APPLICATION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN KENYA’S SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT NATIONAL DEFENCE COLLEGE

APPLICATION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN KENYA’S
SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
NATIONAL DEFENCE COLLEGE
COURSE 15-2012/2013
Volume 1, 2012
DISCLAIMER
The information contained in this paper is the result of academic research carried out by the participants
concerned. The views and/or observations on the issues raised are their own and do not reflect and/or represent
in any way the official position of the Department of Defense or that of the National Defense College.
Thursday 30th August 2012
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LIST & REVIEW TEAM MEMBERS
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MR GEDION O AMALLA
BRIG CHRISTOPHER JOSEPH O ARRUM
MRS GRACE CERERE
BRIG KENNETH O DINDI
COL RASHID A ELMI
COL PHUMZILE FONGOQA
BRIG GEN JOHN GACINYA
COL NGUGI GIKONYO
MR MATHENGE GITONGA
CAPT TAIYE ABDUL IMAM
COL SOLOMON UMBA KALELI
BRIG SAMUEL KAVUMA
COL MARTIN AMOS KEMWAGA
MR IBRAHIM KHAMIS
MS GLADYS KINYUAH
MRS SARGUTA LEBISHOY KITUR
COL MOSES KAGISO LEKOKO
COL AARON ROBERT LUKYAA
MAJ (RTD) OMAR M MARSA
COL AYUB GUANTAI MATIIRI
COL G W MBITHI
COL PATRICK LUMUMBA MIJONI
COL EDMOND MITI
MR MOHAMED BARRE MUHUMED
COL EVERISTE MURENZI
COL KASILI MUTAMBO
MR CHARLES MUTHUSI
COL JOSUA N NAMHINDO
BRIG GEN CHOL BIAR NGANG
MR ROBERT MUTEGI NJUE
COL BENSON MUTHUI NZILU
COL INNOCENT G OULA
BRIG GEN GATWECH YIECH RUOM
COL GABRIEL SABUSHIMIKE
COL ALOYS SINDAYIHEBURA
COL CHISICHENYU SINGIZI
STAFF COL TAWFIK AHMED TAWFIK
MR JAMES KIMUTAI TOO
MR SAMUEL MNDAVIKI WACHENJE
COL GEORGE ODHIAMBO WALWA
MS CATHERINE WAMBANI WEKESA
KENYA POLICE SERVICE
KENYA ARMY
MFA KENYA
KENYA ARMY
KENYA AIRFORCE
SA NATIONAL DEFENCE FORCE
RWANDA DEFENCE FORCES
KENYA ARMY
KENYA FOREST SERVICE
NIGERIAN NAVY
KENYA AIRFORCE
UGANDA PEOPLE DEFENCE FORCES
TANZANIA PEOPLE DEFENCE FORCE
MFA KENYA
MIN OF EAC KENYA
NSIS KENYA
BOTSWANA ARMY
TANZANIA PEOPLE DEFENCE FORCE
NSIS KENYA
KENYA ARMY
KENYA NAVY
MALAWI ARMY
ZAMBIA ARMY
OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT
RWANDA DEFENCE FORCES
KENYA ARMY
KENYA POLICE SERVICE
NAMIBIA DEFENCE FORCE
SOUTH SUDAN ARMY
KENYA WILDLIFE SERVICE
KENYA AIRFORCE
UGANDA PEOPLE DEFENCE FORCES
SOUTH SUDAN ARMY
BURUNDI DEFENCE FORCE
BURUNDI DEFENCE FORCE
ZIMBABWE DEFENCE FORCES
EGYPTIAN ARMY
KENYA PRISON SERVICE
NATIONAL YOUTH SERVICE KENYA
KENYA ARMY
KENYA WILDLIFE SERVICE
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENT
PAGE
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................ II
LIST OF ACRONYMS ......................................................................................................... IV
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... V
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1
OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................................................ 2
EFFECTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION ON SOCIO- DEVELOPMENT OF THE
SOCIETY............................................................................................................................ 4
THE IMPACT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ON ECONOMIC SYSTEMS OF KENYA ............. 7
Aviation Industry ........................................................................................................................................... 7
Agriculture and Rural Development .............................................................................................................. 8
Trade and Industry ........................................................................................................................................ 9
Physical Infrastructure .................................................................................................................................. 9
Energy ............................................................................................................................................................ 9
Environment Sector...................................................................................................................................... 10
ACHIEVEMENTS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN KENYA .............................................. 11
Health ........................................................................................................................................................... 12
Human Resource Development .................................................................................................................... 12
Iinformation Communication Technology (ICT) ........................................................................................ 13
Energy Production ....................................................................................................................................... 14
EXISTING POLICIES ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN KENYA ......................................... 14
Policies .......................................................................................................................................................... 14
Ministry of Industrialisation ........................................................................................................................ 15
Ministry of Agriculture ................................................................................................................................ 16
Ministry of Energy Policies .......................................................................................................................... 16
ii
Ministry of Livestock.................................................................................................................................... 17
CHALLENGES FACING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES LIKE KENYA .................................................................................................. 18
THE FUTURE TRENDS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT IN KENYA .............. 18
CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 22
RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................................... 23
ANNEX A. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IMPLEMENTATION MATRIX ................................ 24
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................... 25
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
ADC
BDS
BLT
BPO
BRICS
CCK
CNC
COMESA
EAC
EASSY
ERC
EU
GDP
GoK
IAEA
IPPD
ISPs
ITU
KARI
KDF
KEBS
KEMRI
KEPHIS
KIE
KIFCON
KIPI
KIRDI
LION
MDG
MEGS
MTP
MW
NCPB
NCS
NCST
NFNP
NMC
R&D
SECOM
ST &I
TEAMS
UAV
UNDP
USD
Agricultural Development Co-operation
Business Development Services
Build Lease Transfer
Business Processing Outsourcing
Brazil, Russia, India, China Singapore
Communications Commission of Kenya
Computer Controlled
Common Markets for East and Southern Africa
East African Community
East Africa Submarine Systems
Energy Regulatory Commission
European Union
Gross Domestic Product
Government of Kenya
International Atomic Energy Agency
Integrated Payroll and Personnel Database
Internet Service Providers
International Telecommunications Union
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute
Kenya Defense Forces
Kenya Bureau of Standards
Kenya Medical Research Institute
Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Services
Kenya Industrial Estates
Kenya Indigenous Forests Conservation Project
Kenya Industrial Properties Institute
Kenya Industrial Research Development Institute
Lower Indian Ocean network
Millennium Development Goals
Market Enhancing Governance Structure
Medium Term Plan
Megawatt
National Cereals and Produce Board
National Communication Secretariat
National Council of Science and Technology
National Food and Nutrition Policy
Numerical Machining Institute
Research and Development
Sea Communication
Science Technology and Innovation
The East Africa Marine System
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
United Nations Development Program
United States Dollar
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Globally Science, Technology and Innovation (ST& I) are an indispensable tools the world
over for rapid social and economic development of the society. The Industrial Revolution in
early 19th Century and the consequent rapid socio economic development of Western Europe
and America attest to this. In this regard, since the early part of the 20th Century, Kenya has
also made efforts at integrating ST&I in its social and economic developmental programmes.
