ATHENS - THE ATKLETIC BY Donald G. Kyle

ATHENS - THE ATKLETIC BY Donald G. Kyle

ATHENS
- THE ATKLETIC
BY
Donald G. Kyle
University o f Texas
Arlington
As the queen o f s i t e s of Greek a t h l e t i c competition, Olympia has
earned and had the r o y a l share of t h e a t t e n t i o n of historians; i t remains the
ancient (and l e s s s a t i s f a c t o r i l y t h e modern) i d e a l and model. Yet by v i r t u e
o f i t s very status as Panhellenic center and sanctuary, Olympia should n o t be
perceived as the norm f o r ancient Greek sport.
I n a d d i t i o n t o the great
Panhellenic Games, which were h e l d a t sanctuaries and o f f i c i a l l y o f f e r e d only
symbolic crowns as prizes, the Greeks had hundreds o f **local** games which
A much f u l l e r understanding o f t h e v a r i e t y of
o f f e r e d m a t e r i a l prizes.
v i t a l i t y o f Greek sport can be gained by l o o k i n g beyond Olympia t o study
l*localw, "prizeq* o r l * c i v i l * * a t h l e t i c s .
Studies o f c i v i c h i s t o r y and l o c a l
a t h l e t i c s enhance each other, and studies of sport i n i n d i v i d u a l c i t i e s can
add t o our understanding o f Greek sport o v e r a l l .
As the best documented
city-state, and because o f i t s fame f o r the v a r i e t y and grandeur o f i t s
a t h l e t i c f e s t i v a l s and events, Athens i s an obvious choice f o r study.
To most people **athleticsgri n ancient Greece means the Olympic Games
and '*Athensv means democracy and culture. We should a l s o r e a l i z e how much the
Athenians p a r t i c i p a t e d i n , supported a ~ dappreciated the t h r i v i n g a t h l e t i c
l i f e o f t h e i r famous city-state.
I n h i s t o r i e s o f Athens, understandably,
a t h l e t i c s have been overshadowed by p o l i t i c s , l i t e r a t u r e and a r t , but
a t h l e t i c s , as a very popular p a r t o f t h e r e l i g i o u s , s o c i a l and even p o l i t i c a l
l i f e o f Athens, a f f e c t e d and were affected by h i s t o r i c a l developments.
At
Athens "localq* o r '*prize1* a t h l e t i c s developed i n t o " c i v i c * * a t h l e t i c s , a term
used herein t o designate a t h l e t i c s w i t h a s i g n i f i c a n t degree o f s t a t e
involvement, as i n t h e o f f i c i a l administration o f contests and f a c i l i t i e s . I n
tune w i t h the recent growth o f the study o f sport i n a l l cultures, research on
the h i s t o r i c a l development and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a t h l e t i c s i n ancient Athens has
c o l l e c t e d archaeological and l i t e r a r y evidence t o provide a f r e s h perspective
on Athenian l i f e down t o the Macedonian occupation i n 322 BC. At Athens the
sites, circumstances, prizes, p a r t i c i p a n t s and changing nature of a t h l e t i c s
show t h a t the h i s t o r i e s o f Athens and i t s a t h l e t i c s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y
i n t e r r e l a t e d . We need t o appreciate more f u l l y the significance o f a t h l e t i c s
i n a d d i t i o n t o p o l i t i c s drama and other areas i n Athenian h i s t o r y . Athens*
main c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o c i v i l i z a t i o n were n o t a t h l e t i c b u t Athens was renowned
for i t s grand f e s t i v a l s , numerous t o r c h races and specialized equestrian
events.
Athenians saw the value o f hosting as w e l l as winning contests.
Unlike Olympia Athens housed team events and gave p r i z e s f o r more than f i r s t
place.
Unlike Olympia and the homes o f the great Panhellenic Games, Athens
was much more than a r e l i g i o u s sanctuary o r oracular center. C l a s s i c a l Athens
was a dynamic c i t y - s t a t e u s u a l l y a t o r near the center o f Greek h i s t o r y . As a
p u b l i c and popular a c t i v i t y , Athenian a t h l e t i c s developed i n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h
p u b l i c l i f e , urbanization, the s o c i a l e l i t e , and c i v i c administration and
finance.
While a t h l e t i c s were o f r e l i g i o u s and c u l t u r a l importance t o a l l
Greeks, a t Athens they a l s o influenced- and were influenced themselves by- t h e
c i v i c and p o l i t i c a l experience of t h e Athenians.
Several questions can be asked concerning t h e r i s e , expansion and
changing nature of a t h l e t i c s i n pre-Hellenistic Athens. When and why did
a t h l e t i c s on a c i v i c b a s i s appear and surpass private, a r i s t o c r a t i c sport?
