarf
.
.
.
272
11.3.2.2.1. The Disfigured, Noble ‘Other’
.
273
11.3.2.2.2. The Deified ‘Other’ .
.
275
.
276
.
.
278
Billy Kwan and Guy Hamilton—Koch’s Heroic Double .
.
281
11.4.1. The Deceiving Search for Identity
.
281
11.4.2. The ‘Noosphere’, and the Metaphor of the Chariot
.
283
11.4.3. Koch’s ‘Double Man’ as Consummate Hero
.
285
11.2.2. The Kiss of Betrayal
11.3.
.
.
.
.
.
11.3.2.2.3. Billy Kwan’s Mythopoeic,
Intertextually Constructed Self
11.3.2.3. The Caste War
11.4.
- viii -
.
.
.
.
.
11.5.
11.4.4. Getting to the Soul of the Matter
.
.
.
287
Conclusion
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
291
.
.
.
.
.
293
.
.
.
295
Chapter 12. Encountering the ‘Otherworld’
12.1.
Introduction
.
.
12.2.
Confronting the ‘Self’ in the ‘Otherworld’
12.3.
The Journey into the Demonic, Sacred ‘Otherworld’
.
.
300
12.3.1. The ‘Otherworld’ of the Self
.
.
300
.
303
.
.
12.3.2. The Looking-Glass Barrier Between Two Worlds
12.4. The Two Sides of the Real
.
.
.
.
.
305
.
.
.
306
12.4.2. The View from ‘The Other Side of the River’
.
.
307
12.4.3. The Double World
.
.
.
.
.
310
12.5.
Colour symbolism
.
.
.
.
.
313
12.6.
Descent into the Underworld
.
.
.
.
.
317
12.7.
The Land of Faery
.
.
.
.
.
.
319
12.8.
When Worlds Collide .
.
.
.
.
.
320
12.9.
The Land of Dis
.
.
.
.
.
322
12.10. Closing the Circle of Time and Place
.
.
.
.
326
12.11. Conclusion
.
.
.
.
.
329
.
.
.
.
.
330
12.4.1. Maya, the Illusion which is Reality
.
.
.
.
Chapter 13. Crossing to the Other Bank
13.1.
Introduction
.
13.2.
Time, Place, and the De-Orientalist Critique
.
.
.
331
13.3.
Conflicting Interpretations of ‘History’ .
.
.
.
336
13.4.
The Betjaks
.
.
.
341
13.5.
The Wheel of Time Whirls out of Control
.
.
.
344
13.6.
Mike Langford—A Man Outside of Time;
.
.
.
.
.
or A Ghost Caught in Time?
.
.
.
.
.
347
13.7.
The Bodhisattva
.
.
.
.
.
352
13.8.
The ‘Buffalo Boy’: Koch’s Agnus Dei .
.
.
.
361
13.9.
Conclusion
.
.
.
.
.
.
369
Chapter 13. Concluding Remarks
.
.
.
.
.
.
371
List of Works Cited
.
.
.
.
.
.
373
.
.
.
.
- ix -
List of Abbreviations
ABS
Australian Broadcasting Service
ARVN
Army of the Republic of South Vietnam
ASW
Across the Sea Wall
BG
The Bhagavad Gita
FRM
The Fortunes of Richard Mahony
HW
Highways to a War
MD
Monkeys in the Dark
NVA
North Vietnamese Army
PKI
Partai Kommunis Indonesia
TB
Turtle Beach
YLD
The Year of Living Dangerously
-x-
Glossary of Eastern Terms and Names Cited
adharma
The absense or antitheses of dharma (1), adharma represents the chaos which
would overthrow the righteous order of the universe, and yet is itself an essential part of
that cosmic order.
akasa
‘The Void’. A dualistic concept in Sanskrit. It is ‘an all-comprehending
container, enclosing not only the universe (loka), but also the non-universe (aloka)’
(Zimmer, 1969, 270). It is also the ‘brilliant spiritual space’ which ‘abides within’ the
individual self, and contributes to the shared identity between the individual and the
‘pure Self’ (Zimmer, 1969, 430).
alus
In the complex continuum of personality types of the shadow puppets of the
Javanese Wayang Kulit, the positive characteristic of being ‘refined’. See kasar.
angka
The form of adharma imposed by the Khmer Rouge, who strove to eliminate
all manifestations of dharma in Cambodia.
bhakti
A sort of ‘personal saviour’ in the Mahayana Buddhist tradition, who,
augmented by prayer-wheels, incense, gongs, rosaries, mantras, and a whole pantheon of
Buddhas, helps believers gain the ‘release’ of nirvana.
Bodhisattva
‘The One Striving for Englightenment’. Originally referring to Gautama
Siddhartha before he attained Enlightenment, this term was extended under the
Mahayana tradition to anyone striving for buddhahood and also to those who, through
sublime indifference and compassion, choose to help others reach nirvana. See:
Tirthankaras.
Brahman
The changeless divine being of the Vedas, who evolved the perishable universe
and its creatures out of his own boundless transcendent essence.
dalang
The ‘puppet master’ of the wayang kulit shadow theatre.
dharma (1)
The righteous order of the universe, which must be supported by all created
beings—gods, men, demons, animals, plants, and minerals—, who perform the duties
and obligations required of them. Zaehner cites two aspects: ‘the sanatana dharma or
absolute moral order which can never be precisely defined yet is felt to have absolute
validity, and the dharma of caste and canon law as laid down in the various law-books’
(Zaehner, 8).
- xi -
dharma (2)
In the Jainist ontology, the cosmic component which is ‘the medium through
which movement is possible. Dharma is compared to water, through and by which fish
are able to move’ (Zimmer, 1969, 271). Without this there could be no change—neither
beginning nor end nor rebeginning—in the universe.
guna
The three gunas are natural qualities which distinguish created beings, and
which are responsible for the ‘impairments’, which restrict or impair the manifestation
of the true essence of an individual. Man’s nature and role in dharma is partly
determined by his having a certain balance of these. See: sattva, rajas, tamas.
Hinayana
‘Lesser Vehicle’. The conservative stream of Buddhism requiring the rigorous
spiritual efforts suitable only to a monk. See: Mahayana.
kali-yuga
In the cycle of the Four World Ages, this is the fourth, final and present one,
characterised by the ascendancy of adharma over dharma. It necessarily preceeds the
renewal of the world in another krita-yuga, the initial age of creation which is
characterised by perfect dharma.
karma
A universal phenomenon in which an individual’s past, including past lives, in
conjunction with ‘the cosmic dharma’ or ‘fate’—other terms for God’s will—,
determines whether he goes to a heaven or hell in the period between death and
reincarnation, and in what form he will return, or whether he is ready to escape the
death-rebirth cycle entirely. See: dharma (1).
kasar
In the complex continuum of personality types of the shadow puppets of the
Javanese Wayang Kulit, the negative characteristic of being ‘course’. See alus.
konfrontasi
‘Confrontation.’ Indonesia’s society created by President Sukarno in which
order is based on chaos.
Krishna
The Supreme God in the sacred Hindu poem, the Bhagavad Gita, who reveals
himself to the epic hero, Arjuna. See: Supreme Utterance.
Mahayana
‘Great Vehicle’. Of the two great streams of Buddhism, the one by which all
beings might attain the state of Enlightment. See: Hinayana.
rajas
The guna which incites passion, rage, and desire. It governs plants and
animals in particular, and drives them greedily to devour each other.
- xii -
sakti
The energy, force or power of life, which is the manifestation of the eternal,
universal spirit. See: tapas.
sattva
Brightness, crystal purity, immaculate clarity, utter quiet. That one of the three
gunas which is associated especially with the gods.
satyagraha
‘Insistence on Truth’. Often associated with a very high sense of self-sacrifice.
Shiva
One of the triumvirate of supreme gods, with Brahman and Vishnu. Shiva is
called variously ‘the cosmic dancer’, ‘the divine lord of destruction’, ‘model of ascetic
fervor’, and is the archetype of the ‘frantic lover and faithful spouse’. The sakti he
builds up through ascetic meditation is necessary for the continued change in the
universe.
suttee
The act or practice of self-imolation of a wife on her husband’s funeral pyre.
An English term based on the name of the ancient Indian goddess, Sati, who is
associated with Parvati as the archetypal good wife. The first wife of Shiva, Sati proved
her loyalty to her husband, who was disrespected by the other gods (including her father)
despite his essential role in preserving dharma, by killing herself.
tamas
The guna which, dominating the minerals, is darkness, blindness, and the basis
of all lack of feeling and ignorance, though at the same time it gives solidity to and
frames the universe.
tapas
The discipline involving the building up of sakti, by which the ascetic
cultivates in himself ‘a state of psychophysical heat’, which bestows on him ‘a certain
sovereignty over the forces of the macrocosm by virtue of the conquest of the parallel
forces in the microcosm’ (Zimmer, 1969, 536).
Tirthankaras
‘Crossing-Maker’ or ‘Ford-Maker’ from Jainist tradition, a saviour or supreme
teacher, who acts to help others escape the cycle of time and cross to the ‘other shore’.
See: Bodhisattva.
Triple World
The physical realms which are inhabited by the gods, by the demons, and by
the plants, animals and men, corresponding roughly to heaven, hell and earth.
Vishnu
The Supreme God of Creation, who was reincarnated as the avatar Krishna in
the Bhagavad Gita.
- xiii -
Introduction
1.1. The Initial Dilemma
Upon beginning this study of the Asian novels of Blanche d’Alpuget and Christopher J.
Koch I was struck with the feeling that, while the exotic settings did not seem to lead to
significantly innovative plots, the principle characters stubbornly resisted the sort of
interpretation which my literary background had prepared me for. The protagonists seemed all
to be caught in a psychological maelstrom which was driving them relentlessly into insanity or,
at best, towards a socio-cultural siege mentality, a reading which the critical corpus I was
encountering strongly supported.
At the same time, the primary texts were providing
numerous indications that this was not the situation at all, that the protagonists were in fact
involved in uncanny struggles which surpassed by far the boundaries of their own psyches, and
that, in spite of the extreme ambiguities surrounding the events of their lives and, in some
cases, deaths, they seemed, on some level I could not pin down, to be succeeding in the search
for identity. Koch’s plots and characters were so possessed with images of an ‘Otherworld’ of
fantasy or unreality that the distinction between ‘real’ and ‘unreal’ was blurred. In the same
way d’Alpuget’s characters had taken more than just a jet ride to another continent when they
entered into Southeast Asia. They too were transformed in the most fundamental ways; their
motives and values strained against explanation in Western psychological or ethical terms.
The confrontations faced by d’Alpuget’s protagonists recalled the 19th century psychological
genre about the beast in man, except that in her Southeast Asia the Mr Hydes far outnumber
the Dr. Jekylls. And both writers described characters who suffered from extreme physical
handicaps, yet possessed cores of daunting nobility which terrified or bewildered the outwardly
stronger men around them.
For these reasons, I realised that I needed to make a study of the Eastern philosophical
systems which were at play and of which I had only a superficial knowledge, mostly based on
other Western works of literature. Heinrich Zimmer’s Philosophies of India, a historical
survey of the spiritual thought from the subcontinent which I picked up almost by accident,
-1-
repeatedly struck me as almost perfectly explaining many of the difficult allusions in Koch’s
novels. I later learned that Zimmer is held , in the words of Prof. Dr. Michael Hahn, Professor
of Indology at the Philipps-Universität in Marburg, Germany, to play the role of ‘an inspired
outsider’ in the field of Indian Studies, but this did not mitigate the relevance I had in the
meantime found in the essay ‘Crossing the Gap’, in which Koch acknowledges his debt to
Zimmer’s work when he made his own investigations into Hinduism beginning in the 1950s.
Indeed, an ‘outsider’ seems just the authority required for a study concentrating on the
Australian ‘Other’.
It has not always been so easy to find the sources to Koch’s and
d’Alpuget’s knowledge of Asian philosophies, and in the cases when it has been possible it has
not always proved useful, but the path towards their Eastern archetypes was opened.
1.2. The Title
Any student of post-colonial literature will recognise the terms ‘self’ and ‘Other’ as key
concepts in the theoretical discussion about the (re)formation of national identities in the wake
of the collapse of the European—and especially the British—imperial regimes. There is a
certain ambiguity in the terms which is faced by any society when it goes quietly one day from
being colonial to post-colonial. It is a problem which a nice little revolution resolves quite
well, but when the colonial master grants post-colonial status mustn’t there remain some
indebtedness which precludes the growth of a separate identity? The intention of this study,
however, is not to explain and discuss current post-colonial theory but to focus on the specific
and rather unique relevance of these terms within the context of the Australian-Asian
relationship. The white settler society, once a dominated role-player of the empire, has in the
post-colonial period become the dominant social group in contemporary Australia. Yet, the
post-colonialist label it shares with its Asia-Pacific neighbours has not led to a dismantling of
the reciprocal racial predjudices or allowed development of a sense of Australian identity tied
to the region in which it has its most important economic and political interests. Indeed, when
white Australians venture into the Asia-Pacific, they resemble the old European colonials just
as much as—or more than—they ever did—to themselves as well as to the Asians.
-2-
Put into an Asian context, the ambiguities of ‘self’ and ‘Other’ would inevitably seem to
multiply, but the Asian vocabulary also provides the resolving image from classical Indian
literature of the ‘mirror clouded by dust’. These are all central to the perceptions of identity
presented in the novels of Blanche d’Alpuget and Christopher J. Koch, and so deserve some
preliminary clarification.
The ‘self’ refers to the identity of the individual: first, on the level of the entirety of his
psychological makeup, and second, on that of his innermost being, that is without the
accumulation of masks—the images made by and of him about who and what he is—which
conceal the true reality of his being. This reality without the psychological baggage of the
‘self’ might be identified as his ‘Self’ or, alternatively, the ‘soul’. The ‘soul’ can, in order to
simplify complex matters for immediate purposes, be separated into two concepts which,
however, are really one. There is the individual ‘soul’, which somehow belongs to and
distinguishes the individual from all other individualities, and there is the ‘Soul’, which is the
monistic entity to which all reality belongs and in which there is no distinction between
individuals. The ‘Other’ is the antithesis of ‘self’. It usually refers to an alien, stranger, or
fiend; in the Australian context the ‘Other’ is typically Aborigine or Asian. Yet, just as one
who enters the domain of another culture temporarily becomes the ‘Other’, to one who finds
himself lacking a clear identity, whose ‘self’ is so full of contradictions and paradoxes that he
cannot recognise himself, the ‘Other’ becomes something within himself. And as one searches
deeply into his being for signs of his true reality, it is his unknown ‘soul’ which is the ‘Other’.
The ‘mirror’ is one of the favourite metaphors used by Australians engaged in this
search for identity. Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland books are the immediate pretext for
C. J. Koch’s symbolic reflections of the self, though the looking-glass metaphor must be as
ancient as still water. Australians long relied on the English for points of view, attitudes and
stereotypes, including the perception of the ‘Other’ which was the perfect term for the yellow
and black hordes of savages which seemed to threaten white Australia from both inside and
out. At the same time, Australians understood their own role as ‘others’ in the empire, and
-3-
living in a land which lay somewhere ‘through the looking-glass’ (Alice thought she might
eventually arrive in Australia as she was falling endlessly through the rabbit hole) must also
have had its psychological attractions. They identified with being the ‘outpost of civilisation’,
made the hard-nosed bush worker their heroic national type, entitled him ‘The Coming Man’,
and sent him to rescue the frail and ageing mother empire in her faraway wars. They revelled
in living at the extreme end of the planet, and called their country ‘Oz’ and themselves
‘Ozzies’ as if Australia were the magical land of witches, wizards and yellow-brick roads. Yet,
with the end of empire, the point of view was deconstructed, and the Australian identity
suffered its loss. There could not be an outpost of an empire which did not exist, and white
Australians were left wondering if they belonged to the old order of white-skinned European
colonial rulers or to the new order of dark-skinned non-European indigenous peoples.
Rediscovering an identity became an Australian quest. Many writers tried to climb back
out of the rabbit hole and return to Europe; others opted for deeper journeys through the
looking-glass into Asia. The Australian ‘Others’ were going to meet the Asian ‘Others’, with
the hope that daring to examine each other more carefully might lead to a clearer perception of
the ‘Others’ suppressed within themselves.
This is a veritable house of mirrors; it is difficult to tell what is real from what is only a
reflection, but this is the first fact one must accept before he can begin to understand the truths
behind realities and reflections. Only then can he begin to see past the illusory reflections
which obscure his own true reality—past the dust obscuring the pristine mirror.
This
metaphor, cited by Billy Kwan in Koch’s Year of Living Dangerously (YLD, 81), comes from
the sacred Hindu poem, the Bhagavad Gita. The epic hero, Arjuna, asks the Supreme God
Krishna what drives a man to sin and therefore be blinded to the wisdom of God’s justice and
salvation. Krishna answers:
It is greedy desire and wrath, born of passion, the great evil, the sum of
destruction: this is the enemy of the soul.
All is clouded by desire: as fire by smoke, as a mirror by dust, as an unborn
babe by its covering (BG 3:36-38; translated by Mascaró).
-4-
The mirror is the symbol of the true reality of man’s soul; the dust is the illusion which
obscures its image. Man’s soul is identical to the imperishable spirit which is the only true
reality. As Krishna says, ‘The unreal never is: the Real never is not’ (BG 2:16). This, finally,
is the riddle of identity faced by the protagonists in the Asian novels of Blanche d’Alpuget and
C. J. Koch.
The crux of stepping through a looking-glass is that the world on the other side is one’s
own in reverse. It may be inhabited by Mad Hatters and fail to abide to the laws of reason and
gravity, and it may be a world deemed ‘unreal’ by those who abide in the world they deem
‘real’, but it is still both a reflection of the world on this side of the glass and a projection of the
world on the other side. Each world represents the complement of its inverted image, making
the looking-glass an apt symbol for the Western/Asian dilemma of identity facing Australians.
1.3. Why an Asian Connection?
The question remains: why should white Australians resort to Asia as its looking-glass
when they have their own landscape as a source of all the spiritually and mythically
regenerative materials they would need to rediscover themselves in the post-colonial world?
John Milne suggests that, while they desire to look inwards for landmarks of identity, it may be
too hard for white Australians to come to terms with the Aborigines who are inseparably bound
to that landscape. By looking outwards to Asia, however, they manage to follow a way round
this impediment, and still see a reflection of themselves which, once brought into focus, can
later be related to the ultimate goal of addressing their relationship with the Aborigines and the
Australian landscape.
We, white Australians, consider individual traits like assertiveness, pride,
aggressiveness, frankness and familiarity as assets. In South-East Asia, as in
Aboriginal Australia, virtues of politeness, humility, modesty and passiveness
are more greatly admired in a person. (Milne, 286)
The similarities of Asians and Aborigines, in body language, sense of family, concepts of
social harmony, sharing and caring for the well-being of the group, contrasts with the Western
verbal language, sense of loyalty to mates, competitiveness, work efficiency, and emphasis on
the individual of white Australians, and highlights, in Milne’s view, that white Australians
-5-
themselves are the ‘dreaded’ others in the Asia-Pacific. If white Australians are to overcome
their stereotypes and see Asians for what they really are, and also see the Aborigines for what
they are, they must first of all see themselves properly (Milne, 286).
Milne’s view is itself a looking-glass image of the one made by Alison Broinowski, that
‘the way Australians see Asia determines the way we see ourselves’. As Milne puts it: ‘The
way Australians see themselves (in their own country) determines the way we see Asia’
(Milne, 287). Koch and d’Alpuget are working at the problem from both sides of the mirror by
removing the physical separation between the two and then hammering away at the
monumental stereotypes Australians have inherited about themselves and Asians. Given that
the Australian/Asian relationship so much resembles a house of mirrors, it does not seem
unreasonable that the two points of view share planes of intersection and that it is upon these
surfaces that Australians (and Asians) will come to know themselves more fully.
1.4. The Problem of Describing the Western/Eastern Liaison
D. M. Roskies writes of some of the main impediments to such a literary study as this
about Australia’s relationship with Southeast Asia. The first is that ‘in popular consciousness
“Indonesia,” like “Japan” or “India,” can seldom be seen except through the tinted or distorting
filter of ultramondane assumptions about “The East,” assumptions which are so ingrained in
one’s awareness of the human world as to be impossible fully to refine’. The second has to do
with ‘the grammar of “orientalism,” consisting of unintentionally supercilious associations
yoked to suppositions endorsed by the culture as a whole and supervening to reinforce attitudes
of judgement from on high’ (Roskies, 35).
Most writings about the Asia-Pacific, Roskies argues, have remained within the realm of
the ‘empirical-romance’ which is built upon such preconceptions, but Koch’s Year of Living
Dangerously, which ‘adventurously puts to rout some of the obstacles which are apt to
supervene between a creative intelligence and materials which customarily remain opaque to
western understanding’, shows that there can be exceptions (Roskies, 36).
Rather than
exploiting Southeast Asia ‘for its exotic contents or treated as a location wherein various
-6-
humdrum seedinesses can be tricked out with a sensational frisson’ or doting ‘voyeuristically
and with schadenfreude upon the ramshackle brutalities of a Third World polity coming slowly
apart at the seams’, Koch has a ‘perspicacious determination to arrogate as a vocabulary of
significance the complex of values associated with the world of wayang kulit’ (Roskies, 39).
Roskies gives Koch due credit for ‘an outstanding attempt on the part of a modern European
imagination to receive into itself an Indonesian cosmology, more specifically a Javanese nexus
of form and value’ (Roskies, 48).
Roskies, however, does not extend his analysis beyond the wayang kulit, and this is for
the obvious reason that even to begin would be impossible in a journal article. Unfortunately,
the wayang alone cannot solve the problems of analysis of Koch and d’Alpuget’s characters
noted above. For that, one must proceed to the pretexts of the wayang kulit itself, specifically
in Hindu epic poetry. Even in this much longer study a complete intertextual analysis would
be impossible as the Eastern pretexts alone are numerous and often massive works—the
Mahabharata is, with over 100,000 couplets, the longest poem in the world, some 30 times the
length of Paradise Lost (Mascaró, xxi). It would also be an especially precarious undertaking
since both Eastern and Western pretexts to the novels are often sacred scriptures, making
interpretation a doubly personal experience. Yet, the novels of d’Alpuget and Koch are
striving precisely to become such personal, provocative experiences for their readers.
1.5. The Problem of Intertextuality
This brings up the sticky question of intertextual interpretation. First, it is self-evident
that for a ‘true-believer’ the heuristic interpretation of sacred texts outweighs their original
meanings. Second, the same can be said about non-sacred texts and/or non-true-believers, but
few works of contemporary fiction evoke much discovery on the part of the readers. Third, the
intertextualist argument that the writer is dead—that is, that his hermeneutic role has been
vacated, and that he is no more than a semiotic middleman—might seem valid after a first
reading of the five novels in this study, but such writers as Blanche d’Alpuget and C. J. Koch
are actively manipulating the intertextual process itself. They are reaching back to spurned
-7-
Western cultural myths and revitalising them with parallel but living myths from the East, in
order to re-enchant the West with a vital mythological culture in texts which, as symbolic if not
sacred, the contemporary reader can receive with a degree of heuristic interpretation.
Koch is clearly trying to reach back to the initial, literal ‘meaning’ of his pretexts in spite
of the huge cultural and historical gap which has opened, and not just since the classical Indian
era but even since the glory days of the British Empire, because in the West they no longer
have ‘significance’. Koch becomes the poet of a new mythology, and then encourages the
reader to discover the significance by constructing multiple hierarchies of hermeneutic and
heuristic interpretations of ‘meaning’ and ‘significance’. Cookie, for example, recites the
prayer of the dalang puppet master of the wayang kulit shadow theatre, asking heaven and
earth for the inspiration to recount not only a mundane story of Australian expatriates but the
sacred tale of the spiritual battle for the soul; Billy Kwan, from his towering perch up on the
tall bar stool or the desktop, lectures on the philosophies of East and West, and invokes the
Javanese spirits, first to teach Guy Hamilton but later to discover for himself the truths of self
and soul; and in the manner of the dalang, the wayang puppet master who interprets the canon
of heroic and magical plays of the sacred Javanese shadow theatre, President Sukarno subtly
refashions the scripts of sacred wayang plays performed at his mythical palace in the cool
mountains to reveal the shifts in turbulent Indonesian political power to his nervous ministers.
Kwan’s journey of self-discovery, likewise, demands the heuristic accompaniment of the
reader, who Koch leads like Alice down the rabbit hole, armed with an array of powerful
mythological symbols and metaphors. Sent through the labyrinth of Kwan’s thoughts, actions,
and death, the reader is finally forced into the position of interpreting, in terms of his own
socio-cultural environment, Kwan’s motives, psychological state, and, ultimately, success
and/or failure.
D’Alpuget’s task is of another kind, but no less daunting.
She first entices her
readership into psychological identity with her protagonists in what begin like the stereotypical
romance/adventures about the East which Roskies discusses. She shows the reader Asia’s
-8-
bustling markets and streets, the inadequacies of its most basic forms of modern technology,
the quaint personalities of the people, the fascinating and shocking religious festivals, and the
extreme nature in the drive for survival. Then, with a change in the light, she shows the weak
or even downright ugly sides of the Western protagonists. Her main tool, the stereotype, is a
double-edged sword for the contemporary writer, but one which d’Alpuget wields with cold
precision. She succeeds as a master of intertextual manipulation, as the reader who one
moment is quietly enjoying her humour and ‘horror stories’ of expatriate life in Southeast Asia,
the next moment finds himself the real victim, as an accomplice to the stereotyping which he
knows he ought to have repressed.
The reader who fails to incorporate the Eastern forms into his repertoire will inevitably
find Koch and d’Alpuget’s protagonists to be frustrated and disillusioned figures in postmodern, absurdist fabrications. They will judge Asia as lands of ignorant, malefic paganism,
of corruption and greed born of unbridled capitalism, and of tyranny which supports itself with
the horrors of poverty, hatred and revenge. Finally, their self-perception will suffer, for try as
they may, they will not be able to ignore the fact that Australia and Asia are bound not only
geographically and economically but also symbolically.
1.6. The Approach, and its Goal
Nesselroth writes that any text has, on one hand, its meaning, ‘the literal meaning which
a statement or textual fragment has in its initial generic and cultural context’, and, on the other
hand, significance, ‘what a text would mean in other historical periods, as a consequence of the
reader’s cultural evolution’ or even simply in ‘a different verbal or situational context’
(Nesselroth, 50). This semantic distinction would involve the problems of divining the unique,
probably unknowable ‘meaning’ and then applying it to any of an infinite selection of
‘significances’, and seems to oblige any intertextual analysis to divide the material into small,
consumable bites. In order to avoid the earlier mentioned limitations which Roskies has taken
upon himself, this study does not structure itself according to formal genre but rather along
thematic divisions of symbols, metaphors and myths which have come out of the Eastern and
-9-
Western traditions. These are of course keywords in mythic criticism, but the reader is warned
not to expect an approach centered around the theories, for example, of Carl Jung and Northrop
Frye. The dearth of previous work on the novels of C. J. Koch and Blanche d’Alpuget means
that the research must start from a position barely past ‘Go’, and therefore seems to require a
much broader view at the relationships than one critical theory would offer. And nevertheless,
it must be acknowledged that this study is only able to begin revealing the depths of areas
which need to be analysed.
Therefore, while this study is necessarily long and might seem to wander along a path
which crosses back over itself at points, its goal is simple; it will attempt to ascertain the
origin, nature, and definitive characteristics of some of the Hindu and Southeast Asian
symbols, myths and literary structures which C. J. Koch and Blanche d’Alpuget have put to
use, and to illustrate how they have integrated them into the Western tradition where their
novels rightly belong, but which, they believe, suffers from the loss of its mythological basis.
1.7. A Chapter Preview
Chapters 2 and 3, ‘The Historical Environment’ and ‘The Literary Tradition’, provide a
brief overview of the triangular relationship between Australia, Asia, and the Western powers,
and explore the background for Australian perceptions of Asians and Asia which have
developed in the last two centuries from stereotypes inherited from the West. The ‘Orientalist’
views brought with the rest of European culture to the Antipodes formed the earliest images of
the Asians as inferior and untrustworthy races who would best be kept under the tutelage of
European powers. The ‘Asiatics’ Australians knew were pictured as simpletons who walked
and talked strangely, and though they seemed to be good and reliable workers their motives
were ever suspect, and their paganism, though innocuous, proved them unfit for Christian
society. Those the Australians did not know posed a demonic threat to overwhelm Australia
by sheer force of numbers, enslave its innocent population, and infect the white race with its
degenerate genes.
- 10 -
With the end of the period of colonial domination Australia found its identity crippled
by the deconstruction of the old imperial order. Alongside the persistent remains of the older
points of view, Australia’s vision of itself—in economics, culture, politics, etc.—has changed
from being peripheral to world events to being ever more self-aware and assertive as a regional
power. Images of itself and the Asia-Pacific are now creations of its own making. Asia is
often presented as a sort of panacea for Australian problems and inadequacies, yet the
uncertainties of Asian intentions still leave Australia struggling to determine its rightful role
vis-à-vis Asia in the post-colonial world. Australians understand that they belong logically to
the Asia-Pacific, but still fear the region to be full of the racial and cultural hazards which have
always tormented the Australian-Asian relationship.
The direct study of Blanche d’Alpuget and C. J. Koch begins in Chapter 4, ‘The Cliché
as Writer’s Tool’, with a look at how the writers manipulate the deeply ingrained colonial
stereotypes which ought already to have been ‘deconstructed’. In Turtle Beach Blanche
d’Alpuget shows her mastery of the stereotype by introducing the sort of ‘horror story’ images
of Asia which every tourist loves to bring back from a 14-day package holiday. The extreme
cleanliness of Singapore, the filth of Malaysia, the duplicity of the Asians, and impossible
technological and social backwardness are clichés which lure her readers into identification
with the central characters. She then turns the clichés back on the readers by showing how
those Australian expatriates are living in neo-colonialist luxury, exposing the readers’ own
inherent if repressed feelings of racism and intolerance.
Koch’s Asia is a playground for his characters, who express aspects of their personalities
which they would have to hide in a West which deems them degenerate. Both d’Alpuget and
Koch are raising neo-orientalist ghosts, but are not apologists for the old Western-dominated
patriarchy. They are rather juxtaposing opposing views of ‘self’ and the ‘Other’ in order to
force their Australian readership to reconcile their purported liberal post-colonial values with
the realities of their deeper feelings about Asia, and thereby to further each Australian’s search
for ‘self’ through a better understanding of the ‘Other’ both within and without.
- 11 -
Asia as Australia’s mirror image is further explored in Chapter 5, ‘Asia as the LookingGlass World’. The nearly obsessive yearnings for danger and desire in the contact between
‘self’ and the ‘Other’ realise themselves in images of Asia as a land of totalitarianism and
folly, but which are only thinly veiled expressions of Australia’s perceptions of itself. C. J.
Koch’s extensive use of the ‘Alice’ books of Lewis Carroll as pretexts for The Year of Living
Dangerously and Highways to a War provides the vehicle to further his themes of the dualities
of personality and of the interface between parallel worlds which are, at best, playfully
reversed images and, at worst, fully antagonistic projections of each other. Following in the
footsteps of the innocent Alice makes it easier for Koch’s characters and readers to tumble into
the unknown and untrusted realms of Southeast Asia, a land where the revealed soul is the true
wonder.
Chapter 6, ‘The Circular Path of Non-knowing, Doubt, and Faith’, investigates the
metaphors originating in the essential, circular identity between man and his universe of the
Vedas which d’Alpuget and Koch utilise to further the Australian search for self and soul. For
Koch’s protagonists, it is the thwarted search for the wisdom of Europe which leads toward
Asia as a perilous but empowering alternative source of inner wholeness. Focusing on Koch’s
first Asian novel, Across the Sea Wall, this section introduces early appearances of the writer’s
favourite themes of personality and the individual’s innocence and experience, of Eastern and
Western cultural and mythological inheritances, of converging perceptions of self and of the
‘Other’, and of the dangerously enlightening ‘Otherworld’ to which Asia can give access.
The difficulties of achieving the goal of ‘at-one-ment’ which preoccupies d’Alpuget’s
protagonists is explored from Eastern and Western points of view.
The readers’ early
sympathy for Judith Wilkes of Turtle Beach, who seems to be on the high road of modern
Western culture with respect to what appears at first to be an abominably pagan Eastern world,
turns into alienation when she is exposed for her unwillingness to acknowledge her own ‘nonknowing’ or accept her self-doubts. Wilkes rejects the Eastern approach which is increasingly
shown able to reconcile the elements of self which lie beyond one’s understanding and to lead
- 12 -
to the faith she so sorely lacks. Unable to come to terms with her stereotypically constructed
self, she is condemned to be a lonely expatriate of the soul whose only comfort is the
materialism her modern world offers.
The focus of this study shifts further toward the Eastern mythopoeic structures and
themes in Chapter 7, ‘The Two Realms of the Wayang’. The wayang kulit, the Javanese
Shadow Theatre which is the central metaphor in Koch’s The Year of Living Dangerously,
provides a complex formal basis which personifies the spirit of the intertwined Eastern
concepts of power, face, loyalty, and revenge. It represents reality on two levels: the illusory
material world, and the magically transcendent realm; and through this dual perspective the
main characters’ development through innocence, experience and maturity is observed.
The main characters of the wayang are the heroic Pandava brothers from the great Indian
epic poem, the Mahabharata, and the Javanese dwarf god, Semar. Koch has held that the
wayang kulit play The Reincarnation of Rama provided his novel’s structure, including the
prototypes for Hamilton and Kwan in Arjuna and Semar, but the most interesting and
illuminating aspects of his use of the wayang are found in his adaptation of the multiple levels
of narration, the musical accompaniment, and the complex continuum of personality types
which is fundamental to any character analysis of The Year of Living Dangerously.
Chapter 8, ‘The Divination of History and the Duality of Justice’, carries forth the
argument that a wholly Western critical approach to Koch’s Year of Living Dangerously is
doomed to error. Previous critical papers about Koch’s intertextual use of the Bhagavad Gita,
the sacred ‘Song of the Lord’ which is the archetype for the wayang kulit’s stories of Arjuna
and Krishna, the avatar of Vishnu, the Supreme God of Creation, are reviewed and themselves
criticised. Many are extremely useful, others betray weaknesses in their grasp of the pretexts,
and some are simply looking to ignore the Eastern archetypes altogether and to force a
classification of the novel as one form or other of late 20th century Western literature.
This study argues that Koch has written a subtle, fantastic, and harrowing novel of the
apocalypse. History is torn away from the control of those who would make it into an
- 13 -
accidental sequence of events, revitalised with a fusion of the mythopoeic semiotics of Hindu
sacred tradition—represented principally by the Mahabharata—and Western, Christian
tradition—mainly from The Gospels—, and then applied to the microcosmic tale of a clever
Australia dwarf, his clumsy giant friend, and their search for spiritual salvation. The tale is too
eclectic in its assembly of pretexts, archetypes, metaphor and symbols to fit easily into Western
literary criticism, but its universality can be seen not only in its demonstration of the parallel
messages in Eastern and Western sources, but also in its relevance to efforts for a reenchantment of the modern West’s demythologised culture.
Koch’s protagonists are all males, but he populates his novels with female characters
who embody the sacred feminine principle. Chapter 9, ‘The Divine Feminine’, investigates the
archetypes he has taken from Hindu tradition to continue his revitalisation of the desiccated
Western mythological culture. Rather than being a neo-orientalist move to appropriate Asia’s
symbols, Koch’s attraction to the Eastern Goddesses is that as living mythological figures they
are much more accessible to provide the subtle metaphoric system which might resolve in the
poetic imagination the harsh paradoxes of human reality. This divine feminine is manifested in
the Great Mother Goddess, who is known by many names but mainly as Parvati (in her aspect
as the Good Mother and Wife), Durga (the Warrior), and Kali (the Destroyer). She becomes
Devi Sri (the Goddess of the Earth and Fertility), Sri Lakshmi (the Goddess of Fortune), and a
wider pantheon of minor goddesses and accompanying spirits who share ancient roots with the
Venus figures of pre-historic Europe. Koch emphasises this pantheistic, Indo-European unity
while he develops his female characters in the vocabulary of the Asian imagery.
For Koch, the divine feminine is the metaphor for an unattainable principle which yet
underlies all spiritual and material activity. She appears in the guise of many characters in his
novels, to prod, provoke, and awaken his male protagonists to activities which are beneficial to
dharma, the righteous order of the universe.
Chapters 10, ‘The Masks of Personality’, and 11, ‘The Masks of Doubles’, form the
heart of this study insofar as they delve into the problem of ‘identity’, ‘soul’ and the ‘Other’
- 14 -
from the Asian point of view. This basically is that the ultimate ‘Other’ is the individual
‘identity’. The totality of masks are pulled over to hide, protect, and/or inhibit revelation of the
‘soul’, which is the true, unique and perfect reality of the universe. D’Alpuget makes special
use of the concepts of the ‘five hindrances’ and the three gunas, which condemn the created
universe to illusion and ignorance and prohibit the self-revelation necessary for man’s entry
into nirvana. Her characters are distinguished by the dehumanisation born of their egocentric
desires. There are some, however, who would free themselves of their spiritual hindrances,
though the struggle for self-awareness proves hard and lonely. Koch parallels this with his
images which draw on the ancient Vedic concept of the necessary co-operation between men
and the gods to support the dharmic order against the onslaught of demons whose cosmic role
is to overthrow dharma and bring the cycles of time to a catastrophic end.
Chapter 11 focuses these principles on the double characters. Blanche d’Alpuget’s story
of Alexandra Wheatfield resembles the Hindu hagiographical tradition depicting saints and the
‘dark brothers’ who would hinder their enlightenment. In a continuation of the archetypal
sources examined in the chapter on the wayang kulit, Koch’s theme of the ‘double man’ is
explored for its Eastern roots, especially from the various Hindu traditions and from the
Javanese Shadow Theatre which see the individual as an incomplete entity in need of
unification with his complementary other to become a fully functional whole. The figures of
Billy Kwan and Guy Hamilton are given special attention here in order to show how they must
be critically analysed from these Asian points of view.
Chapter 12, ‘Encountering the “Otherworld”’, further explores Koch’s fascination with
the life and death-giving landscape, perhaps the most important of Australian metaphors
involving the desires and fears of contact between ‘self’ and ‘Other’, which he applies to the
Asian context. Koch’s Asia is part Wonderland, part Sleepy Hollow, and part hell, and it is
entirely impossible to distinguish which parts are real and which purely imaginary since all are
steeped in illusion.
It is inhabited by kings, peasants, and spirits, and has become the
battleground of foreign invaders, medieval armies, and demons in the apocalyptic storm for
- 15 -
macrocosmic supremacy of which the war in Southeast Asia is but the eye. The journalists are
drawn out of their natural but desertificated habitats into the storm by the presence of a
seemingly life-nourishing ‘Otherworld’, whose access lies barely hidden in the bustling
markets and streets of Jakarta, Saigon and Phnom Penh. The unknown world they enter is the
plane of the looking-glass, the point of conjunction where the ‘self’ and ‘Other’ exchange roles
and merge. It is a land of imagination and shadow where the forces of light and dark, good and
evil have massed to bring to a final decision the war begun with the great battle of the
Mahabharata. This land is Koch’s perception of the ‘Otherworld’ where nature might no
longer be an antagonistic element to human presence, and the virtues of dharma reign. Yet, it
is also a world where one can become intoxicated with the illusion which threatens to
overwhelm reality. Finally, it is precisely by taking the risks of passing through the lookingglass between the worlds that one might finally solve the riddle of identity.
Chapter 13, ‘Crossing to the Other Bank’, applies the problems of time and meaning
raised in Koch’s earlier novels to the case of Highways to a War. First, however, the deorientalist stance is considered for its condemnation of d’Alpuget and Koch’s use of old
Orientalist stereotypes in their novels. The de-orientalist goal would be to wipe the slate clean
and let Australia and Asia simply concentrate on future business relations; yet this is
demonstrated to be little more than a new paint job on the old Orientalist machine, and would
in Koch’s view make progress in clearing up the questions of Australian and Asian identity
ever more difficult, for the identity of each is necessarily a hybrid of the two. If Highways to a
War were just a mystery about what happened to Mike Langford, then the de-orientalists
would have a good argument. It is, however, more about who (or rather what) he is, and, as
with d’Alpuget’s character analyses, this justifies Koch’s incorporating all forms of old
metaphors and stereotypes.
Time is a concept which is both concrete and abstract at once, for it must satisfy the
needs of living our daily lives which are both linear and circular, finite and infinite, real and
illusory. It is, therefore, a notion whose Western perception approaches the Eastern very
- 16 -
closely in spite of the West’s reluctance to accept anything it cannot substantiate and the East’s
devotion to metaphoric expression. Additionally, the West most often couples the concept of
time with ‘space’ while in the East time’s sister is ‘meaning’. The concrete/abstract duality of
time is especially viable for Australia which has always lingered, in its conception of itself,
precariously on the edge of time, space, and meaning.
Highways to a War is Koch’s
expression of his preoccupation with these dualities as well as the continuation of his
development of the notion of the duality of personality.
Koch offers up an extremely unsatisfying image, after so much development of Asian
symbolism, of Langford dying on a cross in the killing fields of Cambodia.
Langford,
however, is no rebaked Christ figure. Koch has partly written him in a ghost story where the
spirits are caught in the collapsing wheel of time. He is also fashioned after the Tirthankara or
Bodhisattva saints of Hindu tradition. These are the ‘Ford makers’ or ‘Crossing Makers’ who
aid other individuals ‘cross to the other bank’, a metaphor for achieving the self-realisation
which is nirvana. Finally, Langford is demonstrated to be a sacrificial figure, but one who is
more modelled after the Hindu than Christian tradition.
1.8. A Textual Note
Working with texts composed in Australian, British, American and Indian standards of
English has led to a few (but persistent) grammatical inconsistencies. Several names of Hindu
gods have various spellings. I have opted for the most ‘English’ representations of the
pronunciations, using, for example, Krishna and Shiva in the place of Krshna and Siva or other
graphic forms which are not available in my repertoire of character styles. I capitalise ‘West’,
‘Western’, ‘East’ and ‘Eastern’ according to the rules of the M.L.A., use ‘Southeast’ instead of
‘South East’ or South-east’, generally follow critical standards by capitalising ‘Other’ even
though this disregards the essential opposition which distinguishes it from ‘self’ and ‘Self’,
which are described in 1.2 above. I have also selected British spelling norms which, for an
American writing about Australian novels which take place in Asia, seems to be the fitting
‘middle path’. When citing directly from the novels or other scholars, of course, I stay as close
- 17 -
to the original as my word processor allows. This makes for a colourful tossed orthographic
salad, and I trust scholars and readers will not find this too unseemly.
- 18 -
The Historical Environment
2.1. Introduction
That Australia has had a long and ambivalent relationship with Asia should be no
surprise when one considers the long and ambivalent relationship it has had with itself. There
are, after all, at least three Australias—Aboriginal Australia, White Australia, and Asian
Australia—and until White Australia, by far both the last in longevity and the first in social,
economic and political power, manages to come to terms with itself it is not going to be able to
reconcile its role with respect either to its Aboriginal countrymen, its Asian neighbours, or its
European cousins. Geology teaches that the continent has been moving steadily northward at
about ten centimetres per year for the last 40 million years since it broke away from the ancient
supercontinent called Gondwanaland.
From a social and cultural point of view, on the
contrary, Australia has slid around considerably in just the last few centuries: emerging from
somewhere beyond the hazy edges of the ‘known world’ in the 16th century, creeping onto the
outer fringes of civilisation in the 18th century, snuggling up to the British Isles during the 19th
century, then distancing itself from Europe again, gliding through a bittersweet rendezvous
with North America, and finally nearing the position the geographer would have given it all
along, bordering, perhaps even belonging to, Southeast Asia and the Pacific islands. The quest
for place and identity has been so important for white Australians that it—even more so than
any resolution to that quest—seems to have become part of the Australian identity itself.
2.2. From the Edge of the Known World, to Hell on Earth, to Paradise
Richard White, in Inventing Australia: Images and Identity 1688-1980, explores the
evolution of the Australian identity in its first three centuries. 16th and 17th century Spanish,
Portuguese, Dutch and English probes of what was called Terra Australis Incognita found little
to satisfy hopes of finding riches there, though the reports of the Antipodes’ strange animals,
plants and men peaked Europe’s fascination. White writes:
Much play was made of the idea that in Australia there was an inversion of
natural laws, an old idea but one that was popularised by Australia’s zoological
oddities. So Australia was the land which was upside-down, topsy-turvy,
- 19 -
where it was day when it should have been night, summer when it should have
been winter, where , it was said, grass grew on trees and rivers flowed uphill.
It was an idea that continued to have a certain popular appeal for long
afterwards. (White, 9)
The English returned in 1770 with the voyage of Captain Cook and a new, scientific
interest in the strange continent. At that time the natural sciences were dominated by the
Linnean system of classification in which each species of life occupied a specific place in a
long, unbroken, though incompletely described, natural chain. European naturalists were
mounting expeditions to the unexplored lands searching for new forms of life. Australia, the
strange continent which had already provided several oddities of nature, offered fascinating
prospects of filling in some of the empty slots in the known chain. Indeed, the zoophytes were
found to occupy the position linking animals and plants, and the Aborigines were seen to be
the link between the apes and the highest order in the chain, men, of which the Western
European was the very highest member (White, 1-8). Asians, along with Africans, American
Indians and Eastern Europeans, apparently were somewhere in between.
After the period of greatest scientific interest waned, Australia’s isolation made it ideal
as Great Britain’s penal colony. If the long voyage did not confirm its position at the remote
end of the earth, the screwed up seasons there certainly did. This evidence seemed for many to
have proved that Australia belonged to Asia, and some unfortunate convicts even believed that
they could escape by walking overland all the way to China. Australia’s relative proximity to
Asia and Europe has been a major and contentious theme in the consciousness of its white
inhabitants ever since.
From the very beginnings of the colonial period some of the visionaries of British
imperialism saw Asia as a potential market for the nascent Australian economy, as a supplier
of material resources and even as a source of immigrants. Asia’s men, Werner Levi notes in
Australia’s Outlook on Asia, could provide the cheap labour needed to face the challenges of
the huge, undeveloped continent, while its women would serve as consorts for the mostly male
British settlers (Levy, 1). Australia’s early close links to Asia, certainly, were limited to
activities of the British commercial companies there, and yet the foundation of New South
- 20 -
Wales and the rise of the English East India Company’s power in Bengal have been seen as
two aspects of the British ‘swing to the East’ which followed the loss of the American
colonies. Britain’s two new colonies were brought together by complementary economic
needs, with Australia exchanging wool, wheat, sugar and horses for Indian tea and jute. Even
more importantly, retired Indian army officers and civil servants often migrated to Australia,
followed by thousands of immigrants who came as labourers, camel drivers and prospectors
(Copland, 127).
Others, however, did not see Australia in Asian terms at all. For many Australia offered
Britain another chance to learn from the failures of the former North American colonies, and
create a society based on British principles and institutions of freedom, democracy and
capitalism.
In an argument which ironically demanded strict British domination over
Australian society, the new colony would avoid the corruptions to those principles and
institutions which, once embedded, had proved impossible to eliminate in British society.
It is even more ironic how the Europeans shut Asia progressively out of their minds as
their investment in the Eastern hemisphere increased. Yasmine Gooneratne notes that for the
first three centuries of European experience in Asia ‘East-West relations were ordinarily
conducted with a framework and on terms established by the Asian nations’. The Europeans
were in no ‘position to force their will upon the imperial rulers of India or China’ (Gooneratne,
1992, Asia, 338). Only in the 19th century, when the technical achievements of the Industrial
Age impressed Europeans with their own stature, did they begin ‘to look on the countries of
the East as centres of retardation, as a potential menace to the world which Westerners seemed
divinely destined to make over in their own image’ (Gooneratne, 1992, Asia, 339). Just when
Australia might have taken advantage of its geographic position to maximise exchange with
the East—which many Europeans, disenchanted with the West’s materialism and impressed
with the East’s spiritualism and artistic achievement, hoped for—a reactionary attitude
‘emerged in the West which emphasized the backwardness of Asia and its stubborn resistance
to the spread of the Christian and Western way of life’ (Gooneratne, 1992, Asia, 339).
- 21 -
Bailey-Goldsmith and Kalfatovic explain this as a result of Europe’s evolving perception
of the Orient, drawing on travel literature, the most important literary source which exists
throughout the period of the West’s relations with the Far East. Travel literature is also
interesting in that it provides an area in which the Australian world view significantly diverges
from its dominant European roots (Blaber, 46). From the beginning, notably the 1299 AD
accounts of Marco Polo’s journeys into China, the literature ‘reflected a variety of active
constructs and presuppositions about the “Other”’ (Bailey-Goldsmith, 147) which lacked any
basis in fact or in discrimination between different regions and cultures in Asia. Yet, Polo’s
complaints about the heat in India ‘began a long tradition of Western tourists whingeing about
Asia’, and prepared what would become a cherished literary metaphor ‘for the simmering
human passions generated in the Oriental context’ (Gerster, Bali, 353).
Even the earliest accounts were therefore more commentary on the European context
than on any Asian reality.
When the sea route to the Far East was opened European
governments became centrally involved in relations, leading in the 17th and 18th centuries to
better information about Asia, but also to manipulation of the information to serve the purposes
of those Western nations. Documentation of social habits and culture took a back seat to
furthering business interests. Various fables and myths were added to the older constructs,
creating a formulaic image of the East which tended to control and distort all subsequent
reports out of Asia. Only changes in the economic relationship resulted in a shift in sociocultural perceptions. Therefore, as Europe gained more sway in the economic relationship, its
‘images of the “Other” show an increasing amount of frustration’ with political relationships,
leading to growing convictions about the ‘importance of governance’. When this became
reality with the establishment of colonies the Europeans began to take notice of the Asian
milieu, but even then the images were caught up in the old stereotypes (Bailey-Goldsmith,
148). These accounts consequently shed more light on European—and Australian—mores and
attitudes than on those of Asians, and continued foremost to serve the purposes of European
hegemony (Bailey-Goldsmith, 149).
- 22 -
Colonial Australia, therefore, was hardly disposed to look to Asia as its neighbour, not to
mention as a social or cultural model. Becoming a better image of Britain itself, fashioned
anew according to British social and political models, meant that trade with anywhere but
Britain, when measured in these idealistic terms, was unnecessary, and any outside competition
whatsoever, especially from Asia, was, according to Britain’s mercantilist policies, irrelevant
and undesirable. With England as its principle supplier of labour, capital, consumer goods and
even information, the Australian sense of the world was to be severely dislocated.
Their point of view was centered more in England than in Australia. Australia
was an island in an ‘alien sea’. Distances were measured from England. Their
country was always very far away from somewhere else; rarely was something
far away from Australia. Home news was English news. The roots in Aussi
soil were weak. Contacts with neighboring peoples were reluctant, their
interest was practically nil. (Levy, 4)
Though the group of colonists who extolled this view was in the minority, their influence was
strong, especially in the period leading up to Confederation, ‘when the outlook of Australian
society was being molded between 1850 and 1890’ (Levy, 4).
The majority of Australians, however, the poorer immigrants as well as the native-born,
labourers, diggers and men in the bush, were oblivious to this attraction to Great Britain. They
exerted no influence on the policies of the colony, but their energies went a long way in
forming the basis of what would in the long run develop as typically Australian.
They were less vocal, less influential and less noticeable. Their impact upon
Australian life occurred in the sphere of practical politics and economics
before it found intellectual expression. Australian consciousness and, later,
nationalism had their origin in these groups and their descendants. They
introduced what was new and specifically Australian to the colony’s life. They
varied, altered and adapted English traditions, and ‘nibbled at the edges’ of
civilization. (Levy, 4)
For these people, the problems and opportunities foreseen by the visionaries were irrelevant to
what was very often the struggle for survival in a harsh and untamed environment. Still, these
were the mostly English and Irish settlers who travelled half-way round the globe determined
to make better lives for themselves, and they and their descendants preserved their AngloCeltic ways.
Levy remarks that all ‘Australian democracy, egalitarianism, optimism,
- 23 -
parochialism, isolationism, even anti-Englishism showed the unmistakable signs of British,
especially Irish, influence’ (Levy, 5).
Of course, many of the early inhabitants can hardly be characterised as having come
‘determined to make better lives.’ It was no accident that Botany Bay was identified as the
land of depravity, of monstrous convicts and worse wardens, where ‘virtue became vice and
vice virtue’. This hell-on-earth image was disseminated throughout British public on the
theory that the severity of punishment was a better deterrent to crime than the prospect of
getting caught (White, 17).
The lowest element of British society was to be cast out among the lowest
form of human life; unnatural vice was to be exiled as far from home as
possible, where nature itself was inverted and nakedness knew no shame;
thieves were to be condemned to a land where there was nothing at all of
value. (White, 16)
It is yet worth remembering that among the ‘transported’ convicts in the days of the
Botany Bay penal colony were the most vigorous and capable leaders of the provocative
decades of the developing English trades unions, joined by many of the most dedicated Irish
rebels. Along with some of the worst criminals and miscreants, therefore, some of the very
best leaders of British society were transported to the Antipodes. The energies of these
outcasts could perhaps have been shaken, but, fortunately for Australia, not forever quelled. At
the outset, nevertheless, the Europeans who arrived in Australia were hostile and dissatisfied,
and ‘bore class and sectarian grudges like birthmarks’.
Imbued with the mediaeval myth of the Antipodes, they ingested a self-image
of weirdness, loneliness, and absurdity, of being underfoot and beneath
contempt, an immature satire of a Western society. (Broinowski, 1992, 7)
The problem once the penal colony was disbanded and Australia became a colony was,
nevertheless, not so much that the hell-on-earth image persisted as that, no matter how fast
immigrants could arrive from Britain, they would not even begin to satisfy the demand for the
kind of labour needed to develop the continent. The original concept of bringing in Asians to
meet the demand faced stubborn popular opposition. Workers objected to the competition for
labour, and accused employers of wanting to create a permanent class of slaves (Levy, 12).
- 24 -
The typically 19th century feeling of European superiority complicated matters further.
Workers objected as unjust having to toil alongside non-whites. Radical political and religious
leaders argued that Asians would undermine the morals of Australians, and would inevitably
lead to a disastrous mixing of races. Miners petitioned for the limitation on the immigration of
Asians, who they labelled ‘swarms of human locusts, Mongolians with filthy habits and
repulsive to the feelings of Christians’ (Levy, 13).
Opposition voices to these claims said that if the Asians had any effect at all on the
morals and virtues of white Australians it could be only to improve them. Yet, the high
principles which were to establish an egalitarian and wealthy society seemed threatened by the
influx of large numbers of non-Europeans, and led ironically to emotional and racist
arguments.
By 1841 authorities were bowing to the anti-immigrationists, clothing their
decisions in social justifications concerning the dangers of bringing in a race of workers who
would be expected to assume permanent workers’ roles in society (Levy, 12). In Victoria,
South Australia and New South Wales immigration was restricted by law (Levy, 14). By the
1880s, as voices of humanitarianism sank away, openly racist views were expressed in the
populist newspapers Bulletin and the Boomerang (Levy, 15).
The Bulletin especially
combined the concepts of radical republicanism, nationalism and cheap labour with antiChinese sentiment. In 1891 the ‘Bulletin Manifesto’ cited the Chinese, along with ‘Religious
interference in politics’, ‘Foreign titles’, and ‘Imperial federation’, as one of the four major
hindrances to the republican movement (Ouyang Yu, 1995, Bulletin, 132).
Talk of an
imminent Chinese invasion of cheap labour soon became confused with a military threat. Levy
calls this ‘a misinterpretation deliberately furthered by some vested interests and by publicists
who theorized about an imaginary Chinese attack’, but adds that, while this fear mongering
was obviously absurd, it did not seem wise to pick a quarrel with 400 million people (Levy,
23).
The fundamental, if somewhat ambiguous, Australian social aspirations were eventually
heard, with the essence of the matter being that the ‘determination to keep out an Asian
- 25 -
minority for social and cultural reasons was because they did not fit the ideal plan Aussis had
for their society’ (Levy, 15). At the same time, between 1830 and 1850, the image of Australia
changed from a land of punishment for England’s worst elements to a land of promise for the
sturdy, ambitious and surplus population who felt their prospects in England were limited.
Even the once spurned descendants of convicts got a reconstructed image as prosperous and
hard-working citizens in a new land of opportunity (White, 29).
The visions of rural innocence in Australia appealed to a deep-seated
resentment against the industrial revolution.
The result was that the supporters of immigration saw Australia becoming the
sort of society they imagined England to have been in the past, before it
disappeared under the grime of the industrial revolution. (White, 34)
The idea of Australia as some sort of paradise meant many things to many people. In Australia
itself it was often used to hide the problems of society, to attract labour, ignore poverty, prop
up the system, and
it also reinforced discrimination against women, children, non-whites, the
unemployed and other sections of the working class, since only the successful,
adult, white male fitted the image of the ‘workingman’ (White, 46).
The image worked to the degree that it gave Australia a sense of going somewhere, of
having a future which might be more tangible and positive than its incorrigible past. The
appropriate model for this sometimes seemed more American than British. An important
example of this is in the many Australians who returned from the California Gold Rush with
the management skills and the technology they would use in the Australian gold fields. John
McLaren writes of his grandfather, a blacksmith whose ‘bookshelves held the American
handbooks of agriculture and domestic economy that taught Australians how to survive in a
frontier society’. The 19th century saw the birth of a perception of kinship with the American
experience and of a need for American models. It was ‘a common fantasy’ in the 19th century
that ‘Australia was the coming United States of the South’ (McLaren, 45). Linked to its proAmericanism was Australia’s urge for more independence from Britain and a more democratic
society. Asians represented the antithesis of these aspirations, and so Britain was blamed for
introducing the Chinese as cheap labourers while America’s own anti-Chinese sentiments were
viewed with favour (Ouyang Yu, 1995, Bulletin, 133).
- 26 -
Asians were subject to discrimination but their labour was still needed, and they did
come as workers in fairly large numbers, though the government limited them mostly to males
on the principle that without their women they would not stay permanently. Chinese
immigrants joined the labour-hungry gold rush of the 1850s, and some stayed on afterwards,
founding trading houses, restaurants, laundries, market gardens, working on railway
construction, and establishing families. Japanese immigrants followed them in, working first
as entertainers and prostitutes, pearl divers, and finally as traders once their government
recognised their right to be outside of Japan (Broinowski, 1992, 2). The reality of Asia’s
proximity was simply not to be ignored, but neither was it so very important in the larger
scheme of things where the British Empire and its expansion and successes were considered
proof of Anglo-Saxon superiority according to the principles of Social Darwinism (White, 69).
The 19th century saw Australia in two ways. On the one hand, it was an ideal proving
ground for those Social Darwinist principles—a virgin continent with new opportunities for a
strong Anglo-Saxon race to come in, develop the land, and improve themselves, all, of course,
at the expense of the ‘weaker races’. On the other hand, there was the nagging doubt that it
was the cold northern climate which kept the Anglo-Saxon race strong, and that it was only the
continued immigration into Australia from Britain which kept the Australians vigorous and
successful. The native-born Aussis tended to lose this racial hardiness (White, 70). For some,
this was all the more argument that Australia’s best future lay within the arms of its British
mother. The axioms of Social Darwinism certainly indicated, on the evidence of the empire’s
impressive military successes, that Britain was best prepared to provide government and
administration to the conquered lands (White, 72), and provided what seemed to be selfevident proof of the concepts of the superiority of the white race over the coloured, and of the
New World’s human progress over the Old World’s depravity and tyranny (Ouyang Yu, 1995,
Bulletin, 131). They also seemed to dispel the haunting suspicion that ‘Asian skills and
capacities might do a better job of settling Australia and creating a productive continent’
(Walker, 37).
- 27 -
2.3. The Difficult Birth of an ‘Australian Spirit’
It was a ‘proud, European patriarchal, heroic spirit’ which came to extend the empire’s
greatness around the globe. David Tacey writes that, while it was materially and socially
successful, the European spirit did not prove to ‘travel as well as rum or mahogany’. The socalled ‘progressive colonialists’ emphasised the universal mission of the Church and the
advancement of the colony, but ‘paid little attention to the sense of place or to the displacement
of the old spirit’ (Tacey, 197). It was rather the sense of dislocation and exile which was
voiced throughout the colonial period, and this, writes Bruce Bennett, persists even into the
modern period. It has proved very difficult for the inheritors of two hundred years of white
history to pick up on ‘Aboriginal notions of the sacredness of rocks or hills or rivers and the
accompanying sense of belonging to this land spiritually’. Australia has largely developed as
an ‘empty’ country, ‘deriving in part from the self-interested British doctrine of terra nullius—
a land without owners’ (Bennett, 1991, 12).
While this may have been useful for the
colonisers’ purposes, it proved a huge handicap to the population, quickly dominated by
immigrants who were in need of a sense of community but found only cultural disorientation.
This led in the 19th century to the new breed of pragmatic, white, masculinist, and
isolationist ‘real Australians’ (Tacey, 197). Tacey says that, ‘naturally egalitarian, instinctual,
secular, and godless’, they were ‘modernists and existentialists on horseback’ (Tacey, 198).
Sharrad more bluntly calls them anticlerical, sardonic freethinkers (Sharrad, 1990, 173). What
held together an image of such a diverse population was the stereotype of the Chinese which
served as an ethnocentric contrast to the Australian. That the Chinese were dirty, diseased,
conservative and backward, and their country corrupted and old, only made clearer just how
clean, healthy, democratic and progressive Australians were, and their land sunny and young
(Ouyang Yu, 1995, Bulletin, 138).
The Australian landscape often proved tougher than they, however, and the image of
loss, sacrifice, and ruin, exemplified by ‘the death of the hero, the father, and the patriarchal
spirit’, became an Australian motif (Tacey, 199). The continent itself draws much of the
- 28 -
blame. The American heroic, paternalistic experience proves that Australia’s was not simply a
colonial experience. The inhospitable Antipodean landscape, Tacey writes, ‘is explicitly
linked with the death of the hero and the degeneration of culture’, and becomes a ‘mythic
image for metaphysical wilderness’ (Tacey, 205). White Australians were becoming a people
in exile in their own land, and even in their own homes.
2.4. The Beginnings of Trade Relations with Asia
The progressive withdrawal of the Australian from outside affairs was paralleled within
the British empire by growing outside domination of the colony. In terms of Asian contacts,
this meant that direct Australian trade with Asia was legally limited to India. These two were
conducting trade from the 1880s, but most other efforts at developing trade were crippled by
the European domination of Asia. Australian ships carrying tea and silk in from China were
technically smuggling since the East Asia Company held a monopoly on imperial trade with
China. The result was that, into the beginnings of the 20th century, Australian commerce, even
for products of Asian origin, was routed through the West (Levy, 16).
Trade with China, limited as it was, still represented the promising beginnings of
commerce with Asia, but came to an abrupt halt with the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95.
China’s defeat closed it off to further Western contact and elevated newly industrialised Japan
to major-power status. The Anglo-Japanese trade treaty of 1894 complicated for Australians
the new questions about just what Japan was. Trade with Japan was desirable, but not the
immigrants which the treaty permitted. Some saw Japan as a counterbalance against the
perceived threat of Russia in the region while others feared the evils of ‘ungovernable
multitudes of Japanese subjects’ flooding in.
Japan replaced China in the Australian
demonology, and whether the Japanese were wily and dishonest or spirited, enterprising, and
hard-working, they would still not fit into the Australian social scheme (Levy, 18). Indeed,
Australians hardly made any distinction between Japanese and Chinese, tending to lump all
Asians together as a collective yellow threat to white civilisation (Ouyang Yu, 1995, Invasion,
77). Hostility to the Chinese developed especially through the union movement, but took on
- 29 -
intellectual and cultural character by the mid-1880s. The question was whether it would be
possible to achieve a new social order amidst resident aliens ‘who did not share the same
common assumptions about life, labour and leisure, about morality, mores and manners’
(Meaney, 235).
2.5. New Commonwealth Seeks Identity: Asians Need Not Apply
To most Australians, nevertheless, Asians were still non-entities. The lands of the Asian
continent remained ‘colonies or quasi-colonies of the West. International relations were with
the West. Asians were objects, not subjects of world politics. Asian problems were therefore
Western problems, and to be settled in the West’ (Levy, 21). This seemed right and proper to
most Australians, who gained a degree of nationhood on January 1st, 1901 under the
Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Bill, but remained Eurocentric. Australia was the
‘Young Country’ whose identity was yet to be defined, and the ‘true Australian’ proclaimed by
image-fabricators was young and masculine, reflecting demographic reality and touting a
vigorous, forward-looking nation, but still lacked any unifying ethnic, religious, cultural or
political characteristics (Ken Stewart, 4). In seeking a new level of independence, Australia
unleashed the ‘social, economic and political mechanisms which undercut the prior senses of
national, ethnic, local, class or trade-specific identities’ on which national identity depend
(Hamilton, 16). All that was left to hold the new Federation together was the general feeling of
anti-Asianism (Broinowski, 1992, 4).
While there certainly were many ‘who saw the
potentialities of trade with Asia in the first decade of the new Commonwealth’ (Walker, 38),
the new nation’s degree of independence from Britain heightened the perception of the threats
posed by Asia. Ever more culturally and physically isolated, Australians seemed to be more
susceptible than Europeans to the images circulated in books, papers and magazines ‘of the
evil, degenerate and racially inferior Asian’ (Gehrmann, 56). Those Asians were non-specific
and faceless, but the Australian gold, jobs, working conditions and women they were suspected
of coveting were very real. Underneath it all simmered the sense of an ‘instinct of race’ and
the threat an influx of Asian blood would wreak on the white population. The empire, as
- 30 -
evidenced by the invasion scare novels which appeared in the last decades of the 19th century,
was not entirely trusted to protect Australia, and yet remained ‘an emotional necessity and a
source of national security and political stability’ for the new Commonwealth (Ken Stewart, 5).
2.6. The White Australia Policy
Old fears began to bear themselves out by the beginning of the 20th century as
Australians witnessed a shift of the balance of power in the Pacific and increasing requirements
for the British to concentrate their naval forces in the North Sea. Developing their own sense
of ‘Manifest Destiny’, Australians were becoming more concerned with questions of federation
and the expansion of the ‘Anglo-Celtic’ nation.
Beginning also to recognise their own
responsibilities for self-defence, some Australians looked longingly at the expansionist Pacific
policy of the Americans, newly installed in Hawaii and the Philippines, which they considered
more favourable to Australia than Britain’s policy which was marked by the onset of decline
(Levy, 26).
It was yet a dream for expansion without integration or co-operation, meaning that only
trade held any promise for development with Asia. Asians as workers or immigrants were
written off by the ‘White Australia’ policy which in 1901, the very year Australia became a
nation by Act of the British parliament, choked off non-white immigration.
Chinese
immigrants were generally seen as law-abiding and peaceful, but their presence threatened
hopes of white democracy and culture (Ken Stewart, 12). Notions of ‘culture’ and ‘race’
became interchangeable, and a pseudo-scientific authority was lent by the language of SocialDarwinism to the struggle for survival and supremacy against the ‘Yellow Peril’ (Meaney,
229). The vast, open lands of the continent were supposed to be tempting to the numberless
hordes of Asians and their rabid desires for Lebensraum (Levy, 28). Theories of imminent
invasion surfaced again, this time involving secret Japanese plans, and images of Japanese
battleships lying in Sydney harbour swept across the horrified continent. Australians couched
their fears with the slogan ‘Populate or Perish’. The political and economic issue of filling the
land with ‘desirable’ immigrants was raised to a moral issue as well. If Britain could not
- 31 -
increase its military presence, then Australia would just have to raise more taxes to build up its
own defence forces. Any remaining arguments against the White Australia policy were muted
in the face of this perceived threat—the first of any real substance, coming from an
industrialised and militarised country (Levy, 29).
The White Australia Policy, which sought to protect Australia from unfettered Asian
immigration, caused outrage among Asian nations. Its racist character was not the problem,
for many Asian nations shared its notions of racial purity (Brawley, 256), but it seemed
evidence that Australians, in denial of geographic reality, ‘did not consider themselves to be a
part of Asia’ (Brawley, 257). Observing how it received support across the divergent lines of
Australian politics, Asians came to the perception that ‘the policy was Australia’ (Brawley,
258), with the result that the very threat and distrust which the policy was meant to dampen
was heightened by it.
As Japan came to represent for Australia the ‘Yellow Peril’, the British were seen as
willing to sacrifice Australia if Japan seemed to be the more useful ally. With Japan’s sobering
victory against Russia in 1905, America’s Japanese policy, previously proud of its role in
opening Japan up to the world, turned sour. Australians looked on with some envy as the U.S.
erected severely restrictive policies on Asian immigration, but at the same time feared an
American-Japanese war in the Pacific in which they might be obliged by British diplomatic
agreements to aid Japan (Levy, 33).
It became clear that Britain intended not only to withdraw its forces from Asia but also
to rely on its Japanese allies to defend its Asian empire. Australia, dominated by its Europeanbased stereotypes, still could not understand these actions. Asia hardly represented for
Australians a model on which their society could or should depend. Despite thousands of years
of political, religious and cultural achievements, Asians were ‘coolies, eunuchs, gnomes,
dwarfs, or opium-crazed sex maniacs’ who, whether sinister or whimsical, were better
patronised than treated with equality (Broinowski, 1992, 29-30).
- 32 -
2.7. The Coming Man
Faced with this apparent abandonment by Great Britain, Australia formed in 1909 its
own navy.
This new attitude of self-reliance fostered a new ideal Australian--the once
downtrodden digger. Richard White credits C. E. W. Bean, the Australian war historian, for
helping to define the particular qualities of this modern Aussi heroic figure, who was utilitarian
but clean, a very ‘square’ man who valued frankness, disdained class distinctions, and took
‘everything on its merits and nothing on authority’. The bush—where every resource of man
was pitted against the rawest forces of nature and fate in a fierce competition of survival—was
suddenly seen as the consummate training ground for the man who would soon be needed to
defend not only Australia itself but the entire empire. Australia was preparing itself to face the
realities of a hostile world, with the first step being this vision of the hard, fist-fighting digger
being honed into imperial soldier. It was even a source of pride in the Australian bush
character that
the only doubt was that he lacked which made a fighting man into an efficient
soldier: discipline. He would always find it difficult to obey orders, and ‘even
when properly handled he is restless and suspicious of authority’ (White, 126).
White lays the significance of the bush-worker on two points. It was he, rather than the urban
or agricultural worker, who provided an Australian identity in the empire, for the bush-worker
supplied the wool, Australia’s main contribution to English industry. The bush-worker also fit
perfectly the role of ‘The Coming Man’, who from the fringe of empire would offer those
qualities of comradeship, self-confidence, generosity, restlessness, and resourcefulness on
which the empire increasingly depended (White, 103-04). In creating a new national type
energised by uniquely Australian conditions of ‘space, sunshine, diet and progressive
legislation’, many Australians perceived themselves engaged in a great experiment of ‘race
building’. This seemed a necessary accompaniment to the experiment of nation building, and
precluded any potentially contaminating influences on the new nation creeping in from Asia,
considered ‘so lethargic and dissipated that it posed a threat to the moral and physical energies
of young Australia’ (Walker, 35).
- 33 -
Alison Broinowski sees the promotion of the ‘tall, tanned, tough, laconic bushman’ in
the light of ‘a male subagenda’ born of the insecurities of the masculinist, patriarchal society.
Fearing to lose more than just of their jobs, gold, and life-styles to Asians, but, specifically,
their women as well, the new national ideal operated ‘to ensure that settler Australians were
preferable to Asians as lovers, husbands, and sons’. At the same time, Australian women were
chastised for the fears of Asian invasion, since, if it should ever come, it would be because they
had failed in their duty to fill Australia with sons. It would be they and their daughters,
furthermore, ‘who would be the first to suffer unspeakable fates’ at the hands of the modern
Mongols (Broinowski, 1992, 34).
For empire, for king and country, for racial purity and a ‘White Australia’, Australian
men and women were exhorted early in the 20th century to prepare for inevitable battle against
the ‘alien host’ (White, 126). When the first World War did come, the Australasian White
Cross League addressed departing troops to ‘Come back clean, to be the fathers of a pureblooded and virile Australian race’. (White, 127; Quote from: Richard Arthur, Keep Yourself
Fit: The Dangers of Venereal Disease: An Address given at the Camps in Queensland and New
South Wales, Australasian White Cross League, Sydney, 1916, p. 11.)
While the world was preoccupied with events in Europe, Australians looked to the
Americans to stem Japanese expansion in the Pacific and maintain the status quo. Indeed,
Japan did aid the British in China and the Pacific during the war, but seeing them occupy
German islands north of the equator convinced the Australians, who had done the same in the
south of the equator, that they must become more politically independent (Levy, 41).
2.8. New Attitudes on the ‘Near North’
After the armistice many Australians felt, as a former colony, it was logical to take a
positive view of post-war nationalist movements in Asia, as exemplified in India (Levy, 42).
The first expression of the ‘Far East’ being Australia’s ‘Far North’ or ‘Near North’ came in the
1920s and 30s, but indicated more an appreciation of the increased threat than anything else.
Australia was still the healthy but lazy nation, betrayed by geography and Newtonian physics,
- 34 -
exposed to Asian plagues and predators; underpopulated, well-paid Australia
was seen as a vacuum, ready to suck in the cheap labouring masses of Asia;
democratic Australia was an undefended target for atheistical Asian
communists; gravity would cause a yellow tide to rush towards Australia, red
paint to rundown, floodgates to burst and dominoes to fall in succession
(Broinowski, 1992, 6).
Loyalty to Great Britain remained high, but the United States was rising in popularity
among Australians. The U.S. role in the Asia-Pacific as stabilising force was unquestioned
even while Australians were recognising their own growing role as a major power in the
region. Australia, however, still had no policy of its own for dealing with Asia and could not
depend on Great Britain to provide one and back it up with effective force. As Japanese
actions in Manchuria and China became more disturbing through the 1930s, looking to the
U.S. for assistance became universally acceptable in Australia (Levy, 45-53).
When the Japanese attacked the U.S. and the British Empire in December, 1941, and
with Great Britain heavily occupied in Europe, Australia took on greater political and military
independence. At the same time, necessity helped overcome the reluctance of even the most
loyal supporters of the empire to ask the U.S. for help. In the ANZAC pact (the Australia New
Zealand Agreement concluded in 1940) Australia would assume control and/or influence in
neighbouring islands to provide for the welfare of native peoples, and determined to play a
major role in the Pacific (Levy, 63).
Yet, Levy notes the slow-moving limitations of
Australian thinking:
It was doubtful whether most Australians recognized the political and
economic implications of the regional system. The importance of Indonesia
and Malaya were understood; the rest of Asia seemed to remain beyond
discussion. India served as an example of British colonial genius, and some
sympathy was apparent for her freedom movement. The Chinese were
appreciated for their valiant stand against the Japanese, otherwise there was
indifference. The same seemed true with the Japanese in the early years of the
war. As the cruelty of their acts in Asia became known, hostility began, and
agitation by racists found some response. At the same time, there was some
response to agitation of some Aussis for a reconsideration of the White
Australia policy in favour of liberalization. (Levy, 66)
Australia still suffered from myopia, though its range of vision was growing slowly. It
continued to feel like an outpost of civilization in an alien Asia, but war effected rudimentary
change on the reluctant Australians. Levy mentions specifically that: 1) the circle of Aussis
- 35 -
interested in foreign affairs was growing; 2) receptiveness of the public to ideas concerning
world affairs became greater; and 3) the information media devoted more space to foreign
matters and, significantly, for the first time sent their own correspondents to gather the news
(Levy, 67).
The Australia perception of Asians began to change as well. While prior to the First
World War Asia was undifferentiated and Asians ‘easy-going, colourful, lazy, in need of
control and care’, the effect of the Second World War was at least to separate Japan from the
rest of the continent. The bombing of Darwin in 1942 seemed to confirm the vague reality of
the long-imagined threat of the Asian hordes descending on a helpless Australia, and singled
Japan out from the traditional images of Asia. In a reversal of roles, Japan became vilified for
its ‘rhetoric of civilisation and nationhood, which was identical to that of the Western powers,
and furthermore seemed to assume that they had the same kind of imperialist rights, including
to Australia’, which became in turn the easy-going, lazy and defenceless land.
That
Australians later maintained their old stereotypical view of Asia could have been due to the
images of post-war Asia, where the bombed-out landscape and starving masses reconfirmed
the need of aid from superior, Western nations (Hamilton, 24).
With all of Asia experiencing throes of change after W.W.II, Australia developed a
pragmatic Asian policy, but still one dominated by old attitudes and directed without focus at
Asia in general (Levy, 68). The unsettled and violent circumstances, especially in Southeast
Asia, and the disappearance of Western safeguards made its position appear insecure. Just
when Australia was coming to maturity, the fears of Asians rushing down and appropriating
the empty lands seemed more real than ever (Levy, 69).
Once again, Western decisions set the tone of Australia’s own regional debate. The
Atlantic Charter (1941) promised post-war self-determination for Asia, but after the war the
former colonial nations sought to re-establish their rule. Some argued that Australia should
pursue a new and positive approach, and learn to live with Asians. Asian independence
movements should be taken as a tribute to British imperial heritage, and should be given
- 36 -
Australian aid (Levy, 71). On the other hand, Australians showed no inclination of changing
the central element of their relationship with Asia—the White Australia policy. To many
Australians the colonial order ought best be re-established, but that did not necessarily mean
under the old colonial powers. This was especially true in the Dutch East Indies, later to
become Indonesia.
Continued white control seemed most appropriate there, and ‘the
Australians fitted quite naturally into the set of white powers with influence over the darkskinned native peoples of the region’ (Vickers, 65). Australia knew such aggressive, neocolonialist attitudes would gain no friends in the region, but three old facts seemed
inescapable: First, Asia was to be guarded against, not freely associated with; second, all
Asians were the same; and third, friendly relations among nations were based on kinship or
similar foundations, and hence virtually impossible with Asians (Levy, 70).
2.9. The Australian Way of Life
These realisations resulted in a new approach to immigration in the large-scale post-war
policies by which floods of non-British but still European immigrants arrived in the 1950s.
While the White Australia policy kept out non-white immigrants as undesirable, the nonBritish immigrants were seen as a problem which could be dealt with internally. A policy of
assimilation, under the banner ‘The Australian Way of Life’, was pursued with the goal of
incorporating the new immigrants, and Aborigines as well, into a common, homogenous way
of life. European immigration was perceived as a solution to the ‘populate or perish’ problem
associated with the Asian masses, but the influx of so many alien cultures offered its own
threat. ‘The Australian Way of Life’ campaign of assimilation was, in White’s view at least,
really a thinly veiled attempt at suppression of any forms of non-conformity.
It not only denied the possibility that the cultural traditions of migrants might
enrich Australian life, but also denied the existence of different ‘ways of life’
among Australians themselves. Cultural differences were an affront to a
society which demanded social uniformity, if not equality. (White, 160)
As the economy, freed from the sole task of being a raw materials supplier for Britain,
shifted from primary to secondary industry, the national myth grounded in rural life and the
outback was becoming increasingly unrepresentative of the population (Pearce, 30). The
- 37 -
vague notion of a specific way of life in Australia, as unreal as it was in fact, rehabilitated
suburban, industrial-based life as the new ideal built around ‘the car, the family, the garden and
a uniformly middle-class life-style’, and furnished what White calls ‘a useful tool of
intolerance’ in internal affairs (White, 160-68).
Reality forced Australia, meanwhile, to look for new external security arrangements.
Britain’s weakness, the new American presence in the Asia-Pacific, and Australia’s growing
cosmopolitan consciousness made it clear that the old views were inadequate in the new Asia
(Levy, 74).
Yet, it was less clear just what that new arrangement should be, and,
paradoxically, Australian interest in Asia after the war was waning. The region was in turmoil.
China was going communist. Japan was defeated, but still seen as a potential aggressor.
American policy there and throughout the region was suspect (Levy, 86).
Australians
supported the creation of a NATO-like organisation in Asia, but while Asian participants were
necessary to dispel the appearances of neo-colonial racism, it was hard to figure out which
ones to invite. In 1951, the ANZUS treaty bound Australia, New Zealand and the United
States in a sort of Monroe Doctrine for the Asia-Pacific. There was general public approval,
but some complained that it made Australia into a base for the ‘atom-mad’ Americans, and
constituted another step in the American invasion of Australia (Levy, 96).
In 1954 the SEATO (South East Asia Treaty Organization) agreement was signed to
scepticism that the vaguely written treaty, which lacked definite military commitments and
failed to get the signatures of several important Asian nations, would be able to do much to
stem aggression and contribute to stability in the region. It did mark, however, an important
step in the evolution of Australia’s realisation that the ‘Far East’ was really their ‘Near North.’
Levy explains the hesitation in the advances:
Aussis tended to be pragmatists, welcoming self-government on principle, but
only to be sustained where and when the people are fit for self-government.
Oz was in no way going to encourage the end of colonialism. Between the
lines of sympathy declarations for Asian nationalism, there could also be read
some lurking nervousness about Australia’s security position if all these
islands and some other areas should become truly independent. For over a
hundred years it had been almost a dogma in Oz that the islands to the north
must be in friendly hands. Once they were independent, it was not easily
- 38 -
predictable under the prevailing circumstances in what hands they would be.
No wonder then that Australian governments of all complexions seemed more
eager at times to secure the military co-operation of Western rulers of these
islands than to engineer their abdication. (Levy, 174)
One thing is nevertheless clear: Australians were learning to like the idea of being the
bridge between Asia and the West. Australia was not burdened with the onus of colonialism
and imperialism as were the other Western powers, and should therefore present herself to her
Asian neighbours as the land of great social experiments and a fellow escapee from
colonialism.
Beginning in 1951, the Colombo Plan engaged Australia in economic and
cultural projects in 17 Asian countries and 30 fields, including engineering, public
administration, education and nursing. Some argued it was too expensive for Australia’s
limited resources, but its success was taken as a necessary response to aggressive regional aid
programs of the USSR (Levy, 175-76). The specific influence on individual Australians is
more difficult to measure, but in ‘Crossing the Gap’ Christopher J. Koch describes how as a
young man travelling by ship to Europe he met some of the Asian students returning home
after taking degrees from Australian universities. This chance encounter introduced Koch to a
new world, opened his mind to Asia’s cultural heritage and myths, and eventually led to the
writing of his Asian novels.
2.10. The Cold War, Vietnam, and Deconstruction of the Old Order
The communist threat persisted as a concern throughout the Cold War, of which
Southeast Asia was a focal point. For Australians, at least, the idea of a communist Indonesia,
after years of Japanese anti-Western propaganda as well as Dutch warnings of racial and
communist aggression in an independent Indonesia, sending waves of soldiers across the
narrow straits in Australia was not at all preposterous. Caught between the horns of wanting to
support the nationalists in Indonesia and not wanting to undermine the old colonial order,
Australian participation in the region, supporting the nationalists yet hoping for a long and
stable transition, was deemed to be an inevitable response (Levy, 180). This sense of a destiny
of participation led to the demise of the perception of Australia as a lonely outpost of Western
civilization. There seemed no alternative to becoming a participating member of the Southeast
- 39 -
Asian community, though Australians were still determined not to pay the price of their own
security or interests (Levy, 175).
When the French were unexpectedly defeated at Dien Bien Phu and withdrew from
Indochina, Ho Chih Minh assumed the role of the evil Mongol Emperor for many in Australia.
Fearing the fall of Southeast Asia to the communists, Australia argued for the partition of
Indochina and increased involvement of the United Nations.
In Malaysia rebel activity
increased so rapidly that Australia chose in 1955 to engage its troops in the fighting there. The
sense of isolation crept back in as Australia felt itself forced into fighting against communist
aggression, for its own self-defence, and to prevent a wider conflagration (Levy, 189). Falling
back on its ANZUS allies, Australia found itself supporting the American build-up in Vietnam
in the 1960s. The Americans shared the policy of separation through engagement, but the
Australians discovered that this policy was incompatible with desires to develop closer
relations with its Asian neighbours.
The sense of isolation persisted as strongly as ever as the seemingly simple security of
the past was being overwhelmed by the confounding uncertainties of the future. Aubrey
Hardwick voices this sentiment in C. J. Koch’s Highways to a War when he tells Mike
Langford,
When Britain does pull out of here—when Phoenix Park closes down—that
will be the final end of the empire. Funny: I believe an Australian of my
generation finds this more bloody poignant than the Brits themselves do;
they've lost interest, or numbed themselves. But the facts are the facts. The
most successful empire since Rome’s: finally gone. And Australia naked: our
shield in Asia taken away. (HW, 92)
Australia was looking for a sense of self in international relations but was finding itself
being swept along by events.
The perception of the foreign wars in which Australia
participated, always carriers of meaning more mythical than geographic, changed radically.
Whereas exotic place names like ‘Gallipoli’, ‘Villers Bretonneux’ and ‘Kokoda’ had stood for
‘national sacrifice, courage and virtuosity’, ‘Vietnam’ became ‘a signifier of internecine social
conflict, of clumsy diplomacy and military malpractice’ (Gerster, Asian Destinies, 62).
Australia’s participation in the Vietnam War drew it into the international dissident movement
- 40 -
which, among many other divisive effects, fostered dissatisfaction with ‘the Australian Way of
Life’, now identified with an older generation and irrational consumerism (White, 167). The
1966 election was centered on the Vietnam question, and produced a record majority for the
Liberals, who had exploited traditional fears of Asia, of communism and of internal subversion
(White, 168). ‘Asia’ to Australians in the mid-60s was once again China. ‘To acknowledge
regional complexity and difference contradicted the meaning of “Asia” as the pejorative
antonym of “Australia”’, and the war in Vietnam was fought to halt the downward thrust of the
Chinese Communists (Gerster, Asian Destinies, 63).
And yet, Robin Gerster notes, the
Vietnam experience, ‘riddled with contradictions’,
was the historical moment when Australia realised that Asia was the Near
North, not the Far East. But Vietnam revealed nothing if not Australia’s
political subservience to America and its fear of acting independently in its
own region (Gerster, Asian Destinies, 67).
The political divisions subsequent to the war led to the end of ‘The Australian Way of
Life’ approach to immigration. ‘Assimilation’ gave way to ‘integration’ in official attitudes
towards migrants in Australia. ‘Pluralism’ was the new way of coping with the failures with
the old program. At the same time, the ‘White Australia’ policy was quietly replaced, and
small numbers of non-Europeans were admitted in the late 1960s. In the 1970s Australians
identified so much with their ‘multi-cultural’ society that ‘multi-culturalism’ itself became
something of a fad, beckoning the formal abandonment of the ‘White Australia’ policy (White
169). The old prejudices were being thrown out, and a new look at the map prompted some to
attest that Australia was in fact a part of Asia. Others even carried the deconstructionist
argument to its logical, absurd end, saying that ‘Asia, being a construct of the European
imagination, did not exist, and hence there was no threat’ (Broinowski, 1992, 6). ‘Selfdetermination’ became the new policy on migrants and Aborigines, and by the early 1970s
Australia was promoting itself as a pluralistic, tolerant, multi-cultural society, although, White
points out, ‘it did not reflect any real improvement in the position of Aborigines and migrants,
most of whom remained on the lower rungs of the socio-economic ladder’ (White 169).
- 41 -
In fact, the notion of some socio-political union between Australia and Asia along with
constantly rising levels of Asian immigration resulted in a resurgence in invasion theories and
literature. No matter the directions taken by politicians and intellectuals, as long as Australia,
though ‘much changed from its original position of supporting the ‘White Australia’ policy,
remained predominantly white and European, it was basically opposed to the idea of the
Asianisation of Australia or the future of a Eurasian nation’ (Ouyang Yu, 1995, Invasion, 80).
Young, affluent middle-class Westerners, meanwhile, were discovering Asia as a
paradise of ‘peaceful, palm-lined beaches, sun-drenched landscapes, tropical nights, the
mysteries of the Orient’—all available at very low prices. Hippies flooded in, looking for the
Asia of transcendental experiences obtained through drugs, sex, and religious ecstasies. They
were followed by the tourists, who wanted all this plus modern plumbing and easier travelling.
The ‘underlying desire’, Hamilton writes, was—beyond the surface requirements for a paradise
full of erotic natives, good surfing beaches and Australian beer—for hippies and tourists alike
‘to escape the constructions of urban Western life and re-discover the hidden native in
themselves’ (Hamilton, 25). The Australians and other Westerners had indeed ‘rediscovered’
Asia, but their perception remained the old stereotypical land of exotic dreams. The psychic
wounds caused by the war in Vietnam led to the expansion of the sex trade in Asia. ‘The Asia
woman (and boy) has increasingly become the means through which another form of power
can be discovered’, writes Hamilton. In stark contrast to Western women, ‘Asia women are
constructed as “really feminine”, docile, undemanding and childlike’. Sexuality is associated
with nakedness and thus ‘nativeness’, and so ‘is seen to be liberated by being in “Asia”’
(Hamilton, 26). Having sex with a ‘native’ would serve to restore the Westerner’s sense of
superiority, not only over the Asian but over one’s Western partners as well.
In Australia Prime Minister Whitlam ushered in what he called the ‘New Nationalism’, a
vague concept which was associated with renewed pride in Australian achievement, especially
in the cultural field, but also with doubts about the increasing foreign involvement with the
Australian economy. The most obvious targets were American mining giants, but, White
- 42 -
remarks, so was the threatening industriousness of such as the ethnic-Chinese capitalists. And
yet the Australian commitment to mining and its repercussions has led down a social, cultural
and economic path of no return:
The old commitments to egalitarianism have disappeared; pluralism has
produced not a more tolerant society, but a more unequal one. A new
economic orthodoxy is beginning to operate in favour of export industries; no
end is offered to high unemployment; welfare is cut and education and the
taxation system are restructured to favour the haves over the have-nots. The
future is tied, not to pastoral, or agricultural, or manufacturing industry, but to
mining, a sector of the economy which, because it is capital-intensive and
largely foreign-controlled, promises only to exacerbate the inequalities. It is
tied, not to the cities, but to the outback, not to the south-east, but to the north
and west. (White, 171)
2.11. The Backlash
And so once again, just when it seems like there is hope of pinning it down once and for
all, the developing sense of an Australian identity, like the Cheshire Cat, evaporates. The
inevitable backlash, exemplified in the reactionary political movements of the 1990s,
represents an attempt by white Australians to wrest control of what they still see as their just
and proper domain. Alison Broinowski sees no difference between the ‘One Australia’ slogan
which came out of the bicentenary celebrations in 1988 and the ‘room for only one’ slogan of
1888. Yet, she faults those who find in all Asians ‘undifferentiated incarnation of their worst
fears’ equally with those who have ‘idealized Japanese industriousness and artistry, Chinese
civilisation and Indian philosophy’ for their similarly selective use of information. Those who
‘offered wiser counsel’, she laments, have generally been ‘shouted down’ (Broinowski, 1992,
17).
Frank Dunn has written an impressive satirical argument against the perverse directions
of multi-culturalism, which he calls ‘a sort of new religion’ in Australia. Dunn points out, as
his title makes clear, that, according to the tenants of multi-culturalism, it seems as though all
cultures are good, but Australia’s own culture is somehow an exception to the rule. Among
those principles of multi-culturalism, Dunn notes, ‘there is no Australian identity, and no
Australian culture’, and in fact no ‘Australians’ unless one is willing to talk about ‘the whole
mass of the residents’ (Dunn, 40-41). Dunn is calling for a new sense of reason in the domains
- 43 -
of immigration, education, and identity, and certainly makes the points that there are limits to
the usefulness of the Australian exercise in self-effacement, and that seeing everyone as equal
and equally wonderful is, in fact, the equivalent of not seeing anyone at all. Yet, for all its
good points, this article signals a return of the spirit of the old nationalist, ‘White Australia’
treatises. Dunn avoids putting his argument in terms of the Asian question, saying, ‘I regard
that as largely a false issue’, and invoking the license accorded to ‘the prejudices of the
elderly’. In the next breath, however, he compares Asians with taxes, as they are both imposed
on Australia by ‘fools in government and administration, who on ideological grounds, without
adequate thought or planning, or expressed popular approval, have engaged in a vast social
experiment of unpredictable outcome’. These culprits, Dunn complains, are not the ones who
‘have to make the sacrifice’ when Asian children take jobs and university places from the
children of those who have not the means to prevent it (Dunn, 43).
The problem may be, as Robin Gerster points out, that
Marriage with ‘Asia’ has for twenty and more years been held up to
Australians as a promise and an aspiration, as the national future. But the
honeymoon is over, Critics of ‘Asianisation’ of the country are cropping up in
numbers, disdaining intimate ties with the region with the vehemence of
disenchanted lovers (Gerster, Bali, 353).
Gerard Lee explores Gerster’s theme in Troppo Man (1990), describing what he labels the
‘Nobel Savage Syndrome’:
‘He says a lot of people get it the first time they come to Bali. They think the
Balinese are living in perfect harmony and can’t do anything wrong. They treat
the whole island like it’s a cathedral. The Church of the Noble Savage … .’
(Troppo Man, 96)
Frank Dunn and Gerard Lee obviously do not share politics, but they do agree that the
recent tendency to dress Asia as the princess at the ball is no more honest or realistic than it
was to make her into the stepdaughter charged with the dirty work. What seems to be central
to this issue is that Australians have yet to come to grips with their perceptions of Asia, and
that their perception of themselves is inexorably tied in with this problem.
- 44 -
2.12. Conclusion
In any case, interest in the Asia-Australia relationship remains high, as evidenced in the
high rates of tourist visits and of the numerous literary works redefining Asia from an
Australian perspective (and vice versa). By the late 1980s Asians outnumbered Europeans in
making up a third of all immigrants into Australia; the International Development program led
to increased academic co-operation in the region; and the Asian Studies Council began
implementing a program to ‘produce a reasonable number of “Asia-literate” graduates with a
working knowledge of an Asian language’ (Myers, 27). The high expectations and admiration
of things Asian of recent years, however, is being seen as being as specious as the
demonisation of the ‘yellow hordes’ a century before. Enthusiasm is being replaced by a neocolonial anxiety and distaste. The warm embrace is turning into a new form of the old cold
shoulder (Gerster, Bali, 353). Some cynically translate the calls about Australia’s need to
embrace Asian cultures and penetrate its markets by proclaiming old fears in a new formula:
‘Australia must get into Asia before Asia gets into Australia’ (Gerster, Asian Destinies, 68).
This ‘reorientation of attitudes to the multi-headed monster “Asia”’ reflects,
nevertheless, the revision of the way Australians see themselves and the world in which they
live. No longer just ‘an assemblage of ancient civilizations encrusted with superstition and
wearied with age’, Asia often seems more like a ‘tiger country, bounding with energy and full
of entrepreneurial zeal’. Getting closer to Asia then might let some of that energy rub off and
enhance Australia’s own (Walker, 35), though getting too close to tigers is not a generally
recognized prescription for long, healthy life. Australia does not know quite what to make of
Asia, but ‘the fashionable if simplistic ideas’ which led to the sense of a shared colonial
experience and a nascent Asian identity are seemingly meeting more resistance ‘as Australia
comes to grips with what belonging to Asia implies and entails’ (Gerster, Bali, 354).
In addition to its inherited European vision of the ‘Orient’, Jasmine Gooneratne writes of
two principle forces wrenching the Australian response to modern Asia. The first is its
colonial past which juxtaposes the ethnic relationship it shares with Britain and the painful
- 45 -
history of subjection to a colonial/imperial foreign power which it shares with its Asian
neighbours. The second is the legacy of World War II, during which a militarily aggressive
Japan was countered by Australians fighting with Britain and the Empire. This is the single
instance of Australian participation in a war in which it was itself at risk and left deep and
enduring attitudes of resentment and fear until this day (Gooneratne, 1992, Asia, 341).
The emerging nations of Asia have shown strong signs of being able to overcome the
disadvantages of the post-colonial world. Singapore has gained independence and economic
success. India has proved itself to be able to defeat the British empire through pure force of
will.
Even war-ravaged countries like Vietnam and Cambodia are rejoining the world
economic community. There are also disturbing signs out of Asia. Antagonism between old
rivals—India against Pakistan; Malaysia against Indonesia—plus the continuing internal
political troubles coming out of weaknesses in democratic systems and ethno-religious
conflicts are causes for doubt over Asia’s proposed role as model and/or partner for Australia.
The self-contradictory goals of Australia—to reaffirm its co-operation with the West; to
maintain its security; to promote good relations with Asian nations; to limit non-white
immigration is the knot which Australians have never been able to untie. That they definitely
recognise Southeast Asia as their ‘Near North’ seems certain in light of recent events in East
Timor in which Australia has taken the lead in bringing in an international presence to help that
troubled emerging state. Yet, the continuing political, social and economic turbulence seems
to justify a return to a perception dominated by ‘Orientalist’ terms. Perhaps it is fair to call the
Asia-Pacific a very exotic, enticing, and threatening region, and it is not so surprising that
many are not sure how near they want to get to their North.
- 46 -
The Literary Tradition
3.1. Introduction
Driven by pressing needs for new socio-cultural points of view, Australia has in the
post-Vietnam period been experiencing a growing movement for renewal. David Tacey writes
that the ‘old stoical, laconic “masculinist” national persona is now widely viewed as
anachronistic and burdensome’ (Tacey, 118), but just what awaits Australia in their new,
deconstructed world is yet unknown. The old Australian ego is being eroded, and there is
always the possibility ‘that a new stability or point of integration will not be achieved’. There
will be casualties in the process of psychological reorientation, but, while the Australian
national spirit ‘may be young or frail, the time has come to allow it to mature and to expose it
to the deep unconscious’ (Tacey, 122-23).
The process of psychological reorientation which is fascinating writers and critics today
is bringing all that which is known into question, stripping away the psychological and
spiritual armour of Western culture, and seeing reality invaded by a mythopoetic ‘Otherworld’.
Tacey says that the challenge for Australians is to integrate the two competing worlds of
today—one represented by the old Euro-centric, patriarchal order; the other by the re-emergent
ancient sciences and mysteries of Asia and the Middle East.
This implies, Tacey argues, neither clinging to the new or throwing out the old, but
balancing the two at ‘a new point of cultural and personal equilibrium’. Blanche d’Alpuget
and C. J. Koch put this approach into practice, exploring that which Tacey describes as ‘the
excesses and tyranny of the patriarchal institutions on the one side, and the excesses and
indulgences of the matriarchal counter-culture on the other side’. Their characters experience
the alienation, loneliness, and psychological conflict between warring parts of the psychic
totality which he warns about (Tacey, 193), and in the end they can not be properly seen except
in the context of the dual world in which they live.