However, the impact of this on the expected outcome has been relatively low as can be seen
in the current state of affairs in the socio economic development of Kenya. Several factors
could be responsible for this. Accordingly, the paper examined the level of integration of
ST& I in Kenya’s socio-economic development and proffered recommendations.
The paper highlighted the effect and impact of ST& I in Kenya and noted that inspite of some
observed negative effects, it has positively impacted on the country’s socio economic
development. The paper noted Kenya’s effort to boost national growth through ST&I and
related activities. ST&I is coordinated and promoted by National Council of science and
Technology (NCST) which was established under Cap 250 of the Laws of Kenya in 1977.
This effort brought about diverse achievements in various sectors which include education,
communications, agriculture, health and energy.
The paper appraised existing policies on ST& I and observed that Kenya faces several
challenges in the integration and implementation of ST& I in its developmental efforts. These
include:
i.
Lack of emphasis in sciences in the education system, leading to shortage of the
critical mass on ST& I.
ii.
Kenya spends less than 0.3% of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Research
and Development (R&D), which is indicative of low priority that the sector is
awarded.
iii.
Kenya’s R&D findings have no immediate impact on industrial development.
iv.
The link between ST&I policy and economic policies has not been fully integrated
at the national level.
v.
Weak enforcement mechanism on monitoring and evaluation of implementation
of ST &I policies and initiatives.
v
In recognition of the importance of ST& I to Kenya’s future socio economic development,
the paper recommended that the government should consider
i.
Linking ST&I policy formulation and implementation to economic planning and
budgeting.
ii.
Establishing a central data processing centre to disseminate and implement
research findings,
iii.
Adopting Public Private Partnership approach, global best practice and
incorporating the Ministry of State for Defence in R&D.
iv.
Allocating 10% of GDP in line with the global best practices.
v.
Strengthening Monitoring and Evaluation mechanism.
Science, Technology and Innovation (ST&I) is a very important tool in leveraging economic,
social and cultural transformation. The ability to achieve national sustainable development
largely depends on the extent to which the integration of modern ST& I is achieved.
vi
INTRODUCTION
1.
Since the Industrial Revolution in early 19th Century, the use of Science, Technology
and Innovation (S T& I) has grown significantly from simple to cutting edge technology
which has transformed the socio-economic development of societies. Indeed the well-being
of human race rests on a foundation of three pillars; these are economic, socio-political and
environmental conditions and processes. All these pillars have a strong linkage with ST& I.
2.
The difference between the levels of socio-economic development of societies is
reflected in the way each country embraces and applies technology as a road map for
societal progress and advancement. The most industrialized countries of the West and the
newly industralised countries in South East Asia effectively applied ST&I to develop their
economies and transform the wellbeing of their societies. In this regard, Kenya upon gaining
independence also made efforts at integrating ST&I in its social and economic
developmental programmes. However, the expected outcome has been relatively low as
evident by the current state of socio economic development of the country. The paper seeks
to examine the factors responsible for this disparity.
3.
The Vision 2030; which projects Kenya to be a middle income industrialized state is
yet another strategic plan for the achievement of socio economic progress. In order to attain
the planned strategic objectives, the effective development and application of appropriate
ST&I systems as enshrined in the Vision will be critical. To this end, rapid development of
innovative ideas, products, institutional arrangements and processes will enable the country
to address more effectively the needs, aspirations and wellbeing of its citizens. This is
particularly imperative within the context of the ever growing demands of stiff global
economic competitiveness, sustainable development and equity considerations for the good
of our citizenry.
1
AIM
4.
The aim of this paper is to examine the application of ST& I in Kenya’s socio-
economic development with a view of making recommendations.
OBJECTIVES
5.
The objectives of the paper are:
i.
To identify policy issues facing Kenya today and beyond.
ii.
To identify necessary advisory services for surveys and analysis of national levels
needs and capacities that can assist in formulating technologies and integrating them
into the economic and industrial development plans and policies.
iii.
To identify modalities of establishing and strengthening institutions for formulating of
national policy on science and technology.
iv.
To recommend training services and facilities.
v.
To recommend areas of cooperating among policy makers on science and technology.
vi.
To recommend on the orientation of science and technology output toward benefiting
the society in socio-economic development.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
6.
The Technocratic Concept of Progress
The American economy and way of life was transformed during the Industrial Revolution in
early 19th Century following the development of radically improved machinery systems based
on mechanized power for use in new factories. This new scientific knowledge and
technological power brought about a comprehensive improvement in all the conditions of the
society.
7.
As the economic situation continued to improve during the early and late 19 th century,
Massachusetts Senator Daniel Webster and Edward Everett developed and vigorously
supported a concept known as ‘Technocratic Concept of Progresses’. The concept
emphasised the sufficiency of scientific and technological innovation as the basis for general
human progress. It was "technocratic" in that it valued improvements in power, efficiency,
and rationality as ends in themselves. Webster and Everett supported industrialization of
2
America through technological improvement and innovation as the primary basis to
universal progress.1 They regarded ST& I not as ends in themselves, but as instruments for
carrying out a comprehensive transformation of society.
8.
