I

(aspects of trauma • a review paper)
Treatment of Distal Biceps
Tendon Ruptures
ot
Pr
ht
“Partial ruptures should be treated
without surgery initially..”
yr
op
C
Dr. Widmer is Resident, and Dr. Tashjian
is Assistant Professor, Department of
Orthopaedics, University of Utah School
of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah.
Address correspondence to: Robert
Z. Tashjian, MD, University of Utah
Orthopaedic Center, 590 Wakara Way,
Salt Lake City, UT 84108 (tel, 801-5875457; fax, 801-587-5411; e-mail, robert.
[email protected]).
Am J Orthop. 2010;39(6):288-296.
Copyright Quadrant HealthCom Inc.
2010. All rights reserved.
nates at the supraglenoid tubercle
and traverses the shoulder joint
before exiting through the lateral rotator cuff interval. It then
passes through the intertubercular
groove into the proximal arm. The
short head takes origin from the
coracoid. The distal biceps tendon inserts into the radial tuberosity and supinates the forearm and
assists with elbow flexion.8 It also
functions as a secondary elevator
and abductor of the shoulder.9
ec
te
I
n 1925, Biancheri1 examined
the incidence of biceps tendon ruptures and found that
96% ruptured at the long head,
1% proximally at the short head,
and 3% distally. In 1941, Dobbie2
specifically examined distal biceps
injuries and made an early attempt
at a meta-analysis. He reviewed the
24 surgically treated cases of distal
biceps injuries previously reported
in the literature and sent a questionnaire to almost 500 active sur-
geons. From their replies, he identified 51 new cases of distal biceps
injuries repaired with a variety of
techniques and noted that the “end
results as reported are equally satisfactory” independent of technique
and are “for the most part excellent.” He identified only 3 reported
complications.
Interest in the surgical treatment
of distal biceps injuries has continued
to grow with the 1961 description by
Boyd and Anderson3 of a 2-incision
repair technique and more recently
with several reports4-7 of promising results with 1-incision repairs.
This increased interest is reflected
in a “distal biceps tendon ruptures”
PubMed search that yielded 46 citations for calendar year 2007.
ig
Abstract
Distal biceps tendon rupture is
an injury typically reported in the
dominant extremity of middleaged men. Clinical findings are
the mainstay of diagnosis, but
magnetic resonance imaging or
ultrasound imaging can provide
additional diagnostic information.
Anterior 1- or 2-incision repairs are
commonly used. Various fixation
techniques have been reported,
all with comparable biomechanical results and clinical outcomes.
Complication rates are lower in
patients treated closer to time of
injury. Tendon retraction associated with chronic ruptures can present a difficult surgical problem.
Advanced soft-tissue imaging
adds helpful information about the
level of biceps tendon retraction
and possible reparability. When
the tendon can be reapproximated
safely at less than 45° to 90°
of elbow flexion, then primary
repair may be performed. When
reapproximation is not possible,
options are reconstruction and
tenodesis. Reconstruction performed through 1 or 2 incisions
with either allograft or autograft
has successfully restored both
motion and power.
d
Benjamin J. Widmer, MD, and Robert Z. Tashjian, MD
Distal Biceps Tendon
Anatomy
The biceps muscle has 2 tendinous
origins and 1 tendinous insertion.
The long head of the biceps origi-
288 The American Journal of Orthopedics®
Elbow and forearm position
has been determined to affect the
function of the biceps muscle.
Electromyograms have demonstrated that the flexion activity of
the biceps is inhibited by forearm
pronation.10 Maximum supination
strength is achieved with forearm
flexion, and maximum flexion
strength is achieved with forearm
supination.11
The blood supply to the distal
biceps tendon is somewhat tenuous.
