A Discussion on the Recent Situation of Bon Religion in the Tibetan

Transcription

Bimonthly Journal on Mongolian and Tibetan Current Situation Vol.16, No.3
※Special Discussion※
A Discussion on the Recent Situation of Bon Religion in the
Tibetan Region of China
Chia-ming Yang (MTAC Editor)
Abstract
The Bon religion had been prevalent in the Tibetan region of
China before the introduction of Buddhism, successfully preserving
the rich essence of ancient Tibetan culture. Current religious policies
adopted by China allow the Bon religion to prosper in an environment
dominated by Buddhism. The paper compiles media reports on the
subject, introductions to monasteries, and comments from the
academic circle, constructing a preliminary discussion of issues
including China’s religious policies since the economic reform and
opening-up, compilation and publication of Bon religion archives,
reconstruction of monasteries, and training of monks. The paper
discovers that Bon religion has indeed enjoyed growing prosperity in
the Tibetan region of China in recent years, exercising tremendous
influence over the region’s economy, society, and even Tibetology
research.
Key Words: Bon religion, Bon Kanjur, Menri Monastery, Tibetan
Buddhism
A Discussion on the Recent Situation of Bon Religion in the Tibetan Region of China
1
Ⅰ. Introduction
The Tibetan people are renowned for being devoutly religious. It is
widely known that Buddhism is the prevalent religion in Tibet. The Bön
religion (translated as Bon Po, Bon Chos, or Bon Lugsin Tibetan language),1
prevalent in Tibet before the arrival of Buddhism, was often sidelined or
regarded as a sect of the Tibetan Buddhism, and some even mistakenly see it
as defunct. In fact, Tibetan Buddhism is by no means the only surviving
religion on the snow-covered Tibetan Plateau. The introduction of Buddhism
from India did not manage to replace the original Bön religion, which had
existed for a long time in Tibet. In other words, the two religions coexisted in
Tibet by competing with, and at the same time learning from, each other.2
The ancient Bön religion,3 in the course of its long-term development in
Tibetan regions, has drawn on some of the essence of local religions and
1
Translated as 本波, 本波教, 本教, 苯教, 笨教, 缽教, 鉢教, 蕃教, 黑教…in Mandarin. The Mandarin
version of this paper uses the term “本教,” while maintaining the original wording for citations.
2
To sustain Bön religion, exile Tibetans created the Tujia Saba Bön settlement in Himachal Pradesh’s Sirmaur
district in India in 1963. The settlement is home to Menri Monastery, dubbed by the Tibetan Government in
Exile as “the center of religious belief for Tibetan Bön followers, and the cradle for elite well-versed in Bön
knowledge.” Before his visit to the US in late April, 2007, the Dalai Lama traveled to Tujia Saba to pay his
blessings to the newly opened Menri Monastery Library, and to provide his guidance on administrative
matters in the settlement. “Dalai Lama Pays Second Visit to Tujia Saba, the Base of Bön in Tibet,” Real-time
Tibet News, Page of Tibet, www.xizang-zhiye.org, April 22, 2007.
3
Certain well-known Bön masters claimed that the religion dates back to 18,000 years ago. Zhou Xi-yin and
Wang Chao said in their work The Earliest Tibetan Religions: The figure of 18,000 years is astronomical. This
makes it much more difficult to ascertain the religion’s exact year of birth.” According to the book, accounts
given in Tibetan-language literature claimed that Bön was introduced to Tibetan regions “before the days of
Niechi Zanpu” (which means 2,100 years ago), or “during the time of Zhigong Zanpu” (which means circa the
second century A.D.). Chengdu: Sichuan People’s Publishing House, February 1999, p. 338.
In addition, Gazang Caidan said in his book Tibetan Bön: “According to Bön literature, a relatively more
systematic form of the religion was created 3,800 years ago.” Lhasa: Tibetan People Publishing House,
January 2006, p. 1.
2
Buddhism and gradually evolved its own system of deities, doctrines, and
scriptures, as well as its own monasteries and schooling system. This
development is dubbed “the Tibetan Enlightenment.” The most noteworthy
point is that the Bön religion’s enormous scriptures and unique ceremonies
exude a lot of ancient Tibetan culture. To describe the Bön religion, which is
older than Tibetan Buddhism, as important is really an understatement.4
When one takes a serious look at the political and religious history in
Tibetan regions, it is impossible to ignore the intervention of secular political
forces. Examples include promotion of Buddhism at the expense of Bön
religion, or the rise of Bön religion at the expense of Buddhism in the days of
Tǔbō, as well as competition between different sects of Tibetan Buddhism in
the late development period of Tibetan Buddhism. Such a kind of intervention
pretty much determined the destiny of different religious sects. Since the Yuan
Dynasty, every single turnover of ruling power caused different levels of
impact on the political and religious orders in Tibetan regions. In other words,
thee political force in Tibetan regions or the central government has always
exercised tremendous influence over the religious situation on the Tibetan
Plateau. China initiated an overhaul of its religious policies following the 3rd
Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of CPC in December 1978,
chanting the slogan “move forward together on the basis of equity,
4
Pingcuo Ciren, a Tibetan scholar who was previously director of the Academy of Social Sciences in Tibet
Autonomous Region, once said, “It is impossible to study Tibet’s history and culture without looking at the
Bön religion.” Compiled by Duoji Zhanxiong et al., “Uncovering the Secret of Tibet’s History,” info.tibet.cn,
June 16, 2005.
3
friendliness, unity, and cooperation.”5 Consequently, as fate would have it,
Bön religion was able to prosper in a more favorable political environment
since Buddhism became the prevalent religion in Tibetan regions. And after
nearly three decades of development, Bön religion has secured quite a solid
basis. This is another reason why this study has decided to focus on the recent
situation of Bön religion.
This study draws on all kinds of media reports, monastery information,
and related academic works by scholars, and provides a preliminary
discussion of the recent development of Bön religion in China’s Tibetan
regions, including government policies, compilation and publication of Bön
literature, reconstruction of monasteries, and training of Bön monks to
construct a picture of the current political and religious situation in China’s
Tibetan regions.
Ⅱ. Communist China Policies
While Bön and Tibetan Buddhism are two distinctly different religions,
China has always regarded Bön as one of the sects of Buddhism. Bön monks
are sent to study at the High-Level Tibetan Buddhism College of China in
Beijing or other local Buddhism academies. One example is the Living
Buddha Xirao Danbei Dawa (1970-) of Gansu Province’s rTse dBus dGon Pa
Monastery. Having graduated from the High-Level Tibetan Buddhism College
of China in 2001, he was elected a member of the Tibetan Buddhism
5
Danzeng Chilie, “The Policy of Religious Freedom is Being Thoroughly Implemented in Tibet,” Tibetan
Studies, 1999, No.3, p.112.
