The
Age
Difference:
Does
the
Entertainment
Media
Treat
Child
Stars
Differently
Than
Adult
Celebrities?
A
Capstone
Project
Submitted
to
The
Faculty
of
American
University
School
of
Communication
Washington,
DC
For
the
candidacy
of
the
M.A.
in
Public
Communication
Professor
Joseph
Graf
April
28,
2010
By
Mallory
Kwitter
The
Age
Difference
2
ABSTRACT
This
paper
is
an
assessment
of
how
the
media
frames
celebrities
as
they
move
from
childhood
to
adulthood.
Nine
celebrities
were
selected,
including
one
set
of
female
twins,
all
with
prominent
careers
in
the
entertainment
industry
from
the
time
of
childhood
and
past
the
age
of
18.
A
content
analysis
was
conducted
on
60
articles.
Eight
articles
per
each
celebrity
were
randomly
selected,
with
the
exception
of
Shia
LaBeouf,
who
due
to
lower
media
exposure
had
six
articles.
One
half
of
the
articles
selected
were
published
when
the
subjects
were
children
and
one
half
while
they
were
adults.
The
articles
were
coded
for
age,
gender,
tone
of
headlines,
and
tone
of
body
text.
If
pictures
were
provided
with
the
article
they
were
also
coded
for
attractiveness.
If
at
least
one
family
member
was
mentioned
in
story,
the
tone
of
this
mention
was
coded.
This
paper
seeks
to
understand
if
media
treatment
of
celebrities
changes
as
the
celebrity
grows
older,
while
incorporating
the
influence
of
gender,
photographs,
and
representation
of
family.
The
research
revealed
that
child
celebrities
are
framed
more
positively
in
the
press
than
when
they
became
adults.
Additionally,
mention
of
family
in
the
articles
was
more
likely
to
be
positive
than
negative.
Furthermore,
mention
of
family
in
the
articles
was
more
like
to
be
positive
in
articles
written
about
children.
Finally,
children
were
more
likely
to
have
flattering
pictures
published.
INTRODUCTION
The
Age
Difference
3
The
concept
of
child
stardom
has
been
a
controversial
topic
since
the
1930’s
when
Shirley
Temple,
one
of
America’s
first
child
stars,
reached
indescribable
fame
at
a
very
young
age.
Over
70
years
later
child
stardom
is
still
an
enigma
to
many
people.
There
are
many
theories
regarding
how
fame
impacts
a
young
child.
Many
child
stars
go
on
to
have
successful
careers
while
others
fall
victim
to
the
pressures
of
celebrity
and
public
interest.
They
might
fade
into
entertainment
oblivion
or
run
into
personal
troubles.
This
is
often
dubbed
the
“Curse
of
the
Child
Star,”
which
typically
refers
to
the
failure
to
maintain
fame
as
an
adult
in
combination
with
being
unable
to
avoid
the
pressures
of
child
stardom
by
indulging
in
drugs
or
substance
abuse.
This
paper
seeks
to
examine
if
the
media
treats
celebrities
differently
when
they
are
children
versus
when
they
become
adults.
To
do
so
it
examines
the
entertainment
media’s
treatment
of
nine
celebrities,
4
males,
5
females,
with
one
set
of
fraternal
female
twins,
from
their
childhood
and
through
their
adulthood.
Media
treatment
of
celebrities
varies
depending
on
personal
and
professional
success
and
failure,
public
desirability,
and
popularity.
Taking
these
variables
into
account,
there
is
something
to
be
said
about
the
way
in
which
the
entertainment
media
treats
someone
who
is
not
of
legal
age.
In
order
to
gauge
how
the
media
treats
a
celebrity
as
he
or
she
moves
from
childhood
to
adulthood,
60
articles
about
the
respective
subjects
were
chosen
from
a
sample
of
entertainment
publications.
A
content
analysis
was
conducted
to
determine
if
the
hypotheses,
discussed
later
in
this
paper,
are
supported.
LITERATURE
REVIEW
The
Concept
of
Fame
The
Age
Difference
4
There
are
many
different
definitions
of
fame.
Brim
(2009)
defines
fame
as
when
a
person
is
“known
by
name,
recognized
by
sight,
and
talked
about
or
written
about
by
a
nameless
public
unknown
to
them”
(p.
2).
For
example,
the
legal
concept
of
fame
is
that
of
“the
public
figure”
or
a
combination
of
two
concepts
(Brim,
2009,
p.
2).
The
first
concept
being
“a
person
or
group
who
has
taken
steps
to
attract
public
attention
and
in
some
measure
has
done
so”
(Brim
2006,
p.
2).
The
second
group
of
factors
the
legal
system
takes
into
account
are
facts
and
numbers
assessing
media
coverage,
name‐recognition,
and
access
to
the
media
(Brim,
2009,
p.
2).
The
legal
definition
of
fame
recognizes
that
those
who
have
reluctantly
become
famous
have
a
greater
right
to
privacy
rather
than
those
who
actively
seek
fame.
Most
of
the
famous
have
become
so
by
choice.
But
what
possesses
a
person
to
desire
notoriety?
Brim
(2009)
and
many
psychologists
attribute
the
desire
for
fame
to
the
rejection
by
a
person
or
group,
especially
rejection
by
those
who
are
closer
to
us
such
as
parents
and
other
family
members
(p.
9).
Fame
provides
feelings
of
belongingness,
comfort,
and
acceptance.
Feelings
that
are
often
absent
in
early
life
if
rejection
or
abandonment
is
present.
However,
Brim
(2009)
finds
it
important
to
note
that
not
all
humans
seek
fame
as
a
result
of
abandonment
or
rejection
early
in
life;
fame
is
one
way
to
satisfy
the
need
for
belonging
(p.
10).
Once
a
person
desires
fame
what
follows
is
a
passion,
desire,
and
work
ethic
for
being
famous.
Brim
(2009)
describes
the
passion
for
being
famous
as
a
“hunger
for
recognition,”
while
on
the
other
end
of
the
spectrum,
a
person
might
be
indifferent
to
fame
or
even
have
an
aversion
from
it
(p.
39).
Where
someone
lands
The
Age
Difference
5
on
the
spectrum
of
desired
fame
often
relates
directly
to
occupation
choice.
Someone
who
desires
fame
and
celebrity
should
chose
a
career
in
show
business
and
someone
who
does
not
desire
fame
should
choose
their
career
accordingly.
More
often
than
not,
this
is
the
case.
Those
who
do
not
desire
fame
choose
careers
“where
fame
is
not
a
part
of
the
culture,”
such
as
teaching
or
law
(Brim,
2009,
p.
48).
In
some
instances,
however,
the
person
in
question
does
not
want
fame
but
has
entered
an
occupation
that
measures
success
by
the
level
of
fame
he
or
she
receives
(Brim,
2009,
p.
48).
Another
conflicting
situation
is
when
someone
desires
to
be
famous
but
has
gone
into
a
profession
where
fame
is
criticized,
such
as
becoming
a
famous
politician.
In
the
world
of
politics,
it
can
be
argued
that
excessive
fame
can
be
detrimental
to
a
politician’s
public
image.
In
these
situations,
who
is
more
likely
to
have
a
desire
to
be
famous?
While
Brim
(2009)
says
that
men
are
more
likely
than
women
to
desire
fame,
the
margin
of
difference
is
small
(p.
50).
In
addition,
it
seems
that
as
a
person
grows
older
their
desire
for
fame
decreases
(Brim,
2009,
p.
51).
Education
level
and
desire
for
fame
have
little
disparity,
though
statistically
those
with
higher
levels
of
education
dream
more
about
becoming
famous
and
generally
believe
they
are
more
likely
to
achieve
fame
(Brim,
2009,
p.
52).
There
are
two
other
concepts
often
lumped
in
with
the
idea
of
fame;
power
and
money.
These
three
concepts
are
linked
so
frequently
to
one
another
that
one
is
usually
employed
to
gain
the
other
two.
It
is
not
uncommon
for
a
person
to
seek
fame
simply
for
the
money
and
power.
There
are
also
other
characteristics
and
The
Age
Difference
6
attributes
that
seem
like
they
could
be
motives
for
fame
but
are
not.
They
include
narcissism,
individuality,
and
the
need
for
affiliation
(Brim,
2009).
The
fame
motives
of
the
subjects
in
this
paper
are
unclear.
As
Brim
(2009)
accurately
notes,
“There
are
no
timetables
for
the
arrival
of
fame,
which
can
occur
at
almost
any
age”
(p.
130).
The
common
thread
among
all
of
the
subjects
studied
is
that
they
became
famous
at
a
young
age.
The
following
section
describes
the
consequences
of
seeking
and
obtaining
fame
during
childhood.
The
Child
Star
O’Connor
(2008)
says
that
while
it
should
be
easy
to
define
a
child
star
simply
by
taking
each
word’s
definition
and
combining
them,
cultural
specifics
complicate
the
concrete
definition
of
the
term
(p.
4).
The
term
child
star
was
first
given
to
young
performers
in
the
early
twentieth
century,
such
as
Mickey
Rooney
and
Judy
Garland.
Currently,
it
is
used
to
define
“any
and
all
children
who
achieve
even
a
modicum
of
success
in
the
entertainment
world”
(O’Connor,
1998,
p.
4).
Rapport
and
Meleen
(1998)
note
that
child
celebrities’
day‐to‐day
happenings
“includes
the
pressures
of
fame,
substantial
financial
gain,
and
a
schedule
replete
with
set
calls
and
promotional
appearances”
(p.
486).
While
different
cultures
define
adulthood
differently,
the
common
trait
among
most
is
that
the
term
child
usually
includes
persons
under
the
age
of
16.