The brachial artery provides proximal perfusion, and the distal blood
supply stems from the posterior
radial recurrent artery and the brachial artery. This leaves a watershed
area approximately 2 cm in length
1 to 2 cm proximal to the insertion.12
More details about the distal
biceps footprint have been revealed
in recent years. The biceps tendon occupies 85% of the proximal
radioulnar joint at the level of the
tuberosity in full pronation and
Pr
ht
C
op
yr
ig
ec
te
35% in full supination. This represents a 50% reduction in the space
available for the tendon during
transition from supination to pronation.12 The radial tuberosity has
been found to have 2 distinct portions—a rough posterior portion
for tendon insertion and a smooth,
bursa-covered anterior portion.12
The tuberosity is 24 mm proximal
to distal and 12 mm medial to lateral. The tendon footprint is 19 mm
proximal to distal and 4 mm medial
to lateral.13 Therefore, the tendon
attaches to only approximately one
third of the overall width of the
tuberosity (Figure 1). In addition,
an anatomical study demonstrated
that, in 10 of 17 specimens, 2 dis-
Figure 3. Lateral antebrachial cutaneous
nerve just lateral to distal biceps tendon
during anterior approach for repair.
Andover, Mass), and so forth—is
directed slightly radial during insertion (Figure 2).
Surgical Anatomy
ot
Figure 1. Anatomy of radial tuberosity
insertion of distal biceps tendon.
tinct distal tendons (distal extensions of the long- and short-head
muscle bellies) were easily identified as receiving equal musculocutaneous innervation and attaching
separately to the radial tuberosity.
The long-head distal tendon was
noted to be crescentic and deep and
to insert proximally, whereas the
short-head distal tendon was consistently oval and superficial and
inserted distally14 (Figure 1).
The tendon insertion is a mean
23 mm distal to the articular margin, is located on the posterior/
ulnar aspect of the tuberosity, and
is oriented 30° anterior to the coronal plane with the arm fully supinated.15 With the arm in full supination, the center of the tuberosity
is a mean 45° anterior to horizontal
in the plane of the forearm, and the
posterior margin of the tuberosity
is a mean 15° anterior to horizontal
in the plane of the forearm. These
anatomical properties result in the
tendon inserting approximately 30°
anterior to horizontal in the plane
of the forearm (halfway between
the posterior margin and the tuberosity center) in full supination.
When there is a rotational deficit
limiting full supination, this location can make a 1-incision repair
difficult. Similarly, with the 1-incision technique, a more anatomical repair can be achieved when
the fixation instrument—anchors,
EndoButton (Smith & Nephew,
d
B. J. Widmer and R.Z. Tashjian
Figure 2. Angulation of radial tuberosity insertion of distal biceps tendon.
An understanding of the relevant
surgical anatomy is essential to safe
and efficient distal biceps repair.
The musculocutaneous nerve
innervates the biceps and brachialis
and then continues in the interval
between these 2 muscles as the
lateral antebrachial cutaneous
(LABC) nerve. This nerve provides
sensation to the lateral forearm.
It should be carefully identified
and protected during distal biceps
repair, as a traction injury can
result in numbness or paresthesias along the forearm. The LABC
nerve is superficial and just lateral
to the biceps tendon and is easily
identified during initial exposure
(Figure 3). Care should be taken
during repair to not reroute the
distal biceps anterior to the nerve.
The radial nerve runs between
the brachialis and the brachioradialis and is usually out of the
surgical field during dissection. It
bifurcates just anterior to the lateral epicondyle, and the posterior
interosseous nerve courses radially
to enter the supinator while the
superficial radial nerve continues
distally beneath the brachioradialis. Although the nerve is not
routinely exposed during surgery,
constant awareness of it and its distal posterior interosseous branch is
needed while retractors are being
June 2010 289
Treatment of Distal Biceps Tendon Ruptures
The etiology of distal biceps tendon injuries is multifactorial and
includes mechanical failure, tendon
degeneration, and limited vascularity. Mechanical factors include
relative interosseous impingement
caused by full pronation, which
may lead to degeneration from
repetitive compression.12 In addition, an oblique vector is applied
to the intact tendon with contraction of the flexor-pronator mass.
This contraction increases the
cross-sectional area of the flexorpronator mass, thereby placing the
lacertus fibrosis on tension. The
tense, medialized lacertus fibrosis
initiates an oblique force vector
on the biceps tendon.14 Tendons
perform the worst when obliquely
loaded during eccentric contraction, thereby potentially predisposing the distal biceps to rupture
compared with tendons having a
dissimilar loading pattern.18
Tendon degeneration has been
implicated as a cause for tendon
rupture in numerous anatomical
sites, including the distal biceps.
