THE NEW CAMBRIDGE MODERN HISTORY

THE NEW
CAMBRIDGE MODERN
HISTORY
VOLUME IV
THE DECLINE OF SPAIN AND
THE THIRTY YEARS WAR
1609-48/59
EDITED BY
J. P. COOPER
CAMBRIDGE
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
I971
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTORY
CHAPTER I
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
By J. P. COOPER, Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, Trinity College, Oxford
The seventeenth century as a distinct period of history
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pages 1-2
The significance of nationalism
2-4
Europe and Christendom a political entity; boundaries defined; interaal aspects
of European culture
5-7
Economic concepts about the period
8-9
Prices and interpretations of economic trends
9-13
Impact of war
14
General social factors
15
Nobility: definition of
15-17
Percentage in various countries
17-18
Privileges and occupations
18-23
Codes of conduct
23-7
Culture
28-9
Recruitment
29-30
Distinctive features of European societies shown by comparison with Chinese .
30-4
Idea of European unity
34
Religious tolerance and intolerance
34-5
Sources of royal power
35
State and church
36
States and financial solvency
37-41
The Mantuan War and the down-turn of Spain's fortunes
41-3
Outbreak of war between France and Spain in 1635
44
Fiscal régime and war taxation: in Spain
44-6
in France
46-7
Growth of municipal indebtedness
47
Results of fiscal pressures in Naples
47
Rise of
financiers
48
Sale of titles: increased baronial power
49
Peasants revolt in Naples
49-50
Financial exploitation in Calabria and Naples
50
Financial ruin in Sicily and the uprising
50-2
Effect of the war on Milan
52-3
Decline in Italian industry and trade
53-4
Peasant risings and nobles* conspiracies
55_6
Hatred of tax-farmers and
financiers
57
Rise of military' entrepreneurs'
58-9
Concentration of estates
59
Consolidation of the power of the nobility
59-60
Ottoman reforms
61-2
Economic effect of the wars, significance of price trends
62
Significance of trends of trade through the Sound
63
V
CONTENTS
Industrial growth in western Europe
Agricultural trends
Position of the peasants; witchcraft
page 64
64-5
66
CHAPTER II
THE EUROPEAN ECONOMY 1609-50
By F. C. SPOONER, Professor of Economic History, University of Durham
Comparison between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in economic
opportunities
Growth of corporate undertakings and mercantilism
The economic crisis 1609-50
Problems of population growth
Effects on population of: famines
nutrition
disease
war
migration
Bullion supply declines
Mercantile system placed in jeopardy
Rapid appreciation of gold
Economic balance shifts to the North
Establishment of public banks
Bullion shortage leads to devaluation
Contemporary theories about monetary difficulties
The study of price movements
Regional differences in prices
Cyclic fluctuations in prices
Importance of agriculture: the grain and livestock trades
Vulnerability of the manufacturing industry
Textile decline and change
Metals and mining
Spain declines and the Northern States rise
The Dutch achieve their 'golden age'
Trade rivalry between Dutch and English
New outlets for capital investment
Increasing power of governments
67
68
68-70
70—1
72-4
74~5
75-7
77
77-8
78-9
79-83
83-4
84
84-5
85-6
86
87
87-8
89-90
90-3
93
93-6
96-8
98-9
99
100
100-1
102-3
CHAPTER III
THE EXPONENTS AND CRITICS OF ABSOLUTISM
By R. MousniER, Professor of Modern History at the Sorbonne
Triumph of absolutism: sovereignty and raison
Spread of political ideas
Conflict between European sovereigns and the pope
Imperial powers and the fundamental laws
Limitations on imperial absolutism
Absolutism limited by the law of nations
Suarez* theory of the state a n d the Jesuits
Absolutism in Muscovy
vi
d'état
104
104-5
106-9
109-10
110-11
111—12
112-13
113
CONTENTS
Poland a republic of nobles
The Holy Roman Empire and the Ständestaat
Absolutism in Brandenburg and its special characteristics
Reason of state and sovereignty in Protestant and Catholic theorists .
The notion of the hero in Italy
Sarpi upholds raison d'état .
.
.