We
recognize
that
a
child
is
legally
defined
as
being
under
the
age
of
18,
while,
culturally,
the
definition
of
child
falls
somewhere
around
the
ages
of
four
to
16.
For
the
purpose
of
this
paper,
we
choose
to
define
child
in
accordance
with
the
legal
definition
as
a
person
under
the
age
of
The
Age
Difference
7
18
in
order
to
assess
if
the
entertainment
media’s
tenor
towards
the
subjects
chosen
changes
because
of
the
legal
or
ethical
implications
of
being
considered,
legally,
a
child.
The
concept
of
the
child
performer
goes
as
far
back
as
ancient
Greece
when
children
often
occupied
the
roles
of
young
people
in
Greek
productions
(O’Connor,
1998,
p.
39).
Children
also
performed
in
Shakespearean
productions
and
in
Victorian
London;
O’Connor
(1998)
notes
that
Master
William
Henry
West
Betty
became
one
of
the
first
child
stars
of
his
kind
(p.
41).
His
career,
though
short,
resembles
the
careers
of
many
child
stars
today
as
his
achievements
were
often
reported
on
in
the
London
press
(O’Conner,
1998,
p.
41).
Around
this
time
as
well,
treatment
of
child
stars
became
the
topic
of
some
controversy.
“Ownership”
of
the
child
and
the
rights
of
the
child
versus
the
rights
of
the
parents
over
the
child
were
among
the
concerns
(O’Conner,
1998,
p.
42).
In
America,
child
performers
were
not
only
entertaining
but
also
had
a
calming
effect
on
their
audiences.
They
were
particularly
calming
on
gold
miners
in
the
west,
whereas
child
entertainers
had
the
power
to
“bring
people
together
by
symbolizing
hope
and
eliciting
emotion”
(O’Conner,
1998,
p.
49).
The
1920’s
in
America
was
the
Child
Star
Era
and
the
American
public
became
enamored
with
the
first
contemporary
child
star,
Jackie
Coogan.
Coogan
reached
unparalleled
fame
at
the
tender
age
of
6
and
later
endured
legal
battles
against
his
parents
concerning
his
finances.
He
was
also
the
topic
of
gossip
publications.
Coogan
had
many
similar
characteristics
of
the
child
star
subjects
used
in
this
paper.
After
Coogan
came
many
other
child
stars
including
Shirley
The
Age
Difference
8
Temple
and
Freddie
Bartholomew.
From
this
era
grew
an
entire
generation
of
child
television
stars,
some
of
whom
went
on
to
encounter
troublesome
personal
problems,
including
drug
use
and
overdose
as
well
as
mental
health
issues
such
as
depression.
These
stars,
mostly
from
the
1980’s,
included
Danny
Bonaduce
of
The
Partridge
Family
and
Mackenzie
Phillips
of
One
Day
at
a
Time.
They
are
examples
of
what
O’Conner
(1998)
carefully
calls
the
“curse”
of
the
child
star
(p.
59).
Their
personal
lives
did
not
fare
well.
Literature
on
the
psychology
and
cultural
influence
of
the
child
star
recognizes
the
peculiar
nature
for
a
young
person
to
become
a
celebrity.
Rapport
and
Meleen
(1998)
note
that
“celebrity
is
a
nonnormative
experience”
(p.
486).
Child
stars
do
not
attend
school
nor
do
they
partake
in
other
customary
social
experiences
that
are
expected
of
children;
it
is
also
expected
that
child
stars
act
like
professionals
in
a
career
setting
that
is
dominated
by
adults
(Rapport
&
Meleen,
1998,
p.
486).
There
are
more
idiosyncratic
differences
between
the
lives
of
child
stars
and
those
who
are
considered
to
lead
a
normal
childhood.
For
example,
O’Connor
(1998)
notes
that
in
the
modern
Western
world
children
are
no
longer
expected
to,
nor
legally
permitted
to,
contribute
financially
to
the
family
(p.
6).
When
it
comes
to
the
child
star,
however,
this
sentiment,
while
legally
regulated,
no
longer
rings
true.
Successful
child
performers
“raise
their
family’s
standard
of
living
through
their
economic
activity”
(O’Connor,
1998,
p.
8).
Because
of
this
O’Connor
(1998)
also
argues
that
when
it
comes
to
child
actors
and
child
labor,
it
seems
as
though
society
has
taken
a
step
back
from
the
protections
of
child
welfare
in
place
today
(p.
8).
The
Age
Difference
9
It
is
clear
that
society
recognizes
that
the
life
of
a
child
star
is
an
anomaly.
As
young
celebrities
evolved
from
Jackie
Coogan
to
more
contemporary
child
stars
like
those
studied
in
this
paper,
society
has
also
recognized
what
is
called
the
“curse”
of
the
child
star.
This
“curse”
centers
on
the
idea
that
child
stardom
leads
the
child
in
question
into
a
disastrous
adult
life
(O’Connor,
2008,
p.
67).
O’Connor
(2008)
also
notes
that
this
cultural
identity
projected
onto
child
stars
is
“consistently
reinforced
through
sensationalist
newspaper
headlines”
(p.
67).
Despite
the
fact
that
a
majority
of
child
stars
live
relatively
normal
lives
once
their
entertainment
careers
are
over
and
only
a
small
number
have
run
into
trouble
after
adolescence,
the
“curse”
of
the
child
star
becomes
a
paramount
topic
in
discourse
(O’Connor,
2008,
68).
Headlines
categorizing
child
stardom
as
a
risky
endeavor,
often
using
war‐
esque
language,
such
as
words
like
“casualties”
or
“survivors,”
create
a
stigma
that
show
business
is
much
like
a
warzone,
a
place
where
children
should
not
dwell
for
fear
of
safety
(O’Connor,
2008,
71).
Another
angle
the
media
often
takes
when
discussing
child
stars
is
that
of
pity.
The
media
tries
to
induce
a
sense
of
“pity
for
former
child
stars
by
emphasizing
their
powerlessness
in
the
‘adult’
world”
(O’Connor,
2008,
p.
71).
Sudden
and
early
success,
without
much
experience,
or
in
some
cases
hard
work,
is
dangerous
(O’Connor,
2008,
p.
71).
This
apparent
different
approach
to
the
way
the
media
treats
children
is
a
contributing
factor
to
the
hypotheses
discussed
at
the
end
of
the
literature
review.
The
media
discusses
children
in
a
sensitive
manner,
noting
that
they,
for
the
most
part,
are
defenseless,
which
is
why
it
is
hypothesized
that
adult
celebrities
endure
more
negative
media
attention
than
child
stars.
The
Age
Difference
10
Celebrity
Culture
and
Gossip
The
child
star
and
adult
celebrity
would
not
have
much
relevance
if
it
were
not
for
the
fixation
the
public
has
on
the
celebrated.
In
the
past
decade
society’s
interest
in
the
famous
has
exploded.
Entertainment
news
is
now
at
the
public’s
fingertips
whether
it
be
through
the
Internet
or
the
large
number
of
entertainment
publications
in
circulation
(Choi
&
Berger,
2009,
p.
313).
Entire
networks
devoted
to
entertainment
news,
including
the
E!
Entertainment
network,
provide
the
viewer
with
more
choice
in
programming
than
ever
before.
The
outburst
of
media
has
arguably
fostered
an
environment
for
the
consumption
of
more
celebrity
gossip
than
in
the
past.
As
Choi
and
Berger
(2009)
note,
“The
global
influence
of
celebrities
in
the
21st
century
extends
far
beyond
the
entertainment
sector”
(p.
313).
Choi
and
Berger
(2009)
say
the
reason
for
this
phenomenon
is
that
“fame
and
celebrity
are
no
longer
restricted
to
a
person’s
achievements
or
work
in
the
entertainment
and
sports
fields”
(p.
313).
Many
headlines
involve
celebrities
that
are
famous
for
being
famous.
An
example
would
include
the
highly
exposed
Kardashian
family,
whose
three
daughters,
Kortney,
Kim,
and
Khloe,
have
spawned
more
than
three
reality
television
shows
on
the
E!
Network
alone.
Society,
however,
did
not
just
decide
to
become
obsessed
with
the
Kardashians.
There
is
a
science
behind
the
reason
for
the
explosion
of
celebrity
and
entertainment
news.
Cashmore
(2006)
attributes
society’s
fascination
with
celebrity
culture
to
the
outburst
of
media
in
the
1980’s
in
combination
with
“the
loss
in
confidence
in
The
Age
Difference
11
established
forms
of
leadership
and
authority
that
happened
around
the
same
time”
(p.
2).
It
is
important
to
note
that
while
these
changes
did
contribute
to
the
rapid
rise
of
celebrity
culture,
particular
major
events
such
as
the
death
of
Princess
Diana
also
played
a
key
role.
Prior
to
the
public’s
obsession
with
Diana,
celebrity
culture
did
exist,
although
arguably
not
to
the
extent
it
does
today.
Another
event
that
contributed
to
society’s
obsession
with
celebrities
is
the
adulterous
photographs
published
of
Elizabeth
Taylor
and
Richard
Burton
in
the
1970’s.
These
photographs
were
intrusive
and
the
first
of
their
kind.
Their
influence
is
discussed
below.
In
the
late
19th
century,
newspapers
finally
gained
the
ability
to
report
on
occurrences
from
just
a
few
days
prior
to,
rather
than
several
weeks
before,
publication
(Cashmore,
2006,
p.
74).
“Subsequent
developments
in
the
media,
at
first
magazines
and
radio,
then
film
opened
new
horizons,”
which
Cashmore
believes
began
the
public’s
trust
in
the
media;
people
now
received
a
majority
of
their
information
from
the
media,
which
is
still
true
today
(2006,
p.
74).