How was t h e a t h l e t i c l i f e of t h e c i t y - e s p e c i a l l y its f e s t i v a l s and eventsinfluenced by tyranny, m i l i t a r y f a c t o r s , urbanization and changing p o l i t i c a l
and economic conditions? What a t h l e t i c s i t e s and f a c i l i t i e s were a v a i l a b l e
f o r t h e a t h l e t e s ? Who organized and who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n f e s t i v a l s and
f a c i l i t i e s ? What was t h e s o c i a l background of t h e over one hundred known and
possible Athenian a t h l e t e s ? What motivated and how s i n c e r e o r i n f l u e n t i a l
were c m e n t s and criticisms by ancient authors? To what e x t e n t were c i v i c
a t h l e t i c s a f a c t o r i n t h e urban development, topography and administration of
Athens? Where t h e r e c o r r e l a t i o n s between Athens1 p o l i t i c a l l i f e and her
a t h l e t i c s ? The answers t o such questions demonstrate t h a t t h e h i s t o r i e s of
t h e c i t y and its a t h l e t i c s shared s i g n i f i c a n t s t a g e s and developments.
Athenian a t h l e t i c s can f i r s t be studied when t h e e a r l i e s t eveidence
becomes a v a i l a b l e i n t h e archaic age, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e period from t h e f i r s t
recorded Olympic v i c t o r i n 776 t o t h e archonship of Solon i n 594, by which
time Athens and a t h l e t i c s were both gaining increased a t t e n t i o n . Early Athens
was an a r i s t o c r a t i c s t a t e c o n t r o l l e d by r i v a l , i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y connected,
baronial f a m i l i e s with c o n f l i c t i n g ambitions. The spontaneity, t h e informal
arrangements, and t h e a r i s t o c r a t i c ideology of e a r l y a t h l e t i c s a s depicted i n
Homer probably correspond well with t h e p r a c t i c e s of t h e e a r l y Athenians; they
would have agreed with Homer t h a t n t h e r e is no grea e r qlory f o r a man than
t h a t which he achieves by h i s hands and feet.f
k a r l y but uncertain
i n d i c a t i o n s of a t h l e t i c s , possibly held i n t h e Agora, t h e market square,
suggest t h a t a t h l e t i c c o n t e s t s were a n a t u r a l development from f u n e r a l games
and t h e c u l t of t h e heroized dead i n e a r l y Athens. A s t h e c i t y eveloped
h i s t o r i c a l l y , s o did its a t h l e t i c s . It is not merely a coincidence t h a
Athens1 f i r s t Olympic victory i n 696, t h a t of Pantakles i n t h e s p r i n t race.
followed upon the r i s e of t h e 011s i t s e l f and upon t h e completion of t h e
process of u n i f i c a t i o n ( s y n ; e c ! of t h e c i t y and surrounding Attica,
s l i g h t l y preceding t h e term o t e e a r l i e s t known Athenian archon (Kreon) i n
682/1. Victors i n t h i s period seem t o have been men of wealth and standing;
Phrynon t h e Olympic v i c t o r i n t h e pankration (roughly a corrbination of boxing
and wrestling) was probably t h e same Phrynon who became a general and a
founder of colonies. Kylon, i n h i s i l l - f a t e d attempt t o become t y r a n t of
Athens a f t e r h i s Olympic victory a s a runner, represents t h e growth of both
a t h l e t i c s and p o l i t i c a l turmoil. Although Athens was t h e home of a t h l e t e s and
a t h l e t i c a c t i v i t y , a t h l e t i c s were a c l a n o r regional r a t h e r than a c i v i c
matter. llCivicl' i n f a c t has l i t t l e a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o t h i s e r a of Athenian
h i s t o r y , f o r t h e organs of s t a t e and t h e sense of c m u n i t y were still very
limited.
5
I n t h e next period, from Solonls archonship t o t h e b a t t l e of Marathon
(ca. 594-4901, Athens endured c r i s e s and factionalisml appealed t o Solon f o r
r e l i e f , and prospered under a tyranny. Influenced by its i n t e r n a l maturation,
a s well a s by e x t e r n a l Greek trends, t h e s t a t e advanced from u n o f f i c i a l t o
c i v i c a l l y oriented and administered a t h l e t i c s . Athens f i r s t had t o become a
viable p o l i t i c a l e n t i t y before c i v i c concern and influence could expand t o
encompass a t h l e t i c s . The reforms of t h e enigmatic Solon aided t h e r u l e of law
and t h e promotion of c i v i c consciousness, t h u s contributing t o t h e p o l i t i c a l
and a t h l e t i c l i f e of Athens. Solon d i r e c t e d o f f i c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e growing
a c t i v i t y of a t h l e t i c s by l e g i s l a t i n g rewards f o r v i c t o r s (500 drachmas f o r an
Olympic victory and 100 f o r an Isthmian) and possibly by codifying other
s o c i a l laws r e l a t i n g t o a t h l e t i c s S 3 Through h i s introduction of t h e r o l e of
t h e c i t y and law i n t o a t h l e t i c s , Solon helped prepare t h e way f o r c i v i c
athletics.