Sovereignty in Spain
Absolutism in France
Absolutism in Sweden
Absolutism in the Netherlands
Absolutism in England and the fundamental laws
The Puritan attitude to the crown
Parliament, its claims and opponents
Hobbes, the defender of absolutism
The inductive and deductive methods of argument
pages 113-14
114-15
115
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. 115-16
116-17
117
118
119-22
122-3
123-4
124-7
127
127-9
129-30
130-1
CHAPTER IV
THE SCIENTIFIC MOVEMENT AND ITS INFLUENCE 1610-50
By A. C. CROMBIE, University Lecturer in the History of Science,
University of Oxford, and Fellow of Trinity College
and M. A. HOSKIN, University Lecturer in the History of Science,
University of Cambridge, and Fellow of Churchill College
Diversity of occupations of the scientists
Basis of existing scientific training
Demand for reform
Scientific training in various countries
Teaching suffers from lack of research
Rise of the societies for scientific work
The revolution in scientific thought
The *new philosophy* defined by Galileo
The mechanistic conception of the universe
New scientific methods of enquiry
.
Contribution of Bacon and Descartes
Scientific tools developed
Scientific achievements ofthe 'new philosophy':
Physics and astronomy
Pneumatics and acoustics
Magnetism and chemistry
Physiology» medicine and optics
Natural history and technology
132-3
133-4
134-5
135-8
139
139-43
143
144
144-5
145
146-8
149-52
152-7
157-8
158-9
159-64
164-8
CHAPTER V
CHANGES IN RELIGIOUS THOUGHT
By G. L. MOSSE, Professor of History, University of Wisconsin
Free will and predestination the chief concern of the period
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Protestant orthodoxy
Princes regulate the Faith
vii
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169
169-70
170_I
CONTENTS
Theological disputes become scholastic. Position of the clergy .
.
Reactions against orthodoxy
Arminianism and free will
Orthodoxy reaffirmed by the Synod of Dort
Development of Arminian thought by Grotius
Arminianism abroad
Catholicism appeals to the populace
Revival of pietism by Bérulle, Francis de Sales and Vincent de Paul .
Jesuits, free will and casuistry
Urban VIII and the problems of the papacy
Jansenism
Pascal's influence on the movement
The threat to Catholic orthodoxy
Anglicanism and the Puritan opposition
Tenets of the Puritans
Presbyterians
Baptists
Society of Friends
Socinianism (Unitarianism) and rational theology
Rationalism and the influence of classical thought
Atheism in France and Italy
Growth of toleration
Crystallization of religious thought
.
.
page 172
173-7
177-9
180
180-1
181-2
182
. 183-4
184-5
185-7
187-90
190
191-2
192
192-3
I93~4
194-5
195
I95~7
197*9
199-200
200-1
201
CHAPTER VI
MILITARY FORCES AND WARFARE 1610-48
By the late Dr J. W. W I J N
Rise of national armies
The German peoples* armies
Importance of military writings
The new professional armies
Types of army personnel
Training for and education of officers
Army organization
Alterations in arms and armour
Battle formation
Military engineering
Military reforms made by Gustavus Adolphus
Army organization in England
The New Model Army
The military situation in France
The art of fortification and siegecraft
The Polish army
Developments in strategy
The new spirit in the armies of Europe
vm
202
203
204
205-9
209-10
210-11
211-14
214-15
215-16
216
217-18
219-20
220-1
221-2
222-3
223-4
224
224-5
CONTENTS
CHAPTER VII
SEA-POWER
By J. P. C O O P E R
Importance of changes in the distribution of sea-power
Technical developments in shipbuilding
Change in the balance of sea-power
Spanish naval policy
Rise of the French navy under Richelieu
Rise of Dutch and English naval supremacy
.
.
The Turco-Venetian war over Crete
The Dutch and English in the Mediterranean
The use of the berton
The threat of the Barbary corsairs
The Dutch
fluit
Trade in the North Sea and the Baltic
English sea-power and Dutch rivalry
Power shifts to N.W. Europe
Growth of state control over the armed forces
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page 226
226-7
227
228-30
230-1
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231
231-3
232-3
232
232-3
233
233-4
234-7
237
237-8
.
CHAPTER VIII
DRAMA AND SOCIETY
By J. L O U G H , Professor of French, University of Durham
Importance of drama in the first half of the seventeenth century
Influence of the travelling companies
Actors become professionals; their position in society
Drama in Italy, Germany, London, Spain and France
Character of the audience: in France
in London
in Spain .
in Germany
Court patronage in France
in England
in Italy
in Spain
in German-speaking lands
.