4
Advanced Academic Degree Conferral Review Committee in a meeting of
Buddhist representatives of all Tibetan regions in 2004.6 The eighth Living
Buddha Zhengeng Saiji Bailuozhu Xiangcuo of Sichuan Province received his
training at the Tibetan Buddhism College in Sichuan Province and also at the
High-Level Tibetan Buddhism College of China. 7 The Living Buddha
Dingzhen Ese, abbot of rTse Drug Monastery in Tibet Autonomous Region,
was once a student at the High-Level Tibetan Buddhism College of China.8
According to an article released by the High-Level Tibetan Buddhism
College of China about its accomplishments in the past ten years, since its
establishment in September 1987, a total of 226 people have graduated from
its undergraduate program (which had been in place for six years) and its
special major program (which has been in place for two years). These
graduates include 166 Gelug sect followers, 25 Nyingma sect followers, 15
Kagyu sect followers, 9 Sakya sect followers, 6 Jonang sect followers, and 5
Bonpa sect followers (accounting for 2.21% of the total).9
There are many cases of eminent Bön monks holding high offices in
state-level or local Buddhist associations, for example the Living Buddha
Tenzin Wangyal of the Gurujiang Monastery in Ngari Prefecture of Tibet once
served as Director of the Buddhist Association of China, Executive Director
of the Buddhist Association of the Tibet Autonomous Region, and Director of
6
Zuohai Monastery, Zuohai Monastery (leaflet), p.10.
7 See www.yzbj.com/cs/z1.htm. This portal site was created by the Living Buddha Xinjia Danzhen of Changdu
Monastery in Sichuan Province’s Jinchuan County. It officially opened in November 2002.
8
“Master the Living Buddha,” Zizhu Monastery portal site, www.zizhusi.org.
9
“High-Level Tibetan Buddhism College of China,” China Tibet Online, zt.tibet.cn.
5
the Buddhist Association of the Ngari Prefecture. 10 Kanbu Wangjie of
Xaitongmoin County’s Sejie Monastery held the offices as Executive Director
of the Buddhist Association of the Tibet Autonomous Region and Deputy
Director of the Buddhist Association of Shigatse region of Tibet. 11 The
Living Buddha Nieda, a member of the National Committee of the CPPCC,
was the Director of Buddhist Association at Naqu region of Tibet.12 And
there was also the Living Buddha Ayong, who served as the Deputy Director
of Buddhist Association of Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture.13
In March 2004, the CPPCC Deputy Chairman of the Tibet Autonomous
Region Danzeng Chilie (who is also a Living Buddha of the Gelug sect) said:
The power struggle between various sects of Tibetan Buddhism had
always been fierce throughout history. Liberation of Tibet rendered the
long-standing local system where the religious leader is concurrently
the political leader defunct. All four major sects of Tibetan Buddhism,
along with Bön, were incorporated into the Buddhist Association in
Tibet, thereby bringing an end to the history of struggles between
different religious sects in Tibet. Now different sects of Tibetan
Buddhism are all equals united as one, a fact which contributes
enormously to the social harmony and stability in Tibet. Therefore, it is
10
UNN, Tibet, Special Topics on Tibet, www.unn.com.cn.
11
For information on monasteries in Tibet Autonomous Region, see “Introduction to Tibet,” http://info.tibet.cn,
July 1, 2005.
12
“Nieda: the first CPPCC representative of Bön, a thousands-of-years old religion,” Current Politics, Special
Topics in 2003, New Faces in the CPPCC, People’s Daily Online, www.people.com.cn, March 10, 2003.
13
Edited by Yang Chia-ming, Ethnography of Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Beijing: Contemporary
China Publishing House, July 1994, p.320.
6
clear that religious development has a lot to do with building social
harmony.14
Some Bön leaders approved the new policy which sees Bön and Tibetan
Buddhism as one. The Living Buddha Nieda, a member of the National
Committee of the CPPCC, said in an interview in August 2006:
Now all kinds of religion coexist peacefully as equals in Tibet. This is
a healthy sign of true religious freedom. This is the best of times for
Bön in thousands of years…The new policy, which treats all religions
as equals, ushered in the best of times for Bön…As a result, the
different sects of Tibetan Buddhism are able to prosper under
protection, and the Bön rituals and monasteries are also able to survive
and prosper under protection.15
There are also some Bön followers who look at the issue from a religious
perspective, believing that Bön and Tibetan Buddhism are of the same origin.
These people naturally would not hold negative views toward the
government’s policy which sees the two religions as one. For example, the
Living Buddha Gongsai Ningpo of Klu Phug in Naqu region’s Baqên County
wrote an article on the subject of viewing Bön and Tibetan Buddhism as of
the same origin during his time at High-Level Tibetan Buddhism College of
China in Beijing:
There are five sects within Tibetan Buddhism: Bön which developed
14
“CPPCC Religious Member: Religious Work Meaningful to the Building of a Harmonious Society,” China
Human Rights, ww.humanrights-china.org, cited from China News Beijing, March 5, 2004.
15
“Tibet’s Ancient Native Religion Able to Pass Down and Develop,” Xinhua News Agency, Tibet,
www.xz.xinhuanet.com, Lhasa, August 20, 2006.
7
from the Tibetan regions, as well as four other sects of Gelug,
Nyingma, Sakya, and Jonang, which came from ancient India.16
However, such a view has long been countered by Tibetologists in China.
One example is Chang Xia-qing, who issued a criticism in a book entitled
Tibet’s Religion and Culture on the Path of Musk:
There are some people who blindly classify Bön as a branch of Tibetan
Buddhism without consulting religious studies, subjecting Bön to an
embarrassing position.17
China may have deliberately chosen to see Tibetan Buddhism and Bön as
one out of political reasons and probably because of the Chinese authorities’
impression of Bön. One example of this is a commentary entitled “On the
Substantive Transformation of Tibet’s Religion,” which appeared on Tibetan
Studies in 1991:
“Tibet’s religion” really means Tibetan Buddhism, because Bön is
actually “a primitive form of fetishism, a product of the ancient Tibetan
society that has neither its own system, theories, society, and rituals,
nor a powerful group of supporters.”18
Ⅲ. Compilation and Publication of Bön Scriptures
In the year 913, Tibetan regions uncovered the first Bön gTer Ma
16
Gongsai Ningpo, A Preliminary Discussion on Shangshung Civilization, Beijing: Ethnic Publishing House,
May 2004, p. 231, 241.
17
Chang Xia-qing, Tibet’s Religion and Culture on the Path of Musk, Taipei: Shuxin Publishing House, May
1991 (the book was finished in February 1987), p. 58.
18
Shen Yang, “On Substantive Transformations in Tibet’s Religions,” Tibetan Studies, 1991, No.2, p. 82.