- 47 -
3.2. The Outward Search For That Which Lies Within
White Australians have always been looking outward to find themselves. This is not
unusual for a colonial culture, especially one which has never burned its socio-cultural bridges
with the cataclysm of revolution, but Australians seem somehow more sensitive than other
nations about questions of identity. It could be that they are intimidated by the Aboriginal
ability to identify with the here and now, perhaps augmented by the fact that so many other
former colonies did undertake revolutionary movements while they meekly awaited their
master’s gift of emancipation, but, for whatever reason, white Australians have continually
looked over their shoulders, across the seas or back in time as if they might find themselves
somewhere else. It is a habit with serious psychic consequences. The literature is peppered
with the sense of self-belittlement which white Australians feel, as in Christopher J. Koch’s
Across the Sea Wall when the protagonist, Robert O’Brien, is introduced to the Indian
businessman:
Ram turned to him. ‘Mrs O’Brien is Latvian, I understand. You are
English?’
‘Australian,’ O’Brien answered.
‘Oh—yes,’ Ram said. His dark eyes rested on O’Brien with vague
regret, as though the young man had confessed to some embarrassing defect
which he was prepared to overlook, together with the tramp’s clothes with
which O’Brien was disgracing his club. (ASW, 111)
The problem is not that there is anything wrong with being Australian, but it is one of
knowing what being Australian means. Or, as Koch has another Indian character put it, that
‘you bloody Australians don’t know what you are. You don’t think much of colonialism, but
then suddenly you’re waving the Union Jack’ (ASW, 96). The criticism causes O’Brien to
reflect defensively, and he finds himself feeling ‘profound mistrust of India: India was chaos,
and sudden horrors’ (ASW, 95), and sorry for the British Empress whose statue ‘grilled in the
terrible heat, a figure of fun, her majesty a joke’. Hot, tired, and ‘sickened by the beggars’,
O’Brien, who has ‘a sudden thirst for anything familiar’ (ASW, 96) when suddenly nothing is,
is suffering an attack of identity crisis. Like many of the figures studied here, O’Brien has a
better sense of what he is not than of what he is.
- 48 -
On the other hand, the incomplete sense of identity may be what gives Australian
literature its suppleness, as if the feeling that the Australian identity not being fixed or
complete gives writers a license to explore the world in search of themselves. It is not
surprising that Australian literary encounters with Asia would first produce ‘the exotic Asia
delighting the tourist, the infernal Asia torturing the jungle soldier, or the non-union Asia
threatening to destroy the democratic rights of the working man’ (Tiffin, 1984, 468), for they
are coming out of the European tradition, imbued with the prejudices, images and expectations
that come with those genres. What is interesting, however, is how Australian writers are
separating themselves from the strict ranks of European tradition, and creating a new branch
which reflects better the unique Australian experiences of and perspectives on Asia.
3.3. The Sense of Loss and ‘Otherness’
The first white Australians were mostly ‘transported’ there as convicted criminals,
representing elements of the worse and also the best—in the case of the militant union
organisers or Irish nationalist leaders, for example—of British society. Thomas Keneally’s
Bring Larks and Heroes gives a contemporary perspective of the origins of white Australia
with the story of Corporal Halloran and his convict-love, Anne. Halloran plans to stay in the
penal colony until Anne’s time is served, and then get them both back to England where they
expect to find a good life together, but they share the fate of most convicts in that they will
never leave the Antipodes again, and worse, that all that their admirable love and commitment
will get them is a bad death.
After the early settlement of the convict population came waves of others who chose to
come, but normally with every intention to return ‘home’ once they had made their fortune.
Henry Handle Richardson’s The Fortunes of Richard Mahoney presents two such characters.
As a young and conservative, rather impractical and romantic but honourable man, Richard
Mahoney let himself be swayed by the tales of fortune and wonder across the sea, and
embarked for what he expected to be a two- or three-year adventure. When he finally realises
that abandoning his less-than-promising but still not desperate life in England was a mistake,
- 49 -
he has to face the probability that he will never be able to return. His younger, more affable
character is spoiled by this dilemma, and he turns more intolerant, puritanical and humourless,
even as he becomes more successful with the support of his wife Polly. Sent over to Australia
to escape a hopeless situation back in Ireland, Polly shows the resourcefulness and strength of
character to come to grips with the exigencies of the hard colonial life, making the tough
decisions which her silly husband cannot.
Richardson is in effect only reversing
masculine/feminine roles, not transforming them, and so keeping this female writer with a
male pen-name in Australia’s paternalistic tradition.
Later came others whose homes had been destroyed by war, or whose very families had
been sacrificed to the evil of European ideologues, and whose lives have become an important
theme in Australian literature. Many of these immigrants came penniless, but none came
naked—clothed at least with rich histories and cultures and armed with a hardened will to
survive. Louis Nowra brought the theme of suspect identity to the stage in his Summer of the
Aliens, the story of a pubescent boy growing up in an environment where everything and
everyone can be construed as alien, from his parents, to his friends, to his uncle’s silent
Japanese wife, to the pretty, crippled refugee girl, and even to the featureless, volcanic
Australian landscape.
This feeling of foreignness shared by many Australians is the root of the leitmotif of the
search for identity by a population where nearly everyone feels like an exile, alien, or an
‘Other’. Generations of Australians made pilgrimages back to Europe to find themselves.
Then, with the end of the Second World War, came the dismantling of the European colonial
empires. Britain, in particular, turned its own attention inward, and, step by step, left its former
colonies to rely on themselves. In Australia this manifested itself in a perceived weakening of
the old Mother Country, a fact which the Australians had surely noticed when the Japanese
routed the British in the Pacific and the Aussis found they could fare better fighting the Asian
enemy themselves. Nevertheless, the vacuum of power left by the retreat of the British
colonial forces and the increased instability in the region led Australia to turn to the United
- 50 -
States for a new role model, and American influences in lifestyle and language were soon to be
seen and reflected in the literature.
This shift from British to American political leadership is explored in such novels as
Christopher Koch’s Highways to a War, which spans a long enough time to include the
eventual decline in American influence as a result of the defeat of the U.S. and its Australian
allies in Vietnam. This decline then led to Australia’s turn toward Asia in its search for
identity, cementing the re-designation of the ‘Far East’ as the ‘Near North’, representing more
a shift in Australia’s sense of geography than anything else. At the same time, Asian nations,
led by Japan and Singapore, emerged as huge economic powers, and Australians had even
more reason to develop ties with these neglected neighbours. Identification with Asia did not
come without its price, however, as traditional, shared cultural and political values were not
easy to find in the Asian nations. Most were nominal democracies at best, and others were
blatant dictatorships. The middle class, so cherished in Western society, did not seem to be
developing as might have been expected in the new capitalist economies. This trend continues
even today, as Australians try to strengthen what would seem to be natural ties with Asia,
while political and economic turmoil acts to undermine the trust necessary to furthering
structural and psychological ties.
3.4. The Orientalist Stereotype
These difficulties sit upon old and well established prejudices. The image of the
Chinaman in Australian literature developed along the lines of the stereotypical images
described in the discourse on ‘Orientalism’ by Edward Said. Cathy Van Der Driesen identifies
Orientalist literary strategies adopted by the Australians, including ‘authorial position’ with
regard to the ‘Other’, ‘narrative voice’, and the ‘kinds of images, themes, motifs’ which deliver
‘lamentably alien’, ‘dehumanizing’, even ‘demonizing’ representations of the Orient (Driesen,
17-18).
Ouyang Yu classifies four basic types of the Chinese stereotype in Australian literature:
including the sensual Chinaman—representing the fear of contamination of the white race
- 51 -
through miscegenation; the money-grubbing Chinaman—greedy and cunning, though also a
cowardly furtive thief; the vindictive Chinaman—who is viciously revengeful because, as a
natural heathen, he cannot learn Christian tolerance and forgiveness; and the comic
Chinaman—the most visible of stereotypes, with the wagging pigtail, funny walk and pidgin
English found in the nursery rhymes of the 19th century as well as adult literature. (Ouyang
Yu, 1995, Bulletin, 139-41) All of these types come together to portray ‘the heathen Chinese
who commit all sorts of crime from gambling, opium-smoking and prostitution to stealing and
spreading disease like leprosy and small pox’ (Ouyang Yu, 1993, 21). They are restricted
usually to a few occupations: as the ubiquitous market gardeners they excel in presenting the
comic Chinaman, illustrated in the following example from Henry Handel Richardson; as
cooks they are sometimes credited for their cuisine, but more often stereotyped as dirty, and
predisposed to eating, and serving to unwitting white diners, dogs and rats (Ouyang Yu, 1993,
22), and, when angered, to urinating in the soup (Ouyang Yu, 1993, 23). Otherwise the
Chinese were pictured as working in the other ‘lower orders’, as laundrymen, diggers,
fishermen, street hawkers, and rubbish collectors, where they maintain the stereotypes of their
race.
Henry Handel Richardson recreated in The Fortunes of Richard Mahoney the kind of
portrait which was so typical in earlier literature, employing many of the old strategies even
though her presentation of the Asian is relatively sympathetic. Mahoney is obliged to bring his
dead drunken neighbour back home one night, and the worst criticism he can lay on the man is
that ‘even a Chinaman rose to impudence about Johnny’s nerves, his foul breath, his cracked
lips’ (FRM, 100). Mahoney’s wife Polly frets later about the unreliable white vegetable man,
who Mahoney insists she buy from, while the Chinese garden farmer is more punctual with his
cheaper and beautiful goods.
Richardson draws on the old tradition, inherited from the English, of Australian writers
who ‘perpetuated condescending antipathy to Chinese in the way they transliterated names and
represented Chinese spoken language’ (Broinowski, 1992, 30). The Chinese gardener’s name
- 52 -
is the stereotypical Ah Sing, but Polly calls him the equally stereotypical nickname for the
Chinese, John. It may have been that Ah Sing was beyond her capacity to remember or
pronounce, but Broinowski notes in The Yellow Lady how it was believed as late as the 1920s
that the Chinese language caused madness in foreigners (Broinowski, 1992, 36). Something
similar seems to happen to Ah Sing whose ridiculous pidgin English comes out of a mouth
which is ‘stretched’ in a too large grin, and, though his vegetables are indeed better than those
of the white man, his sales technique is rather too insistent:
The Chinaman jog-trotted towards them, his baskets a-sway, his mouth
stretched to a friendly grin. ‘You no want cabbagee to-day? Me got velly
good cabbagee,’ he said persuasively and lowered his pole.
‘No thank you, John, not to-day.’
‘Me bling peasant for lilly missee,’ said the Chow, and unknotting a dirty
nosecloth, he drew from it an ancient lump of candied ginger. ‘Lilly missee
eatee him … oh, yum yum! Velly good. My word!’
Polly accepts the gift—though to her niece Trotty, for whom the ginger candy is
intended, the Chinaman is a bogeyman—with an imitated version of his English: ‘Me takee
chowchow for lilly missee’. She relishes ‘such savoury moursels’, but still refuses to buy
anything, even after his offer is repeated ‘with the catlike persistence of his race’(FRM, 171),
as though there would be some guilt in eating delicacies made by less than entirely human
creatures.
An excellent example of the earlier writing about the Chinese in Australia is the Henry
Lawson short story ‘Ah Soon’, first published in Lone Hand in 1911 and reprinted in the
Picador Henry Lawson. Lawson opens his narrative by admitting to anti-Chinese and White
Australia sentiments, but proceeds to relate a tale of a Chinese gardener and his son, who are
very much the image as presented by Henry Handel Richardson, and of the hard work,
generosity and honesty which Lawson said was typical of the Chinese in Australia. The story
combines criticism of the white market gardeners of the day with praise and admiration of the
Chinese, even though clothed in the trappings of casual racism—which Bennett calls the ‘usual
habit of thoughtless generalisation’ (Bennett, 1991, 188). Lawson makes fun of the way the
Chinese dress, speak, and run around selling their vegetables, but points out elements of their
- 53 -
old and remarkable culture, like the water wheel which was used to irrigate the Chinaman’s
garden, ‘of a fashion some ten-thousand years old’ (Picador Henry Lawson, 440). Lawson
praises Ah Soon, who never whipped his horse and who offered his dried up pumpkins free of
charge to help sustain the hungry cattle of the narrator’s family, as well as his son, Ah See,
who extended in complete trust credit to his customers, and never forgot the help given to his
father by the narrator’s parents.
In a side comment which is completely germane to this study, Lawson points out how
the harsh Australian climate helps overcome racist tendencies. In times of drought, certainly
rather common in the bush, everyone, ‘saints and sinners, Christian and heathen, European and
Asiatic’, would work together to survive (Picador Henry Lawson, 440). This is an interesting
observation of a public man who ‘feared the possibility of Asian domination in Australia’
(Bennett, 1991, 188), who has been called ‘a nationalist who believed that Jews wanted to take
over Australia, using Japanese as a front’ (Broinowski, 1992, 10), and who was one of the
Bulletin’s most influential proponents of anti-Asian sentiment (Ouyang Yu, 1995, Bulletin,
136). Lawson’s story did, however, soundly condemn racism, even if only because it was the
sort of luxury which could not be tolerated in a hard country like Australia.
Children’s literature took advantage of the marketing and propaganda value of cultural
stereotypes of the period. Sharyn Pearce describes one example, Smiley by Raymond Moore
(1945). Smiley, the young Anglo-Saxon protagonist, conforms to the lineage of Australian
heroic types, expressing the ‘virtues of independence, self-confidence, courage, dislike of
mental activity and distrust and disrespect for authority that were created and embellished by
the radical-nationalist Bulletin’s team of city bushmen in the 1880s and 1890s’. He is ‘an
obvious construction of a mini-Digger, a little larrikin with a heart of gold’ who has a ‘genius
for getting into trouble’ and ‘the Australian male’s supposedly legendary passion for
gambling’. The representative of the race Smiley calls ‘yeller devils’ is the market gardener
Charlie Coy. Charlie hates Smiley for a past wrong, but Smiley’s ‘innate distrust for Orientals
is confirmed when it is later discovered that Charlie has been working as an opium dealer’.
- 54 -
Killing two racial birds with one stereotypical stone, the decadent opium customers are
Aborigines living in a camp outside of town. The moral, Pearce notes, is that there is a close
link between national identity and racial identity, and that non-conformity inevitably threatens
the Australian way of life (Pearce, 35-36).
Thomas Keneally cannot be grouped with such racist literature, but employs many forms
of latent racism in his novels, invoking Orientalist stereotypes in expressions like ‘beyond
China’, which he says means, ‘beyond anything’, evidently somewhere further out than that
region described by the archetypal ‘beyond the Pale’ (Bring Larks and Heroes, 36). When the
soldiers attack the rebellious but unarmed convicts with bayonets, there is a great roar of
shouting and killing. Corporal Halloran is appalled by ‘the death roar of some man, bull,
singer, saint’ amongst the cacophony of rout which Keneally calls ‘Chinese music’ (Bring
Larks and Heroes, 142).
In The Chant of Jimmy Blacksmith Keneally offers a digressive and wonderfully
illustrative tale about Australian identity in which two clerks of the Department of Agriculture
argue about the proposed federation of Australia. One speaks ‘upper-class English’, and
criticises the idea as unworkable, saying ‘there is no such thing as an Australian’ except for an
Aborigine, and makes an appeal to British heritage. The other, of more common stock, is
angered by this talk, and argues that Australians must come together to unite against their
common enemy, who he identifies as ‘the Asiatics’ (The Chant of Jimmy Blacksmith, 15).
3.5. The ‘Asian Invasion’ Genre
This is a humorous version of a whole genre of Australian pulp fiction which exists
since the beginnings of Australian literature and is based on unabashed anti-Asian racism.
‘From the 1880s to the first World War, the fear of an Asian invasion, whether migratory or
military, was a major theme in Australian literature, as it was in Australian politics’ (Meaney,
228).
The ‘Yellow Peril’ or ‘Invasion Scare’ genre of novel ‘amounted almost to an
obsession’, and was exploited in the nation’s cartoons, short stories, plays, films and, most
substantially, novels (Meaney, 229). These participated in the national preoccupation of
- 55 -
defining social and political aspects of the ‘good society’. Whether that translated into
increased self-reliance in national defence, closer alignment with the United States, or even an
outright split with Great Britain, it seemed to many Australians that ‘race, viewed as culture as
well as colour, was the common denominator’ in society (Meaney, 263).
Ouyang Yu notes that ‘Nationalism combined with racism finds in the Chinese a
convenient scapegoat and a necessary antithesis’ (Ouyang Yu, 1995, Invasion, 74). He points
to the ‘projection of paranoia’ which led to the invasion hysteria—also describing origins of
the ‘looking-glass’ metaphor of the Australia/Asia relationship—where a society’s
‘unacceptable impulses’ such as a recognition of self-reproach or self-distrust are attributed to
others.
The projection can also result ‘from splitting the world into good/bad and
superior/inferior dichotomies’, whereby the existence of the bad and inferior within oneself is
denied and projected on a scapegoat. The cultural, religious and racial differences made the
Chinese ideal scapegoats, and the resulting fear and hatred of them as an undesirable ‘Other’
was deep and enduring (Ouyang Yu, 1995, Invasion, 75).
A recent example of this genre is John Warwick Hay’s The Invasion, a novel of the
surprise atomic attack and invasion of a naïve and defenceless Australia by the sinister South
East Asian Republic.
The Asians are all depicted with contempt, especially the stupid,
untrustworthy and unhelpful Chinese cook who gets the station owner’s outraged scorn from
the very first page. Even proving able to survive in the bush when the whites would starve
only lowers him to the level of the Aborigines, whose usual moniker, ‘jackaroos’, equates them
with kangaroos. The white Australians are rough and tough men, acting according to passion
when they are wrong and to cool cunning when right. The Asian soldiers are lazy and careless
malingerers, and the Asian subordinate officers are cowards. The commanding officer is an
uncouth, crude, professional soldier who belches after eating too fast, hates Australia from his
first day there, and is so full of intolerance that he wonders how any country could allow such
a potential traitor as the ‘half-caste’ Lucas to live. The Asian considers being half-caste a
fundamental flaw and reason enough to turn against one’s country. The Australians are
- 56 -
pictured as more egalitarian, and yet share this innate distrust, seeing Lucas as ‘a good shearer.
A true professional, but a trouble-maker’ whose real flaw is being a member of the Australian
Communist Party.
If nothing else, The Invasion is an extreme example of the influence on Australia of
depictions of Asians in popular culture, with such films as those of Buck Rogers, who fought
the evil Mongol emperor, or the Terry and the Pirates comics, which are formative for C. J.
Koch’s hero in Highways to a War. The immediately notable distinction would be that in The
Invasion the popular culture’s image is taken at face value, with Australians still struggling
against the overwhelming forces of the Mongol emperor, while in Highways to a War it is only
a starting point for a young man’s initiation into the complex and enigmatic culture of
Southeast Asia.
3.6. The Literary Impact on Perceptions of the East
Adrian Vickers writes that, as the Southeast Asian region was ‘never a primary focus of
public discourse in Australia’, whatever extant historical sources do remain of Australian
attitudes are best represented in literature. ‘The novels and travel articles, in particular, form
the most coherent and extensive depiction of this part of the world available to Australian
readers’, though they indicate that the broad idea Australians had of the region ‘rarely broke
through to the level of consciousness’. There was generally little desire to know the Asian
region beyond the horizon of expectations which was ‘formed and reflected in the literature’.
This provides no ‘total image of South-East Asia held by all Australians’, but indicates how the
‘suppositions that crept into conceptualisations’ tended to be ‘a local manifestation of an
international set of suppositions and power relations’:
In literature the Malay Islands were fitted into a colonial picture. The ethos of
colonialism was reinforced by a romance genre which depicted the Islands as
the backdrop for white adventures, and in these adventures the normality of
bourgeois life in the West, particularly English bourgeois life, was praised.
This was a bourgeois identity best realised in the novels on that last frontier of
the West, the East. The East was a field of fantasy, a realm of extremes, which
made adventure possible in order to prove the worth of people of English
stock. (Vickers, 66)
- 57 -
Australian writers had a considerable impact on the national perception of Asia, but
many were published in England and owed enormously to the influence of ‘the archetypal
colonial writer’, Rudyard Kipling.
They therefore published ‘as international writers
contributing to an international genre’ which trumpeted ‘the triumph of British values and the
search for manly adventure’.
It was Kipling who, both in his writings and as a public figure, managed to
ground such narratives in a colonial view of the world, so that the Australian
writers who followed him incorporated colonialism within their assumptions
about the nature of the area they used as a setting, and about the workings of
the genre in which they wrote. (Vickers, 67)
The ‘great degree of subtlety’ in his work means that Kipling cannot, in Vickers
estimation, be ‘dismissed as pure imperialism’. His ‘depth of personal knowledge of India’
enabled him to present India and Indians more accurately than other writers. He also argued
‘for the preservation of “pure” native cultures, and sympathised with many aspects of Indian
life, philosophy and religion’. But while he ‘demonstrated the possibilities of moving between
cultures through the eponymous hero’s mastery of disguise’, Kipling’s work is founded on a
belief in ‘the irrevocable difference of races, just as the colonialists’ praise of native cultures is
combined with disdain for those colonial subjects who attempt to cross the racial barrier, either
by being “half-caste” or by acquiring Western education and Western styles’ (Vickers, 69).
Nevertheless, Kipling provided the antecedent for later Australian novels, including those of
d’Alpuget and Koch (who cites his debt to Kipling in ‘Crossing the Gap’, 8, 16), which explore
‘the emotional frontier of humanity, the place where exoticism tested human limits and made
the unbelievable possible’, and which seek out a means of reconciling ‘some lack or absence in
individual characters’ and the needs of society (Vickers, 73).
In comments concerning the Australian short story which are certainly pertinent to the
novel, Bruce Bennett notes how the principle difference from the 1890s to the present is ‘that
the depiction of Asians has extended beyond last century’s goldfields fears of Chinese
takeovers’. Fears, misunderstandings and distrust still predominate, though the images are
sometimes more romanticised and usually more complex due to the greater direct experience
- 58 -
of Australian writers in Asia. Some images represent a ‘fusion of Australian country-bred
values and an instinctive recoil from the directions of Americanised automatism in industry
and life’.
Others express counter-culture reactions against Australian socio-cultural
repressions in light of ‘the extremes of experience’ possible in Asian countries (Bennett, 1986,
60). The simple alternative Australians once faced in response to the world of colonies was ‘to
identify with either the colonised or the colonisers’, and, though it ‘was laced with
ambivalence’, white, Western-minded Australians found ‘the choice already made’ (Vickers,
78). Today the alternative is still there, but the choice not nearly so simple. Australia’s
involvement in Southeast Asian wars has led to a more sceptical, ironic response to the Asian
experience, while closer religious involvement has often resulted in quizzical, ironic
questioning of the meaning and value of Eastern mysticism. The importance of all this,
Bennett remarks, is that ‘an increasing self-consciousness is evident as alternative beliefs and
ways of living are contemplated’ by Australian writers (Bennett, 1986, 60). This opening to
the culture and way of life of the Asian ‘Other’ is in Bennett’s view a very positive
development.
It is precisely the view Australians take of Asia which distinguishes them from their
European forefathers. Ron Blaber discusses the developments in travel writing which indicate
how Australians are struggling with, and overcoming, the dilemma of promoting their
relationship with Asia while holding true to their European roots. The Australian world view
has largely been subservient to the European view, and yet, Blaber argues, as Australia has
turned its eyes toward Asia, it has been able to make an assessment of a region which, unlike
any other, is its own. Most Australians once followed the mould in restraining themselves to
writing mostly about European travels, and even when they wrote about travels elsewhere they
tended to be conditioned to seeing the world from a European perspective, but ‘for those
writers who chose to travel through and write about the Asian region certain significant
differences to their British counterparts emerge’ (Blaber, 50). They seem to have been able to
look to Asia ‘with an almost innocent gaze’ due to having been excluded from direct contact
- 59 -
with European-dominated Asia. Their untrained view then is ‘less assured, less knowing, and
can be read as partially deconstructing orientalist constructions of Asia’ (Blaber, 51). It is
when looking at Asia that Australia produces significant differences with the ‘traditional
imperialist literary mode’, not only producing a new view of Asia but also of Australia itself.
While Blaber notes ‘an inescapable orientalist discursive mode operating within most of the
texts,’ belying Australia’s colonial history, ‘both as colonised and coloniser’, he sees the
‘fractures within the narratives’ about Asia as the first indications of a divergence of the
Australian world view from its European antecedents (Blaber, 56-57).
3.7. A Love/Hate Affair
This innocent capacity to assume new outlooks on Asia is comparable to that attraction
felt in the other Western societies which in the latter half of the twentieth century have been
drawn toward the exotic and mysterious nature of Asian culture, knowledge and art. It is just
that for Australians the appeal of Asia is augmented by a geography which was once held in
check by the priorities of its European and American models. Asia may have at first only been
permitted to serve to supply the cheap and reliable labourers Australia needed, but today
presents apparently viable models of how Australian society and culture might develop.
This, of course, is an extremely problematic view. The dominant classes of Australians,
though hardly representing a racial purity in any sense, are driven to maintain the nation’s
white and Christian nature. And while democracy and capitalism are developing in Asia, these
diverge enough from the traditional Western models to cause many Australians to question
Asia’s commitments to linking political and economic structures. And finally, the continuing
political turmoil, which seems inextricably tied to the political and economic inequities in the
Asian nations, continues to undermine the efforts of those Australians who believe that their
nation’s future would be best served in a working regional association.
Still, Asia has established itself as part of the culture of Australia, and the literature
represents the inescapable attraction Australians feel toward Asia. Robert O’Brien of Across
the Sea Wall experiences this attraction when he travels for the first time by train through
- 60 -
India—an Ozzy encountering for the first time the Emerald City in the wonderful land
‘somewhere over the rainbow’ of the Hollywood film classic, the Wizard of Oz:
O’Brien stared out the window at the new Indian Republic sliding by, flat and
brown as a table-top, enormous, with empty stretches of burnt grass reaching
to the horizon. But the few scattered trees were a surprising emerald green
(ASW, 105).
Juxtaposed with the gleam of a marvellous new land, however, are the inescapable images of
‘thin dogs and naked children’, of poverty and struggle. O’Brien senses that he is ‘on the edge
of emptiness’ and that there ‘was a struggle out there from which he had somehow been
spared’ (ASW, 105), but the fractured world confronting him would not fail to jolt his
Australian psyche into looking for meaning in its own hard, dry life.
3.8. The Australian Vision into the Future
The Asia of today remains a puzzling partner for Australia. Australians are told that
they must ‘participate more fully in the global and Asia-Pacific region’, and judge themselves
not by their own but by multinational standards (Tacey, 117). And so they look out at Asia’s
apparently steady and impressive advances in democracy, socio-economic opportunity and
human rights, but the vision often turns back to its old, ugly and familiar face. Still, there is
promise even in the disturbing view of the Near North. After the Communist crackdown on
the democracy movement in Tiananmen Square in 1989, for example, Australia allowed
thousands of Chinese dissidents to immigrate. The influx of artists, writers and others of
cultural talent brought new vigour into the country, but, more importantly, some believe that
Australia also gained ‘an opportunity to begin to recover what has been lost from historical
memory, hidden in suspect nationalism’. The Asians not only brought tools with which
Australians could ‘negotiate the dangerous future’ of East-West relations, but also gave
Australians ‘a chance to see ourselves in a new light. The mirror of East and West works
many ways’ (Kingsmill, 220-21).
It is paradoxical, writes Fay Zwicky, that Australians persistently see Australia itself as
‘someone else’s country, a homeland so fundamentally altered as a concept as to be no longer
comfortably recognisable as “Home”’, and yet Australian writers are still so drawn to ‘the
- 61 -
physical environment, the strange and harsh beauty of an ancient land’. The themes of
‘nostalgia, loss and lovelessness’ are typically Australian and reflect this paradox which is
most strongly felt by white Australian writers who can no longer feel very comfortable with
their European cultural origins. The ‘scientifically sanctioned rationalistic interpretation of
nature’ has led over the last centuries to a ‘sense of deep spiritual deprivation’, and a
‘severance of the sacred correspondence between the human spirit and the created universe’
(Zwicky, 34). Old sources of strength can no longer be relied on to nourish the spirit of
mankind, though the roots it manages to send down will tap into whatever resources can be
found. Tacey believes the Aboriginal world will be a major cradle of a new Australian spirit.
Many, like d’Alpuget and Koch, ‘have turned to the East in their search for antidotes to the
modernisation and material acquisitiveness of their own cultures’ (Zwicky, 34). They have
turned East to recall and reconstruct the misplaced meaning and symbols of what they call
‘home’.
John McLaren makes a similar call for cultural renewal by tapping ancient
understandings of man’s place in the cosmos, and finds what he sees as the ‘productive myth
for Australia and the Pacific’ in Shakespeare’s The Tempest.
The magician, Prospero,
represents Australia’s cultural links both with Europe, through his despotic rule of the island,
and with America, through his scientific control of nature which associates him with the
culmination of the Renaissance and Enlightenment, and yet he wisely rejects both.
sIn breaking his staff, freeing his subjects, and entrusting the future to the
feminine spirit of Miranda, the one who marvels, rather than to the masculine
lords of misrule whose nominal authority is restored, Prospero foretells the
abdication of power that alone can make real the promises of knowledge.
(McLaren, 46)
Sadly, McLaren writes, Australia ‘has rarely listened to the many voices his magic can reveal
in nature’, preferring ‘to follow the example given at the opening of the play, when Prospero
uses his powers to subdue nature. The consequence is that nature ‘has taken its revenge,
turning settlements into dust and salt, and alienating people from the land’ (McLaren, 46-47).
- 62 -
3.9 Conclusion
The marvelling, feminine voices of enlightenment discussed by McLaren and Tacey are
those heard and relayed by Blanche d’Alpuget and Christopher J. Koch , though, to all of them,
it seems much of the earth is already laid bare. By confronting fractures in Australian and nonAustralian perspectives of Asia, d’Alpuget and Koch’s protagonists are joining a long tradition
in facing up to the fractures within the Australian perspective of itself. The message of reenchantment is at least as ancient as the voices which express themselves in the Bible, the
Vedas, or the Aboriginal cliff paintings, and has been heard throughout history whenever
conditions demanded more radical measures than merely propping up the old way of things. It
remains a question whose ramifications may come down, as Henry Lawson pointed out, to
simple human survival. It is, at least, certainly one which weighs heavily on the developing
identity of modern-day Australia.
- 63 -
The Cliché as Writer’s Tool
4.1. Introduction
Neither economics nor geography allows Australia the luxury other nations enjoy of
maintaining a comfortable disinterest in its exotic, often eccentric, confusing and irritating
Southeast Asian neighbours. This gives Australian writers a greater motivation to write about
their society’s experiences in Asia, though they do not have a greater or more accurate pool of
images to draw on than other Westerners. Their public is still largely limited in its knowledge
of Asia, much of which stems from the foreign cinema and other media, or from one-sided
memories of World War II and Vietnam. At the same time, the Australian readership is today
confronted more than most non-Australians with Asia, especially its abundant hoard of socioeconomic threats and its promises, and many believe that the nation’s future can only lie in
close association with Southeast Asia. This chapter will deal with Australia’s paradoxical
perception of Southeast Asia, and how Blanche d’Alpuget and C. J. Koch avoid having to write
around their public’s ignorance by attacking it head on and making the stereotypical
constructions which make up that ignorance into one of the prime materials in shaping their
public’s awareness.
The first level of imagery with which any Australian writer can interest readers in a
novel about Asia comes out of the array of popular clichés born of ingrained stereotypes which
make up the public’s superficial general knowledge. Two centuries of stereotypes born of
distance and mystery, combined with today’s accessibility through jet travel, has made travel
to Asia ‘depressingly formulaic’ (Gerster, Bali, 354). Yet Kirpal Singh notes that Australians
now almost cherish their stereotypes of Asia, remaining
quite happily content to believe that Singapore is simplistically authoritarian
and good only as a stop-over place because it has one of the best airports and
airlines in the world; that Indonesia, Thailand, the Philippines, and to some
extent Malaysia, are all besotted by corruption; that these are all dirty places
with unclean streets and unclean people with strange customs and practices
and where one easily gets lost if one is not careful (Kirpal Singh, 281-82).
- 64 -
One really can get lost, Singh adds, and there is indeed some truth underlying stereotypes. It is
the tower of ignorance built upon a shallow foundation of truth which bothers Singh, but
standing so tall in the minds of Australians makes it the stuff of national literature.
Abrams and Massar define stereotypes as the most suitable model of data ‘given certain
goals and perceiver characteristics’. Stereotypes, they write, ‘are shaped by their association
with self’ (Abrams, 58-60). As one’s self-perception—determined by perceptions of his
position within the group, his group’s position relative to other groups, etc.—is open to change,
so are the stereotypes he has concerning others. An excellent example of this is Gerard Lee’s
Troppo Man (1990), an ironic parody of the novels, travel books and films which have
constructed images of Bali, Australia and their inhabitants according to the various designs of
the characters. The protagonist is an Australian whose whole existence is a bulwark of
stereotypes so overwrought that it is crumbling under its own weight. Mathew Walker travels
to Bali to find the true meaning of life, which he is convinced will confirm his preconceptions,
and put his wobbly identity to rest. His knowledge, however, is based on public television
programs and travel guides which proclaim Bali as ‘one of the world’s most refined and
spiritual cultures’, and he discovers on his arrival that it has been ‘corrupted totally’ by the
rampant tourism of which he is a self-denying participant (TM, 3). This black comedy exploits
Australian stereotypes of Asia because they define Australians so well. While Mathew’s
rigorously built self-perception is so closed to change, that of the carefree Pete, who has come
only for the surfing and without any preconceptions at all, truly awakens to the truths of life
which are indeed to be found in Bali. Yet even Matt’s ascetic resistance to reality is broken by
his experiences, which follow the Asian archetype by literally burning up his pent-up energy,
and when the cool monsoon rains arrive he is ready to begin forming a better view of himself
and his world.
Alison Broinowski notes how such one-dimensional prejudice born of ignorance
becomes a fuller, better expressed duality when involved with reality, partly opening minds
and partly reinforcing old prejudices. The artists, not only writers but painters, filmmakers and
- 65 -
others, who returned from Australian wars, expressed how ‘for some, the experience served to
engrave more deeply the preconceived image they held of Asians’, while others were led to
question their prejudices (Broinowski, 1992, 59). Individual reactions are somehow driven by
the attitudes one has. The ‘less angry writing’ may express ‘a sense of the stupidity of war and
of the universality of humankind’, as Broinowski says, but the experience itself is the same as
for those who retain the anger, fear and suspicion they started with. Even the nationalist poets
lost their ‘xenophobic racism’, but the clichés survive in some form for everyone involved, for
they continue to provide a frame for our picture of the world. Australia’s knowledge of Asia,
writes Broinowski, ‘has not effectively been passed on, or only in stereotypical terms’, leaving
many of the images of different writers nearly identical, and each generation seems ‘as if they
were discoverers of a new world, yet they inherited the predispositions of the past to its
hygiene, morals, poverty, danger’ (Broinowski, 1992, 181).
Yasmine Gooneratne has complained of ‘the limited range of stock themes that tediously
recur in Australian novels set in Asia’. Her list, including ‘the required transitory love affair
with a foreign woman’, a New Age sort of plot where Eastern wisdom cmes to the rescue of
Western spiritual emptyness, followed by a return to the ‘home and safety’ of Australia, makes
one question the degree of creativity gone into any of the novels considered in this study:
The characters unfailingly experience the shock of arrival, they respond to
smells, crowds and colours, they encounter a local guide or mentor, and they
undertake the inevitable quest which provides a plot, usually involving a
journey into the interior or a climb to a mountain top, from which would arise
enlightenment of some sort. (Gooneratne, 1992, 4)
The list naturally goes on, including the fabricated myths of authenticity and exoticism with
which the modern tourist industry markets Asia; and touristic gullibility—‘the willingness of
tourists to ease their disaffection with the Western world by subscribing unthinkingly to
alternative causes or systems of belief’, called by Gita Mehta ‘Global Escapism masquerading
as spiritual hunger’ (Huggan, 1993, Age of Tourism, 176). And yet, as d’Alpuget and Koch
demonstrate, stereotypical images, whose use number among the most heinous sins of the
writer’s art, can still be carefully worked into a complex and provocative story.
- 66 -
4.2. The Queen of Cliché
Blanche d’Alpuget’s Turtle Beach is so chock-full with national stereotypes that the
novel comes dangerously close to being overwhelmed by triteness. Yet she turns it into a tour
de force, using the abundance of clichés she can expect her readership to share as her principle
vehicle to explore the theme of Australia’s contradictory and ambivalent images of the ‘Other’.
Bruce Bennett attests that d’Alpuget’s ‘satiric portraits of members of the diplomatic
community, particularly the wives, brilliantly ridicule their ignorance, arrogance, gracelessness
and insensitivity’ (Bennett, 1982, 13). She can make the cliché into a useful literary tool here
since it is so prevalent in the Australian image of Asia, though this perhaps also explains the
difficulty in marketing her novels outside of Australia, where the stereotypes of Asia, while
similar, are yet far less ingrained in the public’s mind. Still, d’Alpuget, like C. J. Koch, who
both ‘invoke deliberately the stereotypes of Asian menace and mystery’, use the stereotypes as
a basis from which they ‘interrogate the patterns of Orientalist devised binary oppositions—
oppressed/free, civilised/savage’ (Driesen, 19). Driesen notes how Billy Kwan forces Guy
Hamilton ‘out of his stereotypical Western attitude to the Orient as simply a site for individual
self-aggrandisement’, but her conclusion that d’Alpuget’s Judith Wilkes ‘is able to view
Minou’s suicide as possibly a redemptive act, through the eyes of her Indian lover, Kanan’
(Driesen, 19-20) is highly questionable. What is more possible—and more important to
d’Alpuget’s efforts—is that d’Alpuget’s readership might manage to recognise the
psychological barriers thrown up by Orientalist stereotypes.
They at least might then
participate in the ‘new Australian consciousness’ which Driesen, Tacey and others write about.
Much of d’Alpuget’s subject matter revolves around the very privileged and isolated
expatriate community which is bound together by strict social convention and therefore
doomed to stereotypical patterns of behaviour—which can safely be described as caricatures of
the people buying her books. The journalists spend most of their time getting drunk in dark,
cold bars, ruminating over the corruption of local authorities and the availability of sex, only
exiting the bars enough to get an adequate number of the pictures and quotes required by their
- 67 -
employers. The embassy officials and their wives survive between rungs of their social
ladders, their racial and economic prerogatives counterbalancing the frustrations of their
hopelessly structured existence. Finally, Asia itself is reduced to an array of photos and soundbites, mixing the beauty and the squalor, the ridiculous and profound spirituality, the nostalgia
for an earlier, seemingly better world, the promise of a New Age, and the sheer, unrelenting
heat.
Bruce Bennett calls the ‘intelligent dramatisation of a deep cultural ambivalence about
Asia’, which is most directly addressed by d’Alpuget’s near caricatures of the expatriate/tourist
Australian in Asia, the ‘singular strength’ of the novels of d’Alpuget and Koch.
‘The
journalist-protagonists are forward scouts, adventurers, but they too are bound by conventions,
even when they break away from their fellow Westerners.’ Their perceptions ‘fall somewhere
between the tourist and the expatriate’, as they are drawn against their will ‘into an
involvement in political action’. The novelists ‘are inhibited by an Australian past and become
involved in testing the limits of Australian engagement in “other” modes of thought and
feeling’ (Bennett, 1991, 202-03).
Judith O’Donahue Wilkes, the protagonist, is an attractive Australian journalist with big
breasts and marital problems who encounters various, yet expected, forms of racism, classism,
xenophobia and infidelity in her dual search for a story about the Chinese boat people fleeing
Vietnam, and for an explanation for her own excessive carnal instincts. D’Alpuget moulds her
images to reveal the reality behind the cliché—how one can struggle to liberate oneself from
the stereotypes and still fit into a safe and well-formed niche. D’Alpuget gets away with her
heavy use of cliché by building a few good characters on them, and by putting the clichés in
the mouths of characters who are themselves stereotypes. Most of all, d’Alpuget manipulates
the stereotypes for the sarcastic, critical purposes of her narrative.
She blames an unidentified Englishman for having noted how ‘a Malay would kill a
Chinaman with as little conscience as he would kill a tiger that trespassed on his village. For
were not all Chinese cunning trespassers in this country, and predators on the Malays?’
- 68 -
D’Alpuget writes that this prejudice comes out of ‘the days of the Raj’, a time ‘so different that
it seemed unreal now’ (TB, 3), though several of her characters would certainly share it. The
cliché serves to introduce the novel’s central motifs of the predators, trespassers, and
indiscriminate violence which are so commonplace that they are almost invisible.
4.3. The Real Asia
Asia itself is the principle object of the stereotyping. Modern Singapore—the very
image of the well-ordered industrial society—is treated, as a general rule, unmercifully. The
airport is ‘huge, bright and very clean’, and is inhabited by ‘small, bright and very clean
Singaporeans’ who ‘hand out passes and snap out directions.’ D’Alpuget repeats the words
bright and clean as if to insist that, yes, these really are the right adjectives to use with ‘the
new Asians, the economic miracle-workers’. ‘Huge’ meanwhile goes only with the facilities.
The workers are just ‘small’, and are less the producers of the economic miracle than its
product, churned out by engineers and archetects as ‘perfectly painted dolls’ for the airport. If
becoming ‘new Asians’ is what Australians are interested in, d’Alpuget is implying, this is
what they’ll get. Judith retreats in panic from such a salesgirl who, like a robot, gets shortcircuited over doubts of the authenticity of luxury items. The cliché exposes its true self—the
cleanliness turns into the ‘aggression’ of the ‘bright lights of the terminal, the sharp, assertive
colours of the tarmac buses, the monosyllabic jabbering of the shopgirls’ (TB, 53).
Christopher J. Koch in The Year of Living Dangerously focuses on the image of
Singapore as the last protective buffer between the Australian bastion of Western civilisation
and the Asian threat. Yet, if there is truth in stereotypes, then Singapore seems too flawed to
be up to the task. Wally O’Sullivan refers to it as ‘Singers’ and longs to return, but only
because that clean efficiency meant he could indulge his immoral passions (YLD, 61). Still,
Guy Hamilton recognises its place in the civilising efforts of the British presence:
‘Wait till they quit Singapore, Cookie. It’ll all fall down. The Yanks won’t
save it. The British Empire was better—we’re not supposed to say it, but it
was. There’ll be more tyranny without it, not less.’ (YLD, 64)
- 69 -
Hamilton sees Singapore from the early 60s, before the British retreat, but also before the
changes wrought by the economic miracle and, as d’Alpuget pointedly reminds us, ‘the ten
good years the Vietnam War had given the ASEAN nations’ (TB, 68). Still, the lessons of the
Second World War and the confrontation with Communism conjure up age-old insecurities
which seem reconfirmed by the economic and political turmoil throughout Asia in the 1990s,
and Hamilton’s fears cannot be called out-of-date.
Koch’s protagonist in Highways to a War, Mike Langford, recorded much more
favourable impressions of Singapore than are to be seen in the other novels studied here, but
the town in which he made his first entry into Asia was also not yet the successful modern,
industrialised and authoritarian state. The whole gamut of images Koch invokes in his Asian
novels are introduced in Langford's first taxi ride from the airport into town, when ‘Asia was
disclosed to him for the first time, like a video show arranged for his pleasure.’ The old
highway was ‘a glowing and teeming tunnel of life, walled and roofed over the dim fronds of
palms, and by giant, snake-limbed banyans and rain trees’ (HW, 68). Along this rural road
Langford experiences the macrocosm of Asian society, with the peoples, the activities, the
smells and sights that give Koch the tools to explore the psyches of his characters. Koch is
careful to stress, however, that the modern highway, like the modern Singapore, hides all of
this from the arriving visitor, and therefore does not lead to the same places as before. When
he has his hero say ‘This is the place I’ve always been waiting for’ (HW, 69), Koch is not
forgetting that, while Asia is replete with ghosts and memories, the old colonial Asia cannot be
a realistic goal in the modern Australian’s search for self in the Near North. Singapore
especially, an overworked land of artificialities, is no place to look.
D’Alpuget, like Koch, gets quickly out of Singapore, and moves the scene to Kuala
Lumpur, another nation which has benefited from the economic frenzy of the Vietnam War,
but which has not been anaesthetised like Singapore. It, like Jakarta and Phnom Penh of
Koch’s novels, is still a land of feverous activity, with one foot in the modern world but the
other firmly planted in cultures which are thousands of years old. Judith Wilkes sees a land
- 70 -
where the neo-colonialist industries still bear British names, but where the streets are bustling
with the Chinese, Malays and Indians whose racial and economic competition is well suited to
‘Orientalist’ stereotyping. The Chinese girls are still ‘slick and pretty as dolls’, but, unlike the
immutable Singapore girls, they are on the move in busy streets smelling ‘sweetly of incense
and spices’. Chinese families are in their shops, furtively ‘engaged in trivial, mysterious
activities’. The Indians are selling ‘poisonous-looking delicacies’ (TB, 82). A Malay cloth
seller promises whatever he thinks Judith wants, not even hesitating in his contradictions (TB,
83). One Chinese man ‘cooking at a mobile stall, frying garlic’ is in a screaming match with a
Chinese woman leaning out from an upper-level window (TB, 95).
An airline worker
caricatures the old Australian image of Chinese tact and trustworthiness when Judith’s bags are
lost:
The most important male—one wearing a suit not a uniform—led her to the
desk where he unfolded a telephone message slip. ‘We rang Quantas for you.
You baggage is located. It is going to London!’ He was overjoyed by his
cleverness but skilfully adjusted his face when Judith replied, ‘Shit.’
‘Aaagh?’ he said.
‘How long before I can have it back here?’
He held his hand in the air and rotated it swiftly. ‘Four-five days, la.’
He saw this caused displeasure. ‘One-two days, la!’ (TB, 82-83)
It is not an easy destination to travel to, but Judith’s impressions during her walk
through Kuala Lumpur are generally positive. This, d’Alpuget tells us, is the Asia which
should interest Australians—exotic, colourful, rather mad, and not all that far from home, for it
‘could have been a hot summer morning in Sydney’s Dixon Street’ (TB, 82).
Very similar dualities are to be found in each of the novels studied here, and their appeal
to the reading public is based on the universality of clichés. Considering the xenophobia
exhibited by Australians, one might wonder if the images of military authoritarianism,
violence, religious intolerance and racism which are so fundamental to the novels might also
be transferred, in the minds and fears of Australian readers, into the Asian neighbourhoods as
Sydney’s Dixon Street. Yet, an unexpected cliché might gain in currency by marrying it to an
expected one. The power of the cliché is, after all, partly in making the illogical seem
reasonable and rendering the intolerable quite acceptable. Part of d’Alpuget’s strategy is
- 71 -
precisely to bait her readers with what they know and want to believe, and to switch it with
what they either do not know or do not want to believe.
The similarities noted, it is the differences between Australia and Asia which are
emphasised, and even the most trivial highlight the inability of Australians and other
Westerners to adapt properly. This begins on the lowest level with basic, non-functioning
technology. Judith is warned not to touch the constantly ringing telephones during a nighttime thunderstorm for fear of being electrocuted. So she lies sleepless, thinking that she like
most humans had lost the stamina to be so close to nature and her emotions. ‘These storms
pull us back to the era of caves, but we haven’t got the wherewithal now to enjoy or defy them’
(TB, 130). There is something very appealing about pre-industrial, pre-stress Asia. And yet
Judith is shocked when her Malay lover indulges himself in a big, public kiss in a cheap bar
while their companion Ralph is trying to pick up a whore. This is what d’Alpuget identifies as
the real Asia: infant girls abandoned on rubbish dumps; women murdered for
losing their virginity; wives divorced by the repetition of three words; villagers
stoning to death hopeless people because they were Chinese. No mercy here
for the weak. You’d be kissed in public whether you were embarrassed or not.
Kissed, killed—it was a matter of degree only, the source was identical,
disregard for the unimportant. Playing cricket was important, and being
tolerant, being an unpollutable Hindu, a life-tenured academic. (TB, 207-08)
There is no need to question the vulgarity of the kiss, but the reaction seems a bit too
much coming from a woman whose life, marriage and children have become unimportant to
her. The cliché, once again, proves itself a useful double-edged sword.
4.4. Ex-patriots Sacrificing Themselves in a Gentleman’s Hell
D’Alpuget turns the blade on the most vulnerable of all—the Australians in Asia for
work and play. The tourists are ‘dressed as if for bushwalking—with knapsacks, zinc-creamed
noses and shorts. People were staring at their hairy legs; only coolies wore shorts in the street’
(TB, 199). Embassy officials and their families are her favourite targets, engaged in the
necessary and temporary hardship of living in Asia while on their way up the technocratic
ladder.
They are usually self-serving civil servants, epitomising the sort of government
- 72 -
officials that Australians love to distrust. Judith’s husband, a lawyer and political aspirant,
tries to programme the way she writes her story on the boat people in Malaysia:
‘Write up the boat people in a way that won’t cause bleeding hearts for
them here. That’ll make it a lot easier for the Party to come out against our
taking too many of them. And that policy is necessary—I shouldn’t have
thought I’d need to explain this—because the unspoken grudge issue at the
next elections will be jobs for all, and Aussies first!’ (TB, 31)
The embassy people love to complain and condescend about the host country and its
indigenous population, as exemplified by one foreign affairs man’s comments: ‘“Malaysia is a
country without a heart” he’d said. “It seems like Paradise. The Chinese are allowed to make
as much money as they like; the Malays are allowed as many privileges as they like, and the
Indians...” he had flicked them away’ (TB, 19).
The Australian vice-consul in Monkeys in the Dark takes special pleasure in explaining
to Alex Wheatfield how the embassy procured the house she was to live in:
‘We’ve got it for free,’ he said. ‘Y’remember that little Javanese bastard
who owned it?’ He winked. ‘Enemy of the People.’
‘What? Has he been arrested?’
‘Yep. The boys in jungle green came round last week. We’ll put in a new
dunny for you with what we save on the rent.’
Alex was frowning. ‘Isn’t that illegal? I mean, we’re just stealing the
house.’
‘Stealing from the Indons? Dearie, they invented stealing.’
She was still frowning. David added, ‘When you’ve been here six months
you’ll understand this town. You’ll sort the place out.’
‘I’m beginning to already,’ she said. (MD, 22)
Staying on the high road as Alex is trying to do is not typical of Australian characters in Asia.
D’Alpuget’s Judith Wilkes in Turtle Beach mimics Alex’s dislike of the rampant stereotyping
of other Westerners, yet is herself hardly innocent. Koh Tai Ann finds it ‘all the more
astonishing and symptomatic of some deeper cultural conditioning that she is basically no
different.
Her alienation from the local scene is complete’ (Koh Tai Ann, 29), and,
consequently, so is her alienation from herself.
The Westerners do not limit their condescension to Asians. Alex’s cousin Sinclaire
offers the simplest possible explanation for Australia’s rejection of the U.S. as a role model:
‘You know the Americans have Uncle Sam’s rice in their PX? Only costs eight times as much
- 73 -
as the local variety, and you can’t taste it, but hell, it’s a little bit of home.’ Then, perhaps to
show fairness, he adds criticism of Australian shopping habits:
Alex, do you realise we are surrounded by second-rate people? Just look
at what they eat and drink—they fight to get hold of this stuff. When the icecream consignment was left at the airport for three hours and turned back into
a swill of powered milk and whale oil, they cried. Betty James actually cried
tears of rage and deprivation. No wonder they all get dysentery. (MD, 43-44)
The snobbism and racism the embassy people exhibit is caricatural, but is not so unusual
in a group of people who are as isolated and ingrown as they are. This is, typically, at its worst
with those who do not come out of such high class families as Sinclaire does, but his
stereotyping is working on several levels at once. His goal is to win Alex back, and his means
are to isolate her from every other group in town. He instils his biases in her which the reader
will first find fairly rational, factual, and humorous; yet they are still so obviously negative that
any reasonable reader will finally decide they ought to be suppressed.
The embassy families still have their stereotypical priorities, usually some form of
rationalising their lives in what they like to think of as a hardship post. Sasha, the foreign
service wife in Kuala Lumpur, writes off the schools because they have ‘no sport.’ She
professes hate for life in Kuala Lumpur, and yet admits ‘It’s heavenly having servants’ (TB,
18-19). She leaves her children in the care of her domestics in order to spend her time at the
Golf Club pool. When that proves impossible, as when the ‘wretched cook expects a holiday
for the Prophet’s birthday’, she is forced to bring the whole family to the club, ‘a lifesaver
when the servants are away’ (TB, 114). There she is joined by English ladies, relics of the
empire, experts in stereotyping and grumbling about the nouveaux riches:
‘Every South Chinese coolie is driving a Mercedes these days,’ and ‘The
boarding schools at home are full of Malay children.’ Their husbands warned
club newcomers, ‘You can get a game for a thousand dollars a hole, any day of
the week.’ (TB, 68-69)
But Sasha, who would not quite fit in with ‘English ladies’, envies the rich locals,
considers their playing golf instead of going to the mosque to be commendable behaviour, and
insists on introducing Judith to Jaime, son of the Sultan, who has enriched himself by clearcutting the jungle and shipping the wood to Japan (TB, 132). Everyone seems to agree in
- 74 -
resenting the servants, who are treated more like slaves than employees. Sasha especially
indulges herself in complaining about having to live in Malaysia, but still manages mornings to
linger ‘in bed, where she would stay for breakfast, since the amahs were expert in dressing and
feeding the children, despite their resistance’ (TB, 86).
Nostalgia for colonial days is
omnipresent in the embassy world, and this gives d’Alpuget the opportunity to illustrate the
hardships of an embassy post in Asia:
‘Of course, since the war no one has had time to teach servants how to mix
drinks,’ somebody, who had been given a brandy and soda, was saying. ‘My
God, it took me a year to find a koki who could make an omelet. Back in the
Dutch period . . ..
Even the best educated Asians are presented with trite ridicule and condescension.
Judith notes the scene around the club pool, where one man is demonstrating the best English
an Indian can be expected to speak, while some Chinese seem hardly descended from the
ancestral trees:
Not far away an Indian, teaching his son to swim, was saying in a
Cambridge voice, ‘I shall now turn you on your back, isn’t it?’ and over on the
golf course a group of Chinese in jaunty peaked caps were slapping each other
and laughing. (TB, 121)
The whites are not the only ones guilty of condescension. An Australian official reports
what one Malaysian Chinese from Vietnam said about the Chinese refugees from Vietnam:
‘Johnny said to me the other day, “We Chinamen don’t like any limitations on
us. We like to make money all ways. Bloody Chinese Vietnamese made so
much money, under Diem, under Kee, under Thieu. Now they can’t make
money, so they come here.” Making dough is a soft option in Malaysia. The
local Chinese don’t want competition from real pros.’ (TB, 67-68)
Sexual stereotypes know no racial boundaries, as shown when Judith is hustled at the
Kuala Lumpur airport by an Australian businessman who
pressed his card on her and invited her to dinner at his hotel for the following
night. ‘You need friends in a place like this,’ he said and patted her shoulder.
She heard him calling the Malay girl ‘Little Blossom’ and she and the girl later
exchanged looks of shared resentment (TB, 73-74).
Still, as both the man’s aggressiveness and the women’s resentment are stereotypical
behaviour, d’Alpuget is leading her reader into the dilemma of choosing which one might be
justified by the other.
- 75 -
The family of Kanan, Judith’s Indian lover, is founded on stereotypical behaviour. The
auntie, the de facto head of the household, hounds Kanan, the titular head, with disparagements
like ‘alcoholic’ and ‘cow-eater’ when he spends an evening out with friends. Meanwhile,
Kanan’s wife is entirely controlled by the other females.
C. J. Koch works with clichés and stereotypes, though not as blatantly as d’Alpuget. His
Colonel Henderson, the finicky yet stern attaché of The Year of Living Dangerously, resembles
d’Alpuget’s Colonel James, both vestiges of colonial days. D’Alpuget uses the character as
comic relief and to develop her theme of the animalistic nature of men. Koch’s colonel
demonstrates the better, although still anachronistic, side of the old guard’s discipline, order,
and self-esteem, as well as its limits. He is an ideal character to develop Koch’s theme of the
difficulty and necessity of letting go of the past. At the pool frequented by embassy officials
and rich locals in Jakarta, Henderson is served his drink by the ‘plump-jowled, always smiling’
Indonesian steward:
‘What’s this?’ His voice, always resonant, had now an extra incisiveness.
‘Gin-tonic, sir,’ the steward said. ‘You order gin-tonic.’
‘Yes — I ordered gin-tonic. Did I order ice?’ It was the tone of a
headmaster about to administer a dressing-down.
The glass was indeed crammed with ice. ‘Gin-tonic always have ice, sir’
the steward said, and attempted to smile.
The Colonel’s voice now rose to an intimidating level. ‘Gin tonic does
not always have ice,’ he said. ‘Americans always have ice — and I am not an
American.’ (YLD, 63)
To deflect the reaction to his behaviour, Henderson delivers a cliché about Americans:
‘Ice in everything’, he said. ‘Barbaric habit. Well, we don’t all have to drink like barbarians’
(YLD, 64).
The man who wears his uniform shoes even to the pool and is described
derogatorily as pukka sahib by his admirer, Guy Hamilton, still represents the good old days of
the British Empire in Asia, but he looks, sounds and acts pretty much like one would expect of
an imperial relic—which an Aussi would call ‘a whinging Pommy’.
4.5. Poor Super Women
D’Alpuget’s female protagonists, Judith Wilkes in Turtle Beach and Alex Wheatfield in
Monkeys in the Dark, have to deal with these male chauvinist clichés, but at home, where they
- 76 -
are spoken under the breath, and in lands where machismo is at a premium. That ‘d’Alpuget’s
women have Australian men as authority-figures’ but ‘turn to non-Australians, including their
Asian lovers, for other views’, stands metaphorically for ‘Australia’s dependence on the
judgement of former Western masters to lead it in these strange lands’ (Broinowski, 1992,
180). D’Alpuget’s protagonists are not so much fickle in their dependence as far too complex
to be able to accept blanket domination of either Australian or Asian men, though each
dominates in his own domain, and solidifies his domination through the imposition of
stereotypes.
Her most interesting character becomes a veritable kaleidoscope of clichés as she is
judged by various characters in the novel. First seen as the scandalously dressed intruder at the
funeral of her husband’s first wife, Minou Hobday is described by a foreign service man: ‘Her
name is Minou—that’s what the French call to their pussies. Hits the spot, don’t you think?’
He tops the sexism off with a dose of racism, saying, ‘She’s got good legs—for a Chink’ (TB,
17-18). Even Minou reduces her own turbulent life to trite banalities, telling Judith:
‘I saw what happened to my mama, after Dien Bien Phu. People spat at you,
in the street. Nowadays, things are better organized—they have re-education
camps and new economic zones. But the truth is,’ she sounded offhand now,
as if bored with the subject, ‘because I was born in Vietnam, and so was mama
and grandmama and great-grandmama, and everybody, I wish sometimes I was
still there. It’s not good to be ripped away from your family and your customs,
la, all the things you like. All the people who’ve looked after you since
childhood. What’s the West got for me?’ She retracted one nostril in an
exaggerated sniff of distaste.
‘Comfort?’ Judith asked dryly.
D’Alpuget then puts an interesting twist onto the whole issue of identity, making a biting
remark about Minou’s complaints which could easily be turned against any Australians
whining over their own sense of dislocation.
‘Comfort. A comfortable existence.’ She fell silent, then said in a low
voice, ‘I’m Asian. I feel déracinée here.’
It was pretty rich, Judith thought, coming from someone who was halfFrench, spoke English like a Long Island debutante and enjoyed to the full the
privileges of being married to a member of the Australian Establishment. (TB,
37-38)
- 77 -
Minou is described as having a face with ‘the gravity, the appearance of having lived
through many lifetimes, that Asian features can suggest’ (TB, 21), but d’Alpuget offers little to
support or clarify this. That her old life had been cruelly hard is not to be doubted, but Minou
has invested herself in the clichés of her new life, and most of the images make her seem silly
and frivolous.
Her husband, the Ambassador, has procured a job for her as a special attaché for the
refugees, which gains her access to the boat people camps. She is beloved in the camps, not
for her valuable accomplishments, including securing a refrigerator for the vaccines, but for the
absurd films she shows the children who cannot even speak English, including titles which
equate Perth, Gateway to the West with Donald Duck’s Birthday and Goofy Goes Fox Hunting.
In her private life Minou comes off as a manipulative playmate for the Ambassador, who has
traded half his wits for a jaunt with a sexy young wife.
D’Alpuget’s extensive use of stereotypical images may be annoying at first, but she
weaves her clichés together well into characters and a story which, in the end, are very original
and, more importantly, evoke the reader’s sympathy. She manages to avoid the problems of
stereotypical perceptions, including the tendency of clichés to veil latent racism, or the
phenomenon whereby all individuality melts away into generic description, which Fitzpatrick
calls ‘undifferentiatedness’ (Fitzpatrick, 36).
4.6. The Oriental Female Stereotype
This ‘undifferentiatedness’ has been rule in the long tradition of Asian stereotyping.
While there are few Asian women represented in early Australian literature, due to the fact that
there were few in Australia at all, by the 20th century they were receiving special, but
prejudiced, attention. The mythical image of the beautiful and mysterious Oriental woman
appeared as a special lure for Australian men.
She was ‘deified’ as beautiful, artistic,
idealistic, courageous, full of initiative, highly-educated and, most importantly, westernised.
Ouyang Yu remarks that her deification ‘reveals a basic racist assumption about the great
potential in her for Christian or Western conversion’, and represents ‘a sort of fetishization’ in
- 78 -
its ‘fixity’ and ‘phantasmatic’ mode of the old Orientalist stereotype (Ouyang Yu, 1995,
Women, 76-77).
Minou conforms, notably with C. J. Koch’s Claudine Phan, to the
representation of the part-Chinese, part-European woman who, in Ouyang Yu’s view,
generally betrays ‘a streak of ethnocentrism that regards the white blood in them as somehow
stronger than the yellow, making them more likeable and possessible to whites’ (Ouyang Yu,
1995, Women, 84). Madame Phan fits this description perfectly, exposing Koch’s motives to
questions of racism. Minou meanwhile has no white blood in her, though she is half-blooded,
a mix of Vietnamese and Chinese which made her an ‘Other’ even in her homeland, and has
become thoroughly westernised, giving her special claim as an Australian metaphor. As she
provokes the wild, sexual excitement of Ambassador Hobday and fulfils dutifully all of the
other characteristics of the female Asian, Minou wears her ‘Otherness’ like a scarlet letter.
Yuan Fang Shen details the stereotypical presentation of Chinese women in Australian
literature in an analysis which can certainly be applied to non-Chinese Asian women as well.
Yuan notes how there are ‘very few fully drawn, individualized and memorable portraits’ of
Oriental women ‘until the late 1980s’, and that those which do exist, which he puts into three
categories, are ‘highly stereotyped’ and derivative from Western literature and media.
First, is the ‘nameless, mindless and emotionless “Oriental siren”’ (Yuan, 39). She is
self-sufficient and emotionally careless, and therefore able to attach herself to any man who
can buy her off (Yuan, 40). In return, she not only allows him the space to think, which a
white woman stereotypically would not, but provokes in him unparalleled sexual excitement.
That she is usually dainty and childlike reflects her metaphoric value, in the terms of Said’s
Orientalist thesis, of the East, which is irrational, depraved and childlike, and thus in need of
the West’s rational, virtuous, and mature direction.
Second, is the ‘tasteless political harridan’, quite the opposite to the seductive first type
(Yuan, 41). Unattractive and passionless, this woman is necessarily wicked ‘because of the
paternalistic belief that only wicked women seek power’ as she does. She is typically ‘a
nuisance, a tasteless but cunning woman who is expert at changing face and cheating people’
- 79 -
(Yuan, 42). In the extreme, she is ‘an “evil hag,” a murderess and a bitch with endless lovers’,
built on the image of the ‘dragon lady’ Tzu Hsi, notorious in the Western media around 1900
as ‘the “formidable” empress Dowager’. Tzu Hsi was said to have had ‘the soul of a tiger in
the body of a woman’ (Yuan, 43), was called ‘the wicked witch of the East’, and was reported
to have ‘arranged the poisoning, strangling, beheading, or forced suicide’ of her political
opponents (Yuan, 44). Other members of this class include Yang Kuei-fei, ‘the legendary
Chinese beauty’ and ‘destructive concubine’, who used her wiles and position to gain political
power, and Empress Wu, ‘a cruel woman of fierce ambition coupled with unscrupulous
amorality and immorality’. Yuan remarks that women who have fierce political ambition,
Madame Mao for example, have been called ‘Wu Tzertien’ after this infamous empress. As a
general rule, such women are said to be ‘on the make’ when young, and become ‘old hags’ in
old age, which Yuan argues is a sign of ‘an ingrained misogyny’ in a patriarchal society which
‘finds it difficult to tolerate women in power (Yuan, 44).
The third type is a modern update on the old ‘submissive, desirable Oriental’ stereotype.
‘Delicacy, beauty, fragility coupled with mind and determination’ are the new characteristics
of the Oriental woman in Western literature. This ‘new breed of cultivated, intelligent Chinese
woman’ is surrounded by corruption and deeply sensitive to the political realities. ‘To a
certain extent’, Yuan comments, ‘this portrait accurately reflects the characteristics of
contemporary Chinese women’. Yet, he adds, ‘Western male writers have so far seemed to
find it virtually impossible to move away from the stereotypical Oriental siren whose great aim
in life is to please Western man’ as ‘sex object, seducer, in the end a sort of whore’ (Yuan, 45).
This new female stereotype is especially significant when seen alongside the new
Oriental male figure. In either variant, as the oversexed or the emasculated villain, he is
inferior to the Chinese female and also to his Western male counterpart, so that
the Australian image-maker on the one hand leaves the Chinese woman free
for the Western male to manipulate, and on the other hand makes her
emotionally dependent on the Westerner (Yuan, 48).
- 80 -
The lingering images of the Oriental, male and female, are ‘either extremely lustful or
extremely feeble’, and reveal the persistence of both ‘white European political and cultural
hegemony’ and the old ‘deep-seated cultural anxieties about the East as sexual threat and, by
extension, as a potential invader (indeed rapist) of Australia’ (Yuan, 48).
That these stereotypes can be detected in the work of such writers as d’Alpuget and
Koch, whether used consciously or not, illustrates how they have not faded with the historical
and cultural developments of the past fifty years. Koch and d’Alpuget make no claims to
political correctness, however, nor could any serious writer of fiction so inhibit himself, and
join many other contemporary Australian writers—Louis Nowra and Gerard Lee are two
notable examples—who are using contemporary clichés as tools of their trade. For Koch, the
stereotypes often signal the unattainability of the ‘Otherworld’ represented by Asia. Tiger Lily
in The Year of Living Dangerously, for example, reflects Yuan’s third category of Oriental
female stereotype in that she is beautiful, elegant, seemingly even fragile, yet cultivated,
intelligent and determined, but she in no way is available or dangerous to Western men—at
least not to Hamilton. (In his film version, Peter Weir reinstated the Orientalist cliché when he
wrote the Russian Vera Chostiakov out of the script and transferred her threatening aspects to
Tiger Lily.) This may illustrate Koch’s purpose of blending clichés, just as he blends myths
and structures. By drawing on the silent Tiger Lily of Alice in Wonderland, he is distancing
himself from the Orientalist cliché without entirely divorcing himself from it, and fashioning a
new, though still stereotypical, metaphor for the Asian woman.
D’Alpuget exploits these clichés for more than they seem worth.
Notably, she
transforms Minou’s kaleidoscopic character into a complex and enigmatic, but still convincing
personality, caught up in a sometimes poignant story of a resourceful, frightened woman who
has lost everything and is struggling to find a new identity in a society which will never see her
as anything else than an ‘Other’. The depth of the cunning and experience Minou needs in her
struggle make her a very appropriate metaphor to Australia’s own search for identity.
- 81 -
That Minou’s struggle ends in a form of suttee which Judith cannot fathom is perhaps
d’Alpuget’s pessimistic prognosis for Australia’s search for self in Asia—that it is doomed to
be unsuccessful and possibly even disastrous. She is writing of the ‘anguish of the foreigner’
in a modern world ‘in which the greatest need is to survive’—physically and psychologically.
In her essay ‘Jakarta, Jerusalem and the Caves’ d’Alpuget explains that she sees how the
positivism of the technological society which grew up in the 19th century has fallen into the pit
of ‘a necessary contradiction: the nihilism and hopelessness of this century’. She describes a
painful process of growth which is necessary to heal ‘the broken relationship between the earth
and heaven’ in an article which resembles the plea of David Tacey for ‘re-enchantment’, and
mirrors Christopher J. Koch’s deliberations on the divine feminine in the modern world. ‘The
end is not yet revealed’, she writes in a very appropriate, Australian idiom. ‘In this unfamiliar,
broken landscape there are no maps, no guides, no reliable phrase books. We are pioneers and
we have to survive as best we can’ (d’Alpuget, 74).
4.7. Asian Philosophy and Australian Indigenization
Australian literature is deeply involved in the process of indigenization, a rather
common conflict in post-colonial societies where present-day majority populations who were
transplanted from an ancestral homeland must come to grips with their identity by sorting out
who they separately were and who they together might be. White Australians have had two
strong societies to choose from, but have increasingly come to the conclusion that they belong
to neither the European nor the Aboriginal, though many find advantages with each, and that is
where the Asian alternative comes into the picture. Helen Tiffin evaluates Turtle Beach as a
provocation to a deep re-examination of the Australian cultural identity.
Tiffin argues that d’Alpuget is presenting her readership with a stereotypical Australian
protagonist, inviting them to identify with her as she confronts Asia and the difficult ‘boat
people’ situation, but then putting into question her behaviour and perspectives of events. ‘The
novel presents competing world views, which are each tested by its attitude to the Chinese
refugees’, who stand as a metaphor for all of the characters who are figuratively displaced in
- 82 -
that they lack ‘at-one-ment’. Judith’s Western view dominates the early part of the novel, but
is quickly thrown out of balance through another Western character, Ralph Hamilton, an
Australian embassy officer ‘who is loud, suffering, clearly not happy with himself, and whose
remarks about Judith are crudely insensitive’ (Tiffin, 1984, 472). Accompanying Ralph is
Kanan, ‘the still centre’ next to the rowdy Westerners, who presents the Hindu view. Tiffin
writes that Judith’s radical, reformist attitudes are unsubstantiated by actions, leaving the
reader to distance himself from her Western view towards that of Kanan. This would at first
have been unpalatable to the Australian public, but becomes increasingly attractive as the
Western one proves to be faulted and ineffective (Tiffin, 1984, 473).
Having brought her public so far, d’Alpuget then coaxes it with a Third World view
offered by Minou, who ‘lacks Kanan’s peace’ but shares with him ‘the notion of Satyagraha,
true self-sacrifice that is incomprehensible to the self-seeking West’ (Tiffin, 1984, 473). The
critical distinction between concepts of ‘duty’, ‘purpose’ and ‘function’ are brought into focus
when Minou throws herself into the ocean to stop the villagers from killing the boat people
arriving on the beach. While Judith upbraids Kanan for not helping her useless attempts to
save Minou, it is Kanan’s view that they should not interfere with Minou’s sacrifice which has
been most carefully founded on reason and compassion (Tiffin, 1984, 473). Judith’s sense of
duty, purpose and function come into focus when she is last seen using her association with
Minou and the refugees to get bumped up to a first-class seat on the flight home, capping the
reader’s alienation with Judith’s perspective. By subtly shifting her point of view, d’Alpuget
puts Australian attitudes to the test. Tiffin would even argue that d’Alpuget successfully
‘enables us to stand back and judge Judith’s perspectives impartially’ (Tiffin, 1984, 474). The
extent of the new-found impartiality remains difficult to measure, but in undermining their
stereotypes, d’Alpuget certainly gives her readers the possibility of expanding the horizon of
their expectations, and thereby of judging Judith’s and their own perspectives and prejudices.
- 83 -
4.8. d’Alpuget’s Neo-Orientalist Looking-glass
Gaik Cheng Khoo, in response to Tiffin’s thesis, puts quite a different spin on the
reading of Turtle Beach, which is seen not so much for its various post-colonialist voices, but
for its substratum of reinvigorated Orientalist clichés which only serve to undermine the
validity of that post-colonialist expression. The novel, Khoo argues, maintains an ambivalent,
binary approach to the issues—maternal duties/career; East/West; natural/unnatural;
fatalism/free will; spirituality/materialism—and offers various liberalist views on feminism
and race to ‘challenge the traditional imperialist perspective of the Australian journalist
protagonist’ (Khoo, 31). Yet, when put into direct confrontation with the ‘Other’, those voices,
not just Judith’s, which Tiffin argues is deliberately undercut, but particularly Kanan’s and
Ambassador Hobday’s, which Tiffin sees gaining in esteem, are compromised by ‘Western
projections of desire and racial prejudice’ which brand them as Neo-Orientalist (Khoo, 33).
Judith Wilkes’ stereotypical liberal feminist view of herself is foiled by her perception of
Asia as a patriarchal society where ‘women are mere commodities, objects to be discarded,
sold, rented out cheaply’. This image of Asia serves only to support Judith’s assumed role as
the white feminist come to rescue Asia’s oppressed women (Khoo, 33).
Judith’s feminism, which has required her to abandon the traditional female role, is,
however, undermined by the same masculine mask it forces her to wear. She is pursuing a
traditionally male career in journalism, engages in extra-marital affairs while on assignment,
and stays away from her family while her husband remains at home with the children. Judith is
ultimately shown to have the same handicaps as the traditional male, namely that her social
value is tied to her functioning as a superior and dominant provider and protector. Her
suppressed feminine side can bring nothing to this masculine role, and offers her none of the
special help a Western woman could usually employ to her advantage in altering the rules of
the profoundly masculine, Orientalist realm (Khoo, 40). Minou Hobday stands in contrast as
the ‘Saigon Bar Girl’, the ‘seductive yet superstitious Asian woman’, and ‘the sacrificial
mother’ whose ‘blatant sexuality disguises her strong familial ties to her mother and children’.
- 84 -
Judith’s condescension of Minou, in true Orientalist form, stems from seeing Minou as ‘all the
past representations of women that Judith, as an emancipated, progressive, secular, profeminist, Western woman, has renounced’. These representations sometimes tend to justify
Judith’s sense of her role, but usually only illustrate the professional and private satisfactions
which Judith has sacrificed to her feminism. Judith necessarily avoids self-recrimination for
these losses, and it is the Third World woman who must ‘bear the burden of Western feminist
guilt’ (Khoo, 41). Minou sacrifices her self for her family; Judith her family for her self. This
leaves the implication of ‘the hypocrisy of Western liberalism and, consequently, the
limitations on its feminism’ (Khoo, 41).
D’Alpuget is also presenting images of the New Age philosophy, ‘the beacon of moral
hope for the West’, and exposing it for its dubious effects and neo-Orientalist foundation.
‘New Age’ appropriates Eastern and American Indian concepts of nature, spirituality, holism
and metaphysics into its philosophy of personal growth and transformation (Khoo, 41-42). In
Turtle Beach it is represented in the characters of Ambassador Hobday and Kanan.
Hobday is the proponent of holism, exemplified in his hermaphrodite theory where a
whole personality is realised through the union of male and female halves, and sees his own
completion in the person of Minou. At the same time, Hobday is the image of Australia’s
involvement in the Vietnam war, making a strong association between colonialism and
hermaphroditism. Both concepts, argues Khoo,
are based on desire and power. After all, it was the colonies that gave England
her economic might and defined her ‘whole’ as an Empire at the height of
British aggrandisement. Hermaphroditism works in a similar self-serving
manner, undermining the concept of selfless love to reveal, instead, that it is
the desire to be whole and the power derived from that wholeness which is
often mistaken for love (Khoo, 44).
The search for Self in another is ultimately selfish, and when it ‘ends in envy for the Other and
self-loathing, one must reject the Other in the interest of self-preservation’ (Khoo, 44). This
principle reiterates Orientalist notions of the one-sided power relationship between East and
West, and also explains many of the wavering relationships between the novel’s main
characters.
- 85 -
Kanan is the wise and transcendent Hindu, the spiritual guru for Western seekers of New
Age wisdom. Yet, as a source of guiding light his wisdom is full of dark zones. Most
importantly, one is certainly left puzzled with the indifference he shows to Minou’s suicide,
even if Judith’s reactions are already recognised as shallow and hypocritical.
‘Kanan’s
philosophical detachment, specifically his ability to define the world in cosmic terms, together
with his fatalism, avoids confronting the present troubled realities which stir up Judith’s socalled liberalism’ (Khoo, 42). This cowardly detachment extends to his dismissive attitude
toward his extra-marital affair with Judith, and puts the usefulness of his New Age ideals into
question.
Both Hobday and Kanan, Khoo demonstrates, show how New Age philosophy, which
promises an Eastern path to wisdom and spiritual fulfilment, is but a new face on old-age
Orientalism. It ‘demands that the East remain exotic and mysterious: a force or energy
inexplicable to Western rationality yet accessible to those who seek spiritual comfort in it’.
East and West must remain ‘separate and un-deconstructed’, for only then can New Age offer
its notions of spirituality as a counterbalance to, and thereby an apologia for, Western
materialism (Khoo, 42).
The Indian male Kanan, portrayed for his exceptional beauty and virility, especially next
to his weak Western friend Ralph, fits the exotic, gentle, and feminised cliché of the Eastern
male. His spiritual authority is consequently undermined on the principle of the East being
weak, immature, feminine, and unable to get along without the help of the strong, masculine
Western colonial powers (Khoo, 40). This and the other instances of a rewritten presentation
of Orientalist tropes goes far to indict the post-colonialism to which Australia subscribes as
profoundly hypocritical. Khoo makes a strong argument that Turtle Beach ‘rewrites the
postcolonial Australian as the neocoloniser’ of its post-colonial neighbours (Khoo, 45).
If Khoo is right, then perhaps d’Alpuget has failed to convey her premise for Turtle
Beach that ‘in the service of something higher than oneself, a person becomes so much higher
that for a moment she (or he) is divine’ (d’Alpuget, 76). On the other hand, just because Judith
- 86 -
Wilkes has failed to navigate the dangerous course to this divinity d’Alpuget calls ‘at-onement’, does not mean that d’Alpuget condemns her as a neo-colonialist. She is, rather,
exposing the latent stereotyping which Australians are susceptible to and which can erupt into
full-blown rejection of Asia and Asians. D’Alpuget is even offering an alternative in Minou,
the wandering Chinese-Vietnamese-Australian—the ultimate ‘Other’—who has managed to
achieve that divine at-one-ment.
4.9. Conclusion
D’Alpuget and Koch have indicated in their novels how stereotypes are so important in
helping one determine how to behave in a strange environment. The only way one can
‘understand the “foreign” is through conscious and unconscious references to one’s own
cultural constructs’, which as often as not is manifested by ‘the disparaging comments, the
condescending air, and the inevitable homesickness’ (Bailey-Goldsmith, 142). D’Alpuget and
Koch are not excusing the negative stereotypical perceptions they put into the mouths of their
characters, nor should they be blamed for voicing the stereotypes. Abrams and Masser write
that ‘people feel guilty when they are aware that they have made unreasonable negative
judgments of others’ (Abrams, 60), and that is because society sensitises us against exhibiting
our prejudices.
D’Alpuget and Koch are only forcing their readers to recognise those
stereotypes when they are their own, and so freeing them to deal with their prejudices
accordingly, for this means reassessing not only their perspectives on Asian philosophy and
religions, on Third World technology, administration, and work ethics, or on women, but also
on themselves.
- 87 -
Asia as the Looking-glass World
5.1. Introduction
The previous chapter has tried to demonstrate how Blanche d’Alpuget employs for their
value as fictional tools various forms of overt and suppressed stereotyping which come out of
ordinary, actual experience. This chapter will endeavour to show how Christopher J. Koch
similarly accesses images which are supposed to be integral parts of the Australian identity, but
which have been generated by the mass media and literature.
The difference between the two writers is more of technique than purpose, for both
firmly believe that, in the search for national identity, the ability of Australians to look inward
has been crippled by the stigma of invasion, forced settlement, suppression of the indigenous
peoples, colonisation, imperialism, and finally abandonment by the ailing ‘mother’ nation. The
two are further writing in defence of the possibility that, by carefully observing the Asian
‘Other’ and alertly seeing through their inherited prejudices which exist to aggrandise a weak
perception of self by producing an even worse perception of the ‘Other’, Australians might
ultimately discern an enlightening image of themselves, as if Asia were indeed a sort of
dualistic viewfinder.
5.2. The ‘National Imaginary’
The sociologist Annette Hamilton has proposed a concept which she calls ‘the National
Imaginary’ to explain a society’s simultaneous production of interdependent images of the
‘Other’ and the ‘self’.
This mechanism comes from the stresses formed by a nation’s
developing sense of internationalism in conflict with internal cleavage or differentiation. The
process distinguishes a ‘national self’ from ‘national others’ by establishing a point of view
from which the world can be interpreted. It is illustrated by ‘the Lacanian scheme’ which
describes ‘the mirror-phase’ in a child’s development, when ‘the child sees itself in the mirror,
while thinking it sees another’. Until a third element intervenes to mediate, the identities are
confused. On the social, collective level, that which concerns the Australian novels, we are
‘looking at ourselves while we think we are seeing others’. Most important is the projection of
- 88 -
the seemingly foreign elements of the self onto the ‘Other’, for, as Hamilton writes, ‘it may be
precisely the split-off part of the self, the unrecognised part, which is seen in the Other’
(Hamilton, 16).
In many cultures the mass media images flooding the scene will not have a great effect
on the national sense of ‘self’ or ‘Other’, as the national identity is firmly based on older forms
of ‘collective representation’, notably myths, which ‘interpenetrate and affect the construction
of the repertoire of new images’ (Hamilton, 17). It is in settler colonies, where ‘this mythic
layer is tenuous or (arguably) altogether absent’, that the new images will have the most
impact. While Australians have tried to produce national symbols or myths,
the brief span of white Australian habitation, the heterogeneity of Australian
settlers’ origins, and the extremely rapid social changes during those two
hundred years have hardly permitted anything like a coherent set of collective
representations around which an Australian mythos and identity can coalesce.
In the absence of a stable set of images of the self, the construction of images
of others becomes equally problematic (Hamilton, 18).
In societies where a strong mythos does exist, images of the ‘Other’ will tend to be
constructed ‘in a manageable way, which means a way of neutralising it to reconfirm the
separate identity’ of the nation. ‘In the case of Australia’, Hamilton writes,
the reverse seems to be occurring: although there is a fear of something in the
heart and outside the boundaries, there is also a lure and a fascination, which
can be neutralised not by retreat but by appropriation. This is not an
appropriation of ‘the real’; it is an appropriation of commodified images
(Hamilton, 18).
This process allows the selection of ‘certain critical and valuable aspects of “the Other”’ for
inclusion into the Australian national imaginary of ‘itself’, giving it a claim on ‘both a
mythological and spiritual continuity of identity which is otherwise lacking’ (Hamilton, 18).
What is most interesting in terms of the novels of Christopher Koch is how Hamilton
contends that this process of creating the ‘national imaginary’ remains in contact with ‘the
relic imaginary of the past’. The older images, dating from a time when the relationship of the
‘self’ and the ‘Other’ was less difficult and originating in children’s stories, fairy tales, plays
and novels, ‘construct a hidden dialogue with the emerging images’, countering their
appropriation.
Instead, the ‘profound, historically-rooted Australian (British) racism’
- 89 -
reinforces the sense of ‘fear and danger inherent in contact’ between self and other. The
ultimate danger would then lie in the merger of the self and the ‘Other’, specifically (1)
through influence of the ‘primitive’ inherent in the ‘Other’—as exposure to the rituals,
festivals and artistic performances which d’Alpuget and Koch’s protagonists experience—, or
(2) through sexual contact—as occurs with d’Alpuget’s female, though interestingly not
Koch’s male, protagonists—, or (3) through the production of the ‘half-caste’—as represented
in Koch’s parade of hybrids (Hamilton, 18).
Yet, in what Hamilton calls ‘a danger’ she also sees a tremendous desire, and this is
what d’Alpuget and Koch interpret as opportunity. For sure, Judith Wilkes is driven by her
fear of the ‘Other’ to the cold comfort of her materialist oblivion; Alex Wheatfield’s profound
sense of virtue suffers a defeat to the forces of stereotypical segregation; Billy Kwan is driven
from what friends and family he manages to gather to himself; Mike Langford disappears in
the hell of Khmer Rouge Cambodia; et cetera. At the same time, Guy Hamilton, the introvert
with hardly an iota of self-knowledge finds his world drastically converted by its interaction
with the ‘Otherworld’ of Java; even Billy Kwan, the consummate passive thinker, becomes a
man of action; and Alex Wheatfield’s setback bears all of the signs of being temporary; and
Minou, the ultimate personification of Hamilton’s thesis, throws herself against all of the
maddening and deadly forces of isolation from self and collision with the ‘Other’, and finally
realises exactly what her identity and purpose are.
D’Alpuget and Koch set up these
situations, let old and new perspectives of the ‘self’ and the ‘Other’ come crashing together,
and demonstrate how they might occasionally fuse, so that the image seen through the veil of
dust on the mirror becomes clearer and the likenesses of ‘Other’ and ‘self’ recognized.
5.3. The Threatening ‘Other’--the 1984 Paradigm.
The formulaic cultural imagery depicting the ‘Other’ as a threat must first be
acknowledged before the clash between fear and desire can be brought into action. Koch and
d’Alpuget’s novels, especially The Year of Living Dangerously and Turtle Beach, therefore
present Southeast Asian countries as a latter-day ‘Yellow Menace’, where a degree of order
- 90 -
which would never be accepted in a Western democracy is imposed apparently to hide the
chaos which underlies society. Where d’Alpuget deals principally in clichés of power or inand out-group relationships, Koch applies a well stocked bag of pretexts, not the least of
which is George Orwell’s 1984. Billy Kwan invokes Orwell when he stigmatises Guy
Hamilton for pining nostalgically over decadent Europe, ‘a continent where ignorance is
virtue, where bogies exist only in old, wicked countries overseas’ (YLD, 183). In 1984 a
whole bureaucracy is responsible for correcting history, making truth into lies and back into
truth again; in Indonesia the sacred texts of wayang kulit plays are rewritten to confirm
changes in revolutionary thought and policy. President Sukarno has created in Indonesia a
society in which order is based on chaos, here called konfrontasi, ‘hypnotising his crowds at
the great rallies’ with his calls for confrontation against Malaysia, Britain, the United States,
the whole Western world, and India (YLD, 8-9). Kwan explains the situation to Hamilton,
newly arrived in this focus point of international confrontation:
‘For intrigues, this town’s like West Berlin, old man. No one knows what
anyone else is doing. The Yanks and the Brits watch the Russians; the West
Germans watch the East Germans; and all of them watch the Chinese.’ (YLD,
34)
Sukarno certainly has the creation of a monolithic ‘Eastasia’ in mind as the threatens to
invade Malaysia, enters into alliance with Peking, procures ‘huge loans’ to spend on arms and
new buildings to make Jakarta into ‘an instant world capital.’ Koch leaves no doubt about
comparing Sukarno’s megalomanic efforts with those of the major dictators of the twentieth
century when he writes,
Monuments rose, topped by ecstatically gesturing figures like ghosts from the
Third Reich, or Stalin’s Russia. Borrowed millions were spent to construct a
mask, while old Batavia’s arteries hardened and its vital organs ceased to
function. Jalan Thamrin, speeding south from Merdeka Field and the Old City
to the Hotel Indonesia in New Jakarta, carried a freight of new banks and
offices and a vast, Western-style department store whose prices kept it empty.
Engineer Sukarno flew over it all in his special white helicopter. (YLD, 28)
Sukarno even dreams of setting Indonesia on course to becoming a world naval power
with plans for a major shipbuilding programme. Warships are, however, expensive, and much
of Sukarno’s revolution remains confined to paper. Rhetoric replaces reality here as it did in
- 91 -
Oceania. As part of the konfrontasi lessons held at weekly ‘Crush Malaysia’ rallies at the
sports stadium or events like the Young Student Demonstration against Big Corruptors,
Sukarno also launches the local form of Newspeak, a project of popular motivation which fits
better into the dire economic situation of the new nation. The narrator explains that President
Sukarno
had created a strange propaganda world of paper and capital letters: a world
divided between the NEFOS—New Emerging Forces—and the OLDEFOS—
Old Established Forces--where we whites were called NEKOLIM:
‘neocolonial imperialists’. Bung Karno showed a genius for such coinings, as
a substitute for economic management (YLD, 8).
In addition, Sukarno names each year, announcing each one at his important Merdeka
Day celebration of Indonesian independence, including the Year of Living Dangerously,
whose focus is on konfrontasi, which would be followed by the Year of Self Reliance with its
curious sub-title, ‘Reach to the Star’, implying perhaps a turn towards Communist China, and
introduction of Sukarno’s concept of a time of banting-stir, or absolute change (YLD, 221-22),
during which konfrontasi is to be turned inward on Indonesian society itself, with the
prosperous Chinese Indonesians being the principle targets.
The agents of the BPI, the Indonesian intelligence service, have been modernised to fit
the affluent world of 1965 as well as its sense of racism, as one who is ‘thirty-ish, fit-looking,
saturnine, with a thin moustache and finely cut features which hinted at Hindu ancestry’. On
the fateful day of Billy Kwan’s attempt to display his ‘Feed Your People’ banner to Sukarno,
he passes Cookie in the Hotel Indonesia ‘at a jog-trot run, closely followed by a companion in
an expensive blue suit, a man of heavier build, with blank, stolid Malay features and a brutal
crew-cut’ (YLD, 244). Hamilton calls them the ‘Goon Squad’ (YLD, 245), and when he is
talking to Jill Bryant after Billy Kwan’s death he refers to the former one as ‘quite a polite
fellow: very good manners. He’s the one who shot Billy’ (YLD, 257).
Confrontation is not just rhetoric. It’s reality becomes a part of the essence of this
Southeast Asian country, where natural and artificial lights and smells are pervasive and
practically indistinguishable:
- 92 -
Jakarta’s street lights were growing dimmer and fewer by the month, as
the electric power shortage became acute; in the street they were now passing
through, the lights had failed altogether, and Hamilton found himself
navigating in an almost total darkness, in which only the meditating windows
of bungalows glowed irregularly. There seemed to be no moon (YLD, 180).
Sukarno himself is described as the dalang, or ‘puppet master’ of the Wayang shadow
theatre, who controls the light projected onto the screen, and is therefore the ‘creator’.
He is
also variously called Bapak, or ‘father’; the reincarnation of the god Vishnu; and is noted by
Wally O’Sullivan for his long list of titles: Great Leader of the Revolution; Mouthpiece of
the Indonesian People; Main Bearer of the People’s Suffering; Supreme Shepherd of the
Women’s Revolutionary Movement; Father of the Farmers; Great Leader of the Workers;
Supreme Commander of the Mental Revolution; Supreme Leader of the National Association
of Football Clubs; and, so adds O’Sullivan, the Supreme Boy Scout (YLD, 12-3). Sukarno,
however, is most commonly called simply the Bung, which Koch has the narrator translate,
with little care for hiding its archetype, as ‘elder brother’ (YLD, 9).
These echoes of 1984, the bugged hotel rooms, the Newspeak, the ominous
pronouncements of the absolute ruler and their frenzied acceptance by the huge, fanatical
crowds, are far too obvious to be ignored. Yet, they were perhaps too blatantly stereotypical
about a neighbour and region which Australians more than suspect for absurd totalitarian,
expansionist tendencies, and so could threaten to distort the novel’s focus on Australia. Peter
Fitzpatrick—referring specifically to playwrights but of a phenomenon apparent in fiction
writers and poets as well—notes the recent departure from a tradition in which Australian
writers ‘seemed to accept that it was their responsibility to hold the mirror up to a recognisably
local nature, and to present images of Australian-ness, satirized or mythologized or more
usually both’.
Instead, they have turned to ‘looking out from the island’ for more
‘international’ subjects and structures, but, though the gaze was turned outward, the purpose
was still to examine Australia and Australians (Fitzpatrick, 35).
Koch’s gaze is directed toward this Asian mirror, but, rather than satisfied with the thin,
echoing surface, it is probing deeper into the other side, noticing how in its reflective essence,
- 93 -
it offers some fundamental, sometimes shocking, clues to a truer, hidden reality. It is only
natural that Christopher J. Koch found structure and inspiration, and to an extent which makes
it surprising that nothing has been made of it in the critical literature, in another source (among
several minor ones) out of the English classics which permits a more relaxed, ironic reading,
and which is particularly appropriate for the Australian experience in Asia: Lewis Carroll’s
Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass.
5.4. An Australian Alice in Wonderland
The processes discussed by Annette Hamilton are apparent in all of the novels studied
here, and both d’Alpuget and Koch are provoking their Australian readers into recognising and
questioning their assumptions about themselves and Asia. Both are also deliberately setting
into play conflicting images of ‘self’ and of the ‘Other’, and are trying to force the reader into
a situation where he must wonder, as Alice sometimes finds herself doing, how to tell them
apart.
Koch’s The Year of Living Dangerously teases the reader with repeated direct
references to the two Alice books. When Guy Hamilton attends his first press conference, he
is confronted with the same obscure and accusatorial question that Alice faces as she ventures
through her Wonderland: ‘President Sukarno pointed his swagger-stick at Hamilton. “You,”
he said. “Who are you?”’ Koch makes sure we get the connection by having the narrator
comment, ‘Sukarno always spotted a new correspondent, and nearly always used the words
the Caterpillar had used to Alice’ (YLD, 25). Later, Koch writes of Hamilton’s love affair
with Jill Bryant: ‘They were linked by the usual shared enthusiasms to which lovers give
exaggerated importance: a fondness for Vivaldi and the Beatles; for similar jokes; and they
had enjoyed the same childhood books, at their opposite ends of the globe, in particular the
“Alice” books’ (YLD, 137-38). Finally, Hamilton finds himself in a maze of undersized halls,
trying to find his assistant Kumar, who has disappeared like the White Rabbit, and the narrator
explains, ‘All the low wooden doors were closed: like Alice’s rabbit hole, he said’ (YLD, 171).
Alice’s problem of growing and shrinking repeatedly may very well have first suggested the
- 94 -
link with Koch’s story in which he had planned to showcase the Wayang Shadow Theatre as
analogy of real-life Indonesia, for in the Wayang the characters also grow and shrink, dissolve
and materialise, fly, enter a ring, or incarnate a spirit in another body at the will of the dalang
(Brandon, 36). At the same time, the sort of hyperbole exhibited by Alice and Hamilton’s
bouts of growing and shrinking tests the relativity of perspectives. Susan Stewart notes how
size is determined by measurement to context, to those things in the
surrounding environment. Size is a matter of differential identity, of
‘measuring up’ or ‘measuring down’ in relation to some other. But in
nonsense, size becomes determined by those things inside the boundary of the
text—thereby demonstrating the paradox of any internal measurement.
Alice is in this respect an especially apt prototype for the dwarf Kwan and his ‘giant brother’
Hamilton, who must both undergo radical change, for, when her body becomes amorphous,
she ‘both loses and explores her sense of identity’ (Susan Stewart, 101-02).
These direct references let us in on this structure, supported mostly by better hidden
allusions, whose purpose is to underscore how the world of Jakarta of 1965 is just as absurdly
nonsensical as Alice’s Wonderland and also as potentially enlightening. The playfulness
gained helps to soften the novel’s handling of the poverty and squalor of the indigenous
quarters of Jakarta juxtaposed to the lavish lifestyles of the rulers, a handling which has two
major problems inherent to it: first, its sometimes stark realism threatens to interfere with
Koch’s message of rediscovering the ancestral unities of East and West; and second, by the
time Koch was writing The Year of Living Dangerously these images had already become
stereotypes to the Australian reading public and needed to be approached gingerly. Koch has
found in Alice a metaphor which he will use repeatedly, both to remind the reader that what he
is seeing is as much an image of himself as of the ‘Other’, that these images are distorted by
their environments, and also to signal the existence of another world alongside our world, and
into which one might enter if one is prepared. He pictures it as a land in the looking-glass,
which one knows about from vague memories and whose promise pricks one’s imagination:
In each of his novels Koch’s heroes respond to a calling, to a kind of appeal to
the spirit from a place they have not previously known but which they feel they
must have known, and which is very often in Asia. They respond to its
‘essence’—not just its allure, but to something they can intuitively identity
- 95 -
with, as though they have made contact with an adjacent world, in time as well
as in place. (Mitchell, 1996, Ancestral Voices, 6)
Koch uses the same dreamy, fanciful and ridiculous ‘Otherworld’ adjectives that are
found in Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland to describe things. The foreigners left in Jakarta at
the beginning of the novel are faced with what is said to be ‘life under a regime whose hatred
for all Westerners had reached the dimension of insanity’ (YLD, 9). Jill Bryant calls Jakarta
‘this bloody madhouse’ (YLD, 104). Sukarno is said to live in a ‘fairy-tale palace’ where
‘legendary deer roam’ (YLD, 156).
Inflation in the wrecked Indonesian economy is
‘dreamlike’ (YLD, 179). By the end of Sukarno’s Year of Living Dangerously, when the
currency had become worthless and the critical supply of rice was dwindling, the whole city is
described as having become ‘insane’. Cookie explains that ‘Amok is an old Malay word; and
Jakarta had now run amok with classic completeness’ (YLD, 221). The narrator, having
rushed to Billy Kwan’s bungalow to get the files after Billy’s death, describes himself
somewhat from the point of view of Kwan’s files as ‘living half asleep’ and decides, ‘Perhaps
Billy’s refusal to do the same had been his undoing. It just isn’t bearable to be fully awake’
(YLD, 252). Once in possession of the files, Cookie begins seeing the demons which Billy had
earlier talked about, in particular the little one who lurked outside Kwan’s bungalow, as if the
files themselves were the key to another world or held some magical power:
As I went back through the garden with my burden, I thought I saw a figure
out of the corner of my eye, in the pool of dark by the great trunk of the
banyan—an Indonesian or Chinese child, watching me with a stricken
expression. Electric terror shot through me; but when I peered closely there
was nothing there. I wasn’t made for intrigue: soon I’d be hallucinating. (YLD,
254)
Cookie, a journalist colleague who acts as the story’s teller, invites the reader into the
plot not only according to the formula of the Shadow Theatre’s dalang (discussed in the
chapter on the Wayang Kulit) but also to the method of the Lewis Carroll narrator in the
poems and prefaces which begin the two Alice works, namely with a direct appeal to the
reader to let himself to accept Billy Kwan with a degree of innocent tolerance and curiosity,
the protagonist who would otherwise be mistaken as just a cripple or a freak (YLD, 3). Later,
- 96 -
when he introduces the grim slums of Jakarta, he again diverts our attention with details
alluding to games and toys, and coaxes us to keep a child’s point of view, as does the second
central character, Guy Hamilton, who lets himself be coaxed into Asia like Rip Van Winkle
did into his faery land:
Most of us, I suppose, become children again when we enter the slums of Asia.