Ballet and masque
Opera in Italy and Germany
Masque and political allegory in England and France
Private and public theatre audiences
Comedies of manners
Pastoral plays and Cavalier dramas
Development of drama in England
The dramatist reacts to his audience
His education and payment
The rules for drama
Drama mirrors society
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239
240
240-1
242-3
244-5
245-7
247
247-8
248-9
249-50
250
250-1
251
251
251-2
252-3
254-5
255
256
256
256-7
257
257-8
259
CONTENTS
THE CENTRAL CONFLICTS
CHAPTER IX
SPAIN AND EUROPE 1598-1621
By H. R. T R E V O R - R O P E R , Regius Professor of Modern History,
University of Oxford, and Fellow of Oriel College
Spain's position in Europe at the death of Philip II
page 260
Philip III faced with weakness of communications
260-1
Hatred of Spain in Italy
261-2
Resentment of the papacy against Spanish domination
262
Importance of the revival of France under Henri IV
263
Policy of Philip III and Lerma
263
The Anglo-Spanish war
263-4
The Spanish expedition to Ireland
264
The Treaty of London ends the war
264-5
The situation in the Netherlands
265
Archduke Albert and Spinola press for peace
265-6
The Twelve Years Truce
267
The Evangelical Union and the Catholic League
267
The succession crisis in Jülich-Cleves
267
Henri IV and the Treaty of Brussolo
268
Results of the assassination of Henri IV
268-9
Pax Hispanica established in Europe
269-71
Position of Flanders, stirrings of revolt
271-2
Spanish viceroys in Italy and Sicily
.
.
272
Opposition to Spanish bureaucracy in Italy
273
Venice threatened by Spanish power in Milan
273-4
The Montferrat succession
274
Uskok pirates and Ferdinand fight Venice .
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274-5
The * Spanish Conspiracy* and its results
275-6
Importance of the crown of Bohemia for the empire and Spain .
.
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276-7
'Defenestration of Prague'
277
Reaction in Europe to the Bohemian coup
278
A war party rises to power in Spain
279
Criticisms of the Pax Hispanica
278-80
Gondomar's despatch on the Spanish position
280-1
Councils of Portugal and of the Indies support the war party
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.
282
The Bohemian and Dutch wars merge into the Thirty Years War
.
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282
CHAPTER
χ
THE STATE OF GERMANY (to 1618)
By G. D. RAMSAY, Fellow and Tutor in Modern History,
St Edmund Hall, Oxford
The German Empire and the Ottoman Turks
Division of the Austrian Habsburgs* patrimony
Weakness of Rudolf II
The empire, Hungary and the Turks and the Treaty of Sitvatorok
X
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283
283
283-4
284
CONTENTS
Matthias as emperor
The influence of Bishop Khlesl
Ferdinand and the succession problem
Breakdown of the authority of the Reich chamber tribunal
The Reichstag's power weakens
Weakness of the 1555 religious settlement
Union for the Defence of Evangelical Religion founded
The Catholic League founded
Settlement of the Jülich-Cleves succession
Significance of Maximilian I
Economic situation of Germany
German linen industry and trade
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Nuremberg as a distribution centre
Viatis, characteristic of the new merchant banker
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Development of agriculture
Peasants and land tenure
Hanseatic League no longer predominant
German trade with Iberia and Italy
Prosperity of Danzig
Hamburg and its development
State of Germany (1600-21) summarized
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page 285
285-6
286
286-7
287-9
288
289
289
290
290-1
.291-3
293-4
294-5
.
295-6
296-7
297-8
299
300-1
301-2
302-3
304-5
CHAPTER XI
THE THIRTY YEARS WAR
By E. A. B E L L E R , Professor of History; Princeton University
The religious controversies of the Holy Roman Empire
The periods of the Thirty Years War
The grievances of the Bohemians
Archduke Ferdinand accepted as king designate
The* defenestration' of Prague
The influence of the Bohemian revolt
The anti-Catholic coalition
The Bohemian and Imperial successions
Frederick elected king of Bohemia
Allies of Ferdinand
The Battle of the White Hill
Suppression of Bohemia and the re-Catholicization of Bohemia, Austria, Moravia
and Silesia
Frederick and Ferdinand find new allies
The Palatine war
Maximilian becomes an elector
Agreement of Mülhausen endangered by Tilly
France and the Valtelline
England and the anti-Habsburg coalition
Swedish and Danish intervention proposals
Treaty of The Hague (1625)
Wallenstein's offer of an army; made C.-in-C
Battle of Lütter. Death of Mansfeld
Christian IV. Wallerstein and the Baltic
Gustavus Adolphus' alliance with Denmark; siege of Stralsund .