After Solonvs work, adolescent Athens moved on t o t h e systematic
organization of a t h l e t i c f e s t i v a l s . Athenian t r a d i t i o n preferred t o c r e d i t
t h e o r i g i n s of its a t h l e t i c s and f e s t i v a l s t o heroes l i k e Theseus, but we a r e
s t i l l uncertain about t h e exact circunstances of t h e reorganization of t h e
appropriately named ~ a n a t h e n a e a . ~ Apparently an old f e s t i v a l was expanded
t o include a t h l e t i c contests, e s p e c i a l l y with t h e "Greatvv Panathenaea every
four years. This introduction of arguably vvcivicvva t h l e t i c s a t Athens is
conventionally dated t o 566 and a n a s s o c i a t i o n with t h e t y r a n t P i s i s t r a t u s
seems very l i k e l y . P i s i s t r a t u s reinforced h i s own p o s i t i o n by f o s t e r i n g t h e
a n t i - a r i s t o c r a t i c , p a t r i o t i c influence of c i v i c a t h l e t i c s and popular c u l t s .
P i s i s t r a t i d p o l i c i e s brought t h e p o l i t i c a l c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and u n i f i c a t i o n t h a t
encouraged c i v i c a t h l e t i c s r a t h e r than t h e e a r l i e r a t h l e t i c s of c l a n and
c u l t . By t h e end of t h e tyranny various l e s s e r and l o c a l c u l t s and f e s t i v a l s
had been nationalized and t h e Panathenaic program and administration were well
established. The program included a l a r g e s l a t e of a t h l e t i c competitions a t
l e a s t a s extensive a s a t Olympia, and t h e Athenian f e s t i v a l was a l s o
d i s t i n c t i v e f o r its torch race s n o r i s (horse c a r t ) race and a obates race,
With
i n which an armed man d e s c e n d e k a n d ascended a moving
symbolic y e t valuable p r i z e s , an ethnocentric f e s t i v a l y e t open t o a l l Greeks,
t h e Panathenaea combined aspects of t h e Panhellenic Games and of l o c a l
f e s t i v a l s . The p r i z e Panathenaic amphoras themselves, f i l l e d with sacred
o l i v e o i l and depicting Athena on one s i d e and an a t h l e t i c event on t h e other,
a p t l y symbolize the purpose and nature of Athenian c i v i c a t h l e t i c s ,
a s s o c i a t i n g both t h e popular a c t i v i t y and t h e devine patroness of t h e c i t y .
Both c i t y and a c t i v i t y benefitted from t h e association. The significance of
t h e games was f e s t i v e and a t h l e t i c : they were t o c e l e b r a t e and t o g l o r i f y t h e
c i t y and its gods and heroes, and t o s a t i s f y t h e a g o n i s t i c i n c l i n a t i o n s of t h e
Athenians d i r e c t l y by competition and vicariously by observation. J u s t a s t h e
Panathenae-in myth and i n t h e s i x t h century motivation behind its success- was
a f e s t i v a l of u n i t y , Athenian a t h l e t i c s o v e r a l l reminded t h e c i t i z e n s of t h e
shared glory of Athens.
k
A s Athensv a t h l e t i c s developed from informal games i n t o organized
a t h l e t i c f e s t i v a l s , a need arose f o r s p e c i a l i z e d a t h l e t i c f a c i l i t i e s (both f o r
p r a c t i c e and competition) t o supplement t h e e a r l y use of n a t u r a l l y s u i t a b l e
s i t e s . Athensv t h r e e g r e a t gymnasia, t h e Academy, t h e Lyceum and Kynosarges,
developed from pre-architectural suburban sites i n t o simple a r c h i t e c t u r a l
arrangements, still probably no more than s p e c i f i e d a r e a s with limited
arrangements f o r exercising and bathing. The growing popularity of a t h l e t i c s ,
aided by t h e rise of a t h l e t i c f e s t i v a l s and t h e s h i f t t o h o p l i t e warfare with
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t o g i v e them a n a t i o n a l focus and appeal. This applied a l s o t o a continuing
t r a d i t i o n o f games associated w i t h funerary and hero c u l t s , notably the
Epitaphia and Theseia.
I n the f i f t h century the Epitaphia included p u b l i c
funeral games f o r Athenst war dead.
The general and p o l i t i c i a n , Kimon 11
returned the supposed "bones o f Theseus" t o Athens f o s t e r i n g the Theseia, a
f e s t i v a l w i t h an extensive program o f a t h l e t i c s .