In
the
twentieth
century,
with
the
expansion
of
the
film
industry,
the
relationship
between
“the
drama,
the
narrative,
and
the
personalities”
rife
in
the
industry,
became
available
and
highly
desirable
for
public
consumption
(Cashmore,
2006,
p.
75).
Film
studios
immediately
recognized
how
the
popularity
of
their
products
and
personalities
could
be
manipulated
for
maximum
gain
and
public
interest
and
took
hold
of
their
entertainers
by
making
them
what
Redmond
and
Holmes
(2007)
call
“studio
owned‐and‐operated
commodities”
(p.
144).
Studios
essentially
had
control
over
celebrity
personalities
through
a
variety
of
avenues
including
promotions
and
fan
clubs.
The
Age
Difference
12
Because
of
the
outpouring
of
love
and
interest
for
celebrities
it
was
only
natural
that
publications
informing
audiences
of
their
endeavors
and
interests
formed.
Early
fan
magazines
such
as
Photoplay
and
Silver
Screen
materialized
in
the
1930’s
(Redmond,
Holmes,
2007,
p.
145).
In
the
1960’s,
paparazzi
became
a
guiding
force
in
the
exposure
of
celebrities.
Searching
for
“the
image
behind
the
image,”
they
sought
to
find
controversy
and
scandal
in
photographs
(Cashmore
2006,
p.
75).
It
became
clear
that
celebrities’
private
lives
were
beginning
to
be
exposed
more
than
ever
before
in
1962
when
paparazzo
Macello
Gappetti
snapped
a
photograph
of
superstars
Elizabeth
Taylor
and
Richard
Burton,
whom
had
already
been
the
victim
of
a
“newly
rapacious
media,”
engaged
in
an
adulterous
kiss
(Cashmore,
2006,
p.
20).
Photographs
and
stories
such
as
the
scandal
that
surrounded
Taylor
and
Burton
were
food
for
a
hungry,
celebrity‐crazed
public.
Six
years
after
the
Taylor
and
Burton
photographs
were
published
the
now
infamous
publication
The
National
Enquirer
gained
its
reputation.
Using
Judy
Garland
as
a
main
source
of
celebrity
news
by
documenting
her
drug
use
and
continual
marriages
and
divorces,
The
National
Enquirer
found
a
niche
in
the
journalism
market
by
“specializing
in
stories
about
the
Hollywood
set’s
miscreant
behavior”
(Cashmore,
2006,
p.
24).
In
the
mid‐1970s
The
National
Enquirer
sales
were
around
five
millions
copies
in
one
week,
so
naturally
new
publications
in
the
same
vein
began
to
spring
up.
These
publications
included
People,
National
Star,
and
Us
Weekly
(Cashmore,
2006,
p.
25).
These
publications
found
their
role
in
journalism
as
the
source
of
all
things
celebrity
while
the
publication
they
were
The
Age
Difference
13
modeled
after
began
publishing
more
and
more
bizarre
and
far‐fetched
stories.
The
National
Enquirer
started
to
lose
the
focus
it
once
had
on
celebrity
gossip.
Despite
this,
other
publications
took
the
front
seat
on
celebrity
reporting
and
the
proof
of
their
influence
is
in
the
numbers.
The
role
celebrity
journalism
played
during
the
mid‐1970’s
and
beyond
becomes
even
more
astonishing
as
Koch
(1998)
cites
that
from
the
late
1970’s
to
the
late
1990’s
soft
news
or
celebrity,
gossip
and
scandal
stories,
“increased
from
15
percent
to
43
percent.”
Because
of
the
explosion
of
entertainment
media
and
entertainment
news,
celebrity
gossip
has
become
somewhat
of
a
pastime
for
American
society.
However,
De
Backer,
Nelissen,
Vyncke,
Braeckman,
and
McAndrew
(2007)
consider
two
different
types
of
gossip.
The
first
being
reputation
gossip,
which
is
gossip
that
is
related
to
the
reputation
of
a
specific
person
(De
Backer
et
al.,
2007,
p.
336).
The
second
is
strategy
learning
gossip,
or
gossip
that
conveys
information
to
a
person.
From
strategy
learning
gossip
one
can
“vicariously
learn
from
the
successes
and
failures
of
others”
(De
Backer
et
al.,
2007,
p.
336).
De
Backer
et
al.
(2007)
define
celebrity
gossip
more
closely
as
discussion
that
involves
the
personal
lives
of
celebrities
(p.
337).
Concerning
the
strategy
learning
gossip
theory,
De
Backer
et
al.
(2007)
note
that
gossiping
about
celebrities
is
a
method
in
which
to
fill
“knowledge
gaps
about
strategies
important
to
success
in
daily
life”
(p.
338).
For
example,
society
looks
to
celebrity
gossip
to
receive
advice
on
how
to
conduct
their
lives
on
everything
from
what
clothes
to
wear,
what
food
to
eat,
or
how
to
deal
with
divorce.
Entertainment
News
in
Relation
to
Children
The
Age
Difference
14
The
best
example
of
how
children
are
treated
in
the
media
is
O’Connor’s
(2008)
case
study
on
how
the
media
treated
former
child
star
Charlotte
Church.
Church
was
catapulted
into
fame
at
the
age
of
12
as
a
very
talented
classical
singer.
She
was
discovered
in
1998
and
O’Connor
(2008)
follows
the
press
she
received
through
2007
(p.
118).
At
a
young
age
Church
released
an
immensely
successful
album
titled
Voice
of
an
Angel.
This
opportunity
lead
her
to
be
so
popular
that
she
was
given
opportunities
to
sing
in
front
of
the
most
prominent
figures
in
the
world,
including
President
Bill
Clinton,
Queen
Elizabeth,
Prince
Charles,
and
the
Pope
(O’Connor,
2008,
p.
121).
During
this
period
of
her
career
she
was
often
framed
in
the
media
as
an
“angel”
and
O’Connor
(2008)
provides
several
examples
of
headlines
about
Church,
reiterating
her
image
as
a
young,
cherubic
recording
artist.
O’Connor
(2008)
argues
that
much
of
the
press
concerning
Church
at
this
time
framed
her
as
young,
angelic,
and
quite
possibly
defenseless,
all
the
characteristics
generally
associated
with
children
(p.
121).
O’Connor
(2008)
notes
that
“Church’s
status
‘as
a
wonder
child’
is
confirmed
again
and
again
in
similar
ways
through
texts
and
pictures”
(p.
122).
What
had
happened
to
Church
early
on
in
her
career
is
directly
related
to
the
study
of
this
paper.
What
is
expected
out
of
children
from
society
is
innocence
and
immaturity.
The
media
recognizes
this
and
reinforces
this
sentiment
through
the
framing
of
child
stars.
Because
of
this
it
is
anticipated
that
the
media
will
portray
the
life
of
a
child
star
in
a
positive
light
so
as
not
to
appear
as
though
they
are
attacking
the
innocent.
The
Age
Difference
15
In
addition
to
the
“angel”
theme
that
surrounded
Church
in
the
press,
her
parents
were
framed
“as
supporting,
protective,
and
very
much
acting
in
the
best
interests
of
their
child”
(O’Connor,
2008,
pg.
123).
This
paper
also
anticipates
the
positive
role
of
family
in
press
about
child
stars.
In
what
O’Connor
(2008)
defines
as
the
second
phase
of
Church’s
career,
the
media
starts
to
treat
her
family
differently,
now
framing
her
mother
as
greedy
and
“fiery”
(pg.
123).
Additionally,
it
is
revealed
that
her
family
life
was
not
as
commonplace
as
once
reported,
indicating
that
her
father
is
actually
her
stepfather.
As
O’Connor
(2008)
describes,
“The
stereotypical
‘pushy‐parent’
is
an
almost
ubiquitous
character
in
the
media
narratives
about
child
stars,”
and
while
Church
had
not
yet
legally
reached
the
age
of
an
adult,
what
is
hypothesized
in
this
paper
is
similar
to
what
Church
experienced
(pg.
126).
Other
than
the
change
in
how
the
media
frames
family,
as
Church
grew
older
she
was
“presented
as
the
ultimate
spoiled
brat,
a
mutation
of
the
beautiful
child
she
had
so
recently
been”
(O’Connor,
2008,
pg.
127).
This
change
in
tone
was,
admittedly,
somewhat
of
a
result
of
her
erratic
behavior.
After
her
eighteenth
birthday,
Church
was
presented
in
the
media
as
a
“sex
siren
and
a
woman
who
has
clearly
moved
far
away
from
her
innocent
child
star
image,”
with
many
headlines
citing
her
new
role
as
a
“fallen
angel,”
(O’Connor,
2008,
pg.
128).
The
change
in
media
treatment
Church
experienced
gives
further
credit
to
the
hypothesis
that
children
are
treated
differently
than
adults.
Hypotheses
The
Age
Difference
16
From
the
preceding
assessment
of
literature
about
celebrity
gossip,
celebrity
culture,
and
the
child
star,
the
following
hypotheses
were
formed:
Hypothesis
1:
Articles
about
adult
subjects
will
have
more
negative
headlines
than
articles
about
those
adults
when
they
were
children.
Hypothesis
2:
Articles
about
adult
subjects
will
be
more
negative
in
the
body
text
of
articles
than
articles
about
children
subjects.
Hypothesis
3:
Media
coverage
of
families
is
more
negative
once
the
subject
is
an
adult.
Hypothesis
4:
Of
the
articles
that
have
accompanying
photographs,
photographs
of
adults
are
more
likely
to
be
unflattering.
Hypothesis
5:
Of
the
articles
that
have
accompanying
photographs,
adult
female
subjects
will
be
more
likely
to
have
unflattering
photographs
published
with
their
articles.
Hypothesis
6:
There
will
be
more
negative
coverage,
in
headlines
and
body
text,
of
female
subjects
than
male
subjects.