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xi
306
306-7
307
308
309
309-10
310
311
312
313-14
314
315
315-16
316-17
317
318
318-19
319-20
321
322
322-3
324
325
326
CONTENTS
Emperor Ferdinand and the Edict of Restitution
Hatred of Wallenstein
pages 326-7
327
Richelieu and the Mantuan war
Gustavus Adolphus and Pomerania Treaty of Cherasco
Aims of Gustavus Adolphus
The forces of Gustavus and Ferdinand
Tilly and Pappenheim threaten Magdeburg
Political and military consequences of Magdeburg
Breitenfeld: Gustavus Adolphus 'the Lion of the North'
Gustavus and Germany; invasion of the Rhineland
Gustavus Adolphus and Richelieu
Problems facing Gustavus Adolphus
Recall of Wallenstein
Wallenstein's negotiations with Gustavus Adolphus and von Arnim .
.
Gustavus Adolphus and the Bavarian campaign
Wallenstein at Prague .
Swedish disaster at Nuremberg
Death of Gustavus Adolphus at Lützen
Oxenstierna and the Swedish war
The Heilbronn League
Oxenstierna and the generals
Wallenstein's intrigues and his death
The Battle of Nördlingen and its effects
Devastation of Germany
Richelieu and the Austro-Spanish threats
The Habsburg offensive against France
Treaties of Stuhmsdorf and Hamburg
Bernard of Weimar. The Rhineland campaign
The Spanish crises affect the war
The peace efforts of the Diet and the papacy
French successes and the position of Ferdinand
Ferdinand and peace negotiations
Peace negotiations at Münster and Osnabrück
The French 'satisfaction*
The Swedish 'satisfaction*
Religious settlements in the empire
Final phase of the war
Peace of Westphalia signed 1648
Devastation of the wars
France and Sweden dominate the Austrian Habsburgs
The Peace of Westphalia becomes the basis of the European state system .
328~9
329
33°
331- 2
33 2
333
334
334-5
335
335-6
336
.
336-7
337~8
338
339-4°
34°
340- 1
34 1
34 2
343~4
344~5
345-6
346-7
347
348
348-9
349
350
350- 2
351-2
352-6
353-4
354
355
356
356-7
357
357-8
.
358
CHAPTER XII
THE LOW COUNTRIES
By E. H. R O S S M A N N , Professor of Modern History, Rijksuniversiteit,
Calvinists and Jesuits divide north and south Netherlands
Major historical works develop two contrasting myths
The economic situation and constitutional developments .
The political institutions of the north
Provincial constitutions
.
xii
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Groningen
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359
360
360-1
362-3
363-4
CONTENTS
The Stadholdership
Holland, the mainspring of Dutch activity
Growth of trade and industry
Social structure of the northern Netherlands
The government and economic development of the south
Social structure of the south
.
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.
Gomarists and Arminians
Religious disputes become a political issue
Policy of Prince Maurice
The policies of Frederick Henry
Death of Archduke Albert and the rise of Bedmar and Aytona .
The Cardinal-Infant Ferdinand becomes governor
The culture of the south
The Dutch war with Spain
Peace congress at Münster and Osnabrück
Death of Frederick Henry. Aims of William II
William's conflict with Holland
Death of William II
.
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pages 364-5
365-6
366-8
369
369-71
371
371-3
373-4
374
375
.
376
377
377-8
378-81
381-2
382
383-4
384
CHAPTER XIII
SWEDEN AND THE BALTIC 1611-54
By M. ROBERTS, Professor of Modern History, the Queen's University, Belfast
Sweden establishes herself as a great power
Rivalry with Muscovy and Denmark
Rivalry over the Sound and the Arctic
Gustavus' aims in Russia; the Treaty of Stolbova
Gustavus and the German Protestants
.
.
.
Sweden becomes the leading Baltic power
Sweden and Poland. The Treaty of Altmark
The Swedish Empire
Economic changes under Gustavus
Maintenance of the Swedish armies
Gustavus reorganizes the army
Importance of the monolithic religious structure
Sweden becomes a leading power
Gustavus Adolphus in Germany
The problems of Oxenstierna
.