O f Kimonrs actions Plutarch
said: "This a f f a i r d i d more than any other achievement o f Kimonls t o endear
him t o t h e people.tq8 Yet the empire and the f e s t i v a l s and p r o j e c t s i t
helped finance met w i t h some opposition. The anonymus t r e a t i s e by t h e "Old
Oligarchtv charges t h a t the demos was r u i n i n g physical education by b u i l d i n g
sports f a c i l i t i e s f o r i t s e l f d by supporting a f e s t i v a l and l i t u r g i c a l
program t h a t forced the r i c h t o pay f o r games and races from which the poor
gained pleasure and p r o f i t . 9
Nevertheless, o f f i c i a l games and c u l t s were
maintained and expanded as e s s e n t i a l r i t u a l s o f democratic Athens, as
O C C ~ S ~ Owhen
~ S c i t i z e n s gathered and appreciated the value o f the community.
Since Athensf a t h l e t i c f a c i l i t i e s formed a topographically and
f u n c t i o n a l l y prominent p a r t o f the state, they received embellishment and
increasing a r c h i t e c t u r a l expression i n t h i s age o f energetic p u b l i c building.
Although occasional and informal, the race course i n the Agora near the A l t a r
of the Twelve Gods syrnbolizes the i n t e g r a t i o n o f a t h l e t i c s , r e l i g i o n and c i v i c
l i f e . Along w i t h a r c h i t e c u t r a l e v o l u t i o n and f u n c t i o n a l needs, t h e p o l i t i c a l
ambitions o f men l i k e Themistocles, Kimon and P e r i c l e s influenced the growth
and character o f Athensf gymnasia.
Kimon used h i s own p r i v a t e wealth t o
b e a u t i f y both the Academy and the Agora. As Plutarch comments, Kimon was "the
f i r s t t o adorn the c i t y w i t h those spacious and elegant places o f p u b l i c
by transforming the Academy from a parched and barren wilderness
resort"
i n t o a well-watered grove which he provided w i t h shady baths t o walk i n and
c l e a r t r a c k s f o r races.11T0 Recent discoveries i n the northern Agora may
include t h e water channel involved.
Praised by popular leaders and attacked
by conservatives, p u b l i c a t h l e t i c f a c i l i t i e s flourished.
The e f f e c t of the
Sophists has been exaggerated, l a r g e l y due t o Aristophanes who charged t h a t
the "New Education" was undermining the physical and moral worth o f c i t i z e n s ;
l i f e was becoming more multifaceted but gymnastics d i d n o t cease nor were the
gymnasia and wrestling schools empty.
...
The reputation o f Athens1 athletes i n the f i f t h century was aided by
v i c t o r s l i k e K a l i a s the son od Didymias, a pankratiast who won a t Olympia i n
472 and a l s o won f i v e times a t the 1 s t i a , f o u r times a t Nemea, twice a t t h e
Pythia and a t l e a s t once a t Athens.lP
Leading men o f f i f t h - c e n t u r y fithens
were involved w i t h a t h l e t i c s and p o l i t i c s b u t t h e i r s o c i a l o r i g i n s and the
nature o f t h e i r involvement were changing i n l i n e w i t h developments i n
Athenian society and culture, especially i n t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f the century.
Athenian a t h l e t i c s , obviously and especially equestrian competition, remained
demonstrably e l i t i s t r a t h e r than e g a l i t a r i a n i n p r a c t i c e b u t there was a
s i g n i f i c a n t s h i f t i n g from an e l i t i s m o f b i r t h t o one o f wealth.
The
predominance o f the aristocracy and o f equestrian events gave was as a t h l e t e s
from new f a m i l i e s and groups appeared, most notably i n gymnastic events.
These new a t h l e t e s seem t o have acquired t h e wealth, l e i s u r e and i n c l i n a t i o n
f o r competing i n a t h l e t i c s (and p o l i t i c s ) from non-traditional sources. Once
they became v i c t o r s i n major games, they could become very wealthy.
In a
recent study of a t h l e t i c p r o f i t s i n ancient Greece, David C. Young estimates
t h a t a Panathenaic p r i z e of 100 amphoras of o i l f o r t h e men's s p r i n t i n t h e
e a r l y f o u r t h c e n t u r - was worth about 1200 drachmas o r t h e equivalent of over
One should note, however, t h a t a t h l e t e s regarded such
$67,000 US (1980).
winnings a s g i f t s r a t h e r than wages; t h e modern c a t e g o r i e s of amateur and
professional a r e anachronistic f o r ancient Greek a t h l e t i c s . Slandered by t h e
old guard, t h e newcomers nevertheless tended t o be of respectable b i r t h and
economically they were well o f f .
Autolykos, v i c t o r i n t h e Panathenaic
pankration of 421/0 came from a good family; he probably was t h e son of one of
t h e accusers of Socrates, t h e demagogue Lykon, and was himself l a t e r put t o
death by t h e Thirty Tyrants. Despite public gymnasia and c i v i c rewards f o r
v i c t o r s , no revolutionary popularization of a t h l e t i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n took place
a t Athens. Although a growing f a c t o r i n p o l i t i c s , t h e mass remained a t t e n t i v e
observers a t t h e games.