We re-discover there childhood’s opposite intensities: the gimcrack and the
queer mixed with the grim; laughter and misery; carnal nakedness and
threadbare nakedness; fear and toys. This was now happening to Hamilton,
who found that the puzzling clove-and-nutmeg scent, like the smell of the heat
itself, had intensified; it suddenly became very important to know what it was.
Questioning Kwan, he discovered that what he was scenting was Jakarta’s
most essential odour; that of clove-spiced kreteks—the cigarettes the poor
smoked. It mingled with the spiced smell of saté, the city’s favourite delicacy:
little pieces of meat skewered on bamboo slivers, being grilled here over a
charcoal brazier by a man in a baseball cap. (YLD, 20-21)
Lewis Carroll prefaces Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland with a poem about his
creation of the stories in a rowboat with three little, rather tyrannical, girls, who finally allow
him to begin on his terms:
Anon, to sudden silence won,
In fancy they pursue
The dream-child moving through a land
Of wonders wild and new,
In friendly chat with bird or beast—
And half believe it true. (Lewis Carroll, 3)
…
Alice! A childish story take,
And, with a gentle hand,
Lay it where Childhood’s dreams are twined
In Memory’s mystic band,
Like pilgrim’s wither’d wreath of flowers
Pluck’d in a far-off land. (Lewis Carroll, 4)
In Through the Looking-Glass, Carroll again harks back to ‘the dreaming eyes of
wonder’ of childhood as he picks up the threads of ‘a tale begun in other days’, ‘whose echoes
live in memory yet,/ though envious years would say “forget”.’ Then the summer sun was
high, but now is winter, and the world Carroll describes resembles Koch’s Jakarta, the
Wayang Bar journalist hideout, the land of faery:
Without, the frost, the blinding snow,
The storm-wind’s moody madness—
Within, the firelight’s ruddy glow,
And childhood’s nest of gladness.
- 97 -
The magic words shall hold thee fast:
Thou shalt not heed the raving blast. (Lewis Carroll, 115)
These passages recall Koch’s own description in ‘Crossing the Gap’ of his first
experiences of Asian literature, of the wayang kulit, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, where
he discovered ‘familiar figures: figures from my childhood reading, strangely transformed into
darting shadows’ (Koch, 1987, 24). This play on memory, much of which is ancestral, and on
the prototypal images themselves, are ever suggestive of the flickering shadow figures of the
old wayang kulit, of Alice’s Wonderland, and are central to the puzzling and teasing
construction of Koch’s novels.
5.5. Into the Rabbit Hole—Through the Earth to the ‘Antipathies’
Having warned us to keep rather innocent, open minds as we read, Koch takes us on one
of those remembered journeys leading into Wonderland. The appropriateness of the allusion
is immediately established in Carroll’s work when Alice follows the White Rabbit into the
hole and finds herself ‘falling down what seemed to be a very deep well’, which apparently is
taking her straight through the centre of the earth into a world which is immediately
distinguished by its strangeness (Lewis Carroll, 10). Alice figures such a fall to the earth’s
centre to be four thousand miles down, and then ponders the quintessential Australian
question: ‘I wonder what Latitude or Longitude I’ve got to?’ (Alice had not the slightest idea
what Latitude was, or Longitude either, but she thought they were nice grand words to say.)’
Lewis Carroll, who first published Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland in 1863, a time of great
activity in the whole question of Australian identity, has no doubts about where Alice would
end up after such a fall, however, when he has Alice realise that she may well fall all the way
through the earth.
‘I wonder if I shall fall right through the earth! How funny it’ll seem to come
out among the people that walk with their heads downwards! The antipathies,
I think—’ (she was rather glad there was no one listening, this time, as it didn’t
sound at all the right word) ‘but I shall have to ask them what the name of the
country is, you know. Please, Ma’am, is this New Zealand? Or Australia?’
(Lewis Carroll, 11)
- 98 -
Alice realises ‘what an ignorant little girl she’ll think me for asking!’, which leaves her
nothing to do but to go ‘Down, down, down!’ to the other end (Lewis Carroll, 11).
For the British in Lewis Carroll’s day the extreme opposite end of the world seemed to
be Australia or China; for many Australians it still, illogically, was China. Gerard Lee
illustrates the continuing Australian dependence on the British point of view in Troppo Man
(1990), when a group of mixed nationals in Bali express regional mentalities as they talk about
the relativity of location. The young Australian, Pete, accuses the Balinese of believing the
others to be ‘hairy and act like apes’ and to be less than human since they ‘do not come from
here, the centre of the world.’ The Balinese dispute this, and the reasonable German girl,
Gabriella, mollifies them, saying, ‘We are all thinking our country is the centre of de world.
For me, Chermany, for you, Bali, for these, Australia.’ Burditt, the American, says the centre
of the world is Manhattan. His wife Barbara says it is Hawaii. Pete pursues the attack, saying
the Balinese believe the world to be flat. He argues that it is round, but figures that ‘If you
dug a hole down here and you went far enough—I wouldn’t like to be digging it mind you—
you’d come out in China.’ The Balinese imagine somewhat more accurately, and perhaps
more optimistically, that they’d come out in California. Burditt, the intellectual, says Calcutta
is probably the opposite of Manhattan, but adds, ‘I think what we’re talking about here is a
decentring process. There are no places on Earth now we could call the place. There’s no
centre any more.’ Finally, Matt, the Australian protagonist who desires nothing more than to
reject everything he is, ends the discussion: ‘The Earth is flat,’ he said. ‘Bali is the centre of
the Earth and Mt Agung is the centre of Bali. That is the truth’ (TM, 124-25).
With Koch, it amounts to something akin to both Carroll and Lee. Guy Hamilton, like
Koch’s other (as also d’Alpuget’s) protagonists, feels very much dislocated as he arrives in
Indonesia from Australia. Like Gerard Lee’s Matt, he very much wants to avoid the life falling
into place for him back in Sydney. And like Alice, he is bored. Carroll begins his book:
Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the bank, and
having nothing to do: once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister
was reading, but it had no pictures or conversations in it… . (Lewis Carroll, 9)
- 99 -
Alice is feeling ‘very sleepy and stupid’, not to mention lazy, ‘when suddenly a White
Rabbit with pink eyes ran close by her’ (Lewis Carroll, 9). Koch opens The Year of Living
Dangerously by having Billy Kwan similarly come by. As seeing a rabbit with a waistcoatpocket and a watch perks Alice’s attention, and, ‘burning with curiosity, she ran across the
field after it’ (Lewis Carroll, 10), so does Koch open his novel, writing:
There is no way, unless you have unusual self control, of disguising the
expression on your face when you first meet a dwarf. It brings out the curious
child in us to meet one of these little people. (YLD, 3)
Alice plunges after the White Rabbit down the hole, ‘never once considering how in the
world she was to get out again’ (Lewis Carroll, 10), much as Hamilton descends carelessly
into the journalists’ world of the Wayang Bar, a world he will never again quite escape and
which is very much like a rabbit hole indeed:
The Hotel Indonesia in Jakarta was managed by an American airline, and the
Wayang Bar followed the American practice and sealed itself against all
natural light. Coming into this circular chamber, you stepped from the flat
blaze of the equator into a permanent half-dark, to which air-conditioning
added a Scandinavian cold; you would halt inside the doorway, the sweat
drying on your back, and wait for your eyes to adjust so that you could see
who was there. (YLD, 3)
The rabbit and its hole are obvious symbols for the Australians and their bar for other
reasons as well.
Both rabbit and white Australian are non-indigenous newcomers who
overwhelm the balance of nature in Australia. Billy Kwan, who is to upset the natural balance
among the Wayang Bar’s clique of journalists, is introduced as he comes into the bar,
‘squinting about him at the few sources of light’ (YLD, 3) like a rabbit sniffing and squinting
as it heads down into a strange hole.
In addition to the Wayang Bar, there are two other sites identified with Alice’s rabbit
hole as the gateway between two worlds. One is a ‘cave-like, dimly lit’ and bare café (YLD,
88) in the centre of Jakarta where the journalists stop to eat.
Among them is Wally
O’Sullivan, a pederast ‘who would eat anything’ (YLD, 89) and who is the Walrus of
Tweedledee and Tweedledum, who ate all the young and naive oysters.
Wally, here
contrasted to the others who find the café’s offerings to be indigestible while he ‘gulped down
- 100 -
the last vestiges of his curry, sat back, and belched’ (YLD, 89), especially appreciates the café
because it allows him access to both worlds—in both of which he excels, but in neither of
which he quite fits—at once. While enjoying the company of his professional and social
companions, he is surrounded by his own young oysters:
‘Spectators on the footpath
outside—Chinese children, Indonesian youths with nowhere to go—stood and watched the
drunken white men eating and drinking on their iron chairs.’ The oysters of Tweedledee’s
poem have clean shoes, which was logical since they had no feet. Koch gives us ‘a man with
no legs, who propelled himself across the floor to us with wooden blocks tied to his hands,
blocks which hissed and shuffled slyly on the tiles at our feet, as we fumbled for our money’
(YLD, 89-90). This image, repeated from Koch’s India of Across the Sea Wall, is followed by
that of a ‘woman dressed in a hood-like head-scarf and a crazy assortment of coloured rags
and tatters, who carried what appeared to be a baby wrapped in a filthy shawl’. This is Koch’s
rendition of the Duchess, who carried a baby which was no baby but only a pig. Sculpting his
image after the Lewis Carroll original, Koch presents the pathos of the situation in a way
which builds for the reader the same walls of emotional protection which must exist for any
real visitor to such a Third World café, writing, ‘It was an old trick; there was nothing inside
the shawl but rags, and we all knew it’. The beggar’s show is as two-dimensional as the
wayang and as dreamlike as Alice’s Wonderland, as ‘she whined and gestured at the bundle
and then at one limp, exposed brown breast with its fantastically elongated nipple.’ The
phantasmagoria ends with journalists gaining some excuse for being able to sit in those iron
chairs by giving the woman money ‘in a hiatus of painful quiet’, all except for Billy ‘who
waved her away with a frozen stare’ (YLD, 90), and sets up the final bizarre episode in the
café.
Two other journalists, Curtis and Sloan, mischievous characters in the Lewis Carroll
tradition of madness, bring in a dwarf off the street and present him as a gift to Hamilton,
provoking what Cookie describes as ‘a childish fear’ in Hamilton, as if ‘the joke would come
true, that he would be saddled with the Indonesian dwarf for ever’ (YLD, 92). In the café
- 101 -
where ‘weird cartoons’ of Disney characters are painted on the walls, this dwarf is a caricature
of Billy Kwan, ‘a genuine midget, with close-cropped hair like a black cat’s fur, and wide-set,
clever dark eyes’ (YLD, 90). Koch’s Wonderland descriptions continue with ‘fantastically
abbreviated brown legs and stubby bare feet’ which ‘peeped’ from under the dwarf’s sarong,
the arms which were ‘like flippers’, and the ‘tiny infant hands whose fingers were strangely
splayed’.
Cookie says, ‘Compared to him, Billy Kwan (at whom I dared not look), was a
normal man’ (YLD, 90), but apparently only compared to this dwarf, with whom Billy has far
more in common than he has with anyone else. Around the dwarf’s neck hangs a tin cup for
money, and this reflects the beggar in Billy Kwan, who is desperate, as Cookie recognises
later, for love and acceptance. Kwan is even capable, in spite of his serious intellectualism, to
resemble the freakish dwarf who, at the instigation of Sloan and Curtis, ‘began instantly to
dance on his little legs, breaking at the same time into a droning song’, causing Wally to belch
forth ‘deep chuckles which had in them a protesting, appalled sound, as though he were being
forcibly tickled’ (YLD, 91).
Later, at the house-warming party for Wally and his new
bungalow, Kwan will don the pitji cap made famous by Sukarno, and will dance and sing for
the other drunken guests as he reaches the heights of his popularity and acceptance. He
imagines it to resemble Sukarno, but mostly only recalls the café dwarf (YLD, 100).
The other site which is fashioned directly after Alice’s rabbit hole is the hotel where
Hamilton takes a holiday with his assistant Kumar. The weekend outing brings Hamilton for
the first time out of the bustling mad world of Jakarta up into the highlands of Java, which is
itself an almost unreal world of fantastic beauty and wonder. In a prologue to the episode,
Koch makes a point to write of Indonesia as a sort of mirror through which worlds change,
citing its sacred name, ‘the Gate of the World’, the passage between the ‘real’ world and the
‘Otherworld’.
No kingdom on earth can equal this one, which is the Gate of the World. Its
countless islands, from the Moluccas to northern Sumatra, balanced in an arc
between Asia and Australia, shield it from the storms of the Indian Ocean and
the South China Sea. Active volcanoes form its spine, and Vishnu, its
guardian god (who sometimes takes the guise of a dwarf), protects it from all
- 102 -
harm. Its children are more numerous, its women more beautiful, its soil more
fertile: foreigners covet it. And most favoured of all is Java. (YLD, 156)
This beautiful and fertile land which lies protecting Australia from the ‘storms’, both
literal and figurative, of India and China is itself one of volcanic temperament. Koch reminds
the reader that ‘these are the paddy fields and terraces the people cultivate to the very rims of
the craters’, and that ‘Java’s spirit is the terrible volcano Merapi, which seems to sleep, but is
always ready to explode in violence’ (YLD, 156). This is the land where Sukarno’s ‘white,
fairy-tale palace stands among pines and legendary deer roam’, and where the Wayang
Shadow Theatre comes alive, and where the new rulers of Indonesia, ‘the new nation’s élite:
generals wealthy from rake-offs; Chinese merchants; favoured officials; and foreign envoys
who enjoy the pleasures of colonialism without colonialism’, ascend their thrones (YLD, 157).
When Alice follows the White Rabbit down the hole, before entering into Wonderland,
she gets left behind and lost in the subterranean passage:
She was close behind it when she turned the corner, but the Rabbit was
no longer to be seen: she found herself in a long, low hall, which was lit up by
a row of lamps hanging from the roof.
There were doors all round the hall, but they were all locked; and when
Alice had been all the way down one side and up the other, trying every door,
she walked sadly down the middle, wondering how she was ever to get out
again. (Lewis Carroll, 12)
In his Indonesian Wonderland, Hamilton must first wander through a similar labyrinth of halls
and doors of the hotel. A self-described claustrophobe, Hamilton finds himself in a closed-in
room at the hotel. Alone and feeling dependant on his assistant, he wanders the halls looking
for Kumar.
Hamilton wandered through the long, musty-smelling corridors of the Ministry
bungalow, which were utterly silent. All the low wooden doors were closed:
like Alice’s rabbit hole, he said.
The old servant, in his white, starched jacket and pitji cap, suddenly
appeared round a bend ahead of him, and Hamilton tried to ask him where
Kumar’s room was. The old man spoke no English, and could not understand
Hamilton’s feeble attempts at Bahasa; he bowed and smiled eagerly, saying
something about ‘makan’. Hamilton said that he wanted no food, and gave it
up. He began to feel that his position was ridiculous. (YLD, 171)
Hamilton gives up trying to find Kumar and opts for a nap, but is disturbed by a
creaking sound and thinks someone has opened the door to his stuffy room. He sees that ‘the
- 103 -
noise came from a purple and green lizard some six inches long, clinging to the wall above his
bed’ (YLD, 173). He feels ‘unreasonable loathing’ for the creature, who as Bill the lizard is
sent down the chimney into the house where the hugely grown, claustrophobic Alice is
trapped:
She drew her foot as far down the chimney as she could, and waited till
she heard a little animal (she couldn’t guess of what sort it was) scratching and
scrambling about in the chimney close above her: then, saying to herself ‘This
is Bill’, she gave one sharp kick, and waited to see what would happen next.
(Lewis Carroll, 36)
Hamilton is as yet no more ready to act in less nonsensical ways than Alice, but having
met his Bill is important. Lewis Carroll’s Bill returns as an important juror in the capital trial
of the Mad Hatter, who stands accused of stealing the Queen of Heart’s tarts. Koch’s green
lizard melts into an image of the lush and fertile Javanese countryside—metaphor of ferment,
mystery and power—and, as will be discussed in the section on Koch’s Two Enigmatic Alices,
into the personality of Billy Kwan. The two are interrelated, as is made clear in Hamilton’s
dream which foreshadows his second journey into the highlands of Java, when he will come
face to face with Asian forces of destruction and creation:
The road they had driven on to get here this morning unwound in his mind like
a film, and the film kept winding back to one persistent image: the Javanese
mothers nursing their babies at the doorways of the roadside kampongs, and
then blending together to become one mother with one baby. Green-framed by
the palm-grove’s liquid green, she smiled in great friendliness—her gleaming,
oiled hair in its traditional bun secured by right combs, her bared, yellowbrown breast resembling one of the fruits piled in baskets by the road: as
though human and vegetable flesh were nurtured alike by the hill-country’s
deep red soil and myriad streams. In shallow dreams such as these, we are still
half-consciously thinking; and Hamilton said: But that’s the picture in Billy
Kwan’s room.
He did not know why he said this. The pleasant Javanese matron did not
really resemble that wildly dancing figure with snake-like hair in Billy’s
picture of the Hindu goddess; and yet seemed to him in his dream that her hair
had now come lose from its combs, and fell in snake-like coils and switches on
her shoulders: that she had become someone else. (YLD, 173)
This leitmotif of the duality of creation/destruction in the image of Asia is often found
in Australian literature. The rabbit hole, through its entry into the ‘Otherworld’, offers the
promise of enlightenment, yet poses certain threats to those who dare venture in. For Lewis
Carroll’s Alice the danger is treated childishly nonsensical; for Koch’s protagonists the
- 104 -
nonsense is revealed to be far more foreboding. This theme of the dual aspects of the
‘Otherworld’—in the traditions of the Hindu and ancient European goddesses who bring both
fertility and destruction, and of the Australian landscape which represents both paradise and
hell—is further dealt with in the chapters ‘The Divine Feminine’ and ‘Encountering the
“Otherworld”’.
5.6. Wally O’Sullivan, et al., Inhabitants of Wonderland
Several of the characters of The Year of Living Dangerously can be immediately
identified with characters of the Alice books. In Through the Looking-Glass, Alice goes into
the Garden of Live Flowers and meets Tiger Lily, a flower who shares a name with the elegant
but silent secretary in Hamilton’s ABS bureau. Hamilton’s Tiger Lily—whose real name is
Rosini, or ‘little rose’—fits the Orientalist stereotype of the Asian female which has survived
throughout Western literature, as the protagonist’s uncle’s beautiful but totally silent Japanese
wife in Louis Nowra’s Summer of the Aliens. Alice’s Tiger Lily, however, explains that
flowers are not really silent, and even criticises other flowers for talking too much:
‘Oh, Tiger-lily! said Alice, addressing herself to one that was waving
gracefully about in the wind, ‘I wish you could talk!’
‘We can talk,’ said Tiger-lily, ‘when there’s anybody worth talking to.’
(Lewis Carroll, 138)
Hamilton’s Tiger Lily receives very careful descriptive preparation, but if one expects her to
do something overtly central to the plot, he is to be disappointed. She clearly does not think
Hamilton worth talking to, but this might simply be to protect her reputation. One is left
wondering about the possibility that she is responsible for the enigmatic message which
Hamilton receives, that ‘Your assistant Kumar is PKI’ (YLD, 36).
If Tiger Lily is so
conservative as to avoid conversation with the Westerner who employs her, she would
necessarily also be anti-Communist. The only other candidate for suspicion is Kwan, and
while this would be somewhat illogical as he still has contacts with and admiration for the
communists, as a self-styled dalang he could certainly be playing the ‘wayang of the left’
against the ‘wayang of the right’. Koch has, however, made Tiger Lily beautiful and refined,
put her in a uniquely powerful position to know and communicate that Kumar is a Communist
- 105 -
official, given her the option of Alice’s Tiger Lily to remain silent or not, and then maintains
her status as an Orientalist cliché by leaving her mystery unresolved. Tiger Lily is indeed one
of Koch’s finer, if usually overlooked, creations, and she finally seems best described as an
apsarasas, a heavenly attendant to cosmic events, which Koch has liberally adopted from
Eastern mythology, and which are discussed in chapter 9 on the Divine Feminine.
In a more serious vein, Wally O’Sullivan, as already mentioned, is the Walrus of
Tweedledee’s poem who entices the young oysters to take a nice walk along the beach with
him, and then eats them all. O’Sullivan, whose size and eating habits as well as his first name
fit the walrus motif, is a pederast who has fallen in love with Southeast Asia thanks to the
access it gives him to beautiful young boys along with the relative anonymity, allowing him
solve his identity problem by coming, at least partly, out of the closet. He tells Hamilton and
Cookie:
‘I’m happy in this bloody mad country, you know. They might be on
the wrong track at the moment, but the Javanese have everything, really:
intelligence, subtlety, sense of humour, and sen-sensitivity.’ He hiccuped. ‘I
love them. I think I may never leave,’ he said. ‘This is my home, now. I may
apply for citizenship.’
At this, we laughed in disbelief; but he raised a stilling hand; even in
drunkenness his dignity was paramount. I’m quite serious—really, I have
something to give them; they have something to give me. There are young
men here who are hungry for education, for guidance that they can’t find in the
present breakdown. You met my young friends tonight—Hadji and Abdul?
Fine young men. I teach them English—supervise their reading--guide them in
their political thinking. They’ll be leaders, some day, and they’ll set this
country on a civilised course. And I can be myself with them. I can’t be
myself in Australia.’ (YLD, 102)
This explains why Koch would take prototypes out of Lewis Carroll. He must make his
characters likeable even while they represent very real, decadent Westerners who fall into the
worst tradition of Western imperialism as they live out their Orientalist fantasies. And so
Koch ennobles him as ‘Great Wally’ and makes him into the central figure in a clique where
shared experiences make the group important above all else, and the group’s rigid stereotypes
regulate its members. Like the Walrus, Wally relishes his role especially well, both as
consumer of Indonesian boys and as ringleader in the Wayang Bar, and his performance is
exceptional. Called upon to recite the many monikers of President Sukarno, Wally maintains
- 106 -
a lofty calmness and lets the others wait a moment, focusing their attention during this
dramatic pause. He clears his throat, then, like the Walrus, who let himself become enthralled
by the little oysters before devouring them, and deliberately so that his ‘well-oiled voice
would taste each item’, he commences his delivery, ‘his rose-bud mouth working solemnly,
like an old lady’s at prayer’ (YLD, 12). Big, soft, witty, intelligent, romantic, sensitive,
majestic, loving, and as loveable as a teddy bear—except that here it is a walrus—‘Great
Wally’ is a character right out of Wonderland.
All this almost makes Wally into a tragic character, for the complications of his large
personality make for a big and sudden fall, except that Koch does not choose to write the
tragedy of Wally O’Sullivan. In spite of his professed love for Indonesia, Wally has already
confessed to Cookie the problems of his pederasty in Indonesia:
‘I’m living on the edge of a volcano. The Indos would love to get something
on me—I irritate them so often with my articles. It’s all so bloody cloak-anddagger here. I wish I were based in Singapore again. Singers was marvellous.
I could send out from my room for the most beautiful boys—they deliver them
there like hamburgers.’ (YLD, 60)
Or like oysters. In any case, Wally, like the Walrus, does not recognise his own decadence
because the boys he has sex with do not seem quite human to him. Koch clothes his blatant
racism in the heavy robes of higher, perhaps for some readers even redeeming, romantic
French literature—citing one of the most important figures in 19th century Orientalist
expression.
I’ve got used to having boys in South-East Asia, Cookie. The funny thing is, I
never allowed myself at home. I only half admitted it to myself. You come
here, and they’re available, and they’re almost like a new sex—so smooth and
brown; like plastic.’ He pursed his lips and gave a single snort of laughter at
his own vulgarity. ‘Somehow, with another race it doesn’t seem so wrong. I
felt like André Gide discovering the beautiful Arab boys—you’ve read the
journals? South-East Asia—the Australian queer’s Middle East.’ (YLD, 60)
If Wally believes that he can be himself in Southeast Asia, then he must be willing to
accept his pederasty as something other than degenerate, exploitative and very dangerous.
Cookie tries to warn him about the possible consequences of his all-too-open activities, but
Wally does not listen, and his sudden expulsion from Indonesia comes as a complete surprise
- 107 -
to him. Alison Broinowski would agree that Christopher Koch stands firmly behind the
judgement of Cookie, his likely mouthpiece. She affirms that Koch concurs with such of his
intellectual forebears as Rudyard Kipling who have seen such decadence as proof of the
decline of Western society (Broinowski, 1992, 178). The irony is that Asia, where Australia is
hoping to clarify questions about its identity, has always born the Orientalist stereotype as
where even—perhaps especially—the most degenerate of Westerners can finally be
themselves.
5.7. Koch’s Two Enigmatic Alices
Koch substantiates this theme of moral degeneracy in physical form by fashioning his
Alice type as two characters who have separate backgrounds, personalities and destinies, but
jointly make up a composite protagonist. Billy Kwan and Guy Hamilton are each terribly
incomplete and incapable of taking lead roles in the events of the plot, but together they
become a unified heroic figure. This identity puzzle is itself a dual image out of Lewis
Carroll’s Alice books and the wayang kulit’s representation of the three Pandava brothers,
Arjuna, Judistira and Bima, who epitomise an Eastern version of the separate elements of a
whole personality. This section limits itself to Kwan and Hamilton’s labyrinthine Alice
connection; the complex Eastern associations of this double character are investigated in
chapter 11.
5.7.1. Billy Kwan
The search for lost identity is a special problem for Billy Kwan, who has as much
trouble keeping track of who he is as does Alice. Kwan, indeed, is a shape changer. The
narrator seems to be describing one of the chessmen in Through the Looking-Glass, when he
says: ‘His black, crew-cut head appeared large in relation to his body, and his legs were
comically brief; but his chest and shoulders were powerful, and his hands square and capablelooking.’ He sounds like Humpty Dumpty on the wall when he ‘perched himself with some
precariousness on a high bamboo stool and crossed one stumpy leg over the other’. Then he
becomes the Cheshire Cat, with his head separating from his body and dissolving into a
- 108 -
disarming smile, as Cookie remembers, ‘The disturbingly intelligent face above the comical
body split into a grin, and I decided that I liked him’ (YLD, 5). Jill cites another catlike
characteristic in Billy. ‘Billy never swims’ she says, patting his ‘spiky black head’ as if he
were her house cat (YLD, 49). Billy Kwan and the Cheshire Cat are the sages of their stories.
Kwan would likely apply the Cheshire Cat’s logic about madness to the Indonesia experience:
‘But I don’t want to go among mad people,’ Alice remarked.
‘Oh, you can’t help that,’ said the Cat: ‘we’re all mad here. I’m mad.
You’re mad.’
‘How do you know I’m mad?’ said Alice.
‘You must be,’ said the Cat, ‘or you wouldn’t have come here.’ (Lewis
Carroll, 58)
Kwan is the only character in the novel who is actually trying to do anything about the
lamentable conditions of life among the Indonesians, and being a dwarf with a quick motor
scooter gets him into places inaccessible to the others, associating him with Bill the lizard who
was sent down the chimney to save Alice who had grown trapped in the house, even if for
Kwan it is exploiting the compassion of others more than the physical size that counts. He
also acts, like Bill the lizard, as the jury in his trials of the others, especially of Guy Hamilton
and of Sukarno. On top of it all, Billy Kwan is the lizard’s namesake.
Finally, Billy is the allusive White Rabbit. When he has become disillusioned with
Sukarno and Hamilton, Kwan disappears into the indigenous quarter of the Pasar Baru.
Hamilton, who wants to make things right between them and re-establish their working
relationship, follows him into the Pasar, chances to track him down like Alice did the White
Rabbit. Kwan, however, is inconsolable, and after accusing Hamilton and all journalists as
being just Peeping Toms, he runs and disappears back down what resembles another hole in
the earth (YLD, 237).
This difficulty to pin down Billy Kwan’s personality is a central part of The Year of
Living Dangerously. Wally remembers Billy from university days as an anarchist, but fully
expects him to have since become conservative. Cookie tells him that Kwan looks Chinese,
and Wally answers, ‘That’s his trouble. He’s not sure whether he is or not’ (YLD, 4). Billy
Kwan remains throughout the novel an enigma; no one is sure just what he is. He finds his
- 109 -
most profound sense of identity in being a dwarf, but does not have the physical characteristics
of the typical dwarf, and no one really wants to see him as one. Hamilton says he is being
hard on himself when he talks about being a dwarf, and Cookie remarks that ‘he was not really
a dwarf in the extreme sense: that is, he was not a midget’ (YLD, 4-5). His accent is
Australian, but with British overtones (YLD, 4) thanks to his British education. He looks
Chinese, except for his almond-shaped green eyes. His father was Chinese, though when Pete
Curtis tries to provoke him with a standard derogatory joke about a Chinese gardener in
Australia, Billy simply responds, ‘My father owns a gift store in Dixon Street, not a market
garden’ (YLD, 6). Billy Kwan does his best to distance himself from his Chinese origins, and
complains to Hamilton about the racism he has encountered, saying ‘It’s difficult to break out
of the restaurant and fruit-shop business, if you’re an Australian Chinese. Or it was when I
was young’ (YLD, 19). He insists that he does not speak a word of Chinese, but also that he
does not speak more than a few words of Bahasa, the local language of Java, and this is so
clearly false that one must also doubt these assertions. The Javanese themselves are confused
about him, and their mistaking him for a Chinese Indonesian is a huge professional advantage
for Kwan. Similarly, Kwan tries on a series of philosophies, testing each for its attractions,
but seeming intent just in discovering why it does not fit him before moving on to the next.
Kwan’s identity is, then, defined by all that which he is not.
Such negative-based identification is the norm in the Alice books. Alice is drawn into
the rabbit hole by her curiosity at seeing the White Rabbit, but Lewis Carroll writes:
There was nothing so very remarkable in that; nor did Alice think it so
very much out of the way to hear the Rabbit say to itself ‘Oh dear! Oh dear! I
shall be too late!’ (When she thought it over afterwards, it occurred to her that
she ought to have wondered at this, but at the time it all seemed quite natural.)
(Lewis Carroll, 9-10)
Alice finds the door into the garden, but she is not small enough to go through. She chooses to
drink the bottle marked ‘Drink me’ only because it was ‘not marked “poison”’ (Lewis Carroll,
14). Once she shrinks she discovers she is not tall enough to take the key to the door. Alice
- 110 -
wonders how all of the strange things can be happening to her, and begins to doubt her own
identity:
‘Dear, dear! How queer everything is to-day! And yesterday things went on
as usual. I wonder if I’ve been changed in the night? Let me think: was I the
same when I got up this morning? I almost think I can remember feeling a
little different. But if I’m not the same, the next question is “Who in the world
am I?” Ah, that’s the great puzzle!’ And she began thinking over all the
children she knew that were of the same age as herself, to see if she could have
been changed for any of them.
‘I’m sure I’m not Ada,’ she said, ‘for her hair goes in such long ringlets,
and mine doesn’t go in ringlets at all; and I’m sure I can’t be Mabel, for I know
all sorts of things, and she, oh, she knows such a very little! Besides, she’s
she, and I’m I, and –oh dear, how puzzling it all is! (Lewis Carroll, 17-19)
Alice’s solution to having fallen down the rabbit hole and forgotten who she is, one which
seems to be adhered to by Billy Kwan, whose identity problems stem from his inability to
belong and be loved, is to stay put in the hole until someone comes along to help her out:
I shall only look up and say “Who am I, then? Tell me that first, and then, if I
like being that person, I’ll come up: if not, I’ll stay down here till I’m
somebody else”—but, oh dear!’ cried Alice, with a sudden burst of tears, ‘I do
wish they would put their heads down! I am so very tired of being all alone
here!’ (Lewis Carroll, 19)
The Cheshire Cat uses the same sort of logic to prove its madness:
‘To begin with,’ said the Cat, ‘a dog’s not mad. You grant that?’
‘I suppose so,’ said Alice.
‘Well, then,’ the Cat went on, ‘you see a dog growls when it’s angry,
and wags its tail when it’s pleased. Now I growl when I’m pleased, and wag
my tail when I’m angry. Therefore I’m mad.’ (Lewis Carroll, 58)
This sort of specious logic illustrates how Koch’s reliance on Carroll’s novels go beyond the
most obvious forms of intertextuality, winding meaning and mis-meaning together like the
reversed images in the looking-glass. Susan Stewart notes how meaning in Carroll ‘is often
made material, factual, and consistent at the expense of the understanding that makes up
common sense’. Carroll, she argues, undercuts the power of meaning while giving it central
stage (Susan Stewart, 78), and this can also be seen in Koch’s playful manipulation of
meaning, one of his leitmotifs. Koch links ‘meaning’ in a confusing network of literal,
abstract and often incongruent terms—time; history; Dis, commander of the dead; Kali and her
‘lila’ of creation and destruction; memory; death; and the ‘Otherworld’—thereby bringing
- 111 -
konfrontasi home to the reader,who is confronted with the fact that the meaning of ‘meaning’
is about as solid as the Cheshire Cat.
Just as the Cat reckons that he is mad since the dog is not, Billy Kwan weighs evidence
of all he is not, and arrives at the conclusion, ‘So I must be Australian, mustn’t I?’ (YLD, 10).
Kwan’s ideological and spiritual tendencies are just as fluid as physical identity. He professes
to usually subscribe to a Christian moral point of view, meaning ‘the view that you don’t think
about the so-called big issues, or changing the system, but you deal with whatever misery is in
front of you—and the little bit of good that you do adds its light to the sum of light’ (YLD, 22).
Kwan is Roman Catholic, but says that he is considering converting to Islam. He tells Cookie,
‘Lately I have a feeling the Church has spent its passion’; and, ‘the Methos in Sydney used to
invite me to little suburban gatherings to show how broadminded they were with their tame
Chinese—but they’d get uncomfortable.
They only like multi-racialism in theory, poor
darlings.’ He cites several reasons for his possible move to Islam, ‘No priest cast. Equality
for all believers under God.’ He gets to the point then, however, when he mentions, ‘And they
have force. That’s what the communists in this country underestimate—the fury of the
Muslims at being told there’s no God.’ (YLD, 95-96)
Kwan would be as difficult a Muslim as Catholic, however, as he is really an animist.
Cookie asks him if he believes in the supernatural, and Kwan answers that there is a spirit near
his bungalow who moves about in the garden and even ‘came in one night, and knocked some
bottles of developer off the shelf.’ He explains their existence, with the circular thinking
typically found in Alice, by the presence of a belief in them. ‘Where animistic religion is still
strong, you’re obviously going to have a lot of them hanging about. Demons can’t come
without invitation, can they?’ (YLD, 96)
Billy Kwan’s flexible spiritual bent parallels his fluid identity. His extensive files,
which Cookie terms his ‘indexomania’, is an attempt by Kwan to understand everything and
everyone around him, and the point is to arrive at a knowledge of himself. In his files on
dwarfs, he tries to justify his physical condition by putting on the trappings of mythology and
- 112 -
mediaeval history, in which the dwarfs are seen as an ancient race of little people who were
assimilated into the Celtic gene pool but who reappear as throwbacks. The narrator wonders,
But who did Billy truly wish to be? Perhaps, with his archaic slang and
Public School accent, his ‘old man’ drawled in mockery (of himself or of us?)
he played an upper-middle-class Australian or Englishman of the pre-war era.
Yet sometimes he played a special role as an Asian: he was to go through
Confucian Chinese and Japanese Zen phases. It was as though, since his race
was double and his status ambiguous, he had decided to multiply the ambiguity
indefinitely. In the Middle Ages he might have found his true function as a
vagans, a wandering scholar. (YLD, 67)
This would certainly make Billy Kwan someone special, and not just a half-breed,
achondroplastic dwarf with a wide, frog-like smile.
Perplexed by similar problems of identity and size, Alice begins crying and then scolds
herself:
‘Come, there’s no use in crying like that!’ said Alice to herself rather sharply.
‘I advise you to leave off this minute!’ She generally gave herself very good
advice (though she very seldom followed it), and sometimes she scolded
herself so severely as to bring tears into her own eyes; and once she
remembered trying to box her own ears for having cheated herself in a game of
croquet she was playing against herself, for this curious child was very fond of
pretending to be two people. ‘But it’s no use now,’ thought poor Alice, ‘to
pretend to be two people! Why, there’s hardly enough of me left to make one
respectable person.’ (Lewis Carroll, 14-15)
It is a conclusion Kwan might have been well advised to reach himself. He is, after all, a very
likeable figure, and one almost wishes he could have kept Alice’s sense of humour. Billy
Kwan, however, is tormented by his disparate origins. Hamilton wonders why he would reject
his Chinese side, and Billy responds:
‘My heritage isn’t China—my heritage is Europe, just as yours is. Tell me,
what books did you read, Ham, when you were twelve years old? Sherlock
Holmes? The Saint? The William books?’
‘All of those. Used to love them. Why?’
‘So did I. Do you see? I used to want to be William. I suppose you did
too. But I couldn’t be—my face wouldn’t let me. Sooner or later, you see, at a
party or in a bar, there’s a character who’s always waiting for me. He says,
“Kwan: now what sort of a name’s that?”’ He was imitating a crass
Australian. ‘“Half Chinese aren’t you?” he says. I can never get rid of that
bastard.’ (YLD, 83-84)
- 113 -
Billy Kwan’s identity problem is indeed far more problematic than is Alice’s, though
perhaps only due to the more serious tone. So, like Alice, Billy feels as though he is less than
a whole person, and finds that creating multiple identities for himself does not help much:
‘It’s rather a bore to be half something, you see, old man. There’s no great
problem belonging to any one race—but a man needs to be able to choose.
Well, I chose. William was part of my family past, like Christianity, and the
Renaissance, and parliamentary democracy.’ (YLD, 84)
5.7.2. Guy Hamilton
Sharing Billy’s green cat-eyes and a perplexing identity problem, Guy Hamilton is the
other half which Billy Kwan has been searching for. Hamilton, who has not yet learned who
he really is through the tutelage of Billy Kwan, the experience of entry into the Javanese
otherworld, and the enchantment of the wayang kulit, is immediately marked for his lack of an
identity at his first presidential press conference by Sukarno in the tradition of the Caterpillar,
whose superior status and degenerate Eastern origin are evidenced by his languidly smoking a
hookah from a mushroom throne, and who confronts Alice about her identity:
‘Who are you?’ said the Caterpillar.
This was not an encouraging opening for a conversation. Alice replied,
rather shyly, ‘I—I hardly know, Sir, just at present—at least I know who I was
when I got up this morning but I think I must have been changed several times
since then. (Lewis Carroll, 40-41)
Hamilton, too taken aback by the milieu of chandeliers and gilt chairs that ‘made you halfexpect Strauss waltzes’, and by Sukarno’s confrontation to use the rare opportunity to pose a
question, is likewise barely able to identify himself: ‘President Sukarno pointed his swaggerstick at Hamilton. “You,” he said. “Who are you?”’ Cookie reports that Hamilton ‘actually
flushed; it was plain that he simply didn’t know what to say.’ All he gets out is a lame ‘I’m
just here to report the news’ (YLD, 25-26).
Lost like Alice, Hamilton errs through the tunnels and mazes of Java, encountering
bizarre characters and inverted logic similar to those of Wonderland. He experiences his own
bouts of growing and shrinking when he is brought by Vera Chostiakov, the Russian agent, to
the Kellerman, an appropriately named, claustrophobic and underworldly hotel.
- 114 -
Vera
apparently drugs Hamilton, and questions him about relative strengths of Muslim and PKI
forces in central Java, as his perception gets ‘more and more queer’.
He found now that there were gaps; periods when he was not aware of what
was happening; but then her voice and her face, with the analytical grey eyes
he still found attractive, would return into his field of vision. She had come
over now to sit next to him on the bed, and looked at him sideways: but her
face grew smaller and smaller, until it was the size of a tennis ball. Then it
grew immensely large. And all the time, at the back of his mind, he was
concerned that Peter the ‘driver’ would appear: he grew annoyed at the thought
that the man was still in the building, perhaps in a room nearby, and would try
to use strong-arm tactics. (YLD, 209)
Astounded by the strange things happening to her, Alice says, ‘When I used to read fairy tales,
I fancied that kind of thing never happened, and now here I am in the middle of one! There
ought to be a book written about me, that there ought!’ (Lewis Carroll, 33) Hamilton has the
same reaction. Feeling more and more powerless and enclosed, and, in an expression of the
Australian paradox of place, time and identity, Hamilton wonders how he ever got involved in
a 007 sort of story.
5.8. Alice on the Highway to War
The allusions to Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland continue in Highways to a War,
though with some important twists to reflect the different masks of the principle characters.
Claudine Phan has the same green cat or leprechaun eyes as Billy Kwan and Guy Hamilton.
Mike Langford, like Hamilton, grows into a white giant among the Southeast Asians. The
armies of South Vietnam and Cambodia are full of figures right out of Alice’s looking-glass.
Perhaps the most interesting of these is the information officer of the Cambodian Army, who
is too appropriately named Am Rong, ‘was always inappropriately smiling’ and ‘spoke in
French of battles of the imagination rather than those that had really taken place’.
His were medieval encounters, like those that had been fought in his films
about the kings of ancient Angkor, and in these accounts, the Republic’s army
was ever-victorious. With one of the most formidable guerrilla forces in
history closing its circle around the capital tighter every month, this would
have been funny if it hadn’t been desperate—and if journalists hadn’t been
dying because of Am Rong’s confident assertions that the Government held
territory it had already lost.
- 115 -
Rong’s briefings were translated into English by a ‘sensitive-looking young Cambodian’ poet
who ‘had an air of quiet desperation’ which indicated to the journalists ‘to believe nothing of
what he was being made to say’ (HW, 263-64).
The Cambodian capital is described as a veritable ‘Wonderland by night’ as the Khmer
Rouge forces tighten their strangle hold all round. There are ‘coloured electric bulbs’ and
‘petrol lamps’ flickering ‘like the fairground lights of childhood’. The fragrant air of the
garden ‘suggested peace, but a peace in the process of mummifying’ into a ‘peace of the past,
masquerading as the present for a little while longer’. On the café’s terrace ‘embassy officials,
Cambodian military officers and bureaucrats, Western correspondents, and a sprinkling of upmarket Cambodian prostitutes in black sarongs’ enjoy the orchestra’s rendition of
‘Wonderland by Night’. The mad hatter’s birthday party is made up of the journalists,
‘huddled over their table lamps, faces reflecting the flames of the lamps like those of
nineteenth-century plotters’. They were ‘the noisiest of the groups’, inspiring a ‘note of
hysteria in their laughter’, alternating ‘wild clowning’ with ‘emotional diatribes against the
corrupt Lon Nol leaders’ (HW, 384).
The North Vietnamese Army is not spared its share of absurd and mad characters. In the
NVA’s theoretically egalitarian, non-materialist system, a high-ranking officer can only be
identified ‘from the number of ballpoint pens in his pocket’ (HW, 299). For a variation on the
theme, when the Soldiers Three are captured and brought deep into the forest, their NVA
captors turn out to be the Seven Dwarfs. There is Doc, ‘the medic, with his open boy’s face
and a big cap of hair cut straight across the forehead’; Lenin, a ‘tough-looking man with slit
eyes, who carried the field radio’ and ‘squinted and watched people’, is a sinister remaking of
Grumpy; Weary, who has ‘heavy eyelids, prone to malaria’, is an undisguised representation
of Sleepy; Prince, ‘a quiet, handsome one with a broad face’, recalls Bashful; and Turtle, a
‘stocky, cheerful man who always carried the rice pot on his back’, fits in as Happy. Escaping
such direct correlation are Professor, the ‘one with glasses and a sensitive face’, whose nailbiting and rereading of old letters from home still characterise him as one of the original
- 116 -
dwarfs; and the leader, Captain Danh, named most likely after Dan, the Old Testament prophet
who was forced into an otherworld exile, interpreted the dreams of the Babylonian king, was
protected by angels when thrown into the lions’ den, and whose name means ‘God is my
judge’ (Morris, 334), all of which fit him well, as also the role he plays as the true believer in
the cause of North Vietnam, who is yet judicious and dares to think for himself (HW, 314).
Mike Langford is confronted, like Alice and Guy Hamilton, with many doors, symbolic
of psychological or spiritual hindrances, but he finds that they are opening for him. The first
door opens when Aubrey Hardwick offers him a job at Telenews, but he does not quite explain
that what lies behind the door is the duplicitous world of espionage (HW, 90). A hidden door
lies behind a curtain of heavy red velvet in Madame Phan’s home (HW, 126). Through this
door Langford enters into the world of wisdom and riddle of the dragonlady, who acts as
Langford’s counsellor, lover, and Parvati/Durga figure. Then there is the doorway of La
Bohème, the bar/brothel on Saigon’s Tu Do street. Koch leaves it unclear just what awaits
Langford behind this door, although the street-wise children who accompany Langford
everywhere vehemently protest his entry (HW, 197), indicating the sort of grave danger Koch
associates with the ‘Otherworld’. Finally, there is the trapdoor into the underground bunker of
the North Vietnamese Army through which the Soldiers Three pass into a region of renewal,
finding that underneath the carnage of the war there are surprising forces of life waiting to reemerge. This proves critical to Langford, who is destined to act a saviour’s role as the forces
of evil overwhelm Southeast Asia (HW, 233).
Saigon’s Tu Do street, where ‘every second doorway seemed to be a bar’, is ‘a carnival
alley’, a degenerate 1960s amalgam of Wonderland, Rip Van Winkle’s Sleepy Hollow, and
the dual sides of the wayang kulit screen. Tu Do’s primary odours are ‘beer, urine and
perfume’, which suits the foreign soldiers filling the street in bland khakis or bright Hawaiian
shirts, who wander in the humid heat like ‘coarse and alien giants, white and black, badgered
and pursued by a race of refined, ivory-skinned gnomes who waved mutilated limbs at them,
or tried to sell them copies of Time, and Stars and Stripes’ (HW, 100). Also present in this
- 117 -
bizarre world is the White Rabbit, manifested as ‘a Vietnamese girl got up as an American
Playboy bunny. She wore the required tights and rabbit’s ears and tail, but her face seemed
full of woe: an ambiguous lure for the American troops. Woeful parodies of American
pleasures’ (HW, 195-96).
5.9. Conclusion
The most striking thing about the looking-glass images in these novels may very well be
not that they are so exotic and ‘Other’, but that they are somehow, deep-down familiar.
Almost every major centre of human activity in the world has its To Du Street, its confusing
and enticing passages to otherworlds, its mix of beauty, ugliness, and the macabre. This
strange and unpredictable familiarity of that which at first glance seems purely exotic is the
foundation for the looking-glass metaphor.
Though she is discussing Asian writing in
Australia, and thereby looking at this question from the other side, Elizabeth Kingsmill sums
up succinctly the paradoxical nature of the boundary between interacting cultures in terms of
the looking-glass. ‘Like a reflective surface, it may seem at once both alluring and impassable;
may seem to reveal unfamiliar worlds, that, in a sudden shift of light, are shown to be
reflections of our own’ (Kingsmill, 220). It is truly an inward search for self when Australians
look outwards for the ‘Other’ in Asia. Opening the doors and passing into the ‘Otherworld’—
partly a realm of enlightenment, partly a nonsensically backwards Wonderland, partly a sinister
and totalitarian technocracy—in order to know the self, however, is, as will be discussed in the
following chapters, a strange and dangerous act.
- 118 -
The Circular Path of Non-knowing, Doubt, and Faith
6.1. Introduction
The Aryan herdsmen/invaders who brought the Vedas to the Indian subcontinent
sometime around the 2nd millennium BC, setting into play a mix of cultures which would have
profound influence throughout the world until today, had a view of the natural world which
was monistic and filled with wonder. Juan Mascaró describes this Indo-European migrant in
his introduction to the Bhagavad Gita:
He watches the beauty of the dawn and the glory of the sun and he feels that
fire and air, and the waters and the winds are living powers: he offers to them
the fire of sacrifice. His life depends upon nature, and he knows that between
nature and himself there is not an impassable gulf. (Mascaró, xi)
Mascaró cites the Rig Veda to show how this was a man who deeply identified his own
existence with the universe he viewed as magnificent and beneficent:
Darkness was hidden in darkness. The all was fluid and formless. Therein, in
the void, by the fire of fervour arose the ONE.
And in the ONE arose love. Love is the first seed of soul. The truth of this the
sages found in their hearts: seeking in their hearts with wisdom, the sages
found that bond of union between being and non-being. (Rig Veda x.129;
Mascaró, xiii)
Yet while he sensed his identity with the love that arose in the ‘One’, he could also accept his
‘non-knowing’ of that pre-eminent truth. This ‘non-knowing’ was central to the role he saw
for himself, and, he suspected, it was perhaps central for the entire created universe:
Who knows in truth? Who can tell us whence and how arose this universe?
The gods are later than its beginning: who knows therefore whence comes this
creation?
Only that god who sees in highest heaven: he only knows whence comes this
universe, and whether it was made or uncreated. He only knows, or perhaps,
he knows not. (Rig Veda x.129; Mascaró, xiii)
Just as ‘the poet of the Vedas saw that for the progress of the mind man requires doubt
and faith’ (Mascaró, xiv), the ‘re-enchantment’ which David Tacey calls for today requires a
sense that the truth of the being of man is to be found throughout the universe. This truth is
only with tremendous difficulty and effort to be perceived, and even then will remain beyond
the grasp of man’s understanding. It is in this spirit that the novels of Blanche d’Alpuget and
- 119 -
C. J. Koch turn attention to the ancient thought of Asia to further the Australian search for self
and soul, and to demonstrate the psychological hardships one must overcome just to rediscover
the essential, circular equilibrium of the spirit of the Vedas.
This chapter will focus on this fundamental concept as applied by Blanche d’Alpuget in
Turtle Beach and Christopher J. Koch in Across the Sea Wall. Though it is an essential
principle to the other novels, these two adequately introduce the problems of escaping the
linear and positivist Western attitudes which are laden with the clichés, stereotypes and
prejudices discussed in the two preceding chapters, and of moving toward an Eastern attitude
which acknowledges that in order to know himself and his universe man must come to terms
with the limits to his discernment. Accepting his ‘non-knowing’ will lead him to doubt, but it
is precisely that doubt which is necessary to engender faith. Only through faith can man seize
the reality that his present and natural—but by no means ultimate—state is one of nonknowing.
6.2. First Steps to Self-discovery in C. J. Koch’s Across the Sea Wall
In his early novel Across the Sea Wall, Christopher J. Koch takes on the search for an
Australian self in Asia. His protagonist, Robert O’Brien, is a young Australian who runs away
from his pre-packaged future as a married civil servant towards what he expects to be a young
man’s adventure in Europe. He embarks on a rusty ship bound for Italy, where he encounters a
group of European emigrants, including the Latvian war refugee Ilsa Kalnins. O’Brien is
fascinated by the exotic allure of India which is part of his Orientalist cultural heritage, by the
‘impression of sophisticated knowledge of the world which he gets from his post-war
European travelling companions’, and especially by Ilsa, who seems to be the ‘keeper of the
key/secret’ of ‘hidden power, superior knowledge, access to the source of all riches’ (Sharrad,
1985, 64), and in whom he falls uncontrollably, passionately, helplessly in love.
Helen Tiffin notes how Ilsa, who is mostly recognised for her representation of the
Hindu goddess Kali, at first personifies Europe for O’Brien, making a further journey there
unnecessary. He fantasises over and is obsessed by ‘the vast experience of Europe embodied
- 120 -
in her both through her ancestry and through her living there during the war’, and also by ‘her
maternity’, which ‘seems both mysterious and paradoxical’ to him and which offers some hope
to him for gaining the experience which will assuage the guilt of his, and by analogy
Australia’s, ignorance (Tiffin, 1982, 329). Thus on this single character Koch is bringing into
focus all of the themes which preoccupy him throughout his novels: of the dualities of
personality; of evil; of history; of Eastern and Western cultural and mythological inheritances;
of perceptions of self and of the ‘Other’; of the dangerous and/or enlightening ‘Otherworld’ to
which Asia can give access; of innocence and experience; of thought and action. Foremost,
however, is the difference in perspective which makes these issues so critical to O’Brien and,
as Tiffen points out, utter non-issues to Ilsa:
By retracing the ancestral steps to Europe, and by learning its old, dark secrets,
the vacancy of colonial innocence might be overcome. Characteristically such
experience, particularly the enormity of evil represented by the war itself, is
important only to O’Brien, and is quite incidental to Ilsa’s sense of herself and
of her background. (Tiffin, 1982, 329)
O’Brien and Ilsa decide to separate themselves from their friends for an adventure in
India, where ‘they begin to recognize themselves and each other as petty escapists, not heroic
adventurers; instead of satisfying their urge for freedom, travel reminds them of their
unfulfilled commitments and responsibilities’ (Huggan 1993, Tourist Gaze, 84). O’Brien has
imagined that Ilsa’s experience can be his door into the ‘Otherworld’, but hope turns to
‘frustration as he finds he is unable to grasp it or to nurture himself on it’ and that the woman
he worships remains ever beyond his grasp (Tiffin, 1982, 329). The conflicting dualities
inherent in India and Ilsa nearly kill O’Brien, who is just looking to find a complement to his
own, rather simple sense of self, but finds a whirlwind of love, contempt, exploitation,
colonialism, spirituality and poverty.
O’Brien survives by retreating into the mountains, where he is able to recompose
himself, unintentionally following the example of the god Shiva, the archetypal ascetic who
was so unnerved by the world that he withdrew to a mountaintop to meditate. The idealised
dream O’Brien held of the world failed him along with his health, but is replaced with Koch’s
- 121 -
concept of a synthesis of Old World and New World mythologies and attitudes in a vision
based on ‘a greater acceptance of people for what they are (rather than what he wants them to
be) and an understanding of migration as a part of modern life (rather than some hot-house
plant)’ (Sharrad, 1985, 67). The India O’Brien expected to discover, based on his Orientalist
concepts, did exist, but only alongside many other Indias. He ‘comes to realize that doubleness
is the essence of the human condition’ (Thieme, 1987, 457), though the acquired wisdom is not
pleasing. O’Brien returns to Australia, picking his conventional life back up, but knows he is
somehow fundamentally changed. Like Guy Hamilton and Mike Langford, he is symbolic of
Australia’s shift from looking to the West for its identity, to a gaze both inward and toward
Asia. O’Brien’s new job as a journalist represents Australia’s move toward interpreting the
world for itself rather than through European eyes, and is also far better than clerking in the
civil service for keeping him on track to return to Asia. A return seems a necessity for him,
haunted as he is by his Asian Sirens, as it does for Koch, who needs to continue working out
his expression of these themes of initiation and experience, of the shift of the Australian search
for identity from West to North, of an interior struggle for wholeness, and of the potential of
Asian elements to compensate for the psycho-cultural deficiencies of the contemporary
Australian. It is the spiritual legacy which Asia holds for Australia which is most important to
Koch, and his novels are well described as ‘an attempt at theological revisionism which
emerges as a distinctively Australian response to the question of spiritual identity’ (Thieme,
1987, 452).
6.3. D’Alpuget’s Hindu ‘Mirror, Mirror on the Wall’
Blanche d’Alpuget tends to look at Asian society through the eyes of her most common
reader, but does not hesitate to exploit some of the more esoteric and subtle images to further
her story. Her persona's penchant to be critical and condescending, much like a tourist,
dominates the presentation of Asian thought, but covers up a profound yet painfully reluctant
yearning to find a way to end the sense of incompleteness. In this way, d’Alpuget coerces her
- 122 -
reader first to identify with the protagonists, and then to recognise how that identification
reflects anything but the most beautiful face in the land.
In Turtle Beach, d'Alpuget deals with the festival celebrating the heroic victory of Lord
Subramaniam. D’Alpuget’s protagonist, Judith Wilkes, accompanies her Indian lover, Kanan,
to the strange festival, and while she is striving to find in Kanan some sense to her life, she
tends to reduce his efforts to help her to absurdities.
First of all, d’Alpuget makes fun of Lord Subramaniam as one among many ridiculous
Asian gods:
The Lord Subramaniam had six heads and twelve arms (‘Some gods have ten
thousand arms - he’s modest with only twelve’, Kanan said); he was forever
youthful; his elder brother was the elephant god (TB, 143)
D’Alpuget goes on to note that he significantly had thirty-seven names—corresponding
to his stature, which is due to being the offspring of Shiva, the destroyer of the universe, and of
Parvati, the creative force of the universe. Yet, already mostly unknown qualities to Western
readers, these markers of importance are dampened through association with such trivia as that
‘in the lunar/solar calendar it was now the tenth month, Thai; and the lunar station was Pusam,
governed by the planet Brishaspati’ (TB, 144). The basis of Asian religion is reduced to a
pseudo-science of funny sounding names and ridiculous images, overladen with the minutia of
ritual, as the exact number of steps from the ground up to the cave, and accentuated with
elements of slapstick, Keystone Cops humour, as when a relative of Kanan nonchalantly tries
to explain the significance of the tenth month while racing through the crowded Indian streets:
‘“In southern India now the moon is at its most beautiful,” the relation told Judith, just missing
a truck. Traffic was getting heavier.’ Having made as much fun of the festival as possible, and
reduced the Indian cosmic view to mere pleasantries, d’Alpuget has Kanan then pronounce in
an ominous undertone that the festival ‘is banned in India’ (TB, 144).
This establishes the mixed mood of ludicrous gravity in which Judith and Kanan join the
thousands of other participants in an increasing frenzy of emotion and excess. Judith is drawn
to the site of the festival with all the others, quickening her pace up the steps to the cave, her
- 123 -
heart speeding to the beat of the drums, caught up in the narcotic effects of the sweet incense
until she is no longer in control of herself, and is driven hysterically up the mountain:
Judith knew the way without any help from him now, she was ahead of him
already, almost running towards the lights off to the right of the roadway
where hundreds of people moved in the dark, and where the music was loud,
and there were shouts and fires burning on the ground, with clouds of incense
billowing up from the flames.
Kanan, who is Judith’s informant and Asian expert as well as her lover, then suffers a
change which reduces in her eyes his strength and influence: Like the Indian who loses his
head in the riots at the novel’s beginning, symbolising the central theme of spiritual
disjunction, Kanan loses an arm. One must embrace a brass pot containing sacrificial milk, but
having only one free arm signifies his limited, mortal attributes, especially in comparison with
the many-armed—an Asian symbolism of strength—gods; C. J. Koch also employs this
metaphor at a critical moment in Highways to a War. Judith is driven away from weakened
Kanan towards another force:
Judith knew something was pushing her, something different from the soft, hot
bodies. It was an urgent noise, musical instruments - cymbals and drums - and
a shout ‘Vel! Vel!’ (TB, 146)
They rush up the stairs on the mountainside, totally carried away by the atmosphere, the
crush of twirling dancers, the thumping of drums and chanting priests, the overwhelming
smoke of fire and incense, and finally reach the cave, where an absurd little plaster figure of
the god draped with garlands of marigolds round his neck receives the offerings of milk in a
cave most notable for its reek of bat dung. The sacrificial rite, the basis of the ancient Vedic
philosophy, is here described with the language of chaos. Kanan has hauled his pot of milk up
the mountain to the god figure, which he readily admits is kitsch by saying it is ‘Just a small
plaster god with garlands of marigolds round his neck’ (TB, 148). D’Alpuget describes the
ceremony as ‘confusion and noise’, with the focus on the ‘chanting and mumbo-jumbo from
priests in white dhotis, things were being flung into open fires, and grey clouds of camphor
incense floated into the air’(TB, 147). Judith sees the festival as malevolent superstition, and
even Kanan views it, at least according to Judith’s interpretation, with contempt (TB, 148).
- 124 -
Everything about the festival is seen in the worst light. When she and Kanan receive free food,
Judith suggests the benefactor is being generous ‘As a penance for being so greedy the rest of
the year’(TB, 148).
Judith is intent on seeing the kavadis, the central part of the festival which involves acts
of endurement of great pain. She insists when Kanan questions her strength, but is shocked at
the first, relatively harmless sight of ‘a man with a naked chest as hard as a gymnast’s and grey
snakes of hair to his waist. He glared at them and jumped up and down on the grass, rattling
his ankle bells’ (TB, 149). Judith senses a ‘mindless, concentrated malevolence’ emanating
from him. Kanan tries to explain how the man is taking on the role of Shiva, the god who
‘destroys the universe by dancing it down to atoms’, but to Judith it is just part of ‘this orgy.
This abomination’(TB, 149). Judith later describes the far more gruesome part of the festival,
the kavadis, acts of voluntary submission to torture where ‘dozens of silver fish-hooks were
run through the flesh of backs and chests to act as anchors for the towers of tinsel, peacock
feathers, plastic dolls and other glittery rubbish that made up the big kavadis’ (TB, 151).
Indian ascetics who regularly submit to tests of pain endurance are so well known that their
images have become banal, but d’Alpuget describes a scene which not only Judith would find
unbearable:
There was a little girl of about five. She looked starving, her arms were like
sticks, and her eyes were too big for her face. They screamed ‘Vel! Vel!’ in
her ears, held the incense under her nose, and she closed her eyes and began
rolling her head. They just grabbed her, her mother held her still, and they
speared her tongue. Everyone looked as calm as if they were threading meat
on to a skewer for shish-kebab. (TB, 149)
The description seems meant to shock her readers with the unbounded barbarity of the
festival, and Judith’s desire is understandably to either vomit or rush in and stop them, yet
d’Alpuget juxtaposes Judith’s horror with the inane reaction of a stereotypical Australian
tourist. This hippie girl is more impressed with other aspects of the festival, notably the
Chinese man who goes into ‘a monkey trance’: ‘He turned into a monkey before my eyes. He
ate bananas with the skins on, and ripped a coconut husk off with his teeth, and they beat him
- 125 -
with whips’ (TB, 151).
She goes on with her own intensely passionate and irrelevant
impressions, showing how the ludicrous gravity is really a question of perspective:
The girl said, ‘I couldn’t stand the young guys. They’re so bloody beautiful.
Their bodies are so smooth and lean after all the fasting. Did you see? When
their eyes roll up, showing only whites, and they start dancing they don’t have
any expression at all. No joy, no excitement, no fear. Just nothing. When the
priests put those big spears through their cheeks they don’t register anything.
They aren’t there, they’re out with the cosmos somewhere.’ The girl picked
distractedly at a patch of bleached skin on her arm - she said she’d caught a
skin fungus in Bali. ‘I wonder if they fuck like that?’
Judith snorted.
‘No, I’m serious,’ the girl said. ‘Those guys really let go. They let go
of the whole world, they look like they’re coming. I kept thinking, Jesus I’d
like to fuck with a guy who looked like that. And then I’d think, but Jesus, it’s
scary. You’d be alone.’ (TB, 150)
This egocentric, Orientalist reaction might well be shared by many Western tourists enthralled
with the exoticism of Asian ritual, and though Judith’s snort pretends to reject it out of hand,
we know that she shares a fascination for the festival’s macabre ritual, and that she has been
having sex very much ‘alone’ during her unhappy married life, and also find her immediately
after the festival back in the passionate throes of sex with her own Indian lover.
This is, after all, just how Judith reacts to such intense experiences, and is the whole
point of the scene as well as of the early one of the horror of the 1969 street riots in Kuala
Lumpur, when she and a male colleague witness the decapitation of an Indian and, thanks to a
feat of extraordinary strength on Judith’s part, save another Indian from a similar fate. Judith
and her just-met colleague then rush back to his hotel room and have repeated cathartic sex,
and this just days after marrying to her long-time sweetheart, engendering the child which is to
destroy her storybook marriage. Westerners, like Judith, might show shock and disgust at the
extremes of asceticism of such Asian practices, but tend to confuse the passions themselves
and how interrelated they all are. Bruce Bennett notes how d’Alpuget was impressed by the
‘smell of sex in the air’ during her visit to Jakarta when she was 22. She found the ‘fear and
loathing’ of sex in the Judeo-Christian cultures was replaced by an openness, amongst her
female acquaintances at least, in the Hindu-Buddhist milieu. This seemed to have fit in with
the other apparent socio-political contradictions she encountered in Indonesia, and made
- 126 -
Australia in comparison seem reactionary (Bennett, 1982, 12). The confused reaction of her
protagonist to Asia’s passion, then, does not seem contradictory at all. Intense suffering and
ecstasy indeed are for this reason described in Western languages with the same terms—as the
German Leiden/Leidenschaft or Latin pathos.
Kanan tries to explain the events in a short discourse on the philosophic basis for the
festival, which also goes a long way to help explain the puzzling characters of Minou and Billy
Kwan and also the problematic relationships of Judith with her husband and Kanan:
‘All of us want only two things: power and protection. That is the human
condition - the desire for dominance, the craving for succour. These devotees,
who are mostly from the socially oppressed classes, satisfy both in their trance.
The god takes away their pain; they have his protection. But they also unite
with him, they have his strength. So they are as strong as a god, isn’t it?’ (TB,
152-53)
In the midst of d’Alpuget’s presentation of the maddening festival, these words of
Kanan are easily overlooked, yet they express the gist of the central theme of this and the other
novels studied here.
The desire for power and protection correspond to the sense of
hopelessness and suffering which d’Alpuget identifies in her article ‘Jakarta, Jerusalem and the
Caves’ as the common heritage of the modern world. Though she scoffs at the festival, Judith
shares the need for relief, and this unifies her with the participants whether she likes it or not.
As a young woman, Blanche d’Alpuget experienced the Thai Pusam festival. Like Judith
Wilkes, she was outraged by the terror and fear of life she saw in Asia (d’Alpuget, 71), but she
reports how she was amazed at the ‘human courage and endurance’ of the people who went to
celebrate the unimpressive, plaster deity (d’Alpuget, 76). This prompted her to write of ‘the
anguish of the foreigner’, especially the female foreigner, where the need for survival forces
one to grow beyond the old assumptions and routines which leave us all displaced (d’Alpuget,
74). The lack of wholeness of her protagonist in Turtle Beach is symbolised by the beheading
she witnesses of the Indian during the riots, just as Judith’s spontaneous, massive drive for
sexual unity is her response to her own spiritual dismemberment (Maack, 127). This drive for
sexuality represents the need for a renewal of a sense for a sacred feminine principle which has
- 127 -
been suppressed in the masculine, positivist existentialism of 20th century society, but seems
doomed to failure when limited by its ephemerality.
D’Alpuget sticks by her basic assumption that Judith, as an Australian who like most
Westerners is closed to Eastern ideas, just cannot understand how Asian philosophy might
offer her a more lasting way to wholeness. Kanan tries to reduce it to a level she might
understand, and reflects his own westernised, intellectual side, saying, ‘There is no god in the
cave. There is only yourself. Power over yourself is the only power’. She interrupts,
expressing in her liberal feminist terms, ‘It isn’t religion either. It’s mutilation of children!’
Kanan tries to argue that the ‘parents don’t mean to harm him. They believe they are doing
something wonderful for him. The philosophy of Hinduism is harmlessness to all living
things’. Kanan realises, however, that it is ‘like reasoning with an imbecile’ (TB, 153). He
admits that ‘we Hindus take a pessimistic view of life. It must be lived, that is all. These
things, these hours of release, make it seem more bearable’ (TB, 155). Having justified his
disinterested moral attitude of life, he then removes himself from Judith by joining the
dancing:
Kanan liked dancing, liked the feeling of his limbs flowing loose and his hair
giving soft blows to his cheeks as he shook his head. It was lovely dancing on
the wet grass with all the other dancing people, the sky pink and blue with
dawn, incense rising from the altar fires. (TB, 153)
The dance is the Hindus way of forgetting the crush and regaining the marvel of life. Shiva the
Destroyer is said to dance the universe to atoms—destruction being the necessary prologue to
creation. Kanan’s act of harmless, yet profound, participation is too much for Judith, and she
runs away, ‘her hands covering her ears against the drums’ (TB, 153), as if running away from
Kanan’s interpretation of the festival’s message of suffering and succour. Yet there are in the
festival elements of the message Mascaró described about the nature of man, and Judith’s
running away is a rejection of the fact of her ‘non-knowing’; an unfortunate act, for Kanan’s
intent is to help Judith apply the message to her own search for answers to her crumbling life.
Judith’s final assessment of the festival is overwhelmingly negative. As she is escaping
it all in a crowded vehicle, she notices how ‘one of her fellow passengers—perhaps the hippie
- 128 -
girl—stank’, another jibe at Australians who ‘go troppo’, but she finds even that preferable ‘to
the nauseatingly sweet incense down by the river—and the fruit abandoned to be trampled
under foot, and the music and screams which had shuddered through her.’ And so Judith
Wilkes, a woman who has come to exploit Asia for her career and sex life, dismisses Asia as a
land of degenerate barbarity. She invokes her own Greek-based culture for the coup de grace,
thinking: ‘Everything in excess for these people’ (TB, 152). It is an ironic finale when one
considers that the ancient Greeks were somehow cousins to the Aryans who introduced the
Vedic culture to India, and also that Judith has managed to avoid learning anything from her
intense experiences in Malaysia. The goal of attaining ‘at-one-ment’, of forgiving herself for
her own sins and accepting a sense of the ‘doubt’ about herself in developing the ‘faith’ she so
desperately needs, is first described to her by a Catholic priest, and she treats this message with
the same stereotypical derision within her in-group that she gives its Asian parallel (TB, 54).
In the end, she confirms Minou’s analysis of her lack of a sense of purpose by retreating back
into her consumerist shell, more concerned with her duty-free bargains than with her spiritual
renaissance (Maack, 129).
Turtle Beach is an essentially Western novel about Westerners whose social
predilections are shaken by contact with the ‘Asian Other’.
Even the principle Asian
characters, Kanan and Minou, though maintaining a underlying respect for their roots, are
destabilised by their deep Westernisation. Kanan comes off as an intellectual who knows all
about Indian philosophy, but participates more as an ‘art lover’ than a ‘true believer’. Minou is
a quintessential lost child, a ‘hybrid’ who has never fit in. She is almost more Western than the
Westerners, though her inability to find a home for herself leads to her very Eastern selfsacrifice which Westerners can only see as self-destruction. Judith Wilkes is something of
each of these two. As a journalist and Western woman she is interested in the Indian culture
and in the problems of the Asians, but she steadfastly maintains her distance. This, Koh Tai
Ann complains, is borne of the Australian attitude of being very secure in its views about
Asian countries and people, never failing an interpretation of events and conditions there,
- 129 -
feigning concern, and at the same time exhibiting a patronising, disdainful, exploitative, and
very ‘Orientalist’ behaviour.
Thus the Australian characters are allowed to have it both ways, despising
what they perceive as the sociological reality of the place even while using the
orient as erotic adventure playground to act out their fantasies; but it is
ultimately a place not really to be taken seriously and to be abandoned once the
imagination cannot bear the reality. (Koh Tai Ann, 29)
Yet, it might be only fair to say that the Australian feint of knowing Asia comes from its
insecurity about its own identity. Unfortunately for Judith, the failure of the feminist selfimage and stereotypes she so carefully cultivates finally engulfs her private life, and she has to
face losing custody of her children to the husband she has been untrue to, leaving her as
homeless as Minou. Her professional disinterest has become a personal, icy coldness. It is
hard to take as accidental—though it could be subconsciously constructed—that the married
name d’Alpuget has given Judith, Wilkes, is that of the huge Australian sector of Antarctica.
6.4. Conclusion
Perhaps this is d'Alpuget's expression of the Australian paranoia of Asia—that one can
go in, but getting out is rather more complicated and is just not to be effected without
consequences. It is interesting to note that the dominance of d'Alpuget's narrative voice,
drawing its images from the confused mix of common experience and expectations of her
reading public, almost forces one to make a pragmatic criticism of her novels. Her characters
are racist and sexist, and they suffer from racism and sexism; they sink to the level of animals,
and they are brutalised by their world; they are cold and fearful, and yet, at times, they are fully
expressive of their passion, and capable of rising to heroism.
The novels of both d’Alpuget and Koch establish poles of opposition of theme and
character, and then bring them crashing together without coming to any definitive resolution,
so that ‘it is ultimately the reader, rather than the author, who must take responsibility for what
he/she sees or fails to see’ (McKeogh, 35). D’Alpuget is bringing her public into a region of
fear and suffering, which they should relate to on the subconscious level, and from where they
might learn more than her protagonists do. Koch is meanwhile inviting his readers into a
- 130 -
theatre where their expectations are shown to be crippled by inherited points of view which
often preclude any sensitivity for the limits of human acumen. They are all, along with the
protagonists, however, occasionally allowed to gain new points of view or shed their inhibiting
dramatic masks.
Neither Judith Wilkes nor Robert O’Brien achieve states of faith in non-knowing.
O’Brien at least is shaken enough in his preconceptions to begin doubting that which he
believed he knew. And while Wilkes rejects any such reversal, d’Alpuget’s other protagonists
are sometimes more successful. ‘The journeys that my characters make to the outer world are
at the same time journeys to an inner realm of the psyche’ d’Alpuget says, explaining that the
outer and inner confusion and chaos is simply ‘the state in which we, I believe, of the late
twentieth century, are trapped’, and are, therefore, shared by us all. ‘We must GROW to get
out of the pit we are in’, she writes in a statement that is certainly applicable to Koch’s world
as well, adding with insistence that ‘growth is painful’ (d’Alpuget, 74). Any considerate
reader of these novels must similarly be encouraged to take that first step into the circular path
of non-knowing, doubt and faith. Just how d’Alpuget and Koch consider this might be
accomplished will be fully discussed in following chapters, particularly those on the wayang
kulit and the Masks of the Personality.
- 131 -
The Two Realms of the Wayang Kulit
7.1. Introduction
For Christopher J. Koch, the task of getting his readers to recognise their state of nonknowing, the concept discussed in the previous chapter, is akin to achieving a suspension of
their expectations of verisimilitude. Once this is accomplished, Koch endeavours to show how
reality itself is, like a theatrical performance, less a state of being than a sense of perspective.
Though this concept is not new to Western thought, Koch finds in Indonesia a theatrical genre
whose espousal of a non-material reality, which can therefore only be grasped through faith, is
still current and applicable to everyday society. Koch confirms his sense of the importance of
the Javanese Shadow Theatre, the wayang kulit, describing it as an integral part of the Javanese
landscape, involving whole villages and entire nights in the presentation of epic heroic
adventures of the great Indian sacred texts. It’s artist, the dalang, is ‘more than a puppet
master, and these are more than puppets: their shadows are souls’, Koch writes, ‘the dalang is
God, and the screen is Heaven’ (YLD, 121).
The wayang represents ‘the Kingdom of
Dwarawati, the land of all good things, through the long dream of the wayang night; a night
divided into three stages: foolish youth, middle life (when a man seeks the right path), and old
age’s serenity’ (YLD, 122).
This chapter will concentrate on Koch’s use of the wayang kulit. First attention will be
given to the structural applications, which provide Koch with unusually interesting alternatives
to simply telling his story according to a Western literary model. Next, the focus will shift to
the protagonists, Billy Kwan and Guy Hamilton, and their association to the wayang’s Kreshna
and Arjuna. This presents problems, partly due to an apparent misleading statement on the part
of C. J. Koch himself. It is also due to the complexity of the protagonists’ identities, and will
therefore be further discussed later in this work, notably in chapters 8, 10 and 11. Remaining
with the wayang kulit, the next topic is the physical manifestations and moral consequences of
the personality types, alus and kasar, which, other than the structural form, serve to distinguish
the Shadow Theatre more from other literary and dramatic forms than perhaps anything else.
- 132 -
The final matter dealt with is the manifestation of the Javanese wayang kulit as the Wayang
Bar, where the Western journalists try to retreat from the outside reality, which they observe
professionally, and create their own reality, with various degrees of success, as from the other
side of the wayang screen.
7.2 The Wayang Kulit Structural Model
Helen Tiffin recognises the wayang kulit as the ‘central metaphor’ of The Year of Living
Dangerously, citing its implementation as the novel’s structural paradigm, in place of a
Western model, as ‘a significant step towards decolonialization’. Beyond the parallels of plot
and character with the wayang play The Reincarnation of Rama, this application includes using
the puppet analogy—in which the relationship between shadows and puppets are metaphors for
levels of reality in which the shadows magically transcend illusory material presence—to
associate both Australians and Indonesians under the colonialist regime as prisoners in Plato’s
cave. Use of the dalang figure also gives Koch an elaborate means with which to create and
manipulate his characters, where ‘the supreme dalang, Koch, controls the narrator, Cookie,
who relates his story and draws his characters from the files of the innermost, would-be
dalang, Kwan’ (Tiffin, 1982, 334).
Maes-Jelinek also suggests that Koch’s appropriation of the wayang’s Patet Nem,
Patet Sanga, Patet Manjura structural divisions for the three parts of his novel goes beyond the
obvious prelude, intrigue and denouement or finale of the wayang kulit, corresponding to
Hamilton’s development through innocence, experience and maturity. Based on the two tuning
systems of the galang musical accompaniment to the wayang kulit, the musical scale or mode
of the three Patet conveys psychological overtones to the performance, and it is this musical
structure which Koch is trying to adapt to a literary form. The musical mode ‘enhances the
meaning of the shadow’s movements and structures’ of the wayang kulit and, by analogy,
should of the novel as well.
It is not mere accompaniment to the deeds of heroes and villains but the ‘silent
voice’ of the shadowed Indonesian people which underlies the narrative and
eventually acts as a catalyst in awakening Hamilton’s sensibility. (MaesJelinek, 31)
- 133 -
It may appear difficult to apply modes of musical accompaniment for a theatrical work
to a work of fiction, and yet, close examination of the three divisions supports Maes-Jelinek’s
thesis. An initial instructional voice—as Billy Kwan brings Guy Hamilton up to speed on
Indonesian politics and society, the wayang kulit, and the Bhagavad Gita—dominates part I,
entitled “Patet Nem: Hamilton’s Dwarf”. A new, more sensually expressive voice in part II,
“Patet Senga: Water from the Moon”, keys in on the developing complexities in the
relationship between Kwan and Hamilton, as on the sacred aspect of Indonesia, called ‘The
Gate of the World’ (YLD, 156)—identifying it as the passage way between Earth and Heaven,
or illusion and reality. Earthly illusion is represented by the suffering of Jakarta’s inhabitants,
while heavenly reality, depicted in the Javanese highlands, is, as Hamilton interprets it, ‘like
hallucination’ (YLD, 159), or, as the more culturally sophisticated Kumar says, ‘Water from
the Moon’, meaning ‘anything impossible’ (YLD, 163). Part III, “Patet Manjura: Amok”,
seems to present anything but old age’s serenity. Instead, it depicts the fall of Indonesia into
violence and chaos, and even Guy Hamilton’s flight to Europe with Jill is riddled with a sense
of an incompleteness of the sensibility Maes-Jelinek argues should be present, and which can
only be resolved by a return to Southeast Asia. This must, nevertheless, be put into the terms
which Koch is working, which is, first, that Hamilton is only half of the personality in
question; and, second, that Koch associates the three patet to the concept of the circular path of
non-knowing, doubt and faith discussed in chapter 6.
Billy Kwan, the character most
determined to formulate his sense of ‘knowing’, does finally recognise his state of nonknowing, and suffers the doubts which cause him to run amok with the rest of the population.
The important voice of spiritual maturity of patet manjura, lacking in the incomplete story of
Guy Hamilton, is fully expressed in the faith and serenity which characterise Billy Kwan’s
death. (The assertion that Kwan dies anything but a violent and senseless death butts up
against conventional critical analysis, and so is extensively dealt with in Chapter 8.)
Functioning in relation to this musical structure is the wayang kulit’s two-tiered
narrative, provided by Cookie in the function of the novel’s dalang. The first aspect, called
- 134 -
djanturan, sets the scene and mood in eloquent language to an accompaniment of the sacred
gamelan music; the other, tjarijos, is usually a shorter form given without background music,
and describes minor scenes or off-stage action rather than setting. In addition, Cookie employs
the dalang’s formal emotive songs, called suluk, to express the state of mind of a character.
Cookie takes on these multiple voices borrowed from the dalang, who uses them in the wayang
kulit
to amplify and elaborate on the action of a play. Narration provides exposition
of past events, interprets characters’ feelings and thoughts, and comments on
events. Suluk establish moods and emotional states and vary the tempo of a
performance. (Brandon, 29-31)
Brandon points out that in ‘Western drama, plot action and characterisation are achieved
almost entirely through the single medium of dialogue’ while in the wayang kulit this accounts
for only about one third of the performance (Brandon, 31). It is especially through his
development of Cookie that Koch has woven the two thirds represented by djanturan, tjarijos
and suluk, the elaborate movements of the puppets, and the gamelan music into his novel,
thereby gaining a unique tool for plumbing the depths of his characters.
Cookie is thus a first-person narrator whose important personal voice is capable of
revealing the veiled souls of his colleagues. His own voice, however, often disappears into
self-effacing narration which can be compared to tjarijos. This can be seen when he borrows
the eloquent opening djanturan of The Reincarnation of Rama, which begins with a gamelan
melody while the dalang whispers:
‘The hills and mountains are my abode, may the strength of the wind and
storm be mine.’ He reaches above his head to the coconut-oil lamp which
casts the shadows on the screen. Adjusting its flaming wick, he prays silently
... (Brandon, 84)
Cookie offers his literary rendition of the wayang’s gamelan music, endowing the hills,
mountains, wind and storm with musical powers, while he sings a suluk to invoke nature’s
help, emphasised with the first lines of The Reincarnation of Rama, ‘May silence prevail’
(Brandon, 86).
There are gale warnings on the radio tonight; a strong wind is racing through
the pines and eucalypts above the top paddock. The lamp hisses like thought; I
- 135 -
adjust its position. Billy, Billy: what person and industry went into these
presumptuous dossiers! Sorting through them, I whisper the invocation of the
Javanese dalang, the master of the shadow-show: ‘May silence prevail: may
the strength of wind and storm be mine.’ (YLD, 87)
‘May silence prevail’ certainly work as a call on the audience to be quiet, but are also
ironically the first intoned lines, following a preparatory ritual which begins even before the
dalang leaves his home, of the wayang kulit performance (Brandon, 83). The inconspicuous
Cookie, who is readying himself to recount the story he has saved from obliteration, chooses,
with the irony of a story teller who has also acknowledged his awe for the story, to whisper the
words as if they were meant for him as well.
In another analysis of the wayang structure, Xavier Pons cleverly imposes a
psychoanalytical interpretation which must gratify Koch’s designs of synthesising Eastern and
Western traditions. The Wayang of the left, Pons argues, is an Oedipal force in its rebellious
challenge to the existing order and desire to abolish the hierarchic predominance of father over
son. It lacks, however, clearly both defined goals and an obvious leader, and so must rely on
agitation and anarchy. The Wayang of the right is the force of authority, especially paternal
authority, and the futility of filial ambitions and rebellion is proven by the ultimate triumph of
the father (Pons, 116-17).
Though Pons’ interpretation (whose ramifications are treated in Chapter 8) is open to
dispute, it is important to emphasise the recognition it shares with the other critical writings
that the purpose of the wayang kulit is to expose reality. In the most mundane sense, Koch’s
Sukarno employs wayang kulit performances at his palace to signal the directions of the
government and the rise and fall of the ministers (YLD, 52). It also represents a deeper,
sometimes unsettling reality beyond more comfortable surface appearances. Sharp goes so far
as to argue that the wayang embodies the very essence of the Asian concepts of the relationship
between power, face, revenge, and kinship/friendship (Sharp, 275), and functions as ‘a
metaphor for the formal, public sphere’ in Southeast Asia, where dealing ‘with reality in public
would be too brutal, too impolite’ (Sharp, 273). This also makes the wayang kulit’s two-sided
- 136 -
screen, subtle structures and metaphors the appropriate, ambiguously public/private sphere for
perceiving and dealing with reality in the novels of C. J. Koch.
7.3. Billy Kwan and the Heroic Protagonists of the Wayang Kulit
Billy Kwan begins Koch’s second Asian novel with a reintroduction into Indian
philosophy and its development in Java. When Guy Hamilton shows interest in the wayang
puppets adorning the walls of Kwan’s bungalow, Kwan tells him bluntly, ‘If you want to
understand Java, Ham, you’ll have to understand the wayang’ (YLD, 80-81), then launches into
a quick introductory lesson in the philosophy of the wayang kulit. To properly understand the
novel, one must pay close attention to Kwan’s explanations, not that they are always accurate
interpretations of Javanese thought, but they are necessary in evaluating the various
characters—Kwan most particularly. Kwan begins with two important incarnations of the
great god Vishnu:
‘Here’s King Kresna—Kresna the Black: he’s obviously Krishna, who’s one of
the incarnations of the Hindu god Vishnu. Vishnu comes to earth as many
things: as Krishna, who acts as charioteer to the hero Arjuna—and also as a
dwarf, in Hindu myth.’ He looked arch, as though he had passed on some
titillating gossip … .’ (YLD, 81)
Billy, who identifies with many mythological and real figures in the novel, is giving
Hamilton his first hint that dwarfs—like Billy—are not just physically stunted humans but are
very special beings indeed. As an imagined reincarnation of Vishnu, Billy has more important
information to pass on to Hamilton, who he sees as his Arjuna who needs counsel.
‘Arjuna’s a warrior; but he causes a turmoil in nature just by meditation: by
building up his spirit-power—his sakti. But to build up that power, he first has
to battle his own weaknesses. Have you read the Bhagavad Gita? No? In the
Gita, Krishna tells Arjuna how to master himself before he can master others.
Nothing’s in black and white, you see. Arjuna’s a hero, but he can also be
fickle and selfish—that’s his weakness.’ (YLD, 81)
Billy imagines his relationship with Hamilton to be like that of Kresna to Arjuna. Koch
confirms that he found in the wayang kulit play The Reincarnation of Rama the necessary
structure for his novel, including the ‘distinct correspondences’ between Hamilton and Kwan,
and Arjuna and Semar (Koch, 1987, 25). It is hard to argue with the authority of the author,
but there are problems in not doing so, not the least of which is accepting Hamilton as an
- 137 -
Arjuna.
B. N. Balajee wonders how ‘Hamilton’s failure at the end in doing anything
substantial to the Indonesian populace could be called Arjuna Vishada Yoga at all’ (Balajee,
35). Hamilton does experience ‘hero’s pilgrimage to the hills in search of enlightenment’,
following the role of Arjuna in The Reincarnation of Rama (Koch, 1987, 25), but this is among
the most vague developments in the novel, as well as a stock scene in novels about Australians
in Asia. Desperately seeking a justification for the sea change in his emotional development,
Helen Tiffin can only suppose that Hamilton is transformed ‘largely by the magic of the show
and the communal and friendly atmosphere of the audience’ (Tiffin, 1984, 477). Hamilton
does resemble Arjuna, but in both action and appearance Koch is clearly fashioning him to his
own purposes. Still, it seems to be going too far to say that with his efforts in fighting ‘through
the polarizations of the Indonesian situation without being overly affected by it’, and wanting
‘to avoid konfrontasi as much as possible’ he is perhaps more a parody of a wayang hero than a
real one (Maes-Jelinek, 31).
7.4. Personality Types of the Wayang Kulit
To begin resolving this question, and also to understand The Year of Living Dangerously
at all, it is necessary to reveal the features which distinguish—among others—Billy Kwan and
Guy Hamilton from other Western protagonists. The focus, therefore, now moves to the
characteristics of the major puppet types of the wayang kulit, referring principally to On
Thrones of Gold, James Brandon’s study of the wayang kulit which includes his English
version of The Reincarnation of Rama, which Koch acknowledges as one of his own sources of
inspiration (Thieme, 1986, 24), and which can give some hints on how Koch has adapted the
wayang to his own creations. Further discussion on the complexities of the intertwined
personalities of Kwan and Hamilton will be pursued in chapters 8 and 11.
7.4.1. Physical Manifestations of the Qualities Alus and Kasar
Ardjuna, the wayang kulit’s adaptation of the Mahabharata’s Arjuna, is the model in
Javanese culture of alus (refined) behaviour. He is ‘refined and modest, yet a supernaturally
endowed warrior’ of exquisite beauty (Brandon, 12). It is, however, Judistira who is the most
- 138 -
perfectly alus of the brothers. ‘His body is delicate, his foot stance is narrow, his nose is thin
and sharply pointed; his eyes are almondlike slits, and he looks modestly almost straight at the
ground’ (Brandon, 41). Their far less alus brother Bima, who is half-ogre, is ‘as crudely
powerful and blunt as Ardjuna is delicate and controlled’ (Brandon, 12). At the other end of
the scale is Barandjana, the ogre king, who personifies kasar (course) qualities. His ‘body is
fat and bulging and covered with mats of repulsive hair’, his ‘foot stance is broad and
aggressive’, his ‘nose is bulbous’, his ‘eyes are round, and staring’, and he ‘haughtily looks
straight out’. Alus represents the admired qualities of the inhabitants indigenous to Java who
are descended from the gods; kasar represents the shunned faults of the foreign born (Brandon,
41).
The range of personalities in the wayang (or wajang) kulit can be described as a
continuum from alus to kasar, manifested in the degree of such opposing characteristics as:
small versus large bodied; refined and controlled versus gross and rough movements;
restrained and modest versus active and aggressive. Other markers, as the way the hair is
done, the clothes or the amount of jewellery worn, are also important in identifying where a
character fits into the six broad categories of this continuum (Brandon, 49). There are ‘thirteen
different eye shapes, thirteen nose shapes, and two or three types each of body build, foot
stance, and slant of head’ which can be combined into ‘dozens of identifiable puppet types’ to
make up the ‘several hundred human, god and ogre figures in the wajang cast’ (Brandon, 4041).
Classifying Koch’s characters according to a wayang description, then, is not as cutand-dry as some critics might like. Koch describes Hamilton as having ‘a “refined”
handsomeness’ (YLD, 11) with ‘sleepy-lidded eyes’ (YLD, 10), and outfits him in a modest and
impeccable ‘well-cut tan suit’ (YLD, 7); His voice is ‘resonant, pleasant, perhaps a little too
bland,’ and ‘almost a BBC news-reader’s’ (YLD, 10); he has a ‘calm, unconscious certainty’
(YLD, 11), making him seem ‘like a sober man joining a drunken party’ (YLD, 7) when he
meets the other journalists of the Wayang Bar; all of which would indicate a very alus
- 139 -
character. Yet, Hamilton is a very tall man, even ‘fantastically’ tall in comparison with his
alter ego Billy Kwan (YLD, 7); Cookie questions the authenticity of ‘some of his “a” sounds’
(YLD, 10); and, in case anyone missed the other clues which separate him from the alus
Arjuna, he is distinguished ‘by a rather coarse nose, bulbous at the tip, which stuck a
discordant note’ (YLD, 11). All of these kasar traits push Hamilton towards a moderate
position on the scale.
Other characters share the mix of alus and kasar qualities, notably Wally O’Sullivan, at
‘twenty-two stone’ (YLD, 3), with ‘thick, pale hands’ and ‘bulging, venous cheeks’ (YLD, 11)
is the largest figure in the novel, yet is endowed with many alus refinements, as a delicate,
sideways hand motion to express his dismissal of a topic (YLD, 11); a ‘quiet’, ‘well produced’
and ‘throaty bass’ voice; professional integrity; great emotional control; and personal dignity.
Then there are those clearly kasar Westerners, exemplified by Pete Curtis, whose red hair
indicatesd a fiery temper, and being Canadian makes him foreign, therefore a degenerate
‘Other’ not only to the Indonesians but even somewhat to the Australians. He carries ‘both his
work and his drinking to excess’ (YLD, 4); aggressively encircles the shoulders of his listeners
with his ‘freckled, muscular’ arms (YLD, 4), and ‘clapped a hand’ on Kwan’s shoulder as he
tries to provoke him with racist humour (YLD, 5-6).
7.4.2. The Moral Consequences of Alus and Kasar Tendencies
While these physical features are indicators of the personality of the puppets—and of
Koch’s characters—they cannot alone determine moral standing. In the wayang, only the
ogres, since they are foreigners to Java, are fully kasar and indisputably ‘bad’ characters. All
of the other characters are alus to varying degrees, and are more or less ‘good’ according to
events of a given play. The most blatant example of this is Semar, a god who has been ‘cursed
and transformed into a misshapen dwarf’ (Brandon, 12) but who acts as the moderating force
between opposing elements in the plays. He is a comic figure, but is still heroic and wise in his
action. Thus, Brandon notes, ‘only by watching a character’s actions in the plays can we know
his moral qualities’ (Brandon, 41).
- 140 -
Koch maintains the distinction between alus/kasar and good/bad. While depicting his
various characters in wayang terms, it is only their actions that finally count. Wally, for all his
alus determinants, is disgraced for his kasar pederasty. Kumar, though stained with the ‘bad’
mark of a communist, turns out to be one of the most reasonable and caring alus figures of the
novel. Cookie is a rather uninteresting, passive character, but is rewarded for his courageous
action of saving Billy’s files by being promoted to the godlike dalang status of storyteller.
Hamilton starts the novel in the middle of the alus/kasar continuum, but grows through Billy’s
tutelage, and finally makes a series of ‘right’ choices—covering the people’s march in the
highlands while all the other journalists are sitting on their heels in Jakarta; committing himself
to Jill and their baby; showing the courage to cover the events of the coup—which lead him to
a degree of enlightenment beyond his early promise. And Billy Kwan, in spite of his grotesque
shape, his manic-depressive tendencies, his anger, fear, selfishness, finally masters himself and
acts righteously and without concern for himself, and so attains the spirituality which he could
earlier only nag and intellectualise about.
Since Judistira, the Just King, is so compassionate that he is unable to act; Bima, the
bold warrior, so committed to action that he is inflexible; and Ardjuna, so committed to
defending divine order and justice that he is cold, fickle and selfish; the wayang kulit calls on
Semar, the divine fool, to combine and resolve the virtues and imperfections of the others,
bringing them ‘an emotional detachment and an inner peace’ to the ‘struggle for order and
justice’ in a ‘world in flux’ (Geertz, 273). And Koch’s Semar is, of course, Billy Kwan, the
dwarf Buddha in a multi-coloured Hawaiian shirt.
Semar is, like Krishna, a god incarnated to serve human heroes. Cursed and punished,
he is transformed into a ‘ludicrous dwarf’, but ‘his status as a god of supernatural powers is
acknowledged by the Pandawas’ (Brandon, 16). For Koch’s purposes, Billy Kwan as Semar is
very appropriate indeed. In one play Semar ‘saves the kingdom of the gods from the fury of
the goddess Durga’, and in others ‘he and his sons become for a time kings’ (Brandon, 12).
Kwan’s heroic accomplishments and spiritual reward are mostly ignored by critics, though the
- 141 -
section on the Bhagavad Gita in Chapter 8 tries to indicate Koch’s intents and purposes in
fashioning Kwan after Semar/Krishna.
In fact, Billy Kwan, the self-styled, multi-faceted Semar, fits the characteristics of
Arjuna far better than Guy Hamilton. In wayang kulit terms, Hamilton best corresponds to
Bima. Both are genetic hybrids, and share not just size and nose shape, but also personality.
Hamilton is, like Bima, inflexible, blunt and predisposed to taking bold action without
considering the consequences. Billy Kwan is, however, the warrior, even if mostly of words.
He specialises in provoking and testing the convictions of friends and foes alike, just as Arjuna
provokes Krishna to reveal himself in the Bhagavad Gita. Billy’s form of meditation is the
keeping of his dossiers, and he has by the beginning of the novel such a store of sakti built up
in them that he is, like Arjuna, the prime motor of his intimates in a world already caught in a
maelstrom of confrontation.
Koch plays with the apparent contradiction of deliberately creating turmoil through
meditative stillness, explained by the Hindu concept of turmoil as not only a necessary
precursor to the establishment of order, but also its twin. Hamilton is compared with Billy as
‘having that same dark-light contrast’ (YLD, 10), referring to their black hair and eyebrows, but
also to their complex personalities.
Nervous, provocative Billy, like Semar, believes in
turmoil, in konfrontasi, just as he believes in mastering others.
Restrained, introverted
Hamilton in turn believes in turmoil, for it is the stuff of this journalistic trade. When Billy is
explaining the dual concepts of turmoil/stillness and light/dark to Hamilton, however, he has
not yet managed to learn to master himself. Like Arjuna, Billy too is fickle and selfish:
And when Arjuna asks Krishna what makes a man sin, Krishna says, “Greedy
lust and anger: this is the enemy of the soul. All is clouded by desire, Arjuna:
as fire by smoke, as a mirror by dust.” Rather good, don’t you think?’ His
‘light’ tone had crept in. (YLD, 81)
Billy is citing one of the oldest and most fundamental ideas of Indian philosophy, that,
while the pure Self is obscured by human desire, it remains, like the dusty mirror, essentially
unchanged and pristine. One must discover one’s true Self beyond the impure elements which
stain his soul, and he will be liberated. Billy understands this on an intellectual level, and is a
- 142 -
word warrior against the manifestations of desire—the lust represented by Wally O’Sullivan’s
pederasty; Curtis’ visits to the cemetery; Condon’s drives around the open sewage canals to
glimpse bathing women. Billy, however, is still far too fascinated by the wayang kulit. He
wants to be all of its characters and to see it from both sides of the screen at once. Before he
truly can understand the human soul, he must come to terms with his own unquenchable desire
for love and with the anger which blurs his ability to reason and feel. Master these, he knows
from the start, and the way to love opens:
He turned to a female puppet. ‘And this is Srikandi—the princess Arjuna’s in
love with.’ (YLD, 81)
Srikandi is a metaphor for Jill Bryant. The union of Arjuna and Srikandi represents the joining
of opposites to make up the whole. Arjuna, who is the model of the man of righteous action,
furthers Koch’s theme of doubleness by standing for both Guy Hamilton—the man of
thoughtless action—and Billy Kwan—the man of actionless thought. Kwan and Hamilton then
are another pair of opposites who must unite into a whole; only then can their whole unite with
that represented by Bryant.
