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ZENTRUMFÜR MEDIZINISCHE
ETHIKBOCHUM
T/ l\h\ ^, \a
/T
/fl
MEDIZI
N ETH
ISCHE
MATERIALIEN
Heft 35
D O U B L E H E L I C E SO F M E D I C A L E D U C A T I O NI N C H I N A
VON
Renzong Qui
Zhen Yu
Bochum
Mai 1989
Der Inhalt der veröffentlichten Beiträge deckt sich nichr immer mir der Auffassung
cles ZIINTRUMS FÜR
NlEDIZINISCHE ETHIK BOCHUM.
Er wir.d aIIein Vorn Autor
verant\vorret. Seine Veröffentlichung dient der Diskussion.
Prof. Dr. phil. Renzong Qui, geb. 1932, Direktor der Programmabteilung Bioethik,
Mitglied des lnstituts fitr Philosophie, Chinesische Akademie für Sozialwissenschafren,
5 Juanguomen Nei Da Jie, Beijing, Volksrepublik Ch ina.
Zhen Yu, Assistent an der Abteilung für Philosophieder Wissenschaftenund Medizin.
C a p i t a l M e d i c a l C o l l e g e ,B e i j i n g , V o l k s r e p u b l i kC h i n a .
Schufzgebühr
DM I0,_
Copyright: Hans-Martin Sass und llerbert Viefhues
Schutzgebühr:
Dlvi
|HE
ro
Herausgeber:Prof. Dr. phil. Hans-Martin Sass, Institut für Philosophie,Ruhr-Univers i t ä t B o c h u m u n d K e n n e d y l n s t i t u r e o f E t h i c s , G e o r g e c o w nU n i v e r s i r y , W a s h i n g t o n ,
D. C. 20057
Prof. Dr. med. llerbert Viefhues, DMSA (Edin.), Zenrrum
chum, Postfach l0 21 48, 4630 Bochum I
f ,1. M e d i z i n i s c h e E t h i k B o -
DOUBLE HEI-I C?S OF }IEDICAL
Tlre history
of
china's
medical
short
though, i ts
Crad i ti onal
-qince
the
eclucacion
schooI
EDUCATION
education
counterpart
western
of
IN
of
CHI T-{A
mod,ern type
dated
type
from
the
has been an i ntr i caie
and chang i ng
i nteracc
traditional
chinese
and meclicine
of
modern
titutes
medicine()1lI)..qnd
a perpecuat
Ehe pol i ri ca1 and
in
I -sn
medicine(TcMl
outline
of
i deo] ogi caI
chinese
master,sometimes
cuEion
of
medical
wir-h thls
ceniury
inco
t!,pe
interaction
cons-
eniangled,
times.
and lledieval
Educatiorr--one
Tcll educat i on
HeIi-x
i n anci eni
and medi ev.al
student
."'as edr:cated as an apprenci ce under
ui:cler his facher,or
in a go\;errrmenL-run
educacion.chinese
racher
i on between
western
chal I enge being
di spur.e at. al I
Ancient
Medical
weJ-e Ewo Forms of
c h i n a ' A m e d ' ic a I
deat
and recalcitranc
Government-Run
There
how to
6th
was incroduced
Chi na, there
or
is
hi s
insti-
scholars
irar.e noc -v-et no,4:
on the tj,me when che go,,.,ernmenc-run
insticution
of medicar education
came inco beirrg?.7.1o'33ahough,
it
seems thaC Ehe go!:ernment_run
i n s t i c u c i o n o f m e d i c a I e d u c a t i .o n
reached
an agreement
tuith stancla:-d size,s!'sEem ancl curriculum
starced in Sui D!'nascy(5sr
-6rs '?'7 ':'o'33 durirrg
wrrich ilre orf ice for Imperial phs.sicians
respc)llsible
for
C.reirrlrrg cortrC phs-SicianS rt:äS seE, r.lp- .tpd:.Cs SIaff
col'lsisted
of chiet -plrärnlaciscs. phl'sicirrns,nredicul
a c e c t e r n ic i a n s . a s sisr-irnts ancl or:hers.Ancl in Tanü Dt,nästy.r
t , l S - 9 0 7 I \ ^ i r s n r ( ) r e p e l _ fe c c
. this
lii ncl oF go\.et-rrntent_rLur
rnedical educacit.rn in uliich
Elre
cel'tiral
institrltion
af filiatect
Lo ct'le orfice
pfr!,-sifgr Inrperial
ciaris emplc.rsecll'r.r11parts or sLäf F:ar.llilirrisr-rür-r.rr-s.reErcl.rers.clirri_
cians
end
medical
For
acadernicians
Iraining
ofFicials
there
of
Pharnlacist*s.:rrrd the
or
u"ere dif
lOegI
otres tirlere
s c r r n ( : t i n t , J sr ^ , o r l i e r J
a.d
h,.ere seL up in some scirtes
"Jisr-ancs
clle pltl'siciarrs resporrsit'rle for. Ilre c,3re of locai
sonrecintes oF civilians.lo
In che cenEr-aI inst.it,ution
Ferenl
sl)eeialities
w l r i c t r r e c l r . r i i - e c lr l i F f e r e 1 1 L
schooling.(Fig.1)
Ä
I
le'gcl-r
Fig.1
Speciaities
and Lengrlr of
i n Tang Dl'nasty 19 ' 35
D ep a r t m e n t
Schooling
Specialties
Internal
Length
of
School !ng(t,r.
)
Medicine
Pediacrics
I'ledi c i ne
Surger!'
E. N. T.
Ph}'si cal
Therapl'
l.lassaget incl
u n irr c)k:rt
Traunlatologl'l
I ncantat
i on
. A C U p U n C tU r 9
It
r , ^ : a ss l r o u ' n t h a t
an es,aminaCion s!'stem
rned,ical educalion-The
st\"s
studenLs
ärrd 5'earI1' examinations-Those
were assigned
esaminations
had
to
did
make up tlrem. I f
Tlte marli
of
who did
on,e tv'[o had been SEudl'i ng
ex,arninations''had to
a student
1n
b!' them. "'Tfte
the
exceedingl!'weIl
a post,those
be dismissed
u:as graded
curricuJum
on the
u'as d,ivided
rate
inco
basic
Tang t)l-na-
in
not
their
pass
them
f O n i rre ].ears
from
of
in
monchll',seasonl:z
h0
pass
rrot
there
pass
had to
who did
to
e_rrsted
the
curing
irrstltutionparients
courses
includirrg
classics
such as =suWerJ(EIementary Inquii-iesl,yino
Tano< Light
caot.Hateria Medical,llei
p
u
t
s
e
)
JinorClassics
on
etc. ,
HaI l ),Ben
and
specialized
ties-efter
courses
Tang D!'nast'' medical
t.hough,e-gl .addirrg
ritrg
includirrg
tlre
medical
clre classics
education
sonle specialti.es
officjals
to
in
pass
of
various
speciai-
goC some det,elopment
Song DS,nast\,(96O-1?7g),requi-
qualificatiorr
e.s,anlination,sus-
pend i ng tlre
tlr€
pracc i ce of
.i rrcompetent rrract i t i orrers. ärrd errcouragcommutticacion between phl'siciarrs
arrd teaclrers( e. g.,nleetirlgs
\r:€l-€ t-eelularly'lteld
for
physiciarrs
€ s , 1 . r g r ie l l c € : 5 f r c , r m e a c l r c l t l i e r
in
Jin(
Ds'nest!'rIll6s-16330
nredical
Strd tr'aS irrferior,at
least
l'roth jn
medi cal
(1644-1911)
elicept
the
for
tl're recellc
älrd e-\clla,rrge opi rri crrrs l-.retween Llr€nr)
educacion
appeared
nc)t -superior
to
teacfrirrg ärrd e-\amirration
merrt-run
College
Eo ]earn
r arrd Yuant L?-71-1365) Dt'nasties.Horr,eVer
I11.5-I?3!
