02- shorter

De Re Metallica, 9, 2007 pp. 11-18
© Sociedad Española para la Defensa del Patrimonio Geológico y Minero
ISSN: 1577-9033
HISTORY OF MINING IN AFRICA. A PHILATELIC REVIEW
Fathi Habashi
Department of Mining, Metallurgical, and Materials Engineering
Laval University, Quebec City, Canada G1K 7P4
[email protected]
RESUMEN
La historia de la minería y metalurgia en Africa puede ser seguida a través de los sellos emitidos a lo largo del
tiempo por los diferentes países africanos. En ellos se muestra que los diamantes, oro, cobre, uranio, fosfatos, bauxita y otros minerales de interés han sido explotados durante muchos siglos por los nativos utilizando métodos primitivos y posteriormente por los colonizadores europeos que introdujeron las máquinas.
PALABRAS CLAVE: Minería, filatelia, historia, Africa
ABSTRACT
The history of mining and metallurgy in Africa can be readily traced by studying the stamps issued over the years
by the different African countries. It is shown that diamonds, gold, copper, uranium, phosphate rock, bauxite, and
other mineral wealth have been exploited for centuries by the original inhabitants using primitive methods as and
then by the European colonizers who introduced machines.
KEYWORDS: Mining, stamps, history, Africa.
INTRODUCTION
Before being colonized by the Europeans, the inhabitants of Africa have pursued mining of ores and the
extraction of metals in a primitive way since ancient
times. Gold was mined by the ancient Egyptians and
made into magnificent artefacts (Fig. 1). They quarried
granite (Fig. 2) and other semi-precious stones and
made huge statues (Fig. 3) and vessels (Fig. 4).
Botswana the former British colony Bechuanaland in
southern Africa issued in 1980 stamps entitled “Early
Mining”, covering rock breaking (Fig. 5), ore grinding
(Fig. 6), ore transport (on oxen) (Fig. 7), ore smelting
Fig. (8), and the tools and products of ancient miners
(Fig. 9). The stamp showing “ore grinding” is of special
interest since it records a technology commonly used by
the Africans before the introduction of machines. A
large granite boulder was tilted back and forth by two
men sitting on a wooden beam fixed on top of the boulder. This method was apparently quite common that it
was documented by the South African artist Thomas
Figure 2
Figure 1
Baines (1820-1875) who painted this scene that is preserved at the Port Elizabeth Library in South Africa.
Modern mining methods were later introduced by Europeans (Figs. 10-13).
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Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 3
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 8
Figure 11
Figure 13
Figure 12
Figure 14
India had the monopoly of diamonds until 1723 when
they were discovered in Brazil and in 1867 in South
Africa and then in Siberia. The discovery of diamonds at
Kimberley in South Africa and the discovery of large gold
deposits in the Witwatersrand region of the Transvaal in
1886 caused an influx of European, mainly British immigration and investment. In addition many blacks from
neighbouring countries also moved into the area to work
in the mines. In 1880, Cecil Rhodes (1853 –1902) (Fig.
14) launched the De Beers Mining Company after the
amalgamation of a number of individual claims. The
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Boer reactions to this influx and British political plots
led to the Anglo-Boer Wars of 1880-81 and 1899-1902
which resulted in the incorporation of the Boer
Republics of the Transvaal and Orange Free State into
the British Empire. In 1910, the Union of South Africa
was formed as a self-governing dominion of the British
Empire. Rhodes made a fortune by monopoly of diamond
production. He was prime minister of Cape Colony from
1890 to 1896. He left a part of his fortune to public service including Rhodes Scholarships.
DIAMONDS
The major suppliers of diamonds in Africa issued
stamps emphasizing this fact:
• Ivory Coast issued in 1972 a stamp showing a diamond and a diamond mine (Fig. 15).