7.5. The Wayang Kulit’s Dual Points of View
Unlike d'Alpuget, Koch is not writing down to the level of his readers, though he does
seem ‘to assume nil knowledge of wayang and of Indonesia’ in the period before the Vietnam
War (Roskies, 48). This assumption, one must admit, is entirely justified. Billy Kwan's role as
protagonist includes making sure everyone, especially Hamilton and including Koch’s readers,
have an opportunity to get a grasp on such esoterica. Guy Hamilton represents the Australian
who has neither background knowledge nor motivation to help him absorb Kwan's instruction.
He has come to escape a dead-end job in a Sydney newsroom, but avoids real interaction with
Indonesia at all costs, living in an air-conditioned room at the Hotel Indonesia and eating only
in westernised restaurants. At his first blank encounter with the wayang puppets, Hamilton
seems indeed to be a creation of d’Alpuget. They evoke in him no response at all,
neither pleasure nor dislike; they were too alien, and scarcely human. With
their black and gold faces, elongated limbs and grotesquely long noses, they
- 143 -
resembled insects rather than men. India’s gods and heroes, so far south, had
metamorphosed into weird cartoons. (YLD, 81)
As a newcomer to Asia, even a well-prepared one, Hamilton has the limitations of
knowledge and experience of d’Alpuget’s characters. Most of Koch’s characters are swept
along by events in the way of d’Alpuget’s, but Hamilton and Kwan, like Highways to a War
protagonist Mike Langford, are destined to make progress towards self-discovery that is too
rare to be shared with many others. This represents an important departure from the tradition
of the Australian looking toward an Englishman or American for guidance, turning instead to
‘an Oriental mentor figure’ whose role is ‘to guide and educate culturally overwhelmed, or
simply antagonistic, Australian characters. D’Alpuget and Koch’s protagonists move, with
varying success, toward greater regional awareness under the direction of their Asian guides
(Gerster, Asian Destinies, 67).
It is still far too early for most to accompany Hamilton and Kwan in their progress.
D’Alpuget likens her disjointed characters to animals, and Koch, in The Year of Living
Dangerously, describes his typically in terms of the leather puppets of the wayang kulit, with
thin, elongated faces and insect-like bodies. The Westerners of both d’Alpuget and Koch are
manipulated like Java’s wayang puppets, and have in Jakarta metamorphosed into weird
cartoons of themselves. The difference is that Kwan and Hamilton move to the other side of
the screen—they get to see the magical, spiritual manifestations of reality which is represented
in the shadows, while the puppets themselves, the galang musicians and the machinations of
the dalang, which most onlookers are watching, are but the workings of the material world.
Koch’s deft adaptation of the wayang structure and function is illustrated by D. M.
Roskies, who cites the scene of Hamilton confronting Kwan in Pasar Baru. Hamilton wants to
know what Kwan told Jill (who has apparently broken off their relationship), and Kwan
answers with his lecture on men of light and dark, of journalists as Peeping Toms, and how he
‘chose’, ‘completed’, and even ‘created’ Hamilton, who failed to return the understanding and
constancy required of him (YLD, 235-38), all of which on the surface sounds like the hysterical
outburst of ‘a little man’s megalomania’. The melodrama ‘is a decoy’ on the order of the two- 144 -
sided screen for viewing the wayang kulit, ‘diverting attention away from the quotidian
substratum of the narrative towards its myth-creating and myth-determined dimension in which
the fate of the gods and men intertwine’. Roskies points out that
what looks from one standpoint to be fairly ordinary contretemps, an affair of
the heart which is nobody’s business but Hamilton’s, asks from another point
of view to be seen as extraordinary, a violation of a primordial symbiosis. In
such a conjunction Hamilton/Kwan—Arjuna/Semar execute stylised pirouettes
round each other, announcing an interdependency and, completing identities,
in so doing laying bare problematically complementary qualities and
characteristics (Roskies, 45).
That which appears from one side of the screen to be ‘a familiar crisis’ is seen on the
other side to carry ‘other, stranger resonances. Behind the carapace of story glimmer the
outlines of Story, which illuminates, supports and diversifies experience of felt life’ (Roskies,
45). Koch companions ‘energy and imagination’ with ‘egoism and illusion’ in a game of
power and manipulation which he draws from the wayang and which inevitably overloads the
‘inherited cultural equipment’ Hamilton brings with him into Asia (Roskies, 46). In ‘a partly
menacing and partly romanticised Indonesia’ Hamilton confronts
an environment where people still have the idea of being successors and
inheritors; where landscape, a reservoir where time is coiled, is as much a
matter of history as geography; where all is bespoken, encrusted with a patina
of cultural antiquity; where as it might be, signification is perpetually deferred
(Roskies, 47).
Roskies interprets Hamilton’s wayang experience as ‘a sort of epiphany, in which by a
decisive reformation of feeling a quixotic self-seeking is bartered for an acceptance of things as
they are’ (Roskies, 47). If this seems too simplistic to be the ‘conceptual pivot of the novel’,
one must remember that it corresponds to the concept of the circular path of non-knowing,
doubt and faith. It is also this message which Koch repeats in Highways to a War through the
voice of Madame Phan, who points out that the fish swimming freely in the little pond ‘don’t
worry about the depth of the water’ (HW, 184).
Acquiescing to the wayang’s sensitivity to the concepts of truth and reality, Koch offers
a sense of ‘the real as being more mutable and less totally legible than is normally assumed’.
Hamilton’s wayang experience preludes his ‘return from a limbo of vapid careerism to an
- 145 -
ethical imperative (or the makings thereof) which is premised on the idea of limits and the
penalties for the transgression of limits’. It prepares him to accept his ‘role as accessory to
Kwan’s murder’, and to ‘see through the affair with Jill to a satisfactory end’.
Hamilton is
accompanied in his journey by the novel’s authorial voice, which is ‘ventriloquially merged’
with the narrative voice and remains ‘detached, subdued, and carried in a formal matrix that is
notably undeluded about human enterprise’. This authorial voice shares with the wayang kulit
an evocation of ‘an acceptance of things as they are’ and an endorsement of ‘the autonomy of
will and impulse’, which leads Hamilton to the concept of ‘submission to duty and acceptance
of its burdens’ (Roskies, 47). This acceptance/impulse dichotomy, which will be discussed in
detail in chapter 8, stems from the wayang kulit’s archetype, the Bhagavad Gita, and
constitutes the lesson for the hero, whether Arjuna, Kwan or Hamilton, before he can know
what is right and to act accordingly.
7.6. The Bar on the Edge of Reality
The central point from which the action radiates is the Wayang Bar in the Hotel
Indonesia—a hangout for foreign correspondents and businessmen, though for very few
Indonesians other than the barkeepers and bouncers. The dark, shadowy bar is appropriately
named, and introduces the reader into the novel’s strangely artificial universe:
… the Wayang Bar followed the American practice and sealed itself against all
natural light. Coming into this circular chamber, you stepped from the flat
blaze of the equator into a permanent half-dark, to which air-conditioning
added a Scandinavian cold; you would halt inside the doorway, the sweat
drying on your back, and wait for your eyes to adjust so that you could see
who was there (YLD, 3).
The American influence noted here—a backhanded tribute to the long reach of U.S.
involvement in Southeast Asia in the sixties—seems at first misplaced, the numbing airconditioning and artificial light antithetical to the aggressive, natural outside conditions, and
yet the juxtaposition is a manifestation of the macrocosmic conflict of parallel worlds in
Indonesia—the conflicts of ideology between Capitalism and Communism, of religion between
Christian, Moslem and Hindu, of race between Indonesian, Malaysian and Chinese, all of
which are in turn worldly reflections of the cosmic conflict between the gods and titans. Like
- 146 -
Alice’s looking-glass world, these competing universes exist along the two-dimensional lines
of the Wayang Shadow Theatre, but will not adhere to the boundaries of their projection
screens. As Billy Kwan explains to Hamilton in their final meeting in Pasar Baru, it all comes
down to the forces of light and of darkness in an eternal, cyclical battle which is the theme of
the wayang kulit’s drama of shadows.
The journalists willingly bide their time in the artificial, flattened ambience of the
Wayang Bar, which Broinowski puts in the tradition of Kipling, Forster, and Orwell’s British
clubs as ‘spiritual citadel’ (Broinowski, 1992, 181), symbolising the ‘deep-rooted yearning
among 20th century Australians to identify and become one with, the habits of the imperial
English gentlemen and clubmen they never were’ (Gooneratne, 1992, 341). When they must
step back out into the streets of Jakarta, the journalists find another strange world which can
scarcely be dubbed real, but is ruled by the organised chaos of konfrontasi. Freakish characters
police the city. The President flies around in a helicopter pretending to be the reincarnation of
the Supreme God, Vishnu. The city’s Western inhabitants, Koch’s rendition of the wayang
kulit ogres, a motley collection of imperial residue, career sycophants, pederasts, transvestites,
and alcoholic oilfield workers, to name a few, acclimatise themselves very well indeed to this
zany ecosystem which perversely thrives on their presence.
Cookie notices the disjointedness of the world in Southeast Asia, and recognises how the
wayang shadow puppets are bizarre Javanese reincarnations of ancient Indian gods and heroes.
In the same way, the colonial-era renditions of Mickey Mouse characters adorning the walls of
a cheap, all-night restaurant in Jakarta seem like strange westernised reincarnations of the
wayang shadow puppets. Even the authentic Javanese Wayang Kulit shadow theatre, which
Hamilton sees is out of joint with time and place, and said ‘to have a weird modernity: a videomachine from an unknown civilisation’ (YLD, 201). Yet, the wayang provokes in Hamilton
the same kind of memory of things beyond this lifetime that Mike Langford experiences in
Highways to a War:
- 147 -
The figures of this dream of Java’s childhood tantalised him with the notion
that he ought to know them, ought to recall them, from some other life. And
they woke in him now a long-buried memory of his own (YLD, 202).
Hamilton senses the people’s fear of the approaching ‘presences of hunger and pain and threat
at the edges of their green world’ and that the wayang frame was a barrier against them. He
learns, through his memories of World War II, compassion for them, leading him later to ask
Cookie the central question Billy Kwan first asked him, ‘What can we do for them?’ (YLD,
203). Only through his journey from the material, mechanistic side of reality to the spiritual,
magical side—the two sides of the wayang screen—has Hamilton been to some degree
awakened to the unity of his own soul and the souls of the ‘Others’.
7.7. Conclusion
Koch’s Wayang Bar is abuzz with talk of intrigue and power struggles which follow the
tradition of the wayang kulit’s representation of the struggle between forces of light and
darkness, which are the source of the Javanese people’s fears. The Wayang Bar represents the
Western view of a world of order and right, just as the wayang kulit does the Javanese view.
Cookie calls the bar ‘a refuge’ against the increasingly insane world of konfrontasi on the
outside (YLD, 8), but it is a ‘fools’ paradise’ whose inevitable end, another expulsion from
Eden, is a familiar theme out of Australian invasion fiction (Broinowski, 1992, 182). For
inside the Wayang Bar, a distinctive Alice in Wonderland sort of insanity reigns.
The
namesake of the Wayang Shadow Theatre is itself a clashing multicultural shadow theatre of
incongruent juxtapositions, including the luxurious and passionate but inconstant light of the
‘fat red candles’ sitting atop the bar which is round like the table of the Arthurian knights but
covered with black Formica, an artificial, evil-coloured material. Western electric lamps are
‘set high on the gold walls, across which were fixed Javanese shadow-puppets—the heroes and
villains of the wayang kulit’ (YLD, 3). These puppets are reminders ‘of the wider world of
Javanese ritual art and belief from which these Westerners are insulated: where they act out
their own shadow plays at the edges of the real Indonesian drama’ (Bennett, 1982, 11). The
ironic use of Western light reflecting off the Javanese leather puppets must provide an eerie
- 148 -
illumination in the bar, projecting the shadows of the puppets across the room, onto everyone
and everything there. In the same way, the expatriate Westerners cannot escape the flickering,
threatening shadows of the Javanese world of magic to which the wayang kulit is the door. In
the Wayang Bar, as in the wayang kulit, theatrical performance is the only reality; the bar’s
patrons are themselves shadow players, hybridised heroes of competing, yet somehow
complementary traditions, enacting their roles in the greater epic drama.
- 149 -
The ‘Divinisation of History’ and the Duality of Justice
8.1. Introduction
Alongside the important Western sources like A Passage to India, Alice in Wonderland
and 1984, C. J. Koch draws deeply on Asian archetypes for his novels, some of which Blanche
d’Alpuget introduces, though for other purposes, in her novels. The philosophic canon of
India, as represented especially by the Bhagavad Gita, or ‘Song of the Lord’, ‘the most
important, the most influential, and the most luminous of all the Hindu scriptures’ (Zaehner,
10), by other sources from the Vedic, Buddhist, Tantric and Vedantic traditions, and by their
development in the Javanese culture as well, have provided Koch and d’Alpuget a vast
mythopoeic wellspring to call upon in their fiction.
Beginning with its rather pedantic
presentation in Across the Sea Wall, the philosophy becomes the principle mechanism in
Koch’s development of structure as well as theme in The Year of Living Dangerously, and
most recently, in the 1996 novel Highways to a War, provides the archetype for Mike
Langford, Koch’s new version of ‘The Coming Man’, who is modelled on the ‘Ford Makers’
of Hindu tradition. D’Alpuget uses her Eastern pretexts more subtly than does Koch, and
limits their influence to thematic and character development, yet is just as successful in
expressing the relevance of the Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana to contemporary Western
society.
This chapter will take a threefold approach to exploring Koch’s and d’Alpuget’s
applications of these Eastern literary structures and themes which demand that their novels be
judged as syntheses of Eastern and Western traditions. First, it will look at the previous
criticism in this area, specifically at Sharrad’s excellent article on Koch’s intertextual use of
the Gita, and the following critical analyses which have typically depended too much on, and
misinterpreted, Sharrad. The resulting tendency has been to discount Koch’s influence and
impose strictly Western critical models on his novels—a tendency so extreme in d’Alpuget’s
case that her attention to Eastern pretexts is almost universally ignored. Second, it will outline
two landmark calls for a rapprochement between antagonistic cultural systems, one found in
- 150 -
the Bhagavad Gita and the other in the work by the Australian sociologist David Tacey, Edge
of the Sacred: Transformations in Australia. Though written some two millennia apart, they
both set out to reconcile the relationship between man and his universe, and explain why
seeking to justify opposing world views should be an especially germane concern to Australian
writers. In addition, they both address other important perplexing Asian concepts which need
to be investigated in order to accurately criticise Koch and d’Alpuget—namely: time and
destiny; destiny and free will; the cyclical concept of history and the ‘Black Age’ of
destruction. Third, this chapter will give special attention to Billy Kwan, who of all the
protagonists of the studied novels best exemplifies the dilemma posed when contradictory but
equally valid systems demand non-reconcilable responses. It will show how Kwan finds
models for his decision in the Bhagavad Gita, the Mahabharata, and the Gospels, supporting
Koch’s own conviction that the antagonistic systems of East and West are not only
reconcilable but closely related.
8.2. Critical Perspectives on Koch’s use of the Bhagavad Gita
Until now critics have generally dismissed or, at best, glossed over the importance of the
Hindu tradition in the works of C. J. Koch and Blanche d’Alpuget. In d’Alpuget’s case, such
recognition is non-existent; in Koch’s case, critics have bowed most often to the authority of
Paul Sharrad’s study of the intertextual relationship of The Year of Living Dangerously and the
Bhagavad Gita, ‘Echoes and their Distortions: The Gita in C. J. Koch’s Fiction’. The problem
here seems twofold. On one hand, most critics clearly have not studied the Eastern sources,
and therefore misinterpret Sharrad’s criticism of Koch’s intertextual use of Indian and Javanese
myths and symbols. On the other hand, many critics are too quick to rely on the intertextualist
trick of sticking a handy literary label on Koch—failing to consider his voice as author of one
in the line of texts, and reducing him, for instance, to a ‘post-colonialist’ or ‘neo-orientalist’
writer. This much is unfortunate enough, but has the graver consequence of interpreting his
protagonists as anti-heroes, degenerates or misfits, who suffer from bouts of extreme nostalgia
- 151 -
for the empire and anti-Asian racism, and exemplify everything that is wrong with
contemporary Australians.
8.2.1. Intertextual Distortions, Third World Anti-heroes, and Sacrificial Scapegoats
One of the most sweeping examples of this critical stance is given by Annegret Maack,
who writes, ‘Daß das Echo der Gita und des Hinduismus in Kochs Werk verzerrt ist, wie dies
bei allen Echos der Fall ist, hat Sharrad im einzelnen ausgeführt’ (Maack, 125). It is a bold
statement when one is either unable or unwilling to defend it with one’s own evidence, and
seems even more so when compared to Sharrad’s own, less accusatory words: ‘if there is an
echo, it is, like all echoes, distorted by the surfaces reflecting the original sounds’ (Sharrad,
1990, 175). Sharrad is defending Koch against criticism that he is not faithful to the spirit and
letter of the Bhagavad Gita. This is a strong argument against an intertextual reading of
Koch’s work, but Sharrad’s own argument is ‘echoed’ (i.e., distorted) by those who would use
it to criticize Koch rather than critique his novels.
Koch is neither rewriting the Bhagavad Gita nor offering an adaptation to it. The
distorting surfaces which Sharrad discusses are, without a doubt, partly due to the fact that
Koch is an Australian with a growing appreciation for, even with an imperfect knowledge of,
the Gita and Hindu philosophy, and that he is applying this Asian experience to his own
cultural milieu and developing literary purposes—and that makes for a rather unavoidable
intertextual critical approach. At the same time, as the Bhagavad Gita is a sacred text, it
remains open to interpretation. That disagreements about its meaning are to be expected
even—or especially—among experts and true believers is one of the most common comments
made in the other articles included in The Gita in World Literature, in which Sharrad’s work is
included. The recognition of the distortions in Koch’s appropriation of Indian philosophy is
then much less accusatory in Sharrad than Maack makes it seem.
Furthermore, Sharrad says there are three contextual factors which make distortion
inevitable. First, that the novel remains ‘firmly Christian’ in outlook; second, that the Gita is
transmitted in Koch’s ‘continuing theme of colonial culture’, necessarily foreign to the
- 152 -
Bhagavad Gita’s poet(s); and third, that The Year of Living Dangerously is ‘founded upon
structural motifs of warped representation’ due to Koch’s reliance on a marginal but not
disinterested narrator who relates the story according to unreliable conversations and hearsay
and ‘Billy Kwan’s crazy attempt to catalogue his life’. Sharrad allows that ‘Koch would claim
that artistic, textual truth’ makes the distortions necessary, and concludes that the distortions
finally reflect back on the truth of the Bhagavad Gita.
Everything in mortal life is infected with illusion and to “see it clearly and see
it whole” we must seek the detachment of Arjuna meditating, of Cook on his
country mountaintop assembling his narrative, or of the mystic dalang
puppeteer showing us truths through the shadowy stories of the epics.
(Sharrad, 1990, 177-81)
It might help to see The Year of Living Dangerously as a progression from Across the
Sea Wall. Here, the protagonist’s anxieties generated by his illusions of himself and India lead
to a spiritual paralysis. O’Brien pursues an ‘illusion of detachment’, ignoring that ‘he is
projecting his own fear of inadequacy onto a landscape that is only as sterile as his own
judgment of it’ (Huggan, 1993, Tourist Gaze, 84). Huggan says that O’Brien is submitting
India to a ‘neo-colonial tourist gaze’. He is seeking reassurance ‘in a romantic idealist
vocabulary of impressionistic essences’ mixing Biblical and European pastoral/elegiac
conventions. By anthropomorphizing India, with the north being the dynamic faculty and the
south mysticism and blind emotion, he is taking ‘refuge in the schematic distinctions of
Jungian psychology’ (Huggan, 1993, Tourist Gaze, 84-85). Only by breaking off his journey
and retreating to the pure air of the mountains can O’Brien, like Shiva, who goes to meditate in
the mountains to get away from not only the mad world but also his own active, dancing
aspect, begin to free himself of his illusions. He returns to Australia, and becomes the
journalist who could very easily turn out to be Guy Hamilton. Hamilton is still hemmed in by
self-imposed illusions, but not as badly as the young Robert O’Brien; he is moving toward
enlightenment, or at least toward a better understanding of himself and his world. This,
however, is predicated on the ‘theme of colonial culture’, and must be transformed through the
wayang and the Bhagavad Gita, a conjunction which the Gita’s poet could not have imagined.
- 153 -
Huggan concludes about Across the Sea Wall, in an analysis which should be extended to The
Year of Living Dangerously and Highways to a War as well, that to see Koch’s work as ‘an
Orientalist conception of India is to miss the considerable irony with which Koch treats his
confused protagonist: an Australian whose sensibility is formed by Europeans, yet whose
country neighbours on and shares an indefinable affinity with the Asian sub-continent’
(Huggan, 1993, Tourist Gaze, 85).
Part of what seems an Orientalist distortion is that, when Billy Kwan begins to explain
the wayang kulit and Bhagavad Gita to Guy Hamilton, his intellectual appreciation is
inadequate in two ways. First, he misunderstands certain key parts of the Gita, which, as
Cookie suspects, he does not want to accept correctly; and, second, the message of the Gita, as
of every sacred text, cannot be fully comprehended intellectually anyway. Billy Kwan, like
Arjuna, must learn a lot, including how to forget to depend on his impressive intellectual
capacity. This, however, is what makes Kwan a representative Australian in Asia. He is a
hybrid, lives on the fringe of what is considered civilisation, and is ‘motivated less by the
sympathetic heart than by the head, by Australian interests and concerns than by that
instinctive Forsterian ‘kindness’ that bridges gaps’ (Koh Tai Ann, 21). In Kwan’s defence, it
must be said that he starts out much farther along the road to comprehending the Gita
spiritually than any other, and he is the only one who seems in the end to succeed.
Arguments concerning the unfaithfulness between Koch’s and Hindu and Javanese
works are somewhat harder to disqualify when they come from sectors one might expect to be
better versed in the original texts. Such is the case with B. N. Balajee who states flatly that
‘Koch’s mythological details need not be examined in their Oriental perspective. After all,
Billy Kwan himself is Koch’s new myth’ (Balajee, 36). Koch’s principle metaphors of
dwarfism and hybridism provide Kwan ‘a greater inwardness with the squalor and misery of
the local people’ than any of the other journalists of the Wayang Bar (Balajee, 34), and also a
better perspective to analyse the figures in his files (Balajee, 35). Yet, by ignoring the source
mythology and their adaptation to the novel itself, Balajee also inevitably arrives at the
- 154 -
analysis that Billy is finally totally disillusioned and suicidal. While allowing, albeit without
clarification, that ‘it is only Billy Kwan who is capable of self-sacrifice that makes him a
martyr’, Balajee goes on to claim that his ‘size, his generosity, his enigmatic life and ultimate
death make him the anti-hero of the third world similar to the heroes of the absurd theatre’
(Balajee, 36-37).
Literary critics are generally willing to recognise how a writer like C. J. Koch is
attempting to create a ‘new myth’ with Eastern correspondences, but then seem bent on
shoving him back into the very Western tradition he is striving to escape. This much should be
writ large: Billy Kwan is neither a modernist anti-hero nor does he belong to the theatre of the
absurd. Yet Maack and Balajee are hardly alone. Felicia Campbell not only misrepresents the
wayang kulit sources Koch exploits in developing his characters, writing that Guy Hamilton is
fashioned after an ogre (Campbell, 166), but also declares that ‘as Billy moves to revenge, he
abandons the wayang imagery’ in favour of ‘the rigid dualism of Christian imagery’
(Campbell, 167). Rachel Ingalls, in critiquing the cinema version, justifiably deplores the
film’s cutting of Billy’s ‘deep need to believe in heroes, of his thwarted sexuality, his
voyeurism, his clinical approach to emotions he does not share, his compulsion to control
others and incapacity to deal with his own powerful emotions’. She concludes, however, that
without these elements there is little reason ‘why he should be the character who cracks’. Her
reading of the book version of his final act then is that Billy has ‘cracked’: ‘He makes a grand,
romantic gesture that is politically useless, and he knows it’ (Ingalls, 22). David Myers
concludes more dramatically that Billy Kwan is one of a type in the genre who must be a
sacrificial scapegoat ‘to appease the angry gods of revolutionary chaos and political or racial
violence’ in order to fulfil the ‘ambition to bridge the gap between East and West’, and that
‘Billy’s sacrifice inspires a moral enlightenment in the representative Australian journalist Guy
Hamilton’. This ‘central myth’ of a sacrificial scapegoat suggests ‘a new heroism and a new
dimension for the understanding of Australian national identity’, which ‘may now be formed
out of the tragic culture-clash between Australia and the Asia/Pacific’ (Myers, 28).
- 155 -
Christopher Koch cannot be held responsible for Myers’ gross misunderstanding of the
religion and mythopoeic symbols of Hinduism. It is precisely such misled and undocumented
evaluations as these which cause Koch to complain about ‘totalitarian’, post-colonial
prescriptive criticism (Mitchell, 1996, Interview, 70).
8.2.2. The ‘Oedipus’ Interpretation
Xavier Pons reads The Year of Living Dangerously as being largely a manifestation of a
string of Oedipus complexes which determine the behaviour and failure/success of the
characters. The ‘main Oedipal hero’, Guy Hamilton, is beset by a number of problems which
are complicated by the fact of his father’s wartime disappearance. He is relentlessly driven in
his profession by his ambition and fear;
he is rather helpless in an unfamiliar, exotic
environment; and he feels it necessary to repress his sexual desires (Pons, 109). Hamilton
associates sex with fear and guilt, which clears up in Pons view the puzzling encounter with
the Russian Vera, when he has ‘fantasies about women being dangerous and castrating’ (Pons,
110).
Hamilton’s relationship with Jill is affected by the same Oedipal legacy. She is at first
under the protection of Colonel Henderson, the archetypal, virile, and coldly authoritative
father-figure. Despite a desire to court Jill, Hamilton also sees Henderson as a father-figure.
His feelings of guilt cause him to repress the Oedipal desire to challenge Henderson—both for
Jill’s love and in the race at the pool—making him a ‘quasi-Oedipal hero’. When he does
challenge Henderson for Jill, however, and wins, he must pay the Oedipal penalty—mitigated
as he is ‘naïve but sane enough’ and ‘commits no unforgivable offence’—, the loss of one eye,
which Pons interprets symbolically as ‘partial castration’, ‘the price to pay to reach maturity,
that is the capacity to love’ (Pons, 111).
This reward is not received by the other characters—namely, Great Wally the closet
homosexual; Condon the voyeur; Cookie, who ‘appears to have renounced sex and who seems
content to get his thrills vicariously’ (Pons, 111); and Sukarno, whose embodiment of virility
makes him Kwan’s perfect foil, but in denying reality and replacing it with a more satisfying
- 156 -
fiction he becomes a ‘pseudo-Oedipal hero’—, for they all fail to successfully go through the
Oedipal phase (Pons, 112).
This, in Pons view, is especially the case of the pre-Oedipal Billy Kwan. Kwan has a
pervert’s approach to sex, partly voyeurism and partly exaggerated idealism, which leaves him
fascinated by the sex he condemns (Pons, 111).
He is only capable of pretending an
engagement with Jill, or trying to sublimate his desires, as toward Jill and Ibu. His efforts—
also including his attempts to control Hamilton and self-identification with Hamilton and
Sukarno—all end in failure, and Kwan ‘is left with the unhappy realization that phallic power
is beyond his reach’. Kwan’s failure, Pons concludes, ‘results in death rather than castration,
since he hadn’t achieved virility in the first place’ (Pons, 112).
Where Hamilton succeeds by assuming a true father-figure in Henderson, Kwan fails by
looking to Sukarno, the Bapak, ‘father’, who is really just the Bung, ‘elder brother’, ‘a cheeky,
immature adolescent’. Kwan’s ambiguous political positioning, siding at once with both
imperialists and anti-colonialists, his claims to ‘superiority of his twofold racial heritage’, and
his identification with Sukarno are attempts ‘to achieve the status of a father and the virile
potency which goes with it’. When Jill rejects him, Udin dies, and Ibo disappears, Kwan ‘loses
his illusions and consequently dies a sterile death, just as he had led a sterile life, which is often
the fate of hybrids’ (Pons, 115).
This is certainly a well thought out analysis, but while the thesis is valid, there seem to
be two important weaknesses. First, while Koch deliberately leaves the Vera Chostiakov
episode unclear, it hardly seems adequate to write it off as ‘fantasies about women being
dangerous and castrating’. Koch is working with the wayang kulit metaphor of the multiple
viewpoints of reality. On one side of the screen Hamilton is hallucinating due to the fatigue
and over-stimulation of covering the march of the PKI, to his natural inclination to imagine
himself as a James Bond type, and, perhaps, to the Oedipal complex Pons describes. On
another side, however, Vera really is a Soviet agent trying to get his information about the
Chinese arms shipment. On yet another, Vera is a manifestation of the goddess Uma, bringing
- 157 -
the message of the destruction of this world and creation of the next. The wayang kulit sense
of being is that the two sides of the screen express differing levels of reality, and Koch’s
purposes here, as throughout his novels, are to demonstrate the unsharpness in the lines of
tangentiality between the worlds of substance and imagination, making it extremely difficult
sometimes to know into which world one has tread.
The second problem is the logical end of Pons’ argument that Billy Kwan’s life and
death were sterile. The validity of Pons’ argument is assured only as long as it is limited to the
vocabulary of Western critical tradition. Pons makes no accounting at all for Asian influences,
and for the good reason that they would contradict the Oedipal thesis. Wally O’Sullivan,
Kevin Condon and others, perhaps even Cookie, and many of Blanche d’Alpuget’s characters,
can surely be analysed according to this formula, but only because they exemplify expatriate
Westerners in Asia. As soon as the characters move into new directions, absorbing the myths
and symbols of the East as do Hamilton, Kwan, Alex Wheatfield, and Mike Langford, then
they surpass purely Western analysis; their uncovered Eastern sides must be taken into
account. From an Eastern point of view, Pons’ statements about Kwan’s ‘phallic power’,
‘castration’ and ‘virility’ are quite simply illustrations of how man is blinded by the illusory
quality of nature.
Pons tries to pre-empt complaints of these critical limitations by claiming for his thesis
place as one interpretation among many contributing to understanding a complex work of art
(Pons, 117). One cannot argue against this, though it is imperative to signal the misleading
implications of Pons paper, especially in view of the corpus of criticism outlined in sections
8.2.1 and 8.2.2, which have looked at the problems of judging C. J. Koch according to
exclusively Western or Eastern traditions.
The next section highlights criticism which
recognises the need to take both into consideration.
8.2.3. A Mischievous Synthesis of Eastern and Western Myth
In his analysis of Koch’s hybridised semiotics, D. M. Roskies describes how the
narrator, Cookie, with his vast array of information, from Hamilton’s accounts, the other
- 158 -
journalists’ ‘confessions’, and hearsay, to Billy Kwan’s ‘scurrilously annotated, alarmingly
encyclopaedic’ files, engages in ‘bold speculative-analytical flights, with a view to determining
devious motives and relationships’.
Cookie admits to limitations in his knowledge and
possibly inaccurate suppositions, but this does not deter him from relying on invocation of ‘the
strength of wind and storm’ to help him tell the tale right, doing so according to an odd
structure based ‘with care and cunning on the model of wayang kulit’ (YLD, 263). Koch has
conjured up a phantasmagoric work of fantasy, suggestion, and harrowing reality whose
‘analogues as between the operations of the text and the conventions of a cultural context are
precise in intention and effect, the one imaged in the other, with the text itself a mirror angled
for infinite regression’ (Roskies, 42). This witches brew would seem to preclude any hope of
analytical success in absence of the perspective on the Austral-Asian context.
Encouragement can be taken from another Indian scholar, Alur Janaki Ram, who judges
Koch largely ‘appreciative of Indian mythical lore’, and has no objection to its use as a tool for
psychological development, even if Koch is not entirely faithful to the original (Ram, 29-30).
Most significantly, Koch’s work is ‘free of all the claptrap about India’s mysticism and other
stereotypes—usual temptation for the Western writer’. Ram finds that Koch’s ‘keen, sensitive
and poetic imagination’ lends him extraordinary insights into the people and the landscape, and
declares Koch successful ‘in linking the Indian mythological motifs to the inner mental
history’ of his protagonists (Ram, 32).
Added to this is Maes-Jelinek’s observation that in his emphasis of the parallels between
Eastern and Western mythologies Koch is giving them universal meaning. His characters, who
otherwise are among the forgotten participants, spectators or victims of historical events, are
illuminated by the creative, therapeutic dynamics of his myth-building. (Maes-Jelinek, 30).
Kwan, she cleverly argues, the ‘wise fool’, is something between Harlequin and trickster,
dalang and manipulator, mischief maker and saviour, and as such represents not only the focus
of the ‘legacies of hate’ which afflict the age but also the ‘possibility of its rebirth’ (MaesJelinek, 32).
- 159 -
The ambiguous, hybrid identities which Guy Hamilton and Billy Kwan share give
meaning to their relationship. It is the meaning which they also share with all of the hybrid,
white Australian society whose history and geography have made paradoxically both subject
and object of colonialism and imperialist aggression. The ambiguity causes some distress, but,
as Kelly notes, quite a lot of freedom as well in the perception Australians have of themselves
and their world.
Evidently, and this would appear to be a dominant reading, colonial
Australians could identify with what they construct—or totalise—as the
approved metropolitan version, gratifyingly affording to the colonial what Said
calls a ‘flexible positional superiority’ over an Other constructed as the
Oriental. Yet, since colonials were themselves constructed as, and resentfully
mis-recognised themselves as being, an Other within imperial hierarchies,
there exists an available reading position of identification with Orientalist
spectacles as in some sense legitimating, even providing, imagery of their own
alterised reality. (Kelly, 33)
In this sense, the image of the ‘hybrid’ could lead, as Kelly explains with a quote from
Nietzsche’s Beyond Good and Evil (1886), to a ‘less monolithic and more ludic and deessentialised sense of identity’ (Kelly, 34; Nietzsche, 150), where Orientalism becomes ‘an
empowering repertoire of identities and self-transformations’ (Kelly, 34). This is indeed the
interpretation which Kwan gives to being a hybrid, though, while he believes that it is
Hamilton whose restricted sense of identity needs this empowerment, Kwan himself proves to
be at least an equal beneficiary of alternating images and perceptions, and of the subsequent
transformation they exert on the sense of self.
Blanche D’Alpuget has not come under comparable scrutiny concerning her place in
Eastern and Western traditions, and this is another critical failure as she is similarly describing
efforts and hindrances in harmonising the two. Her most significant hybrid is Minou, who
shares Kwan’s resistance for seeing things in ‘black and white’ and proves herself the mistress
of self-empowerment through the determined, yet playful, fluidity of her identities. Yet, the
character who has the chance to learn the most from Minou, Judith Wilkes, is also the least
successful in these terms. She is so afraid of allowing herself to relate with Asian culture that
- 160 -
her sense of identity becomes, if anything, more monolithic and less ludic, and as a last resort
she envelopes it within the safe but cold confines of progressive materialism.
8.3. Eastern Philosophical Keys to the Australian Puzzle
Considering these strengths and weaknesses in the available corpus of criticism of the
Asian novels of d’Alpuget and Koch, there does seem good argument for a more careful
analysis of some of the important Eastern concepts which d’Alpuget and Koch evidently are
sourcing for their novels.
8.3.1. The Bhagavad Gita and the Spirit of Re-enchantment
The Bhagavad Gita is one episode of the great Indian national epic, the Mahabharata.
Heinrich Zimmer finds the Gita’s importance in its synthesis of the two ancient traditions in
Indian thought—that of the Vedas of the Aryan invaders, and that of Jainism, Sankhya and
Yoga—, which had been competing over the thousand years since the Aryan shepherd/warriors
migrated southward into the subcontinent. The Brahmanical Vedic system was monistic,
vigorous, and joyously life-affirmative.
Ritual and sacrifice sanctified all activities of
everyday life in the practice of Brahmanism, making the actions of all men glorifications of the
Supreme Being. The goal was to attain the realisation of the Self (Atman), the true and unique
reality (Zimmer, 1969, 379-80). The more philosophically profound but terribly pessimistic
non-Aryan systems were characterised by a dualistic life process in which the polluting,
darkening principle of the material world was continuously at odds with the pure essence of
the individual. The goal was to separate these antagonistic principles through a strict regime of
purification, thereby halting the infernal, corrupting life process, and allowing one to reach an
ultimate state of perfect motionlessness (Zimmer, 1969, 379).
Zimmer calls the Bhagavad Gita the ‘classic doctrine’ of this rapprochement of systems.
Although an ‘esoteric document’, he says that it ‘has become the most popular, widely
memorized authoritative statement of the basic guiding principles of Indian religious life’
(Zimmer, 1969, 380). The Gita is well known, if neither well read nor understood, in the
West. Writers like Emerson and T. S. Eliot have drawn extensively from its poetics and
- 161 -
images, and its use as a source for the Australian image of Asia is not surprising. Alison
Broinowski in The Yellow Lady attests to The Gita’s adaptation to Australian music and dance
compositions (Broinowski, 94, 139), and says that Christopher Koch found in the affinity
between India’s cattle-centred culture and Australian culture an escape route from what he
considered the decadence of Western society (Broinowski, 178).
David Tacey’s Edge of the Sacred: Transformations in Australia finds many of the roots
of the contemporary sense of bondage and decadence in the humanism and science of the
Renaissance and Enlightenment, where the ego struggled to free itself of the past and its
superstitions, but created a secular, culturally impoverished and spiritually bankrupt world.
God is dead, moral and spiritual values have been declared entirely relative
and arbitrarily constructed, the soul and spirit find no solace or nourishment,
communal ties and traditional bonds are weakening and falling apart,
narcissistic individualism is rampant, and Western civilisation finds itself
sliding inexorably into degradation.
Instead of fashioning a world of freedom and liberty, ‘we have simply become enslaved to the
ego, to the lower instincts, and to all the unconscious archetypal forces that course through us
and take easy possession of us’ (Tacey, 185).
Such extremes of Western decadence would give further impetus to an awareness of the
wisdom of the Gita, which teaches a middle path toward human fulfilment. It makes a plea for
moderation and the avoidance of excess, including calls for both self-restraint and tolerance,
two qualities which Tacey, Koch and d’Alpuget find sorely lacking. It supplants a notion of
individuality and self-interest with a concept based on social and moral collectivity, and a
‘spirit of participant action-sharing’ (Varma, 70-71). Though some two thousand years old and
conceived to reconcile the divergent paths to spiritual realisation in ancient India, the
Bhagavad Gita’s message of righteous, altruistic action in a non-utopian world has perhaps
never been more relevant than today.
The Gita’s spirit of rapprochement makes it an ideal model for Koch, whose novels are
actively searching for a dynamic synthesis of Asian and Australian cultures. Billy Kwan
seems to take a knowledge of the Bhagavad Gita almost as a prerequisite for intercultural
- 162 -
discussion when he asks Guy Hamilton nonchalantly, ‘Have you read the Gita? No?’ (YLD,
81). In Turtle Beach, Blanche d’Alpuget acknowledges the significance of the Bhagavad Gita,
albeit through the back door. Ralph, the Australian embassy official charged with dealing with
the deplorable situation in the boatpeople camps, and who is suffering from severe stomach
ailments, laughs that Kanan says ‘collecting bad karma in the camps’ is the cause of his
sickness. Ralph says, ‘The bugger is so modern in some ways. But he lives by the Bhagavad
Gita, you know.’ Judith answers mockingly, ‘Whatever that means’ (TB, 224), perhaps quietly
alluding to the fact that, as a sacred scripture, the meaning of the Gita is open to debate, though
also commenting on the fact that Westerners have little idea of the Gita beyond its title.
D’Alpuget is critically exploiting the perverse humour that one’s own ignorance is funny so
long as that which is misunderstood can be sloughed off as mere pagan superstition and
mumbo-jumbo. Yet, Ralph is indeed dying, and d’Alpuget makes it clear that it is no more due
to his physical than to his spiritual cancer. The agony and frustration of his hopeless job
results from his inability to conform to the precepts of the Bhagavad Gita, specifically to the
counsel of Krishna to Arjuna, who is despairing over the coming fratricidal battle, to maintain
disinterest in his action. The heat, cold, pleasure and pain of the world of the senses are
transient, Krishna says, and ‘The man whom these cannot move, whose soul is one, beyond
pleasure and pain, is worthy of life in Eternity’ (Bhagavad Gita, 2:14-15).
Koch is less forgiving of his readership in its failure to read and heed the wisdom of the
Bhagavad Gita. He stops short of offering it as a panacea for Australia’s problems, but he is
clearly reading the Gita as a ‘sacred’ text. Both Koch and d’Alpuget focus attention on their
characters’ ‘preoccupation with normal self-interest, excessive concern for personal safety, and
uninhibited appetite for personal gain if chance should happen to bring it their way’ (Roskies,
37), themes which they share with the Gita. Koch, nevertheless, is not content to recite and
superficially compare, as a journalist/historian would, the various interpretations of the text,
which is what d’Alpuget does, and all he manages to do in his early novel, Across the Sea
Wall. In The Year of Living Dangerously—acting as what Robert Minor calls the ‘committed
- 163 -
scholar, that is one who asks the questions of the believer, not merely the questions of the
historian’—, Koch delves into insights which have ‘the certainty of religious Truth and the
arguments for that certainty are appeals to revelation, intuition, or some data that go beyond
space and time limitations’ (Minor, 38). Koch is also trying to show that these insights which
he has found in the Bhagavad Gita are not really so foreign to Western traditions, that, while a
sacred text will have elements which are ‘temporary and perishable, belonging to the ideas of
the people of the period and the country in which it is produced’ (Minor, 38), there are also the
eternal and imperishable elements which are applicable to contemporary Western society.
David Tacey argues for a such a spiritual infusion of ancient wisdom in Western culture
to bring about a ‘re-enchantment’ of society, with a new understanding of man’s relationship
with nature which goes far beyond symbiosis to a recognition of shared identity. Krishna
Chaitanya develops this idea, writing that Western society has been motivated on the principle
of self-interest formulated in 1776 by Adam Smith in Wealth of Nations. The eventuality of
universal prosperity predicted by Smith has, however, led man to a ‘war on nature’, exploiting
and polluting the planet’s resources, and to a ‘war on his brethren in the form of exploitation
through monopoly, colonialism, multinational economic imperialism and annihilation through
nuclear armament’. This selfishness was already a major theme of the Mahabharata, as the
‘warriors who gyrated to destruction like moths into fire were all fired by selfishness, or were
victims of selfishness’. Selfishness, he writes, exposing perhaps the real problem 20th century
critics have in judging Billy Kwan’s actions, ‘is basic for Smith, for the Gita, it is altruism that
is basic’ (Chaitanya, 25).
This is one fundamental aspect of the synthesis of ancient traditions which Zimmer was
writing about. The Vedas prescribed sacrifice to the gods so that the gods would reward man
with rain and prosperity. Zimmer interpreted the native Indus Valley philosophies—from
which there are nevertheless no extant documents—as arguing that such selfish, outward
expression merely complicated the effort to remove the impurities on the soul. The Gita
teaches that one must perform his required work, including sacrifice, but not with reward in
- 164 -
mind. As Tacey argues, man must see himself as part of the divine creation, for, Chaitanya
adds, man is free—and these two concepts are not contradictory. Krishna, the supreme God,
tells Arjuna, the generalised man, to consider the reality of nature and choose how he will
act—Chaitanya calls this ‘the partnership of God and man in the divinisation of history’.
Krishna is not promising rewards for Arjuna’s actions, but that ‘if God and man work together,
this world will see established an order of justice, prosperity and well-being for everybody’
(Chaitanya, 26).
8.3.2. Time and Destiny
Zimmer discusses the dichotomy of arguments present in all ages of Hindu literature
concerning the relative importance of will and fate, or personal valour and time in the struggle
for life and success. The first argument holds that the valour of the unyielding hero eventually
leads him to victory. Zimmer sees in this view ‘something of the British bulldog attitude,
though without the Christian belief that the right cause will prevail, and that a humble
acceptance of one’s own sufferings as punishment for shortcomings and faults will have
redeeming power’. The second, however, confers to time (kala) supreme power, noting that
the hero-conqueror prevails not because of his prowess or strength or holy advisors but because
he is riding the wave of time, which carries him to success when the cycle favours him, but
which will then carry him to destruction when it favours his enemies (Zimmer, 1969, 99-100).
The question is of the force of human will and action versus fate. Traditions such as
Buddhism assert the existence of free will, moral responsibility, and transmigration. The
individual human is responsible for his own enlightenment. Human effort is central to this
situation, ‘even though, paradoxically, the aim of the renouncer in these traditions is to subdue
human effort as part of the means of preventing accumulation of karma’. The other view,
exemplified by the Brahmanist tradition, places reliance on the gods who exercise the workings
of fate and time (Bailey, 157-59).
Greg Bailey has shown, however, how the two arguments are bound together. While
fate is determined by the cosmic order of the Triple World (dharma), individual actions bring
- 165 -
about that fate, and the failure of such action can bring about the collapse of dharma. In the
Ramayana, Brahma allows the demon Ravana to name the boon he has been promised. In
doing so, Brahma allows Ravana to announce his own fate. Ravana, who as a demon is
engaged in struggle with the gods, demands that no god be able to kill him. Brahma then
arranges for Vishnu to descend to the earth in the form of a human, Rama, who is to kill
Ravana and restore dharma to its rightful place. Brahma also orders the gods to be reborn on
earth as monkeys and bears to assist Vishnu, and even they are obliged to act in order to
uphold the cosmic order (Bailey, 140-144).
This coupling of fate, or the will of god, with the free will of man corresponds to the
Supreme Utterance of the Bhagavad Gita, in which Krishna tells Arjuna that choosing to act
makes him the sacred instrument of fate. Accepting this marriage of fate and free will is the
greatest hurdle facing Billy Kwan in The Year of Living Dangerously, and serves as a
foundation for the development of Mike Langford in Highways to a War, who must learn that
his actions can maintain professional disinterest yet still impact on the greater world around
him. Time demands action, especially in Southeast Asia of the 1960s and 70s, a period seen by
Koch as one in which the gods and other forces of good will ‘be the ones filled with impotent
rage, while the demons, triumphant now, set up their own ungodly rule’ (Zimmer, 1969, 100).
The ultimate vision of reality presented in the Bhagavad Gita and the wayang kulit
necessarily allows the fratricidal war between the Pandavas and the Kuravas to continue as the
Supreme Utterance, the sacred command to act, is meant for all men, good and evil, to follow.
In the same way, Billy is allowed to die heroically even without Sukarno having seen his
banner. The world has seen it, however, and many will recognise in it a new herald of kala,
time. Sukarno’s approaching fall has been revealed through Billy Kwan’s dramatic act. Guy
Hamilton, initiated into the spiritual world of the wayang kulit and instructed by Billy in the
Bhagavad Gita, understands, as few others can, the significance of Billy Kwan’s act, which is
to have taken up arms in the sacred cosmic battle for the Soul.
- 166 -
8.3.3. The Four World Ages
Before discussing Billy Kwan’s act, however, it is important to discuss the Eastern
cyclical concept of time adapted by Koch to his post-modern thought. According to the theory
of the four World Ages, from the Tantric scriptures said to have been directly handed down by
Shiva in the first millennium AD, the timeless universe is divided into yugas, ages, or cycles
limited in time. The Maha-Yuga, ‘great age’, represents a complete cycle corresponding to one
day (kalpa) in the life of the god-creator Brahma, which comprises the four ages of the cosmos.
The first age, the Krita-Yuga, begins with the creation of the universe and its population by
men, gods, demons and all other beings. It is characterised by wholeness and completion,
manifested in the full and uncontested rule of dharma, the righteous law of the cosmos. Men
are born virtuously, and all beings perform unquestioningly the duties and obligations which
dharma requires of them. Yet, with the progress of the life of the universal organism, there is a
loss of the completeness of dharma. In the second age, the Treta-Yuga, dharma’s presence in
the universe is atrophied to three-quarters, with the fourth quarter then filled with its opposite,
adharma, the absence of righteousness. Living beings begin to fall into spiritual decline.
Dharmic duties are no longer spontaneously carried out but must be learned. The third period,
Dvapara-Yuga, is the age of a dangerous balance between virtue and immorality.
The
irrevocable loss of dharma and its correspondent replacement by adharma means that the
perfection of the spiritual order can no longer exercise its influence on the universe. Men are
vulgar, blinded by passion, crave possessions and wealth. True spirituality is only attainable
through ascetic practices. By the arrival of the fourth age, Kali-Yuga, the presence of dharma
in the universe has shrunken to one quarter, and the collapse of the created cosmos is at hand.
‘Kali bedeutet das schlimmste von allem; auch „Streit, Zank, Spaltung, Krieg, Schlacht“
(verwandt mit kal-aha, „streiten, zanken“)’ (Zimmer, 1986, 18-21). Kali-Yuga is the ‘Black
Age’ of universal destruction, characterised by the ‘vulgar traits of common despotism’, a loss
of spiritual dignity, and the ascension to power of ‘the strong, the cunning, the daring, and the
reckless—those able to inspire greed and fear’ (Zimmer, 1969, 106). It is an age where evil
- 167 -
has ascendancy over good; where wrong is right; where the loved are hated; where everything
is upside down and backwards. It is also the present age.
In Sukarno’s Indonesia, in wartime Vietnam, in Cambodia under the approaching
spectre of the Khmer Rouge, even in the artificiality of modern Singapore and among the
expatriate Australians in Kuala-Lumpur, the workings of Kali-Yuga is unmistakably evident in
the Asian images of Christopher Koch and Blanche d’Alpuget. Despite the convictions of such
as Billy Kwan, it hardly even matters which side is prevailing. Guy Hamilton notices after the
end of the communist putsch, with the rightist forces of General Suharto in control, how all of
the political signs on the avenues have been altered. The messages of konfrontasi are still
there; only the objects of the attacks have changed, like shadows whose light/dark contrast has
been reversed, or like a mirrored image which is itself reflected back into the glass:
Jakarta’s violent children had been unleashed against their heroes: and the
vehemence was the same and the terms were the same as those they had used
against their former bogies. It was like a dream in which things became their
opposites, and the city no longer seemed real (YLD, 291).
The period of Kali-Yuga has, after all, not reached its conclusion, and demons defeated are
replaced by more, and more powerful, demons.
What better metaphor could be found for a writer who sees society in degeneration,
whose very country was founded on penal policies of the mother country which can only be
described as wicked, whose nation then embarked on a campaign of genocide and forced
assimilation of the aboriginal people, whose region has been swept by a holocaust of such
vehemence that it seemed to crown the evil achievements of the 20th century? Koch is
working closely with a world which the modernists demonise as lost and headed for oblivion,
though, searching for a way out of this despondency, he finds in such Eastern concepts as that
of the four World Ages a response to the fatalistic modernist outlook. For the final period of
cosmic extinction, Kali-Yuga, will ultimately be followed up by a return to Krita Yuga, the first
era of creation and renewal.
- 168 -
8.4. Billy Kwan, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Fractured Soul
The key to understanding The Year of Living Dangerously lies, to paraphrase Billy, in
understanding the Bhagavad Gita. The key to the Bhagavad Gita is the Supreme Utterance of
Krishna made to Arjuna before the epic battle between the Pandavas and the Kuravas. Arjuna,
as leader of the Pandavas who aim to win back the land taken unjustly from them by the
Kuravas, rides before his army as it forms up before the battle. There Arjuna sees his brothers,
uncles, cousins, nephews, teachers and friends lined up on both sides, poised to slaughter each
other. He is taken by deep regret, and doubts whether he should give the order for the battle to
begin. His charioteer, friend and advisor, Krishna, reveals himself as the Incarnation of the
Creator, Preserver, and Destroyer of the world, and delivers the Supreme Utterance, telling
Arjuna, and the world,
Time am I, the Destroyer great and mighty, appearing here to sweep all men
away. Even without thee [and thine act of leadership] none of these warriors
here, in their ranks arrayed, shall remain alive. Therefore, do thou arise, win
glory, smite the foe, enjoy in prosperity thy lordship. By Me, and Me alone,
have they long since been routed. BE THOU NOUGHT BUT MY TOOL
(BG, 11.32-33; as translated in Zimmer, 1969, 384).
This concept of time as ‘great and mighty destroyer’, which is inextricably, and somewhat
contradictorily, bound with the workings of the free will of men to effect the regeneration of
creation and the cosmic order, is one of the pivot points in the Asian novels of C. J. Koch.
It is tempting (or rather just habit) for a Westerner to feel frustration in this cosmic
doubleness where free will must exist alongside predestined fate, as Cowie does in his analysis
of The Year of Living Dangerously, where
man is reduced to nothing much more than the status of a pawn, interesting
perhaps but still a pawn, pushed about the cosmic gaming board or plucked
from its ambivalent chequered surface at the caprice of two contrasting
destinies, one apparently playing for the good of his immortal soul—but which
one, however?—and the other, with spite and malice, plotting out the nearest
moves towards his eternal ruin. (Cowie, 96)
This again is putting Koch and his novels into a modernist Western tradition where he does not
belong. Billy Kwan is not a pawn in an absurd world ruled by mean predestination, but is
following Arjuna’s example in heeding Krishna’s words and taking the critical step beyond his
- 169 -
considerations and hesitations to ignore the consequences and act. The Gita does reiterate the
inescapable force of karma when Krishna tells Arjuna that nature will compel him to fight the
battle he longs to avoid:
Because thou art in the bondage of Karma, of the forces of thine own past life;
and that which thou, in thy delusion, with a good will dost not want to do,
unwillingly thou shalt have to do. (Bhagavad Gita 18.60)
Yet, alongside this statement of predestination, Krishna reaffirms Arjuna’s freedom of will:
I have given thee words of vision and wisdom more secret than hidden
mysteries. Ponder them in the silence of thy soul, and then in freedom do thy
will. (BG, 18.63)
The interaction of fate and free will is an important theme throughout the Mahabharata.
Zaehner notes that, while it ‘stresses time and again the primacy of fate over human effort, it
none the less compares the two to the rain which prepares the ground and the seed that man
puts into it (5.78.2-5): the two are interdependent and work in harmony together’. Karma is a
universal phenomenon of which human karma is but a part, and ‘the cosmic dharma’ and ‘fate’
are other terms for God’s will. It is therefore precisely ‘man’s co-operation with fate’ which
‘justifies him and earns him a place in heaven or that causes him to enter into God’ (Zaehner,
107).
8.4.1. Billy Kwan’s Sacred Battle for the Soul
It is clear that Billy is searching for such a way to exercise his will in co-operation with
dharma, but has been unable to bring himself beyond an intellectual commitment in which he
is, like Arjuna, overwhelmed by the contradictions. He is therefore looking for a surrogate, a
man of action rather than of thought, and thinks he has found one in Guy Hamilton. When he
organises Hamilton’s interview with the Indonesian Communist Party chief, Billy says the
interview needs a ‘good instrument to transmit it’, adding, ‘I’ve chosen a good instrument’
(YLD, 36). Cookie agrees that Hamilton’s natural inclination to act without being inhibited by
considerations of the ‘natures, intensities, and needs’ of those around him made him ‘the
perfect vessel for Billy Kwan’s purposes’ (YLD, 38). Hamilton finally comes to sense those
purposes after the PKI interview which makes him an instant celebrity, mixing a feeling of
- 170 -
triumph with that of being used (YLD, 40), though he does not yet get it since, as his first name
implies, he is ‘easily taken in and deficient in self-knowledge’ (Roskies, 38). Hamilton will be
required to submit to several sessions of mocking and ridicule before his awareness improves.
While Hamilton will continue to be influenced by Billy’s manipulations, it is still Billy
Kwan himself who must take action. Ironically enough, it is only after he becomes distraught
by Hamilton’s wayward behaviour, travelling out of Jakarta to report on the PKI’s march
through the countryside and also to meet the Russian Vera Chostiakov when he should be with
Jill, that Billy is motivated to take direct action.
Billy loses his self-mastery in the Wayang Bar and gets himself excluded from that
group. Then, after practically moving in with Ibu and her children, the infant boy Udin dies.
Nowhere in the novel does Billy show any definite suicidal tendencies, though he does exhibit
deep frustration and pain in his ostracism and Udin’s senseless death, and the action he chooses
to take against Sukarno will result in his own death. Cookie confers that Billy is an unlikely
suicide candidate, saying about Billy’s deciding to become the instrument to remove Sukarno:
‘until the very late stages, there is nothing really irrational or deranged about this process’
(YLD, 241). Cookie does finally question Billy’s moral judgement, but he also cites the
Bhagavad Gita, 2:32, in looking for an explanation. Cookie’s analysis recalls David Tacey’s
theses of rejecting formalised Christianity and humanism in order to find a new spirituality,
saying:
Perhaps he was inspired by Krishna the charioteer (Dwarf Semar’s mighty
counterpart in the Bhagavad Gita), steeling Arjuna for spiritual battle: ‘There
is a way that opens the doors of heaven, Arjuna! Happy the warrior whose
fate is to fight such a war’. (YLD, 241)
This might just reflect Cookie’s desire to remember Billy in a heroic light, but in an
interesting alteration to the text of the Bhagavad Gita—Koch is using the Mascaró
translation—Christopher Koch has singularised the original’s warriors, the effect of which is
to individualise the text and make it uniquely fit the particular case of Billy Kwan. He also
reminds us at this definitive moment of the perspective of the wayang kulit on these matters,
with Billy following the model of Semar, who combines the qualities of the three Pandava
- 171 -
brothers, then both ‘permits and demands a struggle for order and justice’ in the world (Geertz,
273). James Brandon writes that the wayang kulit puppets are not necessarily enacting a drama
of Pandava versus Kurava at all.
They and their actions are merely the external, symbolic representation of the
conflict which takes place within every man’s spirit, with the puppets standing
for different aspects of a single personality: Judistira is selflessness; Ardjuna,
introspection; Bima, pure will. (Brandon, 16)
Billy sees the decision to act as a moral one based on the teachings of the wayang kulit
and on the Bhagavad Gita, which warns in the couplet immediately following that cited by
Cookie, ‘But to forgo this fight for righteousness is to forgo thy duty and honour: is to fall into
transgression’ (BG, 2:33). Accepting this duty, like Semar and the three Pandava brothers,
selflessly, with premeditation, and of free will, to act in the name of righteousness, Billy writes
in his dossier: ‘This is enough. Ibu and Udin will be revenged. There must always be an
instrument to end tyranny's folly’ (YLD, 240). At the same time, Billy draws on the prophecy
of the book of Revelation for justification. He had always had doubts, and early wondered
about the ominous numbers of Sukarno’s birthdate: ‘The 6th of June: the double six! Dread
possibility: is this the mark of the Beast? Is this the source of his charismatic power?’ (YLD,
130). Now he is seeing such signs everywhere:
You do, after all, bear the mark of the Beast, I believe. The Satanists say their
new age begins next year, in 1966: the double six again! Is it possible you
were marked to precipitate this new era, whipping the people to frenzy with
your lies of glory—yourself in a secret frenzy fed by violence and by lust.
Terrible violence is simmering, simmering. Your country is sick with the fever
of evil: is it possible that the Beast has chosen Java as a crucible? Is it possible
that here is where those marked by the Beast and those still struggling for the
light must confront each other? Is this your Konfrontasi? (YLD, 242-43)
Finding further symbolic reference in Revelation xiii, 4 to the Chinese communist (the dragon)
support of Sukarno’s konfrontasi, Billy writes with growing conviction:
‘And they worshipped the dragon which gave power unto the beast; and they
worshipped the beast, saying, Who is like unto the beast? Who is able to make
war with him?’ (YLD, 243)
Billy’s last hope for Indonesia lies in the Muslims, and yet he sees that they cannot act
against Sukarno, who is rapidly falling under the control of the Communists. Billy writes in
- 172 -
his files: ‘The Muslims can do nothing against you themselves, Sukarno, since the people are
still deluded by their god-king, their Ratu Adil. Yes, the Muslims need an instrument.’ Billy
Kwan has finally stopped being the philosophical photographer—the ultimate Peeping Tom—
and accepted his role as the instrument of God. Deciding conclusively to act for ‘a country
where love of God and freedom of the spirit can survive’, Kwan directly addresses his fiend,
Sukarno: ‘You talk of “swinging the steering wheel over”, to a new stage of revolution. I must
swing the wheel over instead: this will be my destiny!’ (YLD, 242).
8.4.2. Billy’s Spiritual Victory
Considering Koch’s attempts ‘at a definition of the Australian soul as one infected with
a dream of an ideal “Otherland”’ (this is the term Koch uses in The Boys in the Island to
describe an early version of his mythopoeic land), Paul Sharrad writes that ‘it is possible to see
Robert O’Brien’s journey (physical and spiritual) through India as an attempt to find a
philosophy that will prove compatible with a Western desire for structured beliefs and
meaningful action’. He compares this with other efforts, such as that of Patrick White who ‘is
intent on exposing the festering spiritual life beneath the surface of Australian society in order
to proffer the values of European enlightenment and mysticism to heal and control’, but argues
that ‘Koch is seeking a less “Austrophobic” answer’ from which will come ‘a faith resistant to
the dangers of a landscape that destroys neat historical and rational constructs’ and which leads
to the despair and destruction of people like White’s protagonist, Voss (Sharrad, 1984, 219).
Billy Kwan shares traits of these protagonists who are ‘scapegoats, outcasts from society who
suffer on its behalf to discover private bliss and a redemption unwanted by the community they
leave behind’ (Sharrad, 1984, 216), but moving Kwan out of the bush, which destroys men like
Voss, and into Asia gives him the chance to achieve that faith in the human spirit and will to
action.
Koch draws that sense of faith and action out of the Gita, in which Krishna tells Arjuna
that righteous action is true pleasure and will lead one out of pain, while the pleasures of
inaction or of desires, cravings and passion are the impure pleasures of darkness:
- 173 -
There is the pleasure of following that right path which leads to the end of all
pain. What seems at first a cup of sorrow is found in the end immortal wine.
That pleasure is pure: it is the joy which arises from a clear vision of the Spirit.
(BG, 18:36-37)
It is Guy Hamilton who first seems to understand this when Billy is killed. Billy had
explained to Hamilton that to master others one must first learn to master himself (YLD, 81).
Hamilton and Jill Bryant both understand that Billy was trying to master them. Jill says, ‘Billy
wanted us to be a perfect pair of lovers’ and Hamilton says, ‘he thought he and I would be
perfect friends’ (YLD, 258), but only Hamilton knows that Billy has finally learned to master
himself. This means that Billy, the cameraman with the ‘ceaseless mental life’ (YLD, 71),
forever ruminating over questions of right and wrong, of good and evil, of man and God, has
finally calmed his Self. Krishna teaches Arjuna:
Do thy work in the peace of Yoga and, free from selfish desires, be not moved
in success or in failure. Yoga is evenness of mind—a peace that is ever the
same. (BG, 2:48)
(‘Yoga’ is one of those difficult-to-translate Sanskrit terms. Mascaró has chosen not to
translate here at all, depending on the text to clarify it. There are many meanings of the term
as it is used in the Gita. The verb means unite, prepare, get ready for battle; The noun means
yoking, preparation, discipline (Callewaert, 97). Koch, probably because in current English it
refers to a form of exercise which has as much to do with New Age pop culture as with Indian
philosophy, avoids the term altogether, though this does not mean that Krishna’s message is
avoided as well.)
In his argument for an Australian re-enchantment, David Tacey notes how the ‘great
religions have long taught that the ego cannot be its own master and cannot achieve absolute
freedom’. The ego must forgo its delusional drive for absolute freedom, and consciously
choose to serve.
The ego’s task in the psyche, like humanity’s task in creation, is to serve a
greater reality (Jung), to attend to the needs of an Other (Eliage), to further the
incarnation in this world of unmanifest Being (Heidegger). The ego can either
choose a life of service or be made to serve in various involuntary and
destructive ways. The choice is between a relative freedom or no freedom at
all. (Tacey, 185)
- 174 -
Billy Kwan must loosen his attachment to the mastery of the dalang. He has to learn not to act
out of hatred, fear or anger, for revenge too would be work done for reward, which the Gita
says ‘is much lower than work done in the Yoga of wisdom’ (BG, 2:49). Like Arjuna, Billy
has great difficulty facing up to the task before him. He must achieve a sense of the universe
in which he is personally implicated, and learn ‘that he should derive his imperative for action
from the nature of reality’ (Chaitanya, 21). That nature, and the goal of realising it, is made
clear in the Gita, though necessarily in terms which remain rather beyond the powers of the
human mind:
When thy mind leaves behind its dark forest of delusion, thou shalt go beyond
the scriptures of times past and still to come. When thy mind, that may be
wavering in the contradictions of many scriptures, shall rest unshaken in divine
contemplation, then the goal of Yoga is thine. (BG, 2:52-53)
These lines seem written for Billy Kwan personally. The heroic achievement of the novel is
not what Western readers might expect, but that one man, his mind once shaking in the dark
forest of delusion, achieves the release from passion, fear and anger. The Gita also makes the
implications of this release clear, and there could be no truer reward for Billy Kwan:
He whose mind is untroubled by sorrows, and for pleasures he has no longings,
beyond passion, and fear and anger, he is the sage of unwavering mind. (BG,
2:56)
Guy Hamilton seems also to recognise the dualities inherent in reality as viewed in
Javanese religion—the need for the irrational beside the rational, and for a balance between
action and compassion. When Jill asks him, ‘Why did he do it?’, she is asking why Billy
unveiled the banner from the Hotel Indonesia window, but also, based on the only information
she can have received, why he jumped from the window. Hamilton says simply, ‘It depends
on what you think he did’ (YLD, 257). Hamilton knows it was not suicide, and leaves his
answer vague, as if his training as a journalist to speak in superficial, unimaginative facts is
gagging him, but, having himself made a similar spiritual journey, he seems to know that Billy
had finally come to terms with all of his self-doubts and reconciled himself to the teachings of
the Bhagavad Gita which he had always accepted philosophically but had struggled with
spiritually.
- 175 -
This is the novel’s critical point, but while the text offers support to this theses of Billy
Kwan’s triumph, there is little agreement to be found in existing scholarship. The universal
tendency is to follow Bruce Bennett, who wrote of ‘the shattering disillusionment’—in the
realisation that his idol Sukarno and his ‘creation’ Hamilton have both failed him by
succumbing to lust and deception—‘which turns his whole life around, and leads to his death’
(Bennett, 1982, 11). That Billy believed he was unfurling his banner as the instrument of God
is not stated in so many words, but he was clearly following Arjuna’s example by moving to
assume personal responsibility.
Koch’s descriptions also make it clear enough that, for
Hamilton and Cookie at least, he was not acting out of despair or disillusionment. Billy’s
spiritual transformation is evident in Cookie’s description of Billy’s fall:
I had the impression—although this could have been fancy—that his body was
tremendously arched, facing outwards into the warm, upper air like one of the
people of the Welcome Monument; as though some ecstasy had removed it
from natural laws, and powered it with flight (YLD, 248).
Billy’s body has changed, symbolising the ascendancy of his victorious soul which had been
crippled by his outward appearance. Cookie expects Billy to have ‘exploded like a fruit’ from
the long fall, but instead of a smashed dwarf he finds what resembles a reposed puppet of the
sacred wayang kulit:
I had expected him to look small, on the asphalt desert: instead he looked
surprisingly big. … All that told of his fall was the dark red pool spreading
from beneath him, and the limpness of the body, which recalled a fallen
puppet: a puppet of leather (YLD, 249).
This is Billy’s moment to follow the path of consecrated action, ‘free from attachments, and
with a mind ruling its powers in harmony’ (BG, 3:7).
He has committed himself
unconditionally to sacred battle according to the teachings of Krishna, who promised that ‘By
sacrifice thou shalt multiply and obtain all thy desires’ (BG, 3:11). Billy then transcends his
dwarf body, takes flight, and heroically enters heaven. One hint of critical agreement with this
assessment lies in the thinly veiled title of Sharrad’s 1984 article, ‘Pour mieux sauter’. Sharrad
declines to elucidate on this, but is clearly referring to Billy Kwan’s fall from the hotel window
which, as Cookie notes, so much more resembles a spring than a fall.
- 176 -
The question is whether it is a sacrificial or a suicidal spring, and whether the text
justifies the exaltation of Billy Kwan, especially when so many critics find him to have fallen
into deep depression. The answer lies again in understanding Koch’s source material, in
particular those cited by Kwan himself, the Bhagavad Gita, the Mahabharata, and The
Gospels.
8.4.3. The Dilemma of Righteous Action in the Mahabharata and The Gospels
The Bhagavad Gita with its tale of the dilemma faced by Arjuna over choosing a
righteous course of action is but a brief part of the Mahabharata, which has as a central theme
the similar dilemma faced by Arjuna’s brother, King Yudhishthira, the Judistira of the wayang
kulit whose very name means ‘King of Righteousness’. The problem comes out of the two,
sometimes contradictory notions of dharma: ‘the sanatana dharma or absolute moral order
which can never be precisely defined yet is felt to have absolute validity, and the dharma of
caste and canon law as laid down in the various law-books’ (Zaehner, 8). Complicating
matters further is the will of God—whether Brahma, Krishna, Hari, Vishnu or another form of
the eternal, supreme creative force—which is both the eternal sanatana dharma and yet
beyond any limitations of dharma, time or any other imaginable entity. Yudhishthira is the
archetype of the virtue of dharma, and so longs and strives for a peaceful and equitable
settlement between the Kuravas and Pandavas. Krishna, however, repeatedly forces him to act
in ways that are contrary not only to the eternal dharma as interpreted by the ancient texts of
the Brahmanas, ‘but also to the dharma that the King of Righteousness himself embodies and
which the common conscience of the human race acknowledges to be true’ (Zaehner, 64).
Krishna drives Yudhishthira into violence and untruthfulness, causing in him a crisis of guilt
even though he knows that Krishna’s will transcends dharma. ‘His conscience was the first to
protest against a violent and unjust society: there had been no reformers before him’ (Zaehner,
171). Yudhishthira’s paradigmatic struggle with the ambiguities of justice and virtue has
provided strength to all Hindus after him, including Mahatma Gandhi, who ‘was in history
- 177 -
what King Yudhishthira was in myth, the conscience of Hinduism that hungers and thirsts after
righteousness in defiance of the letter of the law of gods and men’ (Zaehner, 184-85).
It is this same dilemma which incapacitates Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita and must be
confronted by Billy Kwan and Guy Hamilton of The Year of Living Dangerously and by Mike
Langford of Highways to a War. Koch uses the common Hindu metaphor of light and
darkness, which is especially appropriate to characters who are either photographers or in
search of the truth. Mike Langford explains the essence of the photographer’s art:
—It’s all to do with light, I realize that more and more. What light does to
things: to surfaces, faces, small objects, distances. Light’s everything. Light’s
my greatest tool. What else is a camera but a light box? (HW, 79)
Billy Kwan makes this clear to the non-photographer Hamilton, who he judges despite
his lack of knowledge to be a ‘man of light’: ‘All that matters now is to know what light is, and
what darkness is’ (YLD, 236). This theme of the struggle to discover a righteous path of action
and the strength to follow it, central to both novels, is taken from the Mahabharata and
Bhagavad Gita, and as Koch maintains his affinity to relating Eastern and Western traditions,
from The Gospel According to St Luke.
The Gospels are germane to Koch’s themes, and support his assertion that Eastern and
Western traditions have more to share than might be supposed. The Gospel According to St
John, for example, treats the essence of God as the transcendental light of the cosmos:
In him was life; and the life was the light of men. And the light shineth in
darkness; and the darkness comprehended it not. (St John, 1:4-5)
The light which is not ‘comprehended’ by darkness is not that of the material world which is
surrounded by darkness, but is the eternal light of God.
That was the true Light, which lighteth every man that cometh into the world.
He was in the world, and the world was made by him, and the world knew him
not. (St John, 1:9-10)
Like the Bhagavad Gita, the Gospels are also revelation of God the creator and of his
relationship to man. The famous lines of St John put it best:
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word
was God. The same was in the beginning with God. All things were made by
- 178 -
him; and without him was not any thing made that was made. In him was life;
and the life was the light of men. (St John 1:1-4)
This can be compared to the words of Krishna to Arjuna:
But beyond my visible nature is my invisible Spirit. This is the fountain of life
whereby this universe has its being. All things have their life in this Life, and I
am their beginning and end. In this whole vast universe there is nothing higher
than I. All the worlds have their rest in me, as many pearls upon a string. I am
the taste of living waters and the light of the sun and the moon. I am OM, the
sacred word of the Vedas, sound in silence, heroism in men. (BG, 7:5-8)
The Gospels are also the stories of God born on earth as a man—an avatar. St Matthew
tells of the begetting of Jesus by the Holy Spirit: ‘Behold, a virgin shall be with child and shall
bring forth a son, and they shall call his name Emmanuel, which being interpreted is, God with
us’ (St Matthew, 1:23). The poetic John writes, ‘And the Word was made flesh, and dwelt
among us’ (St John, 1:14).
And finally, they are the tales of the clash of ancient versus modern senses of justice and
morality: Matthew writes that when Joseph discovered Mary to be with child before they had
consummated their marriage, ‘being a just man, and not willing to make her a publick example,
was minded to put her away privily’, but that ‘the angel of the Lord appeared to him in a
dream’ telling him not to fear or bow to moral convention, ‘for that which is conceived in her
is of the Holy Ghost’ (Matthew, 1:19-20). St John debunks the strong Hebrew sense of
ancestral authority in a similar way that Krishna did the Brahmanic scriptures when he writes
of the Baptist:
John bare witness of him, and cried, saying, This was he of whom I spake, he
that cometh after me is preferred before me: for he was before me. And his
fulness have all we received, and grace for grace. For the law was given by
Moses, but grace and truth came by Jesus Christ. (St John, 1:15-17)
St Mark writes of how Jesus went into the synagogue and taught on the sabbath ‘as one
that had authority’, and was scolded by ‘a man with an unclean spirit’. Jesus ordered the
unclean spirit out of the man:
And they were all amazed, insomuch that they questioned among themselves,
saying, What thing is this? What new doctrine is this? For with authority
commandeth he even the unclean spirits, and they do obey him. (St Mark,
1:21-27)
- 179 -
The story of St John the Baptist in The Gospel According to St Matthew incorporates all
of the elements of the conflicting senses of dharma. John the Baptist had been preaching to
and baptising all the people of Jerusalem and Jordan, and was surprised finally to see Pharisees
and Sadducees coming to confess their sins and be baptised. He said to these men, who
represented the ancient canon which he considered inadequate for the new kingdom which he
heralded, ‘O generation of vipers, who hath warned you to flee from the wrath to come? Bring
forth therefore fruits meet for repentance’. John warns them not to claim the authority of their
heritage, saying ‘And think not to say within yourselves, We have Abraham to our father: for I
say unto you, that God is able of these stones to raise up children unto Abraham.’ He reiterates
the closure of the ancient authority in favour of a new righteousness: ‘And now also the axe is
laid unto the root of the trees: therefore every tree which bringeth not forth good fruit is hewn
down, and cast into the fire.’ Jesus then arrives to be baptised according to Old Testament
prophecy, but once this is fulfilled the birth of God on earth is proclaimed, and the new law of
virtue and righteousness commences.
And Jesus, when he was baptized, went up straightway out of the water: and,
lo, the heavens were opened unto him, and he saw the Spirit of God
descending like a dove, and lighting upon him: And lo a voice from heaven,
saying, ‘This is my beloved son, in whom I am well pleased.’ (St Mathew,
3:1-17)
The Gospels are bringing the new covenant of God to men, which fulfils but replaces the
old covenant, and the problem of the evolution of the human sense of virtue and righteousness
was so closely paralleled in the East. While most of Koch’s structures, symbols and metaphors
are of Eastern origin, some of the most important are Western, and it is the mutual heritage of
East and West which fascinates Koch and from which he draws his messages. The shared
clash of ancient and new attitudes of universal righteousness gives meaning to Billy Kwan’s
struggles and actions. When Jesus showed himself to the Apostles after the Resurrection, he
confronted Peter three times with the question if he loved him more than the others or not,
reflecting Peter’s three denials of Jesus after his arrest. Each time Peter answers, ‘Yea, Lord;
thou knowest that I love thee’, and Jesus replies, ‘Feed my lambs’ and ‘Feed my sheep’. This
- 180 -
is the message which Billy Kwan finally gives to Sukarno. To the contrary of the scholars who
assume that Kwan was planning an assassination, this was all which was required by the will
of God. Peter already feels the brunt of Jesus’ attention, and notices how St John then asks
Jesus, ‘which is he that betrayeth thee?’, for the disciples think they should follow the law of
Moses and kill the one who betrayed Jesus. Peter asks Jesus, ‘What shall this man do?’,
offering his life in just—according to the Law of Moses—retribution. Jesus answers with a
clear, ‘If I will that he tarry till I come, what is that to thee?’ (St John 1:15-23). In other words,
it is my will that these things pass, and if you do not understand because it does not conform to
canon law or to your conception of justice, then you must simply accept them, for I am the Son
of God.
‘What shall this man do?’ parallels Mike Langford’s question as he is wondering about
his role and the motivation for his disinterest in Cambodia’s civil war. Christ’s answer to Peter
corresponds to Krishna’s Supreme Utterance, requiring action without attachment to its
consequences.
‘The whole point about my work is to stay uninvolved,’ Langford says,
convinced, however, that ‘the formula was sounding more and more feeble to me lately, and
Chandara seemed to know this. He smiled now as though I were a slow child. Mike, you are
coming to middle age like me, he said. As a Buddhist, I know it’s time to start acquiring merit.
Maybe you should know this too’ (HW, 278). As Peter must learn to follow God’s will
unquestioningly, so must Arjuna follow Krishna’s will, and Chandara Buddha’s; Langford
follows this tradition.
Koch, however, does not draw Billy Kwan’s question from Peter of The Gospel
According to St John but from St John the Baptist in The Gospel According to St Luke, which
picks up on the story told in St Matthew about the Pharisees and Sadducees who were rebuked
as unworthy by St John the Baptist. St Luke expands on the story, telling how first ‘the
multitudes’, then the ‘publicans’, then ‘soldiers’ were rebuked, and each then asked the
question which Billy Kwan asks: ‘What shall we do then?’. In answering, John lays out the
new law of justice, virtue and righteousness. To the multitudes he says, ‘He that hath two
- 181 -
coats, let him impart to him that hath none; and he that hath meat, let him do likewise’; to the
publicans, ‘Exact no more than that which is appointed you’; and to the soldiers, ‘Do violence
to no man, neither accuse any falsely; and be content with your wages’ (St Luke, 3:7-14).
8.5. Conclusion
This message of Jesus, related by the Gospels, and of Krishna, related by the
Mahabharata and the Bhagavad Gita, is also that related by Christopher J. Koch in The Year of
Living Dangerously, although, while Kwan has been repeatedly compared to Krishna, and
Hamilton to Arjuna on the authority of the author in Crossing the Gap (Koch, 1987, 25), in the
end it is Kwan, not Hamilton, who is faced with the dilemma of Arjuna, Yudhishthira and
Peter. He stands before all of those who he loves, Hamilton, Jill, his journalist colleagues,
Sukarno, and the people of Jakarta, and struggles with the decision of whether he should and
can act, and, if so, how. Should, for example, he give Ibu money, or does that only encourage
her to beg? Should he assassinate Sukarno or send him a more subtle message to ‘Feed my
sheep’—and which offers the better promise of bringing about the dramatic change Kwan
knows is necessary? Emulating Arjuna/Yudhishthira/Peter in a way no other character is
capable of, Kwan makes the choice which Krishna, St John the Baptist and Jesus Christ
demand—to make his intellectual devotion into an aggressive force of action at the centre of
his life. He gives what he can to help those who have not, and when the time comes, he gives
himself in order to relay the message of self-sacrifice. Billy must die, but he has earned life for
his soul. Another consequence of his act, as Maes-Jelinek notes, is that Hamilton’s conversion
is complete, and through this Hamilton does come to resemble Arjuna.
His grief over Billy and his anger at the horrors that are beginning to take place
in Jakarta show that he is no longer a mere spectator and that he now genuinely
cares. The loss of one eye seems to be his penalty for losing Billy, the double
or part of himself, who was also his ‘eyes’ (p. 72), and it is significant that
Hamilton is now ready to forsake a chance of recovering his eyesight in order
to make sure that he gets on the plane with Jill. (Maes-Jelinek, 33-34)
That Kwan intended to assassinate Sukarno as Koch says was the original idea, is fully
unsupported by the text, and is finally irrelevant. Maes-Jelinek argues that meaning and
resolution to the novel is to be found only in Hamilton’s conversion and in the personal
- 182 -
relationships which survive and raise the historical events to mythological status (MaesJelinek, 34). It is certainly Billy Kwan who has most strikingly gone through the terrible
personal struggle to clarify the meaning and truth of his existence. Kwan freely chooses to
fulfil his destiny when, unveiling his banner, he issues the call for the bloody upheaval whose
first days bring the novel and the Sukarno-era to an end.
Following the hybrid model which reflects his own multi-cultural self, Kwan’s act is
taken with the same profound faith in dharma felt by Yudhisthira, with the subtle sense of
sacrificing one’s will to that of God’s demanded by Christ, and with the aloofness to the
consequences that Arjuna must accept as he orders the opposing armies to the historic battle
which is to destroy India’s ancient feudal order and usher in the Kali-Yuga, the beginning of
the end of time. And yet, without his hybridisation with Guy Hamilton none of this would
have been possible. In this sense, the whole argument as to who represents Arjuna and who
Krishna is moot. Doubleness is one of Koch’s favorite themes, and will therefore be explored,
along with d’Alpuget’s similar development of the topic in Monkey’s in the Dark, more closely
in chapter 11.
- 183 -
The Divine Feminine
9.1. Introduction
The problem discussed in the preceeding chapter of how to act and think in order to
relieve onself of the suffering of the world has always been a—a Buddhist would say the—
driving force of human culture. This chapter is devoted to Koch’s shaping of the divine
feminine, the universal metaphor of man’s desire and hope, without which one cannot
understand his development of the symbols of the masks covering the human personality or of
the complementary antagonism of the double worlds, concepts which are discussed in the
following chapters. It begins with a look at the potential it offered Koch in his hope for reenchantment of contemporary culture. Then, after a closer study of the Indian goddesses, it
will describe Koch’s interpretation of these figures in his novels.
9.2. C. J. Koch’s Fascination with the Divine Feminine
In Koch’s ontology Asia personifies the feminine forces of the universe—the nurturing
mother, faithful wife, inspired sister, relentless seducer, and wicked usurper of masculine roles
and prerogatives. This could be construed as rewarmed Orientalist stereotyping, but Koch is
drawing on and trying to reassemble ancient associations between the earth and various forms
of the Mother Goddess which are at the root of both Eastern and Western cultural traditions,
but which have grown infirm in the West. He says that he was fascinated by ‘the mysteries
and frenzies’ of the Greek god Dionysus, associated with vegetation, warm moisture and wine,
but that ‘the mythology surrounding Hinduism’s great goddess became more rewarding than
anything in the Greco-Roman pantheon’ (Koch, 1987, 12). Koch also found that the figure of
Mary, in spite of her mystery of love and intercession for the entire human race, ‘left the
Western poetic imagination somewhat deprived’ by forcing out the older earth goddess whose
love and nurturing for man was compensated with blood sacrifice (Koch, 1987, 11). He was
especially looking for a vehicle to express his concern with the cultural, spiritual and
psychological dualities which blur and invert modern man’s perceptions and actions. Dionysus
may have been interesting for his double birth, but Koch writes, ‘In Hinduism, I had found for
- 184 -
the purposes of metaphor and symbol an entire system based on such dualities, personified by
that figure who endlessly dances’ (Koch, 1987, 12).
By ‘that figure’ Koch is primarily talking about Kali, an aspect of the Hindu divine
feminine, which is the female aspect of the god Shiva, who is ‘the cosmic dancer, the divine
lord of destruction’ and ‘model of ascetic fervor’, the archetype of the ‘frantic lover and
faithful spouse’. Devotion to Shiva is directed to his
dynamism—this torrential cosmic stream of fleeting evolutions, which is
continually producing and wiping out individual existences (this Niagara, of
which we are the drops), as it seethes in a roaring, tremendous foam (Zimmer,
1969, 351).
Kali is Shiva’s ‘eternal female counterpart, his projected energy’, who arouses him ‘from the
timeless contemplation of his own innermost spiritual luminosity’ to act as destroyer and
creator of the universe (Zimmer, 1969, 141).
This turn to Eastern mythical symbols was entirely appropriate for an Australian writer
fascinated with the demise of the British empire and the West’s cultural system. Koch writes
that he regretted the loss of the European divine feminine, but found that she could be more
easily replaced than resuscitated:
Once as omnipresent as Durga, with names just a various and mysterious, the
ancient triple moon goddess of Europe was now a set of figments; she had
been reduced to a collection of artefacts in museums, however eloquently
Robert Graves might plead for her return. But a very different situation existed
in India. There, I found, she was part of a living culture; and discovering her
had the impact of the truly strange, and the force of unconscious recognition.
She was woman as the incarnation of time and flux and destiny: the Indian
counterpart of the White Lady we have banished from our days, but who still
haunts our sleep. She was one of those whom the Australian Aborigines have
so memorably described as the Eternal Ones of the Dream. (Koch, 1987, 9)
Koch has not abandoned the ‘White Lady’ of Western tradition. He makes repeated allusions
to E. M. Forster’s Passage to India, for example, which provides important thematic models to
Koch, being, as Marjorie McCormick notes, ‘much about the cycles of history and the
possibilities of new life’. There are the Marabar caves,
a primeval womb, the reflections of a match light the first conception, birth,
and death: ‘the two flames approach and strive to unite … the radiance
increases, the flames touch one another, kiss, expire’ (PI 125). The eternal
- 185 -
cycles of life constitute the pervasive metaphor of this novel (McCormack,
171-72).
And there is Mrs. Moore who, as the novel’s personification of the Great Mother Goddess,
focuses those cycles of life in the present and ‘is able to accept the strong whispers of death
that accompany life, even to rejoice in them as necessary aspects of the same process’
(McCormack, 173). All of these are, however, heavily outnumbered by the Eastern archetypes
as Koch, the personification of eclecticism, has gathered unto himself many metaphors,
symbols and myths of East as well as West to compose his new mythology.
Kali appears in some form in all of Koch’s Asian novels. As ‘Ferry across the Ocean of
Existence, womb and tomb, protectress and destroyer, eternal dancer’, she is perhaps the most
pivotal of Koch’s borrowings from Eastern tradition.
All the shifting subtleties of Hindu thought and vision proved to be embodied
in this entity; and her cosmic dance, or ‘play’ as Ramakrishna called it, could
bring pain and joy to humans with equal indifference, since the life force
knows no morality, and is of double aspect. (Koch, 1987, 10)
Koch’s divine feminine is on one level the beautiful and seductive figure who lures men
to their destruction—like the Sirens of Greek mythology. Koch plays teasingly with the
allusion in The Year of Living Dangerously, where ‘the wailing of Sukarno’s sirens’ (YLD,
269) refers literally to the warning sounds of Sukarno’s motorcade as he makes his way
through the city to visit his girlfriends, and figuratively to the lament of the Sirens—his
beautiful Japanese bargirl and other wives, consorts, and indeed all of the feminine land of
Indonesia—who have seduced Sukarno, the romantic, idealistic revolutionary poet-hero, into
being their Judistira, the mythical ‘Just Ruler’. Apotheosis as the incarnated Javanese GodKing goes beyond human competence, however, and its excesses have proved to be Sukarno’s
undoing.
In Across the Sea Wall, the young, innocent and conventional Robert O’Brien breaks the
mould cast for him within the ‘Australian Way of Life’ by running away into beautiful and
erratic Asia with the beautiful and erratic Ilsa Kalnins. Koch wrote that Ilsa was ‘a woman too
alien, too flamboyant, too much of a troubled spirit’ for the limited and unformed young
- 186 -
Australian to cope with (Koch, 1987, 12), a description which could be applied to India as
well.
O’Brien had no intention of going to India—he was indeed running away from
Australia, but only for the traditional Aussi pilgrimage to ancestral Europe in search of
adventure and identity. Yet, he is carried away by the exotic enticements of India and Ilsa. He
is enthralled by India’s (and Ilsa’s) beauty, intrigued by its sense of self and spirituality,
shocked by its poverty, oppressed by its heat, and finally physically overcome by its tropical
diseases. He finds himself incapable of leaving India or Ilsa, even to save his life, and would
surely die there if not brought finally into the mountains to recuperate in the cool, pure air
outside the reach of the beggars and the overcrowded, aggressive life of the lowlands, and out
of the reach of Ilsa.
The mountains are the realm of the gods, especially of Shiva, who retreats there to
accumulate sakti, life force, and of his consort and alter ego, the goddess Parvati, the universal
mother aspect of the divine feminine. Together Shiva—with Brahma and Vishnu, one of the
three supreme gods in the Hindu iconography—and Parvati—a complex personality with many
faces and roles—are manifestations of the cyclical force of destruction and re-creation. This
cycle is elemental to Asian philosophies, as it was to many, especially ancient, pre-Christian,
and medieval, Western philosophies before being overwhelmed by the linear Christian and
Darwinist concepts of cosmic development. It is experiencing a resurgence in many postmodern philosophies in the West, including those described in David Tacey’s The Edge of the
Sacred, reacting against the modernist vision of the bleak oblivion at the logical conclusion of
a human history which lacks the hope of deviating from an abysmal progression into
desolation. Christopher Koch is taking an active part in articulating a new, particularly
Australian form of the circular course of history.
The universal, divine mother figure reappears in Koch’s Indonesian landscape, which is
idealised as a land of milk and honey. When Hamilton ventures into the Javanese highlands,
he finds ‘a vast patchwork of lawn-green and gold rice fields, like the parklands of a wayang
- 187 -
prince’, where the brilliant panorama of colour, ‘violet, marching volcanoes, jade paddy fields,
orange flame trees’ are more vivid than in any natural world. This, however, is a Paradise on
the surface; just underneath—or, to continue with the Alice metaphor, on the other side of that
mirror-thin surface—lies Hell. Even the uninitiated Hamilton perceives the duality of the
countryside, where
girls clothed like butterflies swung crescent-shaped knives, harvesting; and
they palmed these knives discreetly, so as not to offend Dewi Sri, the Goddess
of Rice.
Covert violence, he knew, was stitched into every acre of this tapestry of
peace. (YLD, 198-199)
There is no contradiction posed by the polarity in this scene.
Such subjective
judgements as to good and evil are tendencies of Western relativism, whereas in Asian
philosophy violence is an integral part of the harvest which provides nourishment for all
humanity. This is perhaps the most striking point of divergence between the Sirens of Greek
mythology and their Asian cousins. The explanation for the divergence is found in the
essential Asian concept of the relationship between the goddess and the cycle of creation and
destruction:
As Saraswati she is the symbol of learning and culture. In her manifestation as
Laksmi she represents good fortune, wealth and luxury. When she is Kali or
Durga people both fear and respect her. In this aspect she is capable of great
vengeance against those who would cross her. Kali demands blood sacrifices
to symbolize her strength as the arch enemy of the demons. As Sitala the
goddess is able to either cause or cure diseases, particularly smallpox and
cholera. Then there are the many small gramdevis (village goddesses) found
in most Indian villages. Here the goddess is mother of her people, protecting
India’s vulnerable villages from enemies and natural disasters. (Preston, 10)
Koch’s profound concern with the divine feminine stems from his search for a new
mythology which will reconcile the real, scientific world man has built and the sense of
cultural identity which he can only find in his civilisation. In this, Koch shares the thinking of
Northrop Frye, who writes that man is continuously creating a second, mythical world out of
his environment. This ‘is where our values and desires and hopes and ideals belong, and this
world is always geocentric, always anthropocentric, always centered on man and man’s
- 188 -
concerns’ (Frye, 88-89). A central figure in the hopes and desires of human culture has always
been the divine feminine.
9.3. Parvati and Durga: Good Wife, Nourishing Mother, Formidable Protectress
The Eastern counterpart of the West’s mythological female figures, from
Venus/Aphrodite to the Sirens to Medusa and the Amazons, is the formidable Indian goddess,
known as Parvati in her primary, ideal mother figure. Parvati was created by the gods to
seduce the reclusive god Shiva out of his ascetic withdrawal in order to engender a child who
would be able to defeat a demon who had usurped the gods’ power. Shiva later asked Parvati
to kill another demon named Durga, who threatened the world. This act established her
reputation as a powerful warrior goddess, and also earned her the name of her vanquished foe.
As a manifestation of one aspect of the universal mother’s personality, the role of Durga, a
female warrior of superior power created to deal with a cosmic crisis, is illuminated in the most
famous story of her origin.
A demon, Mahisa, was promised a boon by the gods for
performing heroic deeds. Mahisa demanded invincibility against any male, and then, in a
common theme in the Hindu texts, proceeded to defeat the gods and usurp the power of the
universe. The gods then created Durga out of the ‘fiery energies’ of their collective anger:
This great mass of light and strength congealed into the body of a beautiful
woman, whose splendor spread through the universe. The parts of her body
were formed from the male gods. Her face was formed from Shiva, her hair
from Yama, her arms from Vishnu, and so on. Similarly, each of the male
deities from whom she had been created gave her a weapon. Shiva gave her
his trident, Vishnu gave her his cakra (a discus-like weapon), Vayu his bow
and arrows, and so on. Equipped by the gods and supplied by the god
Himalaya with a lion as her vehicle, Durga, the embodied strength of the gods,
then roared mightily, causing the earth to shake. (Kinsley, 96-97)
Thus equipped, Durga proceeds to slay Mahisa, who can hardly believe that a woman is
capable of anything but love. This magnificent goddess of irresistible might is also sexually
irresistible to her adversaries. Like Mahisa, they are typically enamoured with her, do not
expect her to be their match in battle, and offer marriage to her as they are lured to their deaths,
just as the seafarers are helplessly drawn onto the rocks by the Greek Sirens.
- 189 -
An important element in the relevance of Durga to the Australian experience—and the
major distinction with the Sirens, who were never more than fringe elements in the Greek
mythology—is in this supremacy of a female goddess in a male-dominated cosmos. The
Aryans who moved into India were already a paternalistic society, and the warrior goddess
Durga seems to come out of the pre-Aryan cultures, and to have subsisted on the fringes of
Aryan establishment throughout the millennia of Aryan supremacy. She developed as a wild
goddess associated with such non-Aryan practices as drinking liquor and blood, and eating
meat. Yet, she was incorporated into the establishment pantheon in medieval Hinduism, where
she became something of a female version of Vishnu, protecting the cosmos and order of truth
from demons, who are manifestations of ignorance and darkness. Durga then carried on the
old matriarchal tradition, ‘which eventually leavened the male-dominated Vedic pantheon with
several goddesses associated with power, blood, and battle’ (Kinsley, 96).
This would make Durga an excellent candidate for the restoration, described by Tacey,
of the divine feminine to a role it had in many prehistoric Caucasian societies. This is
particularly true in Australia, where the patriarchal forces in society have held sway through
the two centuries of European experience there but exist alongside the Aboriginal societies
which have maintained strong matriarchal customs and myths. Koch is breaking out of the
stereotypical mode of such as Henry Handle Richardson’s Polly, who is representative of many
Australian women in that she is the de facto dominant personality in her household in The
Fortunes of Richard Mahoney, but who respects the conventional female role by deferring to
her far weaker husband, and letting him pretend that her good counsel is his own. Polly does
resemble Parvati in as far as she is a nourishing mother, a faithful wife, and, figuratively at
least, an inspired sister, but being strong-willed, industrious and discrete are qualities of such a
thoroughly Western colonial woman. She is no seducer, and, strong as she is, Polly hardly has
any personality at all separate from that which is defined by her home, her husband, and the
patriarchal society in which she lives. Accomplishing her heroic victories without the help or
protection of a male deity, Durga stands in challenge to this Western stereotype (whose
- 190 -
correspondent is nevertheless imposed on the woman in Hindu society). Durga does not
perform household duties, is not submissive to a man, and excels in the traditional male
domain of battle.
9.4. Kali: the Great Dancer of Creation and Destruction
The third important manifestation of the Eastern divine feminine is Kali. Parvati is
sometimes called Kali, ‘the dark one’, because of her dark complexion. Parvati, Kali and
Durga are treated separately in the Hindu texts, yet the three are taken as manifestations of the
same goddess. Parvati is the universal mother, Durga, her warrior-queen aspect, and Kali, her
especially ferocious guise as cosmic guardian. In Across the Sea Wall, the Indian, Sunder, who
accompanies O’Brien and Ilsa into India, describes Kali in terms familiar to descriptions of
Parvati and Durga, but he stresses emphatically the vicious mask of this embodiment of the
universal mother. He says that Kali is
the cruelest of all—and yet she’s an aspect of Shiva, who’s good. She’s his
female aspect, you see: she’s the power of creation. But she’s also action; and
action can mean mischief. Kali doesn’t care: joyful action or destruction, it’s
all the same to her; it’s life, and life is Kali’s dance. She wears a necklace of
skulls, and her dance never ends: she’s the goddess of Time, she’s the
destroyer, and yet her worshippers pray to her for children and protection.
She’s mother as well as destroyer, you see (ASW, 72).
The personification of Parvati’s wrath, Kali, whose name means ‘black’, is indeed blackskinned, either goes naked or wearing only a tiger or elephant skin and a garland of human
heads, and wields a skull-topped staff. Though sometimes described, like Parvati, as beautiful,
Kali is often depicted as a wild animal,
gaunt, with sunken eyes, gaping mouth, and lolling tongue. She roars loudly
and leaps into the battle, where she tears demons apart with her hands and
crushes them in her jaws (Kinsley, 118).
The bloodthirstiness of Kali is an especially important quality of the Asian concept of the
divine feminine. In one story, Durga is fighting a demon but finds that every time she wounds
him the drops of his blood falling to the ground turn into duplicates of him. Durga is stymied
by this quickly multiplying adversary until Kali springs from her forehead, sucks the demon’s
body dry of blood, then gobbles up all of his duplicates (Kinsley, 118).