D!'rrasties
ärrd teaclters
tlrat
in
Lo cieclirre
in
sc)rnelrow,
Song or
system,.qnd
l,lirrg
the
Yuan
govern-
educat j on def i ni tel t, dec l i rred i n ei rrg lrvrrasty
tlre e-\clusion
I*perial
of
irrcantations
Ph!'siciarrs
h:hac shoutd
a progress.'
F)
ärrd prat,ers
be counced
as
from
cheory
vJere not
i n the
anci ent
gwo separate
uras under
and
diagnosing
in
up a
and bring
train
is
i t
not
Lhe gol'ern-
the
d!'nascies
qulte
competent
TCM theor\/.
medi -
of
one hel ix
uJas onl''
chere
say thac
to
fair
whi ch
t.he!' seemed co
some diseases,however,
Creating
make no contr i but i on to
But
chrough
who \tere
phl,si cians
of
loc
of
i n character
ideotogl'-Hence
educacion
medicai
of
inscit,ucion
menc-ruf,''
CherapeuC i cs
of
I y phi I osoph i cat
dominat.ing
then
of
concrol
r e a l 1y '
wes Lhe system
ocher
experience,the
somewhac natural
the
were
facc, there
of
medical
in
co whac had been said
cling
instead
cs. as a matcer
on personal
theory,
m e c l ic a l
did
classi
but
other
brealithrough
or
S ! , S t e m s 1 n T C M ,o n e w a s C h e s y s t e m
based
nrainly
promoced
on the
students;
maLie development
to
initiatives
hand,the
gradi ng marli of
crl t.eri on of
main
the
che
patients
curing
of
raLe
diagnosing
uray with
a tradicional
in
cexcbool;,s and the
as
classics
ancienC
of
and techniques
knowledge
weFe taught
dlseases
and treattng
eduCat i on f*rere
_ m e c li c a I
government-run
the
on che one hand, the
thac
as
of
feacures
The
or middle ages. Accordrng to one
eclucacion in Chinese ancient
. [9
sruo!.' srnce Zhsng Oiant in 13.8 and f f9 B-C. r ancl Ban Chaoiin 73
A . D . ) w e r e S u C C e S S ir . , eI ! , s e n t t O t h e l . J e s t , e r n R e g i o n s , C h e C o m m u ni C a -
cal
Sun Simiaor 561-632)'
q\loced
ced
Indian
eei jing.And
or.lese was set
meclicine
lllng
in
wtr-h
E() set
schoo.I
meclical
{,^re
I nsc i cuce set
CoI Iege
nrectic:ine in
of
Onr:
Rising
a greoI
ancl
the
nunllJer of
OLht:r
or
scllooI's.ln
Cr)nltregat ionAl Chlrrch first
Guonqzhr)r:- -Bo j i llecli csl School.Tt)Hre
two dozens
of
\l3ge
meclical
etlr.tcar-ion
Heitr"ris
t i e s r e F t r l ni s . s i t ) l r ! r r t e s ( : : ] l l l e c ( )
up clinir:s,hospiLaIs
school.name]."-
nlt)clern
Firl Itn.'t
Of AnteriCal
in
up i n
)lar:r:r:r.Bttrthen
t:() l'Ji(J'5--Tt''r:r
tSfO's
Et-llltlilr-i'.rrt tront
lncrocu-
fortncled b!' Porr-u-
! , e r - s l r o r , ; i r : s a c l v a n r - a g e . a n c t i r - s m e c ti r l u l
l - . 1 €f O r | I r e t Ja r r d p e r f e C t e ( : l I - t . r r ) .
Is-o's
mission
St-Pau]'s
and
Post--Elbou
had noc
II.)leclicrrl
China
D ! ' n a s c - ' , -i n
up a sr-ucll'class
Sl.'SIem or)E l,eI
since
l slam Pharmaceuc i cal
medicine
medicine
Yuan Dynascy uras Arabic
Hedlcine.In
of
r : t -i o F S l { , e r e
s Thorrsanct Gold-Val ued Prescri
Chi na anct an
i nro
of
Pre.scrior-ions
In Tao Hongjing(456-536;'s
began.
E.he field
in
and ochei- councries
beCueen China
cion
Medical
schools
School
in
lSbtj ()l1elll'"dr':Jl
f o u n ( l e d a I n e c l ic a l
r^..Isser- up anor-her
1S99'BV
1914 lhere
founcled b!, imer i can, Br i t i sh, Fren-
ch,'Serman ancl Japanese missions
schools was generally affiliaced
in china'
I?'33
To ehese mecjical
schooI 'HeanuhiIe'
"he
proponenls of wesrernizaLion llovement seE up medical schools in
Hongzhang'a
instänce'Li
tseij i ng , shangha i , Gtlangzhouand Tianjin'For
in the Iote oing Dt'ncsr-!''sLortecl a medic;JI scllool
t-op official
' N o r r - h S e i : r} l e c l i c ä i
in lsgl 'ancl changP(l iEs nanle inLo
in Tianjin
'Naval lleclicat School' Iater'ln
1903 a me(lical
School' in 1s93 and
nursing
Nc'rmal Universiwas aclded to the alreaclr/ escabl ished Beijins
'special Heclical scfrool of Beijino Normcl Urritv.arrd named 1c as
schtrt.)l
v e r s i L : . ' , -' B - - - l 9 3 a E n e r e h a ( l b e e n a l L o g e r - h e r 3 0 h i g h e r m e d i c : t I
grocluä[es'
or colleges all o!er china wi r-h 3.616 sf-uclents ancl 532
inoot
ancl bt' 19.'t 36 higrrer meclicäl schuols or col !elle-s tiirh t3'otl0
s t u c l e nt - s . A m o n g t h e s e L h e r e u e r e l : i t - h e c ( ) r l r s e s $ P r e C i l ( t g h r - i r r
i n E n g l i s h , 3 i n F r e r l c h ' 2 i n G e r m a n' 1 i n J a p a n e s e . . A n d
cninese,lo
feu seE llp snoLnt h e s e c h e n a i n s p e c - i a l g ! ' t d € r sn e c l i c i l l e ' a
antong all
s u c h a s p h a r m a c : ' -o r s t o m a l - o l o g y ' T h e I e n g t h o f s c h o o l
er specialties
5'6io sluding rangecl From 3 to I !'ears'Accorcling Eo a statistics
schools or colleges up Lo l9'9'23A
ent.s rdere graduaLeci from these
Anci their
curricuium
whaL f ol lo!!'s we lr'ilI
union
ltedical
$as similar
illuslrace
Eo Ehe medical school in lves!' 1n
iE wi r-h che esample oF Peliing
ColIege(PU C
19OO 6 missionarl' socrer-res
PU}IChas a tonq zigzag history.In
from Bricein'German-v ancl rhe Unitect sr'ates gni r-ed co sEarf- union
}ledicalcollege('u}lc).DuringchisperiodLhestateswasundergolng
sent
the reform of meclical educaeion.John D- Rockefelier
chres'r.-
c o m m i s s i o n s t o C h i n a s u c c e s s i v e l ) ' . '' A f t e r s t u d : ' - i n g r e p o F t s
m a c l eb v - r - h e s e c o m m i s s i o n s ' c f i e R o c l i e f e on China's mectical situation
sf,artecl by Ehe fami I!'
ller
Foundatlon,a phi lanrhroplc organization
special
a neu niedlcal coltege ln BeiJinel named
that purpose Funds r'üereaIlocaas PeKing Union lleclical college.For
same
ced to the china Medical Bssrflrc B) set ttp in 1915' In Che
the above
l'ear the Foundatlon bought property of ulrc run b!'