• The Kingdom of Lesotho once called Basutoland,
issued a stamp entitled “Diamond Mining” which
illustrates miners and a mining machine (Fig. 16)
and another entitled “Brown Diamond” (Fig. 17). On
the occasion of the International Conference on
Kimberlites in 1973 Losotho issued a stamp showing
a worker prospecting for diamond (Fig. 18).
Figura 15
• Sierra Leone issued a stamp in 1961 on the occasion
of her independence, showing a man panning for
diamonds (Fig. 19).
• Botswana (Fig. 20), the Republic of Central Africa
(Fig. 21), Ghana (Fig. 22), and South-West Africa
(now Namibia) (Fig. 23).
• Zaire shows a naturally-occurring diamond and a
gem cut from it (Fig. 24).
• The Republic of South Africa shows a 530.2 karat
diamond known as Cullinan 1 (Fig. 25) on the occasion of the World Diamond Congress; a karat is 200
mg.
Figura 16
Figura 17
Figura 19
Figura 20
Figura 18
Figura 23
Figura 22
Figura 21
Figura 24
Figura 25
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PRECIOUS STONES
Amethest is exploited in Mozambique (Fig. 26) and
Kenya (Fig. 27), citrine in Zimbabwe (Fig. 28) and
Botswana (Fig. 29), sapphire in Tanzania (Fig. 30) and
Kenya (Fig. 31), emerald in Uganda (Fig. 32) and Zimbabwe (Fig. 33), beryl in Mozambique (Fig. 34), ruby in
Kenya (Fig. 35), azurite in South West Africa [Namibia]
(Fig. 36) and Zimbabwe (Fig. 37), and malachite in Zambia (Fig. 38), Uganda (Fig. 39), and Zaire (Fig. 40).
Figura 26
Figura 27
Figura 28
Figura 29
Figura 32
Figura 30
Figura 31
Figura 33
Figura 34
Figura 36
Figura 37
Figura 40
Figura 38
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Figura 35
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Figura 39
GOLD
Present day Ghana was formerly known as Gold Coast
because of the abundance of gold in the region and its
extensive trade with the Europeans (Fig. 41). She is still
a large producer of gold; a stamp entitled “Gold” showing a miner with a pneumatic drill and ingots of gold was
issued on the occasion of 20th anniversary of the United
Nations Conference on Trade and Development (Fig.
42).
Figura 46
Figura 45
Figura 42
Figura 47
Figura 41
Gold was discovered in Swaziland in 1879 (Fig. 43).
Stamp mills were introduced there for crushing of ore
and amalgamation of gold (Fig. 44). Later cyanidation
process was introduced (Fig. 45). Witwatersrand in
South Africa, also known as the Rand, is the most productive gold-mining district in the world. Surface gold
was discovered in the region in 1884, and active mining
operations began in 1886, the same year in which Johannesburg was founded as a gold-mining settlement. The
main gold reef was discovered in the region in 1889, at
a depth of 177 m. The tailings of mining operations form
heaps in the background, is a typical sight in the city
(Fig. 46).
Gold also occurs in Liberia (Fig. 47) and Zimbabwi
(Fig. 48). Modern Algeria is also active in gold mining.
She showed her gold mine at Tirek-Amesmessa in the
south of the country on a map and a sample of the ore.
Mozambique issued a stamp entitled “Ouro” showing a
miner washing gold-containing sand (Fig. 49).
Figura 44
Figura 43
Figura 48
Figura 49
COPPER
Zambia, a large copper producer, issued a stamp entitled copper mining showing a miner at work and the
alchemists symbol for copper (Fig. 50). Another stamp
shows a train transporting copper ore (Fig. 51) and
another entitled “Poling a Furnace” showing a worker
manipulating a greenwood tree in the anode furnace to
remove residual oxygen before casting the molten copper in form of anodes for electrolytic refining (Fig. 52).
