This article was downloaded by: [Boise State University] Publisher: Routledge
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This article was downloaded by: [Boise State University] Publisher: Routledge
This article was downloaded by: [Boise State University] On: 22 December 2011, At: 16:38 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Critical Studies in Media Communication Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rcsm20 The Political Sins of Jon Stewart Roderick P. Hart & E. Johanna Hartelius Available online: 15 Aug 2007 To cite this article: Roderick P. Hart & E. Johanna Hartelius (2007): The Political Sins of Jon Stewart, Critical Studies in Media Communication, 24:3, 263-272 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07393180701520991 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-andconditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Critical Studies in Media Communication Vol. 24, No. 3, August 2007, pp. 263 272 Critical Forum The Political Sins of Jon Stewart Downloaded by [Boise State University] at 16:38 22 December 2011 Roderick P. Hart & E. Johanna Hartelius We accuse Jon Stewart of political heresy. We find his sins against the Church of Democracy to be so heinous that he should be branded an infidel and made to wear sackcloth and ashes for at least two years, during which time he would not be allowed to emcee the Oscars, throw out the first pitch at the Yankee’s game, or eat at the Time-Warner commissary. Our specific charge is that Mr. Stewart has engaged in unbridled political cynicism. And it is no coincidence that ‘‘sin’’ and ‘‘cynicism’’ have an assonant quality. But we are not accusing Mr. Stewart of being an apostate, one who has abandoned the Democratic Faith altogether. Unlike an apostate, a heretic professes faith in the overall tenets of the religion but disagrees with, or fails to practice, or tries to undermine, its most vital beliefs. In contrast, Mr. Stewart cleverly claims to advance the tenets of democracy during his nightly assignations while in truth leading the Children of Democracy astray. He plants in them a false knowledge, a trendy awareness that turns them into bawdy villains and wastrels. ‘‘If anyone,’’ says the apostle Paul, ‘‘preach to you a gospel, besides that you have received, let him be anathema’’ (Galations 1:9). ‘‘Receive him not into your house nor say to him, God speed you,’’ says John (II, 1:10). A person of such mien who ‘‘will not hear the Church,’’ says Matthew (18:17), should be regarded as ‘‘the heathen and the publican.’’ We think that Jon Stewart is both a heathen and a publican. Naturally, we understand that Stewart is also very, very popular. That is part of our charge against him. Jon Stewart makes cynicism attractive; indeed, he makes it profitable. Each night, he saps his audience’s sense of political possibility even as he helps AT&T sell its wares. Stewart urges them to steer clear of conventional politics and to do so while steering a Nissan. Mr. Stewart is especially attractive to young people, so his website offers them portable cynicism in the form of CDs, DVDs, clothes, books, and collectibles. Stewart knows there’s money to be made in cynicism. Roderick P. Hart holds the Shivers Chair in Communication and Government at the University of Texas at Austin. He can be reached at [email protected]. Johanna Hartelius is a doctoral candidate in the Communication Studies Department at the University of Texas at Austin (1 University Station, A1105; Austin, TX 78712-01105). She can be reached at [email protected] ISSN 0739-3180 (print)/ISSN 1479-5809 (online) # 2007 National Communication Association DOI: 10.1080/07393180701520991 264 R. P. Hart & E. J. Hartelius Downloaded by [Boise State University] at 16:38 22 December 2011 We do not object to Mr. Stewart’s making a buck but we do object to his making cynicism atmospheric, a mist that hovers over us each day. The United States is, after all, still the wonder of the world, the most successful mass democracy known to humankind. Why, then, the cynicism? Why the sneer and the grimace and the growl about matters political? Jon Stewart, that’s why. We know that, for many academics, Stewart is a political savior, an emblem of the subversive, take-no-prisoners attitude needed to comfort the afflicted and afflict the comfortable. Some observers even find Stewart to be a staunch defender of democratic values, a person who undermines a thousand pomposities each night. We disagree and begin our argument by examining the essential nature of cynicism. The Tools of Cynicism Jon Stewart’s persona can best be understood by reflecting on classical forms of Cynicism. Our basic contention is that