$otllcl be
mentioned slli missionar:- socieLies,ancl the new coI Ieqe
buiIc on the Iocaclon of the former Yu !';ang Palace--a mansion
in 1917'The
bui I c durlng che oing D!'nasl-!'--and startecl construcr'ion
in
1913 cleciclecl to starc
of CtlB who bact vlsi Lecl china in I9l5'especiallv
welch'suggethe noted Ieader in American medical ectucation wllliam
anvstecl 'to creaEe as good as a mecllcal college as can be fgund
effecc of medical educawhere ln Euiope ancl America'1--a distant
mojor
menbers
tion
t!'as sec
in
years(uhich
including
tero or
to
tion(transaerred
were.
ir
elghc
for
China)
Ehe States,as
rn
reform
$as
and
is
lengch
so
Unive:-si cy
laIer)
inLo
Deparr-ment of
lhe
gractuated
Fl..lIc. sf
Medic€rl
in
sclrool
formall!'
opened
tfre
in
of
Yale-in-Clrirra
other-s
for
PUYC l.'ere re i t'eraEed:
deIelop
wit'h
ahle
and
enrol I ec.l
L h e m a c l m iC t e c l i n t o
lOO of
a meclical
ch€rr. of
OcIober
l9I9
) t e c l ic a l
f or
schc,ol
nursing
Ehe ne\r bui lil irrU
lhe
en
i r r H r . l l l ; r n . i i iI I i a r n l , i e l c h
CoIlege
foI l(].ing
schcrol ancl hospitäl
cbe ieacting
and
D . R o c l : e f e I I e r , E c l r . , a r . l s H u r n e .!
macle -speeches in $hicfl
and
--T()
sciences
basic
ancl Engl ish
irrauOurar-}on ceaemortt
PlJllC SepLember I5-32.l9:l,Jofrrr
PresiclerrL
the
educa-
as M. D. .
j.n Sepr-ernb€-,rt'3o..{c
of
premedi cal
:O5 sirtr-lerrCs r-ere
Premedicine.onl!'
one
only
scill
of
suCh a-s nraEhematlcs. ph!'sics, Chemisr-rl', biolog),Chi rrese lrrr!9urlges. Fronr 1917 Lo t9:5
oF schooi ing
far
Ehree years
laLer
Yanjing
The
of
insr-icutions
iCeas
and aims
a sEanclarcl conpar-
krror,rnto
t,lesLern ci!'ili-
zaEion;
--To
Lrerin Ctlinese
chers
only
wirh
the
scienrific
pas-s on Knouledge
but
also
and scientists
to
m6rlie con!.ri buti.on
!o
--To
recluire
-.each, to
qual i f iecl plt!'srcians,medical
as highlJ,
their
nor
and abilit!'
t.o do scientlflc
sciences:
'frow' co teach
learn
and
research
medica]
teächers
modify
situacions
to
spirit
Eea-
to
curriculum
ancl Lo rnaintai,n
the
t'o the
and
esisgencies
inseparabi
'what'
io
of
Chinese
the
I i cf' beEr.reen Eeaching
ancl research:
--To
train
students
to
make accurate
obser$ation
to
grasp
the
pro-
per
meLhod of analysis
and Ltrinliing,and
to sol$e probiems b!, own:
--To clevelop graduate srudies
and continulng
ectucätion for medlpracLiLioners
cal
in
China
and to
ancl to
provlcte
disseminate
the
and prevent i on ;
--To become a tripartite
oprimal
moclern meclical
techniclues
for
hnowkeclge
diagnosis,LreaL-
ment
center
eclucat.ron and. medical
C o q u a I i E . \ , ,t h a n
As
for
the
Fig.2
to
research
in
3
I
,
q u a n C i C ! ,.
curriculum
currtculun
of
of
(3
yrs. )
meclicat
China
PUMC see
paffing
uith
FiSure
praccice,medical
more atcention
3.
pur.tc3
Subj ec c
I-Premedicine
of
Years Hours
I . Chi nese Language
2
1Q2
?.English
a)
1q2
Language
N o ce
Eiology(
Bio-
incl .GeneraI
?i3
in
I ab.
2i3
irr lab
I ogy , vetebra E,eZoo I ogy,
E mb r - * , " o
I ogl' , Genec i cs
.11€rfhemaIics
!
C h e mi s c r l '
f,
Qrran
a General,Orral itati
r
!.16
i t a C i v e C h e mi s t r y
b.Organic
r36
Chemistrl,'
6.Phl.'sics
Ii
D.'3
383
.lledicine
( 5
ial>
3 cerms'!'r
I lrr's. i te rnl
t
!:FS.
irr
Precl inical
I . Arralom!' & Hisr-olog!'
n,
-r
-
I st & 2nrl
-ear, FirsI
3. Bi ochemisirt,
a ."Pharmaco I ogl'
trvo te rms
of
& Immunologl'
mato I ogl', Ps!'ch i atry
3rd
yea r
6 . Pat,troI ogl' & Parasi toI og-v7 . l ' t e d i c i n e , P e d , ia t r i c s , D e r -
Cl lnical
I
A-v
5
3.Pfrt'siologl'
5- Bacteriolo0l'
r'r. \
.'
3rd
& lieuro I ogl.'
of
S . S u r g e r ! ' , O r g h q p a e d i c S , t - r ri n o -
term
3rd
y'ear
& arh.5ch
I o g y ' , O p h t h a I m oI o g y . O t . o I a -
years
r Y n g o l o g ! ' , - t C o m a t o1 o g y
Clerkship
I nt,ernsh i p
9. G!'naecologl' & obstetrics
10 .PubIic
(.5 t, h y-ear )
Hl'giene
II . C. P. C.,Histor.v* oF f{edicine
)led i caI
E r , t l lc s , l l e * i c a I
Ps:,-cho I ogl' etc .