8
scriptures. Then in 1017, gShen Chen Klu dGa’ (996-1035), who is believed
to be the descendant of Bön founder sTon Pa gShen Rab Mi Bo, discovered
another mass of Bön scriptutres. Some see this discovery as the beginning of
the late development period of Bön in Tibetan regions.19
gShen Chen Klu dGa’ compiled a catalogue of gTer Ma, which became
the first catalogue of Bön scriptures. In the eighteenth century, Kun Grol ‘Ja’
Tshon sNying Po (1700-?) assembled a larger quantity of Bön literature and
created a relatively more systematic set of Bön canon, which was passed
down in wood block and dubbed the Chuosijia version. In the nineteenth
century, Nyima Tenzin, the abbot of sMan Ri, recompiled the Bön canon by
dividing it into two components: the Kangyur and the Tengyur. The former
consists of 113 volumes and the latte 293. Together there are 416 volumes.20
The “Kan” as in Kangyur (bKa’ in Tibetan language) refers to the
teachings of sTon Pa gShen Rab Mi Bo, while “gyur” means translated texts.
Therefore, Kangyur literally means the teachings of sTon Pa gShen Rab Mi
Bo. The “Ten” part of Tengyur (brTen in Tibetan language) refers to “basis.”
Tengyur literally means the writings of disciples of sTon Pa gShen Rab Mi Bo
and later masters.21
Two sets of wood block Bön canon have been uncovered in Tibetan
regions. In addition to the aforementioned Chuosijia version, there is also
19
Some consider the “awareness of Bön religion,” which was caused by the introduction of Buddhism to
Tibetan regions, as the beginning of the late development period of Bön religion.
20
Zeren Dengzhu, A History of Tibetan People, Lhasa: Tibetan People Publishing House, August 2001, pp.
449-450.
21
The “Ten” as in Tengyur (bsTan in Tibetan language) means “writings, literature” (bsTan bCos in Tibetan
language).
9
another version, the Quqin version, which appeared slightly earlier than the
Chuosijia version and which was carved by Rab brtan, one of the eighteen
chieftains of rGyal Rong. Both sets are now scattered, and some of the loose
scriptures are found in monasteries and private collections. In addition to
these wood block versions, there also exist a lot of hand-written copies of Bön
canon.
The content of Bön canon covers a wide range of subjects in addition to
religious texts, including astronomy, geography, medicine, calendar, and
crafts. In the words of some, Bön canon “reflects the historical and cultural
features of native Tibet” and “is essentially an encyclopedia of Tibet’s age-old
culture.”22 Compilation and publication of Bön canon contributes not only to
the promotion of Bön religion but also to the preservation of Tibet’s traditions
and culture.
It is reported that there are five versions of Bön canon recently compiled,
published, and circulated in China:
1. The A gYung version: Published by the Living Buddha A gYung
(gYung Drung bsTan Pa’i rGyal mTshan, 1922-) of Sichuan Province’s
Xinlong County’s Ye Shes Monastery in 1985 under the permission of
China’s State Council, and in collaboration of Garzê Tibetan Autonomous
Prefecture’s CPPCC and Sichuan Province’s National Institute of Ethnic
Studies. There are a total of 157 volumes, including 63 volumes of Exoteric
Buddhism, 67 volumes of Prajna Buddhism, 20 volumes of Vajrayāna
22
“On Development and Utilization of Tibetan Literature,” China Tibet Online, Compilation of Tibetan
Historical Texts, Tibetan Historical Academic Papers, www.info.tibet.cn, April 26, 2006.
10
Buddhism, and 7 volumes of Zen Buddhism. Among these, 40 volumes of
Exoteric Buddhism and 62 volumes of Prajna Buddhism are compiled based
on handwritten copies of Kangyur discovered in Xinlong County’s dBal
Khyung Monastery, while the rest are compiled based on handwritten copies
and wood block scriptures collected by Living Buddha A gYung elsewhere.
Only 130 copies of this version were released.
2. The Blon version: Published by the Living Buddha Bon Blon Nam
mKha’ bsTan ‘Dzin (1932-) of Sichuan Province’s Ngawa Watusi Tibetan and
Qiang Autonomous Prefecture’s Aba County’s rTogs lDan Monastery in early
1990s out of private funds. This version added some Bön literature to the
original A gYung version. This version contains a total of 192 volumes. 300
copies were printed in Li County.
3. Reprinted Chuosijia version: Released by China Tibetology Publishing
House in December 1993. This version contains a total of 281 volumes,
including 55 volumes of Exoteric Buddhism, 108 volumes of Prajna
Buddhism, 88 volumes of Vajrayāna Buddhism, and 30 volumes of Zen
Buddhism.23
4. The lHa Sras version: Compiled and published by the Living Buddha
sMon rGyal lHa Sras (1938- ) of Sichuan Province’s Xinlong County. He
assembled a group of 15 people from dBal Khyung Monastery and Manjin
Monastery and spent 6 years revising the whole set of handwritten copy at
dBal Khyung Monastery sentence by sentence and also added some parts.
23
Zeren Dengzhu, A History of Tibetan People, p. 449.
11
This version contains a total of 178 volumes, including 74 volumes of
Exoteric Buddhism, 70 volumes of Prajna Buddhism, 26 volumes of
Vajrayāna Buddhism, and 8 volumes of Zen Buddhism, as well as an
introduction to the scripture’s history. 1,600 copies of this version have been
published by the Tibetan Ancient Books Publishing House.
5. Tengyur, the first Bön canon in Tibet’s history: the third Living
Buddha Grub dBang of Tibet’s Nagchu Prefecture’s Nyainrong County’s Bön
Monastery Nor Bu Gling and the monastery’s 13th abbot bsTen Pa’i Nyi Ma
(1943- ) began to collect copies of Tengyur held in private collection in 1990.
The government of Tibet Autonomous Region supported their campaign by
investing 500,000 dollars. Printing of this version began in Lhasa in 1993 and
was completed in 1997.24 A total of 380 copies of this version were published
by Nagchu Buddhist Association.25
Ⅳ. Monasteries and Monks
The prevalence of Buddhism means that the few Bön monasteries left in
Tibetan regions are mostly located in faraway, poor, barren, and
sparsely-populated places where Buddhist followers are more of a peripheral
force.
In the period between 698 and 700 A.D., Chisong Dunbu, the grandson
of mGar sTong bTsan, fled with his son, the famous Bön monk Ani
24
Tsering Thar, “Formation and Development of Buddhist Canon.”
25
Gazang Caidan, Tibetan Bön, p. 153.
12
Xiangbabai, from the slaughter of Btsanpo. They fled to what is known today
as Dema in Dêgê County and brought with them the Bön religion. In the
eighth century, the Tǔbō promoted Buddhism at the expense of Bön religion,
forcing many Bön followers to move east to Rgyalrong and built the gYung
Drung lHa sTeng Monastery at today’s Jinchuan County. The monastery later
became known as the Kwangbop Monastery. In early ninth century, Reba,
another eminent Bön monk, built the sTeng Chen Monastery in the territory
known as Dêgê County today.