The German war and the alliance with France (1638)
The intrigues of Christian IV
The Swedish attack on Jutland
Trade and the Swedish-Dutch alliance
The Peace of Brömsebro and its results
A diplomatic revolution, France allies with Denmark
Swedish-Dutch relations deteriorate
Swedish gains from the Peace of Westphalia
Sweden turns to Austria and Spain
Oxenstierna dies; an assessment of his achievements
Foreign affairs under Charles X
Xiii
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385
386-7
387-8
388-9
389
390-1
392-3
393
394-5
395
396-7
397
398
398-9
400
401
402
403
404
404-5
4O5
405-6
407-8
4O9
409-10
4I0
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XIV
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND THE
ROLE OF FRANCE 1648-60
By G. LiVET, Professor of Modern History, Doyen de la Faculté des
Lettres à V Université de Strasbourg
Summary of international relations
page 411
Assessment of the Treaty of Westphalia
The conflict in the Low Countries
Spain and the revolts of Portugal and Catalonia
Franco-Spanish rivalry in Italy
French problems during the regency
Assessment of the work of Mazarin
French foreign policy
The question of Alsace
Mazarin and the imperial succession
The election of Leopold as king of the Romans
French influence in the empire
France and the Rhine League
Mazarin and the United Provinces and England
War against Spain; defeats for France
France recovers; the situation in Rome
Peace negotiations between France and Spain
The Treaty of the Pyrenees
France and the northern wars
The Treaties of London, Copenhagen, Oliva and Kardis
Death of Mazarin, decadence of Spain and of the Holy Roman Empire
France and Turkey
Emergence of Brandenburg and Russia
Sea powers develop their colonial establishments
Signs of opposition between France and England
411-12
413
4l4
414-15
415
416-17
417
417-18
418-19
419
420
420-1
422-5
425-6
426-7
427
428-9
429-31
431
.
432
432-3
433
433-4
434
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THE UNMAKING AND REMAKING OF STATES
CHAPTER XV
THE SPANISH PENINSULA 1598-1648
By J. H. ELLIOTT, Professor of History, King's College, London
Spain abandons military imperialism; the contrast and paradoxes of the reien of
Philip III
435
Causes of decline
436-8
The predominance of Castile
"
438
The plague of 1599 and its effect on Castile
439-41
Financial problems of Philip III's regime
441-3
Character of Philip and of Lerma
443
Political influence of the nobility
* 443-4
Fiscal policy of Lerma
444-6
Twelve Years Truce with the Dutch
446
Views of the Spanish arbitristas
446-7
xiv
CONTENTS
Tax structure in Castile
Economic state of Castile
Castilian class structure
Impact of the expulsion of the Moriscos
The administration of Philip III and Lerma
Character of Philip IV and of Olivares
The reports of the Council of Finance
Dutch penetration into the Indian and Pacific Oceans
Effect of the renewed Dutch war on the
finances
Olivares* attempts at reform
The fiscal contribution of Castile and the other territories
Olivares* memorandum on the structure of the empire
The Union of Arms
Olivares' indirect taxation in Castile
Catalonia refuses support to the king
Princess Margaret governs Portugal .
Catalonia and the central government
Catalonia in a state of revolt
Portugal revolts and the Spanish economic disasters
Fall of Olivares
The collapse of Spanish power
The fundamental disunity of Spain
Castile's reliance on economic miracles
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pages 447-8
448-9
450-2
452-6
456-7
457-8
458
458-9
459-60
460-1
461-2
462-3
463-4
465-6
466-7
467-8
468-9
469
470
471
471-2
472-3
.
473
CHAPTER XVI
FRENCH INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIETY 1610-61
By R. MousNiER
Decay of feudalism and the growth of seigneurial power
French industry
The official class and the nobility
Municipal administration
* Mortalities' cause economic crises
Lack of a united opposition to the king's financial demands
.
.
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.
Policies of Marie de Medici
The powerlessness of the States General
The Peace of Loudon. The rebellious princes
Death of Concini. Rule of Luynes
Character of Louis XIII
Louis XIII and Richelieu
Richelieu's home and foreign policies
The king's council and the Conseil d'en haut. The corps of administrators .