In
on
L92!+ f urther
ref orm rr'as made ln
the
seconct year
del lvered, bf,' cI inical
departmants
incerdlsciplinar!'
pl inary
wi th
courses
each
ot,her
teaching.In
or
wi t.h precl inlcal
ses, cardlovascular
diseases.gast,ro-
diseas€s,metabolic
dlsease-s.
were
c I ass
hours
major
changes
I n thi rd
two
class
outpatlent
hours
other
students
a day,and
department
deparcment
i nt,esti nal
things
scat'ed
ln
in
lrere
wards
in
fourt,h
encept, average
year
col laboration
: hematological
disea-
di seases, tubercul
to
In
3 , 9oO .
ous
Lg27 tocal
In
1935 the
follows:
as
as
emphasis
r\rere G interdisci-
and eptctemlc dlseases.
from 4. OOOancl mdre
reduced
among the
year
wi ch rnore
currlculum
a c I erl.q
they'served
one class
horrr
e.s,cept average
as a clert<
a day.
in
Durlng
stud.encs rireFe divicl'ecl lnto
rotaEi.ng
three, groups
c l e p a r t m e n t s . D ur i n g i n E e r n s h i p c h e ! , a r e f i x e c l i n o n e
among cI inical
of follouing
t.hree groups: (l )mecllcine( inctuding p€diaEi'ics.rlermatol o g - ' - ,p s y - c h i a c r y a n d n e u r o l o g y ) ; ( 2 ) s u r g e r y ( i r r c l u c l i n g o r r h o p a e c l i c s , u r i clerliship
the
n o l O g f , ) ; ( 3 ) g l ' n a e C o l r : r g ' .2' 1 t g o l f s t e E r i c S . T f t e
hospi t.al to \rälch cheir
paLierrcs all
irrlerrts sih() ld
3a hr)urs a cla!-.
reSiCle irl
In seconcl ancl
!'ears stuclents $rere girren parl ol r im? lo perf o:m eliperinr:nfb ! , t h e r n s e l v e s . T h e t e s C - s a n d e t i a m i n a r - io n s r , ^ ' e r ev e r l , S e ! e r e
not onl!'
fourth
t . o c h e c l i w l r a I s t u c l e n t s r e m e m b e r e d ,b u t m o n e i m p o r t ' a n L ] ! ' ,
to
e-\änirre
ullderstancling and probIem-soIvirro.'\s a resr-rlt.onl\r
? . ' 3 - 3 . ' i s r - u c l e n r . ss t e r e a b l e t o s t a n d u p t o t t r e s e t e - s . ' - - sa n r l e v e r r t r . l s Il!' orrl!' 3-:6 cüme Lo be graduaEed from cfre coliege.From 192r-a3 3IS
Clleir abi I i t-'- of
s f u c l e n ! s w e r e 9 r 3 c 1 u a t e c l f F o m P l J l l c . a v e r a g Q L 3 - 9 a t ' e a ! - , c h e n t o s Eu i : r s
36 in !936.Bur alI chese graduaces became rhe backbone of
China's
modern medicine arld publ ic health.
Talilng
contjnuing
educarion as one of
main Eas!:s pultc adnirt-
its
e'l altogether
IengE.tt of
3 , O O O - 3 . O O Os r u c l e n t s \ , h o c a m e f r o m a I I o \ . e r C h i n a . T h e
continuing educarion ranged from severa] monEhs to
one
-...ear-ltost of
medical
them beca e the backbone of
original
their
setups
in
service,teachi.ng
or research..4 -\chool of conc!nulng erlucaLion woüId have beerr f ounded i f rhe ltarco PoIo eridOe Irrcj.den! r,,hicfr
marked the beginning
penecl.
In puEting
nical
of the rüar oF Japanese aqgression
had noL nap-
inseparabi I ic!, beEueen prer:en!ive and cliinLo pract.ice ttre students of pultc scuctied public hl,-
Che iclea of
nedicine
Oiene in the ci+y's clistrict(The
Healchl
First
InstituEe of Pubiic
and in the courrEryside( Ding County,Hebei Pro!'ince r wir.h che belief
EnaC Che most effective
! , r a ! ,t o s o l v i n g
such a
health problems
in
country
like
Chlna $ith
populaEion r,'as to
huge number of
hr.g1ene Eo the l.;hole societ!'.and
after
Chis kind of
field
e:icend
educarion
f,,hey |Dore clearI!,
the
ing
tlnderstood the social character of
edici.ne avoid
narrow view of restricting
sertnledlcine onlli t.o clinical
lä
other
mectlcal
some clegree
At
or
that
abroacl
!{owever.ln
but
col leges
moderm Eype (üere simi iar
of
uriLh shorter
Eime those
of
urho urere trained
general
Iy
loolied
spite
of
Lhat
some TC!,l schools.At
Iength
the
at
d o r , r r no n o r
the
proponents
end oP eing
school ing
the
even
of
Dynasty
and
dith
pt.jllc in
louer
scanctarcl.
r\tll col leges
rdere hosLi Ie
in
to
TCI'I.
Tc}t unt,ie}dingly
at
leasC
China
6 schools
.set up
run
ing,Jiansu' Duby local people were foundecl in zhejiang'Shanghai,Beij
ring :'he 191a-38 another dozens schools were set up- But up to 1947
q'el I organl? of theB rrere closecl.This kind of TCM schools vrere not
ancl no longer existed üthen the Peoeven unqualified,
zed,loosely.or
ple.s
Republ ic
every
students
was founded.The
nunber of gracluate
lacking
unlinoern because of
!,rear are
and undergraduate
Le!.
statistics'
oF
Its length
the esaEple of Snanghai SPeciaI TCM School.
!üas as f ol lorts:
school ing q.'as 5 years ancl curricutun
l s t l r e a r : p h ! ' s i o l o g y , m a t e r i a n e d i c a ( B e n c a o ) , m e c l ic a l l a n g u a g e ' c h l -
us take
nese language, cal I lgraph!"wri ting;
m e c t i c a 'o n F e v e r s ( S h a n g H a n ) ,
z n c t ! . r e a r :p n ! ' s i o l o g y , n a t e r l a
Lun),Chinese Ianguage' cal I igraph-w-'wricrlptions(Fang
on pres-
t:n9;
3rcl !,'ear:oR Golden Cabinet(J1n Gul ),on HisceI Ianeous Diseases (Za
for warmness and Hotness(wen Ri),Chinese
Bj.ng),on prescriptlons
I anguage , cal 1i graph:/, wr i rin9.
warmness and Hotness.Four l'lethods of Dlagnoath ]rear:clerkship,on
sl s, g!,naeco I og!', pecli ar-r i cs, sllrger-"-, medi caI caseg, Ch i nese I anguage;
5th year; I nr-ernshi p.