METHOD
Articles
were
chosen
from
six
entertainment
publications:
People
Magazine,
Rolling
Stone
Magazine,
Variety,
The
Hollywood
Reporter,
Entertainment
Weekly,
and
Us
Weekly.
For
each
subject,
two
lists—
one
list
of
articles
published
during
childhood
and
one
list
of
articles
published
during
adulthood—
per
publication
The
Age
Difference
17
were
compiled
randomly
by
the
database
that
contained
the
archives
of
each
publication.
The
middle
most
articles
were
selected
for
content
analysis.
Articles
were
coded
for
negativity
in
their
titles
and
body
paragraphs,
the
gender
of
the
subject,
the
age
of
the
subject
at
the
time
of
publication,
and
the
mention
of
an
adult
family
member.
If
there
was
in
fact
mention
of
a
family
member
or
guardian,
it
was
coded
for
tone.
If
photographs
were
included
with
the
article,
they
were
coded
based
on
attractiveness.
Childhood
was
defined
as
18
years
or
younger.
Adulthood
was
defined
as
the
legal
age
of
18
or
older.
A
headline
was
considered
negative
if
it
contained
words
with
pessimistic
or
harmful
connotation.
Body
text
of
an
article
was
considered
negative
if
the
paragraphs
mostly
suggest
that
the
celebrity
in
question
is
related
to
or
conducting
negative,
harmful,
or
damaging
behavior
including
substance
or
alcohol
abuse,
run‐ins
with
the
law,
etc.
Mention
of
family
was
considered
negative
if
it
contained
words
with
pessimistic
or
harmful
connotation,
mentioned
substance
or
alcohol
abuse,
or
revealed
the
deterioration
of
family,
such
as
divorce,
custody
battles,
or
a
legal
battle
over
the
child’s
financial
earnings.
Unflattering
photographs
were
considered
pictures
that
displayed
the
celebrity
in
a
negative
light.
Avoiding
the
camera,
inappropriate
attire
or
makeup,
and
uncomfortable
body
position
were
considered
characteristics
associated
with
unflattering
photographs.
In
contrast,
photographs
were
considered
flattering
if
they
had
the
following
characteristics:
eye
contact,
comfortable
position,
and
appropriate
attire
or
make
up.
Additionally,
if
the
photograph
was
that
of
the
celebrity
“at
work,”
such
as
a
photograph
taken
during
a
The
Age
Difference
18
live
performance
or
a
photograph
of
the
subject
in
character
for
an
acting
role,
it
was
considered
flattering.
Intercoder
reliability
was
tested
by
an
outside
source
that
coded
one
third
of
all
articles
collected.
Over
eighty
percent
of
the
coding
conducted
by
the
outside
source
matched
that
of
the
coding
of
the
author.
Sample
of
Celebrity
Subjects
Celebrity
subjects
were
chosen
based
on
age,
career,
and
how
well
known
they
are
to
the
general
public.
Subjects
were
required
to
have
a
relevant
entertainment
career
in
their
childhood
years,
from
as
early
in
life
as
possible
to
age
18,
as
well
as
in
their
adult
years,
from
ages
18
and
on.
All
subjects
came
of
age
between
1998
and
2007.
An
equal
number
of
male
and
female
subjects
were
chosen;
four
males
and
five
females.
One
pair
of
twins
was
recorded
as
one
person,
as
their
careers
relied
on
each
other
and
the
majority
of
articles
were
written
about
the
both
of
them.
Many
of
the
subjects’
careers
can
be
considered
a
hybrid
of
entertainment
careers;
they
have
expanded
and
overlapped
from
music
into
acting
and
vice
versa.
Many
of
the
subjects’
careers
have
expanded
into
other
genres
as
well
including
professional
racecar
driving
and
fashion
design.
Articles
chosen
for
content
analysis
were
about
the
following
celebrity
subjects:
Daniel
Radcliffe,
Hilary
Duff,
Frankie
Muniz,
Britney
Spears,
Macaulay
Culkin,
Lindsay
Lohan,
Shia
LaBeouf,
and
twins
Mary‐Kate
and
Ashley
Olsen.
Daniel
Radcliffe:
Daniel
Radcliffe
was
born
on
July
23,
1989.
In
2000,
at
the
age
of
11,
Radcliffe
was
cast
as
the
lead
character
in
the
film
adaptation
of
The
Age
Difference
19
Harry
Potter
and
the
Sorcerer’s
Stone,
the
first
of
seven
extremely
celebrated
novels.
The
Harry
Potter
series
has
been
a
cultural
phenomenon
unlike
any
other,
spawning
seven
films
and
a
theme
park.
There
was
no
question
that
the
young
boy
to
be
cast
as
the
main
character
would
be
thrust
into
the
spotlight.
Six
films
and
many
other
entertainment
endeavors
later,
including
a
controversial
stint
on
Broadway
in
which
Radcliffe
conducted
a
scene
in
the
nude,
he
has
finished
filming
the
Harry
Potter
series
and
currently
stars
in
the
Broadway
revival
of
How
To
Succeed
in
Business
Without
Really
Trying.
Hilary
Duff:
Hilary
Duff
was
born
on
September
28,
1987.
As
a
young
girl
Duff
was
cast
in
the
Disney
Channel
television
show
Lizzie
McGuire.
Lizzie
McGuire,
which
began
airing
when
she
was
13
years
old,
catapulted
Duff
into
child
stardom
and
from
the
subsequent
success
she
filmed
several
movies
including
The
Lizzie
McGuire
Movie.
Duff
also
recorded
several
successful
albums,
which
were
largely
popular
with
child
and
pre‐teen
audiences.
In
her
adult
career
she
has
completed
several
movies
as
well
as
a
stint
on
the
popular
television
show
Gossip
Girl.
She
also
successfully
completed
and
promoted
a
young
adult
novel.
In
the
past
her
personal
life
has
been
a
popular
topic
among
entertainment
media
publications.
More
specifically
a
relationship
with
an
older
male
celebrity,
Joel
Madden,
a
musician
in
the
rock
band
Good
Charlotte
gained
a
lot
of
media
attention.
She
dated
him
when
she
was
only
16
years
old
and
he
was
27.
Duff
is
now
married
to
a
professional
hockey
player
and
is
working
on
a
follow‐up
to
her
best
selling
novel.
The
Age
Difference
20
Frankie
Muniz:
Frankie
Muniz
was
born
on
December
5,
1985.
Originally
from
New
Jersey,
Muniz
began
acting
at
8
years
old.
At
14,
he
landed
the
lead
role
as
Malcolm
on
the
sitcom
Malcolm
in
the
Middle,
which
documented
the
life
of
an
eccentric
family
in
the
suburbs.
Subsequent
to
his
success
on
television,
Muniz
starred
in
a
series
of
popular
movies
including
My
Dog
Skip
and
Agent
Cody
Banks.
In
2006,
Muniz
decided
to
follow
through
with
his
passion
for
racing
cars
and
took
a
break
from
acting
full
time.
Muniz
signed
with
Jensen
Motorsport
in
pursuit
of
becoming
a
professional
racecar
driver
(Frankie
Muniz
Racing,
n.d.).
He
currently
races
with
US
RaceTronics
for
Team
Stargate
Worlds
(Frankie
Muniz
Racing,
n.d.).
While
racing
is
his
priority,
he
has
also
pursued
other
small
acting
endeavors.
Britney
Spears:
Britney
Spears
is
arguably
the
most
popular
celebrity
on
the
list
of
subjects.
Born
on
December
2,
1981,
at
29
she
released
her
seventh
studio
album.
She
began
her
career
with
a
spot
on
the
Disney
Channel’s
Mickey
Mouse
Club.
At
the
age
of
15
she
signed
with
Jive
Records
and
by
17
she
had
released
her
first
hit
single.
The
music
video
for
the
single
was
quite
controversial,
a
theme
that
followed
Spears
throughout
her
career
as
she
often
wore
clothing
deemed
too
revealing
for
her
age.
She
released
several
extremely
successful
albums
followed
by
equally
successful
tours.
In
addition,
Spears’
love
life
was
often
the
topic
of
entertainment
news
as
she
has
dated
other
high
profile
celebrities
as
well
as
had
two
unsuccessful
The
Age
Difference
21
marriages.
Her
second
marriage
to
back‐up
dancer
Kevin
Federline
produced
two
sons,
Sean
Preston
and
Jayden
James.
After
the
demise
of
her
marriage
with
Federline,
Spears’
life
was
heavily
covered
in
the
news.
In
2008,
she
had
a
very
public
mental
breakdown.
After
some
time
in
various
rehabilitation
institutes,
Spears
was
placed
under
a
guardianship
in
which
her
father
had
control
over
her
professional,
personal,
and
financial
matters.
Since
then,
Spears
has
mounted
a
comeback,
triumphantly
releasing
the
album
Circus.
Her
professional
life
is
now
in
order
and
Spears
has
released
yet
another
successful
new
album,
Femme
Fatal.
Macaulay
Culkin:
Macaulay
Culkin
was
born
on
August
26,
1980.
Culkin
shot
to
fame
when
he
took
the
lead
role
of
Kevin
McCallister
in
the
1990
Blockbuster
Home
Alone.
Growing
up
in
New
York,
New
York,
he
had
acting
experience
prior
to
Home
Alone
and
continued
to
have
a
successful
career
after
the
success
of
the
movie.
His
father,
Kit
Culkin,
was
his
former
manager
and
was
known
to
be
demanding,
making
sure
that
his
son
was
cast
in
roles
he
approved
of
and
that
his
son’s
salary
was
large
enough.
In
1995,
his
parents,
who
were
never
married,
separated,
and
a
legal
battle
ensued
over
custody
of
Culkin
and
his
siblings,
as
well
as
over
his
fortune
(Macaulay
Culkin
Biography,
n.d.).