Uganda, another copper producer, issued a stamp in
1962 celebrating its independence entitled “Copper
Mining”. The stamp shows miners drilling the rock to the
left and a copper converter pouring its molten charge to
the right (Fig. 53). A copper converter also appears on a
1984 Bophuthatswana stamp (Fig. 54) (one of the nine
so-called independent Black Homelands in South Africa
with its capital Mafeking, during the Apartheid governmenet, is now part of the Republic of South Africa after
the fall of the White Rule).
Botswana issued a stamp on smelting copper-nickel
sulfide concentrates (Fig. 55). A copper mine is shown
on a 1959 stamp from Rhodesia & Nyasaland, former
British colonies (Fig. 56).
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Figura 50
Figura 51
Figura 53
Figura 52
Figura 54
Figura 55
Figura 56
URANIUM
South Africa issued a stamp in 1977 entitled “Uranium Development” to mark 25 years nuclear power
plants; the stamp shows atom symbol (Fig. 57). The
Gabon Republic issued a stamp in 1965 showing the
operation at Mounana (Fig. 58). It was there at Oklo
mine in the Mounana District that the phenomenon of
natural fission was discovered and also the traces of
naturally-occurring plutonium.
at the entrance of the Red Sea. Djibouti, the territory’s
capital was a free port and the terminus of the FrenchEthiopian Railway. The Territory was ethnically and
politically divided between the majority Issas (Somali)
tribe and the minority Afar (Ethiopian) tribe also known
as Danakil. The Issas campaigned for independence
while the Afar wanted to maintain ties with France.
Clashes between the two factions resulted in bloodshed
and France changed the name of the Territory to eliminate reference to the Somali ethnic group. Conflict,
however, continued until the territory gained its independence in
1977 after French occupation for
over a century, to become the
Republic of Djibouti.
Figura 58
Figura 59
OTHER METALS
Figura 57
A stamp entitled “Ra”, i.e., radium, a decay product
of uranium, was issued in 1974 by the French Territory
Afars and Issas (Fig. 59). Known until 1967 as French
Somaliland and situated in East Africa at Bab el-Mandab
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Zimbabwe and South Africa issued stamps showing
chromium smelting. Bophuthatswana, a former self-ruling African republic in South Africa, famous for its gambling casinos in Sun City, issued a series of stamps in
1979 entitled “Platinum” showing molten metal pouring
from a ladle and application of the metal. South Africa
issued in 1984 a stamp entitled “V” for vanadium showing the metal pouring from a furnace and a sample of
the metal.
Botswana in 1970 recognized its nickel development
program with two stamps on mining at Selebi-Pikwe,
one portrayed two nickel miners underground and the
other a mine head frame and nickel and copper ingots.
In 1984, a stamp illustrating copper-nickel mineral was
also issued by Botswana. Gold Coast, the present Republic of Ghana issued a stamp in 1948 for its manganese
mine (Fig. 60). The Republic of South Africa is also a
manganese producer. Tin is produced in Nigeria (Fig. 61)
The Republic of South Africa issued in 1984 a series of
stamps devoted to her mineral and metal industries of
which one is for titanium. Namibia, the former German
colony of South West Africa issued a series of stamps in
1991 devoted to her mineral wealth: the Tsumeb copper-lead-zinc mine the Rosh Pinah zinc mine, the Vis tin
mine, and the Rössing uranium mine. Mauritania has
large iron deposits in the Zouerate district. A stamp
showing mining activity was issued (Fig. 62). Sierra
Leone shows iron ore production at Marampa on a stamp
issued in 1956. An Algerian stamp shows the iron ore
deposits of its open pit at Djebel Ouenza, a location
map, and a sample of its ore.
mines; the stamp is entitled “Natural Resources. Mining”, while Zimbabwe issued a stamp showing modern
coal mining equipment.
Samples of bauxite are shown on stamp from Ghana,
the former British colony Gold Coast. The equatorial
west African countries: Guinea (a former French colony)
and its neighbor Sierra Leone (a former British colony),
possess large deposits of bauxite. The former issued a
stamp showing charging bauxite in wagons (Fig. 63).