The concept says that if we can ensure the advance of science-based technologies, the
rest will take care of itself. The ‘rest’ refers to nothing less than a corresponding degree of
improvement in the social, political, and cultural conditions of life. The idea that
technological improvements are the primary basis for/and an accurate gauge of progress has
long been the fundamental belief of the US. This technocratic view of progress was
enshrined in Fordism (President Gerald Ford) and an obsessive interest in economies of
scale, standardization of process and product, and control of the workplace2. This shift to
mass production was accompanied by the more or less official commitment of the US
government to the growth of the nation's wealth, productivity, and global power, and to the
most rapid possible rate of technological innovation as the essential criterion of social
progress. The concept continues to remain relevant today in the US, Western Europe and
other industrialized countries. As can be seen from the progress made by countries, it is
those that adopt new scientific, technologies and innovations that have a higher chance of
coping with the future challenges likely to emerge such as population increases, food
security, and environmental and socio-economic factors. This technocratic concept is
explained further in the diagram below.
1
2
Max Leo. Technology and the Future: Does Improved Technology Mean Progress?, Pp7-10
Ibid
3
9.
The concept explains that Kenya needs to put up strong policy to integrate technology
in all sectors of development. The policy should spell out a strong implementation and
monitoring through all the national development in economic, political, social and
environmental sectors. Kenya which is implementing Vision 2030 by which time it expects
to be a middle income industrialized country, needs to consider using ‘technocratic concept
of progresses’ to realize the strategic goals of the vision. This model explains that
technology is not an option but must be integrated in the implementation of the plan as
enshrined in the vision. The American government and Asian tigers have used this concept
to propel their growth to the current position. This concept will therefore be the basis of
analysis in subsequent discussions in this paper.
EFFECTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION ON SOCIODEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIETY
10.
To assess the effects of ST & I on socio- development of the society, consideration is
made to issues that contribute to the improvement of the welfare of society in conformity
with Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)3. These issues are of national interest and
3
UNDP MDG Report 2010
4
should be considered in the country’s Grand Strategy. The vital issues are food security,
education, health, employment, water, among others. The effects of ST & I have been noted
to have both positive and negative effects on the socio development of a society as follows:
Issue
Food security
(MDG1)4
Positive Effects
Use of ST&I has improved productivity in
agriculture and livestock through:
 Growing of disease and drought resistant crops
such sorghum and cassava.
 Investment in high value crops such as flowers.
 Use of fertilizer.
 New variety of fast growing crops such as
maize, and fruits.
 Tissue Culture (TC) techniques ability of many
plant species to regenerate a whole plant from a
shoot tip5
 Modern farming method “Green House
Technology’ increase agricultural production
through drip irrigation and reclamation of dry
land through irrigation
 Improved livestock breeds
 Mechanized farming
 The GMOs such as maize
 Post harvesting techniques
 Value addition (agro processing firms)
Access to
Education
(MDG2, 3)
Improved access to education through:
 Long distance learning, e-library, e-Learning
and video conferencing,
 Education promotes gender equity.
Increased efficiency and effectiveness in medical
services has resulted into:

Early diagnosis and treatment of medical
conditions has increased life expectancy in
Kenya8..

Reduction of child and maternal mortality
rates.

Decline in HIV/Aids prevalence.

Malaria control among other diseases.
 Use of chemicals to purify water hence
Access to
Health services7
(MDG 4,5,6)
Access to safe
4
Negative Effects
 Toxic nature of
pesticides
 Water pollution example
Lake Naivasha by
flowers farmers.
 Biotechnology threatens
traditional crops e.g.
pyrethrum, hence
destroying farmers
livelihood.
 Loss of employment
opportunities e.g. case of
Kericho Tea Estates
 GMOs can also cause
genetic pollution where
non-GM plants may be
contaminated due to the
aspect of cross
pollination which is a
threat to genetic
diversity6.
 Threatens the culture of
reading

Job creation rate cannot
match Life expectancy
hence unemployment

Health risk due to long
UNDP MDG Report 2009
Qaim, M. Assessing the impact of banana biotechnology in Kenya. ISAAA Briefs No. 10. Published by
ISAAA, Bonn,1999, Pp.38.
6
Patricia Kameri-Mbote. .Regulation of GMO Crops and Foods- Kenya Case Study IELRC Working Paper
2005-10
7
Economic Survey 2012
8
Ezzatti et al. Comparison of Emissions and Residential Exposure from Traditional and Improved Cook stoves
in Kenya, Environmental Science and Technology, 2000,Pp. 578-583.
5
5
Issue
drinking water
(MDG7)
Negative Effects
time use of water
purification chemicals
and risk of wrong
application of chemicals
Employment
 Increased employment through Business
 Loss of jobs due to
(MDG1)
Process Outsourcing and other online business
increased mechanization
and automation of
 Application of STI accelerates productivity in:
systems
 Agriculture
 Tourism
 Increase of urban
 Wholesale and retail trade
opportunities triggers
 Manufacturing industries which in turn
rural urban migration
create employment opportunities.
which in turn lead to
increased urban crimes..
Environment
 Use of energy saving “jiko”, solar cookers,
 New technology is
(MDG7)
gas cookers hence reducing destruction of
expensive for the rural
forests and resource use conflict.
communities
 Promotes clean environment through use of
hydro power, solar, geothermal, bio gas and
wind energy.
 Promotes use of biomass energy. This energy
will remain the main source of energy in
developing countries for many years to come9.
Industrialization  Increased industrial productivity
 Water pollution from
(MDG8)
industrial waste as in
 Improved quality of goods and services.
Nairobi River,
 Electricity generation from crop residue e.g. in
 Air pollution due to
sugar and rice milling factories.
leakage of toxic gas to
 Carbonization and packaging of coffee husks
the atmosphere
into commercial charcoal.
Efficient
 Modern technology has facilitated faster
 Loss of life through air,
Transport
construction/improvement of infrastructure
sea, road and rail
(MDG7)
countrywide e.g. Thika Super-Highway.
accidents.
 Ownership of private individual transport means
fast movements of persons and goods reducing
cost of doing business
Access to
IT facilitates global interconnectivity through the
 Loss of Privacy, abuse of
Information and use of Computers/Internet hence enabling:
human rights by use of
Communication  Access to information through TV and radio
electronic sophisticated
technology
and online newspapers.
equipments at the
(MDG8)
international airports,
 Access to financial services through ATM,
M-pesa and e-banking
 Society moral decay
through use social sites
 Communication fast tracked through use of
(pornography)
mobile phones.
 Students are distracted in
 Created numerous online businesses and
their studies as they
employment and targets to create more when
constantly chatting over
Konza City- BPO will be operational.
9
Positive Effects
reducing water born diseases
 Increase water supply by use of rainwater
harvesting technologies
Mugo, F. and Gathui, T. Biomass energy use in Kenya 2010.