During the late development period of Bön religion, the three major
disciples of gshen chen klu dgav and other followers built four major
monasteries in Ü-Tsang. The most important of the four is the Yeru Pengsaka
Monastery built by Zuqin Nange Juzhong in 1072. Bön saw its influence on
the decline in Ü-Tsang after the end of the fourteenth century. Other famous
Bön monasteries in Ü-Tsang include the sMan Ri built by mNyam Med Shes
Rab rGyal mTshan (1356-1415) in 1405, as well as the Ru Lag gYung Drung
Gling built by Dawa Gyaltsen (1796-1878) in 1834 (1894 according to some).
Both monasteries are located in Namling County in Ü-Tsang.
In mid fourteenth century, Renzeng Kangzhu, another eminent Bön
monk, rebuilt the Zizhu Monastery in Khyung Po, known as Dêngqên County
today. It is one of the most important places in Qamdo Prefecture where Bön
rites are held.
According to the book A History of Tibetan People by Zeren Dengzhu,
“incomplete statistics” shows that there were about 170 Bön monasteries in
13
China’s Tibetan regions in 1959, accommodating around 8,600 monks.
Among these monasteries, 20 are in Tibet, accommodating 2,500 monks, 15
are in Qinghai, accommodating 340 monks, 7 are in Gansu, accommodating
120 monks, 62 are in Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture,
accommodating 2,800 monks, 64 are in Garzê Tibetan Autonomous
Prefecture, accommodating 2,671 monks, and 5 are in Tibetan regions in
Yunnan Province, accommodating 70 monks. 26 Meanwhile, according to
Page of Tibet, a portal site established by exile Tibetans, there are about 230
Bön monasteries and 10,000 monks in China’s Tibetan regions (this source
said there are 70 Bön monasteries and 3,500 monks in Tibet, while giving the
same figures for elsewhere).27
According to Tsering Thar’s article “the Current Situation of Bön and Its
Cultural Integration with Society,” in which he cited the information given in
the book Bön Monasteries in Tibet and Himalaya Regions and Temple Studies,
after China introduced the opening-up and reform policy, there were 214
“officially approved and registered monasteries” in China’s Tibetan regions in
1999, including 90 in Tibet, 9 in Gansu, 31 in Qinghai, and 84 in Sichuan.28
Tsering Thar provided new statistics in an interview in 2005, saying that
“there are over 240 registered Bön monasteries and over 300 small-scale
monasteries in Tibetan regions…with 50,000 monks and more than 400,000
26
Zeren Dengzhu, A History of Tibetan People, p. 453.
27
“Dalai Lama Pays Second Visit to Tujia Saba, the Base of Bön in Tibet,” Real-time Tibet News, Page of Tibet,
www.xizang-zhiye.org, April 22, 2007.
28
Tsering Thar, “the Current Situation of Bön and Its Cultural Integration with Society,” China Tibetology
Network, www.tibetology.ac.cn, March 27, 2007.
14
followers.”29
In addition, Gazang Caidan said in his 2006 book Tibetan Bön, “it is
reported that there are over 350 Bön monasteries and over 1,000 Vajrayāna
Buddhism monasteries in Tibetan regions.30” The figures quoted here are
substantially higher than the aforementioned figures, apparently because they
include unregistered monasteries.
According to Chen Li-ming’s article “Certain Points of Views on Tibet’s
Current Religious Issues,” there were 109 Bön monasteries and several
thousands of monks by the end of 1997 in Tibet Autonomous Region alone.
Qamdo Prefecture and Nagchu Prefecture have a higher concentration of Bön
monasteries and followers. Qamdo currently has 56 Bön monasteries and
Nagchu 36.31 In addition, Zeng Chuan-hui said in his recently released article
“Current Religious Situation in China’s Tibetan Regions” that of the 234
religious sites of all types in Nagchu, 23 are Bön monasteries. According to
him, 5 out of 97 religious sites of all types in Nyingchi Prefecture are Bön
monasteries, and 7 out of 312 religious sites in Xigazê Prefecture are Bön
monasteries.32 Ngari Prefecture has only one Bön monastery left.33
29
Interview by Wu Li-fen, “Tsering Thar: A Brief Biography of a Traveler of Ancient Religious Studies,”
Tibetcul, www.tibetcul.com/renwu/mrzf.
30
Gazang Caidan, Tibetan Bön, p. 306.
31
Chen Li-ming, “Certain Points of View on Tibet’s Current Religious Issues,” China Tibetology Network,
Current Religious Situation Studies, www.tibetology.ac.cn, December 7, 2004.
32
Zeng Chuan-hui, “An Overview of Current Religious Situation in Tibetan Regions,” Reports on Current
Religious Situation in Tibetan Regions, China Tibetology Network, Comprehensive Studies,
www.tibetology.ac.cn, August 31, 2006.
33
Suolang Qujie, “Eminent Bön Monk Jinmei Duojie and His Activities in India,” Tibetan Studies, 2002, No. 3,
pp. 74-79.
15
As for other provinces where Tibetans congregate, Qinghai Province
registered 11 Bön monasteries and 303 monks in 1996, according to the
United Front Work Department of Qinghai Provincial Committee and
Religious Affairs Bureau of Qinghai Province.34 Gansu Province registered
271 Tibetan Buddhist (including Bön) monasteries by the end of 1999,
according to statistics by United Front Work Department of Gansu Provincial
Committee. 5 out of the 271 monasteries are Bön monasteries.35 It is reported
that there were 107 Bön monasteries in Sichuan Province’s Tibetan regions in
1990. Bön is second only to Nyingma in terms of the quantity of monasteries
in Sichuan.36
In short, in the Ngari Prefecture of old Ü-Tsang (not including Qamdo),
the Nagchu Prefecture in the north has the greatest number of Bön
monasteries. As for the Tibet Autonomous Region, the Qamdo Prefecture in
the east has the largest share of Bön monasteries. As for the whole
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, most of the Bön monasteries are still located within
the Tibet Autonomous Region. Such kind of distribution of Bön monasteries
happens to be exactly the opposite of the distribution of Tibetan Buddhist
monasteries, while being exactly the same as the situation in the early days of
Liberation.
The more famous Bön monasteries are as follows. Some of these
34
Pu Wen-cheng, History of Buddhism in Qinghai, Qinghai People’s Publishing House, August 2001, p.13.
35
Fan Peng, “Religion in Gansu: Theories, Culture, History, and Current Situation,” Lanzhou City: Gansu
Ethnicity Publishing House, February 2006, p.133.
36
Yang Chia-ming, “Basic Characteristics of Tibetan Buddhism in Tibetan Regions of Sichuan Province,”
Journal of Southwest University for Nationalities (humanities and social sciences), 2007, No.2, Sichuan
Academy of Social Sciences, www.sss.net.cn.