- 191 -
This becomes Koch’s most terrifying visualisation of the universal order overthrown. It
is midnight, Tengah Malam, the time of the reign of the black forces. Kali is a force for
universal stability, but is known to become so intoxicated with the blood of demons that she
threatens the entire world, and must be calmed by Shiva. This bloodthirstiness is extremely
antithetical to civilised Hindu society, and so Kali is closely associated with the lower castes
and with those who live outside civilised areas. Her temples are built outside of towns and
villages or near cremation grounds. In The Year of Living Dangerously, the domain of the
goddess Christopher Koch honours by calling her Maha-Kali, ‘Great Kali’, is the cemetery,
and her blood-lust, whetted by the killing of the Communist demons, must be quenched with
innocent blood before she ceases her dance of death:
Out there, at this deepest hour of night, Maha-Kali dances: she of many names,
all of which mean Time.
In a few more weeks she will caper in the paddy fields of Java …She
will have blood enough then to suit her …. First the PKI will be hunted down;
then, as the lust of Durga takes hold, the Indonesian Chinese; then, anyone
with whom one has a score to pay—man, woman, or child.
… In circles of lanterns in the paddy fields at night, the cane-knives will
chop and chop at figures tied to trees; and trucks will carry loads of human
heads—all pleasing to the dancer at the cemetery. (YLD, 293)
David Tacey discusses the Australian sense of the significance of blood in spiritual
renewal. The new spirit he heralds is scarlet with the blood of instinct, passion and sacrifice of
Australian heroes and villains alike. Mike Langford, Guy Hamilton, and Billy Kwan follow in
a long line of Australian heroes who must give blood to satisfy this spirit.
Sacrifices to the other in whichever form we acknowledge it must be made by
the living. We will have to sacrifice our pride, our arrogance, our hubris,
before the old spirit can be allowed to merge with nature and revivify the
natural world. (Tacey, 206)
Guy Hamilton gets off with the sacrifice of one eye, but is only beginning his spiritual ‘reenchantment’. Billy Kwan almost seems to know more will be expected of him, terrified as he
is of the cemetery and Kali’s presence there which makes it the symbol of everything which
torments him:
Her presence in the graveyard confronts us with our own death and loneliness,
the pain and suffering of all creatures, the violence and spitefulness of human
beings, and the piteous condition of all created existence. (Koller, 237)
- 192 -
Yet, Kwan is described as if entering paradise when he sacrifices his life to Kali’s ravenous
thirst for blood (YLD, 248). Ray Barton claims that Langford, after his journey through the
Land of Dis and into the hellish Kampuchea of the Khmer Rouge which ends with his
crucifixion, has reached ‘home’ (HW, 451), signifying clearly a form of spiritual renewal
which, in the Eastern terms Koch is working with, includes not only himself but the entire
created cosmos.
9.5. Ilsa Kalnins’ Micro-Cosmic Dance
Ilsa Kalnins professes undying love for Robert O’Brien in Across the Sea Wall, but he
expects only something more docile like that given by Polly to Richard Mahoney. Instead, he
finds a mutative double-woman, both creative and destructive, passionate and violent, male
and female. She can be Parvati, the Protectress and good wife, and this is what she offers him
at the novel’s end (ASW, 140), but as her name, Kalnins, indicates, she is often Kali. She is the
‘Maternal whore, loose in the universe, her destruction and creation all play’. When she makes
love to O’Brien, she is ‘impaled in triumphant intercourse’ (ASW, 114) sitting astride him, who
is but the ‘pale’ consort (Cowie, 86). Michael, Ilsa’s dance manager who brings him to the
mountains to recuperate, makes sure there can be no misunderstanding who Ilsa is: ‘She is a
woman who roams the world like a warrior. She is a creature whose sex is both powerful and
weak: she is both female and male’ (ASW, 129).
O’Brien observes Ilsa sleeping beside him; perceiving her according to the Orientalist
stereotypes which are natural to him. She is the very image of the exotic and unknown, and he
senses so many of the discrepancies in her and yet is not consciously aware just how deep the
waters are on the other side of the sea wall he has been preparing to cross:
He stared at her sleeping face, as he so often did, half expecting it to be
simplified into innocence. Smooth, unlined, youthfully puffed with sleep, it
looked more foreign in unconsciousness—more Russian. And it baffled him
by appearing childish, but not innocent; female, but not feminine. It was
essentially harsh, this smooth face; he could imagine it cynically and
phlegmatically contemplating violence and killing; and perhaps it had, since
she had gone through the war. She was so alien to him! The thrust of her lips,
the slant of her eyes, were almost brutal. But he loved her, as she slept; what
he felt now was perhaps simple enough to be given that name. (ASW, 88)
- 193 -
This woman of contradictions embodies all of O’Brien’s fantasies of the ‘Otherworld’. She is
Parvati, Durga and Kali all at once, the mother, warrior and destroyer, and, whether he like it
or not, to her he is instinctively, uncontrollably drawn. O’Brien finds repelling contradictions
in the mother-protector figure. Though her breasts ache with milk, she has deserted her child,
and is, in O’Brien’s view, sickly sentimental and capable of great cruelty (Tiffin, 1982, 330).
Both Ilsa and Kali combine contradictory traits into one irresistible personality, which
seems to offer to O’Brien what a more Western figure, built on concepts of ‘polar opposites’,
cannot, namely to ‘reconcile contradictory attitudes in the colonial that fret him’. Ilsa is, like
Kali, a dancer whose dance is the lila of creation and destruction. They are both weavers ‘of a
world of magic illusion’—maya, in Hindu terms, the illusion which is the created cosmos.
Yet, as O’Brien learns, Ilsa is best seen as the European goddess who dances an illusion which
no longer suits his world:
In the colonial imagination Europe dances before the colonial to weave the
illusion of its reality that in one sense renders the colonial’s own world a world
of shadows. (Tiffin, 1982, 331)
Ilsa’s dance destroys the illusion of their ‘marriage’ when he tries to forbid her to perform a
strip-tease, but Ilsa’s identity-shirking irritates the identity-seeking O’Brien far more deeply
than that. Kali is associated with akasa, a concept Koch mentions in Crossing the Gap. He
writes of discovering Kali’s ‘identification with infinity: akasa, the void’, a dualistic concept
which he puts among ‘the fullest revelation of her mysteries’ (Koch, 1987, 8). Akasa has a
double sense in Sanskrit.
It is ‘an all-comprehending container, enclosing not only the
universe (loka), but also the non-universe (aloka)’ (Zimmer, 1969, 270). It is also the ‘brilliant
spiritual space’ which ‘abides within’ the individual self, and contributes to the shared identity
between the individual and the ‘pure Self’ (Zimmer, 1969, 430). Helen Tiffin points out that
naïve O’Brien has doubts about his venture into the world, and is ‘terrified of the striptease
which will expose the void in his idea of existence’ (Tiffin, 1982, 332).
Koch is mixing his mythological symbols in Ilsa, who, as the abandoned European
goddess, is ironically representative of the European culture which has abandoned Australia.
- 194 -
O’Brien unwillingly discovers through Ilsa that he cannot find his identity in Europe, which
has lost its ability to nurture, protect and discipline its children, but finds that in India the
powerful goddess lives:
Though he literally drinks the milk from her breasts, he can neither absorb the
magic experience from her nor find the security that image might suggest.
Europe has rejected her ‘children’ and can never supply the maternal security
her colonials expect even as they rebel against being mothered by her. (Tiffin,
1982, 330)
O’Brien eventually realises that Ilsa is incapable of the love he believes he needs and
that she is doomed to remain forever a person on the fringe of society. Ilsa, the East European
war refugee, is living the life of an avant-garde artist though she manages it by performing
barely above the level of a whore. This is Koch’s intriguing image of the European divine
feminine, who so very closely corresponds to the Hindu goddess of creation and destruction
but who has been rejected by Western culture.
9.6. Ly Keang, Koch’s Female Warrior
Ly Keang of Highways to a War fits Durga’s solitary female warrior image far better
than any of the other female characters in Koch’s novels, but also retains Western aspects of
the divine feminine. She takes Mike Langford as her lover, gaining from him access to the war
otherwise denied to women, and giving him new access to the profound feelings of love he had
long since repressed. She is the very epitome of projected energy, but is believed by Volkov to
have been a virgin until her relationship with Langford. When Langford begins thinking about
marriage and children, a life which would be antithetical to his own chosen path in life as well
as hers, Keang rebukes him. Kinsley, noting how Durga does not stand in support of any man,
provides a clue to Ly Keang’s intransigence:
Durga does not lend her power or sakti to a male consort but rather takes
power from the male gods in order to perform her own heroic exploits. They
give up their inner strength, fire, and heat to create her and in so doing
surrender their potency to her. (Kinsley, 97)
Keang gains her power through her relationships, and alters the behaviour of her men.
Like Ilsa Kalnins, Keang lives outside social norms and, at a time when everyone else is
becoming despondent about the crumbling situation in Cambodia, provides a vision of reality
- 195 -
which, corresponding precisely to a Kinsley description of Durga, is ‘refreshing and socially
invigorating’ (Kinsley, 99). Volkov calls her ‘a young woman of spirit, who will do anything’
(HW, 266), and she has a reputation of always maintaining a light-hearted attitude in spite of
the dire circumstances of her country. Keang becomes the alter ego to Langford, releasing him
from his inhibitions, as Madame Phan puts it, ‘to commence living the life you were meant for'
(HW, 129). This is the role Parvati/Durga plays for Shiva, and like Parvati and Koch’s other
Parvati figures, Ly Keang does not allow Langford either to draw on her power or to alter her
behaviour. Nevertheless, Koch has written more Eastern symbolism into Keang’s character,
and she will be further discussed in following sections.
9.7. Dream, Sleep and the Creative Act
The Asian feminine figure, like Keang who induces Langford finally to take up arms in
the fight against the Khmer Rouge, performs this complementary role to the male, without
which he would be unable to act. Another version from Hindu mythology of the origin of
Durga is that she arises from the god Vishnu ‘as the power that makes him sleep or as his
magical, creative power’. When the cosmos is threatened by two powerful demons, the god
Brahma orders her to leave the sleeping Vishnu so that he will awake and defeat the demons
(Kinsley, 96). This Hindu association between dream and creative power, along with the other
dichotomous concepts germane to the divine feminine in both East and West—of time and
eternity, death and rebirth, destruction and re-creation—underpins Koch’s vision of the world.
The feminine figure is integral to the masculine figure in a yin-yang relationship
whereby the feminine represents the active, creative power of dream and sleep. Parvati is the
kinetic force, the sakti, the projected energy, of the ascetic male figure, Shiva, who would
remain secluded in his mountain retreat and meditate, a static force, building up and retaining
his energy. The world would literally run out of steam except for the will of Parvati, who
entices him to come out into the world and perform his dance of creation. Joseph Campbell
writes of this essential division, which he compares to the biblical metaphor of Eve as Adam’s
rib, in his editorial note to Philosophies of India:
- 196 -
Male and female, god and goddess, are the polar manifestations (passive and
active, respectively) of a single transcendent principle and, as such, in essence
one, though in appearance two. The male is identified with eternity, the female
with time, and their embrace with the mystery of creation (Zimmer, 1969,
62n).
Billy Kwan remarks how Arjuna, like Shiva or any yogi, builds up his ‘spirit power’—
his sakti—through meditation, and that this causes ‘a turmoil in nature’ (YLD, 81). Without the
ordering effects of the female counterpart to the male figure, the turmoil would be merely
destructive and not preparatory to re-creation. The ‘dancer at the cemetery’ performs a
cathartic dance which is necessary to transform the restrained masculine heat and energy
through the workings of feminine Time, the destroyer, into a creative act. This explains the
genesis of the goddess Durga out of the heat and light of Vishnu, as well as many of the subtle,
ambiguous images in Koch’s novels.
So long as the feminine part inhabits the psyche, the ‘owner’ of the psyche—to use a
Hindu manner of expressing the concept roughly equivalent to that which the West would call
the ‘person’, but with all the masking elements of the ‘persona’ removed—will remain passive
and contemplative. As in the case of Durga leaving the psyche of Vishnu so that he will
awaken, or of Parvati manifesting herself to provoke Shiva out of his ascetic meditations, the
feminine element of the psyche must separate itself from the masculine element in order to
serve its role as the provocative force in the personality. Only under such influence of the
expressed feminine element will the masculine figure sway from his endless—and eventually
dangerous—building up of passive psychic energy.
Ly Keang plays the Durga role for Mike Langford. She is unmarried, though already
rather old for a single Cambodian woman, so that she can fight against the Khmer Rouge and
gain revenge for their murder of her father (HW, 376). This also permits her to entice
Langford out of his journalistic indifference to active participation in the war.
The feminine figure who projects the pent up energy of Billy Kwan and provokes him to
act is Ibu, the poor, illiterate woman who lures him into the Pasar Baru. This is the shadowy,
indigenous quarter which is described in wayang kulit terms, endowing it with the wayang’s
- 197 -
magic and mystery, where the ‘gamalan music runs on in the steady heat, and the shadows of
the card-players on the plank walkway loom to giant size, sway alarmingly, or flatten into
nothing’ (YLD, 126). Billy calls Ibu ‘a nullity—a vacuum’, when he describes her total,
oblivious lack of attachment to the world, yet he simultaneously recognises the feminine ideal
in her connected with akasa, the ‘void’, saying ‘with what dignity she holds herself together
around that vacuum’(YLD, 129). Cookie describes photos Billy took of Ibu, including one
‘touching and strangely awe-inspiring, shot against the hut’s dark interior, and lit from below’.
She is ‘entirely Asian, more Indian than Indonesian, uncannily like a piece of Hindu temple
sculpture: a stone female divinity’. The image is possessed by an eerie double spirit, a
synthesis of alus and kasar qualities, of good and evil, of life and death, which only from a
Western perspective would be called ironic. Its ‘offered breast looks ponderous enough for
stone, and the sickly infant, its eyes closed, appears to be swooning away from the black fruit
of the nipple as though from an abundance it cannot bear’ (YLD, 127). Billy has written below
this picture, ‘Ibu is Durga incarnate: she is life’ (YLD, 128).
As creation is linked with destruction, so Durga, who Billy calls life, is also the ‘Black
goddess’ of death. This Ibu/Durga figure is the motivation for Billy to transform thought into
force. That the provoked act is necessarily going to be both creative and destructive is
essential to Eastern images, and is further reflected in its goddesses, who are, depending on the
flow of time, either associated with the earth, fertility and beauty, or death, destruction and
ugliness.
9.8. Vera: Billy Kwan’s White Sister of Bliss and Disorder
In The Year of Living Dangerously, the Russian Vera Chostiakov is a sort of Cold War
version of Durga, worked in the materials of a wayang puppet. She has the shadow-puppet
features of a short upper lip which almost disappears under her narrow, elongated nose,
emphatic cheek-bones, a pointed chin, projecting ears, and an unusually thin neck (YLD, 16263). When she visits Hamilton in his hotel room in Bandung, her face grows ‘smaller and
smaller, until it was the size of a tennis ball’, and then grows ‘immensely large’ (YLD, 209), a
- 198 -
characteristic technique of the wayang kulit created by changing the puppet’s relative position
between the screen and light source. Hamilton imagines she has drugged him, though he is
perhaps only exhausted and exhilarated after his scrape with death while covering the PKI’s
Long March. He takes this scene as coming out of a James Bond spy novel, and expects to be
tortured by Vera’s chauffeur. This fits Hamilton’s view of the world, but heightens the farcical
aspects of what is very much in the comical style of the wayang or an adventure in
Wonderland. This clown-figure also resembles a mischievous Javanese or Celtic spirit, or a
Shakespearean Puck whose ‘unsexing, skull-like’ bathing cap ‘emphasised the pixy mask of
malicious amusement’ (YLD, 170).
Her Asian eyes, however, are not an earthy, Celtic tone like the green leprechaun eyes
which give Billy Kwan a warmness his physical presence otherwise lacks, but are ‘blank as
glass’, a distinctive characteristic of the ‘Other’ shared with the Indonesians. Her laughter
after nearly drowning Hamilton is sadistic and ‘distorted her face so that she became almost
ugly’. Her long hair falls in ‘switches’. Her unshaved arms repel Hamilton, who calls them
‘nests of copper hair’ (YLD, 170), as if she were a Medusa, harbouring in the murky, green
water broods of copperhead snakes.
Vera is, however, far more dangerous and complex than Medusa. She is white like
Alice’s White Rabbit, yet referred to by Cookie as a ‘shadow’ (YLD, 210). She recalls Ilsa of
Across the Sea Wall in her overwhelming attractive force. It is this Siren-like quality which
closely associates her with the bronze nymph of the Oasis pool which appears to Hamilton
with a ‘dreamlike effect’ as he is pulling hard to keep up in a race with Colonel Henderson.
Hamilton sees this green bronze nymph, a symbol of the Asian women who are idealised for
their elegance, dignity and creative strength, sitting on the end of the pool, watching him along
with the crowd, urging the swimmers on, not yet showing her cane knife of fertility and death.
Kwan plumbs the depth of these recondite symbols, writing of Vera: ‘It’s a daughter of
Durga! Every line of that body (corpse-white, as those of the red-haired always are) betrays a
daughter of the Drinker of Blood’ (YLD, 183). The Black Goddess is the ultimate creative,
- 199 -
maternal force in Hindu philosophy, and is comparable to the Black Madonna of Christianity,
who identified her universal pre-eminence in her appearance in Guadeloupe saying not that she
is the mother of Christ but the mother of God. This is an extremely powerful symbol in both
Eastern and Western traditions, and working with the Asian concept of reality, whose
circularity requires destruction alongside re-creation, Billy Kwan can play with both images of
Durga, in one breath calling her ‘Night of Doomsday’ and in another saying ‘she is life’.
Just what Billy makes out of Vera Chostiakov is much more straightforward, and by the
‘red-haired’ Billy surely means the Russians. Billy’s hatred of Communists is no secret. The
only red-haired character in the novel is the degenerate Canadian, Pete Curtis, who merits
Billy’s charge of ‘sad lechery’ (YLD, 183). Vera represents elements of both to Billy—a
Communist and sexual rival of his Jill Bryant. The ‘Drinker of Blood’ image is somewhat
more problematic.
It could refer to many societies who have practised blood sacrifice,
including any of the old, Western societies like the Aryans, who moved into India 3000 years
ago, or the Thugs, the radical, secretive cult devoted to Durga, but also including the mystical
sacrifice of the Christian churches, including the Roman Catholic and Russian Orthodox
churches. Equally ambiguous is the verb ‘betrays’. ‘To reveal against one’s desire or will’
seems to fit the context of identifying just who Vera really is. ‘To lead astray; deceive’ is,
nevertheless, neither ungrammatical nor senseless, and in this case the Drinker of Blood would
be Jill Bryant, idealised as the good, Christian, Anglo-Saxon girl. One would have to ascertain
which mask Billy (or Christopher Koch) was wearing when he wrote this entry to discover his
meanings. A hint may be that at the end Billy’s hope, for Indonesia at least, lies in the triumph
of the Moslems. And yet, Vera does serve the tangled actions of Durga. Billy’s dossier entry,
Durga! Uma! Kali! You of many names: Time, and Sleep, and the Night of
Doomsday! You who offer bliss, and dark disorder! You who soothe our
fears, but put them back! You who doom us even with your play! Swollen
world-nurse! Hag of death! Dance your fearsome lila! (YLD, 183),
is a glorification of Durga, not an attack against her. Billy expresses clearly his fear of the
‘corpse-white’ Vera who puts Jill Bryant’s happiness at risk, but, as ‘a daughter of Durga’, he
- 200 -
must understand Vera’s role in Durga’s complex pursuit of purposes which are his own—
destroying the old, cold Hamilton, and creating the new, loving one.
Hamilton does not know quite how to react to Vera, and lets himself be drawn to this
mysterious female. While Hamilton and Kumar talk at poolside, Vera retreats for some
solitary meditation. Then, when Kumar goes in for his nap, she dives into the dark water of the
pool. When she does not resurface, Hamilton finally becomes alarmed, and dives in after her.
He finds her ‘hanging limply in the green’, as if she had become part of the aquatic vegetation
of the unkempt colonial-era pool, goes to take her arm and pull her up. Vera suddenly rolls
over toward him ‘like a thing in a dream’, opens her eyes and widely smiles. Then, again like
a snake, ‘uncoiling her white length’, she kicks back to the surface. He follows, only to find
himself held under firmly by the hair. Badly needing air, he seizes her wrist with all his force
and frees himself. Vera then proceeds to make Hamilton feel guilty for reacting forcefully to
her ‘joke’, and, reaching up to hold him in a clear gesture of sexual invitation, she proposes
that they meet later in Jakarta.
Vera finally remains an enigmatic figure.
As an image of Durga/Kali, the Black
Goddess who is continuously dancing creation and destruction, she awakening in Hamilton a
lust for life he has repressed, yet leading him away from Jill Bryant and down a road filled
with the risk he relishes. She can also be described as the White Rabbit who piques in
Hamilton the curiosity to follow her down the hole into her Wonderland. In fact, the dream
which is so important to his psychological development, involving the Wonderlandish tunnel
with many closed doors, comes just after the pool encounter with Vera.
As a Siren, Vera’s call is irresistible to Hamilton. She offers him the sense of risk he
hungers for, and Hamilton says, ‘It’s like meeting someone from the moon’, by which he
means ‘someone not quite real’, someone from the looking-glass world. Cookie says that
Hamilton’s obsession with such a mysterious netherworld is ‘the most seductive idea of all’.
‘Few of us consciously make contact with that sub-world of espionage which is the myth
kingdom of our century’ (YLD, 186), he says. Yet, she is more than a Siren or Kali-figure. In
- 201 -
a singular reference, Koch has cited the Goddess Uma (YLD, 183) when describing her. Uma
is a common name for Parvati, the Goddess in her Mother and Good Wife aspect, whose
earliest appearance in Hindu literature, Kinsley writes, is in the Kena-upanishad.
Her primary role in this text is that of a mediator who reveals the knowledge of
Brahman to the gods. She appears in the text suddenly, and as suddenly
disappears. (Kinsley, 36)
Vera likewise appears, seems to be of considerable importance, and then entirely and
without explanation disappears from Koch’s novel—normally a technical fault of a modern
writer, but fully in accord with Uma in the Upanishads. This prototype also points out some
resemblances between Vera and Billy Kwan. There is the multiplicity of their masks, but more
importantly is the way both function as mediators of knowledge. Kwan teaches Hamilton in
particular and the world in general; Vera, as Russian agent apparently is a professional
information collector, who also provokes Hamilton to take count of the information Kwan has
been giving him. As this information is about creation and destruction, the dualities of reality,
righteous action and thought, and the true self, it is no accident that Koch has chosen to name
her ‘Truth’. And yet, Vera, like Kwan, and like the closer relationship between the two which
Koch fleetingly hints at, disappears from the scene all too quickly. This, in the end, is one
wayang kulit puppet character who, as Cookie decides, is and must ever remain a shadow.
9.9. Sri Lakshmi
The goddess Koch first mentions in The Year of Living Dangerously under the name of
Sri Dewi, the Goddess of Rice, returns in Highways to a War to play her traditional role, which
encompasses not only that of the Parvati-Durga-Kali triumvirate but also replaces the functions
of the supreme gods Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. This goddess, Sri, Sri-Laksmi, or most
commonly Lakshmi, is one of the most popular goddesses in Hindu mythology, perhaps
because she is associated with fertility, physical health, life-giving rain, the blossoming of
organic life, and overall prosperity.
Her name, Sri, denotes capability, power, and
advantageous skills, all important qualities in a fertility goddess. She is also associated with
kingship, provides the qualities of power and majesty which are associated with the king, and
- 202 -
her qualities of beauty, lustre, glory, and high rank make her a model Hindu wife. She is
especially known as the wife of Vishnu the Preserver, the god who is reincarnated in the
avatara myths to rid the Triple World of demons who usurp the power of the gods, and to
restore dharma.
As the goddess of good fortune, she is said to bestow fame and prosperity by her
presence, though her departure is signalled by a bad turn of fortune. Mike Langford is
intimately associated with Lakshmi at a time when he seems blessed while all around him is
crumbling, when he is known by the sobriquet ‘the Lucky One’. He considers his Lakshmifigure his good luck charm. Lakshmi does, however, have a reputation for fickleness and
inconstancy. When Ly Keang notices this figure and says, ‘it is a shame she has a broken arm’
(HW, 269), it reflects her refusal to behave according to the model of Sri Lakshmi, who as the
consort of Vishnu is the ideal, submissive wife. More significantly, however, it also is a signal
that Langford’s luck has changed. The time has come for Kali to appear in Lakshmi’s place.
This fickle aspect is said to dissipate when Sri Lakshmi is with Vishnu, and yet her
comings and goings parallel Visnu’s. Both are said to be present when righteous kings rule
and dharmic order is maintained in the world. When Sri Lakshmi departs, however, the
adharmic effects are immediate, as
sacrifices cease to be performed, all austerities are discontinued by the sages,
all generosity ends, the sun and moon lose their brilliance, the gods lose their
strength, and fire loses its heat (Kinsley, 27).
An avatar of Vishnu must then return to the earth to battle the forces of adharma. While
Vishnu is given due credit as the great warrior-preserver of the universe, the restoration of
righteousness to the cosmos is seen as a sign that Sri Lakshmi has, quite simply, come back:
In the absence of the goddess the worlds become dull and lustreless and begin
to wither away. When she returns, the worlds again regain their vitality, and
the society of humans and the order of the gods regain their sense of purpose
and duty. (Kinsley, 27)
This transcendence of particular qualities, whereby her simple presence restores dharma,
places Sri Lakshmi clearly beyond the scope of other deities, who are themselves—with the
exception of the one ultimate creator—all created beings. As such she is associated with the
- 203 -
lotus, the symbol of the entire created universe. The lotus represents the ‘growing, expanding
world imbued with vigorous fertile power’, and Sri Lakshmi ‘is the nectar (the rasa) of
creation which lends to creation its distinctive flavour and beauty. Organic life, impelled as it
is by this mysterious power, flowers richly and beautifully in the creative processes of the
world’ (Kinsley, 21). Associated with moist, rich soil, and worshipped in villages in the form
of cow dung, she assumes the lotus’ attributes of purity and spiritual power: ‘Rooted in the
mud but blossoming above the water, completely uncontaminated by the mud, the lotus
represents spiritual perfection and authority’ (Kinsley, 21).
The Buddha, gods and
bodhisattvas are often pictured seated on a lotus blossom, and Sri Lakshmi is then associated
with more then the fertility of the moist earth. ‘She suggests a perfection or state of refinement
that transcends the material world’ (Kinsley 21).
Whenever Vishnu is reincarnated as a mortal avatara, Lakshmi accompanies him in her
role as his helper in the protection of dharma (Kinsley, 28). Associated as she is with social
order and decorum, Lakshmi’s presence heralds righteous behaviour, orderly conduct, and
correct social observance, including cleanliness, truthfulness and generosity. Lakshmi and
Vishnu provide an intimate ‘picture of marital contentment, domestic order, and satisfying
cooperation and beneficial interdependence between male and female’.
The intimacy of the two, indeed, their underlying unity, is dramatically
shown in images in which they are merged into one bisexual figure, Vishnu
constituting the right half of the figure and Laksmi the left. The
interdependence of the two is the subject of a long passage in the Vishnupurana. There Vishnu is said to be speech and Laksmi meaning; he is
understanding, she is intellect; he is the creator, she is the creation; she is the
earth, he is the support of the earth; she is a creeping vine, he is the tree to
which she clings; he is one with all males, and she is one with all females; he is
love, and she is pleasure (1.8.15 ff.). (Kinsley, 29)
In the Pancaratra school of modern Hinduism, Lakshmi has assumed a far more
important role as the sakti of Vishnu. Mirroring the older tradition of Shiva and Parvati,
Vishnu, the ultimate creator of the universe, awakens Lakshmi at the end of the night of
dissolution, who then assumes the role of ‘builder’ of the cosmos for which he is simply the
‘architect’. She acts according to his wishes, but does so alone, effectively assuming ‘the
- 204 -
position of the supreme divine principle, the underlying reality upon which all rests, that which
pervades all creation with vitality, will, and consciousness’. Finally, as the dispenser of grace,
final bestower of liberation, and ultimately the one by whose activity the universe is dissolved,
she has replaced the three great male gods of the Hindu pantheon, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva
(Kinsley, 30).
The goddess’ role is determined by her relationship with her male counterpart. Parvati is
the ideal wife, but as the bloodthirsty hag Kali she is ‘a representation of the aggressive
potential of the female when she becomes dominant’, and both are positive qualities:
Not only are the goddesses capable of love and nurturance, they are also a
source of justice, playing an important role in the constant struggle between
good and evil which permeates the condition of man. (Preston, 12)
In The Year of Living Dangerously Lakshmi appears in her destructive form, first in the
wayang kulit which Guy Hamilton happens to see.
A lacy, feminine shape with an elaborate head-dress flitted on the screen: when
Hamilton asked who she was, the moustached man said it was Dewi Sri; she
brought the harvest, he said. I was puzzled to know what the rice Goddess was
doing in this sequence of the Pandava cycle; but strange things happen in the
wayang, and Hamilton insisted that this was how she was identified; she seems
to have caught his imagination. (YLD, 204)
Hamilton does not get the connection between fertility and destruction which underlies
the story of the Pandavas, though Koch subtly infers this by immediately bringing the femme
fatale Vera on stage. Hamilton must choose between Jill Bryant, who is carrying his child, and
Vera, who represents for him his philosophy of emotional detachment, both of whom thus
symbolise aspects of Lakshmi. Despite her promotion to undertake each of the parts in the
creation-destruction cycle, however, ‘Laksmi retains her essential character as a dynamic,
positive force that underlies growth, fertility, and prosperity’ (Kinsley, 31), which Koch
reaffirms by having Hamilton make the dharmic choice of going back to Jill.
9.10. The Apsarasas
As long as Mike Langford in Highways to a War is associated with Lakshmi his own
good fortune is assured, but the time must come that his Lakshmi of good fortune must also be
replaced by the Lakshmi of bad fortune. This time is signalled by the arrival of Ly Keang, who
- 205 -
must be described as Koch’s amalgamation of the Eastern pantheon of goddesses, and of some
important Eastern fairy nymphs as well—the apsarasas, who, like Lakshmi, have suffered
through the catastrophic advance of the forces of adharma.
9.10.1. Guardian Angels Caught in the Storm
The first identified contact Langford makes with the Hindu pantheon, notably including
the apsarasas, comes with his initial visit to Madame Phan’s home in Saigon:
More Asian objets d’art, some of which Madame Phan identified for him, sat
on shelves: stone heads of Buddha; a bronze statue of Shiva; a stone bas-relief
of the naked Cambodian nymphs called apsarasas, dancing with serene smiles.
(HW, 126)
Koch has always acknowledged the importance of such icons as those found in Madame
Phan’s home, but more significant is how he populates his novels with the real thing. Indeed,
Langford’s first contact with a spirit-figure comes when he arrives at the cave-like entrance to
Madame Phan’s home, which is itself not unlike the entrance to the White Rabbit’s hole, and ‘a
small, fantastically narrow figure materialized in the darkness’:
At first, he says, he thought it was a child. But it was a young Vietnamese
woman, little more than five feet tall. She wore a white ao dai, the silk tunic
and pantaloons outlining her body from throat to hip, and her face was an
inverted triangle, peering at him through the bars. (HW, 123-24)
In Buddhist literature the apsarasas are angels or fairies (Jobes, 115), and Langford
remarks that the girl is ‘Like a fairy looking out of a cave’. She brings him inside, and
vanishes ‘as though into a crevice’, leaving him alone ‘in the semidarkness of a sort of
anteroom’ where ‘light came from a remarkable number of candles on shelves and low tables,
their flickering causing the whole interior to dance with a golden glow’ (HW, 124).
In another scene, Langford is visited by an angelic figure after a shrapnel wound in his
brain brings him to the U.S. Army operating table. Under anaesthetic, he sees ‘the surgeon’s
face, floating like a pink saucer. Another light shone to one side: softer, but with a bigger
glow. I want to be clear about this, but maybe I never can be. The light had a human shape,
with tall wings. An angel?’ Langford remains sceptical, but the image will remain with and
soothe him. ‘Just a shape; no face. And yet I knew it was looking at me. It made me feel safe.
- 206 -
Loved, I suppose.’ He will later testify that what he feels, after his brush with death, is ‘Peace
ever since the operation at Long Binh’ (HW, 181).
Madame Phan’s home is a refuge for such spirits as well as for orphans, for all have lost
their homes to the cosmic war at the end of the last great age. She is a Bodhisattva-figure,
devoting her life to helping those who are homeless or hungry, including, like Langford who
helps his NVA captors, members of the Viet Cong. Claudine Phan acts as Langford’s mentor
and healer. She helps him find his way in Asia, but when he has matured as a saviour-figure
and it is his turn to help her, with the Communists poised to enter Saigon, she refuses. Even
though she is at great risk of being punished for her Western connections and capitalistic past,
and while she is very interested in saving her sons from the Communists, her unfailing
compassion for those who need her prevents her from seeking her own salvation.
One of the girls who is harboured by Claudine Phan is Kim Anh, the beautiful but
crippled street-girl who Langford takes under his wing. For some reason, she disappears from
Claudine Phan’s house after spending time convalescing there after the operations Langford
arranged to repair the damage to her foot. Langford had planned to marry her, and spends
considerable time searching for her, but to no avail. The suggested explanation is that Kim
Anh’s ‘uncle’ has taken her away to work as a prostitute, but this is never clearly resolved.
What is clear, however, is that a marriage between Kim Anh and Langford would have ended
Langford’s developing role as a saviour-figure. Her disappearance, however, reinforces that
role. An equally likely explanation of Kim Anh’s fate, then, is that the Taoist-minded ChineseFrench Claudine Phan has spirited Kim Anh away.
Kim Anh’s central role in Langford’s life came earlier and conforms to the tradition of
Indian epic literature when the apsarasas descend on earth ‘merely to shake the virtue of
penitent sages, and to deprive them of the power they would otherwise have acquired through
unbroken austerities’ (Garrett, 40).
The accumulation of psychic energy through the
performance of tapas—the building up of sakti described by Billy Kwan—often led to threats
against the position of the gods as rulers of the universe. Harvey Drummond illustrates the
- 207 -
potential strength of sakti when Langford confronts the impolite French officials who refuse to
buy flowers from Kim Anh, betraying Langford’s hidden, violent side. The Frenchman who
insults Kim Anh finds himself trapped in an iron grip on his shoulder. He does his best to save
face, ‘he hadn’t wanted to appear too miserly to buy flowers from a crippled girl. But it was
also plain to me that Langford had frightened him; that he’s sensed a potential for violence that
he hadn’t wanted to deal with’ (HW, 166). This is one of the earliest expressions of the violent
side of Langford which becomes increasingly important in determining his identity and cosmic
role.
9.10.2 Ly Keang—Langford’s ‘Other Half’
The most significant apsarasas-figure in Highways to a War is Ly Keang, who fits
nearly perfectly the description of the sensuous nymphs, associated with rainwater on the earth,
bringing good fortune to the one she favours, causing the madness of love, and even getting
Langford to break his determination to retain the journalist’s neutrality.
The apsarasas belong to the heavenly spheres as the voluptuous nymphs and dancers of
the celestial court of Indra, the king of the gods, and are called ‘wives of the gods’ and
‘daughters of pleasure’. Volkov and Langford are among the many who are enchanted by Ly
Keang, and are said to have had ‘the idea that through Ly Keang, they could tune in to
Cambodia at some special level. And she’d probably have encouraged the notion—like a
game’ (HW, 270). The apsarasas are said to be of inconceivable loveliness. Koch therefore
avoids describing Ly Keang in direct, physical terms. Langford once calls her beautiful, and
this assessment garners universal agreement, but she is more often presented in figurative
language, as through the ‘large, expressive eyes’ which establish her nobility by creating ‘an
impression of Indian ancestry, despite their Chinese almond shape’. She is also ‘typically
Sino-Khmer’ (HW, 261), following the pattern—seen in Billy Kwan and Guy Hamilton—of
Koch’s rather Australian principle of improving characters through hybridisation. Volkov
heaps such praise on her, calling her a ‘crazy optimist—and a genuine patriot’, ‘a remarkable
girl’, intelligent, fearless, and full of electricity, and, not least, ‘she makes me laugh.’ (HW,
- 208 -
365). He also says she is ‘a young woman of spirit, who will do anything’, though he quickly
protects her dignity, saying, ‘she is quite possibly virgin’ (HW, 266). Koch’s classical and
dignified description of Keang leaves no doubt of her identification as a heavenly creature:
She wears a traditional dress: a white, high-necked blouse and a dark anklelength sarong with an embroidered band around the hem. Her thick, loosely
waving hair is pulled back from the forehead and temples to expose her ears;
held by a comb on top and then falling below her shoulders, it combines with
her slender, hour-glass figure to recall an apsaras in a temple carving. (HW,
256)
The name apsarasas signifies ‘moving in the water’ from their inception when Brahma
first churned the cosmic ocean to create the first beings in the beginning of time and space.
They are associated with the water of the earth and with the vapours which rise from the earth
into the air (Balfour, 122). In the Rig Veda, they assist the god Soma to pour down his floods,
bringing fertility to the earth (Garrett, 40). Ly Keang is appropriately always active and
accompanied with movement, and associated with water and rain.
When she comes to
Langford for the first time in his apartment, it is a magical, wayang kulit scene:
No lights on in the room. Through the open doors onto the balcony, over by
the railings of the market, the petrol lamps of the Khmer traders were blurred
and trembling in the rain. Wind, and more thunder. The top of the coconut
palm next to the balcony running with water, fronds gleaming and tossing like
landed green fish.
Keang enters the apartment like a shadow. The first thing Langford notices is a ‘cool finger on
my bare shoulder’. She looks up at him in the dark without speaking, searching for something
in him.
She opened her lips, her saliva for a moment in my mouth, starting an electric
tingling that would have built and built, if I hadn't let her go. Deadly, that
tingling; everything being changed for us, far into the future. I could hear a
mosquito whining; then it settled on my shoulder and began to drink my blood.
I let it, looking at her. The sting was part of what was happening: a brand.
(HW, 366-67)
As the divine feminine, Keang is especially part Durga, with the symbolic exchange of blood
attending the woman who is known for her combat fatigues and bungle boots and long blueblack hair (HW, 264), bringing destruction and re-creation to Langford, and part apsarasas, an
- 209 -
irresistible water nymph, whose hair cascades down her back, and who is sent by the gods to
the sound of flowing water, both motivating him and changing his life:
Then we both stared at the rain and the market lamps and the swinging top of
the palm tree. Water gurgled in a pipe somewhere. Everything was changed
out there, the lights and wild rain belonging somewhere else: somewhere
stranger than Phnom Penh, where she and I were going. (HW, 368)
Ly Keang’s arrival into Langford’s life is accompanied by the beginning of the
monsoon. She is associated with its symbolism of life which, amidst the sounds of death,
includes symbolism of reincarnation. Langford celebrates her as an element of the landscape:
—I love this time of year, at the beginning of the rains. Light green rice shoots
making a film across the paddies; everything coming alive. The women
stooping, setting out the seedlings: peacefully planting, this close to the city, as
though that sound in the distance isn’t really artillery. Pink and mauve lotus
flowers and hyacinths opening in the roadside polls. Cambodia beginning to
fill with water, shining and winking, reflecting the sky and the big May clouds.
Black-and-white herons took off as we went by; marching brown ducks were
driven by little boys. Everything was washed and new. So was my life,
because of Keang. (HW, 370-371)
Mike agrees to take Ly Keang to battle, where, hiding behind a dike, he devotes himself
to her, symbol of water and Cambodia:
—Water: Cambodia is water. Thousands of acres beginning to drown; rice
fields and jungle submerging; fish soon breeding among the trees in
underwater forests—teeming through the paddies. Cambodia was water, and
Keang was Cambodia. Her mouth again: its liquor. … So perfect I knelt in the
water in front of her. Paddy water, rain and her body’s juice: which was only
rain? (HW, 372-73)
Langford comprehends that Keang is rainwater on the earth, and paces—childishly, but also
like the ghost in his apartment at the end of the novel—, waiting for her return, recognising in
her the symbols of rain and fertility:
I keep wanting to laugh; keep walking about the room; can’t keep still.
Childish.
—Rain and Ly Keang.
—On my hands the smell of paddy water that I don’t want to wash off.
(HW, 369)
The apsarasas are also heavenly charmers who fascinate heroes, and allure austere sages
from their devotions (Dowson, 20). Jealous or threatened gods would send them to cause the
sage or ascetic to lose his concentration and expend his hard-gained psychic energy. In an
- 210 -
amusing first portrait of Keang, she disrupts the concentration of a sort of Western ascetic.
Keang makes a royal entrance into the Phnom Penh Press Centre, ‘greeting first one
acquaintance and then another. All the journalists she spoke to, male and female, were
laughing by the time she moved on’, until she passes by a newly arrived New York Times
correspondent. ‘He had a Vandyke beard and the air of a noted intellectual forced to analyze
tragedies whose implications could scarcely be comprehended by gross lesser mortals.’ He has
a ‘new and shining and stylishly slanted’ Panama hat which attracts Keang’s attention. ‘She
snatched it from Broinowski’s head and put it on and posed for him, smiling. It looked very
good on her.’ Broinowski manages ‘a pained smile’ but reaches for the hat, ‘his face growing
uneasy’. She runs off waving the hat in the air to the general applause of the other journalists,
followed by Broinowski, whose ‘desire to get his hat back far outweighed his dignity’,
shouting after her.
He returns, red-faced and hatless, another sage fallen victim to an
apsarasas.
Langford still remains Keang’s most important victim.
She disrupts his sense of
professional orderliness (HW, 260), points out to him his repressed anger and feelings (HW,
270), enthrals him with the beauty of Cambodia (HW, 268), awakens self-awareness of his
unique role in the Cambodian war (HW, 270), and finally even gets him to make the definitive
choice to take up a gun against the Khmer Rouge (HW, 377-78). Yet, once she has deflated the
ascetic photographer’s own built-up sakti, Keang assumes the role of Parvati, who is the sakti
of Shiva, to motivate Langford to accept the role for which he is destined. Colonel Chandara,
the leader against the Khmer Rouge who will need Langford’s help, makes this clear enough:
If you want to become Cambodian, he said, and make this your home,
you should perhaps look at Ly Keang. She greatly admires you. She’s a fine
girl.
—He’d surprised me again, and I answered carefully. Yes, she is, I said.
But I hardly know her. She’s closer to my friend Dmitri Volkov.
—She sees death in your friend, he said. She sees life in you. So do I.
(HW, 279)
An interesting but unexplored element of the apsarasas here is how they are the rewards
in paradise for heroes who fall in battle. If Koch were writing a saint’s life in the tradition of
- 211 -
Indian literature, he would be able to describe the aeons of bliss with Ly Keang in the heavens
in the sequel to Highways to a War, and which would then be succeeded by reincarnation, on
and on. Koch and Langford are, however, more interested in the past. Yet, Adrian Mitchell
points out how the epigraph to the novel, James McAuley’s ‘Warning’, cautioning against
trying to accommodate the past, might be especially relevant to the role of Ly Keang, who
draws Langford back into Cambodia and to his death. Keang embodies for Langford ‘the
charm and mystery of Cambodia, the novel’s Otherland’, and, though he might be guilty of
trying to get back into the past, Mitchell finds it ‘readily comprehensible, even admirable, that
he should step away from the sensible, the realistic, and chase after his heart’s yearning’. ‘The
incompleteness of the ending leads to pathos, not tragedy: the sorrows of mankind, not the
inexorable moral law, are what this story encapsulates’ (Mitchell, 1996, Ancestral Voices, 8).
While Langford’s ghost does not find peace at the end of the novel, and this due to the
fact that the demons have not yet been returned to their place in dharma, one must feel that his
relationship with Keang was never meant to be fulfilled in this life. One bit of evidence of
what Koch is leaving unworked is in Harvey Drummond’s assessment that, for Langford,
‘Saigon was the past’, ‘Phnom Penh was the present, and Ly Keang was the future’ (HW, 400).
The trouble is that Phnom Penh’s falling to the ‘Black Ghosts’ is Koch’s representation of the
beginning of the end of time.
Symbols of water, the apsarasas are naturally shape-changers. Langford notices when
Keang first comes to him how Keang’s presence can even change the shapes of things around
her: ‘In the half-dark, I was looking at a woman I’d never seen before. Beautiful: so beautiful.
She’d changed everything around her, making the air in the room seem to sing.’ Like the
apsarasas, who are fond of dice and give luck to whom they favour, Keang becomes the
source of Langford’s good luck. First, she notices the Lakshmi icon in his apartment, stopping
‘in front of my big Khmer sandstone sculpture of the Goddess of Fortune: the best piece I have.
This is a nice Lakshmi, she said, and looked at me over her shoulder.’ She notices that the
Lakshmi has lost an arm, a sign of lost strength in Indian symbolic terms. Still, this seems to
- 212 -
be the moment when Keang herself realises who Langford is. She says, almost to herself, that
he is called Mean Samnag, the ‘Lucky One’, by the Cambodian troops, and starts recruiting
Langford to the Free Cambodian cause (HW, 269).
Then, having succeeded at transforming him into a fighter for her forces, she replaces
the Lakshmi with her own lucky charm, but it is ‘a small, furry toy cat with orange stripes,
made in Japan’ which mews when tipped. ‘Take it to Saigon, she said. A mascot. It will
protect you; I’ve told it to’ (HW, 422). Ly Keang has given Langford a meaningless kitsch
item in the place of an artefact which symbolises the power of Vishnu, and which he truly
believes brings him the luck he has always needed to survive his work. Ly Keang is making a
terrific blunder, but fate has determined that Cambodia must fall to the ‘Black ghosts’, and
Keang, as symbol of the divine feminine, must also play her role in the turn of fortune whereby
the Mother Goddess makes way for the Destroyer Goddess.
The apsarasas are sometimes supposed to produce the madness associated with love
(Dowson, 20). From the beginning of Keang’s attention to him, Langford feels ‘a hollowing in
the stomach’ (HW, 269), and this attraction only intensifies until her disappearance with the
fall of Cambodia makes Langford mad. Jim Feng says that ‘He looked sick, and hardly ate’
(HW, 411). Langford loses his usual self-control over the frustrations of his commitment to
find her when it is suggested that his relentless search for Ly Keang is useless. Feng reports
that ‘One dickhead correspondent in the Foxhole kept insisting that she must be lost, and Mike
punched him up—and that wasn’t like Mike’ (HW, 436). Langford is caught in the descending
cycle of time, during which, according to Jainist tradition, the very physical stature of men will
diminish progressively, and the earth ‘will be an unspeakable morass of violence, bestiality,
and grief’ (Zimmer, 1969, 227). As the relationship between Langford and Keang also
represents the unified male/female force of the universe until the Divine Mother finishes her
destructive work and recreates the universe anew, the essential monistic principle of the eternal
dharma will itself be asunder.
- 213 -
9.11. The Goddess as Time and Change
Koch associates Maha-Kali with Time in a significant leitmotif which he adopts from
the Bhagavad Gita, though, since ‘time’ in Sanskrit is not kali, but kala, it seems he might be
employing a bit of poetic license. This provides a clue about the depth of Koch’s involvement
with the nuances of Hindu mythology, however, for an uncommon variant of Kali’s name, and
the word for black or blue-marine, is indeed Kala. In addition, the pre-Aryan, Jainist tradition
defines kala, one of the six constituent elements of the cosmos, as ‘time; that which makes
change possible’ (Zimmer, 1969, 271), paralleling Koch’s association of time with the divine
feminine, whose universal role is to assure the viability of change.
Koch offers another metaphor of Kali as a second of the six basic cosmic elements to
explain her role in providing a possibility of change in a universe which is seen, in reality, as
made up of identical, eternal, and therefore unchanging ‘life-monads’. O’Brien asks Sunder
what Kali looks like. Sunder answers, ‘From a distance she’s blue-black. But up close they
say she has no colour—like water’ (ASW, 72).
This water image refers to the cosmic
component of dharma (a completely separate concept from the better-known dharma which
refers to the divine moral order or to rightful action within that cosmic order), which in the
Jainist ontology is ‘the medium through which movement is possible. Dharma is compared to
water, through and by which fish are able to move’ (Zimmer, 1969, 271). Without dharma, as
without the divine feminine, there could be no change—thus neither beginning nor end—in the
universe.
This seems to be the key to Madame Claudine Phan’s poem in Highways to a War
which says that ‘For the fish, it’s a question of being alive— They don’t worry about the depth
of the water’ (HW, 184). Water is equated with change, and one can reject change no more
than a fish can reject water, including that change which embodies evil’s conquest over good at
the end of time. It might be possible that a failure of the intervention of man’s free will as the
instrument of the ultimate creative force of the universe would mean the annihilation of that
other dharma, the right cosmic order. Still, that dharma ironically prescribes the establishment
- 214 -
of an age of cosmic disorder ruled by the demons. This Kali-Yuga, or final Age of Darkness,
must necessarily precede the return of the first age of innocent righteousness. As Madame
Phan understands, the fish have no alternative to concentrating on surviving the rhythmic
occurrence of even the worst conditions of their water in order to enjoy the clearer and deeper
waters to come.
Krishna, who is by the time of the Bhagavad Gita understood to be the ultimate creative
force of the cosmos, reiterates the association of time and change when he reveals himself to
Arjuna as the supreme spirit of the cosmos, the ‘vast unity in the body of the God of gods’. He
allows Arjuna to see the wondrous infinity of his being, a spirit with no beginning, middle or
end, creator not only of the earth and universe, of life and righteousness, but even of the
supreme god Brahma himself, and all the gods and goddesses, a form in which all things are
one. Krishna concludes his revelation by saying, ‘I am all-powerful Time which destroys all
things’ (Bhagavad Gita, 11:10-32).
The goddess known as Parvati, Durga, Kali, and by many other names, is the reification
of that specific divine aspect which Krishna identifies as ‘Time’. Her intervention is necessary
to effect cosmic change, first, by provoking Vishnu out of his sleep and Shiva out of his
meditation to work their acts of creation, and second, by destroying the old so that the new
may be re-created. The mother image of Parvati and the hag of Kali correlate with the earth
mother symbol of Lakshmi, who represents the cycles of nature, fortune and fate, and who in
her most modern development is made responsible for the ultimate escape from the cycle of
birth-death-rebirth-redeath, which is ‘time’, into nirvana, in which ‘time’ has no meaning. It is
therefore no error for Koch to write of Kali’s dance of destruction and creation, of raising her
to supreme stature in the cosmic order, and referring to her as ‘she of many names, all of which
mean Time’. Having honoured her so, the artist Koch, the dalang of his universe, then puts her
to work provoking the changes necessary in his protagonists.
- 215 -
9.12. Conclusion
In reaching out to these Asian themes and symbols, Koch seems to be concurring with
the assessment of David Tacey in the need to reassert the divine feminine in a world diverted
from its sense of the sacred partly by the predominance of its male orientation. In India, the
Mother Goddess, whose Neolithic origins were overwhelmed for a thousand years by the male
divinities of the Aryan pantheon, has reasserted itself and is the chief divinity today. Going by
many names—Parvati, Durga, Kali, Devi, Sati, Sri, and many more—, she ‘personifies the
World Illusion, within the bounds and thralldom of which exist all forms whatsoever, whether
gross or subtle, earthly or angelic’. She has ‘deluded the world with Her Illusion and conjures
up the magic of creation, preservation, and destruction’, and spread a ‘veil of ignorance before
our eyes’ which only she can decide to remove to let us enter into her ‘inner chamber’
(Zimmer, 1969, 569).
The divine feminine is a powerful symbol, whose paradoxical
significance certainly has a new relevance in a Western society itself paradoxically richer and
more powerful than ever and yet bereft of the mythological core which alone can give it
meaning. The Goddess reigned countless time as the powerful metaphor of fertility, of the
ever-renewing cycles of nature, and therefore of the eternal puzzle of birth, life, and death;
Christopher Koch’s Asian novels are a literary equivalent of an invocation to the Universal
Mother, to re-emerge from the shadows, and re-enchant human culture.
- 216 -
The Masks of Personality
10.1. Introduction
One of the central issues in these five novels is the sense of identity generated through
the donning, wearing, and shedding of masks of personality. Writing of C. J. Koch’s The Year
of Living Dangerously in an article which is fully applicable to his other novels and to Blanche
d’Alpuget’s as well, Marak Haltof says that removing the layers of masks—of both his Asian
and Australian characters—is Koch’s way of joining the ‘discourse on the nature of the postcolonial state of mind, on the notion of Australian identity, and on the Australian perception of
its Asian neighbours’. The Year of Living Dangerously concerns itself with the motif of
‘otherness’, which is central to the Australian quest for a sense of identity, with the ‘Other’
being variously Australia itself, Asia, or simply other people (Haltof, 44). Koch picks up on
and advances the Asian sense of the ‘Other’ within oneself which Blanche d’Alpuget has so
well exploited in the internal psycho-spiritual struggles of her principle figures. They offer
characters whose ‘otherness’ lacks essential discriminating factors, so that the ‘distinction
between “us” and “them”, Indonesia and Australia, is not clear’ (Haltof, 46). Contact with the
‘Other’ weakens old prejudices and stereotypes, which allows them to realise that their search
for the ‘Other’ has brought them before a mirror. The ‘Other’ they are gazing at is themselves;
the ‘self’ which they believed themselves to be is recognized as a superstructure of masks
which the search has begun to dislodge.
For some, this is a shattering experience, leading to a loss of the sense of humanity as
their fear drives them into refuge from the ‘otherness’ in which they assuming new and more
protective masks. For others the attraction to the ‘Other’ is too strong, and they effectively
exchange one set of masks for another. There remain those, however, whose personalities are
recognised as manifestations of the illusory masks obscuring the unflawed essence of their
shared humanity.
This self-discovery depends on a release from the conviction of an
antagonism between ‘self’ and ‘Other’, so that the ‘individual’ might defrock himself of his
illusory masks, and find his true being.
- 217 -
This and the following chapter centre attention on those illusory masks worn by the
protagonists in C. J. Koch and Blanche d’Alpuget’s Asian novels. The comparison of Eastern
and Western views of the reality of the ‘individual’ should help clarify the novelists’
formulation of heroic qualities in their protagonists, a topic which has in Koch’s case been seen
in chapter 7 on the Javanese dramatic form, the wayang kulit. The concept of the ‘three
gunas’, the elementary and distinguishing components of all created forms of being, which
explains much of d’Alpuget’s pet concept of ‘brutalisation’, is then introduced. The details of
the ‘bestiary’ d’Alpuget has written in Monkeys in the Dark are studied, with special attention
given to her most truly brutalised character, the Indonesian hero-villain, Sutrisno. The focus
on d’Alpuget concludes with a review of Antonella Riem’s analysis of the psychological
brutalisation of the Australian journalist Judith Wilkes in Turtle Beach. Supported by a cast of
heavily masked actors, d’Alpuget leads her readers from blind sympathy with the protagonist
to awareness for the relativity of such concepts as ‘values’, ‘culture’, ‘self’, and ‘Other’. The
gaze then turns to Koch’s use of the concept of the masks of the personality. The effects of the
three gunas is seen in the descending in the cosmic order, where gods become men, men
become animals or agents of evil, and even inanimate objects are demonised. The chapter
closes with a look at the various masks in the Wayang Bar, which is largely Koch’s further
development of the themes borrowed from Lewis Carroll’s Alice characters with Javanese
accent. There remain some very interesting masked figures who are not treated in this chapter
as they seem to fit better elsewhere. Chapter 11 gives special attention to the masked doubles,
d’Alpuget’s Alexandra Wheatfield and Anthony Sinclaire, and Koch’s Guy Hamilton and Billy
Kwan.
10.2. Eastern and Western Concepts of ‘Personality’
The Western concept of ‘persona’ has its roots in the ancient Greek dramatic tradition of
the actor wearing a real, physical mask through (per) which he would sound (sonat) his role.
Zimmer describes how the actor remained separated from his mask; the mask conveyed the
features, make-up and traits of the role, while leaving the actor himself an anonymous and
- 218 -
unconcerned being (Zimmer, 236). Thus the origin of the Western concept of ‘personality’
would be strikingly similar to the Eastern idea, suggesting a common origin at the time when
the ancient Aryans were migrating out of their Eurasian homeland southward into India. Later
Greek, and Judeo-Christian thought, however, redirected the concept in the West, making the
‘actor’ and his ‘mask’ identical. Homer’s Ulysses and Dante’s Virgil visited in hell old friends
and acquaintances who were fully recognisable and often remembered their lives and even the
deeds which damned them. It may seem ironic, but even for a man condemned to hell, the loss
of ‘his persona would mean for him to lose every hope for a future beyond death. The mask
has become for him fused, and confused, with his essence’.
For the more fortunate,
Christianity promises the resurrection of the body, ‘the resurrection being our regaining of our
cherished personality in a purified form, worthy to fare before the majesty of the almighty’.
Zimmer considers to be an inconsistency this idea of a personality which is ‘declared to have
come into being with the mortal act of procreation, and yet is supposed to go on after the
demise of the procreated mortal frame: temporal in its beginning, immortal in its end’
(Zimmer, 236-37).
From the Eastern outlook this problem does not arise. Traditional Indian philosophy
‘continually emphasizes the contrast between the displayed existence of the individual and the
real being of the anonymous actor, concealed, shrouded, and veiled in the costumes of the
play’, but, as expressed in the Upanishads, is identical to the
Spirit which is mind and life, light and truth and vast spaces. He contains all
works and desires and all perfumes and all tastes. He enfolds the whole
universe, and in silence is loving to all (from the Chandogya Upanishad,
Mascaró, xv).
Asian spiritual efforts have for centuries been trying to break through the veil into the
unfathomed reaches of the Self, as Zimmer explains:
Piercing and dissolving all the layers of the manifest personality, the
relentlessly introverted consciousness cuts through the mask, and, at last
discarding it in all of its stratifications, arrives at the anonymous and strangely
unconcerned actor of our life (Zimmer, 1969, 237).
- 219 -
While the Western concept clings to the eternal personality, the Eastern sets the eternal soul
beyond the illusory layers of personality. The two, as Juan Mascaró writes, are not opposed,
but are complementary world views. ‘Greece gives us the joy of eternal beauty in the outer
world; and India gives us the joy of the Infinite in the inner world’ (Mascaró, x).
Yet, there are crucial differences between Eastern and Western visions. For Western,
Christian thought, the linked duality of body and soul has come to imply eternal consequences
on the soul for the weaknesses of the perishable body. That each individual is born with the
sin of Adam and Eve is a basic Western concept, even if derived by ‘later generations of
Christian apologists’, and neither found in the Bible nor in Jewish tradition, but owing its
predominant place in the English-speaking world to Milton’s Paradise Lost (Robert Carroll,
326). This concept is reinforced by the reductionism of modern scientific Humanism, by
which anything must be accountable by the five senses. The soul must be stainable like any
other material, for non-stainability, according to modern scientific rules, implies non-existence.
The stain lies on the eternal essence of man’s soul, making it impossible for an individual to
gain redemption without the intervention of God’s grace.
For Eastern thought, the stain lies on the layers surrounding the soul, on the masks
which hide the soul. The masks are real in the sense that they are part of the created universe,
but, belonging only to that universe, they are perishable. The individual knows that behind the
doom of his physically manifested self is the imperishable Self. This universal Self ‘is his own
very seed and essence. Release from the doom consists in feeling identical not with the mask
but with its all-pervading, ever living substance’ (Zimmer, 1969, 349). The individual’s karma
determines whether he goes to a heaven or hell in the period between death and reincarnation,
and in what form he will return in, but the individual’s Self, which is the inexplicable,
unnameable universal Truth, bears no blemish of the misdeeds or faults of the individual. The
possibility remains, as well, of uncovering the layers of masks until no more remain, at which
point only the pure, unclouded Self exists in the splendour of moksa, or nirvana, and releasing
the individual from the cycles of reincarnation.
- 220 -
Finally, the Eastern view is an interwoven ‘vision of action with a consciousness of its
meaning’. Mascaró writes that ‘the outer world, the world of action of the Immanent’ is the
focus of the Vedas, while the inner world, the world of knowledge of the Transcendent Spirit’
is treated by the later (from c. 800 BC) Upanishads (Mascaró, xxi). Herein lies the crux which
so fascinates both Koch and d’Alpuget, who explore the ‘harmony of action and knowledge, of
the immanent and the transcendent’ as necessary for ‘reaching the inner meaning of
things’(Mascaró, xxi). They engage their Australian protagonists in unexpected processes of
inward discovery provoked by their willing confrontation with an outward reality they hardly
understand.
This puts them squarely in line with Australian literary tradition, which seems to dovetail well with Eastern tradition in this effort. The Australian hero has typically departed from
the European tradition of the ‘larger than life, legendary figure, endowed with great, even
superhuman strength, courage or ability’, in favour of an essentially innocent individual, the
pioneer, the bushman, either man or woman, who proves himself to be a survivor in the face of
extreme adversity, or even the outlaw, rogue or rebel who escapes the shackles of authority and
forges into a new, hard but free life. (Bennett, 1991, 123) It is perhaps for this reason that the
Australian hero is sometimes able to come to the realisation made in ancient Indian literature
of the necessary interdependence of action and thought: ‘Into deep darkness fall those who
follow action.
Into deeper darkness fall those who follow knowledge’ (from the Isa
Upanishad, Mascaró, xviii). The poets of the Upanishads were singing the transcendent in the
human experience, but their motivation must have been similar to the Australian’s, for whom
action without thought, or thought without action, could suddenly mean death.
The hero in Australian culture has partly for this reason often been overshadowed by
‘the phenomenon of the masked or decapitated hero’, as the harsh land proves more than
humanly bearable (Bennett, 1991, 122).
D’Alpuget and Koch’s novels are marked by
decapitations and other forms of physical dismemberment, not to produce the sort of
degenerate or fallen heroes which typify Western 20th century literature—though these do
- 221 -
indeed reflect just such failure to unify thought and action. Their protagonists’ heroic qualities
are more on the Eastern model, innate, emanating from the soul which is obstructed by layers
of masks. The heroic nature in man can be revealed, but only through a process of selfrevelation which is painstaking and even dangerous since underneath each mask lies another,
each layer hiding mysteries heretofore unsuspected by the individual. Whether a mask is
formed as a shield against the feared or an invitation to the attractive, it functions equally to
obscure the reality of being which lies within.
What remains of the individual once all masks are shed is mysterious and difficult even
for Indian literature to describe, but that is not the concern here. Koch and d’Alpuget are not
writing so much about prospective Buddhas of Australian society—though both Alexandra
Wheatfield and Mike Langford are partly fashioned after sacred Indian archetypes (discussed
respectively in chapters 11 and 13)—as of the individuals who are made aware of the masks
and their illusory effects through encounters with the Asian world. Commenting on his
fascination for the workings of personality, Koch says,
I believe that at the heart of life there is a mystery, and at the heart of every
human personality there is a mystery. There is no way in which I will ever
know you fully, or you will ever know me. And the most surprising things can
happen with personality. Someone whom you feel you know, and have known
for years, may suddenly be transformed. They may suddenly be unfamiliar. In
that moment, one sees a mask. (Hulse, 25)
Koch adds that individuals are always striving to perfect their personalities, but he doubts the
personality can ever be complete, and believes that there are penalties for trying ‘to be all
things’ to oneself or to others, or to live one’s life through another person (Hulse, 19).
Seeking to perfect the personality by ‘completing’ it is a decidedly Western attitude, and
represents adding to or setting masks against one another. Success, however, in getting
through the smoke to the fire—through the phenomenal masks to the Transcendent Soul—is
Enlightenment. The danger, Koch and d’Alpuget point out, is that partial success leaves an
individual weakened by the loss off the psychological protection for which the shed masks had
been responsible; an individual who has tried but failed could be doomed to living as an
animalistic, less-than-human creature.
- 222 -
10.3. D’Alpuget’s Bestiary
Blanche d’Alpuget has established the least common denominator of borrowings from
classical Asian archetypes with the animalistic portrayals of her characters. Koller describes
the Indian concept of the levels of reality as
ranging from non-existence to empirical existence limited by space and time,
to consciousness that is limited only by the conditions of awareness, to an
indescribable level that is beyond all conditions and limits whatever. The
deeper the level of reality, the more fully it participates in the truth of being
and the greater its value (Koller, 6).
Koh Tai Ann notes how d’Alpuget subtly applies this concept—and reinforces
Orientalist stereotypes—by describing the speech of her Asians as the incomprehensible,
queer noises of animals. Human voices described as the threatening calls of hostile beasts.
The Chinese salesgirl who ‘shrills’ at her customers (TB, 53); the aggressive, ‘monosyllabic
jabbering’ of other shopgirls; the ‘tiger noise’ of the angry Malay man (TB, 96); the nurses,
waiters, and Minou Hobday who ‘quack’ and ‘yelp’; the ‘barnyard racket’ of the poor Chinese;
and the ‘vivid and shrill as birds’ Hindu women (TB, 204) are a few examples of d’Alpuget’s
Asian barnyard (Koh Tai Ann, 30).
D’Alpuget’s beast characterisations do not stop at the level of language, and it is in
Monkeys in the Dark where she fully deploys her technique. The title comes from the
Independence Day speech of President Sukarno, who has already been crippled by the military
seizure of power in the wake of the failed Communist putsch. Sukarno warns against his
inevitable overthrow, saying,
Oh, my people, if you abandon our history you will face a vacuum. You will
become meaningless and undirected. Life for you will be no more than
running amok. Running amok—like monkeys trapped in the dark! (MD, 122)
10.3.1. The Three Gunas
Sukarno is warning the people that the reversal of the revolution he has brought to
Indonesia will lead to a situation in which they will live both figuratively and, in the next life
perhaps literally, like animals, dominated by the forces of evil and basic survival. The
significance of the concept for d’Alpuget comes from her sense that ‘suffering drives some of
- 223 -
us to brutality and others to madness’ (d’Alpuget, 73). Its origins lie in the Eastern concept of
reincarnation, in which one’s spirit will return in a higher or lower form, depending on the
accrued merit of one’s earlier lives. It is not that the higher form represents ‘progress’ towards
enlightenment, or the lower form ‘regression’ into the ignorance of darkness, but that the Soul
is either more or less obscured due to a change in the relationship of the elements of ‘light’ and
‘dark’ veiling it.
This concept is, in turn, based on the pre-Aryan concept of the
‘impairments’—including: ‘not-knowing-better’; the notion described in Western terms as
cogito ergo sum; attachment of every kind; repugnance and hatred; and clinging to life—which
denote ‘anything which, adhering to man’s nature, restricts or impairs its manifestation of its
true essence’ (Zimmer, 1969, 294).
D’Alpuget capitalises on Sukarno’s metaphor by making her novel into a sort of modern
bestiary, but instead of anthropomorphised animals the human characters are described in
animal terms. This is not unusual in Western literature, but d’Alpuget is adopting the Asian
view of the Triple World—i.e. the physical realms which are inhabited by the gods, by the
demons, and by the plants, animals and men, corresponding roughly to heaven, hell and earth.
In the second act of creation, Brahma made the four groups of beings, and to distinguish them,
he created their natural qualities, the three gunas: sattva, rajas, and tamas, which are
responsible for the ‘impairments’.
The gods are saturated with sattva, which is brightness, crystal purity, immaculate
clarity, utter quiet. The demons are essentially similar to the gods, except that they are not
immortal and, lacking the light of sattva, are dedicated to overthrowing the righteous cosmic
order of dharma, to replace it with its opposite, adharma. Plants and animals are governed by
rajas, which incites passion, rage, and desire and drives them greedily to devour each other,
and by tamas, which they share with the minerals, which is darkness, blindness, and the basis
of all lack of feeling and ignorance, though at the same time it gives solidity to and frames the
universe.
- 224 -
Seeking to escape the Triple World for moksa is unfortunately for most created beings
out of the question: the gods are too infused by the bliss of sattva; the demons are too intent on
the establishment of adharma in the universe; the animals and plants are too dominated by
rajas as well as by the same immobilising ignorance of tamas which defines minerals.
Humans are unique from the other created beings in that they possess and are pervaded
and influenced by all three gunas: sattva, rajas, and tamas. Knowing both light and dark,
realising the unhappiness caused by tamas as well as the joy of sattva, and having the
motivation of rajas to surpass their mediocre existence, humans are endowed with the unique
potential to attain moksa, or nirvana (Bailey, 105). The fortunate combination of the gunas is
indeed necessary for humans; loss of any one characteristic deprives an individual of the hope
of escaping the birth-death-rebirth-redeath cycle of the Triple World.
Zimmer equates the gunas and other ‘impairments’ of created beings with the Western
concept of ‘personality.’
They are the bundle of life-forces that constitute the individual and implicate
him in the surrounding world. Our clinging to our ego, and our usual concrete
conception of what our ego is; our spontaneous self-surrender to the likes and
dislikes that guide us daily . . . and which are the most cherished ingredients of
our nature—these are our impairments. And through all runs that primitive
craving of the living creature, which is common to both men and worms . . .
and such a will to live is strong enough, according to the Indian theory of
rebirth, to carry an individual across the gulf of death into a new incarnation,
compelling him to reach out again for a new body, another mask, another
costume, in which to carry on. (Zimmer, 1969, 299)
10.3.2. ‘Brutalised’ Characters
D’Alpuget presents a decadent world, heavily influenced by the increasing power of
demons and adharma, where the balance of the gunas in humans is upset and most men are
driven by the darkness of tamas instead of the light of sattva. The Australian vice-consul is
only important enough to be identified by a first name, but his immoral behaviour—
particularly the sexual exploitation of his young female servant who he calls a ‘stupid cow’
(MD, 71)—merits a graphic introduction as the ‘man with the face of a sly pig’ who ‘nosed up’
to Alex (MD, 22). Juan, the Spanish chargé d’affairs, is infamous for the illegal possession of
an orang-utan and for halitosis which he and his pet undoubtedly share (MD, 22). Naida, a
- 225 -
beautiful Sumatran socialite who slept with Sinclaire, was jilted, and therefore lost any hope of
an honourable marriage to an Indonesian, ‘had the face of a large-eyed, slightly irritated
panther’ (MD, 24). Greaves, Sinclaire’s spy boss, has ‘yellow toad-slit eyes’ (MD, 40). Julie
is the snivelling, shallow embassy wife who d’Alpuget uses to exhibit many of the worst
attributes which manifest themselves in the Australian woman forced to live in Asia.
D’Alpuget rewards Julie’s endless inadequacies with a closet-homosexual husband who
humiliates her repeatedly in public, and even joins in when she declines to call Julie’s ‘small
brown marks’ freckles, pointing out that ‘in Indonesian they were called “fly spots”’ (MD, 35).
Sutrisno is a cat, not just due to his feline ability to scale the fences of the Dutch
barracks to steal rifles (MD, 63), but also, as the most ‘brutalised’ of all the characters in the
novel, to his requirements for many lives. Sinclaire, whose purpose in life seems to be to
corrupt everyone in town, either as political informant or as sexual partner—his particular prey
being his cousin Alex—, is a wolf, though when he brags about his sexual organ he uses the
donkey for comparison (MD, 6). Maruli, as a Sumatran generally considered to be a wild man,
refers to his own member somewhat more nobly as a ‘cock’ (MD, 114 ).
Even Alex Wheatfield has her animalistic tendency, represented as ‘an intense, female
instinct’ motivated ‘by a subconscious force’ (MD, 29). This is the unleashed rajastic desire
which leaves Alex feeling ‘cleft from crotch to belly with lust’ (MD, 80) when Maruli brings
her for a weekend of lovemaking in a hotel ‘large enough for a medium-sized dog’, where they
explore their fantasies in the ‘Dragon Room’ (MD, 82). Elsewhere, it is manifested in her
recurring dream of wild beasts tearing at each other, an image from her deep subconscious,
born of her fallen psychological state and of her experience of the anti-Chinese riots during her
first visit to Malaysia.
Interestingly, Alex is the one character who is described in anything other than animal
terms. On three occasions, each of which presents a male attitude of female inferiority, she is
associated with plants. Sinclaire calls her a ‘snapdragon’ during an argument (MD, 6). Maruli
tells her a strange animal story of how his two eldest brothers apparently murdered the Dutch
- 226 -
Brothers, who exercised dominance over them—symbolised by their demanding the gift of a
pig at Christmas each year—, as the Japanese were invading, and thereby beginning the revolt
against the Dutch. It is a story which establishes Maruli’s rise in stature from a village chief’s
younger son to national hero, but in the telling, Maruli associates Alex with the capitalist neocolonialists he hates, and, even as he professes his love and enjoys her body, he feels the same
disgust for her that he felt for the Dutch Brothers who had whipped and spied on him:
On the bed beside him Maruli saw a flicker of blue: Alex, he realised,
was only feigning sleep and was watching him. He turned to look at her and
saw her eyelids tremble. He felt revulsion for her and her kind. Her eyelids
trembled in the way the Dutch priests’ had done as they had knelt beside
Maruli in the chapel, pretending to pray but spying on the chief’s son,
watching to see if he had truly accepted the Lord.
Alex, who seems to have a cat’s luminous eyes, is given the plant association just when her
relationship with Maruli is showing signs of distrust and hatred born of rajas. The image
correlates intense sexual desire with exploitation and profound betrayal:
Alex was lying in her sarong, watching him and waiting, as the Brothers
had waited for their open-mouthed pig. Maruli pushed his hand under her
sarong and into her vulva. It was as slippery as a slice of papaya. He rolled
away from her and lay on his face on the bed.
After a few minutes he fell asleep. (MD, 85)
The papaya image is followed when Maruli tells her ‘You bend as sweetly as bamboo’.
This comes after he has announced to her the ‘marriage’ which he considers to have already
taken place—with all of the man/wife dominance/obligation associations necessarily
attendant—and presented her with her ‘wedding ring’, a tribal gold necklace which he only
wants her to keep safe for him until he needs it to finance his escape from Indonesia (MD,
114).
These ironic images of desirous papaya and graceful bamboo reveal Alex’s place in
d’Alpuget’s cosmos. Even though plants are ruled by the lower attributes of tamas, such as
greed and clinging to life, which are the bane of man’s progress towards enlightenment, Alex’s
plant associations are very attractive, especially when juxtaposed with male-chauvinistic
condescension and sexual exploitation. They tend to place Alex on the high road, yet make her
- 227 -
a victim, though, by avoiding the predominant, derogatory animal associations, Alex is usually
spared the condemnation of being one of the monkeys in the dark.
She is not always spared, however. Maruli considers her to be of degenerate education.
He embarks on her re-education, but has doubts about raising her to a more dignified level:
‘He was uncertain how far he could lead Alex to his own habits—she could suddenly shiver
with disgust and bolt, like a half-trained animal’ (MD, 47). Even here Maruli’s leading Alex
like a horse seems to make her into one, in effect dragging her down to his own animal level.
Her greatest fault would be that bendability which leaves her too prone to follow others when
her own judgement would serve her better.
This bendability, the horse associations, the abuse and victimisation are all brought
together later when Alex is to be doubly betrayed. Her cousin Sinclaire has falsified a pròces
verbal to make Alex believe that the imprisoned Maruli has only been using her to get out of
the country. Sinclaire ingratiates himself with Alex by bringing her to the market to buy
durians for Maruli, though he expects she will not bring them once he shows her the pròces
verbal. As they are leaving the market they come across a crowd of children abusing a
mutilated horse which d’Alpuget describes as ‘a monster’.
Both his back legs had been broken; he was dragging himself forward on his
front legs, his hindquarters balancing on his knee joints. Every rib was visible
and his hide was covered in weeping sores. (MD, 169)
Alex bolts from the car and attacks the children, who respond in kind, until Sinclaire
forces her back into the car. As Sinclaire points out, Alex has rejected both the foreign
community and also the Indonesians. She says she hopes she is not ‘brutalised’ by Indonesia
the way he seems to be (MD, 170). Yet, of course she is, and as if to prove both this and the
association between Alex and the horse, Sinclaire chooses to give her the pròces verbal
immediately thereafter, which has exactly the effect of lowering her sattva-related ‘goodness’
that he hopes it will. She does not see Maruli again, but lets herself fall into Sinclaire’s trap.
Alex also has the seemingly innocent habit of conversing with animals, a practice which
Poppy, her Indonesian secretary, interprets as very dangerous behaviour:
- 228 -
‘Ooooh, Miss Alex. It is very bad luck to make an animal your equal by
talking to it,’ she said. ‘We are manusia, human beings. Animals are
binatang, that is, animals. They have no souls. Therefore we should not speak
to them, or we may become like them—without soul. (MD, 45)
Poppy mentions that communists also have no souls, reminding Alex ‘of how villagers had
hunted down the communists, like wild beasts, and killed them’ (MD, 45). One communist,
nevertheless, Alex’s watchman Bagong, who even has a cat which he talks to, exhibits dharmic
traits which make this minor character worthy of Alex’s, and the readers, sympathy, and belie
Poppy’s commonly held prejudices.
Colonel James confronts Alex about her relationship with Maruli, which he deems
degenerate and contrary to Australian interests.
James models white Australian racial
prejudices, considering the Bataks, Maruli’s people, to be barely human, saying breathlessly
‘they are only one jump ahead of the New Guinea mob. Eating people until a few years ago.
Probably still do. Is that what you like? Do you like the feeling of being with a real savage, a
real blackfella, black skin and . . . ?’ Just what makes James breathless, and also establishes
his own position along the chain of being, is made clear enough. In his office, decorated with
stuffed toads, James reminds Alex that ‘part of our brains comes from reptile ancestors’ (MD,
92). He is his own proof, gripped by a hysterical fascination for human/animal copulation.
During one of his visits to a blue movie house his reptilian brain gets the better of him: ‘A fat
Mexican lady was having congress with a donkey. James cried out, as if he’d discovered the
meaning of life, “He’s wagging his tail! Look at him wagging his tail!”’ (MD, 52).
Maruli is so repeatedly compared in his looks and habits to a wolf that his affair with
Alex could also be seen as sodomy. He, appropriate for a wolf, is seen in various disguises. As
Alex’s exotic lover he is quietly ‘curled on the bed like a large black cat’ (MD, 68), but at the
sate restaurant in the wildest part of Djakarta, amongst the poor, the transvestites and the
prostitutes, he devours his food, ‘tearing the meat off the sticks with quick, animal movements’
(MD, 27). Alex finds this so repulsive that she wants to run away from him, but Maruli’s
predatory manner of eating is so terrifying that she is transfixed like a prey (MD, 27-28).
Maruli, however, is the one character who exhibits sensitivity to, and rejects for himself,
- 229 -
animal associations. Son of a Sumatran chief, he grew up on a jungle island where wild
animals were a real and constant threat, and was reared to succeed his father as chief. Alex
finds this exotic future enthralling, but Maruli scorns the life of a chieftain, whose role is ‘to
kill the buffaloes for feasts’ and to live ‘as a frog under a coconut shell’ (MD, 28).
In Maruli, d’Alpuget has created a totally enigmatic character. In spite of introducing
him as Alex’s lover, and making the reader view him as a relatively enlightened human, hardly
makes him or his political views attractive. He remains the ‘dark, stocky man’ whose hair
seems plastered to his head and has ‘deep-set, almost black’ eyes, all of which make him ugly
in a decidedly feral way (MD, 7). D’Alpuget dresses him in light blue clothes to help separate
him from the ‘dark characters’ when, at times, his actions naturally lead one to wonder about
his real intentions. Unfortunately for him, if he is a good character, it is at a time when evil
enjoys the advantage of the cycles of destiny. Maruli must fail along with his hero, Sukarno,
whose time has passed. When Alex is betrayed by Sinclaire, Maruli bears the brunt of the
consequences, being left to the caprices of his jailers, though we can suppose he will return
when times are more propitious—should he survive so long.
D’Alpuget’s beast fable fits into the Asian scheme of the universe in its fourth and final
era, dominated by evil forces and destruction. Djakarta is made out to be the natural site of this
fall of civilisation. Betjak drivers are ‘human draft animals’ (MD, 166), vegetable sellers at the
market have ‘veins like earthworms under the skin’ (MD, 168), and the night turns the most
respectable of people into animals. Somehow, d’Alpuget is telling us, here and now, this is all
totally normal:
Outside shops scribes typed letters for the illiterate; in the market raucous
gypsies in weird clothes sold cures for infertility, cancer and kidney stones, in
two sizes of bottle. And in the slums, the sprawling kampongs, there were
stranger people—women who spoke to the spirits and men who could turn
themselves into tigers. By day they worked as government clerks and rode on
bicycles. The place seemed half-real, half-fantasy, like a nightmare. And, like
a dream, it inflamed the imagination. In its disorder, everything was possible.
(MD, 16)
Just in case the animal allusions were missed or taken as accidental in the composition
of her story, d’Alpuget leaves an unmistakable clue of the archetype of her bestiary. The bar in
- 230 -
the Hotel Indonesia where the Westerners hang out is called the Ramayana Bar, and this is the
scene of the final kiss between Alex and her cousin Sinclaire, the ultimate act of betrayal and
animalistic lust. In Koch’s The Year of Living Dangerously the same bar is called the Wayang
Bar, after the Javanese Wayang Shadow Theatre in which the heroic stories out of the epic
Mahabharata are presented. The Ramayana is the second important Hindu epic, sharing with
the Mahabharata many accounts of Indian mythology, especially the stories of creation, but
also the events leading up to the great battle between the Pandavas and Kuravas, which are
among the most important of the sacred avatara myths. Geertz notes that the Ramayana
stories are also, though less frequently, presented by Javanese dance troupes in a less refined
theatrical form than the wayang kulit, whose characters are reduced to clownish behaviour. It
is partly for this reason that the Ramayana is appropriate as the model for d’Alpuget’s satiric,
Indonesian novel. Koch affirms that the bar in Jakarta’s Hotel Indonesia really was called the
Ramayana Bar (Koch, 1987, 20), and d’Alpuget could have simply been leaning on her
journalistic tendencies to stick to the facts, but there is one more significant correlation
dictating the name’s use. The Ramayana epic is about the consequences of a boon Brahma has
given to the demon Ravana, making him invincible to any foe but a human. The other gods are
very concerned by this threat to dharma and doubtful about the prospects for any human to kill
Ravana. Brahma, however, plans to have Vishnu incarnated as a human to defeat Ravana. To
help this hero, named Rama, Brahma orders all of the other gods to be reborn on earth as
monkeys and bears. D’Alpuget’s is no heroic novel, and lacks the Ramayana’s half-monkey
hero, Anoman, but it does recall its shuffling of the gunas and invoke its cast of characters
remade into animals and half-animals.
10.3.3. Sutrisno—Java’s ‘Coming Man’
Sutrisno is d’Alpuget’s most profoundly masked figure, for he has probably the most
severe disfiguration to hide. Alexandra Wheatfield’s unconventional relationship with the
intense, enigmatic businessman proves to be an education into the spiritual journey of an
‘Other’. Maruli tells Alex the history of Sutrisno, a peasant boy who had never been to school
- 231 -
but was clever, very strong and as agile as a cat, and who proved his valour by boldly stealing
rifles from the Dutch barracks. His success as an independence fighter spoiled his balance of
the gunas, however, and his humour and long hair made him a favourite of upper-class girls,
who would otherwise never have spoken to him. He became full of the passion and desire of
rajas. This complemented his natural abundance of tamas—which deprived him of the light of
sattva but gave him his earthly solidness—, and the two drove him toward an animalistic
being. When caught sleeping with the beautiful girlfriend of the group captain, Sutrisno was
offered the just choice of death or castration. Sutrisno, however, true to his dark combination
of gunas, turned justice on its head and shocked his comrades by choosing the latter. Maruli
explains to Alex how they ‘all hoped he would ask to be shot. None of us could speak,
because we loved him, and we didn't want to be the one to do it’ (MD, 64).
Sutrisno became a symbolic animal sacrifice in a ritual gone wrong. He was the
sacrificial buffalo, but, instead of at a clean and prepared temple, the sacrifice was performed
in an unclean buffalo shed that stank of animals. The other boys understood this desecration,
crying and beating their heads with their fists; Sutrisno, however, bore himself with the dignity
of a true sacrifice of Hindu tradition, squatting willingly on the floor before his accusers, like a
practical farm boy ‘thinking over the price he would accept for his goat’, accepting his fate
with honour. Yet, by failing to carry out the ritual sacrifice correctly, they reduced Sutrisno to
the level of a captive animal and destroyed the human dignity of all members of the group.
When they took him home afterwards, his mother said, ‘I had ten children—he was the
strongest baby and he is the only son left to me. Is this how you fight the Dutch?’ They were
all ashamed, and though they said, ‘It was his wish. He broke the code’, they knew that their
code was unjust. Sutrisno later rejoined the gang, but their luck had changed, and the first
night they went stealing again they were all caught. Only Sutrisno and Maruli escaped
execution. They continued fighting until independence, but neither believed in the same sense
of justice and righteousness as before. When Alex reacts with horror to the story, Maruli
responds ironically, ‘It happened a long time ago, when people were confused’ (MD, 63-64).
- 232 -
As the novel begins, the last survivor, Maruli, is the focus of Sutrisno’s wrath. This
antipathy, dvesa, is one of the five ‘hindrances’, and the cause of Sutrisno’s inability to escape
the ignorance of his crippled ego. In fact, d’Alpuget associates him more with animal images
than anyone else. As a grown man who has managed to slither into all camps of turbulent
Indonesian politics, Sutrisno is described as a snake (MD, 37). His fanatical attendance to the
physical exercise makes him strut with the barrel chest and neck of a bull (MD, 55). Sutrisno
surrounds himself with animal paraphernalia. His house glows at night from the green neon
light of a wall-length fish tank. Its walls are adorned with stuffed wild animals which hang,
fitting d’Alpuget’s theme of human—especially female—brutalisation, among pin-ups of
naked women.
Amongst his work-out equipment are ‘monkey bars’, which, except for
d’Alpuget’s animal metaphor, would be more appropriate on a children’s playground. Other
seemingly misplaced items include Sutrisno’s sexual accoutrements, for which he personally
can have no physical use, but which help ingratiate him with such powerful men as the proud,
macho General Sugeng, who visits Sutrisno to work out. These articles also help hide his own
neutering, and help him find out about such men as Thornton, whose ‘gasp of laughter’ at a
male figure with ‘an outsized erect penis’ gives away his homosexuality to Sutrisno long
before it becomes clear to anyone else (MD, 36-37).
In the Asian scheme of things, this devotion to his physical being makes Sutrisno a man
who has chosen the human characteristics which resemble those of an animal (tamas and rajas)
over those of a god (sattva), and he is a character who neither deserves nor gets much
sympathy. D’Alpuget makes it clear that he has led himself down the path of darkness. One of
Sutrisno’s friends, General Djaya, an honourable soldier and Moslem, if also an administrator
in a corrupt regime, sees Sutrisno as a necessary sort of man for the state, but feels ‘distaste for
Sutrisno whose soul was trapped by the lower forces of the material world’ (MD, 118). And
yet, Alex empathises with Sutrisno’s brutalisation, and this shared experience draws the two
together.
He narrowly escapes a fully deserved assassination attempt which leaves him
physically wounded, politically embarrassed and economically disabled, but no one, neither
- 233 -
admirers nor adversaries, doubts he will survive.
Recognising that every individual
experiences the successes and failures of each of the levels of existence, d’Alpuget excuses
Sutrisno’s lamentable life. Once he has been humbled by the assassination attempt, Alex
comes to him for help to see and secure the release of Maruli, and d’Alpuget puts him in a
different light:
Alex thought at first he was another servant, then recognized Sutrisno’s
strutting walk. He was bare-footed and wearing the sarong in which he had
been praying; his great crest of hair was hidden beneath his prayer cap. His
throat was still bandaged.
Seeing the bandage Alex felt a pang of sympathy. For the first time he
seemed fully human, even dignified. (MD, 155)
This final act of grace is deserved as Sutrisno has survived a series of tests culminating
in the attempted decapitation, the metaphor for spiritual disjunction which d’Alpuget fully
exploits in Turtle Beach. In Asian terms, the beheading also represents a correction of the
impious ritual sacrifice of his youth. The wheel of time has come back round, Sutrisno is
released from his animal furies, and able to attend to his spirituality. It also signals the
downturn of fortune in Alex’s spiritual journey, but as she is travelling in unison with her
cousin Sinclaire, this topic is dealt with in the next chapter.
10.3.4. D’Alpuget’s ‘Conflict between Differing Consciences’
In an analysis which a modern Hindu could read as describing the psychological effects
of an imbalanced combination of the gunas, Antonella Riem presents an interesting critique of
the interior violence in the character of Judith Wilkes of Turtle Beach. Riem explores the
masks which Judith wears to hide the emptiness of her soul, and demonstrates how d’Alpuget
manipulates the reactions of her readers to the various masks, and forces them to question their
own attitudes towards Asian and Western cultures and societies, which are formed, after all, by
the masks the readers themselves wear. Riem says that d’Alpuget ‘wants to portray a “conflict
between two differing consciences”, as a means to analyse different “cultures” or societies’
(Riem, 170). At the same time, she is describing d’Alpuget’s portrayal of the differing views
of just what the masks represent. The conflict seems fundamentally, once again, to be that,
- 234 -
while for an Easterner the masks one wears obscure the reality of the self, for a Westerner the
masks are the self.
Typical of the Western construction of masks meant to complete the sense of self is the
‘middle-aged, and fetichistically lecherous’ Sir Adrian Hobday. Hobday, whose reputation had
been as a straight-laced and conventional career diplomat, is obsessed with hermaphroditism,
and ‘is able to indulge himself with Minou (who sometimes wears a hat with Hermes wings)
because he feels that she is that other half of himself which can make him complete.
Significantly, with the death of Minou half of his body also dies’ (McKeogh, 35). Hobday has
in effect crippled himself by basing his personality on masks which are beyond his ability to
preserve.
Judith Wilkes’ outermost mask is that of the ‘strong-willed, independent, self-sufficient
and successful woman’ (Riem, 171). Her marriage is held to be an ideal one in Australian
society—she, the immediately recognised journalist; he, the rising political figure; their two
children; the suburban home; et cetera. Underneath this, however, Riem points out how, when
d’Alpuget shifts the scene to Malaysia, the reader comes to realise that Judith is a personal and
emotional failure. Judith is haunted by the event Riem calls her ‘original sin’, the short but
intense sexual affair, and by the ‘contaminating’ contact with the violent race riots in Malaysia,
which ‘provoke a lack of harmony in her own world, a lack of “at-one-ment” that will
gradually disrupt her life, her marriage, and the positive aspects’ of her personality (Riem,
171). The result of this is that she has become intellectually, emotionally, and sexually frigid.
Though she feels how important her ‘sin’ weighs on her, after she tries to gain ‘atonement’ by
confessing it to a priest, her ‘self-willed “social” side’ publicly ridicules ‘her “frail” self’ for
seeking the help it desperately needs. This reaction ‘is very witty and socially appreciable, it
adheres perfectly to the image she has built for herself, but’, Riem writes, ‘it also mirrors the
emptiness behind her mask’ (Riem, 171). Judith has chosen sides in the struggle between
different layers of her personality, as positivist Western society teaches her to do. She
commits herself to the masks she believes are better, and suppresses the rest, where an
- 235 -
Easterner like Kanan or Minou would recognise each mask as a screen superimposed over the
soul—certainly giving the self substance and voice, but no more—, acknowledge each as
illusory, and maintain some ambivalence towards them all.
The priest’s response to Judith’s attempted confession, that her sin was ‘against
yourself’ and will bring ‘nothing but sorrows and more sins’ (TB, 54), was, in fact, right on the
money. His repeated tag-question, ‘d’you understand?’, emphasises Judith’s ‘inability, or
unwillingness, to understand anything that goes beyond or beneath her “known” and safe
world’ (Riem, 172). When Kanan tries to explain basically the same thing in his own words,
‘Power over yourself is the only power’ (TB, 153), Judith rebukes him as well, and reiterates
her steadfast misunderstanding as if it were a principle, and yet she is rejecting the very
underlying principles of the feminism which she believes she is maintaining.
It is at this point, Riem argues, that ‘our “sympathies” as readers start slowly to move
away from Judith’. D’Alpuget provides other personalities, other points of view, and ‘differing
consciences’ for those sympathies (Riem, 172). Kanan especially, the professor of Indian
history, a man of deep spiritual instincts, who can express without fear his love for both
Judith—his lover—and Ralph—his drinking partner. Kanan ‘is the perfect counterpoint to
Judith, both on the socio-cultural and psychological levels’ (Riem, 172). He is a man of deep
insight, who ‘can know and understand others because he knows and understands himself’, a
capacity Judith and the other Westerns, who, at best, know only the most superficial of their
masks, do not share. Riem notes how d’Alpuget’s ‘omniscient’ narrator ironically identifies
Kanan’s recognition of his ability ‘to read the human heart’ as vanity.
While Kanan ‘has reached, through Yogic meditation, that still, unshakable inner centre
where everything is perfect and pure—universal consciousness—the pure inner source’, Judith
remains stubbornly caught in her misunderstanding, both attracted to his ‘distracting beauty’
and angered by his beliefs, which she considers ‘superlative garbage’ while inevitably pointing
out her own lack of ‘at-one-ment’ (Riem, 174). In contrast, d’Alpuget develops the similarities
of philosophical bearing between Kanan and Minou, and does so principally to emphasise the
- 236 -
differences between ‘Eastern and Western attitudes towards life, religious feelings and cultural
inheritances’ (Riem, 175).
D’Alpuget has brought her Western readership through a ‘journey of the soul’ which,
Riem says, would normally have been taken by the protagonist. Judith has not gone along, and
‘does not even attempt to understand’, while Western readers, who might, like Judith, still
misjudge ‘Kanan’s calm as cynicism or indifference’, will nevertheless have progressed to a
point where they can understand his point of view. D’Alpuget has ‘unveiled the relativity of
the values we tend to consider as “universal”’, and helps us understand that ‘“conscience”
defines a culture’ (Riem, 177). This explains why Minou’s death and Judith’s rage at Kanan’s
inaction is so unsettling. Western readers are trained from birth to identify with Judith and see
her as right, and yet d’Alpuget makes us feel how shallow and wrong she is.
Those who would jump on Kanan’s bandwagon, however, to drink up his expression of
Eastern wisdom, which d’Alpuget sanctions with a reputation of integrity, have to admit that
he too is compromised. His inability to respond to a public insult might be explained as an
Asian’s way of dealing with loss of face, but his falsifying of exam results to suit the postindependence system, and his enthusiastic participation at the Thaipusam religious festivities
which he openly disparages, are hardly the actions of a man of who merits unquestioned
attention (McKeogh, 35). ‘Every facet of life in Turtle Beach is flawed’, McKeogh writes, ‘so
the reader ought to be suspicious of everything said or described’ (McKeogh, 36), and perhaps
the reader’s also own instinctive response must be held as dubious, for, McKeogh argues,
Blanche d’Alpuget has adopted the position that an unbiased point of view is
impossible. One must agree. No one is capable of having a point of view
which is totally independent of that person’s culture and background.
Therefore it must be biased. Judgement is up to the reader who must identify,
as far as possible, his or her own bias. (McKeogh, 37)
Let this be writ large, however. The reader must identify his or her own bias not because the
author is dead but because d’Alpuget will not let him shirk this responsibility. The voice she
gives to Judith Wilkes, which immediately gains the sympathy of her Western readers, is
paired with the articulation she gives to characters like Minou and Kanan, who express
- 237 -
d’Alpuget’s deep awareness of the Eastern concepts of self. The juxtaposition of these two
antagonistic elements in Turtle Beach then becomes a subtle but shocking critique of the
inability of the Western consciousness to get beyond the masks and know itself beyond the
shallow and staged pleasantries it is so used to and which function so well in the modern,
Western world. Depend on Blanche d’Alpuget to make a direct and hard slap in the face of her
paying readership.
10.4. Koch’s Masks
C. J. Koch similarly exploits this metaphor of the effects of the gunas, and focuses on
how they help or hinder the unmasking of the self. His company of characters includes those
who have been ‘brutalised’ in much the same way as d’Alpuget’s characters; others whose
self-awareness is stymied by their layers of masks; some who literally relish in their masks;
and a very few who come to comprehend in at least a limited way, and then act to realise, the
true reality of the unmasked soul. The eclectic approach Koch employs in moulding his
characters and themes from sources as widely apart as Lewis Carroll, Rudyard Kipling, and
Hindu philosophy and literature, etc., makes an analysis of his method necessarily a bit chaotic.
For this reason, this topic has already been discussed in previous sections relating Koch with
the Alice in Wonderland books, 1984, the wayang kulit and The Reincarnation of Rama, the
Divine Feminine, and the Bhagavad Gita. This section will complete the look at the specific
masks of his most important characters, excluding those of Billy Kwan and Guy Hamilton
which are covered in the next chapter.
10.4.1. Koch’s ‘Dehumanising Search for Paradise’
Among the most striking similarities one notices in Koch and d’Alpuget’s novels is their
treatment of the theme of ‘brutalisation’ of individuals through the deleterious effects of an
imbalance in the three gunas. Koch condemns the atheistic communists as soulless dogs (YLD,
199), reporting that Aidit, the PKI leader, will ‘be hunted down like an animal, and killed’ after
the failed coup (YLD, 282). Pete Curtis, the successful journalist who cannot step out of the
shadow of Wally O’Sullivan, is transformed by his anger and frustration into an ill-humoured
- 238 -
lecher who dares the demonic prostitutes to get him when he takes Hamilton to the cemetery
(YLD, 179), shouting at Hamilton in terms of the thin screen separating the two worlds of the
wayang kulit to roll his window up to keep them out (YLD, 196). Finally, ‘furiously hunting
some sort of destruction’, Curtis disappears into the hell of the burgeoning war in Vietnam
(YLD, 182-83).
Koch applies this dehumanisation to his variations on the Australian themes of the clash
of antagonistic worlds and the search for paradise. Cookie has only one photograph of the
group of correspondents. Taken by Kwan, it shows Hamilton and Cookie pedalling tricyclerickshas which they have taken over from the betjak boys in Jalan Thamrin.
Cookie’s
passenger is ‘Great Wally, hands on monumental knees, chins held high, looking, in his
straining tropical suit, like a figure from the remote Far-Eastern era of Hamilton’s nostalgia: a
Somerset Maugham character, perhaps’.
Hamilton is pedalling ‘Kevin Condon, whose
sheepish smile is that of a good schoolboy who knows he should not be here’. The ‘dog-eared
photograph’, lending attention to two directions at once, shows Cookie ‘not just our lost
charade, but Indonesia’s double face: its enormous hopelessness; its queer jauntiness’ (YLD,
58).