Ultimately,
Culkin’s
mother
Patricia
Bentrup
was
granted
custody
and
Culkin’s
relationship
with
his
father
soured.
In
1998,
Culkin
married
longtime
girlfriend
Rachel
Miner,
from
whom
he
later
separated
just
two
years
later;
their
divorce
was
finalized
in
2002
(Macaulay
The
Age
Difference
22
Culkin
Biography,
n.d.).
Culkin
was
a
close,
personal
friend
of
Michael
Jackson,
their
relationship
beginning
when
Culkin
was
still
a
child.
Though
their
relationship
was
the
topic
of
controversy,
Culkin
claims
that
Jackson
never
sexually
abused
him.
In
2004,
Culkin
ran
into
trouble
with
the
law
as
he
was
arrested
for
possession
of
marijuana
and
other
controlled
substances.
He
pled
guilty
to
the
charges
and
was
able
to
reach
a
plea
bargain.
Culkin
has
dabbled
in
acting
since
his
child
superstardom.
Lindsay
Lohan:
Born
on
July
2,
1986,
Lindsay
Lohan
rose
to
childhood
fame
by
playing
the
dual
role
of
twins
in
Disney’s
remake
of
The
Parent
Trap.
Subsequent
to
The
Parent
Trap,
Lohan
was
featured
in
several
successful
pre‐
teen
and
teen
movies.
Arguably
her
most
popular
movie
to
date,
Mean
Girls,
grossed
$86
million
in
the
box
office
and
made
her
a
regular
fixture
at
entertainment
events
such
as
movie
premieres
and
after‐parties
(Lindsay
Lohan
Biography,
n.d.).
In
2004,
Lohan
released
an
album
titled
Speak
that
was
successful
as
it
reached
Platinum
status.
In
the
years
after
Mean
Girls,
Lohan
became
extremely
popular
among
celebrity
gossipers.
Accusations
concerning
her
body
included
rumored
breast
implants
as
well
as
an
unconfirmed
eating
disorder
.
Lohan
has
also
had
a
very
public
and
very
difficult
family
life.
From
2006
to
2007,
Lohan
was
known
more
for
her
partying
than
her
work.
Lohan’s
first
rehabilitation
stint
came
in
2007,
and
since
then
she
has
not
been
able
to
bounce
back
personally
nor
professionally.
Since
then,
Lohan
has
ended
up
in
countless
car
accidents,
The
Age
Difference
23
been
arrested
numerous
times,
and
subsequently
been
in
court
numerous
times
as
well.
She
has
been
arrested
multiple
times
for
driving
while
intoxicated,
one
of
which
landed
her
in
jail.
She
served
13
days
in
jail
for
her
transgressions
and
attended
court‐order
rehabilitation
in
2010
for
failing
to
attend
her
court
hearings.
Most
recently
she
has
been
in
the
news
for
legal
troubles
once
again
as
she
allegedly
stole
a
high‐priced
necklace.
Shia
LaBeouf:
Like
many
current
child
stars,
Shia
LaBeouf
started
out
on
the
kids
television
network,
The
Disney
Channel,
playing
Louis
on
the
successful
show
Even
Stevens.
LaBeouf
was
born
on
June
11,
1986.
He
stared
in
the
movie
Holes
based
on
a
book
of
the
same
name;
the
very
successful
movie
made
LaBeouf
a
more
recognizable
name
and
he
later
gained
roles
opposite
popular
actors
such
as
Will
Smith
(Shia
LaBeouf
Biography,
n.d.).
He
went
on
to
land
lead
roles
in
huge
movie
franchises
such
as
Transformers
and
Indiana
Jones.
His
career
looked
extremely
promising,
however,
he
ran
into
some
legal
trouble
after
a
bizarre,
drunken
episode
outside
a
Walgreens.
LaBeouf
also
endured
medical
issues
after
crashing
his
car
as
a
result
of
driving
while
intoxicated;
he
underwent
surgery
after
crushing
his
hand
during
the
accident
(Shia
LaBeouf
Biography,
n.d.).
Despite
this,
LaBeouf
landed
another
big
role
in
the
revival
sequel
of
the
hit
1980’s
film
Wall
Street.
He
will
star
in
the
third
installment
of
the
Transformers
movies
due
out
this
summer.
The
Age
Difference
24
Mary­Kate
and
Ashley
Olsen:
Mary‐Kate
and
Ashley
Olsen
are
perhaps
the
first
set
of
fraternal
twins
to
fully
capitalize
on
their
sisterhood.
Born
on
June
13,
1986,
they
began
their
career
playing
the
singular
role
of
Michelle
Tanner
on
the
popular
family‐friendly
television
show
Full
House
in
the
late
1980’s
and
early
1990’s.
From
this
success
the
Olsen
twins
created
a
massive
empire
of
television
shows,
movies,
and
apparel
organized
by
their
company
Dualstar
Entertainment
Group
(Mary‐Kate
Olsen
Biography,
n.d.).
These
endeavors
fostered
a
massive
trust
fund,
which
the
twins
were
unable
to
touch
until
they
turned
18.
Despite
their
massive
success
in
the
pre‐teen
world,
their
movie
New
York
Minute,
released
near
their
eighteenth
birthday,
was
not
as
successful
as
anticipated.
In
2004,
Mary‐Kate
checked
into
a
treatment
facility
for
eating
disorders
after
her
skeletal
figure
had
been
the
topic
of
much
controversy.
After
spending
some
time
in
college
at
New
York
University,
the
Olsen
twins
began
to
gain
notoriety
for
their
fashion
sense.
They
now
have
two
successful
upscale
clothing
lines.
RESULTS
Table
1:
Tone
of
the
Headline
and
Body
of
an
Article,
by
age
Child
(n
=
30)
Adult
(n
=
30)
M
SD
M
SD
Headline
Tone
.40
.81
‐.60
.72
Body
.63
.76
‐.50
.86
Paragraph
Tone
***
p
<
.001
T
Value
5.03***
5.39***
The
Age
Difference
25
Table
1
shows
that
celebrities
are
treated
more
positively
in
the
press
when
they
are
children
than
when
they
are
adults.
This
is
apparent
in
both
the
headlines
and
the
body
text
of
articles.
In
fact,
the
mean
for
both
headline
tone
and
body
paragraph
tone
for
subjects
under
the
age
of
18
was
over
0.
Negative
articles
were
coded
as
‐1,
neutral
articles
were
coded
as
0,
and
positive
articles
were
coded
as
1.
With
a
mean
of
.4
in
headline
tone
and
.63
for
body
paragraph
tone,
articles
written
about
child
stars
can
be
considered
more
positive
in
comparison
to
articles
written
about
adult
stars.
There
is
a
disparity
between
the
means
of
adult
and
child
headlines
and
body
text.
This
disparity
is
slight,
yet
it
yields
some
interesting
conclusions.
The
mean
for
the
tone
of
headlines
for
adult
celebrities
was
‐.6
while
the
mean
for
the
tone
of
body
paragraphs
for
adult
celebrities
was
‐.5.
The
means
for
both
are
nearly
identical.
The
majority
of
the
articles
written
about
adults
that
have
negative
headlines
also
have
negative
body
paragraphs.
This
conclusion
is
not
unusual
as
it
is
likely
that
an
article
with
a
negative
headline
would
have
corresponding
negative
story.
In
articles
written
about
child
subjects,
the
mean
tone
of
body
paragraphs
is
higher,
at
.63,
than
the
mean
for
tone
for
headlines,
which
is
.4.
This
indicates
that
while
children
are
more
likely
to
have
positive
press,
the
headlines
of
the
articles
written
about
children
are
more
likely
than
body
paragraphs
to
be
negative
or
neutral.
In
this
case,
headlines
are
more
often
than
not
neutral.
Examples
of
this
will
be
discussed
later.
This
is
an
interesting
implication,
which
may
have
a
The
Age
Difference
26
correlation
to
the
entertainment
media’s
need
to
satisfy
the
public’s
desire
for
celebrity
news.
Hypothesis
1
and
Hypothesis
2
are
supported.
The
data
displayed
on
this
table
confirms
that
adult
celebrities
are
more
subject
to
negative
headlines
and
negative
body
paragraphs
than
child
celebrities.
Table
2:
Tone
of
the
Headline
and
Body
of
an
Article,
by
gender
Males
(n
=
30)
Females
(n
=
30)
M
SD
M
SD
Headline
tone
‐.07
.90
‐.13
.94
Body
.17
.99
‐.03
.99
Paragraph
tone
T
Value
.28
.78
Table
2
demonstrates
that
articles
written
about
female
celebrities
are
more
likely
to
have
a
negative
headline
or
have
negative
body
paragraphs.
For
females,
the
average
tone
of
a
headline
of
an
article
was
‐.13
while
the
average
tone
of
a
headline
for
a
male
was
only
‐.07.
Additionally,
for
the
body
paragraphs
of
articles
written
about
male
subjects,
the
mean
was
positive,
at
.17,
in
comparison
to
the
female
mean
which
was
negative,
at
‐.03.
In
both
categories
of
headline
and
body
paragraph
tone,
female
celebrity
subjects
had
a
negative
mean.
In
contrast,
males
only
experienced
negative
press
coverage
in
article
headlines,
while
the
mean
tone
of
the
body
paragraphs
of
these
articles
was
positive.
This
is
an
interesting
conclusion
as
headlines
for
male
subjects
were
negative
while
their
body
paragraph
counterparts
were
positive.
Several
factors
might
contribute
to
this
relationship.
The
Age
Difference
27
Despite
these
findings,
the
difference
in
the
tones
of
articles
of
male
and
female
subjects
was
not
found
to
be
statistically
significant.