Kannus and Jozsa19 histologically
analyzed tendon rupture specimens
Clinical Evaluation
Distal biceps tendon injuries represent a spectrum of disease from
tendonitis to partial-thickness tears
to complete tears. In addition,
intact tendons may become symptomatic because of bicipital tendinosis (intrasubstance degeneration)
or cubital bursitis. The clinician
should be aware of this variety
of pathology and not discount a
possible injury when a complete
rupture is not identified.
Partial ruptures present with a
palpable but painful tendon and
are most easily confused with tendinosis or bursitis. Pain is exacerbated with resisted elbow flexion
and forearm supination. The hook
test is typically intact but painful.21
This test is performed with the
arm abducted to 90° and the elbow
flexed to 90° with the forearm in
supination. The examiner’s finger
is then used to “hook” the biceps
tendon from lateral to medial in
the antecubital fossa (Figure 4).
When the tendon can be hooked,
at least some portion of the tendon is intact.21 In a cohort of 45
Figure 4. Hook test. Patient’s arm is abducted and elbow flexed to 90° with forearm in
supination; examiner hooks index finger behind distal biceps tendon.
Epidemiology
ht
Pr
ot
to 39, 0.5 in ages 40 to 49, and 0.7
in ages 50 to 59. Ninety-three percent of patients were men, and 50%
of cases were in patients 30 to 39
years old. The dominant extremity
was involved in 86% of cases, and
an eccentric contraction preceded
all injuries. Smokers had more than
7-fold increased risk for rupture.
ig
placed posterolateral to the radial
tuberosity. We prefer to not hook
instruments, like Hohman retractors, posterior to the radius but
rather to use several deep rightangle retractors for exposure. The
median nerve courses ulnarly to
the brachial artery and along the
radial aspect of the pronator teres
before diving deep to the flexor
digitorum superficialis. Finally, the
lacertus fibrosis extends from the
biceps tendon ulnarly and overlies
the brachial artery, the bifurcation of the brachial artery, and the
median nerve. Release of the lacertus is often required to obtain sufficient mobilization of the biceps to
achieve a repair without significant
tension.
C
op
yr
This injury classically has involved
the dominant extremity of male
laborers in the fourth and fifth
decades of life. It typically has
been associated with eccentric
contraction of the biceps with the
elbow in midflexion.16 Ruptures
have also been described in various systemic conditions, including
rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing
spondylitis, gout, systemic lupus
erythematosus, syphilis, tuberculosis, malignancy, and end-stage renal
disease.17
Safran and Graham17 more accurately characterized the incidence
of this injury and defined the possible role of smoking in predisposing
patients to ruptures. They found an
incidence of 1.5/10,000 in ages 30
ec
te
d
Etiology
and age-matched cadaveric controls
of a variety of ruptured tendons,
including the distal biceps. All
ruptured tendons were abnormal:
97% demonstrated degenerative
changes, and inflammatory findings accounted for the other 3%. In
the age-matched cadaveric controls,
however, degenerative changes were
found in only 34% of specimens.
Finally, a relatively hypovascular
zone of the distal tendon has been
proposed as a possible predisposing factor leading to distal biceps
tendon ruptures. The hypovascular
zone is located within the tendon
substance distally, not directly at
the tendon insertion. Most ruptures
are tuberosity avulsions, not midsubstance ruptures, though musculotendinous injuries have also been
described.12,20 Therefore, given the
common location of tendon ruptures, the zone of limited vascularity is unlikely to have a significant
effect on the rate of ruptures.
290 The American Journal of Orthopedics®
B. J. Widmer and R.Z. Tashjian
extensor digitorum communis and
the supinator was described for
complete débridement and refixation through transosseous tunnels.23 Six of 8 patients in the series
were “completely satisfied” with
their outcome.
Pr
Treatment of Partial
Ruptures
ht
yr
op
C
d
The rationale for acute repair of
distal biceps ruptures stems primarily from 2 studies that found
persistent weakness and fatigue of
elbow flexion and forearm supination without repair.8,24 Both studies evaluated strength with isokinetic dynamometry. In one,24
the nonoperative group demonstrated a 21% loss of strength and
endurance in elbow flexion, a 27%
loss of supination strength, and a
47% loss of supination endurance,
whereas the operative group demonstrated mildly increased levels
of performance in these trials.
The other study8 demonstrated a
30% loss of flexion strength and
a 40% loss of supination strength
compared with the contralateral extremity in the nonoperative
group; with anatomical repair,
patients’ strength recovered to
near normal.
ot
palpable distal arm mass associated with a palpable defect and
an abnormal hook test provides
evidence confirming the rupture.