6
Issue
Positive Effects
 Politicians use IT as a modern campaign tool
such as through twitter.
Poverty
Reduction
(MDG1)

Use of space
technology
Use of satellites and research equipments has
enabled scientists to interact nature for:
 Weather forecast (important for planning of
agricultural activities),
 Forest management e.g. Deforestation
assessment,
 Assessing land cover and land use change for
Greenhouse gas inventory,
 Assessing pastoralist mobility and drought
monitoring,
 Mapping social facilities/amenities,
 Monitoring disease and pest such as quela
birds and locusts invasion, army worms hence
saving crops
 Improved communications.
ST&I increase productivity in all the
economic sectors and as result increases
employment opportunities.
Negative Effects
the internet
 Constant use of mobile
phones reduces direct
personnel social
interaction.
 Excess use of advanced
technology may lead to
loss of employment for
the unskilled labor force.
 Criminal using satellite
connection to undermine
states.
The above analyses show that positive effects of STI to the socio development of the society
outweigh the negative effects. This means Kenya has to embrace appropriate technology to
fast track the achievement of the MDGs.
THE IMPACT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ON ECONOMIC SYSTEMS OF
KENYA
11.
Technology is rapidly changing globally. The adoption of new technology as
innovators, pragmatics, early majority, late majority or laggards will determine the speed of
a country development. Technology will impact on areas of generic competition for Kenya
namely cost reduction, niche focus and in different sectors of development. As observed in
the proceeding paragraphs:10
Aviation Industry
12.
The Kenya aviation industry has also leveraged on ST&I. Kenya Airways has used
technology to market it services after bench marking with other airlines. It has computerized
10
Michael Porter. Competitive strategy,2004, pg 35.
7
baggage handling system, online booking, online checking-in system, reduction in training
costs by use of flight simulators and modernizing the equipment including fuel efficient
aircraft. The aviation sector supports 46,000 jobs in Kenya and contributes KES 24.8 billion
(1.1%) to Kenyan GDP. In addition, the connections created between cities and markets
represent an important infrastructure asset that generates benefits through enabling foreign
direct investment, business clusters, specialization and other spill-over that impacts on
economic productive capacity.11 Additionally, the aviation sector pays over KES 3.2 billion
in taxes including income tax receipts from employees, social security contributions and
corporation tax levied on profits, with a further KES 1.4 billion of revenue coming from
passenger departure taxes, including VAT. It is estimated that an additional KES 1.5 billion
of government revenue is raised via the aviation sector’s supply chain and another KES 1.4
billion through taxation of the activities supported by the spending of employees of both the
aviation sector and its supply chain. The introduction of integrated radar air traffic control
system has improved expeditious air traffic flow and safety in the Kenyan airspace.
13.
The above shows that Kenya in line with the technocratic progress theory, has
applied ST&I in several aspects of its aviation sector which has yielded significant growth
and contribution to the Kenyan economy.
Agriculture and Rural Development
14.
Technology has transformed the agricultural sector by replacing the traditional
farming methods with contemporary practices. For example, the floriculture industry in
Kenya is an African example of what is possible with access to technologies, investment
funds and enabling policies12. Another example is in banana farming which has also
improved with the introduction of Tissue Culture (TC) techniques. The basis of the
technology is the ability of many plant species to regenerate a whole plant from a shoot tip13.
In economic terms this improves the productivity of every citizen which overall leads to
growth in GDP.
Defence and Security Sector
15.
The Kenya Defence Forces (KDF) has leverage on science and technology in several
aspects of its operational activities. Notably, the surveillance of the international boundary
using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) which is a force multiplier making surveillance
11
Oxford. Economics report on economic benefit of aviation industry in Kenya, 2009
12
Monty Jones. Key Challenges for Technology Development and Agricultural Research in Africa , Institute of
Development Studies, 2009, Pp 46.
13
Qaim. M. ISAAA Briefs No. 10, Published by ISAAA, Bonn,1999, Pp38.
8
much easier and cost effective. The “Ngano Project” is another application of ST& I where
bullets for small arms are being manufactured.
16.
Kenya Defence Forces has also applied ST to its human resource development,
logistics planning which has enhanced its operational and administrative effectiveness. It is
to be noted that the Integrated Payroll and Personnel Database (IPPD) programme used as
payroll management tool in civil service was an innovation of the Ministry of State for
Defence. In order to develop into a regional force capable of coordinating national as well as
sub regional security there is need to develop its capacity by way of developing its Defence
industrial complex. Technology has enabled KDF to integrate it surveillance into one
command and control centre.
17.
The ongoing installation of Close Circuit Television (CCTV) cameras in strategic
areas is enhancing security in Nairobi. This would drastically mitigate the lack of manpower
to patrol every area of the country as it is a force multiplier. The government could
collaborate with the private sector for effective and efficient utilization of available resource.
Trade and Industry
18.
Growth in trade has been improved using e-commerce in areas such as business
transactions, M-PESA, on line shopping etc. Technology has also enhanced labour
productivity, stimulation of research and development activities, and promotion of modern
and appropriate technology in all sectors of Trade and Industry. 14Kenya has adopted on line
clearance of goods at the border posts reducing delays and cost of doing business.
Physical Infrastructure
19.
Modern technology has facilitated faster construction/improvement of infrastructure
countrywide. Some of the examples include Thika Super-highway and urban railway
network. This has eased traffic congestion especially within Nairobi and the government
needs to extend the same to other parts of the country. Traffic congestion is expensive to the
country in economic terms.
Energy
20.
ST & I has enabled Kenya to exploit other sources of renewable energy such as solar
energy, wind power, Biomass energy, electricity from crop residue ,biogas among others and
at the same time providing low power consumption appliances such as energy saving bulbs,
energy “jikos’ among others.
14
Ministry of Trade and Industry- Kenya. Private Sector Development Strategy 2006-2010.
9
Tourism sector
21.
Technology has positively impacted on Tourism sector in Kenya as marketing has
become a desk operation. Entry in the Game Parks is by use of safari cards and reduction of
cycle times improving customer satisfaction services. Use of electronic tracking devices and
use of helicopters has made management of parks easier and effective.
Environment Sector
22.