Stewart’s antics let him evade critical interrogation, thereby making him a fundamentally anti-political creature. Stewart does not stimulate a polis to have new and productive thoughts; like his ancient predecessors, he merely produces inertia. Classical cynicism is distinguishable from, although not unrelated to, the ‘‘disparaging use of the term as an attitude that is negative and sneering’’ (Cutler, 2005, p. 8). Historically, the Cynics were a motley crew of thinkers in Greece during the fourth and third century B.C. who critiqued what they saw as the artificiality of social convention in all forms, both intellectual and political. Since antiquity, Cynicism has been at once a movement and an attitude, a way of perceiving the world, sometimes even a way of life. Jon Stewart is a multi-mediated reincarnation of the classical Cynic. Just as the Cynics’ agenda was to ridicule social and political norms by violating them in the most physically grotesque ways, Stewart foregrounds and mocks the generic conventions of his times. Two tropes in particular characterize Stewart’s brand of Cynicism: diatribe and chreia. Diatribe A diatribe is a way to shock, criticize, and deride a public figure. It is ‘‘a litigious monologue’’ that ‘‘appeals to an imaginary adversary and as such is an exposition more than an argument, since there is only room for one main speaker’’ (Cutler, 2005, p. 36). The Cynics used diatribe to tweak social conventions and to reveal their inherent arbitrariness. The diatribe reduces ‘‘conventional beliefs to the ridiculous, thereby making those who support orthodoxy seem contemptible’’ (p. 8). In the Cynical worldview, any adherence to conventional practices is deplorable. In contemporary politics, that would include all electoral processes such as voting. To understand how the diatribe is used, let us peruse two examples: (1) a letter from Crates (a well-known Cynic and pupil of Diogenes) directed to the Athenians and (2) a selection from Stewart’s best-selling book, America (The Book): A Citizen’s Guide to Democracy Inaction (2005): Critical Forum: Jon Stewart 265 Downloaded by [Boise State University] at 16:38 22 December 2011 Crates to the Athenians I hear that you are in need of money. Therefore, sell your horses and you will have money. Then, whenever there is a need for horses, vote that your asses are horses. For this has become your custom in every matter: not to do what is proper for your needs but to do what has been voted upon. But if there is a lack of realism in important matters, it nevertheless does not do away with the need, even in minor matters. (Malherbe, 1977, p. 75) Stewart: ‘‘Of Course Your Vote Counts!’’ In every election, many people grapple with the nagging suspicion their vote doesn’t count. As a citizen and someone who is always right, it is respectively my duty and my pleasure to tell them they are wrong. In fact, our democracy depends on every citizen recognizing the value of his or her vote. And here is the value of that vote. In the most recent presidential election 105,360,260 people cast ballots. That means each person’s vote counted .000000949%. I defy you to find a mathematician who will tell you that number is less than or equal to zero. Okay, so we can agree, your vote counts. It counts .000000949%. Swish that around in your mouth for a while. How does it taste? Taste like freedom? ’Cause to me it tastes like jack-all squat. (Stewart, Karlin, & Javerbaum, 2005, p. 121) As we see here, both writers mock the democratic ideal which assumes that voting is a worthwhile mode of participation. In the first excerpt, the underlying assumption is that citizens too often vote on matters that demand better, more immediate actions. Crates also implies that voting cannot effect really important changes and so it becomes a chimera. That is, a society cannot turn asses into horses simply by voting such realities into existence. Likewise, in the second excerpt, the belief that voting is a civic duty is examined and ridiculed. Stewart suggests that citizens’ disillusionment with their own political impotence is more than justified given its negligible statistical significance. The format of The Daily Show illustrates use of the diatribe quite well. On the show, one finds occasional interruptions by field reporters but otherwise Stewart is a one man band. He speaks directly to the camera, not with an interlocutor. Stewart rarely argues with an opponent but rants at an implied adversary or a universal audience. With the introduction of each new segment, Stewart’s monologue is interspersed with clips from more traditional news coverage, on which he dialogically comments. Stewart skillfully excerpts statements made