The f i f t h century was a time of complex and changing p o l i t i c i a l
a c t i v i t y through which democracy f u r t h e r emerged. This period of Athenian
a t h l e t i c h i s t o r y reveals a development away from t h e e a r l i e r d i r e c t , personal
competition i n games, a s a means t o fame and thence t o p o l i t i c a l advancement,
and a movement by a s p i r i n g l e a d e r s toward i n d i r e c t , p a r a p o l i t i c a l involvement
v i a t h e f o s t e r i n g o r administration of a t h l e t i c s . With t h e demanding and
non-complementary preparations needed f o r major sucess i n e i t h e r a t h l e t i c s o r
p o l i t i c s i n t h i s e r a , leading statesmen tended t o avoid personal a t h l e t i c
competition a s a means t o public influence. After Themistocles, t h e hero of
Salamis, showed t h e value o f a t h l e t i c s i t e s a s public forums by a t t r a c t i n g
a t t e n t i o n t o himself a t Olympia and Kynosarges, p o l i t i c i a n s approached
a t h l e t i c s i n d i r e c t l y a s benefactors o r administrators. They t h u s gained a
popular and p o s i t i v e association with t h e demos and t h e c i t y ( r a t h e r than t h e
family and region) and avoided t h e t i m m d pains of rigorous a t h l e t i c
training. The i n d i r e c t approach was used by Kimn I1 with p r i v a t e funds, but
t h e popular p o l i t i c i a n P e r i c l e s perfected t h e method with public funds.
Plutarch depicted P e r i c l e s metaphorically a s a p o l i t i c a n wrestler; c l e a r l y he
was an a t h l e t i c "booster1t and he applauds Athens1 nrecreationsl ( c o n t e s t s and
s a c r i f i c e s ) i n t h e famous Funeral 0ration.13 The c a r e e r of Alcibiades shows
t h a t chariot-racing s t i l l brought fame t o t h e wealthy v i c t o r and was s t i l l an
a l t e r n a t i v e route t o public exposure, but Alcibiades flaunted and exhausted
t h i s a s an e f f e c t i v e means t o public support. He entered seven c h a r i o t s , one
apparently s t o l e n from an acquaintance, i n t h e Olympics of 416, placed f i r s t ,
second and fourth, and went on t o use t h i s t o h i s p o l i t i c a l advantage; but h i s
f i n a n c i a l and p o l i t i c a l extravagances ultimately brought him disfavor and
exile.
The a t t i t u d e s of P e r i c l e s and Alcibiades t o a t h l e t i c s , t h e democratic
popularity and magnificence of f e s t i v a l s , and t h e requirements and r e s u l t s of
technical a t h l e t i c t r a i n i n g a l l compounded a t t a c k s on a t h l e t i c s by Athenian
intellectuals
C r i t i c s show t h a t t h e old ~ h ~ s i c ai ld e a l was becoming
l n t e l l e c t u r a l i z e d and d i v e r s i f i e d , but modern s c o a r s have overreacted t o t h e
c r i t i c i s m s and t h e demise of t h e narrow a t h l e t i c i d e a l .
With e a r l i e r .
non-Athenian c r i t i c i s m by Xenophanes and others, conventional l i t e r a r y motif;
had arisen: t h e value o f t h e a t h l e t e a s s o l d i e r and c i t i z e n was deprecated,
and disproportionate honours f o r athletes--rather than intellectuals--were
condemmed.
Such comments have a remarkably modern r i n g t o them.
Major
Athenian c r i t i c i s m s appear i n t h e l a s t t h i r d o f t h e f i f t h century i n t h e
context o f the Peloponnesian War and Sophism.
E a r l i e r c r i t i c i s m s o f the
popular evaluation o f a t h l e t e s now were supplemented by c r i t i c i s m s o f
excessive
athletic
training
(especially
eating
habits)
and over-s p e c i a l i z a t i o n as w e l l as c r i t i c i s m s o f the d e c l i n e o f physical education.
Aristophanes, ever suspicious o f new trends i n society, claimed i n the Clouds
t h a t the younger generation was no longer f i t , t r a i n e d o r modest, t h a t they
preferred the courts and baths t o the gymnasia. Euripides i n a fragment o f a
satyr p l a y o f around 420 wrote a condemnation o f a t h l e t e s as overly f l a t t e r e d
and p r e t t y i n youth b u t r e a l l y q u i t e unprepared t o be u s e f u l c i t i z e n s .
"Of
the thousands o f e v i l s which e x i s t i n Greece there i s no greater e v i l than the
race o f athletes.
I n the f i r s t place, they are incapable o f l i v i n g , o r o f
l e a r n i n g t o l i v e , properly. How can a man who i s a slave t o h i jaws and a
servant t o h i s b e l l y acquire more wealth than h i s father?"