Modern technology has produced many benefits for the world, in industry and in
everyday life. With more and more technological breakthroughs, there have been many
positive ecological impacts. Technology is enabling the management of endangered species
and the habitats. By use of collars the endangered species movement and spatial distribution
is monitored for security and management decision from a desk. Forest ecosystems are
monitored by use of satellite imagery. Technology is also used in habitat mapping for
management decisions. Despite the great advantage of using technology, the impact on
Kenya’s development level is relatively low. This can be attributed to several factors ranging
from policy gaps to poor implementation.
23.
There are considerable negative impacts as well. Technology produces wastes that
finally finds its way to the environment. Each wave of technology creates a set of waste
previously unknown to humans; toxic waste, radioactive waste, electronic waste. One of the
main problems is the lack of effective ways to remove these pollutants on a large scale
expediently.
24.
One of the largest contributors to gases in the atmosphere are the gases produced by
the combustion process used to produce energy.15 In the United States alone, 83% of this
energy comes from a combustion process.16 The combustion process is an effective way to
produce energy for a wide range sources. The negative aspect of the combustion process
however, is the amount of harmful gases that it produces. These gases can have a devastating
impact on the ozone layer and contribute to what is known as the "Greenhouse Effect".
25.
In Kenya the effects of this climate change have been felt with severe droughts and
floods estimated to cause an annualized reduction in GDP of 2.4 per cent (approximately
Kshs. 16 billion).17 Between 1999 and 2010 Kenya spent an average of USD 173.2 million
15
Williams, Gerald . The Greenhouse-Gas Impact of Various Chiller Technologies,, 2010, Pp36-44.
IBID
17
Ending Drought Emergencies in Kenya: A Commitment To Sustainable Solutions Country Programme Paper,
2011
16
10
each year on food and non-food emergency operations.18The 1999-2001 droughts led to a
loss of livestock worth US$77 million.19
26.
Water resources in Kenya are increasingly becoming polluted from both point and
non-point sources due to technological advances in agriculture, urbanisation, and industry
which contribute to organic, inorganic and aesthetic pollution of water. Ground-water is
threatened by intrusion of saline water in the coastal region, leachates from solid waste
dumps, and infiltration of fertilizer and pesticide residues.
The five principal sources of water pollution in Kenya include:
i.
Agricultural activities which produce sediments and agro-chemical residues
(biocides and fertilizers).
ii.
Industrial processing of agricultural and forestry products which produce liquid
effluents, gaseous emissions and solid wastes.
iii.
Industrial manufacturing waste such as heavy metals, acids, dyes, oils.
iv.
Domestic/municipal effluents such as sewage and garbage.
v.
Sedimentation, soil erosion and mining which produces tailings and effluents.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN KENYA
27.
The enactment of the Science and Technology Act, Cap 250 of the Laws of Kenya in
1977.20 Lead to the establishment of Advisory Research Committees (ARCs) and the
National Council for Science and Technology (NCST) to serve as advisory institutions to the
Government on matters of science and technology. The following are some of the
achievements:
Agricultural Sector
28.
Application of ST& I in Agriculture, has lead to increased productivity through use
of modern farming technologies. The Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) maize is
another achievement in agriculture. Kenya is the fourth country in Africa to have GMOready Laws. Other countries include South Africa, Burkina Faso and Egypt. GMO
technology is one of the solutions to Kenya’s food in-security.
18
Republic of Kenya . Kenya National Drought Management Authority, Proposal, November 2010.
Aklilu, Y. and Wekesa, M. Livestock and Livelihoods in Emergencies,,2001.
20
National Council for Science and Technology (www.ncst.go.ke).
19
11
Health
29.
There has been good progress towards developing the Kenyan health system to
international standards through Science and Technology in quality service and standards
improvement. Others include research in multi-sectoral health issues including infectious
diseases, HIV/Aids, TB, Malaria and emerging infections, traditional knowledge and
resources, and commercial production of traditional plants for medical use. The country has
adopted ST&I technology in the medical field including cancer, renal and heart ailments
detection and treatment.
Human Resource Development
30.
An evaluation on the status of Technical, Industrial, Vocational and Entrepreneurship
Training institutions (TIVET) was carried out in 2003. This provided baseline data for the
ongoing reforms while the audit of equipment, infrastructure, staff, students’ enrolment and
training programme at National polytechnics and Technical training institutions carried out
in 2004/2005; provided data for upgrading of polytechnics as centres of excellence. On the
other hand, skills inventory, training needs assessment and development of curriculum
structures was undertaken in 2005 as part of developing National Training Strategy. The
development of Sessional paper No. 1 of 2005 on policy framework for education, Training
and Research resulted into reforms in this sector. Production Unit policy for public training
institutions directorate was established in 2006 and this enabled the harmonisation and
production activities. The measures combined with government sponsorship saw an increase
of students from 26,259 in 1999 to 44,215 in 2004.
31.
The High Education Science, Technology and Innovations (HESTI) continue to make
progress toward achieving the millennium development goals (MDGs) and Vision 2030. The
Ministry finalized drafting the ST&I Bill, University Education Bill and Technical
Vocational and Entrepreneurial Training (TIVET) Bill21, enabling environment and
institutional reforms necessary for achieving sector objectives. Specific key achievements
include:
i.
12 technical institutes are being upgraded to national polytechnic status.
ii.
11 technical institutes are being developed gradually to become centers of
excellence and construction of 13 new technical institutes is underway.
21
Ministry of Finance. Harnessing Science, Technology and Innovation for Regional and Global
Competitiveness, 2008 – 2012.
12
iii.
Enrolment in public TIVET institutions rose from 34,453 in 2000 to 59,835 in
2010.
iv.
The amount of money allocated to the National Research Fund rose from Ksh. 70
million in 2005/6 to Kshs 263 million in 2009/10.
v.
Introduction of computer lessons in secondary schools with government donated
computers is ongoing. Further ICT, e-learning and Multimedia Training is being
undertaken in Tertiary and Universities.
All the above is aimed at the creation of a critical mass of a human resource to support S&T
development and sustainability.
Iinformation Communication Technology (ICT)
32.
The government and other stakeholders have made efforts in strengthening and
promoting
the
ICT
sector
in
the
country.
This
includes
capacity
building,
facilitation/development and growth of a robust ICT and infrastructure to stimulate and
support local ICT industry growth. Others include establishment of e-government, V-SAT
communication, and Global System Mobile network (GSM), integration and popularization
of the use of ICT in learning institutions, workplaces and rural communities.