While
adding
more
articles
to
this
sample
might
give
this
data
statistical
significance,
it
is
still
important
to
elaborate
on
the
apparent
trend
in
the
tone
of
entertainment
headlines
and
their
body
paragraphs.
It
appears
as
though
women
celebrities—children
and
adults
alike—are
more
likely
to
have
negative
undertones.
What
makes
this
potential
finding
interesting
is
that
Britney
Spears,
Shia
LaBeouf,
Lindsay
Lohan,
and
Macaulay
Culkin
have
all
been
known
to
have
legal
and
drug
and
alcohol
abuse
problems,
yet
it
appears
that
the
women
have
endured
more
negative
press
than
the
men.
In
addition,
Lohan
and
Culkin
have
both
endured
very
public
and
embarrassing
family
issues
as
children,
yet
once
again,
the
female
child
star
is
left
with
more
negative
headlines
and
body
paragraphs.
Table
3:
Tone
of
the
mention
of
family,
by
age
of
actor
Child
(n
=
13)
Adult
(n
=
6)
M
SD
M
SD
T
Value
Mention
of
the
.54
.88
‐.10
0
4.23***
family
***
p
<
.001
Table
3
demonstrates
that
among
the
19
articles
where
family
is
mentioned,
the
mention
is
more
likely
to
be
positive.
In
articles
written
about
children
that
include
mention
of
family
the
mean
was
.54,
making
the
majority
of
them
positive.
The
Age
Difference
28
In
articles
written
about
adults
that
include
mention
of
family,
the
mean
was
‐.1,
concluding
that
the
mentions
were
mostly
negative.
Table
3
also
demonstrates
that
in
every
mention
of
family
that
is
considered
negative,
it
has
occurred
in
a
story
about
an
adult
celebrity.
Whether
negative
mention
of
family
has
to
do
with
personal
or
legal
trouble
in
the
life
of
an
adult
celebrity
remains
to
be
seen.
In
addition,
the
motive
for
framing
family
in
a
positive
light
when
the
celebrity
is
a
child
is
reliant
on
many
factors.
These
factors
will
be
discussed
further
in
the
discussion
section
of
this
paper.
Although
the
sample
of
articles
that
include
mention
of
at
least
one
family
member
is
small,
the
results
have
been
found
to
be
statistically
significant.
This
data
confirms
that
while
subjects
are
still
considered
children
and
when
family
is
mentioned
in
a
story,
the
representation
of
their
family
is
more
likely
to
be
positive.
Many
factors
may
play
into
why
this
is
so,
including
the
legal
presence
of
an
adult
guardian.
These
factors
will
be
explored
more
in‐depth.
Table
4:
Differences
in
whether
photographs
were
flattering,
by
age
of
actor
Child
(n
=
14)
Adult
(n
=
16)
M
SD
M
SD
T
Value
Flattering
1.00
0
.38
.98
2.36***
Photographs
**
p
<
.01
According
to
Table
4,
every
photograph
of
a
child
accompanying
an
article
was
considered
a
flattering
photograph.
The
majority
of
photographs
of
adult
celebrities
were
considered
flattering.
While
the
adult
mean
was
above
0,
and
most
The
Age
Difference
29
photographs
were
considered
flattering,
it
was
still
substantially
lower
than
the
child
mean.
Table
4
confirms
what
was
proposed
in
Hypothesis
4,
that
adults
are
more
likely
than
children
to
have
unflattering
photographs
published
of
them.
What
can
be
inferred
from
these
results
is
that
despite
the
tenor
of
headlines
or
body
paragraphs
about
adult
celebrities,
it
is
more
likely
that
their
accompanying
photographs
are
flattering.
It
may
be
that
publications
wish
to
only
identify
the
celebrity
in
question
rather
than
use
an
unflattering
photograph.
Use
of
an
unflattering
photograph
might
make
it
difficult
for
the
reader
to
recognize
the
celebrity.
Because
each
photograph
of
a
child
star
was
considered
flattering,
it
can
be
inferred
that
the
media
purposely
chooses
not
to
use
an
unflattering
photographs
of
a
minor.
This
may
be
due
to
a
variety
of
reasons,
which
may
include
that
children
are
often
framed
as
cherubs,
as
previously
described
in
the
section
devoted
to
Charlotte
Church.
Table
5:
Differences
in
whether
photographs
were
flattering,
by
gender
Male
(n
=
15)
Female
(n
=
15)
M
SD
M
SD
T
value
Flattering
.60
.83
.73
.70
0.46
Photographs
Table
5
appears
to
not
be
in
support
of
Hypothesis
5.
The
mean
for
flattering
photographs
of
female
celebrities
is
.73
while
the
mean
for
flattering
photographs
of
male
celebrities
is
.6.
Because
the
mean
for
females
is
higher
than
that
of
males,
it
does
not
support
the
hypothesis
that
females
are
more
likely
to
have
unflattering
The
Age
Difference
30
photographs
published
of
themselves
than
males.
The
reasons
for
this
are
unclear.
Perhaps
the
media
feels
that
due
to
the
sensitive
nature
of
women
in
general,
it
seems
less
scathing
to
publish
unflattering
photographs
of
men.
Despite
this
fact,
the
data
did
not
prove
to
be
statistically
significant.
DISCUSSION
This
research
paper
is
based
on
how
the
media
treats
celebrities
when
their
career
begins
in
childhood,
in
comparison
to
later
on
in
life
when
they
are
considered
adults.
The
content
analysis
has
shown
evidence
that
the
media
treats
child
stars
and
adult
celebrities
differently.
The
data
demonstrates
that
the
articles
written
about
the
11
celebrities
chosen
for
this
paper
while
they
were
still
legally
considered
children
were
more
positive
than
the
articles
written
once
they
had
reached
adulthood.
There
are
a
plethora
of
factors
that
contribute
to
why
this
is
so.
The
Age
Difference
31
The
previously
mentioned
narrative
of
the
life
of
Charlotte
Church
is
an
excellent
example
of
how
the
media
often
treats
children.
Church
was
very
young
in
the
beginning
of
her
career.
At
age
12
she
was
thrust
into
the
spotlight
and
the
media
often
framed
her
as
a
cherubic
young
girl,
with
headlines
often
using
terms
such
as
“angel”
and
“heavenly.”
The
“angel”
motif
that
surrounded
Church
was
very
much
due
to
the
fact
that
her
voice
had
been
dubbed
“the
voice
of
angel.”
However,
words
with
similar
connotation
have
been
placed
in
headlines
about
the
child
celebrities
discussed
in
this
paper.
Many
headlines
are
sure
to
make
clear
that
the
stories
following
them
are
about
young
people.
In
the
headline
of
an
article
written
about
Daniel
Radcliffe
he
is
referred
to
as
a
“mini
mogul”
or
a
young
person
who
has
earned
a
lot
of
money
(Cina,
2007).
In
addition,
Macaulay
Culkin
is
named
“Hollywood’s
Newest
Little
Big
Man,”
referencing
that
he
is
a
child
with
a
big
Hollywood
career
(Gliatto,
1990).
Another
young
celebrity
with
a
big
career,
Britney
Spears
is
named
a
“major
minor”
in
one
headline
(Helligar,
1999).
All
of
these
articles
are
sure
to
declare
their
subjects
as
children
before
going
on
to
discuss
their
achievements
in
the
body
text.
There
also
seems
to
be
great
use
of
the
word
“teen”
and
its
variations.
For
example,
many
of
the
articles
about
young
female
celebrities
brand
these
starlets
as
“teen
queens.”
Both
Britney
Spears
and
the
Olsen
twins
are
given
that
title.
Hilary
Duff
is
regarded
as
“teenager
of
the
year”
(Binelli,
2003).
Britney
Spears
is
dubbed
a
“teen
sensation”
(Pollack,
1999).
The
use
of
the
word
“teen”
appears
in
articles
closer
to
adulthood,
as
a
person
is
still
considered
a
teenager
when
they
legally
become
an
adult.
In
relation,
the
outright
mention
of
the
subjects’
age
also
seems
popular,
The
Age
Difference
32
specifically
close
to
or
after
the
subject
has
reached
adulthood.
In
two
respective
articles
about
Hilary
Duff
and
the
Olsen
twins
their
ages,
eighteen
and
nineteen,
are
broadcasted
in
the
headlines
of
the
articles.
This
may
be
an
attempt
by
the
publication
to
declare
the
subjects
are
of
age
and
from
here
on
out
any
negative
comments
will
not
seem
as
harsh
being
that
the
subject
is
now
an
adult.
While
children
are
often
framed
in
a
positive
light
due
to
their
general
innocent
nature,
there
are
certain
negative
behaviors
that
are
more
prone
to
adults,
which
may
cause
them
more
negative
headlines.
Adult
celebrities
are
more
likely
to
run
into
problems
with
substance
abuse
and
legal
issues
as
they
become
more
exposed
and
accessible
to
alcohol
and
drugs
as
they
become
older.
In
addition,
once
a
person
turns
18,
they
legally
no
longer
have
to
answer
to
their
parents
or
guardians.
If
a
star’s
image
has
been
especially
wholesome
in
the
early
years
of
their
career,
they
often
want
to
break
away
from
this
innocence
and
prove
their
adulthood;
this
is
also
often
criticized
in
the
press.
Because
of
the
money
and
power
that
come
along
with
fame,
young
adult
stars
have
more
access
and
exposure
to
drugs
and
alcohol.
A
majority
of
the
negative
headlines
about
adult
celebrities
are
about
such
issues.
One
can
argue
that
child
stars
turned
adult
celebrities
are
more
likely
to
have
tumultuous
adulthoods
because
they
have
succumbed
to
the
pressures
of
fame,
which
are
initiated
in
childhood.