by public figures and then comments on them in ways that makes them seem absurd. Like any good poststructuralist, Stewart regards the techniques of displacement and pastiche as inherent moral goods. The diatribe is not only a critique of an imaginary adversary but an ‘‘extemporaneous sermon’’ in which audiences are led to experience the totality of what is wrong-headed (Windt, 1972, p. 7). Directly confronting the audience is therefore one of Stewart’s trademarks. He is critical of the political establishment but also of the citizenry, his intended audience. For example, next to a page-size photo of Plato in Stewart’s book, one finds two quotations (Stewart et al., 2005, p. xii). Pericles: ‘‘It is true that we are called a democracy, for the administration is in the hands of the many and not the few.’’ Responds Socrates: ‘‘Yes, Pericles, but have you 266 R. P. Hart & E. J. Hartelius gotten a load of the many?’’ (p. xii). The attitude that permeates Stewart’s America (The Book) is one of smug superiority; it presumes that the reader knows so little about the history of civilization and political processes and foreign and domestic policy, etc. that any distorted story will suffice. Put differently, the authors treat their readers as persons who do not know the subject matter at hand and who are contented with their ignorance. The diatribe’s characteristic admonishment of the audience’s sins becomes, with Stewart, a preemptive insult cloaked in a sly, conspiratorial sense of bonhomie. Downloaded by [Boise State University] at 16:38 22 December 2011 Chreia A chreia is a ‘‘concise reminiscence aptly attributed to some character’’ (Hock & O’Neil, 1986, p. 23). It is a ‘‘brief statement of an incident or situation followed by a pungent remark’’ (Cutler, 2005, p. 37). Chreia are typically Cynical tropes characterized by black humor, paradox or surprise, and ethical seriousness (ibid.). Chreia are integrated into the very form of The Daily Show, with a clip from an office-holder’s public statement often followed by Stewart’s acidic commentary. For example, a segment entitled Terror Blues addressed the recent 9/11 Commission Report. Says Stewart: ‘‘The Report was harshly critical of the Bush administration. How did they respond?’’ The camera cuts to a clip of Dan Bartlett, counselor to the President, who says: ‘‘We think it’s important that Homeland Security dollars go to where the threats are. We can’t rest on our laurels.’’ Cut back to Stewart at the desk: ‘‘Read the Report! They’re saying you have no laurels! You’re laurel-less! Clearly there is room for improvement.’’ Another segment entitled Indecent Proposal discussed Congress’s and the FCC’s hearings on cable television’s allegedly indecent programming. Stewart again introduces the topic: ‘‘Congress had a different super villain in its sights: the cable television industry and its litany of atrocities.’’ Cut to a clip of Kevin Martin, FCC chairman: ‘‘The use of profanity during the family hour has increased 95% from 1998 to 2002.’’ Stewart’s response: ‘‘There is a family hour?! Well, fuck a duck!’’ Later in the same segment, a clip of Roberta Combs of the Christian Coalition is provided. Combs testifies: ‘‘I grew up in the 1950s. Ozzie and Harriet, Howdy Doody, and Mickey Mouse Club entertained us on TV. Television promoted good family values.’’ Stewart cuts in to complete the statement in a satirical tone: ‘‘And Black people couldn’t use the same water fountains. Good times! People really knew the values then!’’ Jon Stewart’s use of Cynicism constitutes a performance, a construction in the truest sense of the term. His discourses are both an art form and a style, a type of display more than a type of argument. As such, Stewart’s performances become ends in themselves rather than ways of changing social or political realities. The rhetoric of Cynicism is both casuistic (Jonsen & Toulmin, 1988) and malleable, letting Stewart dodge any real accountability for the viewpoints he offers (or defers). For instance, one of Stewart’s better parlor tricks is easily seen in his famous Crossfire appearance of 2004 where he played two personae at once. When scolding Paul Begala and Tucker Carlson and, by implication, all contemporary media Critical Forum: Jon Stewart 267 personalities, Stewart played the concerned citizen, a serious participant in the affairs of the day. But as soon as the hosts agreed to engage him on those terms, Stewart slipped away. For example, when Carlson pointed out that Stewart’s interview with John Kerry lacked ‘‘serious questions,’’ he responded with pontification cum outrage: ‘‘If your idea of confronting me is that I don’t ask hard-hitting enough news questions, we’re in bad shape, fellows.’’ He later exclaimed: ‘‘You’re on CNN. The show that leads into me is puppets making crank phone calls!’’ Downloaded by [Boise State University] at 16:38 22 December 2011 U.S. Professional Cynics In using such stratagems, Jon Stewart is in good company. The U.S. has always had more than its share of professional cynics*Lenny Bruce, George Carlin, Dennis Miller, Bill Maher. But this is not to say that Stewart’s business is the business of politics. Stewart is, instead, a dandy, a jester; he is dilatory. The classical Cynics would be untroubled by such characterizations since they had no desire to participate in the business of politics. Indeed, they desired nothing at all. Their view was that rational argumentation implied a kind of contract whereby arguers agreed to disagree in pursuit of some common end*philosophical truth, better policy, new insight. Neither the ancient Cynics nor the late-night comedians like Stewart make such agreements. Because they are on display, cynics are happy with either our adulation or our revulsion because, mainly, they want our attention. In today’s world, attention is where the publicity is and also where the money is. Politics, of course, depends on more than mere attention. It depends on serious beliefs seriously pursued. Cynicism, in contrast, promotes only itself, summoning followers to abandon conventional society and its stultifying love of order, predictability, and progress. Cynicism rarely fosters social change (Cutler, 2005, p. 20) because social change is inevitably fueled by desire. For the ancient Cynics, desiring nothing was a way to rid oneself of material culture and the various kinds of civic progress to which ordinary mortals are attracted. A prerequisite to engagement, after all, is having the motivation to engage. It is this motivation*this engagement*that made the world too messy, too liminal for the ancient Cynics. Diogenes called himself a ‘‘prophet of indifference’’ (Malherbe, 1977, p. 115). Jon Stewart sings that song as well. But to understand cynicism fully, one must also examine its preferred audience. What is it about cynicism that compels so many? Why does classical Cynicism still have a gravitational pull on contemporary Americans? What needs do they have, what tastes do they savor, that only cynicism can satisfy? If cynicism makes people hard and brittle, why do they crave it? If cynicism makes them tired and dispirited, why do they seek it out? These are not simple questions but they do demand answers. The Lure of Cynicism The question we ask here is this: Why does it feel good to feel bad about politics? Another way of asking the question is to ask why so many Americans willingly Downloaded by [Boise State University] at 16:38 22 December 2011 268 R. P. Hart & E. J. Hartelius collude with Jon Stewart each evening. Wherein lies their appetite for cynicism? Why do they buy books like Jim Hightower’s If the Gods Had Meant Us to Vote They’d Have Given Us Candidates (2000)? How can they, the children of the millennium, scoff at Washington’s inefficiencies when it rewards them with the Genome project, the Internet, the international space station, help with hurricanes and pestilence and AIDS, and a public education system that teaches immigrant children how to read? Why is it so easy to say ‘‘Don’t vote. It only encourages them’’? We argue here that cynicism is not really an attitude but a style of language, a way of talking. Like any language, cynicism is taught, practiced, and perfected. It is also self-reinforcing: The more often it is spoken the hardier it becomes. If one speaks it, another is likely to follow suit. If Jon Stewart speaks it, everyone joins in. Why think of cynicism as a language and not a feeling state? Because feeling states are dark and complicated and strange. A language, on the other hand, is powerful only if used. When people forget, or refuse, to speak it, it goes away, just as languages like Cornish and Akkadian and Sumerian have gone away. Some people mourn these lost languages for, in losing them, they have lost a distinctive way of experiencing life. Not so with cynicism. By refusing to speak it, a person loses nothing of value. By thinking of cynicism as a language and not as an internal psychological state we disempower it. By refusing to speak it, we disempower it further. And now a formally stated premise: Cynicism involves an athletic depiction of human frailty and institutional corruption and an artful delineation of mass unhappiness. This premise treats cynicism as an admixture of religion and rhetoric and aesthetics. Above all, cynicism is zealous and evangelical. It finds its rationale in its constant, serial discoveries*of