Richelieu's mercantile policy
The Protestant organization. La Rochelle
Reform abandoned for war with the Habsburgs
Exile of Marie de Medici. Revolt of Orléans
Effect of the war on the administration
The intendants and political surveillance
Art and literature. Jansenism
Taxation causes revolt
XV
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474-7
477
478-9
479-80
480
480-1
481
481-2
482
483
483-4
484
485
486
486-7
487-8
488-9
489
489-90
490-1
491-2
492
CONTENTS
Richelieu's aggrandizement, death and achievements
Anne of Austria and Mazarin
Troubles of the royal minority
Administration and taxation
The Parlements
The Fronde
Famine and plague
The princes' Fronde. Mazarin flees
The renewal of Civil War
Breakdown of government
End of the Fronde. Condition of France
Jansenism. Mazarin's achievements
Louis XIV governs alone
page 493
493~4
494
495
496-7
497
497
498
498-9
499-5 00
5°°
500-1
502
CHAPTER XVII
THE HABSBURG LANDS 1618-57
By V-L. TAPIE, Professor of Modern History at
Membre de Institut
The extent of the Habsburg lands
The constitutions of the territories
Bohemia; constitution and administration
The constitutions of Hungary and Transylvania
The administrative machinery of the empire
Races. Languages
Population. Industrial production
Artificial lakes. Growth of estates
The nobility and feudalism
Liberty and status of the peasants
The economic state of the towns
The religious
rivalries
The Bohemian revolt
The effect of victory on Ferdinand
The punishment of those implicated in the Bohemian revolt
Influx of foreign landowners. The new constitution
The sovereign as the link in the empire
Protestants and Catholics
The Thirty Years War 1630-48
The effects of the war
\
Seigneurial authority a barrier between sovereign and people
Vienna becomes the centre for the aristocracy
Nationalism in Bohemia
Italian influence and Austrian baroque
Ferdinand III and Ferdinand IV
T h e empire a s an association of peoples
XVI
the Sorbonne,
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503
504-5
505-6
506-7
507-8
508-9
509
510
510-11
512-13
513
513-14
514-17
517
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518
519
520
520-1
521-3
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526
526-7
527-8
528-9
529
53o
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XVIII
THE FALL OF THE STUART MONARCHY
By J. P. C O O P E R
Inability of the Stuarts to pursue an effective foreign policy
Elizabethan wars lead to profiteering and corruption
Desire for peace in 1603. Character of James I
Importance of industry and trade
The education and status of the clergy
Position of Puritans and Catholics. Hampton Court conference
Need for law reform
The common law courts and the prerogative courts
Parliamentary institutions based on custom not the king's will
Effective political nation small in numbers
Economic and social change
The Commons' attitude to the crown's discretionary powers
James I inherits financial problems
The achievements of James I
The financial expedients of 1611-23
Cockayne and the Merchant Adventurers
Buckingham as the patron of reformers
Naval, commercial and economic reforms
Parliament called upon to finance foreign policy
The impeachment of Bacon
The Commons pass a 'Protestation'
Cranfield as treasurer
Relations between the crown and the Parliament of 1624
Buckingham's foreign and parliamentary policies
The constitutional deadlock of 1627
Invocation of the crown's emergency powers
Grievances caused by military preparations
The Petition of Right (1628)
Investigatory activities of Parliament
Death of Buckingham
Parliament and the royal supremacy
Financial situation arising from the breach of 1629
Efforts to deal with public grievances
Reinvigoration of local administration
The Church of England and Laud's injunctions
Wentworth's rule in Ireland
Charles I and Scotland. The National Covenant
The Short Parliament. Pym's protest
The Scots' invasion and the Council of Peers
The Long Parliament
The impeachment of Strafford and its political significance
Abolition of the prerogative courts
Parliamentary dissensions
Immediate causes of the Civil War
Moderates support Charles
Attitudes to the war
The resources of the two sides
xvii
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
page 531
531-2
532-3
534
535-6
536-7
537-8
538-40
540-1
541
541-3
543-4
544-5
546
547
547-8
548
548-9
549
549-50
550
550-1
551-2
553-4
554
555
555-6
556-7
557
558
558-60
560-1
561-3
563-4
564-5
565-6
566-8
568-9
569
569-70
570
5-71
571-2
573
573-4
574-5
576-7
CONTENTS
page
Local anti-war movements
The New Model Army
Moves towards toleration
Lilburne and the Levellers
The 'Heads of the Proposals'
Cromwell's aims
Cromwell's church settlement
Economic and trade reforms
The settlement of Ireland and of Scotland
The results of the Civil War
577
578
579
579-8o
580
581
582
582-3
583-4
584
CHAPTER XIX
THE ENDING OF POLISH EXPANSION AND THE
SURVIVAL OF RUSSIA
I. POLAND-LITHUANIA 1609-48
By H. JABLONOWSKI, Professor of East European History,
Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, Bonn
Ethnology of Poland-Lithuania
Constitutional structure
Social change among the nobility
The crown loses its power
Changes in agriculture
Industry and trade
The triumph of the Counter-Reformation
The Synod of Brest and the Uniates
Attempts to reconcile the Uniates and the Orthodox
The position of the Orthodox Church
Polish education and culture
Sigismund, Wladyslaw and the tsardom
Balance of power tilts in favour of Russia
The Turks, Tartars and Cossacks
Khmel'nitsky's revolt
,
The dynastic struggle between Sweden and Poland
.