In
the
entertainment
business
this
is
known
as
the
“curse”
of
the
child
star.
Britney
Spears,
Shia
LaBeouf,
and
Lindsay
Lohan
all
have
headlines
that
highlight
the
difficulties
they
have
faced
in
their
personal
lives.
The
majority
of
the
articles
written
while
they
were
adults
highlight
drug
issues,
arrests,
and
mental
illness.
In
fact,
the
majority
of
negative
The
Age
Difference
33
Britney
Spears
articles
are
written
about
her
issues
with
mental
health.
The
titles
include
“The
Tragedy
of
Britney
Spears,”
“Britney’s
Worst
Nightmare”
(Grigoriadis,
2008;
O’Leary,
2007).
All
of
these
articles
were
published
between
2007
and
2008
amidst
a
very
public
mental
breakdown.
Three
of
the
four
Shia
LaBeouf
articles
written
when
he
was
an
adult
discuss
an
embarrassing
drunken
episode
outside
a
California
drug
store
in
addition
to
a
car
accident
caused
by
driving
under
the
influence.
Lindsay
Lohan,
once
thought
to
have
a
promising
future
in
acting,
is
now
known
as
a
courtroom
and
rehab
fixture.
The
overwhelming
majority
of
her
articles
report
on
her
drug
and
alcohol
binges
in
addition
to
her
ceaseless
legal
battles.
LaBeouf,
Spears,
and
Lohan
are
just
a
three
of
many
child
celebrities
who
have
essentially
yielded
to
the
curse
of
the
child
star,
which,
judging
by
the
amount
of
negative
articles
about
the
woes
of
child
stars
turned
adult
celebrities,
is
a
topic
the
media
thrives
off
of.
Within
the
group
of
celebrities
chosen
for
this
paper,
Spears,
Lohan,
and
LaBeouf
are
the
prime
examples
of
troubled
child
stars;
they
have
had
the
most
frequent
and
publicized
issues.
However,
it
is
important
to
note
that
Mary‐Kate
Olsen
entered
treatment
for
an
eating
disorder
just
shy
of
her
eighteenth
birthday.
She
successfully
recovered.
Frankie
Muniz
was
recently
in
the
news
for
suspected
domestic
abuse
and
Macaulay
Culkin
was
arrested
for
possession
of
marijuana.
Essentially
any
substance
or
mental
health
issue
that
a
child
star
turned
adult
celebrity
encounters
is
considered
an
effect
of
the
curse
of
the
child
star.
However,
it
is
important
to
note
that
all
except
Lohan
have
successfully
bounced
back
from
their
transgressions;
yet
it
is
to
early
to
make
this
The
Age
Difference
34
assumption
about
Muniz
since
speculation
about
domestic
abuse
has
been
as
recent
as
March
2011.
While
these
actors
have
suffered
negative
media
attention
it
is
important
to
note
that
other
child
stars
have
made
the
transition
into
adult
celebrities
without
much
trouble.
Hilary
Duff
and
Daniel
Radcliffe
maintain
a
positive
presence
in
the
media.
Negative
articles
written
about
them
are
typically
pertaining
to
professional
shortcomings
such
as
poor
ticket
sales
or
lip‐syncing
accusations.
So
while
some
consider
negative
press
to
be
an
effect
of
the
curse
of
the
child
star,
it
can
be
inferred
from
these
headlines
and
the
careers
of
Duff
and
Radcliffe
that
celebrities
are
not
negatively
framed
only
when
they
have
issues
with
drugs
and
alcohol
but
that
those
with
successful
careers
still
fall
victim
to
the
harsh
press.
According
to
the
data,
what
was
also
found
to
be
peculiar
about
articles
written
about
child
celebrities
is
that
while
they
were
more
likely
to
have
positive
press,
the
headlines
of
the
articles
written
about
children
were
more
likely
than
body
paragraphs
to
be
negative
or
neutral.
An
article
from
People
Magazine
written
when
Lindsay
Lohan,
at
age
12,
had
just
released
her
new
movie
The
Parent
Trap
was
titled
“Twin
Billing”
(Twin
Billing,
1998).
This
title
is
neutral
as
it
is
a
play
on
words:
Lohan
took
the
dual
role
of
playing
twins.
Despite
the
title’s
neutrality,
the
article
gives
high
praise
to
Lohan.
In
addition,
an
article
written
about
Shia
LaBeouf
at
age
17
showers
the
then
newcomer
with
compliments
(Miller,
2003).
It’s
title
however,
“Where’s
LaBeouf?”
a
play
on
words,
is
a
neutral
headline
(Miller,
2003).
An
example
of
an
article
with
a
negative
headline
and
positive
body
text
is
one
titled
“Daniel
Radcliffe:
Fame
Makes
Dating
Tough”
(Silverman,
2006).
Despite
the
article
The
Age
Difference
35
title,
Radcliffe
discusses
how
he
has
become
better
at
dating
despite
his
fame.
It
also
discusses
his
accomplishments.
The
motives
for
using
negative
or
neutral
headlines
for
positive
stories
are
unclear.
It
is
possible
that
negative
headlines
sell
more
magazines,
as
negative
gossip
tends
to
be
more
sought
after
than
positive.
According
to
the
theories
previously
discussed
such
as
the
theory
on
strategy
learning
gossip,
the
general
public
enjoys
learning
how
to
succeed
in
life
through
following
the
lives
of
celebrities
(Debacker
et
al.,
2007,
p.
338).
Seeing
a
celebrity
fail
sends
a
message
to
the
reader
of
what
not
to
do;
the
non‐famous
also
see
celebrity
failure
as
reassuring,
it
sends
the
message
that
celebrities
are
not
immortal
nor
are
they
perfect.
This
reassurance
fuels
them
to
buy
magazines
with
negative
titles,
a
reason
why
the
media
tend
to
publish
more
negative
stories;
it
increases
consumption.
While
this
paper
anticipated
that
media
treatment
would
vary
based
on
gender,
the
data
concerning
this
trend
was
not
found
to
be
statistically
significant.
Despite
this
fact,
it
is
still
worth
mentioning
that
there
is
a
trend
in
how
the
media
treats
men
and
women.
Although
it
was
not
statistically
significant,
the
data
provided
numbers
for
a
potential
trend
that
women
were
represented
more
negatively
in
the
media
than
men.
This
might
be
considered
unusual
because
women
are
considered
to
be
the
more
emotional,
sensitive
sex
and
it
might
be
considered
cruel
to
attack
women
in
the
media.
Despite
this
fact,
many
current
headlines
are
about
women.
Popular
topics
such
as
body
image,
particularly
identifying
which
celebrity
women
have
slim
enough
bodies
to
wear
swimsuits
or
tight
dresses,
cover
many
popular
celebrity
magazines.
In
addition,
young
women
The
Age
Difference
36
are
often
criticized
for
being
too
sexy,
particularly
if
they
are
at
a
young
age.
Britney
Spears
was
often
criticized
for
wearing
clothing
that
was
deemed
to
sexy
for
her
age
or
dancing
to
provocatively.
The
idea
that
young
female
celebrities,
particularly
those
near
the
age
of
18
or
just
of
legal
age,
are
acting
and
dressing
too
adult
for
their
age
is
a
reoccurring
theme
in
the
media
that
garners
these
young
celebrities
negative
headlines.
In
contrast,
this
predicament
has
arguably
never
been
an
issue
for
young
male
celebrities.
The
data
also
confirmed
that
when
family
is
mentioned
in
an
article
written
about
a
child
star,
it
is
typically
done
so
with
a
positive
tone.
There
could
be
several
reasons
for
this
phenomenon.
Children
are
legally
bound
to
their
parents
until
they
are
18
years
old.
Because
of
this
many
parents
or
guardians
have
control
over
many
aspects
of
a
child
stars
life
including
their
work
hours,
what
projects
they
work
on,
and
finances
among
many
other
things.
As
parents
or
guardians
play
such
a
crucial
role
in
the
lives
of
child
stars,
their
mention
is
typically
positive
unless
the
parent
or
guardian
is
particularly
toxic.
Macaulay
Culkin’s
father
was
notorious
for
being
exceptionally
difficult
to
work
with
and
in
the
majority
of
articles
where
Culkin’s
family
is
mentioned
it
is
negative.
Yet
in
the
majority
of
articles
written
about
child
stars,
the
mention
of
family
was
positive,
typically
highlighting
the
parents’
unyielding
support
of
the
child,
the
loving
environment
they
have
provided,
or
how
the
parents
keep
their
famous
child
grounded.
Again
this
plays
into
the
angelic,
defenseless
child
narrative
mentioned
early
with
the
discussion
of
Charlotte
Church.
The
media
seems
to
demonstrate
through
positive
mention
of
family
that
the
child
The
Age
Difference
37
star
is
well
protected.
In
addition,
media
outlets
may
want
to
seem
credible
in
that
they
are
not
taking
advantage
of
a
young
child
but
have
the
consent
of
their
parent.
What
was
also
found
from
this
statistical
information
was
that
in
every
mention
of
family
that
is
considered
negative,
it
has
occurred
in
a
story
about
an
adult
celebrity.
When
the
child
reaches
adulthood
it
seems
that
there
is
a
“no‐holds‐
barred”
approach
to
what
the
media
can
report
about
them.
For
example,
as
previously
discussed,
in
the
beginning
of
Charlotte
Church’s
career
her
family
was
framed
as
being
supportive,
loving,
and
grounded.
Once
she
was
of
age,
negative
details
of
her
family
life
were
revealed,
including
the
presumption
that
her
mother
was
a
money‐grubbing
stage
parent
and
the
fact
that
her
proposed
father
was
in
reality
her
stepfather.
This
approach
can
be
applied
to
the
research
conducted
for
this
paper.