16
monasteries have appeared on media reports as either successfully renovated
or under renovation. The monasteries are listed according to their location
(from east to west).37
Monastery
Location
Overview
Gansu Province
rTse dBus dGon Pa
38
Xiahe
County’s
Located in the neighborhood of the
ancient Octagon City.
Ganjia
Township
One of the 350 earliest Bön
monasteries. Built by Zexiu Dongni
Xiapu in early 12th century (1002
according to some).
Reopened in 1982. Rebuilt on the
original site in 1986 with government
appropriation (8,000 dollars) and
donations from followers. Run by the
24th Living Buddha Dawa; home to
more than 30 monks.
Guoda Monastery
Jonê County’s Home to nearly a thousand monks
Zhagulu
during its peak period
Township
Under reconstruction.
Jiaoduo Monastery
Zhugqu
County’s
Previously following both Bön and
Nyingma traditions
Baleng
Township
Qiari Monastery39
Têwo County’s Built in 1867. Run by Living Buddha
Dala Township Yongzhing Jianzang; home to around
37
Major sources include www.yzbj.com and Zhou Xi-yin and Wang Chao, The Earliest Tibetan Religions,
Chapter 7, Section 3, Appendix.
38
Also see Zuohai Monastery, Zuohai Monastery (leaflet).
39
For monasteries in Têwo County, see “Têwo Charisma,” edit. Gannan Travel and Tourism and Gannan
Tourism Association, Xiangbala Travel, August 29, 2006, 3 edition.
17
40 monks
Sangzhou Monastery
Têwo County’s Run by Living Buddha Ake Zhimei;
Kaba
home to tens of monks
Township
Heigao
Monastery, Têwo County’s Under reconstruction.
Anzidiri Monastery
Kaba
Township
Lalu Monastery
Têwo County’s Located five kilometers to the east of
Dianga
the ancient Diezhou City.
Township’s
Lalu Village
Rebuilt along with the monasteries
Rigai, Xiexie, and Sarang which were
closed in 1958; home to several tens of
monks. Closes once every three years
for the monks to practice Bön
teachings; run by the Living Buddha
Nanke Danzeng.
Nagao Monastery
Têwo County’s Run by Suonan Yixi Kanbu; home to
Axia Township around 30 monks
Zhari Monastery
Têwo County’s Located in the neighborhood of Menri
Niao Township Buddha Cave of Jianni Channel.
Diyigang Monastery
Têwo County’s Run by Living Buddha Ake Zhimei;
Niao Township
the Ani Lama, disciple of Xia Zha, also
resides here.
Gaobao Monastery
Têwo County’s Under reconstruction.
Lazi Township
Zewei Monastery
Maqu County’s Following both Bön and Buddhist
Nima
rituals.
Township
Qinghai Province40
40
Also see ed. Pu Wen-cheng, Tibetan Buddhist Monasteries in Gansu and Qinghai, Qinghai Section, Appendix:
“Bön Monasteries in Qinghai Province,” “Bön Monasteries in Qinghai Region,” third printing, May 1996
18
Mokesa Monastery41
Tongren
County’s
Qukuhu
Township’s
Dates back to more than 7 centuries;
previously a subsidiary to Quemao
Monastery.
Had one sutra hall and 80 rooms back
Muhesha
Village
in 1958; opened under permission in
1981; currently the largest Bön
monastery in Qinghai; home to several
hundreds of monks; has seclusion
rooms; run by Living Buddha Wangjia
Cicheng
Almost every Bön monastery in
Qinghai belongs to either Wangjia
Cicheng or the Living Buddha
Yongzhong Linzhi Danba.
Yanglan Gongba
Quemao Monastery
Guinan
County’s
Built by the Living Buddha Yongzhong
Linzhi Danba around 1990.
Senduo
Township
Home to nearly 30 monks.
Guide
First built in 1250.
County’s
Heyin
Reopened in 1983; has four small-sized
branches; home to nearly 100 monks
Township
Dangche Monastery
Guide
County’s
Heyin
Home to nearly 100 monks.
Township
Seerjia Monastery
Guide
Opened under permission in 1981.
County’s
Heyin
Home to a thousand monks.
(first printing July 1990), Xining: Qinghai People’s Publishing House.
41
For information on Duoxi and other monasteries, see “Duoxi, Xiashitang, Muheshaxia, and Quemaoyaxiuma,
China Information Broadcast Network, Qinghai Branch, November 4, 2003.
19
Township
Duoxi Monastery
Xiashitang Monastery
Hualong Hui The earliest Bön monastery in
Autonomous
Hualong; first built in Song Dynasty
County’s
Jinyuan
Township
Reopened in 1980; had 54 residents
(mostly followers) back in 2003.
Hualong Hui
Autonomous
County’s
Jinyuan
A subsidiary of Duoxi Monastery; first
built in Song Dynasty
Reopened in 1981; had 88 residents
(mostly followers) back in 2003.
Township
Wangcangma Sutra Hall
Gansal Monastery
Xunhua Salar Home to around a dozen monks; has
Autonomous
County’s
Wendu
Township
one simple sutra hall
Gonghe
County
Built in around 1807.
Home to tens of monks. Run by Living
Buddha Duoju.
Donggeer Monastery
Gonghe
County
Home to tens of monks.
Yaxiuma Monastery
Gangca
County
Sichuan Province
Gouwaxiangzang
Monastery
Zoigê County’s The center of Bön on Ruoergai
Qiuji
Grassland.
Township
Reportedly first built in the second
century or eighth century by Master
Xiangpa.
Home to around a thousand monks at
20
the height of its power.
Currently home to more than a hundred
monks; run by the Living Buddha
Xiangpa Yongzhong Xingao Danzhen.
Sangzhou Monastery
Zoigê County
Currently home to hundreds of monks;
run by Living Buddha Quzhou
Baerrang.
Xiangzang Monastery
Zoigê County’s Under reconstruction; run by Living
Axirong
Buddha Sunge Zhimei
Township
Dajin Monastery42
Zoigê County’s Under reconstruction.
Baozuo
Township
Rilong Monastery
Zoigê County
Zharu Monastery43
Jiuzhaigou
County
First built in the 13th century; home to
around 100 monks
Zhimadajiu, Jiuzhaigou
Each is home to tens or hundreds of
Daji,
Dongbei, Shawu, etc.
County
monks.
Xiaoxitianganmi
Monastery44
Songpan
County’s
Shuijin
Township
Subsidiary to Ru Lag gYung Drung
Gling, the famous monastery in Tibet.
Built by Abbot Renqing Jianzan in
1355
Now home to several hundreds of
monks.
42
Also see “Bön of Tibetan Nomadic Tribes in Pasturing Area in Northwestern Sichuan,” China Tibet Online,
Religion, Bön, Activities, www.tibetinfor.com.cn.
43
Also see Xing Lin, The Mysterious Lamaism in the Eastern Snow-Covered Land, Haikou City: Nanhai
Publishing House, November 1998, pp. 153-156.