,
.
.
The Treaty of Stuhmsdorf (1635)
Poland, Prussia and the Habsburg empire
Deterioration of Poland's international position
585
585-7
587
587-8
588
589
589-90
590
591
591-2
593
593-5
595
596-7
598
. 598-600
600
600-1
601
2. RUSSIA 1613-45
By J. L. H. KEEP, Reader in Russian Studies, School of Slavonic and
East European Studies, University of London
Effects of the* Time of Troubles'
Michael Romanov and the succession
The Zemsky Sobor
Need for revenue
War with the Polish guerrillas and Sweden .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Peace of Stolbovo, and the Treaty of Deulino
Filaret the master of Russia, his home policies
Attempts to strengthen military effectiveness
Filaret's foreign policy and the Smolensk war
xviii
602
602-3
503
604
604-5
605
606-8
608-9
609-11
CONTENTS
The menace of the Tartars
Cossack activities and the capture of Azov
Moscow lapses into isolation
Religious dissent
Economic and commercial developments
.
.
.
.
Agriculture. The position of the peasants and of the gentry
The laws against peasant fugitives
,
.
pages 611-12
612-13
613
613-15
.
.615-16
.
.617-18
618-19
.
.
THE FRONTIERS OF EUROPE
CHAPTER XX
THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 1617-48
By V. J. P A R R Y , Reader in the History of Near and Middle East,
School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
The education and training of the princes
Law of fratricide
Change in the education of the princes
Incompetent sultans lead to the rule of the courtiers and women of the harem
The influence of the 'ulema, the janissaries and the sipahis
The reigns of Mustafa I and Osman II as periods of revolt and confusion .
Intrigue and faction during the minority of Murad IV
The army and its dangers
Growth of population causes unrest
The levandat, sarija and sekban and the jelali
Divergence of interests between the central government and the provinces .
Revolt of Abaza Mehemmed
New war against Persia. Ottoman relations in Iraq
Events in Baghdad, operations of Shah Abbas
The Lebanon and Fakhr-al-Din Π
Last phase of the war with Persia
Peace of Zuhab (1639)
Character and achievements of Murad IV
War with Poland
The Counter-Reformation and the Ottoman Empire
The war with Venice
Death of Murad IV. Reforms of Qara Mustafa
Misrule from 1644 to 1658
Efficient rule of the Köprülü
.
.
.
620
621-2
622
622-3
623
624
625
626-7
627
628
629
629-30
630-1
631
632-3
633-4
634
634-6
636
637-8
638-42
642
642-3
643
CHAPTER XXI
EUROPE AND ASIA
By J. Β. H A R R I S O N , Reader in the History of India,
School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
Portuguese empire based on private trading
Difficulties of the crown trade in pepper and spices. The cartaz system
Dutch penetration and Portuguese opposition
.
.
.
.
.
.
Dutch United East India Company
.
.
.
.
.
.
xix
.
.
.
.
.
644-5
645-6
646-7
647-8
CONTENTS
Dutch local alliances. Wars against Portuguese
pages
Dutch problems. Pieter Both. Batavia as a focus of trade and administration
.
Rivalry between English and Dutch
Anglo-Dutch agreement (1619) flouted in Asia
Dutch control Asian traders
English trade in Indonesia
Dutch pepper trade in Bantam. Chinese trade destroyed in Sumatra and Java .