It enables Cookie to step back in time, and, guided by his imagination, to flip
nostalgically through the layers of masks of the characters as to Indonesia itself.
Koch has in all of his novels interwoven the themes of the wearing of masks and of the
search for an idealised world. Sharrad writes that the ‘balance between ideal and illusion,
enchantment and reality is a delicate one, and Koch’s protagonists are often exercised trying to
bring together the elusive power of dream and the compelling weight of the everyday world’
(Sharrad, 1985, 66). And yet, they and the other characters are also often doing just the
opposite. Koch parallels the destructive effects of donning masks of personality with those of
searching for a paradise in the natural, i.e. the illusory, world, saying that by making ‘illusions
more important than reality, you will be drained of vitality; you will lose your ability to live’
(Thieme, 1986, 22).
- 239 -
The most efficient of such masks is that worn by Great Wally, the famous correspondent
who commands the unwavering respect of all in the ‘Wayang Club’, hiding what Cookie calls
‘Wally’s secret obsession’. Wally’s monumental stature is not just a physical apparition. Pete
Curtis, the most competitive of all in the Wayang, defers to Wally as the only real ‘journalist:
the rest of us were just reporters’ (YLD, 59), though no one quite knows how Wally gets his
stories, ensconced, as he ever is, firmly on his stool in the Wayang Bar. This profoundly
enigmatic man must hide his self behind the veil of respectability while indulging in the most
forbidden of taboos in the mid-sixties. He exhibits no homosexual or pederastic traits, and
clothes his passions with an eating mania, two obsessions which Southeast Asia gives Wally
the unique chance to combine.
He romanticises his relationships with the young male
prostitutes in Singapore, saying, ‘I felt like André Gide discovering the beautiful Arab boys’
(YLD, 60), though in nearly the same breath he admits, ‘I’m living on the edge of a volcano’
(YLD, 59).
Kevin Condon, whose fetish is driving around the kampongs searching for exposed
breasts, is a heterosexual soulmate of Wally O’Sullivan’s. Cookie says ‘he was in love with
his own frustration, and visual images of the unattainable were, I guessed, at least as important
to him as physical consummation’. Condon can not bring himself to enjoy the prostitutes at
the cemetery like Pete Curtis, for he is ‘looking for a sexual Eden in Java which could not be
entered for money’. The ever-sympathetic Cookie says, ‘I often wished the green bronze
nymph at the edge of the Oasis pool would come to life for him’. Like Wally, Condon is
aware of the irrationality of his passion. Though Cookie judges him a ‘humourless, finicky
man, essentially conformist in every way’ his ‘humility made him aware that his own
earnestness was amusing to us: he would play up to our mockery, caricaturing himself’ in both
the innocent and lecherous masks he wore.
He would say, ‘I got the most marvellous
photograph today, Cookie—the boobs were immense’, and with ‘dog-like eyes’ he would plead
for a respite from the fact that ‘you can never get to know one of the women’. Then, to
- 240 -
suggestions he visit the cemetery he would respond with a virtuous look, ‘I’ve got no desire for
a dose like that madman Curtis’ (YLD, 61).
President Sukarno is the unanimously recognised central player/puppet master who
created ‘a theatre of romantic-revolutionary euphoria’ to spellbind himself no less than his
people (YLD, 8). Identifying Sukarno early on as a god-figure, Wally O’Sullivan admits
facetiously to Billy Kwan,
‘No one realises better than I do that the Bung is a god.’
‘So he is, to the villagers,’ Kwan said. ‘Have you ever seen him arrive into a
village in his white helicopter? To them he’s Vishnu, coming down from
heaven in his magic car.’ (YLD, 12)
Great Wally, as ringleader of the Wayang Bar clique endowed with the honorific duty, invokes
the many names of Sukarno (YLD, 12-13), following tradition of the Bhagavad Gita and The
Reincarnation of Rama as of most heroic literature. Names and titles are affixed to everything
in The Year of Living Dangerously, from characters to places to years, to raise or reduce them
in status, ever reaffirming their importance in the immediate scheme of things, and discretely
veiling their true, changeless nature. Wally’s sarcastic performance, which demeans the
appellations and the man, becomes twisted reality when Sukarno, who in d’Alpuget’s novel
warned Indonesians of becoming ‘monkeys in the dark’, literally reduces the entire population
of Jakarta to a subhuman level by squandering the nation’s wealth and then calling for
konfrontasi to be turned against Indonesians themselves. This is his cataclysmic banting stir,
the ‘absolute change’, a call for adharma to overthrow dharma in order to create a completely
mad world overwhelmed by rajas and tamas, where men behave like animals, devouring each
other and then themselves to satisfy their ravenous hunger. Sukarno, who ceases his god-like
visits to his people in the pasar but continues his own lavish lifestyle, councils his starving
people to solve the severe problem of Jakarta’s rat infestation by eating the rats. Cookie
eventually recognises Sukarno as ‘almost inhuman in his sun-glasses and pitji’, the ‘mask-like
props’ which had earlier invested him with such dignity (YLD, 222). Billy also reluctantly
concludes that Sukarno has forsaken his humanity, and, rather than being the hoped-for avatar
of Vishnu, has allied himself to ‘the beast’ (YLD, 242).
- 241 -
Billy Kwan is thinking of Satan himself, an extreme case of the apocalyptic scenario in
the novel, but all of Koch’s Australian protagonists find themselves in an Asian landscape
teeming with unruly spirits and minor demons. Guy Hamilton is intrigued by the indigenous
quarter where they seem to be emerging from the underworld: ‘He liked Pasar Baru, even in
this time of increasing violence. From the cave entrances of shops, shopkeepers smiled and
muttered invitations, like emissaries of damnation’ (YLD, 232). Cookie sees them in the
faces—European and Indonesian—looking down on Billy’s body in the Hotel Indonesia
arcade, and notices how some ‘wore inexplicable smiles. So there really are devils in human
form, I thought’ (YLD, 250). The earth, normally the realm of men, animals and plants, has
been invaded by these demons who should have their own place in the Triple World. Even
inanimate objects are vitalised with spirits under these conditions of adharma.
At the
gruesome mutilation and execution of the generals at Crocodile Hole, the most graphic
description of the work of bloodthirsty Goddess Kali, Cookie says of the landing lights of the
airport: the ‘blue lights watch, like evil spirits’ (YLD, 270).
Cookie is one of the exceptional characters in Koch’s novels in that he is not cited for
suffering the dehumanising effects of the masks, at least not beyond an undeveloped depressive
character and a drinking problem. In his dual role as the father confessor and narrator of The
Year of Living Dangerously, Cookie understands and wears the masks better than any other.
He learns hidden truths from the others, supplementing the information he has from his own
experience and Billy Kwan’s files. He then assumes the function of the dalang, who provides
the wayang kulit’s two-tiered narrative. Talking of the Wayang Bar, the journalists’ refuge
from the theatre of confrontation on the outside, Cookie says in his djanturan voice that under
konfrontasi all Westerners had entered a realm of insanity where their personalities were worn
like the masks of ancient Greek drama. ‘We carried our white faces through the streets like
ridiculous badges’, he says, and after the stories were filed
we retreated gratefully to the Wayang, a foreigner’s bar in a foreigner’s hotel,
out of reach of all but the most wealthy and powerful Indonesians. Off-stage,
in these cool hours, we could be ourselves, no longer men in white masks
(YLD, 9).
- 242 -
And yet, Cookie describes the Wayang Bar for its ‘artificially heightened good fellowship’ and
its resemblance to the Shadow Theatre from which it got its name, repeatedly making it clear
that the wearing of masks does not end at the entrance to the Wayang Bar.
Cookie claims to dislike his father-confessor role, and says it is simply his being a
lapsed Catholic with good listening habits which makes him fit the part. There is, however, a
need for someone to wear a father-figure mask among the Wayang colleagues, whose
‘isolation from normal life and the day-to-day uncertainty of their position prompted them to
self-revelation’ in the Wayang, ‘with its changeless red candles flickering at intervals around
the black mirror-surface of the bar’—the wayang kulit ambience which seems to Cookie an
appropriate ‘confession-box’ (YLD, 57). Cookie then waits some ten years, time to remove the
masks he would have been wearing in the heat of the moment and assume with relish the mask
of the wayang kulit’s dalang, which allows him to assemble from a hilltop farm in dry, cool,
southeast Australia the story of Billy Kwan and Guy Hamilton’s search for soul and self and
paradise.
Paradise, of course, is not a place, but is the state of the perfectly unmasked soul.
Koch’s protagonists pursue paradise fully ignorant of this, however, and this is especially
dangerous in the environment of the cataclysm of Southeast Asia of the 1960s. One might be
led to look for a paradise in drugs, which Koch called ‘a way of trying to get a visionary
experience on the cheap’ (Thieme, 1986, 21), and which he deals with in many scenes, though
perhaps more succinctly in Highways to a War when Mike Langford is accosted by his street
children begging him not to go into the La Bohème opium bar to seek release from the pain of
the war (HW, 197). The clique of journalists have long, orgiastic feasts with drug spiced foods.
Such experiences, which represent for them the best of times in old Phnom Penh, are, however,
inevitably dehumanising, as Koch shows when the irascible but eloquent Trever Griffiths
appears to Harvey Drummond with a horrifying mask. His ‘dark eyes shine and insist in the
old way, and his paper-white face works with the old inner fury. But as I watch, his face
becomes a huge Assyrian mask, with glossy black beard and ringlets, filling my vision.’ It is
- 243 -
the effect of the marihuana in the couscous affecting Drummond, but ‘the merciless Assyrian
king who is Griffiths continues to sit in the darkness in front of me, his eyes flashing anger and
death and pillage’, and wearing the ‘high cone-shaped cap’ of a wizard.
Paul Sharrad notes the parallel with the episode of Odysseus and Circe, writing that
through the growth in self-awareness Koch’s protagonists can achieve ‘a breaking of the
enchantment of the imperial Circe’ (Sharrad, 1985, 65). Sharrad equates the illusions born of
colonialist prejudices with those of the enchantress who turned Odysseus’ men into swine.
Koch has given Circe free rein with the gunas to make Sukarno into a god, then a man, a
caterpillar and finally a demon; Wally into a cannibalistic, pederastic walrus; the intellectual,
Buddha-like Billy Kwan into variously a rabbit, cat or lizard, and then into an unreasoning
madman; plus, Koch names the ever-horny but sheepishly shy Condon to sound like ‘condom’;
and Curtis, who is always hiring the services of whores, like ‘coitus’—and all for neglecting
the truth of their souls. The movement in this age of darkness is typically from the light of
sattva to the dark of tamas, and is typified by the rajas which makes the individuals desire the
stupefaction of Circe’s wine. And yet, as Sharrad suggests, those who can release themselves
from the stereotypes and attitudes inherited from the Empire and nurtured in Australia might
neutralise Circe’s potion, regain their humanity, and, Koch and d’Alpuget add, with the
discipline, concentration and self-awareness of a Hindu ascetic, perhaps something even more
than that.
10.4.2. The Masks of Evil
An Easterner is less likely than a Westerner to separate evil characters from good ones.
‘Evil’ itself is, in the Hindu sense, simply adharma, the absence of righteous cosmic order.
Evil has its proponents, however. Foremost of these are the demons, who are engaged in an
endless struggle for cosmic supremacy with the gods, whose interest lies in maintaining
dharma, the righteous order of the universe. Mankind’s role in the struggle is critical. Men
must maintain their link with the gods through sacrifice and their righteous thought and action,
else the demons might gain the upper hand and overthrow the cosmic order. As such, while
- 244 -
men (and sometimes animals and plants) are not properly seen as ‘good’ or ‘evil’, they are
proxies of either good or evil. Koch, like d’Alpuget, puts on centre stage these important
Eastern concepts of the agents of lightness and of darkness, and the de-humanising effects of
unrighteousness.
10.4.2.1. The Crow
Koch’s principle metaphor for evil is a lightless spirit which is accompanied or heralded
by a carnivorous crow. The first appearance of the crow is in Across the Sea Wall, where in
Madras the old stone and stucco buildings of the British Raj stand like tombstones, themselves
impaled with unbecoming telephone poles. The verandas, under latticed arches inscribed with
India, are already occupied by the ‘crows which were everywhere, like semi-humorous
messengers of doom’. In front of these metaphors of the fallen empire are the commercial
stalls which Koch calls ‘the real city’, displaying ‘framed, gaudy pictures which looked from a
distance like erotica, but proved close up to be the gods: Shiva, Vishnu, Kali’. The crows have
feasted on the imperial carcass, and are waiting for their time to descend on the world which is
well on its way to degeneration in its garish display of the falling gods, while ‘a soft yet
penetrating voice’ promises to the worst in men, ‘Everything for nothing here’ (ASW, 90).
In The Year of Living Dangerously Koch focuses on a variant of this metaphor of evil,
again first seen in Across the Sea Wall, the trishaws which follow the central characters, ‘like
creaking birds’, and promising, ‘Yes sar—I take you anywhere!’ (ASW, 90). They become the
swarming betjaks, the bicycle rickshaws of Jakarta, one in particular which bears the
inauspicious name, Tengah Malam: Midnight. In Highways to a War the trishaw/betjaks
return as ‘cyclos’. When Mike Langford and the other correspondents are going to Madame
Dauphine’s opium den, the ‘Cyclo boys wheeled towards us in a flock, and the party began to
climb into the black-hooded machines with shouts and laughter’ (HW, 243). The journalists
are ignoring, however, the ultimate destination of the crow-like vehicles. In a scene which
parallels one in The Year of Living Dangerously, when Guy Hamilton and Billy Kwan are
shadowed by the black betjak during their walk (YLD, 19-24), Langford takes such a lustful
- 245 -
cyclo for his first visit to Madame Claudine Phan’s home. ‘The cyclo boy wanted to wait, but
Langford told him to go, and paid him off. They boy pedalled slowly away under the
streetlights, looking back with lingering reproach’ (HW, 123). Even when using the cyclo for a
more respectable purpose, it waits hungrily for the opportunity to take its client to hell. These
crows have made themselves known to Mike Langford since his youth on the Tasmanian farm
when ‘The ancient, baby voices of crows complained always in the heat’ (HW, 21). This
malevolent, conspiratory heat later torments Harvey Drummond who reports, ‘My head ached
from the weight of my helmet, and the heat began to seem malignant to me, like a secret
weapon of the Viet Cong’ (HW, 173). The crows, heat, and dried-out landscape are leitmotifs
which recall the forbidding Australian outback and which are even waiting on the edges of the
shadows to pick away at the remaining bits of humanity when the light is extinguished.
In an especially apt vision in a Cambodia about to be sucked into the darkness, Trever
Griffiths pays tribute to another evil bird, the B-52:
The supreme vehicle of death! Flies as high as fifty thousand feet, with a
range of twelve thousand miles. Bombs inside; bombs under the wings.
Beautiful as an eagle. At that height, it can’t even be seen: you know nothing
until the bombs arrive. The crew of a B-52 are innocent: they do not see what
they do. But down here, villages disappear into chasms, trees go down like
grass, and the noise can make you lose your mind. Terrible beauty, brothers!’
(HW, 239).
Griffiths does not get much support from the other journalists, not even for his fitting allusion
to W. B. Yeats’ ‘Easter 1916’, but his interpretation proves close enough when the Soldiers
Three experience a B-52 bombing raid. Though a few miles from the target, Jim Feng finds
himself clinging to the earth which ‘heaved in a huge spasm’ as
a roar engulfed us unlike anything I’d ever known. I’d never imagined such a
sound. It was not a sound, it was something beyond sound; it opened a gaping
hole in the world and in my head, making my mind cry out in terror, making
the whole world rock and sway. The palms and bigger trees nearby were
bending like grass. (HW, 312)
Griffiths hardly seems to deserve the horrifying ancient Assyrian mask Drummond imagines
him wearing, but this is what Koch says happens when in an ‘age of nihilism, which this one
clearly is, the impulse to good is perverted, coming out in various forms of fanaticism’. Men
- 246 -
want to do good, he argues, but ‘they encounter all sorts of monsters that try to tempt them’
(Mitchell, 1996, Interview, 72). The real monster is not Griffiths, but it does find in Griffiths’
vehement criticism of American policy in Vietnam a vehicle for infiltrating Drummond’s
mind.
Another such vehicle for the infiltration of evil is the crow-like vagrant Luke Goddard,
who was also at Langford’s farm, living in a shack which smelled ‘like the den of an animal’
(HW, 52). He ‘had always been the carrier of some malicious intention’ (HW, 55), and
‘seemed not to be human, but instead to be a black spirit in the landscape, passing with bent
head’. Goddard is the first of the ‘Black Ghosts’ who Langford captures in his camera, and
also the first to disturb him in his sleep, when
in his dark jacket, he came into Mike’s dreams. He came through the window
of the sleepout and tugged at the counterpane, trying to draw Mike out into the
night of a hundred years ago. And now his stern face had changed: it was
young, noble and refined: a dark prince of the air. (HW, 52)
Goddard is Langford’s first evil tormentor. He follows Langford who is courting his
first love, Maureen Maguire, the farm-worker’s daughter, threatens to expose them to his
father, and finally rapes the girl, leading to her family’s disappearance and causing the
psychological turmoil which will eventually lead Langford into Asia. Goddard’s part in the
novel is limited, however, as he does not really belong to its period, but is somehow connected
with it through the distant past, associated perhaps with the Aboriginal sense of the Dreamtime
in opposition to the Western sense of history, and with the Indian theme of reincarnation within
the literary tradition of a good character being bedevilled through a series of lives by an evil
one. For Langford, Goddard remains an image of his memory, strongly connected with the
stinging nettles of the dusty gully on the farm: ‘Like stained and mildewed cloth, their smell
itself stained, the dark green weeds recalled something terrible: something in an ancient life
that had to be paid for’ (HW, 51). Goddard, the crows and trishaws are not so much evil in
themselves as they are heralds of the turn of the wheel of time, recalling the failings of men to
perform their duties to preserve the scheme of dharma, and announcing the coming age of
adharma, when they shall scavenge the remains of evil’s destruction.
- 247 -
10.4.2.2. The ‘People Over There’, and the War on the Edge of Reality
Mike Langford makes new contact with the evil figures when he arrives in Indochina.
At first, he expects he has found them in the Viet Cong, but then realises that while the people
sometimes call them the Black Ghosts, the real demons are not these soldiers:
When I filmed these dead VC close up, their faces surprised me. I’d imagined
them as some sort of demon, I suppose. But instead, lying there in their black
pyjamas and those crude rubber sandals they make out of car tyres, they had
faces just like those of the ARVN troops. Very young: peasant boys. (HW,
143)
The VC are very much like the ARVN soldiers Langford goes into the field with and
gains mutual respect for. They are better called ‘The People Over There’ as Koch gives them
generally positive while ambiguous presentation, but they are caught up in the chaos of
adharma welling over Southeast Asia. Harvey Drummond experiences this breakdown of
reality during a firefight. He finds himself running without direction, surrounded by the
whining and cracking of bullets, exploding mines, shouting and cursing, and falling bodies
strewing the earth, until he along with all of reality loses identity:
I was no longer Harvey Drummond; I was an anonymous dreamer, the
landscape of whose dream kept maliciously breaking up, while he tried to get
back to the place where he’d left his real life behind. Pebbles and pick dust
and emerald leaves were all in bits, in disconnected fragments, bright and
precise, flying by me. I’d lost the Soldiers Three, and badly wanted to find
them. (HW, 174)
The world becomes a battleground from which he and the others on the ground seem
unconnected. The warriors are insects, some invisible, others ‘insidiously throbbing’, and the
scene is dominated by the orange and yellow colours which Koch repeatedly uses to symbolise
the world of dream and irreality.
Helicopter gunships had now appeared over the trees, insidiously
throbbing, searching like intelligent insects, spraying the invisible VC with
fire. Other choppers were dropping smoke grenades to mark the VC position,
and lurid orange and yellow smoke clouds began to fill the clearing, making it
like an outrageous fairground. (HW, 174)
The war in Indochina is not like other wars. It is fought on that edge of reality which,
Koch writes, transgresses the barriers of the looking-glass. The images are typically of a
horrendous typhoon coming out of another reality, ‘a nightmare vagueness, and this dry, huge,
- 248 -
empty, yellow-and-green dish of land, under these towering clouds, was the axis of that
vagueness, hiding the black-clad Others’ (HW, 225).
There are the ever-present
‘contemptuous; even malevolent’ onlookers, the cyclo drivers and the ‘Unsmiling Chinese
waiters in white shirts and black trousers’ who are also present in the Wayang Bar in The Year
of Living Dangerously, and who ‘stand like sentinels around the walls, watching us’ (HW,
234). Koch repeatedly gives us Westerners watching Asians watching Westerners, and it is to
emphasise the ambiguities in determining which are agents of good and which of evil, and to
remind the reader of the interrelation in the identity of self and other.
10.4.2.3. The Ogres
The Americans are recognised more as victims of the war of adharma than forces for it,
yet their bombs clearly serve the demons’ purpose of bringing unnatural terror to the world.
Captain Danh compares the Americans to demons by trying to be gods and upsetting dharma,
though the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong have learned through their righteousness to avoid
the bombs which the Americans believe will win the war.
So the Americans are deluded. They sit in the sky like gods pressing buttons.
But when we shoot them down over Hanoi, they don’t look like gods. Wars
are won on the earth, in the end—and this is our earth. (HW, 415)
The Americans come closest to the ranks of demons with the fall of Saigon, amidst a scene
dominated by madness and darkness. Jim Feng remembers how ‘Thousands of people were
hammering at the closed gates and on the walls with their fists, demanding, pleading,
weeping’. The city had lost its power supply and was bearing the collapse under the dark and
rain. The American helicopters come in, Koch’s soulless insects, to evacuate a lucky few and
thoughtlessly abandon the rest to the descending wheel of fate:
the whirring and beating of twin rotors filled the blackness, and the choppers
hovered and tilted, the glaring white lights in their noses guiding them down.
Young Vietnamese climbed the walls and made it to the top, but the big
Marine guards kicked and fought them off. Other Marines lobbed tear gas
canisters into the crowd. What are you doing? I thought. You came here long
ago to help them against their enemies; how can you do this to them now?
(HW, 415)
- 249 -
The help promised by the kasar Americans is proving to be as faithless as Aubrey Hardwick
had predicted it would be (HW, 92), and the Western aliens who had carpet-bombed their land
were now beating their retreat to the dismay of the South Vietnamese:
And these people had now faced the fact that what they most wanted
they were never going to have: they would never be lifted out by one of those
giant green choppers that were the only things that could save them. All they
could do now was to watch the white lights that kept on coming down through
the dark, like lights from another world ... . I heard that they were still there at
dawn, watching the sky. They were waiting for the helicopters that were only
in their minds, coming to rescue them from tomorrow. (HW, 415-16)
To call the Americans here kasar is confusing novels, but it remains appropriate in
Koch’s interpretation of Asian literary tradition to apply the Javanese concept of alus and
kasar and to avoid Western distinctions of good and evil. What is important as far as Koch’s
presentation of the Americans is concerned comes out of the way he handles them according to
the rules governing the ogres of the wayang kulit. Phillip Cowie argues that the forces of the
PKI, whose beliefs and political support come from an ‘overseas kingdom’, ‘represent the
ultimate despicable side of creation, i.e. the wayang ogre element’ (Cowie, 88). This would,
however, equate the indigenous Wayang of the Left with the foreign ogres, which is simply not
logical. It is the Americans who fit the ogre role in Koch’s novels. They play no major roles,
and seem to be the most foreign of the foreigners, avoiding direct contact with the indigenous
peoples as much as possible, significantly by not learning their languages. Some of them are
the physically strongest figures, and they come from a powerful foreign land, but they lack the
most basic refined characteristics of speech and behaviour. This makes the Americans the
personification of badness, if not downright evil. This is the one point upon which all the
Asians (and most other Westerners) in the novels can agree, no matter how antagonistic they
are with each other. These are all characteristics borrowed from the Javanese Shadow Theatre:
If there is a purely “bad” side in wajang it is the ogres, non-Javanese who
reside “overseas” in foreign lands and who embody every trait detestable in
Javanese eyes. Their coarse bodies bulge obscenely, they are smelly and badmannered, they shout and leap about unthinkingly, they stare with open eyes
and gaping mouths. Their kings may be described as brave and powerful, …
But the typical ogre … has no redeeming feature. (Brandon, 19-20)
- 250 -
What must not be forgotten, however, is that even Bima, the powerful brother of Arjuna and
Judistira Pandava, is himself half ogre, yet the three together make up the perfect combination
of dharmic qualities. This saves the Americans from an abysmal characterisation, as does the
fact that Koch has other characters, non-existent in the wayang but present in the cataclysm of
Southeast Asia, who really are the personification of evil. The Khmer Rouge are—or at least
are fully possessed by—the demons of the Hindu Triple World. Before discussing the Khmer
Rouge, however, it would be useful to distinguish them from the other communist fighters in
the war in Vietnam and Cambodia.
10.4.2.4. Vietnamese Forces of dharma
The NVA and VC are also caught up in the firestorm of the cosmic cataclysm, but Koch
again follows the manner of the wayang kulit in giving them varying degrees of refined and
unrefined characteristics. While the mostly undefined VC are, like the Khmer Rouge, clearly
aligned with the demons and forces for adharma, their vague portrayal leaves them outside of
Koch’s condemnation, and in death they seem, as in the above-mentioned scene (HW, 143), to
be defrocked of their masks of evil. At the same time, Koch makes some of the Communist
forces, especially Captain Danh and his men, unquestionably into forces of dharma. During
the long captivity of the three journalists, Koch avoids the brutal scenes of hatred and
retribution which typify historical accounts of Westerners taken prisoner during the war in
Southeast Asia. Rather, he displays the simple, redeeming human dignity of the captors, a
distinction which flies in the face of his ogre-like Americans when Danh explains to Volkov
the strong will of the North Vietnamese foot soldiers:
They know very little about politics, he said. Often they have marched
hundreds of kilometres; they have been bombed until they feel crazy; they are
half starved, and homesick for their villages and their families. But they
believe in their country. (HW, 318-19)
Jim Feng remarks how the ‘North Vietnamese and Viet Cong soldiers had not been real to us’
as they ‘had seen them only as prisoners, or the dead’ (HW, 313), but his own captivity has
made them real and human. This gives Danh an opening to debunk the Western myth about
the Communist bugaboo when he says, ‘Marxism is not a religion for us that cannot be
- 251 -
changed: Marxism is a tool to help us free our country. Do you understand?’ (HW, 326).
Koch’s presentation of the NVA constantly underscores their simple, pragmatic and
honourable humanity, and by association that of other communist nations, as in the following
description of the quality of their equipment and sympathy of their men and women:
… a North Vietnamese convoy; a row of four military trucks, Soviet-built,
solid and old-fashioned, with bicycles tied to their radiators. They were filled
with NVA troops in their baggy green cotton uniforms and sun helmets—at
least a third were young women. (HW, 330)
The North Vietnamese seem more like innocent and inquisitive new kids on the block than
some forbidding enemy when the Soldiers Three see ‘the young male and female soldiers
staring at us curiously as they went. One or two women smiled, and a group of young men
waved to us’ (HW, 331). In the most defining scene of NVA sense of discipline and purpose,
Captain Danh’s tired and hungry troops take two live chickens from a village which had
refused to offer them food. Danh orders them to return them:
We do not come to rob them; we come to free them.
The two men turned away without a word, and trudged off into the
darkness. I waited for some mutter of protest from around the fire; even
perhaps some anger. But there was none; only silence.
Feng realises then, he says ‘that the North would win the war’ (HW, 332). It is not a question
of might, but of righteousness.
This is not to say that Koch is absolving communism, but that he is relying again on the
themes of the Bhagavad Gita and the wayang kulit, namely that good and evil are qualities of
cosmic order, and that when men tend to their duties within that order the illusory masks of the
personality can be removed. The morning after the maddening American evacuation, the
symbols of evil—whirling fans, the colour yellow, expressionless Chinese waiters in starched
white jackets—quietly create a false air of normality.
Feng notices unusual swarms of
insects—symbols of the soulless—at the Palace grounds, ‘hovering and shimmering’, and in
the extremely still and hot air ‘the whirring of the insects began to sound to me like some
mechanical alarm system, warning us of what was to come’ (HW, 417-18). Langford and Feng
are waiting at the Presidential Palace when the first North Vietnamese Army soldier arrives.
- 252 -
He has a simple ‘broad brown country face’, but also the fierce, hard ‘killing shine’ they had
earlier seen in Khmer Rouge fighters. Langford tells him that they are Australian, hoping to
deflect the evil in the soldier’s eyes. ‘The soldier frowned and looked puzzled; then I saw the
shine go out of his eyes. He lowered his gun, and I knew we were going to live’ (HW, 420).
Vietnam will not become a paradise, but it is not because the NVA are permanently corrupted
by their association with demons.
10.4.2.5. Les Autres—Dehumanised Soldiers of the Dark Age
The Khmer Rouge, however, are so brutalised. Even their NVA allies consider them
thieves (HW, 330) and uncivilised (HW, 332). Koch’s evidence to this are numerous, among
the most striking being that the Cambodian troops never leave their dead, ‘no matter what the
risk’. The Khmer Rouge mutilate the bodies since ‘Buddhists believe that any mutilations and
deformities will go with them into the afterlife’ (HW, 274). This behaviour can not be
explained except that the Khmer Rouge revolution is primarily over that reality which lies
beyond the edge of this world.
Unlike the VC, the Khmer Rouge seem irredeemably possessed by demons. In the first
description of them they are all very young, brown-skinned Khmer peasants with long wavy
hair and the red-and-white checked krama typical of Cambodians, but, unlike the curious,
waving NVA, the Khmer Rouge stare directly and lifelessly at the captured journalists. Jim
Feng suspects ‘they came from forest and mountain regions which had very little contact with
the outside world’, but their brutalisation is so profound that they resist material presence.
They are mere shadows in black pyjamas, even though they are standing directly in the
headlights of an NVA supply truck. In addition, Feng notices a horrifying look in the faces of
these agents of annihilation:
In the lights of the truck, which put strong shadows on their faces, their eyes
seemed to shine with anger at something: something they didn’t understand;
something which made them all the more hostile because they didn’t
understand it. It was as though something larger then themselves had taken
possession of their spirits, filling them with malice.
- 253 -
Feng puts the terror of these Black Ghosts into contemporary Western terms, saying they
reminded him of ‘the sort of street gang you have to fear’ (HW, 330).
Harvey Drummond remarks how the Khmer Rouge suddenly appeared during the
American bombing of Cambodia. Most Cambodians, he says, ‘simply called them les autres:
the Others’, adding the standard facts of the ‘Other’ stereotype that ‘No one knew anything
about them’ and that ‘we seldom got close enough to see their faces.’
Drummond delivers a
further truism about ‘others’ and Australians as well, saying they ‘belonged to a dream at the
edges too; but now they were moving to the centre’ to which ‘all highways led’ (HW, 216).
In the dead quiet centre of that storm lies angka, which Donald Mills calls ‘A true
Communist society, all in camps, all obeying orders, where you’d have to get permission to
sleep with your wife’. Angka is, in fact, adharma, ‘Back to basics: no Western technology, no
money, no cities. Pure’ (HW, 432). Colonel Chandara reports on the testimony of Cambodian
refugees, who report how the Khmer Rouge eliminate all manifestations of dharma. Everyone
who is educated, middle-class, or even wears glasses or has a book is executed.
They make mountains of bodies. They are like the Nazis. The towns are
emptied; the temples destroyed; the monks slaughtered. This is true barbarism,
which wants to smash everything that is civilized…. Envy has become a
religion: they call it angka … . It is a new Dark Age. No books for the people
to read; no medicine to heal them when they fall ill; no law to protect them; no
family life; no religion to comfort them; no music but the music of
propaganda, played over loudspeakers. (HW, 443)
The special role of men in the Triple World is thereby destroyed along with all other aspects of
dharma. The demons have robbed humans of their propitious balance of the three gunas.
Under the rule of angka, the youngest and least able to reason are recruited to fight, and given
power to adjudicate life and death in the simplest, most horrible terms:
‘Children with automatic weapons. Anything they envy or don’t understand
must be evil: must be killed and destroyed. When executing, the Khmer
Rouge don’t waste bullets: they use hoes, and other simple methods.’ (HW,
443)
The effects of their confrontation with the demons is exemplified in the captivity of the
Soldiers Three. Though at the hands of the NVA, they literally descend into hell, are agonised
by their physical pain, forget who they are, and finally are dehumanised. Jim Feng tells the
- 254 -
tale of the nausea and spasms from his dysentery, of the leeches clinging to their legs and feet,
and of the mud sucking at their feet as they struggled to keep up with the forced march. The
only apparent escape was ‘to sink into the warm red mud and stay there’. Nature itself
becomes their enemy. Even the rain nearly takes on a mineral-like nature governed by tamas,
becoming ‘so solid that we seemed to be walking under water’, but retains its rejuvenating,
dharmic quality as it flows over the three men, cleansing their dry eyes and mouths. Jim Feng,
who knew he was ready to die and becoming an animal, finds strength in Mike Langford’s
comfort, in his own thoughts of roots and identity, and in a poem whose theme is sattva:
I had no thoughts, but I kept myself going by reciting again and again some
lines that came back to me from the poem about the Herd-boy star. It was my
great comfort; I heard my father’s voice reciting it too.
Far away twinkles the Heard-boy star;
Brightly shines the Lady of the Han River …
Her bitter tears fall like streaming rain. (HW, 338)
If they had been captured by the Khmer Rouge, there would have been no chance to find relief
in the rainwater or memories of home. As with the Khmer Rouge guerrillas who forfeited their
souls or Mike Langford who forfeited his life, there is little hope of holding off the demons
once one gives himself into their hands.
10.5. Conclusion
That the world could reach the point described by Blanche d’Alpuget and Christopher J.
Koch is nothing new; history has recounted the horrifying story all too well. What the Western
sense of history fails to do is explain the causes beyond linear strings of causal relationships
leading from colonialism, to the Japanese invasion in W.W.II, to attempts to reinstate
colonialist or ersatz-colonialist regimes in the post-war period, to communist revolutions, to
spiralling increases in involvement of the Cold War adversaries in the region, and to everworsening atrocities committed by all sides. Early in his presidency, Lynden Johnson declared
that the war in Vietnam would be for the hearts and minds of the Vietnamese people, and yet
Westerners have never managed to deal very well with the Asian side of the human equation.
It is perhaps for this reason that one finds d’Alpuget and Koch bringing out novels about the
fall of Sukarno and the war in Southeast Asia so long after the fact. They serve as part of the
- 255 -
healing process for Australians when they help convey the trauma felt by the Asians in the
conflicts they fought against each other, and which each side saw fundamentally as wars
between ‘ourselves’ and ‘the others’.
Horror used to be one of the major cultural themes of Western expansion into Africa, the
Americas and Asia, and was often best treated when done so in terms of the analogy of the
horror inevitable in constructing perceptions of the ‘self’ and the ‘Other’. D’Alpuget and Koch
have broken away from this Western perspective, however, offering horror not as something
which is inherent but which is foreign to the human being, an intruder which gains access to
the spirit through an unbalanced mix of the three gunas. This leads to the dehumanisation of
all of the major characters in the novels studied here, and of such seemingly alus men as
Cambodia’s exiled Prince Sihanouk, who Koch condemns as ‘Cruel, like all selfish people,
with much blood on his hands’ and much worse than the pleasure-seeking clown he is reputed
to be. Retreated to Peking to live in luxury with his Chinese patrons where he became allied
with the Khmer Rouge, the Prince, who had seen his fortune turn for the worse, was driven
away from the clarity of sattva which was the centre of his education and upbringing, towards
the greed and desire ignited by rajas and the stubborn willingness to ignore the plight of his
people caused by tamas. Colonel Chandara could not more clearly warn Mike Langford of this
when he says that in order to ‘keep power for himself, he would do anything; he would deliver
this country to demons’ (HW, 276). The proof of the effects of this dearth of sattva in favour
of rajas and tamas are the Khmer Rouge Killing Fields which shall forever be recorded as part
of mankind’s history.
- 256 -
The Masks of Doubles
11.1. Introduction
Having centred attention in chapter 10 on the influence of the three gunas in concealing
the personality of men behind masks of illusion, the focus now turns to two special cases in
which Blanche d’Alpuget and Christopher J. Koch bring in the themes of the double
characters. Doubles are a familiar theme in Australian and other Western literature, but tend to
be treated as polarities, as in the Australian sense of self as a paradise or hell; as ambiguously
near to or far from the centre of civilisation; as land of innocents open to an impending
invasion of the yellow hoards or as that of the ‘Coming Man’ answering the call to rescue old
Mother England (which is an example of doubled doubles); as lying geo-socio-politically in
the East or in the West; as white or non-white; as a society of settlers introducing civilisation
or of invaders destroying civilisation; as founded on the sweat of free immigrants or of
transported convicts. The implication of such doubles is to direct concentration to conflicting
judgements and views, producing the good/bad, strong/weak, innocent/cunning, cultured/crude
views which culminate in the attitudes which underscore the stereotypal separation of ‘the self’
and the ‘Other’, and which typify the Orientalism which identifies Australia with the
imperial/Western ‘self’ and the colonialism which renders it an ‘Other’.
The Asian tradition deals with doubles, or multiples, however, more as composites, as
seen in the Great Goddess, who is primarily recognised in the three more powerful aspects as
Parvati, Durga, and Kali, and even in myriad other forms depending on the occasion (as
discussed in detail in chapter 9), and in the three Pandava brothers of the wayang kulit,
Judistira, Arjuna, and Bima, who together make up the complete man (as covered in chapter 7).
The results then—just the opposite of the Western trend—are namely to bind disparate parts,
formed from the illusion of natural entities, into the whole, which is the true, timeless,
spaceless, limitless and indescribable Self.
C. J. Koch finds his affinities with these
metaphoric figures which cause the dissolution of the distinction between ‘self’ and ‘Other’,
and which in the Australian case of mixed races and cultures he calls ‘hybrids’. He presents
- 257 -
several variations on the theme in his Asian novels, including most often those which are
composed of two characters, as Robert O’Brien and Ilsa Kalnins in Across the Sea Wall
(Koch’s most primitive development of the motif, reviewed in chapter 6); and Ly Keang and
Mike Langford in Highways to a War (whose close association is addressed in chapter 9).
Blanche d’Alpuget has presented her concept of the search for psychological selfreconciliation, which she terms ‘at-one-ment’, in many brutalised characters, principally Judith
Wilkes, Minou, and Adrian Hobday in Turtle Beach and Sutrisno in Monkeys in the Dark, plus
in the cultural doubles represented by Wilkes and Kanan, and Minou and Hobday in Turtle
Beach, and Alex and Maruli in Monkeys in the Dark (treated variously in chapters 4, 6, and
10).
The most developed and central treatment of the combined themes of the masks of the
personality and doubles is the focus of this chapter. In C. J. Koch’s novels it is found in the
conjunction of Guy Hamilton and Billy Kwan of The Year of Living Dangerously. Indeed,
Kwan is a racial hybrid with multiple, disjointed yet highly developed cultural manifestations
who must find his completeness through binding with a socially, intellectually and culturally
fractured and underdeveloped Hamilton. In d’Alpuget the zenith of this development is in the
relationship between Alexandra Wheatfield and her cousin Anthony Sinclaire in Monkeys in
the Dark, which traces its origins in the Indian tradition of the progressions of the saints’ lives,
recounting the combined spiritual journey of two characters, one who is seeking dharma, and
another who is bent on dragging them both towards adharma.
11.2. D’Alpuget’s Australo-Asian Sacred Biography
As seen in the birth of Vishnu as Arjuna’s charioteer Krishna and other examples given
in earlier chapters, even gods can therefore take on lower, human or animal form without
debasing their intrinsic beings when the defence of dharma requires them to do so. More
common, of course, is the transmigration of a human soul into the body/personality of an
animal due to an over-accumulation of tamas. Blanche d’Alpuget expands on her use of this
brutalisation metaphor in two significant ways to develop the central theme of the spiritual
- 258 -
journey of Alexandra Wheatfield. One is the subplot of Sutrisno and Maruli, both Indonesian
versions of the Australian ‘Coming Man’—hard-working, strong individualists who come to
quick prominence followed by their growing desire, fall, and dehumanisation. In the second
instance, that dealt with here, d’Alpuget draws on Indian sacred biographical literature where a
‘dark’ character pulls himself and the ‘saint’ he accompanies into greater risk of self-delusion
and regressive reincarnation.
11.2.1. The Spiritual Journey of Alex Wheatfield and Her Dark Brother
Anthony Sinclaire has little of the experience or canniness seen in Sutrisno and Maruli,
but shares the preponderance of ‘hindrances’ in their personalities, which motivate him ever to
upset the order of things as he works to establish himself morally and socially above all others.
Alexandra Wheatfield is young, innocent, and rather too inspired by her goodness, a fault
caused by a lack of solidifying tamas in her character. In a case of attracting opposites,
Sinclaire is as driven to darkness as Alex is to light, and the question is only which one will
ultimately prove strong enough to impart direction to both. In this sense, Monkeys in the Dark
is just one episode in the story of the spiritual journey of Alexandra Wheatfield and Anthony
Sinclaire. Part one includes all background material which is recounted after the fact and
which serves to associate metaphorically Alex Wheatfield with Sutrisno, Maruli and Sinclaire,
and to establish her role as a spiritual heroine satisfying both Australian and Asian paradigms:
Born into a wealthy, aristocratic family, she and her sisters exhibit exceptional qualities of
independence and fortitude to go along with their beauty. Young Alex is, however, seduced by
her cousin Sinclaire. After a years-long secret affair, Alex is forced to have an abortion. She
takes all of the blame and disappointment of her family on herself, never divulging the name of
her lover. The result is that her share of the inheritance is reduced, and this to the advantage of
Sinclaire’s.
Part two includes the events represented as current: Alex and Sinclaire are
reunited in Djakarta when Sinclaire helps her get a job as the assistant press officer in the
Australian Embassy where Sinclaire is working as a recruiter of Indonesian informants. The
strong attraction between the cousins remains, and Sinclaire’s activities throughout the novel
- 259 -
are centred around his quest to reconquer his cousin. In the end, Sinclaire achieves his goal
due to an act of profound betrayal, which also results in Alex’s Sumatran lover being
abandoned, possibly to die, in an Indonesian prison. The novel ends with a kiss in a dark bar,
leaving the reader to expect more episodes of Sinclaire and Alex’s impossible relationship.
This sort of plot is certainly not unusual in Western literature, but especially resembles
the Indian tradition of a series of biographies of a saint, showing the progress of the individual
towards spiritual realisation. Zimmer explains that
in India, the homeland of reincarnation, one biography is not enough; the lives
of saints and saviors are provided with preludes—infinitely expansible—of
earlier saintly existences, which follow, in general, a consistent pattern.
Showing the spiritual hero first on lower, even animal, planes of existence and
experience, enacting his characteristic part of the magnanimous being, they
follow his gradual progress (with its blissful interludes between lives, spent in
one or another of the traditional heavens, reaping the rewards of earthly
virtue), until, having progressed through many levels of experience, he at last
arrives at that supreme state of embodied spirituality which distinguished his
actual, historical biography. (Zimmer, 1969, 185)
Equating Alex Wheatfield with an Indian spiritual hero may seem far-fetched, but we
are only dealing with one of the earlier ‘lives’ of an individual whose family name associates
her with the Goddess of Fertility. It is, however, the formal structure which counts here
foremost. If the novel can be described as a feminist work, which it can but not without some
difficulties, it can also be put into an Indian formula, which even resolves some of the
problems of the former. After gaining further in experience and self-discovery through a long
series of lives, Alex should finally be strong enough to overcome the evil influences of her
dark cousin, saving herself and him as well. D’Alpuget’s recurring images of movement
between planes of existence places her work with at least one foot into that Indian formula,
making the leitmotif of the novel the transmigration of a soul through the levels of existence,
either towards a more spiritually enlightened realisation of self or, more often, into brutish
depths of a reality of dark ignorance.
The relationship of Alex and Sinclaire fits squarely into the scheme which Zimmer
describes as fundamental in Indian literature, exemplified by the history of the saint
Parsvanatha:
- 260 -
One of the most striking features of these tales of the earlier lives of
Parsvanatha is the emphasis throughout on the ruthless opposition of a dark
brother whose development is the very antithesis of that of the savior.
Parsvanatha increases in virtue, but his dark brother, simultaneously, in evil,
until the principle of light represented in the Tirthankara finally wins, and the
brother himself is saved. (Zimmer, 1969, 185)
Sinclaire is much more than a Western antagonist, belonging clearly in the group of individuals
whose movement towards evil parallels the protagonist’s towards good.
Birth into an
aristocratic family indicates, under the Indian system, good progress in previous lives, but does
not preclude regression or the assumption of a dark brother role. Just as Sinclaire’s evil role
would be a continuation from earlier lives of interference with Alex’s spiritual development,
her light would tend to counteract the brutalising effects of the karma accrued by his darkness,
preventing his slip into darker levels of existence. There is no direct information beyond the
present lives of Alex and Sinclaire, but, when seen in these terms, her light and his darkness
tend to pull each other along in a microcosmic struggle of dharma and adharma.
Sinclaire is what Western psychology would call Alex’ alter ego, representing a dark
side of her mask. He is a foil to Alex, but is not just the setting which accentuates the beauty
of her diamond. It is only when the setting and diamond are placed together that there is
beauty and light. They mirror each other enough to make others think they are brother and
sister, and d’Alpuget makes it very clear that he is the wilder side of the animal aspects of the
twin-cousins, writing, ‘Sinclaire’s wolfish features were an exaggeration of Alex’s small, neat
ones’. Yet it goes deeper than surface resemblances. There was ‘something in their bonestructure, in their long-limbed build, that announced in each the flesh of the other’. Alex and
Sinclaire are metaphors of the self/other double. Separately, they are weak and incomplete;
together, they make up a round, developed and formidable character.
Their opposing attitudes are exhibited in their faces—Alex’s is described as ‘candid’
while the wolfish Sinclaire’s is ‘resourceful’; Alex’s eyes are the same as Sinclaire’s, only
‘drawn larger and more innocent’. Most importantly perhaps, Alex’s ‘hair was dark sherry
colour, almost red’ (MD, 7), which establishes her place within the scheme of Jainist colour
symbolism, where ‘the prudent, honest, magnanimous, and devout are fiery red’ (Zimmer,
- 261 -
1969, 230). That it is too dark to be fully red indicates how, while Alex is nearly always
prudent, honest, magnanimous, and tends towards the devout, her fiery personality still lies
under the strong influence of masks which her dark brother can exploit, and is therefore itself
darkened. Sinclaire’s name refers obviously to his lack of lightness, and Alex’s, which means
‘defender of men’ (Morris, 31), indicates that she is not only engaged in the revelation of her
own self but also in a defence of Sinclaire against the forces of darkness which have overcome
him.
As the dark brother, Sinclaire is the agent provocateur in Alex’s life, though she usually
manages to make the best of each of the uncomfortable situations he puts her in. First, when
they were young, she had to hide the fact that they were always running off together. She
handled her pregnancy with extreme dignity and courage while he slunk off with the share of
the family inheritance which was denied her as punishment for her transgression. Then, having
lured her to Indonesia, he makes sure that she gets off on the wrong foot. When they are
observed bathing nude together, Sinclaire, infamous for his sexual caprices, declares gleefully,
‘By next Friday your name will be mud in the coffee-party set’ (MD, 7).
Sinclaire sets out to infect Alex with his condescending attitudes. He continually
reminds her of her social class, and tells her that the other Australians in Jakarta are ‘secondrate’ (MD, 44). His boss, the embassy spymaster, is ‘the Iron Man’ to all but Sinclaire, who
prefers to call him ‘the Strangler’ in another early example of the spiritual decapitation
metaphor (MD, 9). Betty James, wife of the military attaché, a ‘forthright woman of middle
age’ who the others call ‘the General’ (MD, 9), is derided by Sinclaire for her hysteria over
melted ice-cream (MD, 44). Sinclaire disdains his professional rival Thornton, who is proud of
having made it from humble beginnings to his post with the Foreign Service, and who speaks
better French than Sinclaire, though it is Sinclaire who still manages to be the one invited to
the Ambassador’s home on Sundays for tennis.
His contempt for non-whites is even greater. While the newly arrived Alex is reduced to
tears by the streetboys who taunt her, Sinclaire just jeers sarcastically back at them (MD, 17),
- 262 -
an action which is key to distinguishing Sinclaire from Maruli, the other wolf character and his
rival for Alex’s love. When Sinclaire learns that Alex has a lover, he immediately confronts
her about his race, telling her having an Indonesian lover could be construed as a security
breach. She declares him to be an Arab, and does not flinch when Sinclaire reduces the man to
a stereotype by asking if it is a ‘town or desert’ one. When Alex throws Sinclaire’s racist
condescension back in his face, calling him a spy, he nearly knocks her over as he storms off in
a huff, complaining sulkingly, ‘That was unkind’ (MD, 45).
Again, the motif of the good and bad brother is common in Western literature. It is,
however, not so easy to find in contemporary Western literature the sort of continuous
hammering away of the bad brother on the good one, trying to win him over to the side of evil,
and succeeding repeatedly in causing partial downfalls of the good one, who still persists in the
principles of enlightenment and is therefore capable of continuing the struggle against the
cosmic forces which infect the dark brother. Western tradition would prefer have one destroy
the other, while in the Eastern that would mean the destruction of both. If the two become
united in Western tradition, it is only to fight a common threat, and once that threat is defeated
the unity is dissolved. In Asian tradition disunity is the only real threat, and so the polarised
individuals must struggle until the two ‘others’ succeed in forming a single ‘self’.
The Indian hero’s eventual victory is also not so much a reflection of the superiority of
good over evil as it is of the movement of time. Zimmer explains the Asian argument of blank
fatalism where
the most valorous fighters in the course of history, it is declared, have failed,
time and time again. Brave men have fought in vain, to the last stroke, against
rising tides that have swept all away, while men of comparatively little valor,
delighted by all the blandishments of Fortune, have sat proudly and safely in
the seat of the hero. For in history there are times and tides. There are
mounting periods, when everything supports the hero-conqueror. He rides the
wave. His very faults and deficiencies turn to his advantage. No reversal can
break his career. And his enemies, though great with valor and backed by
superior resources, struggle in vain to halt his triumphant march. ‘Time’
(kala), the supreme power, favors him—that is all. But time proceeds in
cycles, now expanding, now contracting. The hero’s career only happens to
coincide with a period of increase (Zimmer, 1969, 99).
- 263 -
Each of the five novels in this study, nevertheless, occurs at a moment distinguished by a
disastrous change in this cosmic fortune. Monkeys in the Dark concludes with a series of
victories for Sinclaire which d’Alpuget foreshadows with a clear image showing that the turn
of the wheel of time has turned down for Alex as for the whole city, writing that ‘a cloud like a
grey goblin was rearing’ over Djakarta ‘with dark, thickened limbs’ (MD, 162), leaving the
mosquito-filled air so ‘feverish and sticky’ that even the native plants were dying ‘under the
glaring metal sky’ (MD, 164).
It is time for Sinclaire to plan his final assault on Alex.
disingenuously, would fritter away his ‘ability for affection’.
Failure, he muses
‘He would be clever and
heartless and whoever he married would become heartless, too, in order to survive with him’.
She would spend money on clothes, the opera, and on ‘fashionable young painters who took
drugs and who would sleep with her while he was at board meetings’. Sinclaire recognises that
he is vulnerable to this ‘sort of fate’, and yearns for Alex as his only way out. Other women
were more glamorous or intelligent, but were empty-headed or tasteless; Alex had ‘a lovely,
haughty turn of the head’, was compassionate, and had ‘a sort of wisdom in her, an intuition to
love’. In what is certainly the most telling definition of the differences of perspective between
Alex and Sinclaire, he thinks ‘she would do the good thing, not the right thing’—knowing that
he would do just the opposite. Sinclaire can justify treating Alex like a ‘sedulously-recruited
agent’ to win her love, yet also knows that ‘he yearns for her because she was his, his own, his
kind—and yet, she was better, more worth having’ than he (MD, 164-65).
Sinclaire brings Alex to buy durians for the imprisoned Maruli, but insists that she eat
some herself as ‘a sign of going troppo’—a symbolic weakening of her exterior bonds—in the
local market frequented by the city’s richest, but where the distinctions between the working
men and animals have broken down. The sight of ‘the cartmen with their dumb, crushed faces
and their magnificently-muscled bodied’ further distress Alex’s tendency to sattva and good.
The sellers promise that the durian are aphrodisiacs and induce pregnancy, and, indeed, their
‘putrefying odour’ causes Alex to retch.
As she gags, someone calls her ‘an Albino’,
- 264 -
prompting her to prove her mettle and eat the fruit. This apparent victory for Alex is,
nevertheless, really Sinclaire’s. She is recognised for her good Bahasa and familiarity with
local custom, until she realises that she is being debased by the affair. Sinclaire, on the other
hand, indulges himself in this ‘brutalisation’ he calls ‘going troppo’ (MD, 165-68).
Alex, now exhausted, irritable and dirty, is further dehumanised by the market children
who pinch at her arms and legs with their ‘grubby, thieving fingers’ until they rush off to
harass a crippled horse. She rushes to defend the horse, but is then attacked by the children.
Sinclaire drags her back to the car, and calls her ‘a mad white woman’, though it is for having
done what is good instead of what is right. He accuses her of having rejected both foreign and
Indonesian communities, telling her ‘These are vile times’, and, when he says she would ‘be
better off back in the clan’, he means that only through identification with an ‘in-group’ and its
perspectives and attitudes can she gain the sense of right and wrong, which she lacks, to offset
the sense of good and evil, of which she arguably possesses too much. Then, while she is at
her weakest, he shows just how Machiavellian the clan’s sense of right from wrong is by
betraying her with the falsified procès verbal which is to destroy not only her loyalty to Maruli
but to her own feelings.
11.2.2. The Kiss of Betrayal
The final kiss, representing a victory of Sinclaire’s sense of right over Alex’s sense of
good, comes appropriately with Alex wearing the black dress Sinclaire bought for her, in the
darkness and shadow of the Ramayana Bar. Read as a modernist, feminist, or post-colonialist
novel, Alex must be a failed character. In the many battles of gods and demons of the great
Ramayana epic, however, evil takes many victories when the cycles of the mandala put it on
the ascendant. The epic’s end, the defeat of the demon, reflects the strategy of the Indian saint,
which is to wait for a favourable shift in the time, shed the ‘hindrances’ which would weaken
him against the demon, and conclude the battle when fate is on his side. The ultimate goal of a
Hindu saint, however, is still to break out of the cycles of time, thereby attaining enlightenment
for himself and for his evil brother as well.
- 265 -
The apparently unsatisfying conclusion of d’Alpuget’s novel is an important element to
her narrative which is pinned it to the cultural theme, which underlies so much of Australia’s
literature, of the sense of place and Self and exile. The return of Alex to Sinclaire is, as
Annegret Maack notes, fouled by being the result of political intrigue. Maack argues further
that ‘es bedeutet aber auch die Rückkehr zum Clan, den sie versteht, und Rückkehr zu sich
selbst, denn Anthony ist ihr Abbild’ (Maack, 130). This argument that Alex’s kiss with
Anthony represents a return to the fold of her clan is hard to dismiss in terms of Australian
tradition, and could be thus read as the final brutalisation of Alex Wheatfield. It seems,
nevertheless, an extremely cruel and self-denying return, especially in light of the history of
their incestuous relationship, which Anthony, to protect his inheritance, never admitted, and
Alex, to protect him, never betrayed. Bruce Bennett’s observation is that Sinclaire’s betrayal
of Alex with the false ‘confession’ of Maruli, through which he believes he is saving her,
indicates how he shares
the self-deception of other Australians in the novel, whose ideals of ‘civilized’
behavior mask their self-interest, fear and misunderstanding of the
multitudinousness and complexity of South-East Asia, from which they must
retreat into a sterile indifference (Bennett, 1991, 204).
These two conclusions are justified to a point, but the trouble is that they both seem to be too
satisfied with the outcome. Maack’s interpretation sees Alex’s final choice as a sort of ‘return
of the prodigal daughter’, yet it is a return to a hellish landscape which, while certainly in the
tradition of Australian literature, does not fit d’Alpuget’s voice very well; Bennett’s perception
that Sinclaire believes he is saving Alex misses the point that he is consciously saving her only
for himself. The self-deception is no more shared with Alex than are his other values.
Alex Wheatfield is no Judith Wilkes, who does finally choose to return to the
comfortable, materialist fold and has reconciled furthering her career and even maintaining her
identity at the cost of losing her young children—a thoroughly unfathomable act for any
mother, even in the feminist-led late 20th century. Yet both are forced into positions where
there are extremely high pressures for the activation of racial stereotypes they would otherwise
suppress; as Bodenhausen and Macrae argue, resisting such normative pressures for
- 266 -
stereotyping, whether subtle or overt, may require even in a low-prejudice individual an alltoo-rare strength of character (Bodenhausen, 38). In Judith Wilkes’ case, the result is the
return to the clan which Maack describes, with an active assumption of contemporary, white
Australian stereotypes and values which she previously strove to overcome.
With Alex
Wheatfield this collapse to the intergroup pressures is more the compliance of one who has
been exhausted by the obstacles on the way. There is yet no reason to conclude that the
symbolic donning of the black dress and the kiss in the shadowy bar means she has made the
same final choice as Wilkes, though there is the danger described by Bodenhausen that even a
reluctant or insincere acquiescence can finally snowball into the personal endorsement of
previously rejected stereotype belief (Bodenhausen, 39). This endorsement is so painfully
clear with Judith Wilkes that one does not want to know any more about her at the end of
Turtle Beach. In contrast, one cannot help but feel that the evil kiss is not at all the end of Alex
and Sinclaire’s story, that she is not so much reluctantly or insincerely acquiescing to Sinclaire
as recognising her present weaknesses, and biding her time. Still, neither adherence to the
Western sense of what constitutes a complete story nor respect for the Eastern sense of the
illusion of victory and defeat obliges d’Alpuget to continue on to complete the tale of Alex’s
journey. Judging from the volumes of stories of the lives of the Indian saints, any hope of
reaching any definitive conclusion about Alex Wheatfield would perhaps be as much an
illusion as the hope that Australia will soon solve its identity problem.
11.3. C. J. Koch’s Eclectic Heroic Construction
Fortunately, even while the end leaves the reader unsatisfied, one knows enough about
Alexandra Wheatfield and Anthony Sinclaire to make a judgement over the significance of that
dark kiss and of what is to follow. Judging from the critical readings of The Year of Living
Dangerously, the same can not be said of Koch’s heroic twin figure(s), Billy Kwan and Guy
Hamilton.
The main problem is apparently that Koch’s many sources cause enough
contradictions and ambiguities to confound even the most careful scholarly reader. For this
reason, it is necessary to comb through the heroic construction, first as individual characters to
- 267 -
show the strengths and weaknesses of each, then as a doubled entity to explore how, according
to the Eastern traditions Koch accesses in the creation of his characters, only by surpassing the
individualities of identity can whole characters be achieved. Special consideration is given to
the dwarf, a metaphor central to d’Alpuget’s novels as well as in Koch’s, and which defines
both Billy Kwan’s perception of self and his relationship with Guy Hamilton.
11.3.1. Guy Hamilton
Guy Hamilton’s armoury of masks is probably the most impressive of all of Koch’s
figures, excluding that of the chameleonic Billy Kwan, making him the most fascinating of
confidants for Cookie, who calls him ‘relaxed yet guarded’, ‘closed’ and ‘forbidding’, yet
‘likeable’. Hamilton ‘had a trick of sitting still and forbiddingly expressionless, watching you’
(YLD, 65)—which also happens to be the quality in Kwan that Hamilton finds irritating and
‘most Chinese in him’ (YLD, 83). Unlike Kwan, however, who would leave one wondering
what the enigmatic expression meant, Hamilton would snap out of his trance-like expression,
‘run his fingers through his lank, dark hair, and greet you, and all was well’ (YLD, 65). Of
course, one might be reassured but still not know what Hamilton’s expression had meant.
The rolling flickers of obscurity in Hamilton’s personality parallel the more flagrantly
worked ambiguities of Kwan’s, suiting him for the role as Kwan’s alter ego and protégé.
Hamilton
is at the same time a creature of doubts and deceptions (most of them practiced
on himself), his vacancies giving the lie to the cocky poses he loves to strike
and to the posturing which is his occupational hazard. A hero, yes; but also a
prize fool; and … he is also a prig; … and also a political innocent (Roskies,
44).
Hamilton seems to be a man motivated by his ambiguities, possessed of ‘a worldliness keen for
engagement but vitiated by a disabling complacency and an element of self-contempt’
(Roskies, 44). Cookie wonders why such a good-looking man would be ‘over-fastidious where
women were concerned—perhaps nurturing some wound, or in-grown, sterilising fantasy’
(YLD, 62), and determines the self-conscious quality in Hamilton as coming from being that
- 268 -
type of man who ‘walks a stage, followed always by eyes: admiring or wistful or resentful
eyes, as the case may be’ (YLD, 65).
The sometimes adversarial, other times disciplined father-son relationship with
Colonel Henderson explains many of the riddles in Hamilton’s personality to Cookie, who, like
most others, finds the British Security Officer to be dislikeable, cold, patronising, and a
‘subject for satire’ (YLD, 62). Hamilton admits that Henderson is a ‘real pukka sahib’ and an
anachronism in the new post-colonial world, but betrays his own Orientalist hankerings when
he regrets not having been born in Henderson’s era of real heroes and men. Cookie believes
the respect Hamilton shows Henderson goes beyond the resemblance Hamilton sees with his
father who disappeared into the Japanese death camps in W.W.II. Hamilton exhibits ‘an oldfashioned quality entirely out of kilter with the impression he gave of being an ambitious and
pragmatic loner. He had certain sentimentalities; an almost Edwardian strain of romanticism’
which he finds ‘touching: the secret vulnerability of the invulnerable’ (YLD, 64).
In
Henderson, Helen Tiffin points out, Hamilton is searching for a false illusion much in the same
way that Robert O’Brien was searching in Ilsa Kalnins for the European experience he felt he
lacked. Hamilton ‘learns through his experience with Henderson just what cold comfort
England can offer’ (Tiffin, 1982, 333). In addition, while Henderson probably saves his life,
his refusal of Henderson’s symbolic saving of his wounded eye indicates how Hamilton has
learned how post-colonial Asia is more his world than either England or empire, and that living
culture is more important than cultural or genetic ancestry.
Cookie notices a ‘sort of aura’ about Hamilton, who always seems on the verge of
having something happen around him. This would describe the ideal newsman, but Cookie
says it goes farther than that, in a description foreshadowing the hero of Highways to a War:
‘He was one of those people who are secretly waiting for something more: that vast and
glorious happening, delicious as speed, bathing everything in gold, which perhaps never comes
at all’ (YLD, 65). This seems to be precisely Koch’s attitude towards his white Australian
- 269 -
protagonist: if not for his crossing paths with the Chinese-Australian Billy Kwan at just the
right moment in the political/mythical conjuncture, nothing likely would ever have happened.
11.3.2. Billy Kwan
Even Hamilton admits that without Kwan, ‘I would never have got started here’ (YLD,
67). Kwan’s role as chief provocateur is so complicated with multiple layers of masks that it
affects everyone in the novel. Cookie explains that ‘no one wanted to dismiss a dwarfish halfcaste Chinese in our age of conformist tolerance’, and Kwan delights in baiting them all,
especially the radical academics, conservative diplomats and liberal journalists, to test their
indulgence of his eccentricities. Billy was a ‘sharp-tongued iconoclast’ who could assume any
role to wreck his torment ‘on friend and foe alike’ (YLD, 66), and on himself as well. Cookie
says that everyone took for granted that Billy’s erratic behaviour ‘sprang from a certain
anguish over his identity’, and asks, ‘who did Billy truly wish to be?’
Perhaps, with his archaic slang and public school accent, his ‘old ma-an’
drawled in mockery (of himself or of us?) he played an upper-middle-class
Australian or Englishman of the pre-war era. Yet sometimes he played a
special role as an Asian: he was to go through Confucian Chinese and Japanese
Zen phases. (YLD, 67)
Billy Kwan knows all his favourite roles, and in playing them he wears all the masks necessary
to cover up whoever he really might be. He views himself as a dalang, or puppet master of the
wayang kulit, but there is something terribly wrong with his behaviour, something nearly evil,
whose roots are in his unhappiness with the world’s rejection of him. He has created a world
in which he plays the central role, but his self-image is tainted by the failure to maintain a
healthy, respectful disinterest in his creation. ‘Here, on the quiet page, I’m master’, Billy
writes in his files. ‘I can shuffle like cards the lives I deal with … They can lock me out of
their hearts, dear Friend, but not out of their lives. They are tenants of my secret system,
whether they like it or not’ (YLD, 108).
11.3.2.1. The Masks of Kwan
Billy’s identity is closely linked to the identities of his ‘puppets’, including the wayang
kulit puppets on the walls of his apartment and also the real figures he has manipulated in his
- 270 -
dossiers.
While it is not correct to say, as Haltof does, that Billy is destroyed by his
disillusionment with his puppets (Haltof, 49), Kwan does ignore (consciously or not) that fact
that by abusing his puppets he is abusing his own perception of self. Indeed, the act of
destroying the wayang puppets will mark Billy Kwan’s triumph of spirit over desire; he
relinquishes his masterly control over them, and recognises that they are but the illusion and
their symbolic shadows the reality. Billy Kwan’s error is not that he becomes disillusioned by
his creation, but that he seeks to remove himself from his prejudiced world and gain a sense of
absolute freedom through his power-oriented ego. When he becomes aware of his power game
and chooses to end it, then he has achieved the essential wisdom of Krishna’s Supreme
Utterance, which can today be reformulated as follows:
The modern individual, paradoxically speaking, only achieves a degree of
freedom when he or she renounces the illusion of complete independence, and
accepts, along with ancient and premodern humanity, that he or she exists in
relationship with an Other who must be propitiated, served, and recognised.
(Tacey, 186)
Kwan’s dilemma is that he is one of the ‘puppets’ in his own dossiers, and he is consequently
unable to free himself from his largely self-imposed bondages.
Cookie believes that, ‘since his race was double and his status ambiguous’, Billy choose
to multiply his masks indefinitely. Billy agrees with this assessment, telling Hamilton ‘I am
Gemini—the same sign as Sukarno. He and I have two faces—the hard and the sentimental’
(YLD, 82). Koch’s ubiquitous theme of doubleness is grounded in his belief ‘that we contain
within us the seed of other, alternative natures’, but which might be exaggerated as ‘a product
of the cultural schizophrenia’ which is part of Australia’s inheritance (Thieme, 1987, 456), and
never more evident than in the character of Billy Kwan. He is on the surface ‘a comic type
with unusually malicious flaws in his nature’. As ‘a dwarf Buddha in a Hawaiian shirt’ (YLD,
71), he is ‘the personification of a ridiculous contradiction’. But as the writer of his dossiers,
the dalang of his secret shadow world, he is ‘a many-faceted, deep-souled, sensitive, highly
complex though highly eccentric man’, who gets caught up in the gathering intensity of the
world he tries to observe and control (Cowie, 89-90). Sukarno, like Kwan, is ‘a small man
- 271 -
with a volcano inside’, and he is a ‘colonised man’, but one who is ‘apparently asserting
himself successfully’, which creates the condition ‘where questions of self-definition and
identity are important; where various stances and attitudes must be tried out, paraded and
asserted as a colonial people seeks to re-form its own identity and style’ (Tiffin, 1982, 333).
Kwan motors around Jakarta gathering information on his scooter in emulation of Sukarno in
his white helicopter, who is emulating the supreme God Vishnu riding across the cosmos in his
chariot. Kwan displays amazing capacities at appearing at the right place at the right time and
then disappearing again, much like the shadow figures on the wayang kulit screen, but ubiquity
for a man travelling without a police escort proves an exhausting practice, and, like even
Sukarno who has that benefit, Kwan eventually loses control over the world he has created.
Cookie tags Kwan variously as a medieval wandering scholar and a puritan, and Wally
warns Hamilton that Billy’s predilection to committing himself to causes could be dangerous.
‘Since I’ve known him—from our fervent student days—he’s been a Buddhist, a Methodist,
and then he entered the Church of Rome. He hasn’t been a Communist yet,’ Wally says,
adding nevertheless that he knows Billy is a liar by claiming not to speak Bahasa. Wally then
questions his parallel claim not to speak a word of Chinese and asks Hamilton, ‘Have you ever
considered that he might be an agent?’ (YLD, 68). It is an interesting question, for, in order to
defragment his self, Billy must indeed become an agent—of Krishna—, and he can only do so
not by cloaking but by defroking himself of his masks.
11.3.2.2. The Dwarf
The dwarf, as the mask which underlies all the others of Billy Kwan, is possibly Koch’s
most important metaphor in The Year of Living Desperately. Kwan is just one of the novel’s
variously strange and surprising cast of dwarves which serves as a mirroring device, much like
Alice’s looking-glass world, with which Koch directs critical attention to the other characters
attitudes, prejudices and perspectives. The dwarf is also among Koch’s most successful
attempts at infusing the vitality of Eastern mythology into desiccated Western symbols. The
reason for this is the dwarf’s nature as an attractive/repulsive, outwardly ugly and weak, yet
- 272 -
inwardly wise and powerful, figure. He first suits Kwan’s purposes of mastery over the human
theatre he has created, and then becomes one of the principle vehicles for Kwan’s relinquishing
of those self-deceiving intentions and his unification with Guy Hamilton.
11.3.2.2.1. The Disfigured, Noble ‘Other’
Koch first introduces his dwarf figure in Across the Sea Wall in the person of a beggar
who among all the beggars who ‘rose from under their feet’ like the ‘dust that rose everywhere;
the mustard-coloured dust which was the floor of India’, terrifies Ilsa:
‘Annas master, annas master! Annas mastair!’ Disease blotted the faces;
hunger made them frown and grimace. And here was a legless dwarf, three
feet high, in a white turban, with a large, dignified, almost intellectual face
with serious straight eyebrows, who circled among the feet of the four,
swinging himself, with horrid expertness, on his hands. This was the first time
O’Brien had seen Ilsa frightened.
‘Ah! He is horrible! Like a spider! Make him go away!’
This dwarf-beggar has no legs, but the spider image makes him both a soulless insect and a
many-armed god.
His dual description—at once grotesque and dignified—is found in
d’Alpuget’s Monkeys in the Dark when Alex and Maruli are eating at an indigenous restaurant:
Another beggar was now standing at the entrance to the tent, a tall man
in faded khaki. One of his arms was missing. As Alex squinted at his
silhouette in the doorway she saw that his left leg also was gone—his trousers
on that side were pinned up and hanging hollow. He held a rough crutch in his
left armpit, while jerking forward, the stump of his right arm as if it still had a
hand attached to it. Strangely, he made no wail for money as beggars normally
did.
As she continued to look at him she realised that his face was beautifully
structured: a long, noble nose and full, chiselled mouth. Flesh had wasted
from him and his pointed cheekbones seemed about to break through the skin.
(MD, 48)
The character reappears in The Year of Living Dangerously, where the symbol of
brutalisation is similarly developed. In one instance he is a cripple much like the one out of
d’Alpuget, ‘a man with no legs, who propelled himself across the floor to us with wooden
blocks tied to his hands, blocks which hissed and shuffled slyly on the tiles at our feet, as we
fumbled for our money’ (YLD, 89-90). Another appearance has a true dwarf, but one who is
again dehumanised—taking Kwan with him—and presented as a gift to Guy Hamilton as a
joke on Kwan:
- 273 -
He was a hunch-backed Indonesian dwarf: a genuine midget, with closecropped hair like a black cat’s fur, and wide-set eyes. He had a tin cup around
his neck for money, and was dressed in a brown shirt and a sarong, from
beneath which peeped his fantastically abbreviated brown legs and stubby bare
feet. He couldn’t have been more than three feet high: his extended arms were
like flippers - ending, I noticed, in tiny infant hands whose fingers were
strangely splayed. Compared to him, Billy Kwan (at whom I dared not look),
was a normal man. (YLD, 91)
The juxtaposition of the desperation and nobility of beggars in these books comes out of
both Eastern and Western traditions. Billy Kwan explains many of the Western sources and
cites others in his files, including Gervase of Tilbury’s Otia Imperialia about the ‘highminded’ dwarf-king of the Antipodes, Bilis, who became Beli, who Kwan calls the ‘prototype
of nearly all mythological dwarfs, and of Pelles, in the Grail Legend’ (YLD, 108). Kwan sees
Bilis/Beli as his model, and Koch clearly invokes this name in creating Billy. As the short
form of ‘William’, being ‘will + helmet’ (Morris, 1466), the name also fits Billy well. William
is the heroic figure out of English children’s literature whom Billy tells Hamilton he had
wanted to be but could not because of his Chinese face (YLD, 84), and this is just one of many
reasons that the adult Billy protects his self-image with a helmet of pure desire. The close
association of Billy Kwan and Guy Hamilton has similar Western antecedents, specifically in
the story found in Kwan’s files about the Pelles of Arthurian legend, who was split into a
knight and his dwarf servant. Billy calls Hamilton his ‘giant brother’ (YLD, 116), and this is
echoed by the journalists of the Wayang Bar who call them ‘Sir Guy’ and the ‘squire’. Eastern
traditions include many stories of gods who come to earth disguised in the form of dwarfs,
beggars, servants, or other lower-caste humans.
These characters, especially those with
physical disabilities, seem to have the special ability, directly related to their ‘otherness’, to
interact in the world otherwise divided between those men who are kasar, or coarse, and alus,
or refined, since they themselves share character aspects of each and benefit from seeing the
world through dual perspectives. Kwan, with all of his inexplicable contacts in Indonesian
politics and society, is certainly one of these, yet needs Hamilton to complete his self. Still, as
in the relationship between Arjuna and Krishna, it is Hamilton the knight who must attend to
the teachings of Kwan the servant, for Kwan’s favourite dwarf is, like Krishna, really a god.
- 274 -
11.3.2.2.2. The Deified ‘Other’
Among the several appearances of dwarves in the Eastern tradition is that of the avatar
Vamana. Vishnu condescends to be born as a wretched Brahman dwarf in order to correct the
behaviour of a king who is virtuous but neglects to perform the sacrifices to the deities required
to uphold the dharmic system. This early Hindu avatar becomes the Javanese Semar, the dwarf
companion to Ardjuna in the wayang kulit, who incorporates the heroic elements of later
incarnations of the avatar into the dwarf character.
Semar is described by Clifford Geertz as ‘the wonderfully comic and wise shadow-play
clown and the greatest of Javanese culture heroes’ (Geertz, 23), and also, in a twist on the
knight/servant theme, ‘both god and clown, man’s guardian spirit and his servant, the most
spiritually refined inwardly and the most rough-looking outwardly’. He is ‘the lowest of the
low’ and yet the father of all men and all spirits:
Semar is said to be the eldest descendant of ‘He that is One’ (i.e., God), elder
brother to Batara Guru. Batara Guru became king of the other gods—Wisnu,
Brama, Kala—who followed him, but Semar became a man—a fat, awkward,
ugly-looking man, full of rough talk, comic stupidities, and hilarious
confusions. (Geertz, 276)
His role expanded with time to make him also father to the prophets of Judeo-Christian
and Moslem traditions and of the peoples who profess those faiths which have become so
important in Java. Semar represents a realistic, moderating role in the wayang kulit amongst
the three other major characters, each of whom represents a psychological extreme in the
spectrum of human experience. Judistira, the Just King, is praiseworthy for his unworldly
sensitivity, but so compassionate that he is unable to act; Bima is possessed of a commitment
to action so strong that his underdeveloped will is left inflexible; Ardjuna invokes divine order
and justice for application in the human context, but to a point of being cold and merciless.
Semar, the divine fool, combines the qualities of the three through his comprehension of the
human condition ‘into a truly alus outlook, an outlook which brings an emotional detachment
and an inner peace in the midst of a world of flux but yet permits and demands a struggle for
order and justice within such a world’ (Geertz, 273).
- 275 -
11.3.2.2.3. Billy Kwan’s Mythopoeic, Intertextually Constructed Self
For the purposes of this study, Semar must be viewed for his relation with the man who
brings him out of the wayang kulit and into his own world of flux and struggle for order and
justice. Billy Kwan develops a mythopoeic scheme, drawing on Western and Eastern sources,
of his ideas about the origins, identity and powers of dwarfs, which he uses to construct his
own identity. Semar is certainly the most appropriate and fortunate of all of the models he tries
on, but Kwan must learn that Semar’s sense of detachment and peace comes not from wearing
the masks of a wise-fool, ugly dwarf. Kwan remains a sophisticated pretender until he
understands that it is through the refined, alus outlook that Semar accepts his reincarnation into
a lower world which he had not merited. Kwan’s sense of self must, like Semar’s, incorporate
all of his own, multifarious and often undeserved, qualities and blemishes, in order to gain a
true perspective on the reality of his world.
In the dossier on dwarfs, however, Kwan develops his own self-image in a way to avoid
direct recognition of Semar’s alus perspective and to hide the truth of his own identity:
In Celtic mythology, the kingdom of the dwarfs below the earth, filled with
precious metals, is called the Antipodes. Joke: I’m a dwarf from the
Antipodes: and my files are my underground work—my secret mine of paper.
He adds Javanese mythology, which raises Semar to a nearly supreme role in the universe,
equating him with Vishnu, the supreme god and guardian of Java, who also ‘sometimes takes
the guise of a dwarf’ (YLD, 156). This confusion of identities of Vishnu, Sukarno, and Semar
with Kwan boils portentously like a witch’s pot through the novel. The concept that Billy
could be the reincarnation of any god, much less the supreme god, seems outlandish for a
Western novel, but Koch takes to the idea of avatars and reincarnation, and, with a Javanese
sense of humour, he invests it with much potential for disaster.
Christopher Koch follows the model of the wayang kulit in making his dwarf the pivotal
character. He leaves no doubt where Kwan thinks he should be placed in the scheme of things
and sets up the double heroic construction in the introduction of the one shadow puppet which
attracts Hamilton’s attention because of its ‘unusual grotesqueness’:
- 276 -
... a fat, hunch-backed, bald old man, whose pug face was painted gold. ‘What
about that one?’, he asked. ‘Is he kasar or alus?’
‘Ah, now, he’s special,’ Billy said quickly. ‘That’s Semar. He’s a
dwarf who serves Arjuna. But he’s also a god in disguise—the old Javanese
god Ismaja.’ He fingered the bald, gilded head. ‘My patron,’ he said lightly.
‘The patron of all dwarfs.’ (YLD, 82)
Billy Kwan does closely resemble his mythical patron in a physical sense, yet, like his
other idol Sukarno, he cannot live up to ‘divine’ billing in that he cannot combine the attributes
of Judistira, Bima and Ardjuna into a whole man. Billy tries instead to influence the actions of
Jill Bryant, Guy Hamilton, the other members of the Wayang Bar clique, and his ‘little family’
in the pasar, and uses his form of meditation—composing his files—to mould a world which
fits his interpretation of the human situation. His success is remarkable, but also shocking, as
Billy fails to recognise how his own fractured identity dominates the identies of the others. He
will not accept the Javanese understanding of humanity, which he grasps intellectually, that the
distinction between alus and kasar has nothing to do with telling the ‘goodies’ from the
‘badies’. In the Bhagavad Gita and the wayang kulit, the antagonistic forces are for the most
part alus, yet never devoid of kasar attributes. While Billy Kwan himself is especially notable
for his mix of alus and kasar qualities, in his attempts to categorise people and things he is
adding to the layers of masks—in effect, trying to obscure the distinctions between alus and
kasar which do not happen to fit his outlook—rather than removing the masks.
Geertz makes an astute comparison between Semar and Shakespeare’s miles gloriosus,
Falstaff, which might be used to explain the idiosyncrasies of Kwan. Though they come from
very different traditions and world views, their kasar physical attributes and the important alus
supporting roles they play for Ardjuna, Prince Hal and Hamilton are unmistakably similar.
Semar and Falstaff, and we can add Kwan as well, also satirise the very societies and theatrical
forms in which they perform:
They furnish a reminder that, despite over-proud assertions to the contrary, no
completely adequate human world-view is possible; and that, behind all the
pretence to absolute and ultimate knowledge, the sense for the irrationality of
human life, for the fact that it is unenclosable, remains. (Geertz, 277)
- 277 -
Billy Kwan, however, forgets, or ignores, this example. Compared to Semar and Falstaff, who
revel in their comic functions, Billy is just too serious about himself and his ideas. He sees
himself as Semar, the father of all men and spirits, in order to justify his simultaneous
identification with the dalang, the creator/puppeteer of the wayang kulit, with Sukarno, the
creator/puppeteer of post-colonial Indonesia, and the archetypal Shiva, the God of creation and
destruction. His dossiers reveal how his desires for Vishnu-like power over men without the
selfless humour of Semar dooms Kwan to re-enact the injustices of Sukarno:
Here, on the quiet page, I’m master—just as I’m master in the dark-room,
stirring my prints in the magic developing-bath. And here, among my files, I
can shuffle like cards the lives I deal with. Their faces stare out at me from
these little pieces of glazed card: people who will become other people: people
who will become old, betray their dreams, become ghosts. But they wait, in
my files, to see what I’ll do with them. Charting their blind course on paper, I
own them, in a way! (YLD, 108)
Billy may identify with his wise-fool forefather, but he is finally undone by his
hopeless desire to get the world to function according to the view he considers best. Yet
getting undone turns out to be just what Billy needs to free himself from all of the frustrations
born of his desires, and to become a man of engaged but disinterested action like Semar,
Arjuna and Falstaff.
11.3.2.3. The Caste War
Related to the ambiguities of the balance of alus and kasar and the true nature of man is
the problem of the mixing of castes, which also comes up in these images of beggars and
dwarfs of both Koch and d’Alpuget. Hindu tradition has Brahma create the castes when he
creates the Triple World. Gods, demons and men are supposed to maintain their designated
places in the cosmos, even though Brahma himself violates this system when he asks Vishnu to
be reincarnated as the avatara.
The Bhagavad Gita is itself ambiguous on this question. Krishna seems to reaffirm the
role of the hereditary-based caste system within dharma, and yet tells Arjuna: ‘The four orders
of men arose from me, in justice to their natures and works’ (Mascaró, 4:13). Noting the
ambiguity of the expression ‘their natures’, which could refer either to one’s preordained caste
- 278 -
or to one’s will, B. M. Matilal proposes that Krishna is saying ‘one should try always to be
one’s own self, not somebody else’ (Matilal, 52).
The ambiguous nature of dharma and its influence on mankind’s thought and action is
dealt with in chapter 8, “The ‘Divinisation of History’ and the Duality of Justice”. Here, it
should suffice to be said that ‘be oneself’ is the message C. J. Koch has adopted. Breaking
caste, when it denies this principle, is shown to be the flaw in the major players like Sukarno,
but the problem is writ large on Billy Kwan, the dwarf who wants to be anyone other than
himself. He would join Sukarno and play the role of Krishna, or personify the wise-fool
qualities as Semar, or vicariously experience life as a tall, handsome, successful and loved man
through Guy Hamilton, even while his indecision on how to act makes him resemble Prince
Arjuna more. Billy is a half-caste Chinese angry at an Australian society which wants to
pigeonhole him into the ‘restaurant or fruit-shop business’ (YLD, 19). He is continually trying
to cross over the established social barriers, whether with so-called progressive members of
society who he wishes to bait (YLD, 66), or as a cameraman posing a journalist’s question at a
Presidential press conference (YLD, 265), or as an applicant for a secondary school teacher job
who is refused due to an inappropriate ‘appearance’ (YLD, 18). He wavers from one ideology
to another, is Sukarno’s most fervent supporter early in the book and his most committed
opponent at the end, and by wreaking all of his so carefully wrought contacts and friendships
he seems almost intent on succeeding as a social failure. Of all the characters in The Year of
Living Dangerously who are based on characters in Alice in Wonderland or the Hindu epics,
Billy Kwan is the only one who seems designed after several—if not all—of them at various
times.
This does not mean that switching vocations or aspects of personality is not desirable;
indeed, the Gita sanctions it. An important part of the sense of reconciliation in the Bhagavad
Gita is set at the individual level. One might be predisposed to one element of personality,
either to extrovert action, to inner contemplation, or to effusion of feelings and emotions, yet
not be completely lacking in the other elements, for the ‘personality hankers after the
- 279 -
satisfactions to be realised from the other two elements’. The result of this personality
synthesis is that ‘a tripartite war may be replaced by a triple psychological concordance’
(Varma, 73).
Billy Kwan, a specialist in keen, dialectical philosophy, ultimately must
incorporate the more regressive aspects into his personality. He must decide who he is in a full
sense.
Billy reveres and even evangelises the Bhagavad Gita, but is wrongly intent on
understanding it rather than being inspired by it.
A mystical text is not only a communication about the experience of the
mystic; it is mainly an invitation that stimulates; as a result, the Gita is not
meant to be understood intellectually, it is to help one seek liberation.
(Callewaert, 98)
The crux of this is that the educated historian-cum-professional cameraman-cumavocational philosopher must become a believer, a calling without any of the technical or
educational requirements of the others. Only then can Billy Kwan stop asking the objective
questions, which only provoke his passion, desire, and anger, and separate him from his world,
and understand how to start acting with the subjective—i.e. involved—disinterest required by
Krishna. Bruce Bennett makes a similar observation about Guy Hamilton when he writes how
the successful reporter’s chief quality ‘appears to be detachment: to become engagé is to
become a poorer journalist, though perhaps more human’. Hamilton’s professional detachment
invades his personality to the point that there often seems to be a foreign voice in his head
giving a reporter’s account of what is happening to his body. His drive to be a successful
journalist shatters any hope of accepting his self until he can seize the message of involved
detachment through Kwan and his experiences in the Javanese highlands, in particular of the
wayang kulit.
‘That tension between a necessary detachment and an equally necessary
involvement’, Bennett notes, ‘is also one of the chief inner dramas’ of these and the other
‘recent Australian novels set in South East Asia’ (Bennett, 1982, 11). This is, in fact, what
Mike Langford in Highways to a War must learn, and what d’Alpuget’s protagonists, who are
otherwise better at sympathising, fail (in Alex Wheatfield’s case) or choose not (in Judith
Wilkes’ case) to learn.
11.4. Billy Kwan and Guy Hamilton—Koch’s Heroic Double
- 280 -
One cannot fully consider Billy Kwan and Guy Hamilton without finally taking the two
as one personality. They have already been viewed in terms of the Alice books of Lewis
Carroll in Chapter 5, according to the Javanese wayang kulit in chapter 7, and in the above
discussion of Semar. This section turns to archetypes of the double personality found in the
ancient Hindu Scriptures as it attempts to complete the analysis of the Kwan/Hamilton double.
Guy Hamilton’s Australian Broadcasting Service office is a little, fractured theatre
where Kwan and Hamilton have little chance of being upstaged as they are in the bustling
Wayang Bar and elsewhere. The suspiciously conservative secretary, Rosini—the silent Tiger
Lily—, serves coffee, dressed carefully in the ‘national dress to dissociate herself ideologically
from this Nekolim’—i.e. neo-colonialist—‘company she worked for’. The assistant, Kumar,
secretly serves the Partai Komunis Indonesia, yet wears a ‘veil of absolute courtesy and
neutrality’ at work (YLD, 175). Billy reigns, sitting up like Buddha on the desk he has
squatted, reading philosophy. Hamilton governs, and, while he feels the distance created by
the masks, the operation is satisfyingly efficient and makes a minimum of demands on his own
masked self. He is more amused than distressed by Billy’s ‘ceaseless mental life’. They wear
complementary masks, the sense of humour of each ‘interlocked well with the other’s, and they
played roles caricaturing themselves: Hamilton a callous journalist, Kwan a sensitive
intellectual’ (YLD, 71). Hamilton and Kwan complete gaps in each others’ personalities, just
as Koch’s Indonesia functions as an absent part of Australia’s Western identity (Haltof, 46).
And yet, it does not at first seem likely that the two can become truly close.
11.4.1. The Deceiving Search for Identity
As with the Australian and Asian struggle to work out a new relationship, Kwan and
Hamilton’s collaboration is made up of a strong mix of attraction and distrust. Hamilton, who
need not yet doubt Kwan’s loyalty, nevertheless wonders early on about Kwan’s purposes, and
dislikes ‘the idea that he was not what he seemed, or was in some way deceiving him’ (YLD,
71). Kwan, who desperately needs a surrogate agent to act for him (a topic covered in chapter
8), is angered and frustrated by Hamilton’s resistance to his will.
- 281 -
The sense of deception becomes urgent as early as Hamilton’s first visit to Billy’s
apartment, where he comes closer to his squire’s array of masks and icons. Billy’s room is ‘a
teeming box of clues’, where a bewildering array of photographs covered almost every inch of
wallspace. Hamilton takes special notice of what appears to be Billy’s strange iconography: a
photograph of Jill Bryant, the Javanese shadow puppets, a crucifix, photographs of the poor of
Jakarta, photocopies of dwarfs, and, like the matching bookend to the Jill Bryant photo, ‘a print
in lurid colours, of an Indian goddess, blue-fleshed, hair dishevelled, dancing on the pale,
prostrate form of a man’ (YLD, 79)—namely, Kali, the goddess of destruction. The deception
is that Billy’s photography is part of the secret dossiers of which Hamilton is supposed to
remain another ignorant subject. Yet, the deception is more complex than that, for it creates, as
Nettlebeck notes, not so much the true story of the people of Jakarta as a looking-glass world
into which the viewer gazes without realising that it mirrors himself (Nettlebeck, 18).
Alongside Hamilton, of course, stands the most deceived of viewers—Billy Kwan himself.
In this room of secrets, these two men of secrets begin to discuss their pasts and
identities. Surprised and touched by Billy’s apparent sincerity, Hamilton forgets his own
reticence to form close bonds to another, and touches Billy on the shoulder. Billy, however,
rejects this attempt to show compassion. Hamilton understands that Billy can not respond, and
that ‘he had touched a being to whom he could not get closer’ (YLD, 84). Marek Haltof takes
the common scholarly view that this inability to unify their spirits is a representation of the
Australian/Asian failure to identify with each other. Haltof writes,
On the one hand, Hamilton is an ‘object of desire’ and worship for Kwan, on
the other, an object of manipulation and creation. As in Gothic novels and
horror films dealing with the relationship between the creator and the
creature/monster (e.g., the Frankensteinian motif) the creature becomes a
source of disappointment for the creator who inevitably cannot completely
control his creation. (Haltof, 52)
This much is certainly correct, and associations with the Australia/Asia relationship are
germane, but the line of reasoning leads in the wrong direction. Haltof sees in Kwan’s
inability to control his creations a helplessness which afflicts his personality and leads to his
‘tragic death’, which would suggest the absurdity that Koch is representing a tragic
- 282 -
helplessness in the relationship between Australia and Asia. Sharrad hits the mark when he
notes how ‘the ostensibly bleak endings of the novels mark a “getting of wisdom” that
indicates a breaking of the enchantment of the imperial Circe’—i.e., liberation from the
brutalisation as discussed in chapter 10. Rather than projecting a ‘defeatist, closed view of
life’, Koch’s work ‘moves towards an opening up of possibilities born of self-assessment’
(Sharrad, 1985, 65). Haltof unfortunately is focusing on the traditional themes and forgetting
the text. Koch is certainly not failing to leave enough literary clues which point to the crux of
Billy Kwan’s problems—that he remains for most of the novel a man of thought, not of action,
and is therefore severely disappointed with himself long before Hamilton and Sukarno and the
others disappoint him. One might argue as much about Australia which, rather than shoulder
its own responsibilities, so often acquiesced to the leadership of Britain or America in its
relationship with Asia, and then found so much to blame in them. Yet, also like Australia and
Asia, both Billy Kwan and Guy Hamilton make progress, however reluctantly, in
understanding and building their relationships, in particular with each other.
11.4.2. The ‘Noosphere’, & the Metaphor of the Chariot
When Wally wonders if Billy might be an ‘agent’, he is joining Cookie and everyone
else in puzzling over just who the real Billy Kwan is. Kwan characteristically avoids the
question about the true nature of his own self when he broaches the theme from the angle of
the true nature of the ‘self’. He asks Hamilton what he thinks of a concept from the philosophy
of Teilhard de Chardin called the ‘Noosphere’. Straight man Hamilton says, ‘Thanks for
lending it, but it was too heavy for me, matey.’ To which wise-fool Kwan, who must yet
implement his new idea, says, ‘But what a marvellous idea that we’ve reached a new stage in
evolution: that thought is a force. That’s what the Noosphere is, old man’ (YLD, 70).
This is a metaphor about the nature of man which can be traced back at least to the
Upanishads from about 800 BC. At a time when the Greek scientist-philosophers were
looking outward and seeing a universe which directly refuted the old concepts of nature and
caused the collapse of their religious-mythological system, the Indian philosophers were
- 283 -
looking inward and seeing an ‘all transcending, truly supernatural principle from which the
forces, phenomena, and divine directors of the natural world proceeded’ (Zimmer, 1969, 357).
Attention was turned from the gods, but their existence was not threatened as it was in the
Greek world. Instead, the focus was on the unseizable, indestructible, and unbound source of
cosmic energy itself, from which streamed gods, demons, men, and all of creation.
The Upanishads provided the metaphor of the chariot to explain the reality of man’s
existence. Man’s self was pictured as the rider of a chariot, his body was the chariot, his
intellect was the charioteer, and his mind was the reins. His sense organs were the horses, and
the objects of his senses were the roads. The individual, made up of self, body, organs and
mind, is what one recognises as the ‘experiencer’ of the universe. The intellect, which Zimmer
describes as ‘intuitive discernment and awareness’ (Zimmer, 1969, 363), manages the organs
and sense objects, just as a good charioteer does his horses and the road, while the rider, the
individual man, makes his way through life gaining experience and self-fulfilment.
The intellect, then, is the source of the individual’s power. In the Bhagavad Gita, this
intellect is personified by the charioteer Krishna, and the individual rider is Arjuna. After
altering the quality of Arjuna’s senses, Krishna reveals his true self as ‘irradiated by a light’
which is both immanental—flowing out of the ‘inner man’ within the individual—and
transcendental (Chaitanya, 20). This intellect which binds the self to the cosmic fountainhead
is the elemental, universal energy, and is therefore certainly that force which Billy Kwan says
de Chardin called the ‘Noosphere’.
Indeed, Purushottama Bilimoria mentions the
contemporary role of the Bhagavad Gita in leading ‘human beings to the next stage of
evolution of their consciousness, by revealing to them a deeper wisdom and a method of
achieving their final goal’.
He discusses the theory of ‘spiritual evolution’, particularly
analysing the Bhagavad Gita’s ‘relation to the work of the Catholic scientific thinker, Teilhard
de Chardin’ (Bilimoria, 86).
It is in this relationship which Billy Kwan can be seen, and sees himself, in the role of
the charioteer Krishna and Hamilton the rider. Recalling Krishna’s enhancement of Arjuna’s
- 284 -
vision, Kwan is called ‘Hamilton’s eyes’ during their discussion of the Noosphere (YLD, 71).
Of course, in light of Billy’s multiple masks, seen exhibited in the Alice in Wonderland
allusions, he also plays the role of Arjuna, the rider of the chariot whose dogmatic analysis of
the situation facing him leads to a spiritual dilemma which precludes the action required of
him. It is only the surface of the problem that this complex man can be seen as Krishna, Semar
or Arjuna, as the White Rabbit darting down the hole into the looking-glass world, as the
dalang manipulating his puppets, as a little Buddha meditating on his desktop, or a pint-size
Vishnu motoring around Jakarta and bringing on his scooter small doses of light to the poor of
the Pasar Baru. Kwan’s true puzzle is learning to transform his thought into force; indeed, his
idea that ‘thought is force’ seems at first to be an attempt at avoiding the necessity of action—
if he could just will action hard enough. He must first simplify himself—or rather, uncover his
self. He must overcome his egoistic interests, his fear of consequences, his criticism of Wally,
Curtis and the other journalists, and let go of his anger at Hamilton, Jill, Ibu and Sukarno for
resisting his will. Billy’s destiny is to defrock his self of its clouding masks, in order to purify
his thought, and, just as de Chardin postulated and Krishna commanded, transform it into the
force of action.
11.4.3. Koch’s ‘Double Man’ as Consummate Hero
This defrocking is unfortunately a task which is beyond Billy Kwan’s competence, for
he is far too involved in his passive, intellectual ruminations to become a man of active force.
At the same time, the defrocking needed to free Guy Hamilton from his own prejudices and
inhibitions cannot be accomplished without outside influences. Koch has created in Hamilton
and Kwan ‘a sort of double hero’ (Koch, 1987, 22), following the double metaphor of the
charioteer and rider of the chariot as personified by Krishna and Arjuna and of the three
Pandava brothers of the wayang kulit. Kwan and Hamilton ‘were two aspects of the one:
mystic and simple soul, thinker and man of action; both of them products of a dying colonial
world’ (Koch, 1987, 23), each needing his ‘complementary other’ to become whole.
- 285 -
Seeing them together is like watching a ventriloquist and his dummy: one tall, handsome
and rather stiffly formal, the other small, a bit grotesquely shaped, witty and moody, which
leads Wally O’Sullivan to name them ‘Sir Guy and the Black Dwarf’ (YLD, 43). Koch
repeatedly likens Billy to a puppet, giving him a ‘waxen, fixed face’ (YLD, 234), and describes
him as a doll or child, as when Hamilton surprises Billy alone in the locked ABS offices:
‘Without a word, Billy threw himself into the chair, and lay like a broken doll, shoulders
hunched to his ears. He blinked at Hamilton expressionlessly, utterly attentive: an obedient
Chinese child’ (YLD, 32). These are Orientalist clichés, but Koch is using them much as
d’Alpuget does, drawing the reader into the stereotypes of the Asian-Australian Billy Kwan
and the colonial-sentimentalist, Anglo-Saxon Guy Hamilton, then, like a dalang finessing the
shadows on the wayang kulit screen, blending, combining, and finally reversing their
chimerical personalities.
They are a team with their obligatory, standard comic lines, like the glib dialogue
whenever they set out after a story:
‘Is all the sound equipment in the boot?’
‘Yes—and no one helped me to put it there.’
‘What about the old Bell and Howell? Is he loaded?’
‘On the front seat, old man.’
‘Any hairs on the lens?’