44
Also see Xing Lin, ibid, pp. 151-153; Baimacuo, “Introduction to Bön Buddha Dance of Songpan County,”
Tibetan Studies, 1998, No.1, pp. 85-90.
21
Kaya, Yuanba, Shanba, Songpan
Jiaochangba, Shangnami, County
Longtou, Naluo, Linpo,
Duihe, etc.
Each is home to tens to hundreds of
monks.
Zhayongzhong, Chacha, Songpan
Jinzang,
Chuanzhu, County
Jiamucan, Kaka, and
Chagou Monasteries
Chalong Monastery and Hongyuan
Mase Monastery
County
Each is home to about a hundred
monks.
Weier Monastery
Xiwei Monastery
Heishui County created its own
Buddhist Association in 1983 and
and Heishui
County
decided to reopen the two monasteries.
Each currently has tens of monks.
Langyi Monastery45
Ngawa
Currently
China’s
largest
Bön
County’s
Waerma
Township
monastery.
The second Langyi built the Ganglai
Buda Monastery, the first Bön
monastery in Ngawa. Later the 29th
Langyi built a branch in 1754.
Rebuilt in 1980. Currently home to
more than a thousand monks.
Organizes the Bön Gexi degree exam
Home to the Shangzang Culture
Association (founded by Danzeng
Nima et al. in 2000).
Duodeng Monastery
45
Also see xiangzang.nev.cn.
Ngawa
County’s
Waerma
Township
Built by the Duodeng Lama in 1658 as
a branch of Ganglai Buda Monastery.
Reopened under permission in 1983;
second-class state protection unit;
currently home to more than four
22
hundred monks
Langyi and Duodeng are two of the
most important Bön monasteries in
Ngawa.
Zuluo Monastery
46
Dongle Monastery
Ngawa
County’s
Anqiang
Built before the fourth year of the rule
of Emperor Tongzhi of Qing Dynasty
Now home to several hundreds of
Township
monks.
Ngawa
County’s
Built after the fourth year of the rule of
Emperor Tongzhi of Qing Dynasty
Luoerda
Township
Eecha,
Gazu, Barkam
Moladuodenglangqing,
County
Yangrigang,
Genshaer,
Mengyan, etc.
monks.
Gazha, Chabei, Erju, etc.
Barkam
County
Wolong Monastery
Wenchuan
County
Dawa Monastery
Xiaojin County Home to about a hundred monks.
gYung
sTeng
Drung
lHa Jinchuan
County’s
Anning
Township
The largest Bön monastery in Jiarong
Tibetan region. The center of Bön for
Duokang and even for the whole Tibet
during the late development period of
Bön. The Jiarong Tibetan region,
whose center happens to be this
monastery, is known in history as the
“second Shangxiong.”
46
For information on four Bön monasteries in Aba County also see “Traveling in Aba County, Holy Mountains
and Pure Land,” Sichuan Province Tourism Bureau, www.gasta.gov.cn, August 9, 2006. “Bön,” Aba County’s
Culture, www.jowong.com.
23
Reportedly built in the second century
as a small-scale temple, further
expanded in the eighth century.
Rebuilt as a Gelug monastery in 1776
at the request of the Qing Imperial
Court, known as Kwangbop Monastery
Renovated in 1986 with state funds of
300,000
dollars.
Reopened
in
December 1990.
Changdu Monastery47
Jinchuan
One of the major Bön monasteries in
County’s
Sawajiao
Township
Jinchuan. First built in more than a
thousand years ago by Langsong
Lazhang Danbei Jiamucan, the brother
of chieftain Chuosiji.
Opened under permission in 1984;
reconstruction work also began at the
same time; now home to several
hundreds of monks
Runs the Yongzhong Bön portal site
(opened by the Living Buddha Xinjia
Danzhen in November 2002).
Reguo Monastery
Jinchuan
County
Home to tens of monks.
Kanbu Monastery
Jinchuan
County
Home to about a hundred monks.
Lama, Qionge, Roureer, Jinchuan
Gaerluo,
Baa,
Bale, County
Kagong, Menggu, Bazhai
and other monasteries
Bangta, Dazhai, Huashan, Kangding
Yutong,
and
other County
47 See www.yzbj.com.
Each is home to about ten monks.
24
monasteries
Waluo, Dasong, Derimu, Danba County
Dajili,
Qinglong,
Ningguo, Zengbo and
Each is home to tens of monks.
other monasteries
Gega,
Qimigunba,
Sangdao, Dawu County
and
Dangbaliucu monasteries
Rili, Duola, and Wangda Luhuo County
monasteries
48
monks.
Gelong Monastery
Garzê County
Home to about 10 monks.
Ye Shes
Xinlong
Reportedly built by Sangda Langka
County’s Jalaxi Yixi in Zhama Duozha in 838 49 ;
Township
Rebuilt in 1849 by Dongdeng Gongbu
at Jiwu.
Opened in 1983, listed as one of
Sichuan Province’s feature monasteries
in 1985; home to hundreds of monks,
including one Living Buddha, in recent
years50
dBal Khyung51
Xinlong
Houses
a
handwritten
copy
County’s
Kangyur, which dates back to more
48
According to Luhuo County Annuls by Luhuo County Annuls Compilation Committee, there are two Bön
monasteries and one Bön congregation place in the county. The two monasteries are Heijin Monastery and
Jirong Monastery (both opened under permission in 1984). The congregation place is called Wangda (opened
under permission in 1988). Chengdu: Sichuan People’s Publishing House, April 2000, p. 402.
49
Yang Chia-ming. “A Study on the Masks Used in Buddha Dance in Monasteries and Tibetan Plays in Sichuan
Province’s Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture,” Journal of Kangding Nationality Teachers College, 2006,
No.1.
50
Li Qing-guo (a teacher at the Department of Tibetan Language in Kangding Nationality Teachers College),
“Religious Beliefs and Wedding and Funeral Customs for Tibetan Communities in Sichuan Province’s
Xinlong County,” Journal of Southwest University for Nationalities (humanities and social science), 2006,
No.8, retrieved from www.sss.net.cn, September 19, 2006.
51
Also see “Introduction to Handwritten Copies of Bön Kangyur,” www.china-ganzi.cn, October 27, 2005.
of
Longxi
Township
25
than 140 years ago
Gongjia, Jiagai, Menle, Xinlong
Lake,
Lunpo, Wasa, County
Zhaye,
and
other
monasteries
monks.
Lula,
Tanggong, Yajiang
Baimaru,
and
monasteries
other County
Longgen Monastery
52
Litang County
Yeren Monastery
Jiulong County Home to tens of monks;
The 8th Zhangjia Living Buddha serves
as the abbot.
sTeng Chen53
Dêgê County’s Built by eminent Bön monk the Living
Zhongzhake
Buddha Reba in 587-618.