In Telecommunication, the laying of fibre optic cables across the country has been a
revolutionary and innovations such as M-PESA have gone a long way to transform
businesses.
Major achievements in ICT:
i.
E-Government is a reality and has been for more than five years now. The website
www.e-government.go.ke, for instance, reveals some of the services on offer and what
the Government envisages to achieve by going digital.
ii.
The simulcast period when period of broadcasting in both analogue and digital formats is
on-going. By 2012, the country plans to completely switch over to the digital platform
ahead of the global deadline of June 2015 spearheaded by the ITU. The ITU’s Regional
Radio Communications Conference (RRC 06) set 2015 as the global deadline.
iii.
The Government has spent Sh1 billion to purchase 5,000 acres of land where it intends
to put up an ICT park to house BPOs and other ICT businesses. Kenya’s bandwidth
capacity, regional economic and transportation hub to eastern and southern Africa also
makes Kenya stand out as a preferred destination for many investors.
13
33.
Kenya has developed national capacity in geological and geo-information systems
coordination of the seismology. Two stations for detecting earth disturbances have been set
up in Kenya, one at Karura forest and the other at Kilimambogo linking Kenya to Global
verification Regime for early detection of nuclear tests and explosions in collaboration with
the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO) and the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA). The development of Biotechnology Policy and the Bio safety
Coordination Framework as well as the Bio safety Law.
Energy Production
34.
Kenya has made efforts in developing energy sources in a bid to become self-reliant.
A reliable and uninterrupted power is essential for development. So far some good progress
has been made to improve the power supply and connectivity across the country. Kenya has
diversified from hydro and now uses Geothermal and other renewable energy sources. The
output has risen from 960MW to 1600MW installed capacity in the last 10 year.
EXISTING POLICIES ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN KENYA
Policies
35.
In 1977 the Government of Kenya (GoK) enacted Science and Technology Act 250 of
the laws of Kenya. The Act established National Council for Science and Technology
(NCST)22 as statutory institution of the GoK. NCST purpose is to provide machinery for
making available to the Government advice upon all matters relating to the scientific and
technological activities and for coordination of research and experimental development
together with matters incidental and connected with ST&I
36.
The Act also gave birth to Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), Kenya
Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Kenya Industrial Estates (KIE), Kenya Industrial
Property Institute (KIPI), among many others. The ST&I linkages to economy are illustrated
below:
37.
The following diagram is adapted from Ministry of Science & Technology
Presentation to the Global Forum on Building Science, Technology and Innovation Capacity
for Sustainable Growth and Poverty Reduction Washington, D.C. 12-15 February 2007.
From the diagram it is clear that there is lack of central institution for ST&I coordination,
22
Act 250 of the laws of Kenya
14
inadequate M&E, duplication of efforts, scattered sectoral policies, good practices are not
shared/poor dissemination of R&D.
38.
In 2008 May, a presidential circular provided for a comprehensive and all-inclusive
Science, and Technology and Innovative policy to guide and promote the development,
application, integration and innovation into the national development process. Sectoral
Policies on ST&I include:
Ministry of Industrialisation
39.
National Industrialisation Policy 2011-2015 and beyond underpins national
industrialisation process in Kenya over five years 2011-2015 and beyond. The policy is
conceptualized as a revitalisation document that underscores building solid foundation of
various efforts the GoK in past to craft policy interventions to propel the country forward in
the ongoing quest for industrial growth and development. Key among these policy
documents includes the Kenya Vision 2030, with its premium on average annual growth rate
of 10 percent and objective to drive Kenya into newly industrialised nation with higher
quality of life. Institutions to actualise ST&I include KIRDI , Kenya Bureau of Standards
(KEBS) , Kenya Industrial Estates, Kenya Industrial Property Institute (KIPI), Numerical
Machines Complex (NMC) among others.
Ministry of Information and Communications
40.
The Ministry’s policies are informed by International Telecommunications Union
(ITU) guidelines, rules and regulations governing the use of electromagnetic spectrum.
15
Kenya has witnessed significant growth in the ICT sector as demonstrated by the number of
telephone lines, Internet Service Providers (ISPs), the number of Internet users, broadcasting
stations, and market share of each one of them. The Government liberalised the mobile
cellular market and currently, there are four mobile cellular operators (Orange Telkom,
Safaricom, Airtel, and YU). The Policy and Regulatory Framework, in 1997, the
Government released the Telecommunications and Postal Sector Policy Guidelines that
created an environment for competition in several market segments and paved way to the
enactment of the Kenya Communications Act of 199823 , Act established: Communication
Commission of Kenya, National Communications Secretariat, Communications Appeals
Tribunal, Telkom Kenya Limited, Postal Corporation of Kenya.
Ministry of Agriculture
41.
Strategic Plan 2008-2012 sets the vision and mission and key objectives that are to be
realized in the five years24. It is an undertaking by the Ministry to improve service delivery
in line with national aspirations as articulated in the Vision 2030 strategy and First Medium
Plan (MTP 2008-2012). The Strategic Plan aims to principally accelerate the transformation
of agriculture into a competitive oriented enterprise.
42.
This Strategic Plan stresses the importance of a formal Monitoring & Evaluation
(M&E) Framework as a key platform to measure the implementation status. Key institutions
on food security include the Kenya Seed Company, Agriculture Development Corporation
(ADC), KEPHIS, and KARI. The ministry has managed production through research on
tissue culture technology, development of livestock breeding (AI), recombinant vaccines and
Diagnostic tests.
Ministry of Energy Policies
43.
The Ministry is a key enabler for development in terms of cheap and accessible
power supply to actualize ST& I. The policies are:
23
24
25
i.
National Energy Policy (Sessional Paper No. 4 of 2004) -Ministry of Energy,
2004.
ii.
Energy Act, 2006 - Government of Kenya, 200625. – (Establishes ERC).
iii.
Feed-in-Tariffs (FiTs) for REs (2008) – (wind, biomass & SHP)
Kenya Communications Act of 1998
Ministry of Agriculture. Strategic Plan , 2008-2012
Government of Kenya. National Energy Policy (Sessional Paper No. 4 of 2004) -Ministry of Energy, 2004 Energy Act, 2006.
16
iv.
Draft policy on strategy for the development of Bio-diesel industry in Kenya
(2008-2012).
v.
Draft Bioethanol Strategy 2009-2012.
vi.