Literary
conventions now included the a t h l e t e as a physical caricature, b u t w r i t e r s
could choose from e i t h e r c r i t i c a l o r laudatory commonplaces depending on the
nature and purpose o f the work being written. I n f a c t , the c r i t i c s themselves
t e s t i f y t o the spread and p o p u l a r i t y o f c i v i c a t h l e t i c s ; they show t h a t
a t h l e t i c s were n e i t h e r diminishing nor p o p i l a r l y d i s l i k e d .
I n terms o f
a t h l e t i c p r a c t i c e t h e c r i t i c s had no appreciable e f f e c t .
The p r a c t i c e o f
sitesis--the o f f i c i a l awarding o f a d a i l y f r e e meal i n the town h a l l - apparently was renewed f o r v i c t o r s i n Periclean Athens as a gesture o f c i v i c
appreciation f o r an accomplishment a i d i n g both c i t i z e n and state.15
A t h l e t i c t r a d i t i o n s , l i k e f e s t i v a l s , f a c i l i t i e s , and rewards, were e s s e n t i a l
t o the g l o r i o u s image o f which Athenians were very proud i n the f i f t h century.
5
I n the h a l f century a f t e r the Peloponnesian War (ca. 404-355) Athens
was busy recovering from the war and attempting t o reassert i t s power.
In
t h i s age o f o r a t o r s and generals, Athens revived economically but never
regained i t s former p o s i t i o n i n the Greek world.
Nevertheless, the a t h l e t i c
l i f e o f the c i t y endured.
Although the s t a t e lacked the resources f o r
extravagance, and the a t h l e t i c i d e a l was challenged f u r t h e r by philosophical
c r i t i c i s m , there were i n d i c a t i o n s o f expanded pograms and p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
Games continued even i n times o f stress, and a t h l e t i c s seem t o have grown even
as the c i t y i t s e l f became eclipsed.
I n t h i s p e r i o d the number o f a t h l e t i c
events, i f perhaps n o t f e s t i v a l s , increased, and an i n s c r i b e d Panathenaic
p r i z e l i s t o f ca. 38 reveals a program w i t h three age groupings and f a r more
events than O l y m p i a j 6 Rather than i n an e a r l i e r era when one might expect
it, m i l i t a r y influeces, such as t h a t o f t h e cavalry and ephebeia, t h e m i l i t a r y
t r a i n i n g o f youths f o r two years p r i o r t o f u l l citizenship, became more
obvious i n Athenian events such as the a n t h i a s i a a m i l i t a r y tatoo f o r
cavalry units--and t h e contest i n casting &*a
horseback a t a s h i e l d
suspended on a post.
Despite a decrease i n known equestrian v i c t o r s and i n
a t h l e t i c scenes painted on non-prize vases, the o f f i c i a l program apparently
was f u l l y operational.
I n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n and p u b l i c p o p u l a r i t y insured
t h a t a t h l e t i c s were retained as a conspicuous element i n Athens1 calendar,
topography and i d e n t i t y .
A r c h i t e c t u r a l l y , Athens* a t h l e t i c f a c i l i t i e s g i v e l i t t l e i n d i c a t i o n
o f s i g n i f i c a n t a l t e r a t i o n i n t h i s period. The r i s e o f schools o f philosophy
i n association w i t h gymnasia, notably Platols a t the Academy, along w i t h
changes i n educational and s o c i a l l i f e , however, suggest t h a t gymnasia were
developing f u n c t i o n a l l y .
The r o l e o f gymnasia as educational and s o c i a l
centers was growing, b u t as y e t t h i s necessitated no p h y s i c a l changes i n t h e
facilities.
Elsewhere, a t Athens1 stadium and probably a t i t s hippodrome
i n f o r m a l arrangements s t i l l seem t o have sufficed.
Available information on Athenian a t h l e t e s a t t h i s time i n d i c a t e s
continuing p a r t i c i p a t i o n and e l i t i s m .
F i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s may have
influenced the decrease o f horse-racing o r the persistence o f heavy
a t h l e t i c s . Apparently corning from the new s o c i a l e l i t e , a t h l e t e s tended t o be
nouveaux riches who d i d l i t t l e beyond sport.
The funds f o r t r a i n i n g and
t r a v e l remained p r i v a t e and f a m i l i a l ; a v a i l a b l e evidence does n o t i n d i c a t e the
dependency o f a t h l e t e s on income from v i c t o r i e s .
New f a m i l i e s and odd names
appear i n t h e context o f a t h l e t i c specialization, but there i s no evidence o f
sponsorship o r r i s i n g a t h l e t e s by i n d i v i d u a l s o r the c i t y i n pre-Hellenistic
Athens. I f mprofessionalismn existed i n t h i s era, i t was i n terms o f t r a i n i n g
and expertise r a t h e r than occupation.
Athletes appear t o have been
respectable c i t i z e n s , o f t e n characterized i n l i t e r a t u r e and society by t h e i r
a t h l e t i c experience.