Clays are abundant industrial minerals. They are hydrated alumium silicates. Together with limestone they are
used in the manufacture of cement. The raw materials
are heated at high temperature in slowly rotating and
slightly inclined furnaces known as kilns. Rare crystals
of gypsum known as “Flowers of the Desert” are shown
on a South West African stamp.
Figura 63
PHOSPHATE ROCK
Figura 60
Figura 61
Figura 62
North and Central African countries are large producers of phosphate rock. Morocco in 1947, issued a stamp
marking the 25th anniversary of the foundation of the
industry; the stamp shows the location of the two mines
at Khouribga and Louis Gentil, the port of Safi, and
Casablanca where the administration is located (Fig.
64). The importance of phosphate for agriculture is indicated by fruits and wheat at the lower right corner of
the stamp. In 1991, the 70th anniversary of the industry
is marked on another stamp. The phosphate industry in
Morocco is a nationalized industry controlled by the
Office Cherifien du Phosphate. From Central Africa, a
Senegalese stamp (1964) depicts the phosphate mine at
Pallo. Togo issued a series of stamps on the exploitation
of the local phosphate deposits in 1964 on the occasion
of the 4th anniversary of her independence from France
in 1960.
OTHER ORES
Coal has a special place in the mining industry. It is
the largest industrial mineral mined in terms of tonnage
and the most dangerous because of the presence of
explosive and combustible hydrocarbon gases in the
mines. Many countries have recognized the importance
of coal to their economy and stamps were issued honoring the industry. The Kingdom of Swaziland in southern
Africa issued a stamp in 1973 showing the Mpaka coal
Figura 64
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SALT
EPILOGUE
Salt is the most ancient industrial mineral, it was
already recovered from sea water and from underground mines by the ancient peoples. Many ancient
trade routes have been due to salt localities or salt
springs and battles have been fought for their possession. Salt has at times served for currency, and during
many centuries in many countries has served as a salary.
The word salary comes from Latin for salt. A scene of
modern salt production are shown on stamps from the
former South West Africa (the present Namibia)1.
Postage stamps are important means of communication and many countries have recorded important
events, honoured worthy individuals, and described
interesting facts through this medium. Many historical
facts, sometimes obscure, can be found on stamps;
some of these may not be easily located in a history or
a science book. Stamps have artistic value, they are created by artists.
REFERENCE
CONFERENCES
It is natural that a mining or metallurgy theme is
designed for a conference dealing with any of these topics. For example, when the Seventh Commonwealth
Mining and Metallurgy Congress was held in1961 in
Rhodesia and Nyasaland2 a stamp was issued on this
occasion showing a miner at work underground (Fig. 65),
and another showing mine shafts and the processing
plant. Morocco issued two stamps in 1987 showing different minerals on the occasion of holding the Congress
on Mineral Industries in Marrakesh.
Figura 65
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F. Habashi, D. Hendricker, and C. Gignac, Mining and Metallurgy on Postage Stamps, Métallurgie Extractive Québec,
Sainte-Foy, Québec City, Canada 1999, 350 pages, distributed by Laval University Bookstore “Zone”. E-mail: [email protected]
NOTES
1
Namibia, formerly South-West Africa, was a German colony
since 1884. During World War I, it was occupied by South
Africa forces. In terms of the Versailles Treaty it became
under South Africa administration. All attempts to annex it to
South Africa during the Apartheid regime was rejected by the
United Nations. Finally she obtained independence in 1983.
2
Rhodesia, formerly the self-governing colony of Southern
Rhodesia, the land that was known to its ruling white population as Rhodesia and to Africans as Zimbabwe occupies the
fertile plateaus and mountain ranges between the Zambezi
and Limpopo rivers in southeastern Africa. In 1953 it joined
with Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) and Nyasaland (now
Malawi) in the so-called Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, reverting to separate status in 1963 when the Federation was dissolved and its two parteners prepared to claim
their independence.