Energy Regulatory Commission (ERC) – Body under the Monitoring and
Evaluation (M&E) responsible for energy regulation, licensing, permits,
protection of investors and customers.
vii.
Kenya Electricity Generating Company (KENGEN) – Responsible for electricity
generation together with IPPs.
viii.
Geothermal Development Company (GDC) – Responsible for the development of
the geothermal energy sector.
ix.
Kenya Electricity Transmission Company (KETRACO) – Responsible for the
development of the grid electricity distribution system.
x.
Kenya Electricity and Lighting Company (KPLC) – Responsible for electricity
connection to customers throughout the country.
xi.
Rural Electrification Authority (REA) – Responsible for the improvement of
access to electricity in rural areas.
Ministry of Livestock
44.
The Ministry has linkages with research associations and by specialist institutions
such as ILRI and KARI as well as the ministry of agriculture, areas of policy and legal
reforms are: National Livestock Development Policy, Dairy Development Policy, Apiculture
Rules and Regulations, Animal Breeding Policy, ASAL Land Use Policy, Animal Feeds
Policy among others.
45.
Other policies made to address ST&I initiatives in the country:
i.
Sessional Paper NO.5 of 1982 on Science and Technology for Development.
ii.
Sessional Paper NO.2 1992 on small enterprise and Jua Kali Development in
Kenya.
iii.
Sessional Paper No: 1 of 2005 on a Policy Framework for Education Training and
Research.
17
CHALLENGES FACING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES LIKE KENYA
46.
Kenya faces the following challenges in the utilisation of ST& I:
i.
Lack of emphasis in sciences in the Education System: In Kenya most of the
technical institutions were upgraded to universities in the last two decades
resulting to a serious shortage of the critical mass on ST &I at the tactical level.
ii.
Inadequate funding towards Science, Technology and Innovation (ST&I):
Kenya spends less than 0.3% of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in R&D in
comparison with the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and Singapore)
countries where 10% of GDP is devoted to R&D.
iii.
Weak application of the R&D: Kenya has insufficient focus towards R & D that
would enable sustainable industrial development. Kenya’s R&D findings are not
tried in the industrial sector and have low impact on development.
iv.
Policy Level Commitment: In Kenya, ST&I has been divorced from the
mainstream of national economic activities due to huge gap between policy
formulation, implementation and consequently lack of good will and its support at
the policy level. The link between ST&I policy and macro-economic policies has
not been fully integrated and stakeholders at national level should be involved in
the formulation and implementation of ST&I policies.
v.
Ineffective enforcement mechanism on monitoring and evaluation on
implementation of ST & I policies and initiatives.
THE FUTURE TRENDS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT IN
KENYA
47.
Globally, the future of scientific and technological growth trends is expansive.
Expected contributions to the global economic progress cannot be gainsaid. While some
scholars argue that economic progress in this day and age will not be possible without
advances in the fields of science and technology; others ask whether improved technology
means progress. A clear delineation of the expected end that defines “progress” is therefore
necessary to guide development of innovations in science and technology in a country. At
18
the same time, researchers must be accorded the opportunity to continuously experiment
without being punished for the unexpected and/or unwanted side.
48.
Indeed, there is a growing recognition that development "is built not merely through
the accumulation of physical, capital and human skill, but on a foundation of information,
learning and adaptation”26. The increased pace of discovery will fuel innovations in the near
future. Therefore, the future depends on the potential in ST & I.
49.
Kenya Vision 2030 recognizes the role of science, technology and innovation (STI) in
a modern economy, in which new knowledge plays a central role in boosting wealth
creation, social welfare and international competitiveness.27 It is projected that the future
ST&I will encompass many fields such as nanoscience and nanotechnology, telerobotics,
biochemistry, biotechnology, space technology, geo-information technology, teledildonics
and virtual reality. Life support systems, need for a more habitable planet, reduction of
carbon emissions and conservation of biological diversity are fields of future concern. It is
most likely that world regulations will deal more with matters of environmental security
such as waste disposal (toxic), endangered species and species protection, carbon
efficiencies, chlorofluorocarbon substitutes, replacement fertility levels and energy (green)
technologies.
50.
Kenya’s prosperity will hinge on integrating its socio-economic development with
sustainable S T & I policy. This will be realized among others through good governance and
capacity to formulate coherent development programs. Technologically and scientifically,
skilled workforce trained to work with modern equipment and production processes will be
the pillar on which Kenya’s aspiration will be anchored. Utilization of modern equipment to
produce value added globally competitive goods and services, as well as the importation,
and adoption of appropriate knowledge produced outside the country will be key in enabling
Kenya achieve its set goals. These expectations however can only be achieved through
aggressive applied scientific and technological development. Indeed to achieve these goals,
investment in research and development must be directed and concentrated in areas where
benefits will be optimized towards our greatest challenges and where paybacks will be
largest.28 This will enhance Kenya's competitiveness in the regional and global market from
26
World Bank Report, 1999
Kenya Vision 2030, Pp19
28
Kenya National Academy of Science: Securing the future through science and technology,
http://www.knascience.org/
27
19
commodity based economy to knowledge based economy, thereby improving the quality of
life and wellbeing of its citizenry. The choices Kenya makes for future advancement of
science and technology may be guided by the following statements:
51.
i.
The involvement of stakeholder in defining the particular technology.
ii.
The need for political debates for interpretive skills is necessary to evaluate the
context, arguments and consequences of the innovations.
iii.
No means without ends: the question to answer is, “why are we doing this? What
are the ends we have chosen? How do they fit in the pattern of means available?1
In addition to what the Science and Technology Act Chapter 250 of the Laws of
Kenya stipulates, the areas of future technological advancement may include:
Agricultural Sector
52.
Agriculture contributes nearly 30% of the Gross Domestic Product of which 10% is
derived from the livestock industry. With science and technology, it will be possible to
increase productivity in terms of quantity and quality and improve on varieties and breeds to
mitigate against effects of the harsh unreliable weather patterns that are evident in the
current era. This will adequately meet food security demands to feed the country’s
increasing human population. The areas of likely advances include tissue culture, general
acceptance of Genetically Modified crops which are able to withstand the severe droughts,
pests and other plant diseases thus ensuring country’s food sustenance. Emerging livestock
that includes ostrich, guinea fowls, quails and crocodile1will also play a key role owing to
the awareness of the need for healthy foods and healthy lifestyles for Kenyans.
Military and Security Sectors
53.