It
seems
as
though
once
child
stars
reach
adulthood
the
truth
or
assumed
truth
about
their
family
life
is
exposed.
For
example,
in
an
article
about
Lindsay
Lohan’s
breakout
role
in
The
Parent
Trap
her
parents
and
their
occupations
are
mentioned
in
a
light,
positive
manner
(Twin
Billing,
1998).
Years
later
it
was
revealed
that
her
family
life
had
been
extremely
tumultuous,
her
parents
were
divorced
and
her
father
had
spent
time
in
prison.
In
later
articles
such
as
“Lindsay
Lohan:
Road
to
Ruin”
more
of
her
family’s
struggles
are
disclosed
such
as
her
mother’s
restraining
order
against
her
father
and
her
mother’s
denial
of
her
daughter’s
problems
(Tauber
&
McNeil,
2010).
Examples
such
as
these
give
way
to
the
theory
that
family
is
often
“the
skeleton
in
the
closet”
for
many
celebrities.
The
media
uses
this
to
their
own
advantage
by
revealing
negative
family
life
because
negative
headlines,
like
previously
mentioned,
will
often
sell
magazines.
It
might
The
Age
Difference
38
even
be
inferred
from
this
theory
that
the
media
sets
up
negative
headlines
years
in
advance
by
using
stories
that
portray
a
child
stars
family
in
a
positive
light,
then
later
researching
the
stars’
family
life
to
find
negative
information
to
report
on.
Age
also
plays
a
role
in
the
photographs
that
accompany
articles
published
in
entertainment
publications.
It
was
hypothesized
that
photographs
of
adults
were
more
likely
to
be
unflattering
than
photographs
of
children.
The
data
confirmed
this
hypothesis
and
also
found
that
every
photograph
published
of
a
child
was
considered
flattering.
Additionally,
while
adults
were
considered
to
have
more
unflattering
photographs
than
children,
the
majority
of
photographs
of
adults
were
still
considered
flattering.
Two
things
can
be
inferred
from
the
fact
that
not
one
photograph
of
a
child
was
unflattering.
First,
unflattering
photographs
of
children
are
difficult
to
come
by.
Children
are
not
typically
placed
in
the
same
photo
opportunities
that
adults
are.
For
example,
many
of
the
unflattering
photographs
of
adults
analyzed
for
this
paper
were
taken
outside
of
bars
and
restaurants,
in
court,
or
getting
out
of
vehicles.
What
also
can
be
inferred
from
these
findings
is
that
media
outlets
find
it
unethical
to
publish
unflattering
pictures
of
minors,
again
playing
into
the
idea
that
children
are
generally
innocent
and
defenseless.
Publishing
hurtful
photographs
of
minors
might
damage
the
publications
reputation.
What
was
also
interesting
about
the
findings
on
age
and
photographs
was
that
the
majority
of
photographs
of
adults
were
flattering
despite
the
fact
that
their
headlines
or
body
text
might
be
negative.
A
reason
for
this
might
be
that
the
The
Age
Difference
39
publication
might
wish
to
identify
the
celebrity
clearly,
rather
than
use
a
skewed
representation
of
them
in
an
unflattering
photograph.
This
allows
the
reader
to
quickly
identify
who
is
being
negatively
reported
on
rather
than
try
and
decipher
who
is
in
the
picture.
Out
of
the
six
hypotheses,
the
only
one
to
be
statistically
disproved
was
that
photographs
of
women
would
be
more
unflattering
than
photographs
of
men.
While
the
margin
was
slight,
women
were
more
likely
to
have
flattering
photographs
published.
As
previously
mentioned
this
may
be
due
to
the
fact
that
women
are
often
perceived
as
the
more
sensitive
and
emotional
sex.
The
media
may
feel
that
men
may
be
able
to
handle
negative
photographs
better
than
females.
While
this
is
probable,
we
find
it
to
be
peculiar
in
that
when
dissecting
current
coverage
of
women
in
the
media,
there
are
often
many
photographs
of
women
that
are
unflattering
including
the
previously
mentioned
articles
about
body
image.
CONCLUSION
The
results
of
this
study
have
shown
that
there
is
a
difference
in
the
way
the
media
treats
celebrities
when
they
are
minors
versus
when
they
are
of
legal
age.
Whether
it
is
in
headlines,
body
text,
photographs,
or
mention
of
family,
it
seems
as
though
the
media
is
gentler
when
it
comes
to
children.
The
traditional
narrative
and
cultural
norms
concerning
children
may
play
a
significant
role
in
this
disparity.
The
Age
Difference
40
Society’s
view
of
children
being
innocent,
defenseless,
and
cherubic
factors
into
the
decisions
entertainment
publications
must
make
when
reporting
on
child
celebrities.
It
is
important
to
note
that
only
a
small
amount
of
articles
were
analyzed
for
this
project,
in
comparison
to
the
amount
of
celebrity
coverage
in
the
news
every
day.
Additionally,
the
means
of
measuring
positive,
neutral,
and
negative
tones
as
well
as
flattering
and
unflattering
photographs
may
be
problematic
as
evidence
in
Table
4
where
each
photograph
of
a
child
star
was
deemed
flattering.
Furthermore,
if
the
archives
of
one
publication
did
not
supply
enough
articles
for
selection,
additional
articles
from
the
other
used
publications
were
chosen.
Future
suggestions
regarding
this
topic
include
a
more
expansive
project,
which
conducts
a
content
analysis
on
a
substantially
larger
number
of
entertainment
articles,
over
a
longer
period
of
time,
on
more
subjects.
Access
to
more
extensive
and
complete
archives
would
also
be
beneficial.
In
addition,
while
this
paper
mainly
analyzes
the
role
of
age
in
celebrity
media
coverage,
we
believe
that
there
is
a
case
to
be
made
in
the
way
the
media
frames
male
and
female
celebrities
in
the
news.
Additional
research
on
this
subject
may
yield
interesting
results.
The
Age
Difference
41
APPENDIX
Appendix
A:
Coding
Sheet
1. Age
of
celebrity
in
question
a. 1
=
Child
b. 2
=
Adult
2. Gender
of
celebrity
in
question
a. 1
=
Male
b. 2
=
Female
3. Tone
of
Headline
The
Age
Difference
42
a. ‐1
=
Negative
A
negative
title
should
contain
words
with
pessimistic
or
harmful
connotation.
b. 0
=
Neutral
• A
neutral
title
does
not
contain
words
with
negative
or
positive
connotation
and
is
nonpartisan
rather
subjective
or
judgmental.
c. 1
=
Positive
• A
positive
title
should
contain
words
with
optimistic
or
upbeat
connotation.
4. Is
the
body
text
of
the
article
negative,
positive,
or
neutral?
•
a. ‐1
=
Negative
If
the
body
of
the
article
mostly
suggests
that
the
celebrity
in
question
is
related
to
or
conducting
negative,
harmful,
or
damaging
behavior,
the
body
of
the
article
should
be
considered
negative.
The
body
of
a
negative
article
should
also
contain
a
majority
of
words
with
pessimistic
connotation.
In
addition,
the
body
of
the
article
should
be
considered
negative
if
it
mentions
reported
illegal
activity
or
drug
use.
b. 0
=
Neutral
• If
the
body
of
the
article
is
equal
in
both
positive
and
negative
discussion
and
is
considered
to
be
impartial
and
unbiased,
then
it
should
be
considered
neutral.
c. 1
=
Positive
• If
the
body
of
the
article
suggests
that
the
celebrity
in
question
is
related
to
positive
or
encouraging
behavior,
the
body
of
the
article
should
be
considered
positive.
The
body
of
a
positive
article
should
also
contain
a
majority
of
words
with
upbeat
connotation.
In
addition,
the
body
of
the
article
should
be
considered
positive
if
it
includes
mention
of
professional
achievements
such
as
awards
or
Box
Office
hits,
charity
involvement,
etc.
5. Are
pictures
accompanying
this
article?
•
a. 1
=
No,
move
to
question
7
b. 2
=
Yes
6. Are
the
pictures
flattering
or
unflattering?
a. Flattering
=
1
•
Flattering
pictures
are
pictures
that
display
the
celebrity
in
a
positive
light.
Should
the
caption
contain
positive
language,
the
picture
should
be
considered
flattering.
Eye
contact,
comfortable
position,
and
appropriate
attire
and/or
make
up
should
be
considered
positive
characteristics
of
a
photo.
The
Age
Difference
43
b. Unflattering
=
‐1
• Unflattering
pictures
are
pictures
that
display
the
celebrity
in
a
negative
light.
Should
the
caption
contain
negative
language,
the
picture
should
be
considered
unflattering.
Avoiding
the
camera,
inappropriate
attire
and/or
makeup,
and
uncomfortable
body
position,
should
be
considered
negative
characteristics.
7. Is
there
a
mention
of
family
and/or
guardian?
a. 1=
No,
end
coding
b. 2
=
Yes
8. Is
the
mention
of
family
negative,
neutral,
or
positive?
a. ‐1
=
Negative
• A
negative
mention
of
family
should
include
any
legal
battles
such
as
custody,
finance,
or
emancipation
issues.
If
there
is
mention
of
family
members
substance
or
alcohol
abuse
or
mental
illness
this
should
be
negative
as
well.
If
family
is
mentioned
in
order
to
demonstrate
a
deteriorating
or
nonexistent
relationship,
the
mention
should
be
considered
negative.
b. 0
=
Neutral
• A
neutral
mention
contains
both
positive
and
negative
discussion
and
is
considered
to
be
impartial
and
unbiased.
c. 1
=
Positive
• A
positive
mention
of
family
should
include
any
text
that
informs
the
reader
of
the
stars
supportive
and
loving
family
life.
Appendix
B:
Example
of
a
Sampled
Article
The
Age
Difference
44
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