Township
Fell into the jurisdiction of Chieftain
Dege in late Ming Dynasty and early
Qing Dynasty. Home to 300 monks
back in 1950.
Reopened in 1987; 54 now home to
about a hundred monks
Jizharizuo Monastery
Dêgê County’s Built in 587-613 by Living Buddha
Zhongzhake
Township
Genqiu Monastery
Reba
Dêgê County’s Built in 1585 by Pengxi Baima.
Zhongzhake
Township
Cuotong Monastery
Dêgê County’s Built by Momu Duozha in 987; had
52
A Brief Introduction to Yeren Monastery of Jiulong County,” www.yzbj.net.
53
For the ten monasteries in Dêgê County, also see Dêgê County Annuls, Dêgê County Annuls Compilation
Committee, Chengdu: Sichuan People’s Publishing House, May 1995, p. 483.
54
Zhou Xi-yin and Wang Chao, The Earliest Tibetan Religions, p. 392.
26
Langduo
Township
Dêgê County’s Built in the 15th century; once home to
Manjin Monastery
Wentuo
Township
Mumai,
Secuo,
Tade,
and
monasteries
115 monks back in 1950; now home to
dozens of monks
Riban, Dêgê County
Rongjia
159 monks in 1950; now home to
dozens of monks
monks.
Gere Monastery
Baiyü County
Zonglu Monastery
Baiyü County
Tibet Autonomous Region55
Xiaxi, Genhui, Daxi, Jomda County
Sexi, Bengge, Lachi,
Wangcang,
Zhuodongricuo
monasteries
The eight monasteries are home to
about a thousand monks.
and
Sala Monastery and 13 Zogong
other monasteries
County
The fourteen monasteries are home to
several hundreds of monks.
Chage Monastery
Lhorong
County
Home to hundreds of monks; run by
the Living Buddha Jiarong Yongzhong.
rTse Drug56
Dêngqên
Known as the Bön monastery with the
County’s Jueen greatest number of followers and the
Township
most complete set of rituals.
Built in the period under the rule of
Muchi Zanpu, the second King of
Tǔbō; one of the 37 places where
Vajrayāna
Buddhism
followers
practiced their religious beliefs; rebuilt
in 1382 by Renzeng Kangzhu.
55
For information on monasteries in Tibet Autonomous Region, see “Introduction to Tibet,” http://info.tibet.cn,
July 1, 2005.
56
Also see “A Brief History of Zizhu Bön Monastery, Zizhu Monastery portal site, www.zizhusi.org.
27
Renovation began in 1982; Dingzhen
Ese Rinpoche assumed the position as
the 43rd Living Buddha in 1993;
currently home to more than 200
monks; runs a portal site.
Rizezhuzhimailangdaling, Dêngqên
Qiongpodingqing,
County
Guogong,
Yongzhongbaerdi,
Narusangdeng,
monks.
Jile,
Sechaxiare, and Gericuo
monasteries
Nearly 20 small-scale
monasteries
including
Bada Xicang
Luomengrong Monastery
Currently have more than a thousand
monks.
Qamdo
Lakang,
Bengde, Prefecture
Yangtang, Jiwa, Bude,
and
Qionggan
Home to about a hundred monks.
57
Currently have more than a thousand
monks
monasteries
Klu Phug
58
Baqên
County’s
Baqên
Township
Known as “the first branch of sMan
Ri”; built by the Living Buddha Benre
Chijia in 1732.
Designated
a
“patriotic
and
law-abiding monastery” by the
government; Listed as one of the three
major monasteries in the region in
1985.
Luchu
Monastery
and Nagchu59
Each accommodates about a hundred
57
The name of the county where the monastery is located is not found in www.yzbj.com.
58
Also see Gongsai Ningpo, A Preliminary Discussion on Shangshung Civilization, pp. 241, 273-275.
59
28
Sangde Monastery
monks.
Bacang and several other
dozens of small-scale
Currently have about a thousand
monks
monasteries
Sejiagengqin Monastery
Daze Monastery
Benri
Mountain
Built by Ranba Zhusai from Kham in
to 1333 (around 757 according to some);
the west
Nyingchi
County
of also known as Kangba Monastery;
organizes Eagle-Worshipping Festival
from April 13 to April 15 of Tibetan
calendar.
Nyingchi
Reportedly dates back to more than
County’s Daze 200 years ago.
Township
Wuzeng
Sanwa Nyingchi
Yongzhuo Monastery
Prefecture60
Guxiu Monastery
Nichi
Home to more than a thousand monks
at the height of its power; now has two
Buddha halls.
Village The old, 18-meter tall cypress in the
to the west of yard of the monastery is reportedly
Nyingchi
planted by sTon Pa gShen Rab Mi Bo
County
himself.
First built in 1332; renovated in 198461
Shangri Monastery62
Nyêmo County Belongs to the Meiwu Clan
sMan Ri
Namling
Hailed as the master monastery by Bön
County’s
Wuyu District
followers; built in 1405 by mNyam
Med Shes Rab rGyal mTshan, who
specializes in Exoteric Buddhism,
Vajrayāna Buddhism, Zen Buddhism
60
Ibid.
61
“The Ten Thousand-Year-Old Cypress,” www.yiyou.com, January 24, 2006.
62
Tsering Thar, “the Current Situation of Bön and Its Cultural Integration with Society.”
29
and is as well known and as
well-respected as Tsongkhapa.63
Now home to about a hundred monks.
Ru Lag gYung Drung Namling
Gling
County’s
Numa
Township
Built in 1834 by Dawa Jianzan in 1834
(1894 according to some).
Previously home to three hundred to
five hundred monks.
Dubbed a “patriotic and progressive
monastery” in the days of “democratic
reform,”
Now home to around a hundred monks.
Seguochamu Monastery
Xaitongmoin
County’s
Tading
Township
Built by Xindun Yixi Luozhuo of the
Muxin Clan, a descendant of sTon Pa
gShen Rab Mi Bo, in 1161; belongs to
the Xincang Clan
Renovated with state funds in 1988
Sejie Monastery
Xaitongmoin
County’s
Tading
Township
Xindalading Monastery
Xaitongmoin
Built in 1179 by Yixi Luozhuo.
Renovated by Wending Lakang in
1985.
County
Zhuomu Baima and other Shigatse64
monasteries
Yongzhong Sangdianlin65
Nyima
County’s
Wenbu Village
Yuben Monastery66
Nyima
Reportedly the oldest Bön monastery.
63
“Bön of Tibetan Nomadic Tribes in Pasturing Area in Northwestern Sichuan,” China Tibet Online, Religion,
Bön, Activities, www.tibetinfor.com.cn.
64
65
Li Lu-yang, “Bön Culture in Villages in Northwestern Tibet,” China Tibet, 2002, No. 6, p. 48.