The impact of S&T in the military and security environment will enhance training as
the cost will be reduced by the use of computers and modern simulators. This will also
improve planning, logistics, human resources management, ICT, and surveillance using
unmanned aerial vehicles leading to improvement on constant security. Further advances in
the use of GIS and GPS will facilitate efficient troop movement and deployment. The
continued installations of advanced surveillance equipment such as CCTV in all public
places will enhance security. Criminal investigations will be improved by the application
and use of forensic science example DNA and ballistics. The likely hood of these sectors to
have their own scientific institutions in both military and security organization for research
and development purposes is high in the future.
20
E-electioneering
54.
One of the thorny issues in developing countries is the electoral process which is often
said to be marred by fraud and malpractices. The introduction of electronic voting system
will be a better solution which Kenya has already piloted and its success may mean that all
future elections will make use of the same if not modern voting technologies.
Education in S & T
55.
The education and training system is set to be more computerized with virtual classes
to minimize the need for actual sitting room and congestion. The existing regulatory
framework in terms of guiding policies is likely to hasten the change in S&T in the country.
The education sector will also benefit through the e-learning programmes and the available
materials in the internet will broaden the scope of students, lecturers, teachers, education
planners and curriculum and syllabuses developers.
Energy Sector
56.
There is a growing emphasis to shift to the green revolution in the energy sector.
Kenya is striving Steady, reliable power source is vital to industrialization to achieve low
cost production In this regard, Kenya is seeking to develop a viable nuclear energy program
within the next 15 years to meet its growing energy demands to become a middle-income
country by 2030. A government commission is already conducting a feasibility studies while
the University of Nairobi is setting up programs to develop human resources for the nuclear
program. Nuclear energy will ensure reduced cost of electricity translating to low cost of
production and will enhance the standard of living, hence a sustained economic growth and
to minimize environmental impacts. Other major power generation projects include wind
power and geo-thermal power production, solar and biogas power generation.
Health and Medical Care
57.
As a developing country with a good number of medical facilities, nurses, doctors and
para-medical staff, Kenya is likely to benefit greatly from the impacts of science and
technology through faster diagnosis and telemedicine. Advanced in nano-technology will
continue to lead to new medical possibility hitherto unimagined. The use of laparoscopy is
likely to get more advanced in the growing of organs, through stem cell technologies for
transplant. The mapping of human genome will lead to new techniques in curing process or
prevent ailments that so far are incurable.
21
Commerce and Industry
58.
New trends in ICT are expected to improve trading, manufacturing, transportation and
sourcing of raw materials in this very important industry. Economic industry such as tourist
sector, mining, exploration for minerals like petroleum will be impacted by the evolving
technology. The new technology will facilitate local, regional, continental and international
trade and commerce through further advances in information technology.
Media and Broadcasting
59.
Kenya has an advanced media practitioners, adequate daily news papers and many
modern broadcasting stations. All these services are depending on the advanced ICT and the
broadcasting stations will surely meet the deadline of world’s immigrating from analogue to
digitalization come June 2015 respectively. The numbers of Media houses are expected to
increase with the technological up-swing.
Service Industry
60.
An articulated infrastructure and telecommunications network together with properly
reticulated water, refuse and urban transport systems will facilitate smooth service industry.
Communication Technologies
61.
The emerging technologies are likely to accelerate the empowerment of individuals
and reduce the urban-rural split. It will also reduce investments in expensive and costly
communications infrastructure.
CONCLUSION
62.
This paper confirmed that there exists a direct relationship between science,
technology and innovations and socio-economic development of Kenya. However the
country has yet to reap maximum benefits from ST&I. This is attributed to inadequacies in
coordination, policy implementation, funding, applied research, monitoring and evaluation
amongst others. Kenya should therefore embrace long range ST&I planning to bridge the
gap between policy formulation, implementation, enforcement, monitoring and evaluation
mechanisms for sustainable economic and social growth.
22
RECOMMENDATIONS
63.
To leverage on ST& I the government of Kenya has to:
i.
Audit, develop, formulate, implement and link practical ST&I policies to
economic planning and budgeting.
ii.
Establish a ST&I Ministry of State at the Office of the President to spearhead
ST&I coordination and implementation of technological innovations and
applications,
iii.
Adopt Public Private Partnership approach, global best practice and incorporate
the Ministry of State for Defence and other relevant ministries in R&D.
iv.
Provide adequate budget for R&D and implementation of the STI initiatives by
allocating 10% of GDP.
v.
Establish a central data processing centre to disseminate and implement research
findings and strengthen Monitoring and Evaluation mechanism at relevant sectoral
ministries including those in charge of Agriculture, Industrialization, Information
and Communication, Livestock, Defence and Internal Security, Immigration,
Special programs, Tourism, Environment, Trade, Energy, Health and Education.
23
ANNEX A. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IMPLEMENTATION MATRIX
Activity
Implementation
Timelines
Resource
Requirement
Kshs.
15m
Responsible
Institution
Establish
an ST&I central data 2013-2030
processing centre to disseminate and
implement research findings
Adopt PPP approach in Research and 2013-2018
Development by collaborating global
best practices
10m
NSCT/OP
15m
NSCT/Min. of
Finance/ MOSD
Provide adequate budget for R&D and 2013-2030
for implementation of the STI
initiatives by allocating R & D 10% of
GDP
150b
Min. of
Finance
Strengthen Monitoring and Evaluation 2013-2030
mechanism
20m
Min. Planning &
Vision 2030
Audit of existing policies, formulation 2013-2018
and implement
ST&I practical
policies
24
Consultant/ Min.
Information
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
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Ezzatti et al. (2000).Comparison of Emissions and Residential Exposure from Traditional and Improved
Cookstoves in Kenya, Environmental Science and Technology. p. 578
Kenya Communications Act of 1998
Ministry of Agriculture. Strategic Plan 2008-2012
Monty Jones Key( 2009 I). Challenges for Technology Development and Agricultural Research in Africa:
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2011
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Aklilu, Y. and Wekesa M. (2001). Livestock and Livelihoods in Emergencies.
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INTERNET WEBSITE
Enviromental Impacts on Human Security and the Potential of Conflict. Water Wiki.net. p.2.
Mugo, F. and Gathui, T. (2010) Biomass energy use in Kenya
National Council for Science and Technology (www.ncst.go.ke). www.scienceandtechnology.go.ke.
25