I I I . A Dream of
After
medical
the
the
ecluceEion
plemented.As
of
founding
eclucacton
ege ancl !o
ed.r
In
nihi
I ism
of
was taken
reform
Eaking
a resttlc,all
a great
hest Ch who
e-\tPnt
carget
iE,and
s:"sLenr arrd visual
Union
Sosiet-
and
that
out
of
the
mecliclne
$hich
ha(l been a part
i nclPpenctenl
Lhe premeclir:al
1?33
e:iattlple lda-q ilr-
icleal
as an
becsme an
period'ln
1952-55
$ecl i cs I
co I t -
eclucar-ion t.'gs Nealien-
a conlpeign atlirinsc
s.)-coI led
nationsl
oF
( c h i c h t t : os u a l l ! : l B i n . r - l r e n s e c r c r a r : "
'Feudal me(licin{:'
ancl mocle al.LetllTCll as a
of
hacl repUcllate(l
pE.s Lo el itninaEe
during
schools
1955 l-as carried
r-he main
piace
ln
change
che dramal. i c
Reprrbi ic
People's
ty- Ltas sepäraEecl
universi
TC}l wl t,h llll
Integreting
Elso
pr()tttDt-ed sö-csl
celrr:lring mer.hod ilr medicsl
ied
spcc'ia I tt"-ori
educaLir)tl
ettt-cd
itr oI'(ler
cu
t-o mee! r-he unf)recedellt-l:,'
persollnel
17 t'ang
's
the
led co
gr()wlng demand of medical care.6'
Biri
claims
of TClt, clre hreakening of premeclrcal edrrcät ion ancl mecllsuppression
-*peect Up
cal
Eheory
trainlnO
ceaching
of
medical
and
cbe bringing
S
urr of
ctocLors
tfho
knelt
onlt
something
within
an ancidote
ces
basic
seens
wang's
of
his
to
overdose - Boch
clatms
training,
and puEtirrg
narrou, specialized
and the
instead
TCi'l in
anl'rappropriace
I
I
I
rt
of
turning
aI I
of
or
medical
autonom!: of
and
research
intervsl
of
or
macte general
colleges.The
qualiCl,
higher
Iine
wiCh
the
u'ell
as
ancl cleprir,,ecl
the
nornlärl orcler
campalgns
to
which
es put
Iabour'
eclucar-ion
n e e c l , w . a sa b l e
r - l ^ , ' op o t i t i c a l
between
gengrai
inEo social ist.
.+ncl
'
E
d
r
.
r
c
a
t
i
o
r
r
\di:rs
must -serve
be overclepenclenc on politics
uniue.ities
it.
ancl Superstructure
oF action
eclucärIiorr to
training.
overestimating
Etre gr.ricling thought of eclucation
prolecerrian
p r - r Ii t i c s
arrcl be combinecl wi ctr procJuctive
course
consequen-
Lranstormar:ion
act.uarl lt'
ic' lacer-Tlris
as
even toda],-:weir,ltening
lrricl dorun t,he
on socialisr:
basis
campaign
che specialized
posiCion
China
the
ng negative
I ef t
overemphasizing
oF -sc)ciali-sm tr'hich cenlerecj
ptlrpose
far-reachi
campai gn are
1953 Clre CommunisC part5'
In
fieid.BuE,
a-s
E,frac ceaching
be kepC onlt,
place
tooK
in
tfre
inCermi t-
t e n El : r :
1956-3'7 Recti f icertion
ltovement ancl campaign
195S-59
Campaign of
Big
1964-66
Campatgn of
Soctal i st
1966-76
Cul tural
I
issued
i on I'tao requi red
medical
and healch
to
the
to
or
three
two
that'
never
out
had another
of
foIlowlng
well
transf
graduating
the
revotutlon,
wi th
on Lhe rural
erring
lengch
splte
veloplng
of
alt
of
before
chat
TCr*[co create
never-come-crue
clrearn-Thi s
chinese
aFter
though
in
a zLgzag rrray since
eFfect
Chinese
i nscrucci on
medicine
ihis
as
revolu-
state.
rnedical
1949.Ic
rqui -
Revo I ut,i on .
j on'
uras carried
led
ups and clowns China's
say,
scnool
one co the
in
per-
schooting,
education
to a catastrophe.onllr
'
w
a
sr e s E , o r e d
educat.i on
to normal
these
this
areas
an uni ted
notor i ous CuI cural
the 'health
reyolut
t,hese tbro instructions.This
In
medical
f rom elemencar!.
as medical
t l o n m e di c a l
In
scress
right),
rloc not,orious'June.16'
tt. publ ishecl.
oFf icial
insLruct,ive
and pharmacY--a
this
farnous i f
and shortening
be incegraEed
be publ i shed unt i I
As part
che
putt, i ng the
y'ears af ter
ul'l should
new medi clne
about
work(:quite
courrcryside
ce \'rrong)-Uao
Educac i on
b - , *t l a o b u C n e v e r
instruct
sonnel
Leap Forward
Revölution
he shoulrJ sa!' somethirrg
instruction
again_st Riglrr_lsts
education
can be
shorun
u,'asdein
the
Fig-gFi g - 3 The Devel opment
of
fIM and TCII Educsr I on si nce
Lg4g?2
t^}(
PlIt
c o l 1e g e s l n o . o r
no . of
st'udents
col Iegesl no-of
studen!,si no.of
o
I
o
5
II .
1,030
I
II
10, 155
194 9
t2
19 57
37
49 , ].-O7
1965
q?
82,861
o1
1975
AS
86,336
L7
1978
9S
112, 990
2?
16 , S35
I 9SO
9S
139,569
??
-J
143,855
?3
?6 , 693
196r
t5,?.34
l- Ir+
I
I
13, 539
-rQt
t <
D
-v-
The length of schooling ranges from. 4 to I !''ears,mostl!' 5 or 6
Iensth oF schyears. TlpicalIr'.!he
total class hours in the full
pracooling is a.ooo-5;ooo hours.The ratio betueen e-xperiment or
tice and Cheory- Eeaching is about :':1.In 1963 among 11 special icof Health were included mediclne'pubi.es approved br/ the Ninistry
l i c h e a l t h . p e d i a t r i c s , s t o m a t o l o g ! ' , p h a r m a c - v, p- h a r m a c e u t i c a I c h e m i s il'-rr,TCM,TC pnarmacV, Xopo I i an medi c i ne . medi cal Iaboracor!" roentgenotog.'-.The 15 required
in Tcl't col leges tthich were
courses
stipu-
of Tc:Y,rnedical classbr/ che ]1inistry of Healrh are:histort'
outl i ne
i c s , T C p h a r m a c ) , - , T c Ud i a g n o s t i c s ' p h a r m a c e u t i c S ' o n F e v e r s '
oF Golclen cabinet,Narm Diseases,acupurlcEure.Tc incerrral medicl ne'
T C t r a u m a t o l o g r ' . T c g ! ' n a e c o I o g ! " T C p e d i a t r i c s . T c o p h E h al m o l o g r " T c
laled
doc!rines
at TCY colleges
are required
tocal
students
of vari ous schools.rean$hile,
lar!'ngolog!',and
to
learn
half
or
MY wir.h thi rcl
of
hours.
class
I n ! ' t h a t f o l I o t i s w e w i ,l l
! ü t 1 t ro f m e d i c a l
educa!ion
pro\ricle a case to
since
in china
illustraEe
Ehe zlgzeo
1919.
erlical
N a n j ! n g ) l e c l i c i r l C o l l e g e t h i c h h o d g r o r r ' i no r l t o l J i a n g s t t
r-lle ErlroS c h o o I i n Z l r e nj i ü n g f o u n c l e d i n 1 9 : 1 , 3t ! ' a s s t i l I t ' o l : o t i i n g
po--\lner. i cün
1?:,9-53
i.on In
n t g c li , : i 3 I
p , : , r ' i , t l :.lI n
everl'
or
cor pr I Ing
Ee3chlng
\,orious
lectures
marliing
Eire 193,a-5S period
tlle!'