‘You worry about the words, Hamilton.’ (YLD, 74)
It is the time-honoured routine of confusing which of the two is the dummy which is most
richly developed, notably marking Hamilton as the one dwarfed by atrophied emotions,
ridiculed for his inability to assess the rules of his new professional and personal situation, and
mocked by his colleagues. Billy meanwhile assumes the roles—all variations on the puppeteer
theme—of the dalang puppet master, impersonator of President/God-king Sukarno, and
incarnation of Vishnu. This is part theatrics, but surpassing the mundane is a quotidian affair
for Kwan, and much about him defies explanation, including his extraordinary personal
contacts and the insider’s access to certain prominent figures, which enables him to bestow on
the earnest but green Hamilton the career-making interview that the other correspondents can
- 286 -
only dream about. At each crucial moment, however, Kwan becomes the dummy again, and
lets Hamilton perform the actions which he has carefully thought out and prepared.
11.4.4. Getting to the Soul of the Matter
The integration of Kwan and Hamilton into a whole reflects the Hindu principle of the
unification of opposites, represented in Shiva and Parvati, who are sometimes pictured as one
god made up of one half of each, and neither Hamilton nor Kwan alone equals more than an
incomplete personality. Kwan and Hamilton are a pair of attracting opposites—like yin and
yang, male and female, spring and autumn, or any other manifestation of the principle of
dualities where one without the other is meaningless. Yet, there is an internal violence
involved in the union of opposites, and the relationship of Kwan and Hamilton makes for
considerable releases of energy.
The explosion comes after Billy has got himself excluded from the Wayang Bar clique
and suffered the death of the infant Udin which he blames on Sukarno.
Hamilton has
profoundly angered Kwan by rejecting his will that he stay with Jill Bryant and gone instead to
the highlands, covered the communist march, met Vera Chostiakov, and experienced the
wayang kulit.
Kwan is literally alone, and disappears.
Hamilton feels the loss of his
counterpart. This is the nadir of their personal confrontation, and, when then they cross paths
in the Pasar Baru, the two personalities are like fusing atoms being forcibly fused, their
bursting physical bodies showing the first signs of the union:
Billy laughed contemptuously. Hamilton continued to hold his wrists. So they
stood, chests heaving, sweat oily on their faces, the whites of their eyes
catching the dull light.’ (YLD, 234)
Hamilton, still a man of action without a clue, asks what he did to harm their friendship, and
Billy, though still delusional about himself, justifiably throws the question back at Hamilton:
‘We were a good deal more than friends, old man. You don’t seem to
understand. You did nothing to me—the harm you did was to yourself.’
Then, topping this identification between the two, Billy, the squire/dummy/side-kick, delivers
the blow which could only come from a superior:
- 287 -
There are only two sorts of men, Hamilton—men of light and men of darkness.
You were incomplete—I knew that. You were mainly concerned with
yourself. But you were a man of light, and that’s why I chose you. (YLD, 235)
At this point the conventional critical analysis that Billy Kwan becomes disillusioned with
himself and his world is undeniable, and when he says ‘you were a man of light’, as if
Hamilton, in choosing to go to the highlands instead of to Jill, is now a man of darkness, Kwan
is judging himself just as harshly.
Most Western readers might recoil and take Kwan’s words as a sign of megalomania,
but in the Eastern tradition this is no more than a stark statement of the profound relationship
between the Guru and his disciple. Karan Singh notes how in ‘the Upanishads the Guru uses
the term “Saumya” for the disciple, meaning “dearly beloved”; they looked upon their disciples
as even more close to them than their own sons, because whereas the physical father gives only
physical birth it is the Guru who gives us the real spiritual birth’. He stresses the centrality of
this relationship, expressed in what he calls ‘one of the most moving verses in the Bhagavad
Gita’ (Karan Singh, 5):
I bow before thee, I prostrate in adoration; and I beg they grace, O glorious
Lord! As a father to his son, as a friend to his friend, as a lover to his beloved,
be gracious unto me, O God. (BG, 11:44)
Friendship can indeed be one of the strongest bonds possible, reaching beyond the limits
of the father and son relationship, and for Billy and Hamilton, as for the Guru and his Saumya,
and for Krishna and Arjuna, the bond reaches even to the plane of the lover to his beloved.
‘This is what makes it so significant. It is a relationship of trust, faith and devotion. Krishna is
urging his friend, not threatening him’ (Karan Singh, 5). Billy’s seemingly threatening, angry,
hurt words are a cry in the encroaching dark urging Hamilton, once and for all, to listen, for he
senses that it is critical that Guy open himself to his eternal soul. Billy is so desperate because
he knows that, in order to open himself to his own soul, he needs his ‘other half’ to accompany
him.
- 288 -
Having certified, in this admittedly ambiguous manner, the depth of their relationship,
Billy goes on with his answer to Hamilton’s question, which he has now significantly
reformulated as ‘what have we done to hurt ourselves?’:
All that matters now is to know what light is, and what darkness is. And you
knew. If we lose the capability of sensing that, we lose everything. We
worship shadows, we worship foulness. And there’s nothing so tedious as
foulness. (YLD, 236)
Hamilton understands Kwan to be criticising his visit to the prostitutes at the cemetery, and yet
he fails to recall the other association he had made with his profession when he called his
position in the Sydney news-room ‘a bloody cemetery’ (YLD, 33). Hamilton understands Billy
to be talking only about prostitution in the carnal sense, but Billy makes it clear that he is also
attacking those who prostitute the masses with their dehumanising, pornographic culture:
Desire, lust, then anger: that’s the sequence for the sensual man, and for our
whole society. You’re angry now, aren’t you? … Well, the Black One must
have laughed to see you there. … We’ve begun to give de Sade to the masses,
along with their cornflakes. The torment of a degenerate psyche for whole
populations! Copulation no longer amuses them: love’s an enema at some mad
health clinic—they look up each other’s anuses, old man, like sad monkeys.
The clinic’s a waiting-room of Hell. (YLD, 236)
The ‘Black One’ at the cemetery is, of course, Kali, the Goddess of Destruction, who is
so wild that her temples must be erected outside of settled areas, often near cemeteries. Kwan
may be forgetting that she is an aspect of the Great Mother, the giver of fertility, health and
good fortune. He is not yet ready to recognise her fully, for he certainly knows that Kali
demands a blood offering to change from her aspect of terror to that of the bestower of life.
Hamilton, ever slow to grasp Kwan’s meanings, tries to deflect what he takes as a diatribe,
calling it sexual frustration. Billy retorts with some of his most important lines, recalling
d’Alpuget’s leitmotif while using a vocabulary of the flesh but focusing on the spirit:
Ah—one of the great lies, old man, is that little cliché: that to be concerned
with the death of love, with the abuse of the body, is just frustration speaking.
But it’s not for nothing that evil’s so much tied up with losing our sexual
integrity. It’s through our bodies that we most easily enter Hell. How else?
When we abuse each other’s bodies, then we become demons. Poor sick
monkeys! But the spirit doesn’t die of course; it just becomes a monster.
(YLD, 236-37)
- 289 -
Now feeling abused, Hamilton asks if visiting the cemetery or seeing Vera deserves this. Billy
first reminds Hamilton how he has abused his love to further his career through stories of the
desire, lust and anger earlier mentioned: ‘Stories! Is that what life’s about? What’s a bloody
journalist, really? Nothing but a Peeping Tom.’ He then forces Hamilton to confront the
reality of his love, Jill’s love and pregnancy, Hamilton’s own inconstancy, but formulates it
according to his own view of their world:
You slow idiot: I put you on course; I made you see things; I gave you the
woman I loved, who loved you, who’s carrying your child: she needed all your
understanding, all your constancy. … I created you! (YLD, 235-37)
This statement literally stops Hamilton in his tracks while Billy, who needs to examine the
relevance of his words to himself, turns and runs away. Billy’s vision is still distorted by his
terrible anger and hurt. He is right philosophically, but insisting on his creation of Hamilton
shows how he is still searching for a stand-in who will act rightly. If he is to act for the right
reasons, he must also let Hamilton chose for himself how to act, according to the model of the
charioteer Krishna, who ends his revelation and discourse with Arjuna by saying:
I have given thee words of vision and wisdom more secret than hidden
mysteries. Ponder them in the silence of thy soul, and then in freedom do thy
will. (BG, 18:63)
Krishna is reminding Arjuna that the will of god (i.e. fate) must be confirmed by the virtuous
action of man, else dharma will be overwhelmed by adharma. Kwan, who would be Krishna,
must listen to his own words, and recognise that his self-deceiving desire leads to his own
crippling lust and anger. Kwan must recognise that he and Hamilton together are Arjuna, the
intellectual warrior whose attempt to judge the profane world according to sacred virtue leaves
him at the critical moment unable to act to restore dharmic order, until the whole man, by the
silent guidance of his soul, can combine the qualities of thought and action.
Kwan directs his chastising about ‘desire, lust and anger’ at Hamilton, but he finally
realises that he is railing at himself. When he sorts out his philosophic dilemmas and comes
‘to know what light is, and what darkness is’, he stops worshipping the shadows of Sukarno, of
the communists, and of his own photographic and literary creations. In destroying his wayang
- 290 -
kulit puppets, he is ending his worship of the illusory shadows of the shadows which symbolise
reality on the wayang screen. At the same time, Hamilton grows emotionally capable of
recognising his own worship of his profession, thereby freeing himself to make a commitment
to Jill and to life which is personified in their child. Together Billy Kwan and Guy Hamilton
are freed from their frustrations and able to chose a course of action which upholds the sacred
order of dharma. ‘That man is free to make or mar his destiny is a fundamental conviction’ of
the poet of the Bhagavad Gita (Chaitanya, 16), and this, ultimately, is the central message
Koch is relaying in The Year of Living Desperately.
Billy Kwan must be seen in the light of a man in search of his eternal self, or else he
does, as many critics find, become an utterly pathetic character driven insane by his pain and
frustrations; Guy Hamilton must also be seen, considering his quest to escape his own
professional and emotional cemeteries, in this light, or he must be judged a man of little
substance, prone to fantasy and self-illusion, and driven by social conventions rather than
inspired by personal conviction. Failing to see Kwan and Hamilton as a heroic double would
also condemn the novel to being nothing beyond a sordid statement of the absurdity of human
aspirations in a futile and meaningless life, crassly and inaccurately labelling it an Orientalist,
neo-colonialist, and post-modernist gospel—or to put it as Billy Kwan might, literary
cornflakes.
11.5. Conclusion
This chapter has endeavoured to demonstrate two central elements in the development
of characters of d’Alpuget’s Monkeys in the Dark and Koch’s The Year of Living Dangerously
in order to identify their dependence on Eastern variations on the theme of doubles. Despite its
critical acceptance, The Year of Living Dangerously is not a popular novel of clever plot twists,
post-colonial historical events, and post-modern anti-heroes, but is a metaphor of the revelation
of self once the distinguishing, debilitating masks of personality are defrocked to display the
essential, non-individuating soul. Separately, Kwan and Hamilton are nearly everything the
other says he would not be; together they become more than either alone ever could have been,
- 291 -
and form a hale and hardy man. The chaotic cyclone of identities into which they tumble
threatens their survival, but once they find the unified eye of the storm they are drawn together
intellectually, physically, emotionally and spiritually in a calm singular force of perspective,
thought and action.
Monkeys in the Dark imposes at its centre—a structural expression of Blanche
d’Alpuget’s distinctive sense of irony—a digression.
Veering from a straight novelistic
account of d’Alpuget’s leitmotif of brutalisation, the tale of Alexandra Wheatfield and
Anthony Sinclaire’s journey places the traditional Australian themes of the struggle for identity
and survival in a hostile world into the form of sacred Indian biography. Like Koch’s Kwan
and Hamilton, d’Alpuget’s protagonists are deeply engaged in a struggle for unification of
opposing forces, but d’Alpuget’s Indian model allows her to put them into the context of the
rise and fall of fate and fortune, of the threatening accumulation of karma, and of the sense of
the personal responsibility born by each individual for himself, for his companion, and for the
world he lives in. This borrowed structure imposes symbolic meaning on the usually vacuous
sort of descriptive images found in western novels and which d’Alpuget is so attentive to, as
the colour of a character’s hair, eyes or clothes, his name, his diction, or how he eats. And it
gives decidedly humanising direction, albeit circular rather than the standard linear
development, climax, anti-climax, and denouement, to characters in a plot which would
otherwise be merely an episodic excursion to a dead end.
- 292 -
Encountering the ‘Otherworld’
12.1. Introduction
This study has repeatedly focused attention on antagonistic yet attracting doubles, from
C. J. Koch’s looking-glass metaphors and Blanche d’Alpuget’s double-edged stereotypes, to
the two-sided screen of the wayang kulit, the mother/destroyer goddess, and, in the last chapter,
the companion protagonists. At this time, the gaze will turn to the Australian consciousness of
its world as doubled metaphor for both that which is good and nurturing, and evil and
devitalising, drawing on all three of Koch’s Asian novels, but especially on illustrations from
his latest, Highways to a War. David Tacey writes that ‘Australians construct images of the
land that are either paradisal or demonic. We have traditions of art and literature at both ends
of this mythopoetic spectrum’ (Tacey, 111).
Reinforced by the cultural implications of
Australia’s sheer size, it’s varied, often oppressively harsh climates, and, not least of all, the
influence of the Aboriginal culture for whom the land is not only sacred but the very source of
cosmic meaning, C. J. Koch presents worlds which are permeated with magic, spirits and
mythical beings.
Koch seems obsessed with individual attempts to live, or to make others live, in one’s
‘dream world’. Native to Tasmania, a strange land in the cold mists off the Australian
mainland, which has itself historically been on the far edge of Western civilisation, he feels
that this ‘Otherworld’ really does exist out beyond the borders of the ‘real world’, where, like
Alice’s Wonderland or Rip Van Winkle’s Sleepy Hollow, it need not abide by the physical
laws of this world. ‘Life to me’, he says, ‘is always on the edge of the condition of dream. At
any moment reality may begin to blur at the edges’ (Hulse, 25). Koch bases his metaphor on
such Western archetypes, yet develops it according on the Eastern concept which holds that
everything we consider ‘reality’, including the personality itself, is but illusion and beyond
comprehension. Koch adopts the point of view where this world is simply a reversed or
shadow image clinging precariously at the edge of another, strangely discernible reality,
positioned across the interface which lies along Southeast Asia:
- 293 -
In the tropics, the pane through which we view reality is very thin. The
colours are so unnaturally bright; they can suddenly cause the pane to seem to
dissolve. The world becomes two-dimensional; a tapestry behind which
something else waits to announce itself. (HW, 230)
Koch plays off one world against the other like the two sides of the wayang kulit’s screen since
they exist simultaneously and are in semiotic competition with each other. As he applies this
to the war in Southeast Asia, however, he weaves the metaphor into a struggle between
dharma and adharma, insisting on the danger that the ‘Otherworld’ break through the shadow
screen and demand recognition of its legitimacy over this world which has usurped its position
as the dominant or true reality.
Koch, however, does not take sides in this macrocosmic struggle. There are elements of
paradise and of hell on both sides of the tapestry Koch creates; one cannot have the one
without accepting the other, just as it is in the unique blend of sattva, rajas and tamas which
bestows humanity on man. Tacey concurs that working from either of the extremes to the
exclusion of the other leaves no room for cultural or spiritual development. Seeing the bush as
an Arcadia amounts to ‘projecting an ego-syntonic ideal’ and ‘engaging in Freudian wishfulfilment’ which leads to a psychological denial of any possible threat to the sense of stability
and safety. Seeing the bush, however, as a landscape of ‘pure horror’ leaves the cowered ego
unable to respond. ‘When the interior is demonic and ego-dystonic, the ego will not venture
into it, and thus cannot be transformed’. The ego in such a hell remains frozen and condemned
‘to a petty existence at the surface of life’ (Tacey, 112).
The same crippling, bipolarisation is made in the Australian perception of Asia. One
approach has been to romanticise it, accentuate the allure and mystery of its arts and culture,
and create of it an oriental utopia. Another has been to picture it as ‘responsible for everything
that is wrong with the world—economic exploitation, political corruption, social breakdown,
ecological ruin’ and so on (Gerster, Bali, 355). Either way, Australia’s ‘literature of the other’
gleefully rummages through it all:
‘Other’, ‘abnormal’, ‘aberrant’ types of people are explored, revealing new
resonances, depths, and insecurities about ‘normal’ people. Everything taken
for granted is unpacked, disassembled, and re-explored. (Tacey, 114)
- 294 -
The prevailing attitudes manifested in the literature reflect not only how Australia sees
Asia, but ‘the way Australians define their place in their part of the world, and by extension,
themselves’ (Gerster, Bali, 354). Australian constructions of Asia and Asians is part of an
ambivalent Western heritage of fear and desire toward ‘racial and cultural Otherness’ in which
Asians are sometimes ‘troped as potential or actual aggressors, and at other times portrayed as
victims of our own imperial activities in the Asia-Pacific region’ (Gilbert, 177). What once
seemed clear and simple in the sense of national and personal identity has become complex
and distorted as Australia tries to come to grips with its world. Yet it is the breakdown of its
pat, inherited sense of identity which frees the Australian ego from the constraints of its
colonial past, much like Alice’s lazy boredom frees her to follow the White Rabbit down the
hole into Wonderland. Then the masks of the personality begin to fall away, allowing the
self’s hidden desires and impulses to be explored, so that out of this human chaos a passage
opens through which the ‘Otherworld enters human reality and transforms it from within’ and
makes ‘unprecedented claims on reality, so that the fantastic and the real are now difficult to
separate’ (Tacey, 114).
12.2. Confronting the ‘Self’ in the ‘Otherworld’
In The Year of Living Dangerously, C. J. Koch unified traditional Australian concepts
of doubleness, in which a polarised reality is seen from one perspective, with the Javanese
wayang kulit structural form in which a unified reality is represented by a double perspective
separated by the shadow screen. Ensconced in the shadowy confines of the Wayang Bar,
Koch’s group of correspondents discuss and work out—under the superior light of their own
sense of reality—the problems and possibilities of Sukarno and of the Western nations, mete
out justice, and bring into sharp and conclusive focus the distasteful grey zones of
confrontation. This Western light, however, which seems so bright when enveloped in the
darkness of the bar, loses its brilliance when exposed to the blinding light outside, where these
professional, Western men become simple, ridiculous players in the mad and thoroughly grey
world they are so keen on analysing.
- 295 -
Guy Hamilton is one who will not stay on the Westerners’ side of the screen, but
accompanies Billy Kwan outside to the Pasar, the indigenous quarter. He finds there not only
a world where his Western perspectives lose their currency, but also a borderland where two
opposing worlds appears to be engaged in such an intense struggle that distinctions as between
good and evil, joy and strife, or reality and imagination become senseless or disappear:
All the brown faces, floating in flatland dark, were theatrically lit from
below, by the brazier, by the flames, and all seemed to smile. Young men in
white shirts and sarongs walked by hand in hand. Doorless huts gave glimpses
of public privacy, frozen in yellow flames: a table with a candle on it; a small,
naked girl playing on a straw mat; a middle-aged woman in a sarong and
incongruous brassière, heating water in a discarded can over a little fire. The
rooms were so small they were little more than boxes, and could not be stood
up in: children’s playhouses. It was not hard to see the place as gay, and the
poverty as a game. (YLD, 20-21)
This is Sukarno’s Jakarta, a world which is not real in any Western sense. The façade of shiny
new banks veil the poverty of the debt-ridden capital; a vast, Western-style department store is
empty of customers; and all is crowned by heroic monuments ‘topped by ecstatically gesturing
figures like ghosts from the Third Reich or Stalin’s Russia’(YLD, 28). Koch makes it clear,
however, that the difference between reality and the fantastic is often one of point of view or of
preference, and that even the pragmatic Western nations are inevitably drawn toward the
fantastic world when he writes:
Engineer Sukarno flew over it all in his special white helicopter, supervising
operations; and we in the Wayang Club watched as eagerly for the choppers
comings and goings as those villagers on whom the President would descend,
as Billy Kwan had put it, like Vishnu in his magic car.
The world was convinced: fifty-five countries now had foreign missions
here, and those of the US and USSR were lavish. The more Bung insulted
them all, the more they did to prop up his dream. (YLD, 28)
Further images paralleling the earthly world with the world of the shadow theatre appear
throughout the novel, always serving to emphasise the duality of the two. When Hamilton and
Jill Bryant talk alone at Wally’s party about love, marriage, Billy and themselves, Cookie sees
them through the frame of the double doors of the veranda as images on the shadow screen.
They are expressionless and cannot be heard, and yet their images, somehow distant in time
and space, carry profound meaning:
- 296 -
There was no sexual interest to be read in their faces; and they did not
smile. yet I had never seen a couple who seemed more inevitably intended for
sexual linking. They looked cooler than the rest of us: she in a pale blue dress
of some sort of linen; the big man in one of his innumerable safari suits. Dark
and fair in their lit frame, they had ceased for a moment to be themselves, and
resembled the human shadows of universal wish. (YLD, 103)
In drawing on his many metaphors and symbols from East and West, Koch is working out his
ideas on that ‘universal wish’. He says that all of his novels, including The Boys in the Island
and Doubleman as also Across the Sea Wall, The Year of Living Dangerously, and Highways to
a War, involve the search for ‘a region of the imagination that doesn’t exist in this world’, but
which one half-remembers from childhood and carries into adult life, a theme Koch admits he
may have first encountered in Wordsworth’s “Intimations of Immortality” (Hulse, 18). Guy
Hamilton’s desire to rediscover the imperial Asia of his father; Billy Kwan’s preoccupation
with dwarves, spirits and avatars; Robert O’Brien’s urge to let himself be shaken out of his
conventional life; these are all images of the ‘universal wish’ for some ‘re-enchantment’ of the
sort David Tacey writes about. Even the landscape, Koch says, shares this wish and ‘is waiting
for something to happen’ (Hulse, 18).
Also like Tacey, who mentions the ill-directed efforts of many to find a new sense of
spirituality in bogus New Age philosophies, Koch is concerned with the excess that comes
with the West’s preoccupation with illusion. The Western world, he believes, is ‘ensnared by
illusion’ fed it in film, television, and literature. Koch says that this is ‘perhaps inevitable in a
society that’s lost its central belief-system’ (Hulse, 21), leading to a self-centered
‘masturbatory society’ (Hulse, 22). The problem is not so much with the world of imagination
and illusion, which Koch presents positively, as in his metaphors of the hop fields at Clare
farm and in the NVA bunker, but in the delusion which comes from a ‘permanent attraction to
illusion’ (Hulse, 23). ‘Devotion to illusion and obsession with the past, as well as belief in
magic as a force to influence and control and dominate other minds, all lead to psychic illhealth and disaster’ he says (Hulse, 23). Examples to this are ubiquitous in Koch’s novels.
The principle ones include Robert O’Brien’s physical breakdown following his
emotional/spiritual disappointment; Billy Kwan’s disillusion when he realises that his heroes
- 297 -
Sukarno and Hamilton, on whom he pinned his own ego, cannot live up to his fantasies about
them (Hulse, 21-22); Guy Hamilton’s inhibitions due to his fixation on the past and on seeing
his in the terms of a James Bond novel; and Mike Langford’s catastrophic inability to get on
with his life as Cambodia falls to the Khmer Rouge.
Koch is not leaving his characters in the lurch, despite widespread critical analysis
which has reached this conclusion, but is setting them out on the perilous journey into the
interior of the self. This is just the sort of more balanced approach than has been traditionally
used in Australian literature that Tacey argues for when writing that images of the landscape,
of the divine being, and of the deep unconscious, all metaphors of the ‘Other’, must be
recognized not simply as good or evil, but as complex, awesome, subtle, and many-sided
before they can assist in this transformation of the Australian sense of Self.
Such a transformation is necessary in the face of the cultural and psychological
changes which make up the ‘post-modern condition’, in which ‘we are awash in a sea of
otherness’ so overwhelming that the very landscape, both physical and spiritual, has been
‘dissolved into the ambiguity of otherness’ and become unrecognisable.
We have stepped out of the old Newtonian ‘building-block’ image of reality
and entered instead a world closer to the new physics and quantum science,
where ‘things’ have been dissolved into energies, and even energies are not
mechanical, predictable, objective, but changing, mystical, and affected by the
subject who observes them. (Tacey, 112-15)
Australian writers benefit from the Aboriginal concept in which the world ‘is at the centre of
everything; at once the source of life, the origin of the tribe, the metamorphosed body of bloodline ancestors, and the intelligent force that drives the individual and creates society’ (Tacey,
148). Compared to this, Tacey sees the traditional Western view of nature as ‘barren, empty,
unalive’, so that our own world is the truly ‘alien’ one.
Although our story grants god-like powers to the individual, the individual
actually feels not super-human but sub-human in the post-modern world. A
sense of almost complete unreality and alienation plagues contemporary life.
We feel isolated, lonely, rootless, disconnected. (Tacey, 150)
- 298 -
The feeling of isolation and barrenness in one’s own home while a dynamic and supposedly
life-nourishing though, apparently for some good reason, unknown land seems attainable has
led Australian writers to explore the journey into the ‘Otherworld’ as part of the search for self.
Underpinning Australia’s ‘chimerical search for national selfhood’, Graham Huggan
writes, is ‘a rhetoric of restlessness’. The need for definition is countered by the desire to
elude definition, and ‘generations of Australians have sensed that they might better understand
their country, or themselves, by leaving it’ (Huggan, 1993, Age of Tourism, 169). The result
might only be that the ‘imagined landscapes’ of ‘Asia’ sometimes become ‘the site of a
Western and specifically first-world touristic nostalgia for the lost moment of hegemonic
power in European history’. In any case, Asia becomes ‘the limit or borderline of the symbolic
order’, and recedes into and merges with the chaos of the outside (Nettlebeck, 16). This might,
as Nettlebeck points out, play into the hands of those who support the rehabilitation of
nationalist ideals in Australia, but it also serves those who see in the dialectic of order and
chaos the promise of the ‘re-enchantment’ of society. The novels of Blanche d’Alpuget and C.
J. Koch, like their counterparts in the genre, involve journalists in Asia invariably making ‘a
journey inland, up a high mountain, into the heart of darkness’, where they play out roles in the
universal theme of Eastern passion, the dark side, and overcoming a Westerner’s rational
inhibitions (Broinowski, 1992, 182-83). This may have become a stereotype in the Western
perception of Asia, but it is no accident that the writers use the structural motif. ‘Hindus
believe that the invisible is reached through the visible’ (Preston, 61), and the outward journeys
to ‘Otherworlds’ of Judith Wilkes, Alex Wheatfield, Guy Hamilton and Mike Langford have
the value of symbolic inward journeys into the souls. This is not just a Bildungsroman or
search for a ‘secret sharer’ in the Western tradition, but a movement toward a union with the
‘Other’ within the self, a union which promises to either make the individual whole or destroy
him.
- 299 -
12.3. The Journey into the Demonic, Sacred ‘Otherworld’
The disparate threads of Australian themes of the self, the ‘Other’, and the landscape
which C. J. Koch weaves into Asian motifs into a surprising fabric of light and dark, of the
mysterious and the familiar, of Self and ‘Other’ closely recalls the Aboriginal view of the unity
of physical and spiritual worlds and the self, and should be recognised as his most important
break with Western tradition. Koch makes the most of this theme of the ‘border country’
between realities where all of his and d’Alpuget’s protagonists tread, since, for one thing, it fits
perfectly with his leitmotif of doubleness, but, for another, it allows him to elude constraints for
linear and rational representations of reality. ‘Koch delights in the use of dichotomy and
oxymoron’, Cowie writes, ‘to produce a fascinating texture of confusion and contradiction’
with which he develops not only his characters but also his central concepts of escape, the real
world and dream fantasy (Cowie, 84). The drama he creates ‘subsists in the interaction
between the real social setting and the allegorical weight of dream and quest’ which manifests
itself in ‘a nameless inner urge towards personal completion’ in ‘vaguely possessed, nonheroic, middle-class figures’ (Sharrad, 1984, 216). This ‘urge’ to get to the edge of the two
realities and stand in both worlds seems stronger and more central to the novels than the
principle characters themselves, with the danger being of slipping irretrievably from one’s own
world into the other.
12.3.1. The ‘Otherworld’ of the Self
Koch’s absorption in the parallel, conflicting realities stems also from his personal
experiences in the fifties as a young man who, during the voyage from Australia to Europe,
decided to disembark with two friends to travel overland the length of India. In ‘Crossing the
Gap’ Koch describes this several months’ journey which ‘was regarded as madness’ by those
companions they were leaving, as though ‘India would literally swallow us up’. Even to the
young Koch, ‘India hadn’t seemed within the bounds of the possible’, but was a land on the
edge of reality, where he reports having seen ‘the ghost’ of the British Raj still lingering some
seven years after its demise (Koch, 1987, 3-4). This experience inspired his first novel, Across
- 300 -
the Sea Wall, about a young Australian’s ‘discovery of that world just over our fence, which
we then seldom thought about and which lay between us and the northern hemisphere’ (Koch,
1987, 7). This would reappear in The Year of Living Dangerously, where, at twenty-nine, Guy
Hamilton ‘had passed into that border country where middle age is still remote, but where
failure (for the ambitious) can scarcely be afforded’ (YLD, 30). Hamilton has also passed into
a country where the people feel ‘hunger and pain and threat at the edges of their green world’.
It is, Hamilton realises, probably to protect themselves from this alien world that the wayang
kulit exists. He compares the wayang to the comic books of his childhood when he lay in
hospital surrounded by ‘agonised coughing, groans, distant crashes’ of the sick and dying. He
erected ‘them on his chest like screens between himself and the unthinkable landscape beyond
his bed’ (YLD, 202-03).
Billy Kwan understands better than the ever-childish Hamilton the dangers of the
‘Otherworld’, which he closely associates with Vera Chostiakov, the beautiful Russian
embassy employee. Kwan writes in his dossier on Hamilton, ‘I sense the invasion of Durga’s
darkness in you: she who turns time into sleep, and love into lust, and life into death: the Black
One, the dancer in the burial ground’ (YLD, 178). Indeed, a week later, Hamilton acquiesces to
Pete Curtis’ encouragement, and makes a visit to ‘that territory on the city limits ruled by the
lady of many names: the cemetery at Kebayoran’ (YLD, 179). As in the wayang kulit, the
interface between perspectives of reality is symbolised by the source of light, which in Jakarta
is no longer fixed or even rational, especially as one approaches the cemetery. On a moonless
night in a city where electric power was rapidly failing, ‘Hamilton found himself navigating in
an almost total darkness’, the only lights being the irregular, interworldly glow from the
‘meditating windows of bungalows’ (YLD, 180) and the racing ‘Indonesian Army jeeps, their
headlights swinging alarmingly, like searchlights’ (YLD, 181), or like the sacred lantern of the
dalang gone out of control. Strangely, there are two street lights near the cemetery which are
working as though from their own power sources. One illuminates a group of banshees,
Jakarta’s transvestite prostitutes, ‘dressed in elaborate national dress, their high-piled hair
- 301 -
gleaming’. The other lights a ‘crowd of some twenty women’, their faces ‘pale triangles in the
sickly light’, dressed in ‘shabby Western garb: cheap cotton frocks, or tight black skirts and
blouses’, their hair hanging on their shoulders.
The decadence of the district repulses
Hamilton. He realises that ‘the stately, serene kampong women’ he had imagined he could
find there ‘would for ever remain remote; figures in a bas-relief, and not for sale’ (YLD, 181).
This Orientalist dream deflated, he abandons the evening with Curtis, who angrily gets out of
the car. This is the last time Hamilton sees Curtis, who haunts Hamilton as a man ‘furiously
hunting some sort of destruction’ (YLD, 183). Hamilton too is driven by what Cookie calls a
‘metaphysical’ yearning ‘for that vast, ultimate event which would change everything’ (YLD,
274). Having come so close to following Curtis both into the Kebayoran cemetery and into
Vietnam (and therefore, into another cemetery), Hamilton has displayed the lust which is as
‘intense as an ascetic’s lust for visions’ (YLD, 276), and which Koch will demonstrate in
Highways to a War similarly serves to gain access to the ‘Otherworld’ Buddhists call ‘the other
shore’. That, however, is a topic for chapter 13.
Billy Kwan, like a dalang who is losing control over his shadow-casting lantern,
denounces Hamilton’s desire for visiting the cemetery, and also European culture’s blind
degeneration and Orientalist stereotypes, writing in his dossier: ‘Fool, you fool, from a
continent where ignorance is virtue, where bogies exist only in old, wicked countries
overseas—or in your perverted Fleming thrillers!’ (YLD, 183). Cookie likewise mixes Asian
and European terms to describe Hamilton’s ‘mysterious lust’:
Since his curious dream in the bungalow at Tugu, which continued to echo in
him, he had been tantalised as ignominiously as Kevin Condon by the remote
beauty of Javanese women: those serene figures in tight batik kains and
kebayas, with their Attic shapes, who had cycled by on the road to Tugu’
(YLD, 180).
These are the forms of the Goddess who most attract Hamilton, and who make a return to
Southeast Asia an inevitable event for him in the end. Just as inevitable, however, is the fact
that the screens of comic books, like the screen of the wayang kulit, is but a thin barrier
between two realities which are set to come crashing together. It is in Highways to a War that
- 302 -
Koch completes his image of these enrapturing, terrifying worlds, where his protagonist must
recognise the antagonistic demonic and sacred aspects of the world, of the human soul, and,
therefore, of himself.
From his boyhood home, the farm called Clare, in Tasmania, Mike Langford keeps
memories of the cool valley he loved and of the farm and the old house which he did not. Like
the farm, which has the green hop glades juxtaposed with the dank gully, the farmhouse Clare
has two spirits, one of life with ‘the kitchen, the house’s centre of power and warmth,
controlled by Mike’s mother’ (HW, 25); the other of the ‘dark, old century’, the dim, formal
sitting room, ‘like an empty stage set, waiting for some momentous action to begin. No action
ever did; and Mike and I were not encouraged to go in there’ (HW, 24). The central element of
his memories, however, reach beyond Langford’s immediate experience and into the events
defining the second spirit of Clare. He has dreams of ‘bits of some life a hundred years ago
that he didn’t want to know about’ (HW, 18), about the convicts and the heat, and also about
Black Ghosts, but which all predate the plot of the present novel. What remains are such
details as the forbidden zones on the farm—the hop kiln and the pickers’ huts—and in the
house—the room at the end of the front hall—, which are but scattered pieces of a puzzle.
These zones are much like the closed doors in the dream of Guy Hamilton, delineating
psychological barriers, except that the doors at Clare are just barely, but progressively, opened.
It remains for Ray Barton to return to Clare after news of Langford’s disappearance in
Cambodia, and then to travel to Southeast Asia to collect the pieces of the puzzle and try to put
them together.
12.3.2. The Looking-Glass Barrier Between Two Worlds
The Asian landscape then comes into play, though the elements are similar. The heat
and dust, along with the torrential rains, the mountains and colours are of importance,
especially in defining the two dominant spirits in Asia. These represent the two sides of the
looking-glass—on one side exists the realm of the apparent, real world, and the other is a
reality of dreams and illusion. As in the Alice books, the barrier between these two, normally
- 303 -
separate worlds is breached, and it is never quite clear in which world one stands. Koch
describes, for example, how the rains which belong to late April might suddenly arrive in
March, revealing ‘the dry, yellow, dead-flat land to the southeast’ and the mountains on the
Vietnam border which had been hidden by the haze, but now ‘stood straight up out of the plain
like a mirage’. Among them are Cambodia’s magic mountains, where holy men inhabit old
Buddhist shrines and pagodas, and guerrilla groups, bandits, and spirits inhabit caves. Koch
writes, ‘They’re not very tall, but they’re eerie: peaks of whitish rock, with green vegetation,
like mountains in a vision’ (HW, 274-75).
The mountains form part of the political border between Cambodia and Vietnam, and
also the metaphysical border between two worlds. Another division is marked by the Mekong
River—that between the regions of control of the forces of the Army of North Vietnam and of
the Khmer Rouge, allies in the war against the successors to the colonialist Indochinese
regimes, but enemies in the macrocosmic war between forces of dharma and adharma. Koch
allows himself to indulge in a symbolic crossing of the Mekong, likening it to the
Hindu/Buddhist idea of crossing the river to Nirvana. Jim Feng tells of how the Soldiers Three
experienced escaping Khmer Rouge territory with their North Vietnamese captors. The river
itself begins as an unknown, and the other side is impossible to discern:
I smelled the Mekong before I saw it; then its big brown spaces
appeared, shining under a half moon. The black trees of the far-off east bank
were hard to make out; there were no lights over there … . (HW, 297)
Section 13.7. discusses the Bodhisattvas and Tirthankaras, the figures who are to guide
those who are crossing the river to the other bank to nirvana. It is important here only to note
how Koch is fulfilling the ancient, pessimistic Jainist philosophy when he has an ‘old bent
Cambodian in a limpet-straw hat and black pyjamas’ (HW, 297) ferry them across the Mekong.
According to the Jainists, at the end of the present, catastrophic cycle of time, while humans’
physical size will have shrunken with their moral strength, the Tirthankara saviors will have
disappeared entirely as the earth becomes ‘an unspeakable morass of violence, bestiality, and
grief’ (Zimmer, 1969, 226-27), leaving the atrophied peasant to steer Langford, Volkov and
- 304 -
Feng onto the river. As the one world of suffering disappears behind them, the other of relief
immediately begins to take form. Feng says, ‘Out on the water, I breathed in the soft, cooler
air, and looked about me’. From the middle of the stream, he can just make out the distant
shapes, and says to Langford, who is to be revealed as a Bodhisattva-figure, ‘You got your
wish, I told Mike. We’re going to the east bank’ (HW, 297). The journalists fear crossing over
to the ‘east bank’ of the Mekong as it is a land of no return. For Langford it is, on one level, an
unimaginable photo opportunity, but, on another, it is the land of the imagination which he has
been searching for since he was a boy reading his comic books.
They reach the other bank, and find it to be dark and out of time, but civilised. The
North Vietnamese, once only known as the shadowy People Over There, begin to take shape in
the dark, at first as silhouette images among the ‘long, ghost-white rows of rubber trees’, and
then slowly becoming human:
We were marched quickly between stilted houses, where people stood looking
down at us from the verandahs. Lit from behind by oil lamps, they were just
black shapes. I heard someone laugh: a woman. (HW, 298)
Though either side of the river appears real to those who are there, the opposite side is always
beyond perception. ‘Crossing the river’ represents a passage between worlds which are
experienced respectively as ‘real’ and either ‘unreal’ or at least ‘unknown’ depending on one’s
perspective.
Koch’s development of this key metaphor will be further analysed in the
following sections on ‘The View from the “Other Side of the River”’ and ‘The Double World’,
but some preparatory attention ought first be turned to the Hindu concept of maya.
12.4. The Two Sides of the Real
While much in Australian literature dwells on the idea of the ‘Otherworld’, C. J. Koch
distinguishes himself by placing his characters smack in the passage between the two worlds.
From this vantage point, they can see the ‘shadow screen’ from either side, and perhaps even
be free from normal constraints of either one, but they are, as Wally O’Sullivan put it, at ‘the
edge of a volcano’ (YLD, 60). This section examines Koch’s application of the Eastern sense
- 305 -
of reality to his journalist-adventurers in Highways to a War, the ‘Soldiers Three’, who find
themselves swept across the border between one world and the other.
12.4.1. Maya, the Illusion which is Reality
To understand maya, one must first understand the Brahmanic concept of the Self, which
is basically that underneath all of the layers of masks of personality lies a formless, timeless
substratum which functions as the ‘paramount controller’ and also as the ‘unconcerned
witness’ of all phenomenal activity (Zimmer, 1969, 412). This enigmatic Self is formed of a
particle of Brahman, the changeless divine being who evolved the perishable universe and its
creatures out of his own boundless transcendent essence. Like Brahman, the Self engages in
actions while remaining aloof to processes and consequences. Such concerns belong to the
various masks which envelop, conceal and obscure the Self to make up an individual
personality. Brahman, the supreme creator, maintainer and destroyer of the cosmos is, as the
Lord of Maya, the unconcerned source of ‘all the transfigurations in the sphere of changes’
(Zimmer, 1969, 412-13).
Maya might be described as the medium in which that ultra-cosmic, ‘profoundly hidden,
essential yet forgotten, transcendental Self’ (atman) is transfigured into the phenomenal self,
‘the naively conscious personality which together with its world of names and forms will in
time be dissolved’ (Zimmer, 1969, 11). It ‘denotes the unsubstantial, phenomenal character of
the observed world, and of the mind itself—the conscious and even subconscious
stratifications and powers of the personality’ (Zimmer, 1969, 19).
Formed of the root ma, ‘to prepare, form, build’, (Zimmer, 1969, 339) maya is the
vocabulary of creation. It is the source of all change, and is considered the ‘ubiquitous power
of self-transmutation’ (Zimmer, 1969, 339). As the cosmic creative power, it is manifested in
the goddess who embodies the union of illusion and power, Maya-Sakti, or ‘the power of selfmisrepresentation’ (Zimmer, 1969, 427). In this sense, all creation is misrepresentation, and
even the supreme god Brahman must be considered the ultimate, sublime misrepresentation of
reality. In its denotative meaning of ‘deceit, trick, the display of an illusion, fraud, any act of
- 306 -
trickery or magic, a diplomatic feat’ (Zimmer, 1969, 122), maya is delusion, yet it is the
foundation of all creation, and therefore is very closely associated with prakrti, or ‘nature’. In
a passage which seems key to C. J. Koch’s use of the concepts of maya, sakti and time, as well
as of the wayang kulit, Krishna says:
God dwells in the heart of all beings, Arjuna: thy God dwells in thy heart. And
his power of wonder moves all things—puppets in a play of shadows—
whirling them onwards on the stream of time. (BG, 18.61)
Koch’s application of this concept is closely pinned to his leitmotif of ‘doubleness’ in human
personality, and corresponds to the eternally creative flowing and mixing of opposites in the
erotic Brahmanic life-philosophy vision of the world.
There is a continuous circuit of metabolism, an unending transformation of
opposites into each other. And this reality of becoming is what is mirrored in
the Brahmanic monist conception of maya. The perpetual motion of things
turning into each other is the reality denoted by the icon of the Goddess. The
female conceives by the male and transforms his seed into their common
offspring, a new formation of their substance. Such is the miracle of the
enigma, Maya-Sakti. (Zimmer, 1969, 599-600)
In this dualistic, perpetually renewing concept of a universe created of Brahman, ‘the
world illusion’ reaffirms the fundamental Brahmanic thought which has always asserted, from
the ancient Vedas to modern Tantrism, that the ‘One is both at once’. The illusion is then
equal to the reality, and ‘is not to be rejected but embraced’ (Zimmer, 1969, 575). For Koch’s
protagonists, embracing the illusion as reality proves to be their only adequate strategy for
survival.
12.4.2. The View from ‘The Other Side of the River’
This Eastern concept of ‘the other side of the river’, nirvana, being unknowable and
indescribable, Koch resorts to the more concrete lines of Alice’s Wonderland or Rip Van
Winkle’s Sleepy Hollow to develop his illusory yet real ‘Otherworld’. The NVA and their
captives make a long forced march, enduring hardships where even nature seems determined to
annihilate them.
Finally the cataclysm of a B-52 bombing raid, whose mere shock waves
deafen and nearly kill them, opens the next world up for them. They arrive at the NVA
compound, entered through a trapdoor to underground safety, but have left the world of space
- 307 -
and time. Feng reports that ‘we found ourselves climbing down a ladder, one by one, through
a hole that went straight into the earth. And now there was no more rain: no more water.’
They are confronted by shadows in the tunnel. ‘Strange soldiers appeared to greet us: young
men and women in pale green uniforms’, Feng says, both relieved and mystified ‘to see the
delicate, elf-like faces of the Vietnamese girls’. He is not sure ‘whether any of these people
were real, or whether I was hallucinating’ (HW, 342-43).
Feng’s complete confusion
resembles that of Alice when she first descended into the White Rabbit’s hole:
I didn’t know where I was, or how much time had gone by, or whether it was
day or night. I only knew I was underground. Distant voices and laughter had
woken me, so distant they seemed like dreams, and it seemed to me that I’d
entered some old fairy story, and had come into an underground citadel of
goblins, where time and the days and the seasons had no meaning. (HW, 34344)
Feng finds that the ‘dry earth smell made me feel safe’, and the Soldiers Three are soon
rejuvenated in the womb-like confines of the ‘red-brown earth’ bunker (HW, 344). Their
metamorphosis is soon complete, both spiritually and physically, so much that when their old
clothes, metaphor of the perspective from which one defines the ‘Other’, are returned to them
before their release, they no longer appear to be theirs: ‘Sitting here in our NVA fatigues and
Ho Chi Minh sandals, it was strange to see these clothes; they seemed to belong to other men,
and to come form another reality’ (HW, 346). This change in identity is also shown in Feng’s
attitude about his Rolex. He deeply regretted its confiscation when they were captured, but
when it was returned, he is not correspondingly relieved. It rather proves the NVA cause to be
stronger and more righteous than that of the South Vietnamese and their Western allies, and
that the North Vietnamese, as epitomised by Captain Danh, represent the forces of the justice
and virtue of dharma.
Langford, Feng and Volkov have discovered how, once one has moved from one world
to the ‘Otherworld’, the two change identities. Reality, as in the wayang kulit, depends on
which side of the screen one watches from. Just where and what the NVA bunker was
remains, for those who did not accompany them to the ‘east bank’, like nirvana, unknowable.
Speculation is that it was part of the COSVN complex, Central Office South Viet Nam, the
- 308 -
NVA’s central headquarters for South Vietnam., reportedly located in Cambodia. Yet, even
COSVN remains in obscurity, as Harvey Drummond asks:
Did it even exist? I still wonder. Like so much else about Cambodia and the
war itself, COSVN was a secret inside a secret. The sanctuaries and the
unofficial bombing both had an existence on the level of rumour, and the
Central Office in the jungle lay in the realm of legend: a final secret at the
heart of things, tantalizing the Americans. (HW, 215)
The mystery of the NVA tunnels recalls the White Rabbit’s hole, the doors of
Hamilton’s dream, and, among many other instances, of Clare farm, where the hopfields ‘are
represented as rows of green tunnels, the hop-pickers are a somewhat fey folk, keeping to
themselves, disappearing and re-appearing’ mystery-like, and give ‘access to a green
underworld, to a kind of enchantment; and there is an appropriate musty smell that goes with
it’. Both the hop fields and the NVA bunker imply entry into a world of faery, and, Mitchell
writes, the constant repetition of this ‘device of structural echoes’ which keeps inviting us into
another world demonstrates that there is ‘a pattern which exists outside of us. We are not all
the world that there is’, and the world, like Mike Langford, is largely unknowable (Mitchell,
1996, Ancestral Voices, 5).
It is the secret hideout of a secret enemy in a secret war, in a world Koch describes as
lying somewhere on the edge of reality. Cambodia was at first somehow not a serious land to
the correspondents. Harvey Drummond says, ‘We saw it as a country of make-believe: our
land of Holiday’. They did not care then that it was nonsense to think so. ‘Phnom Penh was
our place to escape to from Saigon and the war: our capital of pleasure, and of opium trances
at Madame Delphine’s’ (HW, 214). Phnom Penh itself was a city which had escaped the
violence of its historical and temporal landscape, ‘a city of charmed peace, in a kingdom that
had once reached to Malaya. Old Phnom Penh, which no longer exists, which will never exist
again, was a French city on the Mekong coloured Mediterranean pink and cream’ (HW, 213).
This dream land, whose ‘noises were the magic, muted sounds that come to you in a doze’
(HW, 214), belongs to the world of fancy, but threatens to overwhelm the real world. The
Khmer Rouge too ‘belonged to the dream at the edges’, but ‘were suddenly moving to the
- 309 -
centre’ (HW, 216). The Americans’ bombing of Cambodia would cause the break in the
barrier between the real world and the dream world, and ‘the real war’ (HW, 216), which had
until then been confined to Viet Nam, would invade the ‘land of holiday’, as if Alice’s lookingglass had been shattered and the ‘Otherworld’ were spilling uncontrollably out.
12.4.3. The Double World
On Saigon’s Tu Do street, the centre of South Vietnam’s bustling capital’s schizophrenic
activity, these scrambled worlds are embodied in diametrically opposed images of the
Vietnamese woman, one highly dignified and the other thoroughly degenerate, who attract the
young men pouring in as the war heats up. The first rides ‘sidesaddle on the backs of motor
scooters as though on magic steeds from Annamese legend, all in their national dress: the
clinging, semitransparent ao dai, with its tunic and matching pantaloons—mauve, green, red,
white’. These are the very image of the alus puppets of the wayang kulit: ‘Straight-backed,
dignified and ethereal, black hair streaming, silk gowns fluttering, they'd passed with eyes
averted, with the modesty of another time, their small, pointed faces delicate and remote.’ The
second, ‘their sisters here in the Happy Bar’, could be kasar puppets in a modern version of the
wayang. They have ‘so much mascara and lipstick that their faces were like those of clowns;
and instead of the ao dai, they wore grotesquely brief miniskirts, low-cut blouses and coloured
camisoles—their small breasts enlarged with padded bras to please the Americans (HW, 103).
One can choose which side of the screen to view reality’s theatre in this wayang-like
construction of the universe, though a Westerner can never be quite sure in which reality he is
treading when he enters Southeast Asia at the end of the last great world age. His first
impression is of the artificiality of his protective cocoon against the threat of an outrageous and
alien world: ‘The hot, elemental excess out there is unreal, watched from this air-conditioned
chamber: an image on a cinema screen’ (HW, 429). One might seem still to be on the side of
the dalang, watching the mechanical works of the shadow theatre, as when Jim Feng notices
how ‘Huge jungle moths circled around the lamp, and their shadows crossed the paper’ (HW,
300); Or one might be seeing through to the other side of the looking-glass, as when Feng,
- 310 -
exhausted and ill from the long, forced march through the jungle, feels fear with such
detachment that it is as though the fear does not exist in the same world:
I stood clinging to my stick, swaying, knowing that I would fall into the mud at
last, and not get up. My fear came through a screen: fear felt by somebody
else. If the B-52s bomb me, let them, I thought. In a way, I wanted it. (HW,
340)
Eventually, one can fall through to the other side, as the three journalist colleagues—
appropriately nicknamed the Soldiers Three after Kipling’s ‘Otherworld’ adventurers—have
done. Harvey Drummond notices how Mike Langford seems especially at home on the other
side:
His face had an expression of meditative peacefulness I can only
describe as dreamy. He didn’t speak again, and no one attempted to make him
do so. He lay in the hammock, smoking, and I had little doubt that he was
coming down from some enormous height: from that escarpment near death
where he’d lingered with Captain Samphan.
I also began to suspect that it was a place where he needed to be. (HW,
233)
Langford’s apartment in Phnom Penh also lies on the very edge between the two
worlds:
The latticework at the end of the balcony and the fronds of a palm tree that
reach up here from the street cast a dream-grid of shadows. The calligraphy of
eternal Holiday; of old Cambodia. (HW, 267)
Like his literary forebear, Billy Kwan, the ‘dwarf Buddha in a Hawaiian shirt’ (YLD, 71),
Langford resembles Buddha, who in his own time chose to remain with the people even though
his enlightenment enabled him to cross the river to nirvana:
Mike is enthroned in an outsize rattan rocking chair the back of which is like a
fan: a Manila chair … . … he smiles at something out of sight, his expression
sleepy and content. (HW, 267)
It is an image noticed by Ray Barton, who sees a sign of the otherness in ‘the dreamy, almost
infantile calm’ in Mike’s face: ‘Faintly smiling, he seemed to be gazing into the distances of
some mythical sea: a place where I couldn’t follow him’ (HW, 50). Harvey Drummond sees
Mike and Dmitri departing for that other place which he can only describe as a ‘dream’: ‘I
know he has his being there, in the dream: he’s one of those people who do. Then he
disappears’ (HW, 222).
- 311 -
Koch makes much of the objects of this world which are left when an individual passes
into that ‘Otherworld’ which is recognised as death. In Volkov’s room, for example,
A white shirt and a pair of pale blue cotton trousers hung on a chair, dropped
there carelessly; a pair of sandals was by the bed. The terrible mute voices of
objects abandoned for ever! They speak much more distinctly than anything
else, at a death. (HW, 361)
It is such articles of material reality which expose the illusion of what we call the ‘real world’,
and imply the truer reality of such as Volkov’s soul.
Volkov is one of the victims of the Land of Dis which is found in all the Asia novels of
d’Alpuget as well as Koch.
He, Billy Kwan and Mike Langford are those ‘who cross
boundaries and commit themselves to individuals or to the people generally in Asia’, and
‘whose sympathy proves fatal’ (Koh Tai Ann, 31). Of the major characters, Judith Wilkes,
Alex Wheatfield, Wally O’Sullivan and most of the others indicate their antipathy to Asia by
hanging on to the material figments which come out of their experience there. Guy Hamilton
is one of those who manages to benefit from Asia without being sacrificed to it, though he
literally gives up an eye—as one of the sense organs, the individual’s attachment to the
material—in doing so. The material symbolises the depth of commitment each has to his
experience in Southeast Asia, which, as Koh Tai Ann writes, exists ‘as an extension of the
Australian imagination, providing the drama and background for the white protagonists to
explore their identity, find (or lose) their direction and work out their destiny’ (Koh Tai Ann,
31).
As such, Koch and d’Alpuget are writing patently Australian novels, whose basis in
historical fact need not be especially considered in judging their success. And while these are
not novels ‘about Asia’, they are built upon a fundament of Asian symbol and metaphor. The
old, well-defined colonial opposition of Great Britain/Australia is gone, and for Koch this is
replaced by a new and as yet unexplored polarity of the real world and the dream world, both
of which are seen not only to be ‘real’ but to be double aspects of one reality. His characters
are driven by Wordsworthian childhood memories of a better world which, with adulthood,
seems to have fallen, and in which self-identity has become entangled in delusion, and should
- 312 -
serve to remind us of the debt owed by the English Romantics to the Hindu transcendentalist
writings. Koch certainly makes the child father to the man, to paraphrase Wordsworth, in
giving both Guy Hamilton and Mike Langford innocent awareness of reality which they have
lost through the experience of age.
12.5. Colour symbolism
The dualities inherent in the Hindu cosmology which fascinate Koch so much can also
be seen in his use of colour symbols. Koch’s landscape is predominately coloured in red and
brown earth tones. Red and brown can be either benevolent or malevolent, depending on the
circumstance—usually determined by their water content. Dry, like the red Australian soil, is
generally a good omen, characteristic, for example, in the dharmic tunnel refuge of the North
Vietnamese Army. Wet, on the other hand, means monsoon downpours, foot sores, fungus,
and ‘mud, mud, mud’ (HW, 328), even while it does not entirely lose its link with the cleansing
and life renewing spring rains. There is a high degree of universality in colour symbolism, but
Koch owes a lot to nuances of the system which has developed in Hinduism.
Indian colour symbolism is based in the Jainist concept that the life-monad—the only
real aspect of the individual and fundamental essence of the entire cosmos—is a pure,
colourless crystal which is ‘defiled by a physical karmic coloring substance … which darkened
its intrinsic light’ (Zimmer, 1969, 550). The perfect colour, then, is white, and belongs to souls
who are ‘dispassionate, absolutely disinterested, and impartial’. Next is yellow, or rose, like a
lotus, which shows ‘compassion, consideration, unselfishness, non-violence, and self-control’.
Fiery red is the colour of ‘prudent, honest, magnanimous, and devout’ character. Dove-grey,
the colour Blanche d’Alpuget always clothed Alex Wheatfield’s Sumatran lover in Monkeys in
the Dark, indicates the ‘reckless, thoughtless, uncontrolled, and irascible’. Dark blue typifies
‘roguish and venal, covetous, greedy, sensual, and fickle’ types. Black, the most tainted
colour, belongs to ‘merciless, cruel, raw people, who harm and torture other beings’ (Zimmer,
1969, 229-30).
- 313 -
In addition to this Indian system, Koch is using the adapted colour symbolism of the
wayang kulit, in which variously painted leather puppets are used within a complex system
including colour, body size and facial configuration to indicate the mood or emotional state of
the characters.
A white face shows youth or innocence; Yellow indicates dignity and
calmness; Red typifies tempestuousness, aggressiveness or fury; Black can mean anger or
strength (Brandon, 50-51).
The colour most closely associated with Mike Langford is the yellow of his hair; his
compassion and consideration are correspondingly never brought into question, though he
struggles in a very human way with self-control, and Ly Keang does manage to get him to
break his commitment to non-violence. Koch points out such details as the reddening in his
complexion when he sings (HW, 394), or the bright red shirt he wears the first time he ventures
out into the Vietnamese countryside and nearly gets killed. In addition, the theme of his
innocence and youth are closely related to his colouring. Volkov’s hair is ‘rope yellow’ (HW,
244), apparently rather darker than Langford’s, corresponding to his relatively higher level of
passion and lack of innocence.
In contrast, when Hong Kong native Jim Feng is described as having a yellow face, he is
ill from the report eye-witness account of Langford’s death. Yet, he is still calm and dignified
in his pain, and looking out the door at the ‘musing and peaceful’ green and mauve hills of
Cambodia which have nevertheless swallowed him up (HW, 446). The first NVA tank to roll
onto the grounds of the South Vietnamese Presidential Palace flies ‘a huge National Liberation
Front flag’ with, Koch carefully points out, a ‘yellow star’ (HW, 419), an obvious tribute to the
dignified compassion and self-control of Captain Danh and his men, and to their fight for the
restoration of dharma in Vietnam.
Cambodia is also a ‘dry, huge, empty, yellow-and-green dish of land’ (HW, 225). This
innocent landscape, lying ‘under towering clouds’—Jainist symbol of the veil of ignorance
cutting off the light (Zimmer, 1969, 550)—, is particularly vulnerable to the ‘axis of that
vagueness, hiding the black-clad Others’ (HW, 225), and is compared ominously to Australia’s
- 314 -
own vast and, in context of the surging forces of adharma which would have no reason to stop
at the borders of Southeast Asia, seemingly unprotected continent. The border region between
Cambodia and Thailand is ‘a flat red wasteland that’s waterless and parched and burning,
resembling inland Australia’. Dryness is no longer fortuitous but demonic, and grey-green is
the colour of the ‘juiceless’ ‘smudges of vegetation’ which represent the desolation of the once
yellow-green landscape (HW, 437).
While light green is the colour of the regeneration of life, Koch’s use of green regularly
attenuates the positive implications of the yellow which is its neighbour in the spectrum. There
is always something unresolved in Koch’s depiction of the eyes of Billy Kwan and Guy
Hamilton in The Year of Living Dangerously as green, where they seem connected to the eyes
of the ephemeral Cheshire Cat. In Highways to a War Claudine Phan has ‘surprising greygreen eyes’ (HW, 401), but she, unlike the cat or Langford’s other women, refuses to let herself
disappear. Rather, she is a manifestation of the divine feminine in the time of destruction. She
is like Parvati, the Mother Goddess, who will bring the spring back to the world, but must first
wait out the ascendancy of the forces of evil, and then hope that her Kali-aspect will prevail
over the demons. Grey-green is also associated with the Black Ghosts who hide in the dark
shadows of the palm trees. When Langford finally chooses to become a fighter, as the Khmer
Rouge are trying to overrun his position, his focus is less on the enemy trying to kill him than
on how ‘the shining, dark green leaves of the mango got very distinct just above me’ (HW,
378). Green is the most ambiguous colour on Koch’s palette. He alludes to its varied
symbolism when he discusses the meanings of trees.
Quiet against the sky, they are a decoration in a book, or a pleasant park to
create peace; they are perhaps a refuge from danger. But then again, they are
the treacherous cloak that hides danger itself. Which were these trees? (HW,
354)
Yellow is the predominant symbolic colour in Highways to a War, and while it generally
conforms to the Jainist and wayang kulit systems, it can be rather puzzling. In The Year of
Living Dangerously, Jill Bryant has, very logically, blonde hair; so does her rival, the
enigmatic Russian operative Vera Chostiakov, who apparently drugs Guy Hamilton in order to
- 315 -
interrogate him—which could be another expression of the same dignified, calm, selfless and
perhaps even non-violent self-control, even if the compassion is lacking. Most interestingly is
how in Highways to a War Koch pushes this ambivalence of the colour yellow, from
Langford’s hair to Madame Delphine’s opium, until it takes on a metaphoric value of an escape
from reality to the dream world.
Madame Delphine’s opium den is replete with dual images of collegiality, mirth,
decadence and evil. It stinks of open drains, an image it shares with the entry to the office of
the ex-CIA men Donald Mills and Aubrey Hardwick, who are best described as duplicitous;
but this unappealing sensorial quality is tempered with an atmosphere of the wayang. A single
electric bulb disrupts the outside darkness, a big, dim mosquito net hangs above the patrons
like a cloud, fans slowly turn, and straw mats on the walls are worked in gold and chocolate. It
is no wonder that Harvey Drummond calls it ‘a confusing place’. The opium he inhales brings
‘with it love of the world and my friends; love of the world inside me. I lay bathed in yellow
delight’. It is significant that he is bathed in yellow ‘delight’ and not yellow ‘light’ in this
scene where yellow signifies not ‘enlightenment’ but the maya of delusion.
At Madame Delphine’s, the correspondents are all enjoying a trip into a dream world,
but it is an ominous one where the blissful sighs come from ‘motionless shapes of my
colleagues’ and ‘from out of the dark on all sides’. Drummond reports how ‘They all spoke on
a calm purring note I’d not heard before: the voice of opium’. Time itself becomes a yellow
substance there, slowed ‘to the ooze of honey’. Madame Delphine is the dalang there, ‘her
lamp creating big shadows’, and her clients lay their heads on wayang puppet-like leather
pillows, leading Harvey Drummond to find that he ‘was in two places at once’. He feels,
contrary to the normal tendency of perceiving the world one is in as the ‘real’ one, that the
world he perceives is unreal, with white grass and a green sky, and recognises that it exists
inside of himself (HW, 282-83).
Two other men who live uneasily between worlds are Colonel Chandara, the anti-Khmer
Rouge rebel leader, and Donald Mills, the alcoholic ex-spy. Chandara places yellow roses in
- 316 -
his rebel headquarters to soften the impact of the spartan surroundings and his own intense
eyes. Ray Barton finds this to be ‘carefully contrived formality’, but does not grasp the point
that Chandara is seeking to reconcile his antagonistic worlds when he rightly calls Chandara’s
flower adorned office ‘a child’s imitation of the adult world’ (HW, 439). Donald Mills wears a
‘jarringly vivid’ yellow shirt and white trousers, ostensibly an attempt to submerge the events
of his life, which are anything but compassionate, impartial or innocent, behind masks of
dispassionate and unselfish souls. These are very different men, and yet Mills and Chandara
share the recognition that they are standing on the edge of a volcano, and both are trying
desperately not to fall in.
12.6. Descent into the Underworld
Mike Langford, however, is from the very beginning preparing his own descent into the
volcano called Dis, a journey which resembles Dante’s descent into the spiralling circles of
hell. Langford perceives Asia from the very start as something of an underground world.
When he arrives in Singapore and is driven down the old city he encounters images which
resemble those experienced by Guy Hamilton on his arrival in Jakarta:
Dim and shadowy, the old road from Paya Lebar was very different from the
freeway that brings the air traveller of today into Singapore from Changi: it
was a glowing and teeming tunnel of life, walled and roofed over by the dim
fronds of palms, and by giant, snake-limbed banyans and rain trees. Dusk
became blue-tinged darkness there: malam, the big Malay night, flaring and
glimmering with the little mysteries of kerosene and oil lamps. (HW, 68)
Further descending, Langford, Jim Feng and Dmitri Volkov arrive in Vietnam, laughing
as if it were breathing. Unlike Dante, however, they cannot exit this circle, for this is the land
of time and meaning,
the place where their youth casually vanished. It vanished while they shot the
action; vanished while they joked. Jokes were their food: more necessary than
whisky, or the many other stimulants the region and the period had to offer.
They were high on everything, in those years, but their greatest high was risk:
that sprint along the near edge of death they never tired of repeating (HW, 98).
The image of going underground fits Koch’s allusions to Alice in Wonderland, though its
successive points of entry are more numerous and each one brings them deeper into Dis, a
- 317 -
realm distinguished by reversals of natural order, where dreams have priority over the material,
and where the forces of chaos and adharma reign.
Harvey Drummond describes Phnom Penh as a theatre when he and Dmitri Volkov ride
a cyclo out into the night:
Here were the actors, just as I remembered them: monkey peddlers, kerbside
dentists, soothsayers, cigarette makers, dark-faced Khmer hawkers squatting
beside braziers, pale-faced Chinese shopkeepers in their doorways, and the
beautiful, full-bodied women with their warm, Sino-Indian faces.
Phnom Penh is no longer part of the real world, Drummond concludes, but remains frozen in
time, ‘and the thing that was gathering in the countryside could perhaps be ignored’. He
cannot, however, ignore the half-naked children he sees dodging about under the streetlamps.
He thinks they are playing games until he sees ‘that they were catching insects that swarmed in
the light, and putting them into jars for food’ (HW, 244-45). As the population comes to rely
on Koch’s symbol of soullessness for sustenance, the Cambodian Army, never steadfastly in
the real world, slips ever more into the dream world. When the Soldiers Three are released by
the NVA their first contact with the Cambodians is with a chimerical army. Feng reports how
some four hundred metres away, where the road ran into blue hills on the
horizon, were a group of military trucks and armoured personal carriers, with
soldiers standing beside them. We stopped, and narrowed our eyes in the heat:
a shimmer rose for the bitumen, and the soldiers and vehicles seemed to
dissolve and re-form in the air, like a dream. They didn’t seem to see us. (HW,
354-55)
During the Soldier’s Three capture, they descend into the rabbit-hole underground
bunker of the NVA, finding it warm, dry and full of human brightness, while outside it is wet,
dark and threatening. Another entry into the looking-glass dream world is made on couscous
night at the Jade Pagoda, ‘A mutual therapy session for emotionally dislocated corespondents.
A station for the dressing of psychic wounds. A trapdoor into trance’ (HW, 233). Trapdoors
can often only be opened from one direction, and the journey into Dis is proving ever more
dangerous. Langford’s Saigon children understand this when they see him heading for the
bar/brothel called La Bohème.
This recalls Billy Kwan’s dossier comment, about Guy
Hamilton’s relationship with the mysterious Vera Chostiakov, of ‘the invasion of Durga’s
- 318 -
darkness in you: she who turns time into sleep …’ (YLD, 178). Langford similarly goes like
Rip Van Winkle to drink the liquor which gives entry into the land of dream, to escape the real
world where his friend, the South Vietnamese Captain Trung, has been killed in action. The
children desperately implore him not to disappear into the bar. They have the most to lose
should he not return from a visit to a place he typically would avoid. Langford’s fate is set,
however, and he is destined to continue on.
The Land of Dis is like a black hole, progressively absorbing more people and land into
it. All of Southeast Asia is being drawn into it, and when it takes Volkov and Ly Keang, Mike
Langford is also irretrievably lost. He knows when he re-enters the forbidden Cambodia of the
Khmer Rouge that he will have no real chance to get out, but he also grasps that only in
Cambodia can he find his own self.
12.7. The Land of Faery
Attaining oneness with the transcendental Self is the goal of all Eastern ascetic
endeavours, but can only be achieved through obliteration of the phenomenal self—hardly a
useful symbol for an Australian writer like Koch, for whom the ‘otherland’ (his earliest term
for the concept which appears in his 1979-revised Boys in the Island) refers ‘to all the
possibilities of the self which lie somewhere in the past of childhood or remain in the future
over the horizon’ (Thieme, 1987, 454). Alongside the Eastern mythology, therefore, Koch sets
the Western, which offers a transitional world between those of the ‘real’ and the
‘imagination’. The green world of elves and faeries is Koch’s door to the ‘Otherworld’. Koch
explains his handle on the faery myth: ‘Fairyland is enchanting: it may well be a glimpse of
paradise—for which we all long. Fairyland has been seen by the Irish in particular as a
halfway region between Heaven and this world’, and therefore may have the power to bring
‘the other world within reach’ (Hulse, 22). Entry is not without its risks. ‘The things that are
most desirable can sometimes lead to our destruction’, Koch says. The very freshness and
intensity of childhood
becomes a trap if we wish to prolong it. Love that is lost, if we try to cling to
it, will destroy us. Mourning too long for the dead, as the people knew who
- 319 -
write the fairy-tales, can also wither us and take away our present. All these
things that may be good, and may have very wonderful reasons behind them,
can’t be pursued too long (Hulse, 24).
Concerned as they are with deliberate or inadvertent passage into the ‘Otherworld’, Koch’s
novels are populated by faery-like people guarding the portals into those promising, forbidding
worlds.
Aubrey Hardwick, whose first name means ‘King of the Elves’, and whose last name
could certainly be interpreted as a derivation of the Old English wicca, giving something like
‘the stern/troublesome wizard’ (Morris, 86), is the manifestation of excessive devotion to the
dream world.
His great influence on those around him begins beneficially and with
considerable clarity, and does give his protegés—particularly Mike Langford—some access to
the ‘Otherworld’, but at some point this always becomes self-deception, and Uncle Aubrey’s
invitation to his world leads to their destruction. Koch’s final analysis is that the European
myths of Fairyland ‘weren’t tales for children, but parables of warning’ (Hulse, 21), and that
spiritual health comes rather from ‘crossing the gap’, or, in other words, embracing and living
in both worlds, for, as the Brahmans assert, reality is in both.
12.8. When Worlds Collide
For Westerners, this double sense of reality has usually been limited to less serious
situations than encountered by the journalists of the novels in this study, who find themselves
at first straddling these two worlds, and are then so caught up living ‘inside things like the war
in Vietnam’ that they are paralysed. Cambodia, Harvey Drummond reports, ‘tugged at our
collective memories’, was both ‘strange yet half-known’, a hybrid of France and ‘regions
outside geography: regions that tantalized the mind, almost recalled and yet not, like a whole
mislaid life’. Even the people, ‘whose faces hinted at an antique India’, were an ‘oddly
familiar’ hybrid. The men ‘sometimes seemed more Western than Asian, and the women were
beautiful: figures from Indian frescoes’. This is the good dream of Cambodia which the
correspondents come to believe in, all the while knowing that a nightmare exists parallel to the
- 320 -
dream. Langford more than the others is drawn to the good dream of Cambodia, and haunted
by the bad dream.
He knew about the bad dream, waiting on the edges, but he wanted to believe
that the good dream would continue. I think he was like a sleeper who wakes
up and can’t bear the dream to end, and goes back to sleep to try and get inside
it again. (HW, 212-14)
The nightmare finally proves inescapable. After Volkov dies in his arms, Langford
despondently talks of the fate of old Cambodia now that the rain and bombs are difficult to tell
apart, and the demons are making their final assault on civilisation:
The rain got harder, as though it was trying to drown out everything that had
happened: drown out what I’d done. The afternoon rains go on, and the
bombing goes on. Everything coming down. For the first time, the Khmer
Rouge haven’t pulled back with the wet season: they’re still trying to take the
city, fighting on in the rain, the mud. So the B-52s go on bombing, quite close:
you can hear the explosions through the roar of the rain, and the thunder.
Nothing but red mud and ruined villages, out in the countryside: everything
being destroyed. Cambodia being destroyed. (HW, 366)
The overbearing oppression by the world of the bad dream world over the dharmic
world takes its toll on the correspondents. They resort to drugs, trying to smother the oblivion
of one unreal world under that of another.
Drummond says they all came to Madame
Delphine’s ‘to numb themselves to what was outside: the bombing, the ruined countryside, the
people half crazed from grief, rocking the bodies of dead children on their laps’. They can
hide in opium’s oblivion, but the realities of the adharmic world wait for them.
‘The
atmosphere of the city had become unnerving, Drummond says, ‘The power had gone off
again: the fans had stopped working and the room was stifling’ (HW, 281).
Yet, by this time, Mike Langford has taken up his place in the ‘Otherworld’, already
assuming the role he will only later consciously make as a fighter in the macrocosmic war.
Drummond notices how Langford acts more like a supernatural warrior than a journalist, as he
moves for shots during a firefight,
dodging, weaving, hitting the ground and rolling, seeking anything that gave
him cover: even the bodies of the fallen. He was quite uncanny: very graceful
and controlled, seeming always to know where the fire was coming from. I
suspected that he saw himself as magically invulnerable; … I half resented
him, and I remember thinking: He’s not a photographer, he’s a bloody soldier.
(HW, 174)
- 321 -
Claudine Phan tells Langford point blank that continuing to risk his life going out with
the ARVN ‘means that you live in a dream’, and are ‘always likely to disappear’. ‘It’s sad,
being a warrior’ she tells him, sounding rather like Krishna lecturing Arjuna before battle,
because ‘you’ll always be alone’. Langford has already learned Krishna’s lesson not to be
interested in the tangible results of his profession, but when she tells him ‘you’re the sort of
warrior other men love, because you’re what they wish to be’, she is not flattering him. He is
indeed a hero, but his war is too dangerous for most men since his enemies are demons. She
continues, ‘You’d make a good father. But if you have children, they’ll end up orphans, won’t
they?’(HW, 187). Langford has slipped, along with all of Cambodia, through the looking-glass
into the ‘Otherworld’ called the Region of Dis, one of the final battlefields of the demons’
macrocosmic war which began with the Kali-Yuga and the bloodbath depicted in the
Mahabharata .
12.9. The Land of Dis
In Highways to a War, the invoking of this Black Age is a leitmotif which takes the form
of a personification of universal upheaval called ‘Dis’, the strangest and most invasive of
‘Otherworlds’ imaginable. Koch writes of the ‘calm voice’ of the disappeared and presumed
dead Mike Langford emerging from ‘the darkness’ of ‘that tropical kingdom of Dis he was lost
in, beyond the Thai border’, recounting its tale of an Asia of times long past (HW, 66). Dis is
home to the Grim Reaper figure, cutting down the youth of Langford and his cameraman
companions during their glory years covering the war in Vietnam. Langford is now dead, but
the others cling to the profession, trying vainly to be again what they once were:
It's time for them to hang up their irons.
But how can they do that? The greatest high of all will be gone then: the
one presided over by Dis, commander of the dead, whose other name is
Meaning. (HW, 98)
In introducing Dis into his Asian novels, Koch is incorporating an important Western
mythological symbol into his ontology. Dis is, first, the name of the all-powerful god of Celtic
mythology whose description by Jobes seems written especially for Koch. He carries a
- 322 -
hammer, the symbol of creative power, paralleling him with the Hindu gods—Brahma, Vishnu,
Shiva, etc.—, variously considered to be the ultimate creators of the universe. Dis Pater,
related to the Greek Jupiter, was the Roman form. As the chief god of the underworld and king
of the dead, he rides a car drawn by four black horses, and carries with him the keys to the
infernal regions. Dis Pater also shared the dual creation/destruction and fortune/misfortune
roles of the Celtic and Hindu deities, as he was worshipped in Roman antiquity as the giver of
riches. Dis was considered by the Gauls to be their ancestral father, which recalls Billy Kwan,
who insists that he is directly descended from the dwarves of the ancient world through his
Irish mother (YLD, 94). Dis’ resemblance to Kwan’s dwarves goes much farther, as well,
being a god of wealth, possessor of fertility, metals and minerals, and inhabiting the
underworld. He is also associated with a cup or magic cauldron (Jobes, 450-51), the archetype
of many tales of entry into the dream world, including the intoxicating drink given to Guy
Hamilton by Vera Chostiakov, and the drugs taken by Mike Langford and the other
correspondents, both of which share many features with Rip Van Winkle’s visit to Sleepy
Hollow, also a land of dream, illusion and the dead.
Rip Van Winkle is summoned to help an ancient-looking fellow carry a keg of liquor
into the hollow. Once there, he sees a similar ‘company of odd-looking personages … dressed
in a quaint outlandish fashion’, playing a game of six-pins which ‘whenever they rolled,
echoed along the mountains like rumbling peals of thunder’. One of them, ‘a stout old
gentleman, with a weather-beaten countenance’, who appears to be ‘the commander’, wears a
curved sword from his broad belt, not unlike the curved blade of the sickle carried by the Grim
Reaper. What most strikes Rip, however, is ‘that though these folks were evidently amusing
themselves, yet they maintained the gravest faces, the most mysterious silence, and were,
withal, the most melancholy party of pleasure he had ever witnessed’. The strange folk stare at
Rip ‘with such fixed statue-like gaze, and such strange, uncouth, lack-luster countenances, that
his heart turned with him, and his knees smote together’. They bid him to serve to them the
liquor he has helped carry into the hollow, which they quaff ‘in profound silence’, and then go
- 323 -
back to their game. Left alone, Rip finally succumbs to the temptation to taste the liquor. One
taste provokes another until ‘his senses were overpowered, his eyes swam in his head, his head
gradually declined, and he fell into a deep sleep’. When Rip awakens, he finds the strange folk
as well as his dog have disappeared, his rifle rotted and rusted, his joints turned stiff and weak,
and finally discovers that time itself has vanished (McQuade, 337-38). While Washington
Irving’s ‘Rip Van Winkle’ might be considered no more than one of many good examples of
the ‘Otherworld’ myth common in world literature, such various details as the title
‘commander’, attention to descriptions of the faces of the folk and the landscape, as well as its
renown make it very hard not to see it as another of Koch’s many archetypes to his Asian
novels.
Dis was also a Roman name for the underworld or world of the dead. Dis Pater was the
chief god of the underworld, the king of the departed. The Encyclopaedia Britannica identifies
Dis Pater as ‘Rich Father’, the greatly feared brother of Jupiter, who through his wife is
associated with both creative and destructive forces. Proserpina, a Roman adoption of the
Greek goddess Persephone, was kidnapped and taken to the underworld by Hades. Her mother
was so distraught that she neglected her duties concerning the fruitfulness of the earth. Her
father, Zeus, then ordered Hades to release her, but having eaten one pomegranate seed,
Persephone had to stay four months each year in Hades. She is therefore identified as the
goddess of vegetation and abundance during the part of the year she inhabits the upper regions
of the earth, and as the goddess of death during her annual sojourn in the underworld.
In Norse mythology, Dis refers to a female attendant or any mythic female being. Jobes
writes that the word originally meant ‘sister’, and referred to the female spirits who dispensed
fate and acted as guardian beings who followed a person from birth to death. The word is the
singular form of disir—‘which see’—, and is also the word in Sanskrit and Zend for ‘law’, and
is ‘probably the root for dzhyrna (day), whence the word “discern”’ (Jobes, 450). This can be
applied to the journalists, called in all fairness Peeping Toms by Billy Kwan, and who fit the
Norse definition as onlooking attendants and interpreters to cosmic events. As ‘law’, dis has
- 324 -
direct association with ‘word’ and, therefore, ‘meaning’. The ‘greatest high’ for Langford and
his friends was reporting from the battlefield. Working in the midst of death, and taking the
risk of being killed even while remaining uninvolved, became everything to them. It became
the meaning of their lives. Death in Western and Christian tradition is also ‘meaning’, either
taken as the final reality, or as the unique way to achieve resurrection in eternal life. In the
Eastern tradition death represents a failure to achieve purity of the Self, or Enlightenment, and
yet a soul is allowed to return to the earth for another life, and another chance at selfrevelation. While suffering death is the ultimate pain and that which each created entity must
seek to avoid, it is the necessary precursor to the microcosmic renewal of an individual,
enabling another opportunity to achieve Enlightenment, which will free the individual from the
curse of further deaths. On the macrocosmic scale, the dissolution of the fourth age of KaliYuga—the age of cosmic death and putrefaction—is an equal and indispensable part of the
universal cycle.
Koch’s association of ‘Dis’ with ‘meaning’ is an especially important yet paradoxical
element, with so many correspondences and shared roots in both Eastern and Western tradition
that it becomes something of a labyrinth in Koch’s symbolic scheme. Adrian Mitchell remarks
that this is one of the many instances in which Koch reveals
the spiritual agencies we are really confronting in these fictions, giving them
their proper names. A potent mystery is encountered and identified; but of
course can never be fully explained, or it would not have retained its enduring
authority as mystery. (Mitchell, 1996, Ancestral Voices, 8)
It might be tempting to say that in his eclectic semiotic constructions Koch either never
tries or is not quite able to bring all of the disparate elements together into a unified whole.
This would be a serious argument against his work’s success, but in his defence one must see
that the Asian symbols he is working with are not liable to being tidied up. Zaehner calls
Hinduism ‘a vast and apparently incoherent religious complex’, and does so without an iota of
disrespect. Koch is trying to avoid the sin of Orientalism, which would be to appropriate Asian
symbols and use them as suits his purposes. Rather, he is following Zaehner’s counsel to
‘attempt, at his peril, to distil from the whole mass of his material the fine essence that he
- 325 -
considers to be the changeless ground from which the proliferating jungle that seems to be
Hinduism grows’ (Zaehner, 3). It is important for this reason to try to follow Koch’s path
through the jungle of symbols and meanings, to find the constructs he too must have
discovered in his searches, and, as a critic, to avoid imposing Orientalist or other prefabricated
interpretations or judgements on his work.
Koch is weaving together very disparate threads of both Eastern and Western traditions
in interpreting the search for self and truth in Asia. Mike Langford does not complete his
search, but the narrator comes to understand the re-creative role Dis plays in nature. Ray
Barton senses the presence of Langford’s incomplete, restless soul, haunting his old apartment
in Bangkok, waiting to be reborn. He also recognises in Mike Langford the face of Langford’s
mysterious convict great-great-grandfather, implying that it is he who had returned embodied
as Mike Langford to further his search, but having arrived again in the ‘region of Dis’, here the
Cambodian killing fields, will have to return again:
In a region of Dis beyond the Thai border, a row of crosses rises from
the paddy field’s red earth, in the motionless and terrible heat. I see flames
reach up for him, like the heat’s choking essence. But then there are other
upright poles about him, and now he’s somewhere else. (HW, 450-51)
Koch has published the prequel to Highways to a War, which is the story of that greatgreat-grandfather, and has made it clear enough that the two novels together are in the Eastern
tradition of telling the series of lives of a holy man, though without promising to tie up all of
his loose threads, which could only occur at the moment of enlightenment. Each successive
life is necessary in the path of enlightenment of a soul, which is its re-identification with the
cosmic Soul. In the same way, this last, destructive age of the world, the Kali-Yuga is
indispensable to completion of the cycle before there can be a return to the holy Krta Yuga, the
first, creative age in a new cycle of time (Zimmer, 1969, 375).
12.10. Closing the Circle of Time and Place
Ray Barton remarks that Langford speaks to him from Dis, implicitly giving credence to
the possibility of Langford’s reincarnation, but also suggesting an inability to come to grips
with the gravity of the situation.
- 326 -
He waited in the darkness behind my chair. The calm voice waited on the
tapes, and my grief was ambiguous. Reason said he was probably dead, but
emotion said he might still be alive: it was just possible, and the mixture of
affection and bafflement that he'd stirred in me as a boy was back again. It
reached out to me now from that tropical kingdom of Dis he was lost in,
beyond the Thai border. (HW, 66)
Yet Dis is not only the ‘infernal region’ to which Langford is condemned in death. He
was already there when he was living his cameraman’s life, covering the Southeast Asian wars,
a land astride the looking-glass, where reality and irreality, and where good and bad dreams,
flow together. The surviving journalists are unable to leave Southeast Asia even though the
wars are over, Cambodia is closed tight, and there is little more to do than hang out in bars.
They are all caught outside of the mandala of time, and even applying the term ‘surviving’ to
them is to be done with attenuation. Ray Barton comments that they should, like the ageing
gunmen of the old Western movies, ‘hang up their arms’, but that they cannot forsake the high
induced by death (HW, 98). This is the same high in which the Goddess Kali herself gets
caught up—the bloodthirsty rampage begun to fight against the demons, and which must be
brought to a halt by a blood sacrifice before she destroys all of the cosmos.
Koch remains optimistic that the cycle of time will continue to turn, and the universe
will be re-created with the return of the holy Krta Yuga. For while Barton senses Langford in
‘a region of Dis beyond the Thai border’, where ‘a row of crosses rises from the paddy field’s
red earth, in the motionless and terrible heat’, he also believes him among ‘hidden voices’
which ‘murmur among bright leaves’. Here Langford escapes the ‘choking essences’ of the
fire’s heat. It is a homeland, protected and illuminated by cool nature: ‘Walled and roofed by
green, by a green like light itself, he hangs in a blessed coolness; the underwater cool of the
hop glades (HW, 450-51). It is in such a lost, forbidding place as Dis that the Australian is to
experience a rebirth of spirit. ‘It is only in exile, at the edge of the known world’, David Tacey
writes, ‘that the voice of revelation and guidance is heard’, and one is returned, like the
Israelites of Moses, to his spiritual homeland. Koch especially identifies this metaphor with
his native Tasmania as with Asia, and seems to compose his images to Tacey’s specifications:
- 327 -
After contact with archaic nature and the red earth, spirit rises again in a form
that is qualitatively different from our ancestral English or European spirit.
Spirit will be ‘savage’ in the sense of being untamed, primordial, or
Wordsworthian, romantic, or consoling. (Tacey, 205-06)
In fact, just the opposite is probably the case, as Koch surely figures in Tacey’s readings in the
Australian literary tradition treating man, the land, the animating force which binds the two,
and the spiritual crisis which has befallen the Australian identity and its sense of place and
time.
Home, in Koch’s Asian novels as in the works of many Australian writers, is ‘a place to
be escaped from, but also a place to be returned to’ (Huggan, 1993, Age of Tourism, 177).
Applied in an Asian sense, ‘home’ comes to symbolise the state called nirvana, which is both
‘enlightenment’ and ‘extinction’, or moksa, ‘release’—the place from where we come and to
where we long to return, either individually or universally. Koch uses the ambiguity of the
terms to his advantage. While Robert O’Brian and Guy Hamilton have made strides towards
self-realisation when they leave Asia, neither has progressed enough to really know where
‘home’ is, and both feel compelled to continue their journeys. Billy Kwan, on the other hand,
has learned the lessons of the Bhagavad Gita, and through his selfless action achieves his
‘home’. He is the only one of the many major characters in any of the Asian novels of Koch
and d’Alpuget who does not in the end seem to demand another chapter to his story. Mike
Langford is also a sacrifice to the turmoil of Southeast Asia, but his story does not seem to
have reached its end, even though Koch promises that through his immolation in Cambodia he
has reached the ‘underwater cool’ of home. The ambiguity of Langford’s death establishes the
mood of the entire novel, which is about the search for this man who seems to have put himself
beyond the reach of both death and life. Highways to a War does not question the Western
precept that no man is immortal, yet it does propose to set it alongside the Eastern tenet that
each man continues the human journey to completion in moksa. The narrator’s recognition of
Langford’s great-great-grandfather in Langford himself underscores this indestructible
circularity of life, leaving at least one man’s conviction that, while the man is almost
unquestionably dead, the spirit of Robert Devereux/Mike Langford is not lost.
- 328 -
12.11. Conclusion
This conviction is nevertheless undermined by more of Koch’s puzzling images. The
heat rising from the paddy field’s red earth in the ‘region of Dis’ where Langford dies is
‘motionless’ (HW, 451), as if it belongs more to his world of still photography than to this
world of material and change. It is not only this which leaves the novel with an entirely
unsatisfying ending, however. There is also Ray Barton’s tendency to reconstruct events
according to the rules of the Western historian. These are the rules the Western reader would
normally be best prepared to accept, but attitudes concerning reality and illusion, place, time
and the self should be affected enough by the novel to cause him to question the perspectives
and judgement of even the otherwise open and acute narrator. As this chapter has endeavored
to show, the events of Mike Langford’s life have become so ensnarled in the confusion of
antagonistic worlds whose interface is the terrible battleground called Dis that the clean,
scientific linearities of this-worldly nature cease to function.
The question is, then, what does Koch offer to replace the Western principles of
history, time, and self in such an ‘Otherworld’? Many of the answers have been dealt with in
detail in earlier chapters, but there remain some doubts about the application of Koch’s
constructions to the Australo-Asian context.
The next chapter will try to resolve these
problems, and in doing so will attempt to identify the one remaining of all the perplexing
protagonists of these novels, Highway to a War’s Mike Langford.
- 329 -
Crossing to the Other Bank
13.1. Introduction
Entangled in the problems of Australia’s identity and world view are the conflicting
senses of the role which place and time, or ‘history’, play. Recent theory, Jeff Lewis notes,
would have us understand history as ‘a quantum series’ of ‘random and self-reflexive events
that defy structural, categorical or teleological definition’ (Lewis, 54). Chaos theories are
perhaps the best Western thought presently capable of offering in reformulating the ancient
wisdom of Buddha that ‘everything is the result of a vast concurrence of causes and conditions,
and everything disappears as these causes and conditions change and pass away’ (Bukkyo
Dendo Kyokai, 80). The Western theoretical approach proves unsatisfactory when removed
from the laboratory environment and used to address the issues of the identity and role of
humanity, however, leaving us ‘perhaps duty bound to unlock broader referential and heuristic
patterns in order to account more fully for the multiple contingencies directing our personal
and social destinies’ (Lewis, 54). The Eastern approach to history, once its ‘Otherness’ is
embraced, meanwhile proves especially useful in this discussion over defining and identifying
Australia’s relationship with the Southeast Asian community.
C. J. Koch, this study has argued, is exploring just such patterns according to the
principle of his central metaphor of hybridisation. Earlier chapters have looked at how the
fusion of antagonistic forces create such hybridisations as of character, of perspectives of
reality, of the divine, and of worlds.
This final chapter will concentrate on conflicting
perspectives of ‘history’, a topic which is generally current today, but is especially so in
Australia, where the re-emergent Aboriginal perspective is so strongly at odds with the
Western one, and would put to question the white Australian view of the existence of
Australia.
It will argue that Koch has brought linear Western and cyclical Eastern
constructions of ‘history’ together to re-examine contemporary attitudes about the ‘Self’ and
the ‘Other’ insofar as they concern the sense of time and place, and also to reinvigorate what
he considers the West’s deflated human and spiritual values. It will use Highways to a War as
- 330 -
res explicanda, and the last point will be to show how that novel’s protagonist, Mike Langford,
must be considered in terms of a hybridised view of history. First, however, attention ought be
given to the critical stance in which Koch and d’Alpuget have been interpreted as neoOrientalist writers.
13.2. Time, Place, and the De-Orientalist Critique
Edward Said’s theory of the cultural and linguistic as well as political and military
imperialism inherent in the ‘Orientalist’ world view has been applied to the Australian context
by Broinowski and others, leading into various directions. Under one predominant view,
known as ‘Asianification’, ‘Orientalist’ stereotypes and discriminations would be abandoned,
and the ‘Australian population and culture would produce an economic landbridge to Asia—
and hence access to the region’s economic magic pudding’ (Lewis, 56). This economic
process would then lead back to a socio-cultural ‘De-Orientalism’—‘the deconstruction of
Orientalist imagery’ (Lewis, 59). Asianification has led to a rewriting of ‘the archive’ of
‘Australian canonical texts’ in order to celebrate ideals of multiculturalism and pluralism
(Lewis, 60), but has also caused a backlash in the form of a neo-nationalism which reasserts
the perceived values of the Anglo-Celtic culture, and emphasises the weaknesses and
absurdities inherent in De-Orientalist attempts to redefine ‘true’ and ‘false’ parameters of
cultural difference.
Writers such as d’Alpuget and Koch have found themselves caught in a cross-fire.
While participating in the vanguard of ‘Asianification’, their protagonists are ‘confronted,
challenged to the very centre of his or her cultural being, dislodged, affected, changed in some
fundamental way even as she or he returns to the security and familiarity of the “home”
culture’ (Lewis, 65). They would seem to be the very symbol of the sort of questioning the old
assumptions and preconceptions central to ‘Asianification’, but ‘De-Orientalist’ critics have
found their texts to be ‘examples of racism, jingoism and xenophobia’, with protagonists who
‘maraud about the South East Asian countryside, exploiting its citizens and re-instituting White
European cultural, racial, sexual and economic supremacy’. Lewis calls this ‘a “re-torturing”
- 331 -
of the language and imagery of contemporary texts in order to make them conform to the DeOrientalist project, a history of goodies and baddies’ (Lewis, 63). For this reason, DeOrientalist criticism tends to fail to see past the stereotypical racism and sexism, to return to
the example detailed in chapter 4, which d’Alpuget uses to force the reader, rather than the
author, to ‘take responsibility for what he/she sees or fails to see’ (McKeogh, 35).
Susan McKernan chimes in that Koch is indeed furthering Orientalist imagery in his
‘fascination for the different’ (McKernan, 433), which she attributes to a ‘tourist mentality—
that the unknown, the alien, must necessarily be both glamorous and threatening’ (McKernan,
434). In deliberately distorting his pictures of Indonesians and, especially, of women, Koch
‘promotes Australian racism’ (McKernan, 434). Her examples include the interpretation, in
Across the Sea Wall, that it ‘is only by losing all his money and succumbing to an Indian
disease that O’Brien can restore himself to health and the sanity of life in Australia’
(McKernan, 435); and ‘Koch’s portrayal of women demonstrates his method of taking a reality
and loading it with moral and spiritual overtones’, as in the recurrent female face pictured as
‘the child face which may hide cruelty or vulnerability’ (McKernan, 436). Koch is neither
interested in ordinary Indonesians, but only those who are diseased and deformed, nor in
ordinary women, but only those who ‘bear the burden of Otherness’. Since he offers no
ordinary Indonesians or women in his novels, ‘and because this kind of writing depends on the
association of character and moral quality, it is difficult not to hold Koch responsible’ for the
idea that Indonesians and women ‘are evil’ (McKernan, 437). McKernan concludes,
The difficulty with Koch’s view of good and evil as states of psychic health is
that it seems to propose normality as a good. To be physically deformed, to
have a ‘foreign’ face, to be homosexual—to be Other in any way—is to be
associated in Koch’s novels with evil and corruption. (McKernan, 438)
This example illustrates how pretending to take the high road of political correctness can
subvert the objectivity of literary criticism. Since we are talking about De-Orientalism here, it
is essential to refer back to Edward Said’s description of what Orientalism is in the first place,
which is ‘a whole network of interests inevitably brought to bear on (and therefore always
involved in) any occasion when that peculiar entity “the Orient” is in question’. Orientalism is
- 332 -
a figment of the discussion and analysis of this entity by all of the interested institutions,
created ‘by making statements about it, authorizing views of it, describing it, by teaching it,
settling it, ruling over it’ (Said, 3). The result was ‘a body of ideas, beliefs, clichés, or
learning’ which in the nineteenth century developed a ‘separate and unchallenged coherence’
about the East’s ‘sensuality, its tendency to despotism, its aberrant mentality, its habits of
inaccuracy, its backwardness’. Orientalism gathered to itself ‘epistemological status’ from its
ivory tower which in turn assured it an aura of moral neutrality and objective validity (Said,
205). And yet, Said points out, Orientalism has always been vulnerable to the fashionable
currents of thought, including ‘imperialism, positivism, utopianism, historicism, Darwinism,
racism, Freudianism, Marxism, Spenglerism’. Orientalists have always had ‘the ambition to
formulate their discoveries, experiences, and insights suitably in modern terms, to put ideas
about the Orient in very close touch with modern realities’ (Said, 43).
To this list we can now add the so-called De-Orientalists who, after reading Said’s work,
have decked out a contemporary form of latent Orientalism in new clothes. McKernan’s
criticism harks back to a vocabulary, cited by Said, of the late 19th century ‘biological
determinism and moral-political admonishment’ which saw Orientals as ‘backward,
degenerate, uncivilized, and retarded’, and equated them with ‘delinquents, the insane, women,
the poor’ and other such ‘lamentably alien’ elements of Western society. Orientals in this
context were seen ‘not as citizens, or even people, but as problems to be solved or confined’
(Said, 207). Indeed, the temptation is great to see Koch and d’Alpuget as joining the oldschool Orientalists, relying on clues of the sexist and power-hungry male cliques, their
nostalgia for empire, and condescension of Asians, dwarves, beggars and women, but this
should be taken as a triumph of their work. When the characters of Koch and d’Alpuget leave
themselves open to accusations of Orientalist inclinations, it is a reflection of the socio-cultural
baggage they are bringing with them from the West, and not a call by the novelists for a return
to old-guard Orientalism. It would be more accurate to see such as Alexandra Wheatfield, Guy
Hamilton and Mike Langford as inheritors of the line of 20th century Orientalists of the mode
- 333 -
of T. E. Lawrence who, Said writes, though still burdened by their sense of Occidental
‘technological, political, and cultural supremacy’, had ceased to see themselves as distant
overlords or academics, and found themselves ‘standing at the very rim of the East-West
divide’ with the hope of bringing the two together (Said, 145-46). This shift from an academic
to an ‘instrumental attitude’ has been carried forward another generation by d’Alpuget, who
literally gathers up all of the crumbs of latent Orientalism in contemporary Australian society,
balls it up and flings it back in the faces of those who have strewn it out, and by Koch, whose
characters also stand at that volcanic rim at the edge between two worlds, not with the
intention of establishing the dominance of one over the other but finally forging the two into
one as had never been deemed possible or even worthwhile before.
While the De-Orientalists are engaged in the inhibition of clearly negative stereotypes, it
is not accurate to judge d’Alpuget and Koch among those miscreants who are reacting against
the constraints of political correctness—a rebellion which Bodenhausen and Macrae attribute
at least partly to a backlash against ‘the effort required to avoid stereotyping’ (Bodenhausen,
40). D’Alpuget’s and Koch’s ambiguous works, with their sometimes subtle though always
provocative voices, just do not lend themselves well to the agenda of P.C. interpretation
precisely because they are not only failing to suppress stereotypes, but are purposefully
activating them. This is not because they feel political correctness threatens their freedom of
speech, but to bring the stereotypes—the great majority of which are undoubtedly latent—to
the surface where they can be re-examined. Asianification, on the other hand, is the tar of
good intentions which paves the De-Orientalist road to hell. Is it far-fetched to note how
‘Asianification’ rings suspiciously of Richard Nixon’s ‘Vietnamisation’, with its reliance on
capitalist economic principles to solve Southeast Asian problems while washing Western
hands of the region’s deep socio-political shortcomings? It could be that the cuffs on the ear
received repeatedly from d’Alpuget and Koch, in the form of showing how the Australian
sense of the ‘Asian Other’ defines the ‘Australian Self’ more than the ‘Asian Self’, and that
- 334 -
suppression of perceptions of the Asian is in fact the suppression of that of the Australian
himself, is the reason for the De-Orientalist barrage against them.