perfidy in the Congress, of money in the Pentagon, of lust in the White House. These matters provide the cynic with new opportunities to deliver self-confirming epistles to modern Corinthians. It is the telling, the disclosing*what J. L. Austin (1970) calls the speech act*that gives cynicism its kerygmatic force. The cynic becomes both priest and follower in such a scheme, personally providing the illocutionary force needed to keep hope dead. If cynicism is a religion, it is an Old Testament religion. No Redeemer need apply. Human inadequacy, if not human depravity, is its theme. Personal triumphs are either short-lived or contrived and daily life is reduced to yet-to-be-discovered sins. Today’s football champion becomes tomorrow’s greed-meister. Yesterday’s civil rights leader becomes today’s adulterer. Tomorrow’s president is spawned from today’s misfits. In such a world, all singers lip-synch. In many ways, the cynic has a bucolic mindset that longs for a world untrammeled by human inventions. Accordingly, the cynic is distrustful of institutions, which are seen as corrupt and corrupting. The cynic sees modernity as dangerous because its baubles ensnare the too-trusting soul. The rustic resists such enticements and sees economic crimes as emblematic of an innocence lost: Michael Milken, Ivan Boesky, Martha Stewart, Ken Lay, Jack Abramoff. These synecdoches trip off the tongue, their mere mention being a kind of political conclusion. Finally, the cynic’s speech is promissory in nature. Time does not unfold for the cynic; it re-presents itself. Today is just another yesterday. Details, subtleties, oddities, Critical Forum: Jon Stewart 269 and exceptions are excluded from such a world, a world where all past is prologue and where data are meaningful only when linked to broad thematics. Recovery, not discovery, is the cynic’s key intellectual mission, which is why dramatis personae are featured so heavily. In the cynic’s world there is a clear, bright thread of integument among Richard Nixon’s crimes and Ronald Reagan’s crimes and Bill Clinton’s crimes and the yet-to-be-discovered crimes of George W. Bush. Professional historians instinctively question such easy generalizations. Cynics see professional historians as tedious, if not daft. Downloaded by [Boise State University] at 16:38 22 December 2011 Why is Cynicism So Popular? If cynicism is so dispiriting, why is it popular? For one thing, cynicism provides communal coinage, a way of staving off what Kenneth Burke (1984) calls hierarchical embarrassment. This makes cynicism especially attractive to adolescents, persons desperately trying to fit into groups previously taken for granted. Even college honors students become caught in the trap. At the end of one semester, for example, one of our students reflected on her first day in class. Said she: ‘‘I was scared to open my mouth that day because I didn’t have anything cynical to say.’’ What makes a bright 20-year-old assume that cynicism is her only option for making friends? What are we doing to our children, to one another, in making a remote self the only self worth having? In these and other ways, Jon Stewart & Co. are bullies who force us into one and only one way of imagining the world. Those who submit to such demands do so because they are plagued by a free-floating age-anxiety. For the young, that is, cynicism is a way of sounding older, more worldly, a way of announcing that all life is dross, that social organizations and continuing commitments*the very essence of politics*are passé. James Dean struck this posture in the 1950s and Janis Joplin brought it into the 1970s. Eminem is their direct heir. But if cynicism makes the young old, it is also an elixir for the mature, allowing middle-aged stiffs to make one last grab for youth. Charitably, Jon Stewart teaches them how to decry public life. Can one discuss politics at the suburban cocktail party? Of course one can: ‘‘Well, what do you think about the mess in Washington these days, Fred? You can’t trust any of ’em, can you?’’ Cynicism also appeals to us at an aesthetic level. Because cynicism is omnivorous, it fits all political data into its giant maw, making individual details serve a larger dramatic purpose. Typically, the cynic is preoccupied with questions of motive and that has great rhetorical advantage. In a motival world, after all, mere behavior becomes meaningless: collecting for the United Way is seen as a way of currying favor in the neighborhood; becoming a teacher proves you can’t cut it in business; winning a community award establishes one as a social climber. In all such cases, motive inevitably negates behavior, allowing the cynical interpretation to emerge triumphant. In Kenneth Burke’s (1962) terms, the cynic becomes a dramatist for entirely functional reasons: (1) motives are inevitably mysterious, pointing to a world of endless fascinations, endless discoveries; (2) motives are ultimately undeterminable, 270 R. P. Hart & E. J. Hartelius thereby giving amateurism a kind of universal expertise; at the same time, however, (3) motives are exquisitely documentable, which is to say, any known behavior can be retrofitted as ‘‘evidence’’ for the motival allegation. The cynic, therefore, lives in a self-sealing world where no claim can be proven false and all claims retain an air of plausibility. Jon Stewart becomes an artist with such colors in his palette. Downloaded by [Boise State University] at 16:38 22 December 2011 Television Stewart is also on television, and television, we argue, is cynicism’s most reliable delivery system. Television combines the youthful, collective, and psychological overtones cynicism needs, a point made some years ago in Seducing America (Hart, 1994). A contrasting view is that of Robert Putnam (2000), who feels that television’s main problem is that it takes too much of our time, thereby keeping us away from communal ties. In contrast, we argue that television has become our emotional tutor, teaching us which of our feelings are proper and which passé, which sports stars are worthy of emulation and which are fools. Television teaches these lessons subtly and, like any good teacher, it never takes credit for the teaching. Indeed, the medium consistently underestimates its importance (‘‘It’s only TV, after all’’) and so the remote control device in our hand provides a sense of power, perhaps even a sense of dominance. Television makes us feel smart and busy. Why do television’s cynicisms have such a hold over us? Why do late-night comedians escape the deconstructions applied to other social actors? Why do professors so often assume that being cynical is the only way to reach their students? Why does French postmodernism intimidate us so thoroughly? Why do so many academics want to become Jon Stewart? Television is at least part of the answer because it is so presentistic. CNN junkies watch the news all day, forcing CNN to make as much news as possible. Politicians cooperate, responding to every question asked lest they lose their moment in the sun. A time-anxious people is a demanding people, quickly bored and often surly. Such people become impatient with intractable problems*poverty, for example, disease and environmental degradation too*which is manifestly unfortunate since only governments can solve such problems. Real politics is hard, frustrating work. Instead of wrestling with such matters, cynics like Jon Stewart teach us how to cop an attitude. Why is copping an attitude now such an obsession? Because with television we can all be young, clever . . . and lazy. Cynics place faith in observation, not participation, and see irony as the only stable source of pleasure. Cynics embrace term limit laws because they minimize a citizen’s need to stay informed. Cynics embrace third-party candidacies because television adores the null hypothesis. Cynics like talk radio because only opinions, not facts, are needed during drive-time. Because cynics are so attracted to the logic of the instance, their remarks constitute an incompetent science and a deplorable mathematics. Television overcomes these shortcomings by treating vivid, unrepresentative cases as if they were the norm. From among the approximately 3,500 different persons who have served in the U.S. House Critical Forum: Jon Stewart 271 of Representatives between 1954 and the present, television treats Jim Wright, Newt Gingrich, and Mark Foley as prototypes when, of course, they are exceptions. From among the roughly 52,000 Catholic priests in the United States it features the one pedophile in New Mexico who failed to get treatment. From among the 1,500 charitable organizations in Cincinnati, Ohio it selects the one scam operation for the evening news. Data like these are compelling in the hands of a Jon Stewart but they also require complete ignorance of the normal curve. Downloaded by [Boise State University] at 16:38 22 December 2011 Conclusion If the reader does not believe in the power of Jon Stewart’s brand of cynicism, try making our argument with your peers. Argue that state politics is our only hope as a nation, that individuals are imperfect but that groups of individuals are extraordinary when they make common cause. Argue that many political traditions are good and that linear styles of thinking can be beautiful. Argue that all easy generalizations about American politics fail every known scientific test. If