learneil
t : l r l : ' i r r{ ' . i l h e
f r()tll S!)\ iet
: ;l-
irn tlni r-e'l
aspeci.-s.e.9. CeachinO coLlrse-s accl)r'l i lr!l t()
F : u s ' s i ! r r r t ! :I r ' l r J r r ' I S h '
Iearriing
-\!'l Iabus,aI I teachers
FroQrrnnte
el,esr-eentln.J
edrrcar- i on si -s-Lä arltl c!ltl!'l'i r:rlI tlnl
using
materlals
Ehose in
SL'rticc Union
us mod-
a s 3 q r r i r l i r t Ü ! l l r r r r u l r r ' c l r l - t ' r l ' J l lc u n E e n r - o f
ancl reseirr':l'l 9r ('rrlp, prcp3rlng
tlp reaching
Fa\:l()rv's tlleor!'
corrrses.settinrl
co I I ec r i ve l !" reP i ac i ng r''ri !ten
-st'stem tüirh
däi I.'- sctledul e
oral
te-st
FoI loltecl the
!es!
ancl five-grade
Ru-ssian:5
ro
class
ilnd ltrltlclred-greoe
müFlii llg -stsEem' Even
hours
e\rert'
nlorning
r{tith
Iunch
much more
eat,ing
breacJ instead
oF rice.*lI
chese
mighC
ensure
tfran
be f ore s[uclents gracluat ed f rom medi ca I
co I I eges
everv- !'ear,but
the qualitr"
oF studencs ll'as alwal's
laging
behincl
the quani'i ty because of weal.iening premedi cal educati on, negl ecci ng
t,he t.raining
I ng
protrlem-st>lr,,irrg abiIItl,
of
c h o r r g h E , b ! ' c l o g m at i c
t955-{',2 periocl
Irr tlre
by sr-uclents own ancl fett_
i c l e o I o g - . ,.S e r rj ri n g
lledicarl Col lege togeE,her
wi Lh
c)t-hers tüas rectui rect to ca j-rt: out re torm i n orcler Co adapt[o t,he
'Big
L e t r p F o r t v ' a r r c l ' ,i r r c l u r J i n g o p e n - c l o o r s c f r o o l i n g . v i z . . s e n c
ceachers and students
[o factories
or courrcr],sicle tro clo manual labour,
to cJeli\.'er prirnuri'crrr-e,Lü
coilecI
Ft;l!i recipes
and herbs,arrcl r-ri_
ecl co mi-r up llll aricl TC.Y in
c'o chaos
ancl further
bcrsic skill
garding
the
I egte put
these
and stabi
I ize
of
basics
t'hree
!'ears-But
regulalons
the
Iaicl
Eclucation(60
inco
teaching-studying
Iong
basic
XiÄ*leclge,
view of these
clown 'Regulation_s
i n order
of
Mao's
oF school ing
schooling
'June
?6'
was rFc,orecl to
co
aI I
i
1966-?0
teachers
culcural
truct
perl od aI t
from
i on of
i ntegraci
new med,icine
and
1970 0n in
TCI{ College
b'ere mei^ged inco
Pharmaceutical
of
healEh,
Col tege tuith
pharrn€rc-v-.ThisneL* coilege
were
of
schooling
required
kincl of
to
integration
students
orcler
Nanjing
co carry
three
both
both
out
inter-
into
ouc llao's
or
enroll
students
of
llao's
be grudglng
reducing
s e e k l n g m o d e r n k n o r , ; le d g e c a r e d
11
class
to
and
ancl
in
1973,
its
and
TCll
medicine
makeup
chis
which
had
!{M courses
hours,whereas
asi< about
re-
medicine
M : . ta n d T C M c o u r s e s . H o \ ^ : e v e r ,
to
ins-
chi nese
New tledlcal
departments--TcM,
t.he
and l{anjing
on MII and TCM teach i ng . The
considerably
r.,-as
reclLlced
i'l,eclical Coliege
one college--Jiangsu
began to
turned
negat I ve consequences
h,'ere weakened'bsr
and
co parcicipate
was 3 t'ears.Departnrenrs
deti\,'er
6
5 ),-ears. cfre c,o-
TCI'I t.o creace an uni ted
pfrarmac!: tchich !v'as boosted. as Cnalrman
l ine
co
insti-ucciorr
ng )IlI wi th
volutionary
Iength
5
teachi ng act i vi ti es \cere stopped,
and scudenes h,ere requi red
Revolutlon.From
coi-
Ehe crainins
to Fact,ories or counIr!.side,cierpshitr
p
tüere e-\cencl Eo I . 5 l'eai's, E.he basi c courses
sh i
were
m er g e d - T h e c h a o s r r . a s c o o l i p l a c e a g a i n .
Duri ng the
Re_
reesca'oi ish
going
time'of
clrarc_
the
orcler, strengthen
length
1n 1965 the
of
Articles)',Then
pracci ce
ancl e-xtend the
beFore
Ltrese Iecl clre college
basics).in
Edrrcation
Higher
marle Lirrorun.The lerrgih
tarl
cheor!,(Ehree
che Ilinj.scrl-of
tvorK of
eEc.lII
w'eakening oF craining
a r r r - lb a s i c
baclis.Ehen
teeching
the
few of
TCM cou-
:'ses .
piactice
ing
During this period the college's opeh-door school
the
countrl'side'
turned out to be Just removing the classroom to
quality
of teaching'becaubut it lrras unable to guarantee the due
among the
se'of lacKing necessary equipments and other conditions
from their studo c h e r r h i n s s . A n d t e a c h e r s r , , , e r er " o " , t l g g . : g , , 1 : " . "
urorliers or poor and Ioanct receivä'from
to crltlcism
enls,Ilsten
in Leachwer-middle peasants'and t'hat led them to no iniEiatives
ing and r.esearcb came
1 9 7 7 t h e J i a n g s u Ne ! ' , M e d i c a ] a n d P h a r m a c e u t i c a l C o I I e g e
Meclica] Collese
up .rnto tt o previous colleges:lianjing
to be split
five
Iengths of school ing are both
ancl Nanjing TclI college'lheir
In
!,ears.t
gn of
o f P u Y c i s n o l e s s t o r t u o u s ' I n 1 9 5 0 ' 5 E l ' l ec a m p a i
and Help liorea;
so-cal Ied'Resl-s-.ance against American Inperialism
of Healch of People s Liberap U ! , t Cl r a s t o o l i o t r e r b : . r t h e l t l n l s t r : /
yedical
union
tion Armt'(PL.A) and changed lts name into chinese
sludents'
1953 this college ceased to enroII medical
coIIese.In
form the
to
out from it one another
Then parrs of it' tüere split
remainder !üas emeged !..'ith ttre Central
basls of new nospllals,the
)tedical Scio f H e a I t h t o f o F n l L l l e C f l i n e s e ' l c a c l e m ! 'o f
Insititute
' S - L r o n g fi e l d o f C t l I t - u r a I
bS'
iogresslon
ences.That the so-cal lect
one's u'ish'
lmerican Imperial lsm' uas brolien up at Iast achievect
in
collese
inq
However, in 1959 the onty S !'esrs lenelt-h oF sctrool
Universitv'
c h i n a , , r a s r e s t o r e o b u t L ' i l l r a n e ' * n a n l e ;c r t i n e s e l l e d i c a l
co enrol I
. rtr t h e b e g i n n i n g o f E h e C u l c u r a l R e v o l u t i o n i t c e a s e ( l
The stor!,
)tedi c'il unit'erslts
-students again. Al)ollt 19?o a so-cal I ecl coFliül
( r a s s e t u p o n E n e r u i n o f P L : ) I Cu n t l e r t h e s l l p e r . ' ' i s i o l l n l i I i t s r ! ' c o n onl!' erlE r o I c o t n m i s s i o n . I i - s l e n g C h o f s c h o o l i n r J " ' ; 3 1 sI l r r e e l e ! l ' s '
ol)Plr'::lc)rrF
tr'orlie:'s. p€lr-satnt-t !1nd sr')lt.liers' iirlil Pl'irt':r-isril
t ' d i-!s e V e r l l e - s ' s r - l r ; : l r li l l ü r i n n u l . s - s r : l r o o Ii n O . T h e c o n L e l r f . o f c c ) u r s e s
t l r ' i r ) n ' I r r . ' 1 L r ?. ( r P I ' ) l C r ' ' : i t h S
irl!:r -school beFore r-hP Cul f.uriil RevoI
:r'jirlll'
\.|'srs let'rtJttl {)f schoo l i trÜ t"irs t*u;6prtl
!tl jl t\l)ir:31 ClliIn trflilE f oi I ott's tre l'üiII ollr-I ille tlre crrt't'icrllrrtrl
1 r ' r l .l e c l l r o u n g
Itcse
ned i ca I
co t I cge
Hunan Ie(l!coI
COIIege
th( 5 t'rs.