Dutch opposed by Mataram and Achin
Dutch and the Coromandel cloth trade
Dutch open factories in Gujarat
Coen's vision of a Dutch commercial empire
Failure to trade with Chinese
Dutch trade in Formosa and Japan
The English East India Company and its rivals
English pepper trade and the Coromandel and Gujarat cotton trade .
.
.
A market for Indian cotton created in Europe
The English and the Persian silk trade. Portuguese lose Ormuz .
.
.
.
Russia trades in silk and fur
Russian expansion to the Pacific .
Portuguese efforts to avoid decline
Military and naval reforms
Strategic indecision brings failure
Fall of Malacca and loss of Ceylon
Estado da India destroyed as an imperial structure
The Christian missions to Asia
English and Dutch concentrate on commerce
.
Effect on Asian trade of European penetration
The changes in European attitude to the Asians
648-9
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656-7
657
658
658-9
659-60
660
660-1
661
662
662-3
663
664
664-5
665-6
666
666-7
667-9
669-70
670
670-1
CHAPTER XXII
THE EUROPEAN NATIONS AND THE ATLANTIC
By E. E. R I C H , Vere Harmsworth Professor of Imperial and Naval History in the
University of Cambridge, and Master of St Catharine's College
Habsburg predominance in America challenged
Creation and aims of the Council of Virginia
Development of Virginia. Claims to Bermuda
Dutch and English send Hudson to find the N.W. passage
Champlain's Canadian explorations and the Indians
England begins emigration of balanced communities to V i r g i n i a . . . .
Development and organization of Virginia
Lord Baltimore establishes Maryland
The Council for New England
Causes of emigration
The Separatists and the Pilgrim Fathers establish a colony at Plymouth
.
.
Endecott and the Massachusetts Bay Company's charter
John Winthrop and the 'Great Migration*
Massachusetts develops into a Puritan oligarchy
Rhode Island and the religious refugees
Foundation of Connecticut
The Naragansetts and the Pequot war
XX
672
673
673-4
674-5
676
677
677-9
679-80
681
682
682-3
683
683-4
685-6
687-8
688
539
CONTENTS
The New Hampshire and Maine settlements. The New England Confederation pages 689-90
The United New Netherland Company and the Iroquois. Dutch and English
disputes over Manhattan and the Hudson River
691
Expansion of New Netherland and the West India Company
.
.
.
.
692-4
The Dutch and the Algonquins
694-5
Rule of Kieft and Stuyvesant
695
New Netherland and the hostile English and French
696
The French and Champlain's exploration of Canada
697
Richelieu and the Compagnie de la Nouvelle France
698
Relations with the Iroquois
699-700
Montreal. Formation of a Compagnie des Habitants
700
Fur trade at a standstill
700-1
Anglo-Dutch interlopers in the Spanish colonies
701
England and the Caribbean
702
England and France develop the Leeward and Windward Islands
.
.
.
703-4
Population soars. Sugar and the slave trade
704
The Dutch West India Company
704-5
Colonial development summarized
706
CHAPTER XXIII
LATIN AMERICA 1610-60
By W. BORAH, Professor of History; University of California, Berkeley
Philip ΠΙ claims sovereignty over the Americas
Areas occupied by the crowns of Castile and Portugal
Dependency on the Indians
Portuguese Brazil
Jesuits slowly expand Spanish territories
The Spanish in Chile and the Araucanians
Spanish Jesuits in Paraguay
Uruguay
the Argentine
Organization of the Jesuit missions
Exploration and expansion by the Portuguese bandeiras
Increase of European and Europeanized populations
The Creoles and their rivalry with Europeans
Increase of negro slaves and mulattoes
Decrease of the Indians leads to shortage of labour
Use of encomienda and the mita, repartimiento, tanda and rueda. Debt peonage .
Causes of economic depression
Growth of large European holdings
Stockbreeding declines; production of wheat and other foodstuffs increases
.
The movement of silver production
Mining techniques. Miners' indebtedness
Contraband and legal trading
Profits pass from the crown to the colonies
INDEX
707
707-8
708
708-9
709
709-10
711
712
712
712-13
713-14
714-15
715-16
716
716-17
717-19
719
720
721-2
722
722-3
723-5
725-6
727
XXI