In these cases, MRI or ultrasound
may be quite helpful in evaluating
the level of tendon retraction. An
intact lacertus fibrosis can limit
proximal migration of chronically ruptured tendons. Significant
retraction may limit the surgeon’s
ability to perform a direct repair,
leaving a tenodesis to the brachialis
and a salvage reconstruction using
a soft-tissue graft as the only possible surgical options.
Partial ruptures should be treated
without surgery initially. The vast
majority of partial ruptures result
from degenerative changes associated with a traumatic injury, either
single events or smaller, repetitive
insults. Anti-inflammatory medications can decrease symptoms
but are unlikely to improve the
underlying pathology. Activity
modification and physical therapy
are also reasonable nonoperative
treatments.
When nonoperative options have
been exhausted, the surgical option
of choice is release of the remaining
distal biceps tendon, débridement
of the biceps tuberosity, and reattachment. This surgery may be performed with an anterior or posterior approach. A series of 7 patients
treated with anterior repair had
“uniformly good results,” with 2
patients sustaining transient LABC
palsies.22 A posterior approach
through a longitudinal split in the
ig
patients who underwent surgical
exploration of the distal biceps
tendon, the hook test was 100%
sensitive and specific in diagnosing
a complete distal rupture.11 The
authors reported that sensitivity
and specificity were higher for the
hook test than for MRI (92% sensitive, 85% specific) in diagnosing
a complete rupture in their series.
MRI or ultrasound can be helpful
in identifying abnormal intratendinous signal changes associated with
bicipital tendinosis and tuberosity
edema or partial tendon avulsions
associated with partial tears.
Musculotendinous junction injuries are rare; only a few have been
reported.20 Presenting clinical findings are similar to those of tendinitis and partial rupture. MRI is useful in differentiating musculotendinous injuries from partial ruptures.
Patients with musculotendinous
injuries typically do very well with
nonoperative management.20
Patients with acute ruptures typically develop distal arm pain and
swelling associated with ecchymosis
and a traumatic event. Range of
motion is limited, and there is a
palpable defect in the antecubital
fossa; this defect is often exacerbated by elbow flexion. The hook
test is often positive. MRI or ultrasound may be used to confirm the
diagnosis and evaluate the level of
tendon retraction.
Chronic ruptures often present
with a history similar to that of
acute ruptures, but on a delayed
basis. After the patient recovers
from the initial pain of injury, supination weakness and early biceps
muscle fatigue may persist. A
Treatment of
Acute Ruptures
ec
te
Figure 5. Skin incision for anterior approach for distal biceps tendon repair 2 fingerbreadths distal to flexion crease centered over radial tuberosity.
Operative Technique
for Acute Repair
Two-Incision Technique. In 1961,
Boyd and Anderson3 were the
first to describe using a 2-incision
approach for anatomical repair of
the distal biceps tendon. This repair
has been modified numerous times,
but its essential principles remain
unchanged. The repair begins with
a small transverse incision about 2
fingerbreadths distal to the antecubital flexion crease (Figure 5). The
track of the biceps tendon is identified and explored. The tendon
is freed of soft-tissue attachments
and scar tissue, and the lacertus
fibrosis is released. After excursion
is sufficient, 2 braided, nonabsorbable sutures are placed into the
tendon in running-locking fashJune 2010 291
Treatment of Distal Biceps Tendon Ruptures
Figure 8. Final repair of 1-incision technique using anchors.
Figure 7. Distal biceps tendon with
single limb of suture from each anchor
sutured into distal tendon (1 with
Krackow suture, 1 with Bunnell suture).
Figure 9. Lateral radiograph of elbow
shows placement of suture anchors.
ht
a 1-incision anterior approach, it
is important to recall that the true
anatomical insertion is difficult
to access, even in full supination
(Figure 2). The approach begins
with a transverse incision 2 fingerbreadths distal to the antecubital
flexion crease. Several large veins
of the antecubital venous complex
need to be mobilized, and often
ligated, to gain adequate exposure
for repair. The distal biceps track
and tendon stump are identified,
and the tendon is released from
adherent soft tissue and the lacertus
fibrosis. Care is taken to avoid excessive radial retraction, as this can
injure the LABC nerve. Blunt dissection is carried down to the radial
tuberosity between the brachioradialis and the pronator teres. The
radial recurrent branches are preserved, if possible. The radial tuberosity is identified, and all remaining
soft tissue is removed. Deep rightangle retractors are used to retract
C
op
yr
ig
ion. A clamp is placed around the
tuberosity through the interosseous
membrane while much care is taken
not to disturb the ulnar periosteum.