t r u \ ' i'
college
grot''n out
()f Lhe \'!lL'- ill-(--hillJ
reclical
heal)'fJublic
H u n a n h r l v e 5 d e p a r L m e n L s : r l e L 1i c l l l e ( 5 . ! ' r s '
(5
l'rs- ) ' stotllirr'olo!1\'
),me.lical
IarioraEor!' Bechni(lt'e(i
ln
1,p5. ),medtcaI
I ItJrarv.. and
itlformation
42
sr-udies( '
!'rs- ) '
Tälie
Lne
exanple
of
courses
are: pol i ti cs, ph!'si cal
i,he department
of
medicne.In
the
years
tst-4i.h
educat.i on, forei
the
gn I anguage, mathema-
ti cs, Fh!'si cs, chemi str:2, bi ol ogy, human anatomy, hi stol ogy and embryo I ogy, b i ochemi stry,
p h ! ' s l o 1 o g y , mi c r o b i o I o g y , p a r a s i t o I o g ! ' ,
s 1 o l o g t u ,p a t h o l o g y ,
pharmacologlr, f orensic
g i cal
o p e r a t i o n , T c l { , m e di c i n e , s u r g e r y ,
pediatrlcs,
infective
diseas€s,
medicine,
pathopn5'-
d,iagnostics,
gynaeco I ogy and abstetr
suri cs ,
epidemics, hygiene
and statistics,
E.
N T . , o p h t h a l m o I o g y , d e r m a t o I o g y , s t o m a t o I o g y , n e u r o 1o g y ' , p s y c h i a t r y . 3 0
As for the structure
of Chinese medical education
n o u , -s e e F i g , i
Fig.4 TheStructure
of Chinese Medical Educatiorl 13
Undergraduate
Bache I or 's degree
(5-6s'rs.
Continuing
Master's degree
(3 yrs. )
)
Master's
(I
Gradua t e
degree
medi caI
teach i ng or
Doctor's degree
(.5 !'rs - )
1'rs. )
servi ce
r esearch
resident
(30 Y'rs- )
craining
(3-5 yrs. )
i V . Prob I ems and Lessons
( 1 ).4utollom!' v.
it'
be
1s Erue
lsolated
sci I I
na since
is
f ron
mecical
and could
1919'[here
ne(:essar!'for
v-
Tlte object
r-ecj ()rllanism
for
or
ocher
l<eep its
shi f t
will
social
relative
of
to
in
genaral
guarantee
r
cannoc
inLerferences.
aulonomt,.
But
i r- is
I f
clre ru I i ng parcr- such
be no normal
a school
as
it
o\:er-
in
chi -
slable
teaclring
orqler which
the
clue teaching
qualiCi'.
Clinical
of
meclicine
in
the
a c o t l l P l e - x ,s o c i a l
cäre
eclucecion(edr:cacion
poI itical
co che po I i cv
(:)Basic
in
that
shotild
sensi ci ve
IrtIerferertce
ls
unit'erse
l t u m g r n l r e i n r t r u h r - ri s
w i l i r e i t r t r . r . Ssi r: r l i c l e
Lire rnc)sc cornplicanrinr-l
cgr clritrr.t
"rrrtj
co nreet che cleruarrtls of
metlicat
neCttorli.Brrl
I
b i l l i c r n f ) ( ' r t ) t1.1t 1 g l r ) n i . s S r - ) i l r i l : r e r : : t ir\ e r . l ' n ' r i : r . t ' , )
.fru,.'e [.r.r
r r . t - s l ' tf c l t , r i r i r r g l l r t g e n t , i t , b e r o f 1 1 1 i i-c, r: r- Il p ? r . s ( ) 1 r r : l . l { r r r . , : \ r : r . r l t i l l l l i f : . '
i s n t o r e i n r l > c r r c ü n t E l r i l n ( : l r t e n E i E t , i n n r e c l i c i r r c . A s a c t ( , ( ) ( jr J r ) r t L o r . . l r e
s l t r - r t l l r J l t i : r ' e t > t ' u a t dl i l t u w l e d g e
ernri frumatri[.ies.China's
biotneclical
with
( 3 )Tradi t i ona I
IC
is
of
rlaCuräl
nrodel of'meclical
lv'eal'ier pretnedical
st:i":rrcHS,-{qycitrl
ecltrcsCiorr is
eclucaciorrarrrl brrsic
sr:ierrces
sLil, I
f.lui-eil'
crainilrg.
\,.. t{odern
certail1ll'u,trc]ng
t'o reprtctiace
43
tr'arl ititrlrul
rnedicirre
us or.r11-
or
lt is aiso !,rrong to laud it to the sliles
sense or rubbish.But
it wittr nodern medicine
a dream of integrating
pursue forcingly
is a supplemedicine
lnto a new olre. rn our opinion,traclicional
and source of modern meicine e,hich is incommensurabIe
Elent,rival
must be
lJith the former 1n theor:.|,especia}Iy in ontolog:/.There
houever'nore
it'
some doctors or students to stud:/ it and inherit
r'.,ith the
should be careful ly sorted and researched
ixoporlantIy,lt
scienti f ic ne'.hod.
(i)Teaching
v . s E u d ) ,r-n g
between Ewo
1 9 ' 1 9 l ^ ' ' a so s c i l l a t i n s
stue-\Erenes:keep i ng tight control on everv-thing ' noE encouraging
guiding role
dents to solve problem b!./their ot,n,or reiecEing Lhe
encouraging
in the teaching-stud!'ing acliVities'even
of teacherf
I
.