the reader feels especially brave, try arguing that far more is unknown about the world than is known. It will take a great deal of courage to think any of these thoughts, never mind say them. Stewart’s culture of cynicism is hard to reject because it rests so securely within those of us raised on television, persons who have come to believe that the only way of seeming smart is to sound like Jon Stewart. But the academic heritage provides an alternative style*the language of skepticism. While cynicism is sloppy science, skepticism is not. The skeptic believes in these things: (1) because sensory powers are limited, appearances can deceive; (2) because impulsiveness is dangerous, deep reflection about human affairs is best; (3) because people are social creatures, and hence imitative, conventional wisdom is rarely wise; (4) because people are fallible, one should never trust a single source of information; and (5) because most data are mediated, primary (not secondary) sensation should be prized. With these as its tenets, skepticism becomes an important adjunct to enlightened political decision-making. The skeptic has no need for the cynics’ foundational myths (e.g., original sin) or for their conceptions of the future (e.g., that perdition is near) since the world is constantly unfolding, reshaping itself all the while. Skeptics are buoyed up by the need to know. Because life is complex, an enlightened politics requires a considerable amount of skepticism. But unlike the cynic, the skeptic can have faith in human institutions because they are fashioned by group effort, not by lone individuals, and because the ravages of time rarely vanquish them. Institutions are Darwinian to the core, constantly being reinvigorated, constantly requiring self-cleansing, and so it is not surprising that they have become the focal point of the modern state. This is not to say they are perfect. Slavery was something of an institution, after all, and sexism and ageism have found institutional shelter as well. Eliminating such deficiencies is the business of government. Even a moment’s reflection will reveal the institutional arrangements that have enriched Americans’ lives*taxation with representation, bi-partisan government, Downloaded by [Boise State University] at 16:38 22 December 2011 272 R. P. Hart & E. J. Hartelius the Library of Congress, permissive voter-registration laws, Yellowstone National Park, the Social Security Administration, a peace-time army, meat and poultry inspection, the National Centers for Disease Control, the space shuttle. All these bureaux and processes, all these gray ghosts of government, have emanated from the collective will of the American people. They have stood the test of time; they have served the commonweal. It is possible to critique them endlessly but it is boring to do so. The long view of history finds that the only solution to bad politics is more politics. As Jeremy Rabkin (1995) observes, someone needs to write a political counterpart to William Bennett’s Book of Virtues (1993). In his book, Bennett lionizes a set of highly individualistic virtues: self-discipline, responsibility, work, courage, perseverance, honesty, loyalty, faith. Fine virtues, every one. Equally fine, but harder to achieve, are the following: cooperation, civility, generosity, negotiation, tolerance, regularity, compromise. These are quintessentially political virtues for they celebrate people’s dependence on one another. Television rarely dramatizes them. A democratic people dare not let these virtues go unloved. A democratic people must find ways of making them central to the education of youth, to giving children a new way of talking. Doing so has become hard work, sometimes Sisyphian work, but that makes it no less important. Says Albert Camus (1955, p. 91): ‘‘The struggle itself toward the heights is enough to fill a man’s heart. One must imagine Sisyphus happy.’’ Jon Stewart makes it hard to imagine such a thing. Those with courage must imagine it instead. We have nothing to lose, after all, but cynicism itself and that, we argue, is no loss at all. References Austin, J. L. (1970). How to do things with words . New York: Oxford University Press. Bennett, W. J. 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New York: Simon & Schuster. Rabkin, J. (1995, September). Roundtable remarks on civic virtue and the future of American politics . Annual meeting of the American Political Science Association. Stewart, J., Karlin, B., & Javerbaum, D. (Eds.). (2005). America (the book): A citizen’s guide to democracy inaction . New York: Warner Books. Windt, T. O. (1972). The diatribe: Last resort for protest. Quarterly Journal of Speech , 58 , 1 14.