This was an age o f haute bou eoisie, o f economic and
p r i v a t e r a t h e r than p o l i t i c a l and p u b l i c c o e s .
upper-class families,
o f t e n w i t h members conspicuous i n war o r oratory, took over the former
preeminence o f the o l d a r i s t o c r a t i c families. The c o l l e c t i v e e t h i c o f the o l d
o l i s was being replaced by individualism and apathy; wealth and peace were
p r e e r r e d t o g l o r y and p u b l i c l i f e . Maintaining a t h l e t i c t r a d i t i o n s was s t i l l
a c i v i c concern, but competition and involvement seem t o have changed from a
means t o p u b l i c i n f l u e n c e i n t o a p r i v a t e matter o f self-display and status.
%
%
The realism o f a t h l e t i c s and p o l i t i c a l leadership diverged i n t h i s
p e r i o d as men no longer competed d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y i n both areas.
Athens1 preoccupation w i t h foreign a f f a i r s and finance, t h e self-perpetuating
i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f a t h l e t i c s , and the technical and temporal demands o f
a t h l e t i c and p o l i t i c a l success-all
these i n p a r t may explain why a t h l e t i c s
were continuing b u t ceased t o be a means t o p o l i t i c a l power.
Intellectual
c r i t i c s were n o t the cause o f such developments;
t h e i r continuing
condemnations o f excessive rewards and t r a i n i n g were redundant and
ineffectual.
I n the Apology Socrates compares h i s own worth as a moral
benefactor f o r the c i t y t o t h a t o f victors.17
The jury, representing
popular opinion, d i d not agree w i t h h i s contention t h a t he deserved and needed
s t a t e maintenance more than v i c t o r s .
H i s f e l l o w c i t i z e n s condemned him and
continued t o honor athletes. P l a t o c r i t i c i z e d contemporary a t h l e t i c t r a i n i n g
and medical gymnastics and r e j e c t e d these f o r the Guardians o f h i s i d e a l
state, but P l a t o d i d not speak f o r the average Athenian.
I n t h e p e r i o d from the S o c i a l War t o the Macedonian occupation
(ca. 355-322) Athens revived f o r a time under Lycurgus' care but f i n a l l y l o s t
i t s independence t o Macedon. I n the h i s t o r y o f Athenian a t h l e t i c s t h i s p e r i o d
i s b e t t e r characterized as proto-Helenistic than as a degeneration o f
classical traditions.
Paradoxically, a t Athens a t h l e t i c s seemed t o have
t h r i v e d even as the p o l i t i c a l e n t i t y faltered.
Aristotlels Constitution o f
Athens d e t a i l s how a t h l e t i c s were thoroughly i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d and c a r e f u l l y
administered.18 Still a major part of civic life, athletics increasingly
involved Athens1 educational and military system rather than its political
rivalries. The development of the ephebeia under Lycurgus lead to an expanded
Theseia, and military and cavalry influences were reflected in festivals like
the Olympieia to Zeus and in contests like the javelin throw from horseback.
Atens maintained its reputation for unusual and spectacular events including
the apobates contest and numerous torch races, but curiously boat races were a
late and llmited development.
As elsewhere in late classical Greece, Athenian athletic facilities
gained monumental stature in this era, especially through the projects of
Lycurgus. The Lyceum became the site of Aristotlels school and was enhanced
or expanded, possibly to accomodate increasing educational, philosophical and
social functions. Later in Hellenistic times Athens1 gymnasia housed much
more than athletics and came to be architectural complexes and indispensable
components in the physical form of this center of philosophy and culture. The
Lycurgan construction of the Panathenaic Stadium may represent a trend to
specialization of facilities or a social shift to increasing spectatorship-developments more Hellenistic than classical. Although Lycurgus aimed at the
glory of Periclean Athens, his methods and his administration were protoHellenistic.
In this age of financial and private concerns, Athenian athletes
still appear to have come from comfortable families, and there was even a
revival of equestrian victories as nouveaux riches apparently sought social
status. The career of Dioxippos may indicate that financial professionalism
in athletics was not far off; a famous strongman and an Olympic victor,
Dioxippos accompanied Alexander the Great only to be forced to s ide after
killing a man in single combat for Alexander's entertainment?$
In the
Hellenistic age the route to athletic succcess via the ephebic system would
remain elitist, but the route via sponsorship and athletic guilds was to
attract lower-class individuals seeking a livelihood. As Macedon overshadowed
Athens, people seem to have pursued or watched athletics for private, selfish
motives; no longer were athletics a means to political influence. Criticisms
of the excessive training and popularity of athletics continued, and would
continue, like the very trends they denounced. There now seems to be more
basis for the charge that athletes contributed little to the city as we
encounter the anomalous situation of Kallippos a pentathlete accused of
bribery at Olympia in 332.20 Rather than the athlete aiding the city,
Athens sent the orator Hyperides to defend the athlete.
As well as raising questions of criteria and relevance, the
conventional image of decline in athletics, as presented by E.N. Gardiner,
H.A. Harris and others, has not improved our understanding of how Athenian
athletics experienced significant transformations by the late fourth century.