30
County’s
Qiongzong
Located in the neighborhood of Tangra
Yumco, a famous Holy Lake. The vast
area of architectural remains to the east
of the lake are said to be one of the
palaces of the ancient Shangshung
civilization.
Gurujiang Monastery67
Gar
County’s Built in 1936 by the Qiongqin Living
Mense
Township
Buddha Jinmei Langga Duojie at the
site of the 2,900-year-old cave where
Master Zhenba Nanka practiced
religious teachings.
Rebuilt in recent years; known as a
monastery “practicing both Bön and
Buddhism”68; Dubbed “the only Bön
monastery left in Ngari Prefecture” by
Bön followers.
Ⅴ. Conclusion
There has been substantial progress in publication of Bön literature,
reconstruction of Bön monasteries, and training of Bön monks in Tibetan
regions of China in recent years. These developments contribute not just to
the promotion of Bön religion but also to the preservation and development of
Tibet’s tradition and culture.
The compilation and publication of Bön canon, for example, produced
66
“The Ruins of Shangshung Kingdom,” www.tibetinfo.net.cn.
67
Suolang Qujie, “Eminent Bön Monk Jinmei Duojie and His Activities in India,” Tibetan Studies, 2002, No. 3,
pp. 74-79.
68
Huo Wei, “Exploring the Mysterious Ancient Shangshung City,” China Tibet, www.tibet3.com, October 30,
2006.
31
an immediate positive effect on the development of Tibetology. Such effect is
summed up in the words of the scholar Tsering Thar:
The sudden appearance of such enormous quantity of Bön manuscripts
has inspired some substantive actions in Tibetology circles around the
world. The Norwegian Academy of Science’s Center for Advanced
Studies put together a group of scholars from several countries in the
period between 1995 and 1996 to catalogue and conduct research on
Bon Blon Nam mKha’ bsTan ‘Dzin’s version of Bön canon. The
National Museum of Ethnology Research Institute in Osaka, Japan also
organized a large-scale research project on Bön culture, and has
published a version of Tengyur with catalogue. The Research Institute
is consistently publishing its research on this field.69
The growth of Bön religion also has positive meanings for the economic
development in Tibet. Monasteries in Tibet still adhere to the time-honored
tradition of conducting large-scale festivities on religious festivals to give the
locals an opportunity to exchange goods.70 Since China introduced the new
policy of opening-up and reform, the government has been practicing the
principle of “culture as the root and economy and trade as the blossom and
fruit” by investing in hardware facility development for monasteries in Tibet,
thereby stimulating the economic activities of the locals. In addition, most
Bön monasteries in Tibet are located in scenic, remote, and sparsely populated
places, and many are located in the proximity of well-known holy mountains,
69
Tsering Thar, “Formation and Development of Buddhist Canon.”
70
Baimacuo, “Introduction to Bön Buddha Dance of Songpan County,” Tibetan Studies, 1998, No.1, pp. 87-88.
32
holy lakes, and ancient cities. Many of these monasteries, including several
major ones, became tourist attractions instantly following improvements in
transportation.
The Tibetan people are a devoutly religious ethnic group who once
followed the long-standing political system where the religious leader is
concurrently the political leader. It is worth observing what kind of impact the
revival of Bön religion is likely to have on the social life of the Tibetan people
and the political situation in Tibet.
Since the introduction of its opening-up and reform policy, China has
allowed Tibetan Buddhism and Bön followers to resume the reincarnation
system. As such, the Living Buddha is held in high esteem as it was before in
the eyes of Tibetan people today, and also exercises a certain extent of
influence on political affairs in Tibet. A Chinese scholar once compared the
Living Buddha to “a nonofficial leader.”71 It is reported that in the pasturing
areas of northwestern Sichuan Province, “Bön beliefs run deep in all aspects
of lives of the local Tibetan people.” They practice their beliefs by sending
young boys to work as monks in monasteries and giving alms to monasteries
in exchange for the removal of natural disasters and illness… “The Bonpo is
asked to act as a mediator whenever there is an armed fight between the
herdsmen. He fulfills this role by asking for the Living Buddha’s divine
71
Xu Jun, “Formation, Classifications, and Functions of Living Buddha System in Tibetan Buddhism”: “The
regional administrative power of the Living Buddha has been taken away by government agencies, but
sometimes the Living Buddha still plays a supplementary role in regional administrative work, fulfilling the
role of what management studies describe as non-official leader.”
33
intervention through divination.”72 Another example is the Living Buddha in
Yang Lan Gong Ba in Qinghai Province’s Guinan County, who also plays a
dominating role over local affairs and is the subject of many studies.73 Some
scholars have already expressed their concern over the possibility that “a few
of the abolished religious privileged class are coming back to life,” “to
meddle in administrative, judicial affairs, as well as the livelihood and daily
lives of the local people.”74
Traditionally, Tibet is caught somewhere in between Han Chinese and
Tibetan people. In the eyes of Tibetan regions, Tibet is nothing more than a
peripheral tribe or religious sect. On the political front, it tilts toward the
central government, and therefore has to contend with local political regime
of Lhasa. One example of this is the Qiongbu Tibetan region to the northeast
of Lhasa. The Luopo Monastery in Baqên County of the region, for example,
“actively supported democratic reform and suppression of revolt during the
democratic reform, thereby earning itself the reputation as a law-abiding,
patriotic monastery.”75 When Communist China was dealing with political
events involving Tibetan Buddhist monasteries, there were reports of Bön
followers “leading the way for the Chinese Liberation Army to attack the
monastery.”76 Therefore, the growth of Bön religion might be helpful in
72
“Bön of Tibetan Nomadic Tribes in Pasturing Area in Northwestern Sichuan,” China Tibet Online, Religion,
Bön, Activities, www.tibetinfor.com.cn.
73
Xu Jun, “Formation, Classifications, and Functions of Living Buddha System in Tibetan Buddhism.”
74
“A Study on Ethnic and Social Issues in Northwestern Development,” ed. Chen Jia-gui, Northwestern
Development Report, China Social Sciences Press, 2000.
75
“A Brief Introduction to Luopo Monastery of Baqên County in Tibet’s Nagqu Prefecture,” www.yzbj.com.
76
Weise, “A Story about a Bön Living Buddha,” A Poem Entitled Tibet (overseas version of Tibet Journal,”
34
maintaining the so-called “stability” in the Tibetan regions. After the unrest in
the Tibetan regions in 1959, many Bön monks and followers started their lives
in exile overseas, but some of them remained in Dharmsāla and held
important positions. It is worth observing whether Bön followers in China’s
Tibetan regions are able to get their hands on more political resources from
the local authorities to build up their power.
(This paper was reviewed in the 542nd MTAC commissioner meeting and the
1095th MTAC administrative meeting on February 12, 2007. Revision was completed
on May 1, 2007.)
http://www.gangjanba1.googlepages.com.

A Discussion on the Recent Situation of Bon Religion in the Tibetan

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