The P.C. voice nevertheless has its rightful place in the contemporary cultural dialogue,
including the debate of the place of d’Alpuget and Koch in the Australian canon. The sense of
history in fictional works about Australians in Asia, which necessarily bring with them heavy
loads of prejudices and preconceptions, certainly needs to be re-examined. ‘Nothing is ever as
it was or as good as it used to be’, and to look for ‘the authentic’ Asia, which would somehow
correspond to the images one has learned to expect there, would prove a futile exercise in
contemporary Asia. That ‘even the most dispassionate of literary travellers have their heads
turned by nostalgia’, Robin Gerster writes, is exemplified by C. J. Koch, whose Across the Sea
Wall and The Year of Living Dangerously present ‘Asia in essentially ambivalent ways’, but
with a vision ‘firmly set on possible future orientations for Australians as they reassess
redundantly colonialist, Anglocentric affiliations’. So much is confirmed by Koch himself in
his 1981 essay, Crossing the Gap, but Koch’s gaze, Gerster argues, turns radically back in his
latest novel, Highways to a War, with a narrator who ‘craves’ the old Singapore, and
‘abominates’ the modern, sanitised city it has become, and a protagonist whose nostalgia for
colonial Phnom Penh could be characterised as an obsession. Koch’s vision has become
‘suffused by a hankering for a picturesque colonial “East” that has passed into history’
(Gerster, Bali, 359). Gerster’s article focuses on travel literature and its obsessions, but while
Koch employs techniques of the travel writer, his Asian novels progressively strain against
such a De-Orientalist critique. Koch is rather delving into the nostalgia as a vehicle for the
development of his Austral-Asian motifs of time, place, meaning, and reality.
Koch admits to an ‘obsession’ with the past, which he says ‘has great meaning and
poignancy’, but is openly offended at what he calls the ‘totalitarian criticism’ which would
prescribe his works into a ‘fashionable’ postmodern or postcolonial niche. ‘The romantic,
“colonial” view of Asia is not the author’s, but that of the central character Mike Langford’
(Mitchell, 1996, Interview, 70). A writer is, like any parent, not the most objective critic of his
- 335 -
literary children, and his protectiveness ought to be excused as well as expected, but his point
is well taken. Koch draws on many Western and Eastern views and attitudes, in Highways to a
War picking up the threads left by The Year of Living Dangerously to explore through
flashbacks and memory—often, but not always, nostalgic—the motif of history. Koch is
interested in what history represents, what Australia’s role in it can and should be, and most
pointedly, in exploring what he calls ‘the mystery of personality’ (Mitchell, 1996, Interview,
70), which functions in a semiotic network with place and time. Koch belongs to and yet is
redirecting the Australian literary tradition of searching for the Australian soul in a landscape
which is variously idealised or demonised. Koch looks inward into the Tasmanian landscape,
but also outward into Asia, in order to find ‘a “hybrid” local identity that will incorporate other
Indo-European cultural elements from the former empire’.
He employs a ‘structure of
extended flashback’ in Highways to a War as in Across the Sea Wall, looking both forward and
backward at each moment, emphasising ‘the pull between breaking free to the future and
remaining prey to memories of the past’ (Sharrad, 1984, 220). Koch takes this Janus point of
view to show not only how beginnings and endings are inextricably bound, but also how each
leads to a re-creation of the other, and thereby, writes Sharrad, ‘to free us of the tyranny history
has exercised over our colonial souls’ (Sharrad, 1984, 219).
13.3. Conflicting Interpretations of ‘History’
‘Time in the everyday world’, writes Susan Stewart, ‘depends upon a sense of “time in
the abstract” that is historical (serial and linear) and infinite’, without knowable beginning or
end. ‘As fictions move away from realism and the temporality of the everyday lifeworld, the
paradoxical specter of infinite time emerges with its problems of origin and ending’ (Susan
Stewart, 117-18). C. J. Koch is working with both of these Western senses of time, and also
with Eastern conceptions. As his protagonists arrive at the mythical level of infinite time, they
cross a barrier where the Western sense of referential, linear time fades into an Eastern one
which is still both serial and infinite, but is circular and, as strictly part of the created universe,
pure illusion.
- 336 -
Aubrey Hardwick expresses the conventional idea of historical time, held by those who
see Australia as existing out on the fringes of civilisation. Australia was so far outside of the
civilised world that history did not occur naturally there, but only when forced to from the
outside:
History’s a game that’s played for keeps, in my sort of work—and it will be in
yours. But for most Australians, it’s a dimension of reality that’s only found
on TV—don’t you agree? The reason Australia’s half asleep is that it’s outside
history. The Japanese nearly woke us up, but they didn’t quite get there. So
we went on sleeping. I wonder who will wake us up? What do you think?
Sukarno? The Communists in Asia? Is the domino theory true or false? (HW,
91)
Ray Barton, the novel’s narrator, avocational historian and, sometimes at least, Koch’s
personal mouthpiece, reluctantly concurs with this theory when he ruminates about Tasmania,
the farthest part of far-off Australia, to which he, Mike Langford, and Christopher J. Koch are
native:
People from elsewhere say it’s a place where nothing happens. I say a hundred
and fifty years have happened; but there’s a sense in which they’re right.
Battles, revolutions, concentration camps, bombing raids and the many other
consequences of history are far off in another hemisphere. (HW, 15)
Harvey Drummond offers another theory of history—one which gives the novel its name
and seems most to express the position of C. J. Koch on the inevitable surge of time which is
slinging not only Australians but everyone else as well beyond a cosmic edge of reality, and
making Australia a fitting metaphor for the puzzling nature of time and space:
Highways! How they lead us on: we for whom the present is everything, yet
never enough! Highways have always brought me joy: highways on which we
move at speed, and which go out across flatness to some edge that’s beyond
the possible, as this one was doing. (HW, 222)
Ray Barton repeats this symbol as he discusses the bidirectional continuum formed by past,
present and future, a leitmotif in the novels of C. J. Koch:
So far off now, 1965! It begins to seem almost as far as 1848. Yet neither of
these years is as distant as we think: unfinished roads stretch from them both,
and run to where we stand. (HW, 146)
Billy Kwan, another of Koch’s historians, had to learn two vital lessons while he was
recording history with his photography of the present. The first is that his view of the world
- 337 -
was caught up in delusion of control and manipulation. His photography, rather than recording
the reality of Asia, was just a tool of his anxiety and desire (Nettlebeck, 18). The second, the
message of the Bhagavad Gita and the Gospels, is the import of his present individual action
on the future condition of the world.
Jim Feng is no historian, but understands this
participation of each individual in the cosmic order. He remembers what happened to his own
family in revolutionary China, and yet recognises justification for much of its suffering within
the greater, cosmological picture, which deemed that, for those who had reneged on their
dharmic role, time should come to an end:
But even my father says that his class was no longer fit to rule. They had
failed the people: they did too little to stop the suffering. They had lost what
the emperors had lost: the Mandate of Heaven. (HW, 121)
It is a fate which Koch also shares among all the journalists who remain in Thailand after the
end of the wars in Southeast Asia. The professionalism of their jobs had required them to be
uninvolved, and they are therefore condemned to lurk, truly lost souls, on the edge of the land
of Dis (HW, 98).
In Western philosophy time is, along with length, height and depth, one of the cold
dimensions which delineate the universe. Koch’s characters live linear lives in Australia. Guy
Hamilton sees his news-room job in Sydney as heading only towards the grave. Billy Kwan is
travelling from one socio-cultural point to the next, never looking back to the past he has
rejected, finding satisfaction with the present, or reasonably hope to reach a destination in the
future. Mike Langford can only look toward his escape from the past and present represented
by Clare Farm. Only as children can Hamilton, Langford and Ray Barton experience time in
more Eastern terms of an elementary, active and non-linear force in the cosmos. Hamilton
grows up in his memories of his father and pre-war Singapore. Langford and Barton measure
time as a repetition of summers which free them from the rest of the year. All three shield
themselves from the Western time with their imaginations, aspects of their personalities which
are given more import by the dual Eastern concept of reality and which allow them to escape
time’s shackles. As grown men, Koch’s characters find similar comfort in Eastern time’s
- 338 -
active qualities, as seen with Jim Feng when he, Mike Langford and Dmitri Volkov are
captured by North Vietnamese Army troops:
And I talked of the things I missed about our lost home, which I hadn’t thought
of for years. I spoke these things aloud because it gave me a sort of peace.
The past is a story, and we cannot help get back into it, so our yearning for it is
sweet and not too sharp. I wouldn’t let myself think about Lu Ying now,
because she belonged to the present, and I found this too painful. (HW, 334)
Feng also acknowledges the distinction between such remembrances, with its import of
profound reality, and hard history, whose unfiltered record often evokes only raw emotion,
when he talks about the last photo ever taken of Mike, Dmitri and him, together with Captain
Nguyen Van Danh:
There is no sadness like the sadness that fills you when you look at the faces in
such a photograph. They are not older , as they would be in life, or faded, as
they are in your memory. They are real—real all over again. And that pierces;
pierces. No; perhaps I couldn’t bear that picture. (HW, 348)
There is an element of fiction which belongs to the ‘reality’ of history. Noting the
young journalist who idolises Mike Langford, Harvey Drummond remembers how Mike had
once similarly idolised Aubrey Hardwick—a theme Koch had earlier developed with Guy
Hamilton’s admiration for the old and anachronistic Colonel Henderson in The Year of Living
Dangerously—saying that ‘legend always dwarfs reality’. Drummond calls history a ‘hall of
mirrors: reality emulating some previous legend, and then itself becoming legend, while not
quite believing it can be so—transfigured only by death’ (HW, 390-91). Donald Mills declares
the ultimate dream of spy Aubrey Hardwick is to get control of the machine which transforms
history into legend. What has driven him throughout his ruthless career, the ‘glory’ for which
he has always plotted to achieve, is to write the definitive history of the Australian intelligence
service (HW, 432). The desire for access to the most secure files and most secret facts, and
then the power to impose the spin which creates the ‘truth’ of history, would verify his
position, and his view of Australia’s position, in the world.
Dmitri Volkov is the character who most closely represents the Western idea of the
incessant, forward movement of time.
He is also a student of history, especially the
philosophical history of the French and Russian revolutions, and feels the direct consequences
- 339 -
of history as the grandson of a Russian count who was forced to flee the Russian revolution.
Volkov is told by Captain Danh, the North Vietnamese group leader who controls the fate of
the three captured correspondents, that the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong are fighting to
reinstate the rightful order which was overturned during Vietnam’s colonial history. Volkov
responds:
‘To begin the world over again’: yes. That is very exciting idea when you are
young. But I put it to you, Captain: we cannot begin over again. To begin
again is impossible: what results is destruction; murder. Tyranny by the worst:
those for whom destruction is their food, and who in fact want nothing but
power. (HW, 323)
Koch would say that Volkov is both right in seeing the inevitability of terror
accompanying the re-beginning of the world, and wrong in believing a return through time to
be impossible. Ray Barton discusses the accessibility of the past, as though the highway
Harvey Drummond spoke about were not a one-way street. Barton develops this idea in
Highways to a War, using the Western psychological symbol of open and closed doors which
Lewis Carroll used in Alice in Wonderland and which Koch previously used with Guy
Hamilton in The Year of Living Dangerously.
Barton emphasises the truth learned by
Hamilton and Kwan, however, that the choices which each individual makes are essential in
the progress of time. By coalescing past, present and future, where even the past offers
opportunities for exercising free will, Barton adheres to the Asian view of the circularity of
time, the essential Buddhist teaching of causation, and to the Bhagavad Gita’s tenant of the
essential nature of free will in upholding the right order of an otherwise deterministic cosmos:
The past, I see now, waits always for us to open its doors; and once
having done so, we can choose to open our spirits to its thin, helpless voices, or
else turn away. Both choices have their consequences. (HW, 40)
Asian philosophy offers the concept of re-beginning the world as an obvious step in the
course of history, and, in The Year of Living Dangerously, Koch’s world is shaking in the
earthquake of the last of the four Great Ages of Hindu tradition, bringing the destruction and
dissolution of adharma. Highways to a War occurs in the epicentre of the earthquake. The
righteous order of dharma is, after countless millennia since the creation of the cosmos,
- 340 -
overwhelmed by the antagonistic forces of disorder. The past, including all of history, is
obliterated by demons. Yet, even adharma is a part of dharma, and the possibility remains that
dharma be restored through righteous action of gods and men. Then the world will indeed
begin over again with the cyclical return of the first Great World Age.
13.4. The Betjaks
What appears to be one of the most important discrepancies in Koch’s presentation of
adharmic forces is the association of enigmatic Billy Kwan, champion of the forces of light,
with the black betjak named Tengah Malam, ‘midnight’. The tricycle-rickshaw is a leitmotif
developed in The Year of Living Dangerously and Highways to a War as a cumbersome but
practical means of transportation not just through the bustling streets of Southeast Asian cities
but also, as evidenced by their names from the jungle and the wayang kulit and their eerily
ritualised, animalistic calls and sounds, into the mythical world of dream and magic:
As soon as they sighted Hamilton and Kwan, most of the betjaks creaked into
motion like a flock of ponderous birds, wheeling towards them. … with their
black canvas hoods, their sides painted in hurdy-gurdy colours with pictures of
volcanoes and wayang heroes, and lettered with names such as Tiger and
Bima, they belonged to another time. The riders, in ragged shorts and singlets,
… rang what sounded like cow-bells, and made low-voiced cries that were
oddly confidential. (YLD, 16-17)
In Across the Sea Wall, Koch introduces this metaphor and its association with entry into
the ‘Otherworld’. O'Brien, Ilsa, Sunder and Carleen are visiting the city of Madras. ‘Keeping
pace at the kerb were trishaws, following persistently, like creaking birds. 'Yes sar—I take you
anywhere!' ’ They see the market ‘hawkers squatted under tattered awnings, among oddments:
pocket combs, shoelaces, hair oil, betel-nut.’ Behind the market is ‘a line of stone commercial
buildings’ which are ‘the leavings of the British Raj: Edwardian and Victorian façades of stone
and stucco, impaled with factual telephone poles.’ They sense how the ‘stalls were surely the
real city’, but Koch notes how the imperial structures, whose windows had ‘latticed arches,
saying India’ are a point of transit between the ‘real’ and ‘Other’ worlds. Koch’s ontology is
even in this early novel being developed, but this is not yet the time for the demons to rise to
power. It is, Koch notes, only ‘Zenith: noon’, but the signs are clear that the nadir is quickly
- 341 -
approaching. The market stalls display ‘framed, gaudy pictures’ of the gods of creation and
destruction, Shiva, Vishnu, Kali, but from a distance they already look ‘like erotica’. And so,
while ‘a soft yet penetrating voice reached O'Brien through the other cries’, offering him
‘Everything for nothing’, the crows wait, ‘perched on their verandas: crows which were
everywhere, like semi-humorous messengers of doom’ (ASW, 90-91).
In The Year of Living Dangerously, one of the betjaks continues to follow even after
being shooed away by Kwan, who wants to expound on philosophical concepts of self and
right action while he brings Hamilton for a walk into the mysterious indigenous quarter called
Pasar Baru. It is driven by a rider in black shirt and shorts, its lurking presence makes
Hamilton feel uncomfortably isolated. This is the betjak called Tengah Malam, ‘Midnight’, a
variation on the carnivorous crow symbol and apparent force of darkness. Billy Kwan, as a
force of light, would not seem its likely confederate.
Yet, the black betjak is Koch’s symbol of the herald of Kali-Yuga, the age of universal
collapse into chaos, and comparable to the Western ‘Grim Reaper’, symbol not only of the
arrival of death but also of the change of time. Having finished his first philosophical
discourse, presented Hamilton with the Chinese poem which represents their friendship, and
promised to pull a rabbit out of a hat by getting Hamilton an exclusive interview with the
Communist Party chief, Billy mounts into the betjak which has persisted in following as if it
were clear all along that he would do so, telling Hamilton, ‘I’d take a betjak home, if I were
you’ (YLD, 17-24). It is more than a simple suggestion for his security, for Kwan has just
finished his discourse on the realities of life for both journalists and the people in Indonesia,
and delivered to Hamilton the central question of the novel, ‘What shall we do then?’ (YLD,
21). Kwan is telling Hamilton to follow Alice down the rabbit hole, take the betjak into the
‘Otherworld’, cross over to the other side of the wayang kulit screen, where one might gaze on
reality from another angle, and become a better witness of truth.
Tengah Malam reappears in front of the Hotel Indonesia at the moment of Billy Kwan’s
death, the very picture of the end of time—old, tired, emaciated, beyond feeling:
- 342 -
A single betjak man had separated himself form the rest, and pedalled with
weary deliberateness across the stony ground towards us. He was all in black:
loose black shirt, open to reveal his prominent rib cage, and black shorts. He
wore a limp, wide-brimmed straw hat. The side of his betjak bore the yellow
legend: Tengah Malam. He was not young, as most of the other betjak boys
were; he would never again wear a cheeky grin as they did; his gaunt face had
the dull and stricken calm of the immemorial Asian coolie. He seemed to look
at us from a zone of weariness where not even despair is felt, because that is
feeling, and such weariness is fathoms deeper than feeling.
He wears a mask of death, a cardboard-coloured face, which shows its paucity of blood, but
also likens it to a puppet in the wayang kulit, and he is clothed like a bird of carrion. His
demeanour indicates knowledge of what is to pass; as a toiler for the force of time he certainly
knows past, present and future. He does not belong to the other, brightly-coloured betjaks, but
to the darkness of night which is defined by the ‘great wheel of lights’ in front of the Hotel
Indonesia. Though he displays the disinterest in the results of his work which Krishna
demands, there is no doubt that the betjak is not an uninvolved witness to Billy’s fall:
Hamilton shook his head at him. The dark eyes in the skull-like,
cardboard-coloured face, with its knobbed cheek-bones, looked back without
resentment. He sat, one foot on the pedal and the other on the ground, staring
at us quietly for a moment longer; then he turned his ponderous machine and
rode creaking away, in his flimsy, crow-black clothes, not back to the squadron
of other betjaks, but out onto Jalan Thamrin, and so into the night. It was as
though he had despaired permanently of our ever paying for his hire (YLD,
247).
In spite of the betjak’s association with evil, it is not a force of evil, but of time. The betjak has
come to bring Kwan ‘home’ after his heroic action; the novel ends before Hamilton’s time
comes, but he senses that it is waiting for him as well, hiding in his imagination:
His good eye burned, and he closed it for a moment. As soon as he did so, a
dark shape pedalled and creaked across his middle distance: a betjak, whose
rider wore a black shirt, black shorts, and a limp straw hat, and the name of
whose machine was Tengah Malam: midnight. (YLD, 295-96)
The black betjak rides by in his mind as if to remind Hamilton who ultimately rules.
This ruler is not the evil manifested by the demons who threaten the cosmos with their
adharmic rule, but is the wheel of time. Tengah Malam, is simply the ‘midnight’ rider,
announcing the change of one’s fortune, another’s death, and the moment of the demons’ rise
to predominance.
- 343 -
13.5. The Wheel of Time Whirls out of Control
As discussed in chapter 8, the turn of the wheel of time inevitably determines as part of
the dharmic order the rise and fall of heroes and malefactors. The problem is that when the
demons usurp the rule of the universe, even the cycle of time itself is threatened by the chaos
of adharma.
This threat is manifested in the ubiquitous images of time out-of-joint in
Highways to a War. Mike Langford, who is said to remain ‘in the 1950s’ since he slicks his
hair down with Brylcreem (HW, 161), wakes up from the dysenteric delirium he suffers early
after his arrival in Asia, and finds himself in ‘Singapore of the 1930s’ (HW, 87). The
Cambodian Army he accompanies into battle, brave but poorly led soldiers who are equipped
with outmoded U.S. and French army surplus weapons, and slaughtered by the Viet Cong and
Khmer Rouge, is said to ‘operate as though it’s in the Middle Ages: they haven’t had a serious
war since then’ (HW, 224). Westerners see the sexual mores of the Cambodian middle class as
proof that it is ‘the nineteenth century here’ (HW, 266). Relics of Empire keep turning up, as
the oil lamp at Madame Delphine’s opium den, a symbolic source of light and heat surrounded
by the burgeoning darkness, an ‘antique: a lamp from the nineteenth century, still burning here
in Asia’ (HW, 280). Claudine Phan’s Saigon home is ‘formal and imposing’ but has ‘a sense
of dustiness’, with ‘dim and grimy’ walls, stuffy air, and seems not to have been changed since
the thirties, all of which gives it ‘an air of being stuck in time’ (HW, 402).
Southeast Asia is in the quiet, shrinking eye of the strengthening demonic storm, and the
Australians posted there feel the threat more than all others. Other Westerners can pull up their
stakes and head home before the storm hits, but the Aussis have always expected to be left
behind. Aubrey Hardwick, sounding like Guy Hamilton before him, laments the end of the era
of British imperial rule as only an Australian can: ‘The most successful empire since Rome’s:
finally gone. And Australia naked: our shield in Asia taken away.’ He says that the British
built Singapore ‘out of a swamp, and brought British freedom and justice to the eastern seas’.
Hardwick invokes Kipling, and says Mike Langford belongs to the ‘last generation of children
of the British Empire’ but that ‘the sun is finally setting. How can the Brits know what we
- 344 -
feel, we children of the old Dominions? It was always unrequited love; and now the beloved is
departing’ (HW, 92-93).
The Asian future awaiting Australia is a Siren figure, an irresistible force drawing the
wayfarer to his death. Mike Langford arrives in Singapore thinking, ‘This is the place I’ve
always been waiting for’ (HW, 69), but when he arrives in Vietnam for his first job it is like
descending into Hell:
Coming down the gangway, squinting in the blinding heat that rebounded from
the tarmac, greeted by smells of aviation fuel and the roar of afterburners,
Leica round his neck, camera bag over his shoulder, Langford was entering his
future: that war whose remorseless sequences would devour the rest of his life.
(HW, 99)
The war is devouring not just the rest of Langford’s but everyone’s lives. Inside the
artificial environment of JUSPAO, the American public affairs office, the air-conditioning
freezes time as well as space, leaving the journalists to sit waiting for their press conferences
‘like aging students’ (HW, 190). War-torn Saigon itself is seen by Harvey Drummond as
‘exhausted now: debauched; doomed; threatening’, a landscape whose ‘time got lost down a
funnel’ (HW, 195)
Neither people nor places age properly. Mike Langford is consistently described as
looking too young for his age.
Ray Barton sees recent photos of Langford before his
disappearance in Cambodia, and notices that ‘Langford looked nearer to twenty-eight than
forty’(HW, 9), that his face had ‘the strong planes of adulthood, and yet it was still very
boyish’ (HW, 50), and still, Barton notices, somehow Langford ‘already looks dead’ (HW, 9).
Koch spices the novel with such details as that the helplessly broke Langford is waiting
for a cheque to come from the newspaper called the Age (HW, 82), and that the ARVN soldiers
‘treated me like a kid, on that first patrol: one who needed help with the simplest things (HW,
139). He emphasises the casual youth of the NVA soldiers who capture Langford, Feng and
Volkov, describing the enemy as ‘laughing, exchanging jokes and cigarettes and even
clowning with each other like schoolboys’ (HW, 317).
Yet, the disjointedness of the
appearances of age is never to be taken lightly, but is a sign of the collapse of the cosmic order.
- 345 -
When the three journalists are released, their NVA captors are seen as having aged far
too rapidly and heading toward untimely deaths. Jim Feng reports how one of them ‘looked
very weak, with his thin body and the drooping, old man’s eyelids in his boy’s face’ (HW,
349). Langford’s driver in Phnom Penh, Vora, ‘a man in vigorous middle age, always neat and
lively and well dressed’, escapes from Cambodia after the fall to the Communists, bringing
news of the horror of the Khmer Rouge angka and Langford’s execution. Ray Barton sees
how ‘the small, bent figure that shuffles into the room is that of an old man, and the faded blue
shirt, black short and rubber shower sandals are the outfit of a street beggar’ (HW, 441). Vora
is a man broken by the sight of the devil:
He’s somehow familiar, and his face is gentle and likeable. His hair is still
black, but there are white streaks in it, and his skin is very wrinkled. Looking
up at Jim with an expression that’s half delighted and half stricken, he has his
brows raised high, and this has put a large number of horizontal corrugations
across his forehead. Now in his late forties, he appears close to seventy. (HW,
442)
And yet, once he has relieved himself of his news, Vora cries ‘in a way that Westerners seldom
do: like a child, his mouth open, his eyes staring in a sort of sad amazement, the back of his
right hand held against his cheek’ (HW, 445). It amazes Barton to see this, but for those who
spent years of their lives in Southeast Asia, time is no longer expected to move steadily
forward as in the West.
In journalists, Koch has found professionals who are fascinated with the fleeting
moment:
We journalists love the ephemeral, and there’s no hunger so exquisite as
hunger for the ephemeral; … I wouldn’t be this high in an hour or so, but the
moment lives on, its fragile structure built on air, like all our best moments.
(HW, 220)
Being at the right place at the right time makes journalists feel special. Paradoxically, when
the place and time no longer exist, the memory regenerates—and improves—them. The
Nurseryman reminisces about an idyllic, pre-war Phnom Penh, whose time has even been fixed
to quiet perfection:
Soon we’ll be the only ones who remember the magic peace. […] The French
planters drinking coffee at their kerbside tables. The caravans of oxcarts
- 346 -
coming in from the country, with all the country’s fruits. Upswept shafts like
the prows of boats. Straw piled on their awnings; the kids and dogs trotting
beside them.
Then, recalling how Koch placed the sun at the zenith in India before the onslaught of the
demons (ASW, 90), the Nurseryman asks:
Was it always noon when they came?
[…]
Yes: the noon hush. No guns to break it then; no sound of bombers.
Just the oxcarts, coming into town in lines a mile long. (HW, 283)
And yet, unlike the other journalists who prefer to let nostalgic memory take over from and
improve time, Mike Langford is driven ‘to freeze the moment’ (HW, 163), and not only with
his photographs. As Harvey Drummond postulates why Langford went back into Cambodia,
freezing the present is not enough: ‘He went to get back into the past’ (HW, 209).
13.6. Mike Langford—A Man Outside of Time; or A Ghost Caught in Time?
Harvey Drummond notices how Langford does not properly belong to the present,
though just where he does belong Koch leaves unsettled. Drummond says that Langford
belongs to the dreamscape of time. It is a description which harkens back to Koch’s allusion to
Lewis Carroll’s Wonderland, and clearly establishes Langford as a lonely wanderer from some
‘otherworld’:
Only out there, on that edge to which we were speeding, was I promised all the
answers I never seem to find: out there, where the world would at last change.
It’s an edge I often see in dreams: the only place where we ever actually reach
it. Langford has appeared in a number of these dreams, since he disappeared.
The highway runs at night then, with far, tiny lamps strung along its utmost
edge. I see Mike going there on foot, to a final windy rim: a place where he
belongs. I know he has his being there, in the dream: he’s one of those people
who do. Then he disappears. (HW, 222)
Mike Langford’s old colleague and friend, Rex Lockhart, who seems in his short
appearance to be a reincarnation of Wally O’Sullivan, introduces the central theme of
Highways to a War of the development in Langford of a post-modern heroic saviour figure
more designed according to Asian than to Western tradition. Like so many others, Lockhart
loved Mike Langford, though it is hinted that his love goes beyond the boundaries of the
acceptable. In fact, the relationship of Mike Langford with Rex Lockhart and Lockhart’s wife
- 347 -
makes it clear early on that both men and women fall in love with Langford, and while this
love is rarely expressed in sexual terms, it is never rejected by Langford. Generally Langford’s
love remains platonic, but one of those rare occasions when it is sexual is with Lockhart’s wife.
Lockhart is, however, a man of his place and time, and remains silent about the relationship.
His frustration comes out when he criticises Langford for having got himself killed in
Kampuchea. Saying Mike has made the ‘ultimate departure’, he tells Ray Barton ‘he’s bloody
dead, short of a miracle’. Langford, however, is not a man of his place or time, but is rather
the protagonist of a Koch saga of reincarnation. This much Lockhart grudgingly allows,
saying ‘Now he really can be a hero, and a saint’. Lockhart would evidently have preferred
keeping Langford for himself, and though not as a saint, he admits that ‘a lot of people will
make him into one’ (HW, 11).
The common people of Singapore’s Boat Quay are immediately attracted to Mike.
There the ‘Chinese traders greeted him by name, and chatted with him. Malay shopkeepers
and their tribes of assistants, who often had no English at all, crowded about him in the alleys
where he shot pictures’. It is more than just the ubiquitous accosting of Westerners for their
largess. A chair would be brought out onto the path for Langford to sit on. ‘Enthroned’, Koch
writes, he would pass around cigarettes ‘among the broad, smiling brown faces, waving his
hands in the way that he had when he was trying to communicate’ (HW, 80).
People commit themselves to Langford because he commits himself to them, which is
most striking in cases of the dispossessed. He sees the bar girls in Saigon ‘as damsels in
distress’(HW, 104), and encourages the child thieves and hawkers, all war orphans, some
injured by bombs and shrapnel, with gifts and money. Harvey Drummond claims that he and
the other correspondents ‘felt pity for them’, but adds ‘at the end of a hard day their insect
persistence could be maddening; no foreigner could move without their chanting persecution’.
Yet, while he sees the kids as less than human, and admonishes Langford’s encouragement of
them, he admits that ‘greed for handouts couldn’t entirely account’ for their devotion to him
(HW, 162).
- 348 -
Westerners are not exempted from the attraction to Langford. In the photo hanging in
the Foxhole Bar in Bangkok he ‘looks supernaturally young, and at the same time like a man
from a much earlier era’. The memorial which the journalists have chosen to hang of Langford
‘seems idealized, and has the appearance of an icon’ (HW, 203). Harvey Drummond is one of
Langford’s admirers, and devotes a lot of time to explaining the attraction he had ‘for men and
women alike’. It was more than his ‘unusual risk taking, his quick success, and his blond,
country-style good looks’, he reasons. ‘It had something to do with the soft-spoken, uncanny
amiability which had made me feel safe. It was something he extended to everybody: a sort of
low-key yet vital affection; a calm concern.’ The closest Drummond can get to explaining his
sense of who Langford is resides in his description of Langford’s unconscious face after being
hit during a firefight in South Vietnam:
Dead white, the blood cleaned away from it, the heavy eyelids closed under
their high-arched brows, it had become a different face. It resembled a piece
of nineteenth-century sculpture, I thought: one of those pieces deriving from
classical antiquity. It was a face that tended to change a lot: did you ever
notice that? He could appear plain or good looking; tough or sensitive:
sensitive to the point of being feminine. (HW, 179)
Drummond is putting together various pieces of the puzzle Koch is creating about Mike
Langford, the reincarnation of his nineteenth-century great-grandfather, perhaps even an avatar
of classical Indian tradition, whose dualities mirror the descriptions of Shiva or Vishnu. He
says it has to do with ‘mortality and its opposite’, leaving the distinct problem of just what the
‘opposite of mortality’ is open. If it is life beyond the limits of time, making Langford
therefore an avatar, that is, the reincarnation of a great spirit sent to restore dharma, then his
story would be one of redeeming the world from the adharmic rule of the demons. If, on the
other hand, the opposite of mortality is the inability to die, then Koch’s novel becomes a
traditional, Western ghost story. The evidence is there to indicate it is at least partially the
latter.
Ray Barton says that, as children, playing hide and go seek with Mike Langford ‘was
like hunting something gone insubstantial’ (HW, 33). As an adult he remains evanescent.
Harvey Drummond reports, ‘He suddenly materialized among us, standing in the middle of the
- 349 -
room in stained combat fatigues, with a large white wound dressing taped to his forehead. He
seemed pale and tired, but cheerful’ (HW, 156). Langford lacks corporeal substantiality,
remaining unaffected by the opium, alcohol, and ‘every other physical stimulus and stress’ he
subjects himself to (HW, 280-81). After his disappearance there are reports of his ghost
haunting his Bangkok apartment, coming up the gravel path, climbing the stairs, pacing back
and forth in his jungle boots ‘like somebody worrying about something’, and scaring the
downstairs neighbours (HW, 448).
In addition, the novel follows the precedent of The Year of Living Dangerously in its
collection of ghostly beings. Notable are the neak taa, the mischievous Cambodian mountain
spirits. There are also the Viet Cong, who are called the ‘Black Ghosts’ by the peasants,
inhabit the shadows of the banana trees (HW, 142), and ‘have invisible roads through the
paddy fields’. Jim Feng warns Mike ‘you can never tell whether they are there or not’ (HW,
118). For Langford, they seem be familiar to him from some earlier experience. ‘Black
Ghosts! Where had I seen them before?’ he wonders. Highways to a War does not provide
any conclusive answer to this question. All that is clear is that, from his very first experience
with them, he is aware of a role which pits him against them, and of their belonging to another
world. Langford interprets this to be a two-dimensional world like that of his camera, and is
determined to send them back there in any way he can. ‘For a moment I had them in my
viewfinder, and I felt no more fear at all; all I wanted to do was capture them. That was all that
was real: what was inside the frame’ (HW, 142).
The Viet Cong, in spite of their ghostly images, are largely ennobled by Koch, and can
be compared to the prankish neak taa. In contrast are the Khmer Rouge, who also resemble
the neak taa by inhabiting the cavernous mountains of Eastern Cambodia, and share the
guerrilla characteristics of the VC, but who are far worse than either of these. The Viet Cong
are fighting to restore righteous rule to their homeland, but the Khmer Rouge are, in C. J.
Koch’s universe, the very demons who usurp the ruling position of the gods and overthrow the
rule of dharma. It is against these evil spirits that the avatar/saviour must battle.
- 350 -
Harvey Drummond describes the strange but essential influence people like Langford
have on others: ‘they haunt us’, he says in appropriate, ghost-story idiom, but describing at the
same time the function of a saviour to overcome the threat of an end to time. ‘We grow old,
we shrivel up, we die; we’re a sad lot of creatures, ultimately; and yet certain human faces can
make us disbelieve it—or at least forget it for a while’ (HW, 180). Saviours too resemble
ghosts in some ways, but are neither mischievous nor evil beings. They are
very human, yet a little more than human, in some way. They talk in an
ordinary manner, these people: they eat; laugh; walk in the streets; sit in a pool
of sun in a coffee shop, or the artificial light of a bar: yet nothing dissolves the
film of strangeness that surrounds them. (HW, 179-80)
Drummond wonders then, ‘How are they different?’, and his answers point back to the
themes of time and the harmony of dharma. ‘They change our lives like music; they put time
and disappointment on hold; they even make us forget that final sadness of reality, and of our
miserable physical decline.’ As to how they captivate those around them, he suggests ‘a
particular shape of eye; a smile; a set of the mouth’ and most importantly ‘the spirit behind the
face: by a sort of easy daring, an always lighthearted ease with life that’s magical’. All of this
boils down to something like the avatara myth of the reincarnation of a great soul.
It’s a face which in its youth—recurring in many variations, male and
female—can never be devalued, never obliterated. Growing old, disappearing,
it’s always replaced. No telling where it will reappear, in the famous or the
obscure. In the end, it’s beyond analysis. It’s what makes us immortal. (HW,
180)
This, Drummond argues, is the key to understanding Mike Langford. Yet, it is not an
avatara myth, for Koch gives no indication that Langford represents anything more than the
return of his great-great grandfather, an Anglo-Irish political activist who is transported to Van
Diemen’s Land—an interesting, probably heroic figure, but still no Vishnu. Nevertheless,
Koch is creating a mythical character on the lines of the Asian reincarnation concept by
emphasising how Langford’s story extends far beyond the limits of the life of one individual.
Langford, he says, ‘like all of us, is not just himself by a product of ancestors. Not only
physical characteristics but the ancestors themselves recur in us, their spirits are inside us’
(Mitchell, 1996, Interview, 72).
- 351 -
13.7. The Bodhisattva
By about the second century BC, concurrently with the development of the philosophy
of the Bhagavad Gita, a Buddhist philosophy was arising in India which held that the Buddha
was ‘to be revered as a divine being’, and that, in fact, numerous Buddhas ‘assist the devotee in
his attempt to realise the Buddhahood latent within him’ (Zimmer, 1969, 508). This was an
important break from tradition, by which each individual must rely on his own endeavours to
imitate the world-renunciation of Gautama Buddha in order to achieve the crossing of the
stream to nirvana. This older Hinayana, or ‘Lesser Vehicle’, is a difficult and lonely doctrine
intended for those who had already reached a degree of self-revelation which enabled them to
become monks.
The new view, called Mahayana, or ‘Great Vehicle’, made Buddhism
accessible to the masses who were not able to pursue the monk’s rigorous spiritual efforts, but
could gain the help of a bhakti, sort of a ‘personal saviour’, augmented by prayer-wheels,
incense, gongs, rosaries, mantras, and a whole pantheon of Buddhas, for the same end.
One of the essential figures of Mahayana Buddhism is the Bodhisattva—one who is on
the brink of awakening into enlightenment. These persons are very similar to the much older
tradition of Jainist Tirthankaras, the ‘Crossing-Makers’ or ‘Ford-Makers’, saviours who acted
to help those who were ready to escape the cycle of time, and cross ‘through the torrent of birth
and death to the yonder shore’ (Zimmer, 1969, 224). Gautama Buddha was a Bodhisattva
before achieving enlightenment under the Bo Tree. He then taught his doctrine of renunciation
for many years before his death, when he reached nirvana, and was freed from the birth-death
cycle. Another Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, personifies the highest ideal of the Mahayana
Buddhist tradition. As he achieved enlightenment and was about to enter nirvana, the sound of
a general thunder rose in all the worlds. Avalokitesvara knew this was the lament of all created
things at his departure from the realms of birth. In his compassion, he renounced the boon of
nirvana until all beings without exception should enter before him, in effect committing
himself to remain a Bodhisattva—and not enter nirvana—forever.
- 352 -
The Bodhisattva, then, is one who is sublimely indifferent and compassionate, and who
remains ‘at the brink of nirvana for the comfort and salvation of the world’. By assuming a
world-redemptive role, he makes himself available to all who invoke him ‘to deliver creatures
from the darkness of their woeful lives-in-ignorance’ (Zimmer, 1969, 534-35). This seems
almost too much for Mike Langford, who might compare better to the Tirthankaras. One of
the most important of the Tirthankaras is Aristanemi, who is famed for his physical prowess
and intellectual attainment. He is noted for ‘his unostentatious, mild disposition, as well as his
rejection of luxury and adoption of the ascetic life’ (Zimmer, 1969, 225), all characteristics
which describe Mike Langford.
Koch is creating a hero to confront this world’s needs, but does so according to this
Asian tradition. Mike Langford is a renouncer in the tradition of Indian ascetics. He abandons
the world around him, and goes underground towards the forbidding ‘Otherland’ Koch calls
‘Dis’. He has nearly no possessions, gives away what he earns, and with his camera obscura
makes his destiny, both good and bad. After leaving Tasmania, the home to which he is
otherwise very attached, he quickly renounces on his goal of going on to London, and decides
‘to live poor’ in a room in a Chinese shophouse. ‘I like the idea of getting to know Singapore
from underneath. I have one bag of clothes, this new tape recorder, and the Leica that I hope’s
going to make my fortune’ (HW, 67).
Mike’s room is suitable only for one who is moving outside of, or underneath, society,
an ascetic: in Indian terms, a renouncer, a yogi; and he invests himself in his new life
appropriately.
The place is of a kind that very few Europeans in Singapore except the most
desperate would ever contemplate renting, even for a few nights. The
furnishings are like those in a hostel for derelicts: two metal chairs; a Laminextopped table; a bare electric bulb. (HW, 69)
Toilet facilities are not mentioned, though it is clear that Langford’s Tasmanian background is
especially suitable to what otherwise would be simply what Australians call ‘going Troppo’—
the form of madness which afflicts many Westerners who visit and lose themselves in the
- 353 -
Third World. ‘His upbringing had made him in many ways indifferent to the comforts and
luxuries of this century; it would stand him in good stead, in Asia’ (HW, 69).
When he devotes himself to the search for Ly Keang, it is called ‘religious commitment,
not to be questioned’ (HW, 436), and this application of Krishna’ Supreme Utterance is how
Langford has lived all of his life. His devotion leads Harvey Drummond to wonder about the
motives behind the outer calm and inner power which enable Langford to overcome the fears
and passions normal to men. Drummond says he
soon came to notice two things that weren’t quite ordinary about him: his
unchanging calm and gentleness, and the impression he gave of having a secret
life. I’m sure the air of secrecy wasn’t conscious; he was never pretentious. It
was simply an atmosphere he created around him, probably without knowing
it. (HW, 158)
Searching for the source of his secret life, Drummond mentions Langford’s contacts
with Donald Mills, the ‘resident spook for the Australian Secret Intelligence Service’, and his
relationship with Claudine Phan, the Saigon ‘Dragon Lady’, but especially important ‘was his
preoccupation with the outcast, the vulnerable, and those who were fighting for doomed
causes’ (HW, 159). Others see Langford as ‘fighting for losers’, and his commitment to
Cambodia when the onslaught of the Khmer Rouge is proving irresistible would normally
support such an analysis. Langford, however, has ‘become like a lover: unable to accept that
some final disaster could happen to deprive him of the loved one’ (HW, 260). Yet, Langford’s
true commitment is not for Cambodia or its corrupt rulers, but, he explains, for ‘the men and
the women. They’re what matter. They’re what always matter.’ Harvey Drummond notes
that such a pronouncement from anyone else would be ‘obvious; even innocuous’, but from
Langford, this man with the secret life, whose philanthropy was taking on ever new, greater
proportions, it is taken without question:
Was it something in his voice? Time’s projector has jammed; we’re all fixed
in stillness. I look down at my hand on the table and can’t move it, and look
back again at Langford. His face, in the light of one of the wall lamps, seems
suddenly like a fanatic’s: stony and angelic. (HW, 241-42)
Langford is becoming a sort of saint in the tradition of the Bodhisattva. He is no hero of
imperial or modernist traditions, nor can roots be readily found in other post-modern heroic
- 354 -
formulae. Jim Feng identifies it in rather Confucian terms as ‘the power of his silence, and the
calm in his face’ (HW 326). During the worst of the ordeal of capture, when they were forced
to march through ankle-deep mud and were sick from fatigue and dysentery, Mike kept all
three of the journalists, as well as many of their NVA captors, from despair with his silly jokes
and soft encouragement. Feng says, ‘His voice was a half whisper, and it somehow soothed
you’ (HW 339). He even extends his help to the NVA. When Weary falls sick with malaria,
shivering in regular spasms, his eyelids half-closed, his face a bad yellow colour and shining
with sweat, Mike ignores his own exhaustion and takes up his pack (HW, 328). Mike’s
perseverance influences everyone equally, excluding perhaps Lenin, who is the one truly evil
character amongst the North Vietnamese. Feng, with the others marching together in single
file, remembers watching ‘through the gloomy green light’ as Mike moves away to walk with
Captain Danh at the front, taking on a position of power. His equality with Captain Danh—
and perhaps his dual role as servant and counsellor to Danh along the lines of Krishna to
Arjuna—and his willingness to sacrifice himself (as symbolised by his loss of one arm) is
shown through his bending ‘to speak in Danh’s ear, gesturing in that way he did, but only with
one hand, since the extra pack impeded him’. The magnanimity of Danh—important in
showing how it is Mike who moves up in stature through the hard times rather than Danh who
moves down—is maintained by his willing acceptance of Mike joining him at the point,
listening to him, and even once turning to look at him and laughing (HW, 329). Mike’s effect
has reached even to those he might consider the enemy. This goes beyond the assertion Feng
and Volkov make that as journalists they are always neutral, which, as has been shown through
Koch’s application of the Bhagavad Gita in The Year of Living Dangerously as in Highways to
a War, cannot be taken as the author’s position on the matter. A better explanation of
Langford’s ability to empathise with the North Vietnamese, and further, to gain and restore
their confidence, is Feng’s statement that
Nothing ever changed Mike, I thought; nothing ever could, it seemed. And I
found myself looking at him as a child looks at a certain kind of adult,
believing that such an adult has the ability to solve any problem, and to remove
all fear from the world. (HW, 326)
- 355 -
Jim Feng says during their capture, ‘He was tender with me, and it somehow healed me, and
brought back my courage’ (HW, 340), and yet Langford’s compassion and influence are
multifaceted, sometimes becoming relentless and confrontational. When Volkov drops from
exhaustion, and Lenin is about to shoot him, Mike shows how he could also be ‘like a buffalo:
one that would charge’. Langford slowly squats down ‘next to Volkov, his eyes never leaving
Lenin’s’. He picks Dmitri up and, though suffering from the same dysentery and exhaustion as
the others, carries him. Lenin watches him, ‘his eyes shining with anger’ and ‘still wearing his
grin of hate’, but, though hungering for an excuse to do so, he does not shoot (HW, 341-42).
Something appears to be protecting Langford from Lenin, the one member of the NVA
group who has a pathological hatred of the Westerners. Later, when Volkov is shot on the
road, Langford carries him to the side, and Feng is amazed that he was not also shot when so
exposed. Jim Feng postulates that Lenin had ordered Dmitri killed; the one Asian among the
correspondents, Feng is naturally the most steeped in Taoist pragmatism. Still, he is resistant
to accepting Eastern points of view when they do not fit his purposes. This leads to Feng’s
often logical but only conjectural explanations for things. He does nevertheless admit that
‘there was something supernatural’ about Langford which was guiding and protecting him.
‘Nothing’, Feng notes, ‘seemed to break him or change him’ (HW, 339). One key to this
steadfast association of Langford with the Tirthankara and Bodhisattva lies in the discipline of
tapas, by which the ascetic cultivates in himself ‘a state of psychophysical heat’, which
bestows on him ‘a certain sovereignty over the forces of the macrocosm by virtue of the
conquest of the parallel forces in the microcosm’.
The glowing ascetic cannot be crushed or frustrated by the forces of his
environment—nature, the weather, animals, or society. Asserting his superior
strength, he defies them. He is fearless and cannot be intimidated; he is in
control of his own reactions and emotions. (Zimmer, 1969, 536)
C. J. Koch carefully develops the required ascetic characteristics in Mike Langford,
without which he could hardly be considered as being of the lineage of the Tirthankaras or
Bodhisattvas. At the same time, to write of Langford as such a holy man just would not be
- 356 -
taken seriously. Koch resorts to another Eastern solution to this problem: To prevent a holy
man from accumulating too much sakti, with which he might threaten their position, the gods
would try to trick the ascetic into expending his energy. One classic example is of the jealous
god Indra who would send a beautiful apsarasas to seduce the powerful ascetic, and drain him
of his power in sexual bliss. A true Bodhisattva would not be vulnerable to such attraction,
since he is entirely without ego, and therefore feels no temptation (Zimmer, 1969, 537). Mike
Langford, whose weakness to Ly Keang is demonstrated in chapter 9, is so vulnerable, and
therefore, no true Bodhisattva. Still, even the Buddha lived as a less than unassailable man
before attaining enlightenment and becoming a Bodhisattva, and Koch strenuously supports
Langford as one who seems destined for some kind of similar, though westernised, role of
‘Ford Maker’.
Langford is not especially willing to assume the role, and yet does question the
motivation for his disinterest. He is moving towards embracing the concept of the Supreme
Utterance—which requires engaged disinterest—in a salient passage when Langford tries to
tell Chandara why he cannot fight, and Chandara tells him why he can:
—…The whole point about my work is to stay uninvolved, I said. A
corespondent can’t be involved.
—But the formula was sounding more and more feeble to me lately, and
Chandara seemed to know this. He smiled now as though I were a slow child.
Mike, you are coming to middle age like me, he said. As a Buddhist, I know
it’s time to start acquiring merit. Maybe you should know this too.
Langford asks ‘how he could be a Buddhist and a soldier at the same time’, and Chandara’s
answer prepares the foundation for one who would assume the Bodhisattva role.
—Because I’m not a monk, he said. Only they can follow the Eightfold
Path. I’m a man of passions, you can see that. But Buddhism’s tolerant of
people like me. It only asks that we live our lives as well as we can. And this
is what the Khmer Rouge threaten too. They used to pretend to respect
Buddhism, just for propaganda; now they mock it, and desecrate the pagodas
and say there is no spirit: that human beings are only clay. That’s how we
know they are people of darkness, who’ll destroy goodness. (HW, 278)
This affirms the role of virtuous action according to ‘The Great Vehicle’ view of Buddhism,
and identifies again for Langford, whose determination to remain uninvolved even in the face
of such evil has become perverse, just who the Khmer Rouge are.
- 357 -
Langford, along with Colonel Chandara, Captain Trung of the ARVN, and Claudine
Phan, lends himself well to Heinrich Zimmer’s interpretation of a candidate for
Bhodisattvahood. He is one who sacrifices himself wholeheartedly, ‘in a spirit of humility and
self-effacement, performing virtuous deeds while suppressing relentlessly every impulse to
self-aggrandizement and display’ (Zimmer, 1969, 544). Early in the novel Langford makes a
display for the benefit of the antipathetic Volkov, grabbing a suspected bomb off a table in a
bar and heaving it out into the open street. It has the expected effect of impressing Volkov,
and though Langford attests to have known that it was not a real bomb, most people would
have retained enough doubt to have chosen a less hazardous path out of the bar. Later,
however, in a scene indicative of a more experienced man, Langford reacts fearlessly in the
face of real danger, yet sympathises with the fear felt by his colleagues, and restores a sense of
normality not only to Drummond but to nature itself:
He smiled as though we were meeting in the street, and put a calming hand on
my shoulder. The air around me became almost normal, and the dust I lay on
was real dust. I huddled beside him, shaking uncontrollable as though from a
chill. I’ve never been so glad to see anyone, but I found I couldn’t speak:
partly from lack of breath, partly from a paralysis in my throat. Langford
looked at me and saw my state. But there was no condescension in his
expression and no judgment; just serene concern. He seemed to have no fear
himself, and yet he treated my fear as a reasonable phenomenon. This was a
courtesy he’d extend to many others, in the years to come. (HW, 175)
Langford here exhibits the kind of virtuous, egoless action which ‘require a faith in the yet
unknown, a humble courage, and generous willingness to take a blind jump into the dark’
(Zimmer, 1969, 545). These are not such foreign virtues where Langford comes from, which
once prompts Drummond to remark how Langford ‘never looked more like a country
Australian’ (HW, 394). Yet, as much the unassailably professional journalist Langford seems
to be, such acts ‘open to us a new outlook. A magical change of scenery is produced—a new
order of values emerges. Because it is a fact: one is transformed by one’s deeds, either for
better or for worse’ (Zimmer, 1969, 545). Ultimately, a key to understanding Koch’s novel is
expressed in ‘all of the later Indian philosophic disciplines dedicated to the realization of the
hidden truth through an attainment of individual perfection’. Langford’s story, from the past to
- 358 -
the present and into the future departs from the Western tradition of the Bildungsroman in that
it ‘is not that of progress, growth, evolution, or expansion into greater external spheres, but
Self-recollection’ (Zimmer, 1969, 546). This certainly explains Ray Barton’s realisation that
in one of the last photos of him Mike Langford ‘looks older: another interior face has emerged
through the skin’. Most of Langford’s multiple layers of masks of personality have fallen
away, leaving an image of the nearly bare self. He seems to Ray Barton to have ‘a nineteenthcentury appearance’, and the ‘long, hollow white cheeks and far, washed-out eyes are a midVictorian gentleman’s’. Barton recognises how it represents some deep ancestral source to the
Langford he knew, namely the image of Langford’s great-great-grandfather (HW, 450). It is an
image which Barton does not quite understand, and which Koch declines to expound upon, but
it is far more revealing than other, earlier and more deeply masked pictures of Langford.
At the same time as he is bucking the Western literary traditions he belongs to, Koch is
introducing elements of sacred Indian literature in which demons and ascetics have always
endeavoured to usurp the power of the universe. They have, nevertheless, always eventually
failed. Their attempts and failures to seize the universal dominion are recognized as part of the
cosmic order which ordains their subordinate places. Still, at the end of the Kali-Yuga, the last
of the great world ages, the successful overthrow of that dharmic order must occur. Claudine
Phan criticises Langford and tries to make him understand the reality of the Kali-Yuga when
she refuses to flee Saigon before the fall. Langford, she says, ‘wants to keep everything fixed,
like his photographs. Yes? Fixed and not changing—nothing and no one ever lost.’
‘But everything gets lost in the end, Snow—everything and everyone. Don’t
you know that, yet? Can’t you live with it? We all have to live with it, every
moment. Every moment, every day of our lives, we watch people and things
being lost. And some day we’ll be lost ourselves. You are so tough—can’t
you be tough about that yet?’ (HW, 405)
Ironically, the fall of the cosmic order too is part of the cosmic order, and, much in the way
that the death of nature in winter is necessary before its rebirth in spring can occur, it must
precede any re-beginning of the first great age. The danger, however, always exists that the
- 359 -
demons will maintain their grip on power, that the wheel of time will cease to turn, and that the
chaos of adharma will inextricably dominate the cosmos.
The apprentice Bodhisattva, Langford must learn, is ill equipped to battle the demons at
the end of time. This may only be due to the fact that Koch is mixing relatively incompatible,
even if closely related, sources—the Bodhisattva comes out of Buddhist tradition, and the
avatar of the Hindu. Ultimately, the goals of all of the Indian philosophies remains essentially
the same, and the Bodhisattva perfectly realises Krishna’s Supreme Utterance to act without
interference of ego, which justifies at least Koch’s progress from the one to the other. And yet,
battling the demons Koch has conjured up seems too big a job for a Bodhisattva, and requires a
true avatar—a reincarnation of the ultimate creative force in the universe on the lines of the
Krishna of the Bhagavad Gita. There is no evidence that Koch is creating an avatar here—
Langford as Vishnu incarnate would be even worse than as a Bodhisattva—though he plays
with the idea often enough. In The Year of Living Dangerously President Sukarno imagined
himself to be one, and even Billy Kwan, before he got better control of his ego, entertained
similar dreams. Koch makes Langford the reincarnation of his great-great-grandfather, not of
any god. In the meantime, however, Koch also has the demons send the gods tumbling from
their position in the heavens, disrupts the continuity of time and space, and rushes the beautiful
apsarasas who welcomes Langford to Madame Phan’s home off to seek refuge where she can.
Koch’s world needs help.
Adrian Mitchell touches upon just who or what Mike Langford is when she writes that,
like the heroes of traditional epic, Mike’s meaning resides not so much in
himself as in what he represents. He has certain distinctive qualities: he has
the heroic qualities of innocence and selfless bravery, he is youthful, and
defeats time for a time, and he is an idealist. In some respects he is almost
unworldly, yet he is also strongly attached to this world, and to the people of
this world. (Mitchell, 1996, Ancestral Voices, 6)
Langford ‘satisfies the longing of others to believe in that rarity, a greater because common
good’, and since he is both ordinary and special and also that, as Koch makes clear, his life
extends beyond the limits of his birth and death, he is ‘the sign of what makes us immortal,
- 360 -
which is to say spiritually alive. In such a face is the evidence of the soul of humanity’
(Mitchell, 1996, Ancestral Voices, 7).
Koch drives home the feeling that Mike has somehow escaped from time and mortality
through the persevering faith of Jim Feng, whose ‘Oriental, even Confucian view, without the
doubts and second thoughts of the Western witnesses’, holds ever to the fact that his
disappearance has never been resolved. That, Mitchell notes, ‘is an escape from time and
mortality, an apotheosis that takes place in the minds of the witnesses (and reinforced by the
unconfirmed reports that he had been crucified by the Khmer Rouge, les autres)’ (Mitchell,
1996, Ancestral Voices, 9). The apotheosis, Koch insists, is only in the minds of Langford’s
old close colleagues and admirers. Even while Mitchell is absolutely correct to write that he
somehow escapes time and mortality, one is left confronted with the unsatisfactory image of
Langford hanging on the cross in the Khmer Rouge killing field, and wondering if Koch has
gone to all this trouble working Eastern images and symbols into his novel only to end up with
a trite and rather glib Christ-symbol.
Obviously not. And though Langford is a symbol of sacrifice, his crucifixion is a
mockery by the Khmer Rouge of the sacrificial rite. Just what Langford is, indeed, remains the
question at the centre of the novel, but the answer must be assembled by the reader. C. J. Koch
loves puzzles, and the pieces of Mike Langford’s identity are strewn all over the novel. Koch
is not, however, the type of writer to leave such a puzzle unresolvable, and so, while preparing
Langford’s role with all of the above-mentioned details, Koch shows us exactly what Langford
is in a few short, subtle passages.
13.8. The ‘Buffalo Boy’: Koch’s Agnus Dei
The first piece is in the narrative of Harvey Drummond, who tells about when he,
Langford and two other journalists travel out from Phnom Penh to cover a battle, followed by
other journalists who know that Langford knows where the action will be. The action, at first,
is no action at all. The Cambodian Army command post ‘proved to be a thatch-roofed peasant
hut’ standing before a ‘little grove of coconut palms’. The only movement is of the chickens
- 361 -
picking for food (HW, 226). The Cambodian soldiers are relaxing in the shade of the coconut
grove, cheerful, smiling and laughing in their ‘fantastic, almost festive’ uniforms, the
checkered Cambodian peasant scarf/turban, and the ‘sacred Buddha amulets hung in pouches
around their necks’ (HW, 227).
The hut’s inhabitants are not to be seen, ‘except for a single small boy in black shorts,
seated on a buffalo at the roadside: he chewed a blade of grass, and watched proceedings’
(HW, 226). The presence of the buffalo boy, the second piece of the puzzle, would be
unremarkable except for his association with the soldiers, also just boys, whom he foreshadows
and symbolises:
Many of them were no older than ten, and their old French rifles looked bigger
than they were. They wore floppy olive fatigues and green berets, and all their
large dark eyes shone with bright expectancy, like those of a team of little boys
waiting for the start of a football game. Some were playing, climbing palm
trees, shouting and throwing down coconuts. (HW, 227)
The boy soldiers, who have an obvious affection for their fatherly sergeant, assemble
behind the lines of older soldiers when the troops begin to advance on the Khmer Rouge in the
trees. One of them, however, ‘who appeared to be about twelve, was standing at the head of all
the troops, holding the Cambodian flag’. The flag, whose ‘device was the towers of Angkor
Wat’, symbolises ‘Cambodia’s days of ancient glory’, and bearing it is a very special honour:
The boy’s beret was at a jaunty angle, and his face had a cocky expression:
teacher’s pet, chosen for the most privileged of all duties. Another order was
shouted, and the troops marched directly up the road behind the boy with the
flag. (HW, 229)
This is one of the moments where Koch describes his favourite theme of the movement
from this world into the ‘Otherworld’, the theme covered in chapter 12. According to Hindu
philosophy, ‘the invisible is reached through the visible’ (Preston, 61); the buffalo boy has
symbolic value which must be substantiated by the flag boy in the same way that in many
Hindu ceremonies the celebrated god or goddess will be represented by a clay or plaster figure.
As they are battling the Khmer Rouge, who represent the adharmic forces of evil, the
Cambodian Army is marching through a looking-glass into a dream world:
- 362 -
In the tropics, the pane through which we view reality is very thin. The
colours are so unnaturally bright; they can suddenly cause the pane to seem to
dissolve. The world becomes two-dimensional; a tapestry behind which
something else waits to announce itself. This was happening now, and I
fought against vertigo, knowing I might never get out of here. On the road, in
a blue screen of gunsmoke, the troops were marching on with suicidal
directness, firing towards the tree line as they went. They seemed to have no
notion of taking cover in the paddy field; Langford was right, they were
fighting a medieval battle. A man not far from me was crawling towards the
ditch, dragging a shattered leg. Already the brown road was littered with
bodies; but the boy carrying the flag was still marching at the head of the line:
a gallant little page who bore a charmed life. (HW, 230)
Koch is bringing his Western characters from a quaint, relaxed Rip Van Winkle sort of world,
deep into the ‘Otherworld’ of ‘Dis’, which is strange and unbalanced due to its domination by
the Khmer Rouge who are oversaturated with the ignorance of tamas, and have become
adharmic agents of the demons.
In the long view of things, considering the flow of the wheel of fate and the overthrow
of dharma by adharma, it is inevitable that the goddess Kali—who is responsible for both
destruction and rebirth—becomes enraged with bloodthirst. This is not only the reality for
humanity, but for the whole of the created cosmos. Koch’s buffalo boy is the macrocosmic
representation of the microcosmic fate of the gallant and courageous flag boy, whose charmed
life must follow the flow of the tides of time:
But then he fell, and it would have been like a child pretending to be
killed in a schoolyard game except for his limp, small stillness, and the blood
that spread from under him. The troops marched around him, firing their
automatic weapons. His green beret had come off in the dust, and one half of
my mind expected his mother to come and gather him up. Instantly, another
little page raced forward to pick up the standard, raising it high and proudly
marching as the other had done: an image repeating itself. (HW, 230)
The battle is quickly disintegrating, and while the next boy comes forward to take up the flag
with the mythical device of Angkor Wat, the journalists are scrambling to get out of harm’s
way, under the calm, watchful gaze of the buffalo boy, who seems to know the battle has just
begun:
Now we were all in Black Bessie, where Vora appeared to have been sitting all
the time. The cabin was full of heavy breathing and the stink of our sweat.
The other correspondents had followed our example, and were already making
off in their motorcyclos, but the boy on the buffalo was still here at the
roadside, staring as though as a passing circus. (HW, 231)
- 363 -
Only Langford, who has returned to the car as a ruse to shake off the other journalists,
stays behind with the buffalo boy to see the fight. Harvey Drummond expects him to die there,
but Vora ‘seemed not be worried about him: he had a confidence in Langford’s skills as though
they were supernatural’, and tells Drummond how he had been nicknamed ‘Mean Samnang,
the Lucky One’ by the troops (HW, 232). While half the Cambodians are lost in the battle, in
fact, Langford is unharmed though clearly overwhelmed by his experience.
Hammond
describes how he returned, ‘an expression of meditative peacefulness I can only describe as
dreamy’, quiet and contemplative, in another image which recalls Rip Van Winkle. Hammond
says, ‘I have little doubt that he was coming down from some enormous height: from that
escarpment near death where he’d lingered with Captain Samphan’ (HW, 233).
To solidify Langford’s association with the buffalo and flag boys Koch gives the third
scene, when Ly Keang first visits Langford at his apartment.
Keang is the apsarasas
accompanying Langford the warrior, or she is the warrior goddess Durga, but either way she
recognises Langford as the sacrificial offering necessary to quell Kali’s bloodthirst, and invites
him into the ‘Otherworld’ at the same time she makes it clear that his luck is about to change.
She asks why he is so dedicated to Cambodia. He says that he always felt at home in the
countryside there, to which she responds in no uncertain terms:
—That’s because you’re from a farm, she said. Here we’d call you a buffalo
boy. (HW, 269)
There is no cause to doubt Ly Keang’s love for Langford, but in her symbolic role as the
goddess she heralds the turn of his fortune. She stops in front of his Khmer sandstone
sculpture of Sri Lakshmi, the Goddess of Fortune, and says, ‘This is a nice Lakshmi’. Keang is
the enchanting apsarasas for a moment, the Goddess of Fertility and the earth, and then she
becomes the Lakshmi which is Kali:
—She cleared her throat, and looked at the Lakshmi again. A pity she’s
lost an arm, she said, and her voice sounded smaller, as if it came from a
distance. Does she bring you luck?
—I believe so, I said. I touch her every time I leave to go into the field.
—You’re superstitious. But perhaps Lakshmi does look after you, she
said. That’s why you’re Mean Samnang. (HW, 269)
- 364 -
At this moment Langford’s luck changes; his Lakshmi is mutilated, for Koch as for d’Alpuget
a sure precursor to further disjunction. The loss of the charm of the Lakshmi figure and the
abrupt change in Langford’s life reflects the Hindu habit of spending huge sums on the lifesize figures used for the annual celebrations of the goddess which, after two or three days of
jubilation and honouring her, are thrown into the river one by one to the cheers of the crowds.
It is not that the Lakshmi has turned against Langford, but only that ‘an image is only an
instrument with no value once it has filled its purpose’ (Preston, 61). Langford has not become
‘unlucky’, but he can no longer be just a photographer. The time to assume his fated role as
the buffalo boy has come. Outside of this role, he has no longer any purpose.
Just why he is the chosen one is not part of the solvable puzzle. Looking for reasons
would be a Western reaction. It is simply his karma, which is the result of earlier lives, and it
is fate, or the will of God. Yet, he is well groomed for the sacrificial role. Ly Keang reiterates
what many of Langford’s colleagues have said, when she talks of his photos:
—No one else takes pictures like these. I remember your cover on the
American newsweekly: the little boy with the flag being killed. Everyone talks
about that picture.
—There are plenty of photographers as good, I told her.
—No, you’re the best, she said. (HW, 269-70)
She recognises the dualistic qualities in him which bind him to Eastern heroes like Arjuna and
Yudistira, who must resolve dilemmas caused by the problematic relationship of fate and free
will. Others see these apparent contradictions in him as well, but insist they are abnormalities
in his character while she sees them as his true worth:
—This is why I’ve come to see you: because you talk like this. Everyone says
Mike Langford never gets involved. But I think you’re full of anger, and many
other feelings. (HW, 270)
And she sees the Shiva resemblance, though she reveals this as subtly as Parvati must have
done when she went to awaken the powerful, reclusive god out of his meditations, completing
him as his wife, and provoking him to share his sakti for the creation of the world:
—And you live alone, she said. She shook her head, pursing her lips:
mocking. Not so Lucky One. (HW, 271)
- 365 -
As symbol of the divine feminine, Ly Keang complements Langford, and Koch makes
clear that they would make a good union. Yet fate denies them such ‘luck’. They will be
separated with the fall of Phnom Penh; Ly Keang will disappear behind the border; and
Langford will die in the Land of Dis trying to reunite himself with her. Still, Keang is joking,
as if she understands on some level of her consciousness that he is indeed the ‘Lucky One’,
who is chosen by fate to bring the wheel of fortune back round, and return the ‘good luck’ of
dharma to Cambodia and the world. Langford is necessary because Kali, the ultimate demon
destroyer, must be mollified before she in her frenzy destroys the whole world. Langford is
first the one who has luck, but becomes the one who brings luck. This is paralleled by the
buffalo boy, who is first seen as the boy who has a buffalo, but who becomes the boy who,
through his association with the flag boys, is the buffalo—the sacrificial offering.
For a better clarification of the ‘buffalo boy’ role, one must go to the ritual sacrificial
celebrations central to Hindu practice. The offerings can, and usually do, take the form of such
as pumpkins, cucumbers, gourds, the sacrificial milk carried by Kanan in Turtle Beach, or
clarified butter, products of the sacred cow, to the figure of the celebrated god or goddess, and
poured into the sacrificial fire. An animal, however, can often serve as the offering. ‘In
ancient India horses were offered to the deities’, writes Preston, but today’s sacrifices are
restricted to less expensive animals. Most common are chickens and goats, but significantly
include, at the top of the list in monetary value, buffaloes (Preston, 62). Devotees to goddesses
like Kali offer blood not because they are fierce but because they are life-giving. The
sacrificial blood offering is a necessary exchange with the gods. ‘In order to give life, they
must receive life back in the form of blood sacrifices’ (Kinsley, 146). Yet, when animal
offerings are made in celebrations to the Great Goddess in her ‘unmarried’, and therefore
dominant, form, it is because she ‘inspires tremendous fear in her people. They offer blood
sacrifice to cool her potentially destructive temper’ (Preston, 63). Only then can she bestow
the fertility, health and luck with which she is associated on her devotees. The meaning of and
motivations for the sacrificial celebrations vary, and while there is considerable opposition in
- 366 -
India to animal sacrifice, ‘tampering with the sacred rites of Hindu temples is a dangerous and
unpopular enterprise’ (Preston, 69). The ‘common thread of meaning which is reflected in both
the sacred scriptures and the folk level’, is that
it establishes hope where there is doubt and fear. The Hindu sacrifice is also
concerned with the reality of death and evil. Its overriding theme is the
promise that ignorance will lose its battle with truth. (Preston, 69)
It is in his incorporation of these Indian concepts that Koch’s Mike Langford departs
from Western traditions of visits to the ‘Otherworld’. Like Alice, after his overnight, 20-year
sleep, Rip Van Winkle returns home without much consequence. There had been a revolution
against King George III and a new democratic nation created while Rip was in Fairy Land, but
the upcoming elections remain the topic of choice, and so he quietly goes home to live with his
daughter. Other Western sources of the theme of the imagination, time and journeys to an
‘Otherworld’ have a more serious tone, but few quite share the Eastern gravity of the symbolic
meaning which Koch is trying to bring to his story.
The elaborate rites in the sacrifice are intended to make the animal a symbolic
vehicle for communication with the supernatural. It is considered to be
something of tangible value which the devotee is able to offer as a gift to
please the goddess and aid her as she struggles on his behalf. Evil is thus
vanquished only when man is willing to play his part in the divine drama.
(Preston, 69-70)
The point of all this is that the animal replaces man as the worthy sacrifice. The practice
of animal sacrifice and human sacrifice fulfils ancient Vedic rites which are necessary to
maintain the co-operation between men and gods in the struggle to uphold dharma. ‘The
animal offered to the deity is ultimately a symbol which man places on the sacrificial altar to
redeem his soul from its inevitable fall into the depths of darkness, ignorance and despair’
(Preston, 70). This is a role for which Mike Langford has been well prepared, and while
human sacrifice may have been officially abolished in the early 20th century, to Koch it is once
again necessary as the demons have already become so powerful.
Langford’s association with the buffalo boy is foreshadowed and given import
throughout the novel, especially in such passages as when Jim Feng describes Langford’s
succouring function during the Soldiers’ Three capture. Feng says Langford could be tender,
- 367 -
but also, as when confronting Lenin, ‘like a buffalo: one that would charge’ (HW, 341-42).
Colonel Chandara, after Mike takes up an arm for the first time and the two of them survive a
Khmer Rouge attack, repeats the moniker given Mike by the Cambodian Army soldiers: ‘No
doubt about it, Mean Samnang, he said, you really are the Lucky One’ (HW, 378). Chandara is
at the same time reinforcing Langford’s association with Sri Lakshmi, the Goddess of Fortune,
as also the bringer of luck role which Ly Keang has identified for him in being associated with
the ‘buffalo boy’.
After their capture and release by the NVA and Volkov’s death, Ly Keang visits Mike at
his apartment. He indicates that he also understands his role as the human sacrifice necessary
to satisfy Kali’s bloodthirst. She kisses him, and whispers, ‘You’re alive’:
—Yes, I’m alive, I said. But Dmitri isn’t. I’m sorry.
—But she didn’t understand me.
—I’m sorry too, she said. (HW, 367)
She may not consciously understand that he is assuming blame at that moment in which he is
indicating his readiness to offer himself in order to quench Kali’s hysterical blood rampage.
Subconsciously, however, she knows, and indicates her respect for his fate to be the sacrifice.
In a note citing earlier works by Mircea Eliade (Yoga: Immortality and Freedom.
Princeton: Princeton U. P., 1958) and Philip Rawson (The Art of Tantra. Greenwich, Conn.:
New York Graphic Society, 1973), Preston emphasises the importance of such readiness in the
choice of a sacrificial offering:
Human sacrifice was performed even during the early part of the twentieth
century (Rawson 1973: 48). The temple of the goddess Kamakhya in the
border state of Assam was famous for human sacrifices. The victims were
volunteers, admired for their desire to be sacrificed and given special honorary
treatment. Human sacrifice seems to have been performed for the sake of
agricultural fertility. (Eliade 1958: 305, 306)
The willingness was always in Langford’s character, from his readiness to stand up to
his strict father, to enduring the physical pains of his first arrival in Asia, to listening carefully
to the outlandish wisdom of Madame Phan, to going into the field with ARVN troops, to
supporting the street children, to sharing the hardships of the forced march with Feng, Volkov,
and their NVA captors, to putting aside his camera to help carry the wounded from the field,
- 368 -
and finally to his readiness to expose his own life to protect Dmitri, Ly Keang, and others.
These actions always won for Langford the admiration of his fellows. Though few were
willing to follow his example, many were keen on making him into a legendary, even
mythological figure.
The contradictions in Langford’s character can be explained by this rendering of history
into myth, and also by the fact that this story is not yet completed. Langford dies, but Koch,
like Blanche d’Alpuget with Alex Wheatfield, leaves no doubt in the mind of the narrator that
he lives on, and his story will continue. One last, subtle clue of his hybrid Eastern/Western
role lies barely hidden in his name. Michael comes from the Hebrew ‘Mikael’, meaning ‘who
is like God’ (Morris, 828); as the one who must supplicate himself before Kali to bring her
terror to an end, he can be compared with Jesus Christ, the agnus dei of Christian tradition.
Yet, for Mike Langford, destiny has chosen a role to stay in the birth-death cycle as a
‘Crossing-Maker’ or ‘Ford-Maker’. He is to help others realise themselves, yet fording the
stream to the ‘yonder shore’ is, for the man surnamed Langford, an especially long crossing.
13.9. Conclusion
The argumentation of this chapter has been directed towards this final point, that Mike
Langford has an essential role in upholding the cosmic order, along the lines foreseen for man
in the ancient Vedas of respecting the requirements for sacrifice. In order to reach this
conclusion, it has been necessary, first, to debunk the De-orientalist criticism which makes
Koch an expropriator of Eastern symbols and metaphors, and a nostalgic re-writer of history.
Second, this chapter has endeavoured to demonstrate Koch’s spin on the greater question of
what history really is, a troubling issue which is central to the Australian sense of identity. It
then has been able to present Mike Langford as the completion of an ontology which Koch has
developed throughout his Asian novels, drawing from many ancient and recent sources, and
from both Eastern and Western traditions. It cannot be denied that Koch does not hesitate to
mix his pretexts together, but while this may be called ‘distortion’ by some purists, this is
really the bricolage which must be allowed any artist as part of the creative process.
- 369 -
It is interesting that Koch prefaces Highways to a War with the warning that the novel is
companioned with another, later written and published novel about the great-great-grandfather,
for Highways to a War has far more to do with Koch’s other Asian novels, especially with The
Year of Living Dangerously.
Mike Langford is more of the completion of the heroic
protagonist which was earlier seen in Guy Hamilton and Billy Kwan. The story of Mike
Langford is no more complete than that of the two others, but Koch has tied up many of the
hanging threads left by Kwan and Hamilton, who inspired considerable philosophical
introspection, but whose double journey into the soul still leaves, for Hamilton especially, so
much to be revealed. Many of those puzzling aspects of Koch’s universe, as the circularity of
time, the complex roles of man, demons, and the divine within the cosmic scheme, the double
aspect of reality, and the antagonist yet interdependent qualities of all created things have been
brought into focus through the lens of Mike Langford. That is quite a lot for one man, even a
fictional one, and although Koch’s narrator, Ray Barton, does not quite get the meaning of his
friend’s life, other voices are there to attest to the myth-making effects of this man’s life.
Whether Langford really did have some tie with the supernatural or if it were just in the minds
of his admirers, finally, is less important than the fact that those admirers did believe it so, for
the creation of meaning out of non-meaning is what myth is all about.
- 370 -
Concluding Remarks
This study has tried to introduce the Western and Eastern pretexts to the Asian novels of
Blanche d’Alpuget and Christopher J. Koch. In spite of the sheer number and inevitably
interrelated nature of the topics, the goal has been to make a coherent argument for their
importance to critical analysis of the novels and to the whole issue of whether traces of the
Australian identity can be found in Asia. A dissertation should not be so long, and yet it seems
obvious that this one has taken but the early steps in the criticism of the Australo-Asian
relationship as it is represented in these two writers’ novels.
Each chapter of this study could be further developed into a major study on its own.
More interdisciplinary work should be done on these novels’ focus on the principles of
stereotype activation and repression. The concepts of Australia’s Asian ‘looking-glass’, the
‘Otherworlds’, whether of faery or Dis or Wonderland, and the access they give to selfrevelation still need clarification, and especially need to be applied to the white experience
with Aboriginal and Asian Australians, as also to the Australian landscape. Specific pretexts
of both Western and Eastern origins need to be more extensively studied and related to the
novels. Koch especially leaves a trail of hints of where to look, from Rudyard Kipling,
Somerset Maugham and Ian Fleming, to Gervase of Tilbury’s Otia Imerialia, and the wayang
kulit play, ‘The Reincarnation of Rama’. The extensive tradition of Hindu literature seems
begging for much closer study and application to the novels of Koch and d’Alpuget. In
addition, there are other novels which ought to be included in these studies. Robert Drewe’s
Cry in the Jungle Bar would be a good candidate, but has proved hard to acquire, and there are
many other works of fiction, and even more in drama and poetry which are devoted to the same
themes.
Alas, the scholars do not seem so interested.
Koch and d’Alpuget’s unorthodox
approaches to their writing do not win many prizes for making readers and critics feel good.
Shocking the readership into awareness of its own latent stereotypical prejudices, or dragging a
bag of old and discredited symbols and myths back onto the Australian scene in order to re-
- 371 -
establish a sense of identity between man and his universe which has been lost in the West,
even when the need to do so is fully recognised, is just not appreciated. Contemporary
Australians would apparently just as well forget these images as they bear the stain of
Orientalism, which seems to lay a certain amount of guilt on white Australia, and therefore
threatens Australia’s future economic relations with the Asia-Pacific region.
While both Koch and d’Alpuget have enjoyed continued popular success for their
novels, they have dropped off of the radar screens of Australian criticism. Scholarly interest
developed through the 1980s, and reached a peak in 1992, but forces of political correctness
seem to have made them anathema. And this has happened even though Australian intellectual
circles are actively engaged in the very same search for self, soul and identity which Koch and
d’Alpuget are devoted to. The fact is that it is time for the scholarly community to turn their
attention back to the genre of the Australian novel set in Asia, devote more time to the
necessary research into the Asian pretexts, and give such writers as d’Alpuget and Koch the
credit due them for their efforts in uncovering the true Australian identity from the layers of
masks which obscures it from view. If this work aids in rekindling the debate, then it will have
been more than successful.
- 372 -
List of Works Cited
Abrams, Dominic, and Masser, Barbara. ‘Context and the Social Self-Regulation of
Stereotyping: perception, Judgment, and Behavior.’ 53-67 IN Wyer, Robert S., JR, ed.
Stereotype Activation and Inhibition. Advances in Social Cognition Volume XI.
Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998.
Bailey, Greg. The Mythology of Brahma. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983.
Bailey-Goldschmidt, Janice, and Kalfatovic, Martin. ‘Sex Lies and European Hegemony:
Travel Literature and Ideology.’ Journal of Popular Culture 26.4 (1993): 141-53.
Balajee, B.N. ‘The Fusion of Myth and Topicality in Christopher Koch’s The Year of Living
Dangerously.’ Literary Criterion XXIII (1988): 34-37.
Balfour, Edward. Cyclopedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia; Commercial,
Industrial, and Scientific; Products of the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms,
Useful Arts, and Manufactures. (rpt. London: Bernard Quaritch, 1885.) Graz:
Akademische Druck und Verlagsanstalt, 1968.
Bennett, Bruce. ‘Asian Encounters in the Contemporary Australian Short Story.’ W.L.W.E.
XXVI, no. 1 (1986): 49-61.
___. An Australian Compass: Essays on Place and Directions in Australian Literature.
Fremantle, WA: Fremantle Arts Centre Press, 1991.
___. ‘The Journalist as Explorer: Australian Literary Assignments in Southeast Asia.’ IN
Bennett, Bruce (ed. pref. & introd.); Hong Ee Tiang (ed. & introd.); Ron Shephard (ed.
& introd.); John Hay (pref.). The Writer’s Sense of the Contemporary: Papers in soueast
Asian and Australian Literature. Centre for Studies in Australian Lit. Nedlands:
University of Western Aust., 1982.
Bilimoria, Purushottama. ‘Variety of interpretations of the Bhagavad Gita.’ 79-88 IN Verma,
C.D., ed. The Gita in World Literature. New Delhi: Sterling, 1990.
Blaber, Ron. ‘Australian Travel Writing about Asia in the 20s and 30s.’ Westerly 38.4 (1993):
46-57.
Bodenhausen, Galen V., and Macrae, C. Neil. ‘Stereotype Activation and Inhibition.’ 1-52 IN
Wyer, Robert S., JR, ed. Stereotype Activation and Inhibition. Advances in Social
Cognition Volume XI. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998.
Brandon, J. R., ed. On Thrones of Gold: Three Javanese Shadow Plays. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1970.
Brawley, Sean. ‘“An Iron Curtain Canberra Style”: Asian Perceptions of the White Australia
Policy.’ 255-262 IN Grant, Don, and Graham Seal, eds. Australia in the World:
Perceptions and Possibilities. Perth: Black Swan Press; Curtin University of
Technology, 1994.
Broinowski, Alison. The Yellow Lady: Australian Impressions of Asia. South Melbourne, Vic:
Oxford University Press, 1992.
- 373 -
Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai (Buddhist Promoting Foundation). The Teaching of Buddha. 406th rev.
ed. Tokyo: Kosaido Printing Co., 1985.
Callewaert, W.M. ‘Can the Bhagavad Gita Be Translated?’ 89-100 IN Verma, C.D., ed. The
Gita in World Literature. New Delhi: Sterling, 1990.
Cambell, Felicia. ‘Silver Screen, Shadow Play: The Tradition of the Wayang Kulit in The
Year of Living Dangerously.’ Journal of Popular Culture 28.1 (1994): 163-69.
Carroll, Lewis. Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass and What
Alice Found There. Ed. Roger Lancelyn Green. London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1971.
Carroll, Robert and Stephen Prickett, introd. and notes. The Bible: Authorized King James
Version. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Chaitanya, Krishna. ‘The Gita and the Poetic Seizure of Reality.’ 14-27 IN Verma, C.D., ed.
The Gita in World Literature. New Delhi: Sterling, 1990.
Copland, Ian. ‘Beyond the Mirage: Reflections on the Indo-Australian Relationship.’ 124-33
IN Kerr, David and R.K. Dhawan, eds. Australian and Indian Literature: Studies in
Mutual Response. Indian Society for Commonwealth Studies. New Delhi: Prestige
Books, 1991.
Cowie, Phillip K. ‘The Architectonics of Doubleness in C.J. Koch’s Novels, With Particular
Emphasis on The Year of Living Dangerously (1978) and The Doubleman (1985).’ 83-97
IN Bellini, G., Gorlier, C. and Zoppi, S.,eds. Saggi e ricerche sulle culture
extraeuropee. Africa, America, Asia, Australia, 2. Rome: Bulzoni, 1986.
d’Alpuget, Blanche. Monkeys in the Dark. Ringwood, Vic.: Penguin Books, 1983.
___. Turtle Beach. Ringwood, Vic.: Penguin Books, 1983.
___. ‘Jakarta, Jerusalem and the Caves.’ Island Magazine, nos. 34-35 (1987): 71-76.
Dowson, John. Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History
and Literature. 12. ed. Trubner’s Oriental Series. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul,
1979.
Driesen, C. van der. ‘Asian Writing in Australia: Towards an Australasian Identity.’ Literary
Criterion 30.182 (1995): 17-29.
Dunn, Frank. ‘All Cultures Are Good. Except Our Own.’ Quadrant 34.6 (June 1989): 40-43.
Fitzpatrick, Peter. ‘Asian Stereotypes in Recent Australian Plays.’ Australian Literary Studies
Vol. 12, No.1. (May 1985): 35-46.
Frye, Northrop. ‘The Times of the Signs’ 66-96. IN Spiritus Mundi: Essays on Literature,
Myth, and Society. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1976.
Garrett, John. Classical Dictionary of India. (rpt. Madras: Higgenbotham and Co., 1871.)
Graz: Akademische Druck und Verlagsanstalt, 1971.
Geertz, Clifford. The Religion of Java. Phoenix Ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1976.
- 374 -
Gehrmann, Richard. ‘The Rising Sun of Australian Japan Bashing?’ Overland 138 (1995):
55-60.
Gerster, Robin. ‘A Bellyful of Bali: Travel, Writing and Australia/Asia Relationships.’
Australian Literary Studies Vol. 17, No. 4. (October 1996): 353-363.
___. ‘Asian Destinies / Destinations: The Vietnam Tour’. Australian Studies 10 (1996): 6169.
Gilbert, Helen. ‘Occidental (Sex) Tourists: Michael Gurr’s “Sex Diary of an Infidel.”’
Australasian Drama Studies No. 25 (October 1994): 177-188.
Gooneratne, Yasmine. ‘Asian Culture and Australian Identity.’ Hecate 22.2 (1996): 49-55.
___. ‘Australia and Her Postcolonial World.’ Notes & Furphies No.29 (October 1992): 3-5.
___. ‘Asia and the West: Perceptions of Asia in Western Literature.’ 331-49 IN Ahrens,
Rüdiger and Heinz Antor, eds. Text—Culture—Reception: Cross-cultural Aspects of
English Studies. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätverlag, 1992.
Haltof, Marek. ‘Australia and the ‘Mysterious Orient’ in C.J. Koch’s The Year of Living
Dangerously.’ 43-53 IN Tymieniecka, Anna-Teresa, ed. Passion for Place, Book II.
Between the Vital Spacing and the Creative Horizons of Fulfilment. The World Institut
for Advanced Phenomenological Research and Learning. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1997.
Hamilton, Annette. ‘Fear and Desire: Aborigines, Asians and the National Imaginary.’
Australian Cultural History 9 (1990): 14-36.
Hay, John Warwick. The Invasion. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1968.
Hosillos, Lucila. ‘Breaking through the Wayang Screen: Literary Interdependence among
New Literatures in Southeast Asia.’ 59-62 IN Bennett Bruce (ed. pref. & introd.); Ee
Tiang Hong (ed. & introd.); Shepherd Ron (ed. & introd.); Hay John (pref.). The
Writer’s Sense of the Contemporary: Papers in Southeast Asian and Australian
Literature. Nedlands: Centre for Studies in Australian Lit., Univ. of W. Australia, 1982.
Huggan, Graham. ‘Some Recent Australian Fictions in the Age of Tourism: Murray Bail, Inez
Baranay, Gerard Lee.’ Australian Literary Studies Vol. 16, No. 2. (Oct 1993): 168-178.
___. ‘Transformations of the Tourist Gaze: India in Recent Australian Fiction.’ Westerly 38.4
(1993): 83-89.
___. ‘Looking (North-)West to the East: Some Thoughts on the Asianisation of Australian
Literature.’ 219-27 IN Senn, Werner and Giovanna Capone, eds. The Making of
Pluralist Australia 1950-1990. Selected papers from Inaugural EASA Conference 1991.
Bern: Peter Lang, 1992.
Hulse, Michael. ‘Christopher Koch in Conversation.’ Quadrant 29.6 (June 1985): 17-25.
Ingalls, Rachel. ‘Getting out of Djarkata.’ London Review of Books 6-19 October 1983: 2223.
- 375 -
Irving, Washington. ‘Rip Van Winkle,’ The Harper American Literature:Compact Edition.
Ed. Donald McQuade et al. New York: Harper and Row, 1987. 332-43
Jobes, Gertrude. Dictionary of Mythology Folklore and Symbols. New York: Scarecrow
Press, 1962.
Kelly, Veronica. ‘Orientalism in Early Australian Theatre.’ New Literatures Review 26
(1993): 32-45.
Keneally, Thomas. Bring Larks and Heroes. Melbourne, Vic.: Sun Books, 1968.
___. The Chant of Jimmy Blacksmith. London: Penguin, 1973.
Khoo, Gaik Cheng. ‘Multivocality, Orientalism and New Age Philosophy in Turtle Beach.’
Hecate 22.2 (1996): 31-48.
Kingsmill, Elizabeth. ‘Through the Looking Glass: The Mirror of East and West. New
Chinese Writing in Australia.’ 200-40 IN Jurgensen, Manfred, ed. Riding Out: New
Writing from around the World. Brisbane: Outrider/Phoenix Publications, 1994.
Kinsley, David. Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious
Tradition. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1986.
Koch, Christopher J. Across the Sea Wall. Revised ed. London: Angus & Robertson Pub.,
1982.
___. Crossing the Gap: A Novelist’s Essays. London: The Hogarth Press, 1987.
___. The Year of Living Dangerously. Minerva ed. London: Random House Pub., 1995.
___. Highways to a War. Minerva ed. London: Michelin House Pub., 1996.
Koh Tai Ann. ‘“Crossing That Little Bridge into Asia, with the Ghost of Empire about Us”:
Australian Fiction Set in Southeast Asia.’ Westerly 38:4 (Summer 1993): 20-32.
Koller, John M. The Indian Way. Asian Perspectives (General Editor: Charles Wei-hsun Fu).
New York: Macmillan, 1982.
Lawson, Henry. ‘Ah Soon.’ Picador Henry Lawson. Picador, Australia: Pan Macmillian,
1991. 439-44.
Lee, Gerard. Troppo Man. St Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1990.
Levy, Werner. Australia’s Outlook on Asia. West Port, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. 1958.
Lewis, Jeff. ‘Putu Goes to Paris: Global Communication and Australian Imaginings of the
East.’ Kunapipi 16:3 (1994): 54-71.
Maack, Annegret. ‘“Can We Ever Understand Alien Cultures?”: Christopher Koch and
Blanche D’Alpuget.’ 123-33 IN Stilz, Gerhard and Rudolf Bader, eds. Australien
zwischen Europa und Asien. Bern: Peter Lang, 1993.
Maes-Jelinek, Hena. ‘History and the Mythology of Confrontation in The Year of Living
Dangerously.’ Kunapipi VIII, no. 1, (1986): 27-35.
- 376 -
Mascaró, Juan, trans. and introd. Bhagavad Gita. London: Penguin Books, 1962.
Matilal, Bimal Krishna. ‘Caste, Karma and the Gita.’ 47-56 IN Verma, C.D., ed. The Gita in
World Literature. New Delhi: Sterling, 1990.
McCormick, Marjorie. Mothers in the English Novel: From Stereotype to Archetype. Gender
& Genre in Literature. (Carol L. Snyder, General Editor). New York: Garland, 1991.
McKeogh, Jena. ‘Desani and D’Alpuget: Representing Other Cultures.’ New Literatures
Review 16 (1988): 31-37.
McKernan, Susan. ‘C.J. Koch’s Two-faced Vision.’ Meanjin XLIV, no. 4 (1985): 432-39.
McLaren, John. ‘Australia’s Pacific Identity.’ Antipodes 7.1 (1993): 45-50.
Meaney, Neville. ‘“The Yellow Peril”: Invasian Scare Novels and Australian Political
Culture.’ 228-63 IN Stewart, Ken, ed. The 1890s: Australian Literature and Literary
Culture. St Lucia, Qld: University of Queenlsland Press, 1996.
Milne, John. ‘Overcoming Australian’s Regional Image Problem: A Personal View.’ 283-90
IN Grant, Don, and Graham Seal, eds. Australia in the World: Perceptions and
Possibilities. Perth: Black Swan Press; Curtin University of Technology, 1994.
Minor, Robert N. ‘The Bhagavad Gita: Sacred and Secular Approaches.’ 37-46 IN Verma,
C.D., ed. The Gita in World Literature. New Delhi: Sterling, 1990.
Mitchell, Adrian. ‘“Deep Ancestral Voices”: Inner and Outer Narrative in Christopher J.
Koch's Highways to a War.’ Australian Literary Studies Vol. 18, No. 1. (May 1997): 411.
___. ‘An Interview with Christopher Koch.’ Australian Literary Studies Vol. 18, No. 1. (May
1997): 67-72.
Morris, William (ed.) The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. New
York: American Heritage, 1971.
Myers, David A. ‘Oz Lit’s Painful Pilgrimage Through Asia and the Pacific.’ Social
Alternatives Vol.8, No.3. (October 1989): 27-31.
Nandan, Satendra. ‘The Mahabharata and Modern Fiction.’ 201-09 IN Bennett Bruce and
Dennis Haskell, eds. Myths, Heroes and Anti-Heroes: Essays on the Literature and
Culture of the Asia-Pacific Region. Nedlands: Centre for Studies in Aus. Lit., Univ. of
Western Australia, 1992.
Nesselroth, Peter W. ‘Literary Identity and Contextual Difference.’ 41-53 IN Valdés, Mario J.
and Owen Miller, eds. Identity of the Literary Text. Toronto: University of Toronto
Press, 1985.
Nettlebeck, Amanda. ‘Expanding Boundaries: Changing Perceptions of ‘Asia’ in Two
Australian Novels.’ Kunapipi 16:2 (1994): 13-23.
Nowra, Louis. Summer of the Aliens. Sydney: Currency Press, 1992.
- 377 -
Ouyang Yu. ‘All the Lower Orders: Representations of the Chinese Cooks, Market Gardeners
and Other Lower-Class People in Australian Literature from 1888 to 1988.’ Kunapipi
15.3 (1993): 21-34.
___. ‘Australian Invention of Chinese Invasion: A Century of Paranoia. 1888-1988.’
Australian Literary Studies 17.1 (1995): 74-83.
___. ‘Fragments from a Translator’s Notes.’ Southerly 56.2 (Winter 1996): 196-199.
___. ‘The Chinese in the Bulletin Eyes: 1888 to 1901.’ Southerly 55.2 (Winter 1995): 130-43.
___. ‘The Other Half of the “Other”: The Image of Chinese Women in Australian Fiction.’
Australian & New Zealand Studies in Canada 11 (1994): 74-90.
Pearce, Sharyn. ‘Reconstructing Australia: The Influence of Expatriatism Upon Some Postwar
Children’s Novels.’ Imago 5.2 (1993): 30-40.
Pons, Xavier. ‘Oedipus in the Tropics: A Psychoanalytical Interpretation of C.J.Koch’s “The
Year of Living Dangerously.”’ 109-17 IN Pons, X. and M. Rocard, eds. Colonisations.
Toulouse: Université de Toulouse-Le Mirail, 1985.
Preston, James J. Cult of the Goddess: Social and Religious Change in a Hindu Temple. New
Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1980.
Ram, Alur Janaki. ‘Chris Koch, India and Across the Sea Wall: Some Observations.’ Literary
Criterion 23:3 (1988): 24-33.
Richardson, Henry Handel. The Fortunes of Richard Mahoney, Book 1: Australia Felix.
Hong Kong: Everbest Printing Company Ltd., 1969.
Riem, Antonella. ‘The Conflict Between Two Differing Consciences: Blanche d’Alpuget’s
Turtle Beach.’ 169-79 IN Riem, Antonella. The Labyrinths of the Self: A Collection of
Essays on Australian and Carribbean Literature. Leichhardt, N.S.W.: FILEF. ItaloAustralian Publications, 1987.
Roskies, D. M. ‘A View of Asia from Down Under: The Politics of Re-Presentation in The
Year of Living Dangerously.’ W.L.W.E. 29:2 (Autumn 1989): 35-50.
Said, Edward. Orientalism. London: Peregrine, 1985.
Sharp, Ilsa. ‘Looking Beyond the Wayang: Perceptions and Coverage of Australia in
Southeast Asian Media (with special reference to Singapore/Malaysia).’ 273-279 IN
Grant, Don, and Graham Seal, eds. Australia in the World: Perceptions and
Possibilities. Perth: Black Swan Press; Curtin University of Technology, 1994.
Sharrad, Paul. ‘Echoes and Their Distortions: The Gita in C. J. Koch’s Fiction.’ 173-82 IN
Verma, C.D.. ed. The Gita in World Literature. New Delhi: Sterling, 1990.
___. ‘Living Dangerously Christopher Koch and Cultural Tradition.’ Quadrant 29.9
(September 1985): 64-68.
___. ‘Pour mieux Sauter: Christopher Koch’s Novels in Relation to White, Stow and the
Quest for a Post-Colonial Fiction.’ W.L.W.E. XXIII (1984): 208-23.
- 378 -
Singh, Karan. ‘The Message of the Bhagavad Gita.’ 1-11 IN Verma, C.D., ed. The Gita in
World Literature. New Delhi: Sterling, 1990.
Singh, Kirpal. ‘Australia in Southeast Asia: Eliminating Stereotypes.’ 280-82 IN Australia in
the World: Perceptions and Possibilities. Grant, Don, and Graham Seal, eds. Perth:
Black Swan Press; Curtin University of Technology, 1994.
Stewart, Ken. ‘Introduction.’ 1-27 IN Australia in the World: Perceptions and Possibilities.
Grant, Don, and Graham Seal, eds. Perth: Black Swan Press; Curtin University of
Technology, 1994.
Stewart, Susan. Nonsense: Aspects of Intertextuality in Folklore and Literature. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979.
Tacey, David J. Edge of the Sacred: Transformations in Australia. North Blackburn, Vic.:
Harper Collins, 1995.
Thieme, John. ‘Christopher J. Koch: Interview.’ Kunapipi 8.1 (1986): 19-27.
___. ‘Re-mapping the Australian Psyche: The Asian Novels of C.J. Koch.’ Southerly 47.4
(1987): 451-61.
Tiffin, Helen. ‘Asia and the Contemporary Australian Novel.’ Australian Literary Studies
11.4 (October 1984): 468-479.
___. ‘Asia, Europe and Australian Identity: The Novels of Christopher Koch.’ Australian
Literary Studies 10:3 (May 1982): 326-335.
Varma, Vishwanath Prasad. ‘The Metaphysics and ethics of the Gita.’ 57-78 IN Verma, C.D.,
ed. The Gita in World Literature. New Delhi: Sterling, 1990.
Vickers, Adrian. ‘Kipling Goes South: Australian Novels and South-East Asia 1845-1945.’
Australian Cultural History 9 (1990): 65-79.
Walker, David. ‘A Brief History of the Future.’ Australian Book Review 158 (FebruaryMarch 1994): 34-38.
White, Richard. Inventing Australia: Images and Identity 1688-1980. The Australian
Experience; no. 3. Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1981.
Yuan Fang Shen. ‘China Girls: Australian Literary Representations of Chinese Women.’
Southern Review 29.1 (1996): 39-49.
Zaehner, R. C. Hinduism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966.
Zimmer, Heinrich. Indische Mythen und Symbol: Schlüssel zur Formenwelt des Göttlichen.
Köln: Diederichs, 1986.
___. Philosophies of India. Ed. Joseph Campbell. Bollingen Series XXVI. Princeton, New
Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1969.
Zwicky, Fay. ‘Vast Spaces Quiet Voices: Chinese Connections in Australian Poetry.’
Australian Book Review 164 (1994): 34-42.
- 379 -