Admittedly, the narrow athletic ideal may have lost some of its earlier
attraction, and the morality and motivations of athletes may have changed.
Yet, technically, athletic performances should have improved with
specialization. The social shift from an elitism of birth to one of wealth
can be seen as progress or decline, depending on one's predisposition. Even
acknowledging the proliferation of sources over time, the numbers of willing
Athenian p a r t i c i p a n t s and spectators seems t o have increased.
The l i s t o f
fourth-century Athenian v i c t o r i e s a t Olympia i n d i c a t e s success n o t f a i l u r e :
we know o f more Olympic s p r i n t champions from Athens f o r the f o u r t h century
than f o r e a r l i e r periods. A t h e l e t i c f a c i l i t i e s became grander, programs were
elaborate, and games and p r i z e s were maintained as expressions o f Athenian
p r i d e i n the past g l o r i e s and present beauties o f the c i t y . A t h l e t i c s ceased
t o be a source o f p o l i t i c a l influence, but r e a l p o l i t i c a l power no longer
rested i n Athens.
I r o n i c a l l y , the fame and p r a c t i c e o f Athenian a t h l e t i c s
fared b e t t e r than the c i t y i t s e l f : they remained a very s i g n i f i c a n t element
i n the c i v i c l i f e o f a c i t y which i t s e l f suffered p o l i t i c a l l y and m i l i t a r i l y
i n the H e l l e n i s t i c era. Perhaps antiquarian i n t e r e s t i n the legacy o f Athens
was a factor, o r perhaps the longevity o f Athenian a t h l e t i c s can be credited
t o the planning o f Lycurgus.
Clearly, the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between the h i s t o r i e s o f Athens and
i t s a t h l e t i c s was s i g n i f i c a n t and continuous.
From the eighth t o the f o u r t h
century, as w e l l as evolving i n t e r n a l l y toward increased t r a i n i n g and
specialization, Athenian a t h l e t i c s were influenced by developments a t Athens
such as the r i s e o f c i v i c consciousness and the p o l i c i e s o f leaders. I n turn,
a t h l e t i c s a f f e c t e d the topography, f e s t i v e calendar, administration and
i n t e l l e c t u a l concerns o f Athens.
When Solon wanted t o q u i e t the state, when
P i s i s t r a t u s and P e r i c l e s wanted t o advance the state, when Themistocles and
Kimon wanted t o l e a d the state, and u l t i m a t e l y when Lycurgus wanted t o
r e v i t a l i z e t h e state, they p a i d a t t e n t i o n t o the a t h l e t i c l i f e o f Athens. The
reason i s simple. A t h l e t i c s were a public, i n t e g r a l , and p o t e n t i a l l y u n i f y i n g
o r d i s r u p t i v e element i n the c i v i c experience o f the Athenians.
Overall the r e l a t i o n s h i s p between Athens and a t h l e t i c s was
constructive and harmonious. The Athenian as v i c t o r , benefactor o r spectator
gained glory, recognition o r pleasure; and the c i t y b e n e f i t t e d from f l a t t e r i n g
f e s t i v a l s and f a c i l i t i e s , and from an enhanced c i v i c consciousness.
I n late
c l a s s i c a l times Athens and a t h l e t i c s seem t o a n t i c i p a t e H e l l e n i s t i c trends,
b u t a t h e t i c s "declinedt1 ( o r became l e s s qlcivicw) only i n t h e sense t h a t a l l
aspects of Athenian l i f e can be s a i d t o have declined i n the absence o f power
and independence. Altered b u t active, a t h l e t i c s remained a v i t a l p a r t o f the
glory, i d e n t i f y and legacy o f Athens.
NOTES
1.
Od. 8.147-148.
2. Moretti, Olympiorikai, No. 25.
3. See Donald G. Kyle, ItSolon and Athletics,ll The Ancient World 9,
1984, 91-105.
4. See J.A. Davison, "Notes on the Panathenea," Journal of Hellenic
Studies 78, 1958, 23-42.
5.
A race or racecourse: Raubitschak, E,No. 326-328.
6. See T. Leslie Shear Jr., "The Panathenaii Way," Hesperic 44,
1975, 362-365.
7. Herodotus 6:103.
8. Plutarch, Theseus 36:l.
9. Old Oligarch, 2:lO.
10. Plutarch,
x,
l3:7.
11. Moretti, op,cit., No. 228.
12. David C. Young, The Olympic Myth of Greek Amateur Athletics,
Chicago: Ares, 1984, 115-127.
13. Plutarch, Pericles, 8.5.
14. Euripides, Autolykos FRAG 282.
Trans. S.G. Miller.
15. IG '1 77.
16. IG 1 1 2311.
~
17. Socrates, Apology 36dc.
18. Aristotle, Constitution of Athens, 60.1, 62.2.
19. Moretti, op.cit., no. 458.
20.
e.,
no. 460.