-c
ieaching
students !o grve reitures instead of te:chers and compi le
eduction
Eedical
china's
since
ure deeply e-\perience the disastrous' consequences of
the enrol tment of studenLs and of all feaching-stud!'ins
the nerü ci-op 1s
during the Cultural Revolution--'when
materials.Nolt
stopping
activit.ies
in lhe blade and lhe old one is alI
still
(5) ln!el lectual
v. Pht'sical
It ls reasonable to require intellectuLs
kers
ancl peasants--manual
consumed"
to understancl the worforget- tire!'
rrot
labourers'Ho!üefer'do
to educilLion if Lea'bourgeois'
or
che!'s and other int-eI Iectuals are stigmacizecl as
' r i g h t .i s t s ' , ' c o u n t e r - r e U o l u t i o n a r i e s '
. ' r e a c r 'i o n 3 ' ri e s ' ' ' r e " ' i s i o n - '
rnouniscs' eEc..ancl forcinglt' drit'en co Lhe counLr!'slde or retnore
ht\re
tainous areas to rece j.\,e re-education especial It' i F they
r -' : r r ' c l l e s e h a v e r J o n e' T l l e ! s l l o u I d
opinLon f rctm officials.
different
linr'ilrr'LtrraceI!'
be helCt in esteem both socialll' anr:leConomical I!:'
ü s ' Ll '
!h€ -sälart' of a teacher or t)ht'siciSn irr I:tll ]etle is n's süttl+
Iabourers
are mental
is ver!' harmful
too.It
n c rL I e - s s C l t s n , a f a c r - o F ! ' l ü o r l i e r .
( 5 ).lcaclFi:I!c
\'.
l'.'l :li,:ürl
lie.?p polir-ii:al
In
order
to
i ing
part!'
pcef er.ml)ttisnl
to
-sialbi I ir'l
plrrrlrl
lsln'
s'rne
BtlI
pcti iiir-ig1l-s
ilr
clte
r'rf r-!re i-rt-
ü(:utllitllic
f ici(l
tlremon!sm.especiall!'co-setuporreclc)cirinessar:lrlidin!lr-lrougrrc
ils cLlrlcu! i()rl l)e':3t'ls'j ll' stll)llres's:l-s well
to screrrce
is di-\oscr()u-s
le;'J(1s fÖ rlrc
cli scr'lss l 'Jlt ' ir
of tlrcr'.lcllt eltrl (:rir-ical
f reeclon
es Ihe
suf fucaEion
Not, in
of
creaci!'I c!'.
tlre neu, [urn
of medical educaf,ion reform'6rear
IJ
atLempEs
to so I ve
?äfüi€5""
reform
lthy
and
the
above ment i oned probl erns ia
poli.y.14*u
are Iooliing
forwaid
opening
developnent,
of
t hese
tfre
c ont e)i'r--o f
to
a more heaturo he I i c es - -MM and TCH e c u c a t i o n
rn
China.
R EF E R E N C E S
, Berkeley,:Universicy
of
Cal i for_
nra Press,l98O.
?' chen' D' H' et ar : Ref l ecri on on Tcy Educari orral
rhougtrc. Tc'
t i o n R e - s e a r c h ,( 1 9 s , ; ) n o . ? . . "
3.Deng,J.D.et
al:A Hisrorv of pultc, unpubl isneä.
4 . Fang , Z. Y. :l'esterdav of NanJing liedi cal
n"n,i nor.oi .. r cor,]o.;;J:,::, :d#TE##,
5.Fu,L.Z.:Learn
se ltecllcal
from
Lhe Advanced Med.icine
Journal,3g(
19i, )939_31.
6.cong,y.Z.et
t"ork
of
aI:Criricize
undeFsLand
gt.hen the Training
( l9S6 )no.Z.
S.Ll .S.Q.:The
Educacion,
:The
in
t.he
!he
D a i r 1 r ,A u g u s . . 3 2 , i 9 5 5 .
Importance ot_ yanäoement,strerr_
llanagers,yedical
Eclucat ! orr end yanacrement
of
and
TCy Educarion
ics
Speciaities.ginn
( t 9 E i 6) n o - i . -
Revies; on Higher
P ? r ' s l ) - . ( : fi v e s , T C : l
l:.1-irr..\.:ReCorcl_s
I:a-Peng,R.C.eE
T C ) t E c l r . l c o it r r r r : p r - { t t l l . ? n . sp. { , 1 i r r i , " s a ' l c l
E r l u c a t i ( ) n . ( l , j , S 6) l t ( ' . 1 .
trn Of iicials.(.)!cl
al:The
present
E(lucut iorr, Resegrfh
11.Qiu,S.R-eE
izs
Tboughr.
Iectual
sErucEure of Tq)i Ljndergr3dusEe
sEu_
perspecc ir.e of
T c l l D e \ . eI o p n e n E . T C i E d L l c a t i ( ) n
from tlre
(19S6)no-1.
:ledica!
Bourgois
Uni.on.Chine_
Intel
clent
1l.Liu,)!.:.1
of
Evolucion
! . l e d ic a l
9.Lie,D.C.
Soviei.
ffi.-
!'tecricine anct Healrh,pEople's
7. Han,|1.T. :clearl!.
er
rüang Ein.s
of
Ed'ce-
i,. ga-sic
B ( 1 r ) i . : r, :) t . t f i r n i l a , .l.] i . : s r \ .
Situiltir)n
i
e:trl Tenrlenr:\. oi
Cfriirir_s
) t e r l i , r : , tI E , . l r r , :t: rl t t n . . t , - r u : r t r r . , . l . , . t _ t _
al:ReForm
Ecluci:rtiorlül SI.sr_en |'t Fosi!tFil.lrrri.e ScuLl_
) l e d i c i t r e , s t ' { . 1 i + s l i l ) t c r l i c i . i I E ,l r - , ! g l _ i _ j i !(l
. I , - . r $ tr-rrr . ) . 1 .
I1'
ersür'
of
r:
Fortrtll:ltct
rtf
Glli-ln,-l-
z l r . u r . rT C ) l C o l l e c r e , l g 5 6 .
to.Tang.G.J.:Reflect_ion
()t1 Traclitional
ErluceE iorr. ( t9,56 rno.9.
15
)lerlir:irl
Erli,:_lriun.)t+dir:el
Forrn and
Organ izational
17.wang.B- :particular
Ideological
stvle
of|ledicineandHygieneProducedontheBasisofPart'lcularr)oo f H o : a lt h ' 1 ( 1 9 5 0 ) 5 - 1 O '
Journal
I i E , ic s a n d E c o n o m y , N o r t h e a s t
1E.wang(wong),C-M-et
jin
Press,1932
19.wang,G.S-:An
outl ine
of
20 . Wang, H . Y . : B r i e f
on
Issue
CoI I ege ,SoeciaI
Hunan Hedi caI
the
aI:RaE.ionallt'Readjust
chi nese l,ledicaI
Struclure
Strat'ified
Hi oher
Educati os, chinesg
for
.qn-
, l93l'
una n t1
V
21 .wang.L.et
EdLtca-
e,7(19S5rno.2.
f
tion.
Medical
chinese
of
History
the
of
E d u c a t 10 D '
lledi'cal
1(19S7)no.12c'.Year
Booli
of
o3 .Zfiao. H - J. : a
Heal
- - i r: 1 9 3 5 , B e i
!'toderrr
Shijiazhuang:Hebei
jing
:Tfte
Healch
ll
i{ i
Societ!'
for
the
Integratlon
F'ress,l9S6
\deen
of
TCj
TCy and mfl'
19S22*.ä.i.u,c.et
al:The
llaior-
Achievements
of
New china's
|1edical
Edu-
ca1-ionandlt'sTendencl',Scr:die,sinlledicalEdtrcation'(19S5rno'I
Harragement .stuEducation
25.Znu.C. :A outl ine of chirrese fledical
dies
iR |ledjcal
Educat'ion' (IgS5 lno'2'
16