A second dorsal incision is made
over the now subcutaneous clamp,
and dissection is carried down to
the radial tuberosity. A high-speed
burr is used to prepare a trough
in the tuberosity, and 3 transosseous tunnels are placed through the
posterior wall of the trough. The
clamp is then used to deliver the
sutures through the interosseous
membrane into the wound. The
tendon is placed into the trough,
and the sutures are passed through
the transosseous tunnels and tied.
The wounds are then irrigated and
closed.
One-Incision Technique. Oneincision techniques are also in widespread use and are gaining popularity with improvements in implants
used for tendon repair. When using
Pr
ot
Figure 6. Anterior exposure of radial
tuberosity with 2 anchors in place.
ec
te
d
medially, laterally, and distally during the repair. Hohman retractors
are avoided to limit placement of
retractors posterior to the proximal
radius and possible injury to the
posterior interosseous nerve. The
tendon is then securely fixed with
suture anchors or an EndoButton.
Suture Anchors. Two cortical
anchors are placed in the tuberosity perpendicular to the cortex, 1
distally and 1 proximally (Figure
6). One limb of the braided, nonabsorbable No. 2 suture from 1
anchor is then placed into the distal
3 to 4 cm of the tendon in runninglocking fashion. One limb of the
No. 2 suture from the other anchor
is then run in Bunnell fashion into
the tendon (Figure 7). The elbow
is placed in 30° of flexion, and the
suture for the distal anchor is held
taut while the proximal suture is
tied. The distal suture is then tied
(Figures 8, 9).
EndoButton. During instrumentation of the radial tuberosity, the
arm must be maintained in full
supination. The guide pin should
be started centrally in the tuberosity and aimed 30° ulnarly to avoid
the posterior interosseous nerve.25
The guide pin is overdrilled with the
appropriate drill provided by the
device manufacturer. All remaining soft tissue is removed from
the tuberosity. EndoButton sutures
are placed in running-locking fashion in the distal 3 to 4 cm of
the tendon. The sutures are tied
over the button, leaving a 3-mm
gap between the knot and the button so it can traverse the far cortex. The forearm is flexed to 90°
and supinated before the guide pin
is used to pass the “kite string”
sutures through the posterior cortex and soft tissues. The kite-string
sutures are then manipulated to
“flip” the button into the transverse position and lock the tendon
into the tuberosity. The kite-string
sutures are then pulled through
the button and out of the skin4
(Figure 10).
292 The American Journal of Orthopedics®
B. J. Widmer and R.Z. Tashjian
Figure 10. Lateral radiograph of elbow
shows placement of EndoButton (Smith
& Nephew, Andover, Mass).
Figure 12. Augmentation of distal biceps
tendon with semitendinosus allograft
using Pulvertaft weave through distal
biceps tendon stump.
Treatment of Chronic
Ruptures
C
op
yr
ig
In the chronic setting (>4 weeks
from injury), the tendon may
retract significantly and require
grafting for anatomical reconstruction. With advances in surgical
technique and fixation implants,
anatomical reconstructions augmented with a graft are becoming
easier to perform. Nonanatomical
reconstructions should still be
considered in these cases, with the
final decision regarding surgical
treatment based on the individual
patient’s needs, functional deficits,
and expectations. Although preoperative imaging may aid in the decision to perform a primary repair
or reconstruction, the final decision is made during surgery. During
exposure, the lacertus fibrosis and
any additional soft-tissue restraints
must be released. The feasibility
of tendon reapproximation is then
determined. Primary repair has
ht
Figure 11. Distal biceps tendon stump
in chronic injury precludes direct repair.
Pr
ot
been recommended for tendons
that can be reapproximated with
45° to 90° of elbow flexion.7,26,27
When primary repair is not feasible, there are 2 surgical options:
tenodesis to the brachialis muscle
and extension of the remaining
distal biceps tendon with a tendon
graft. Numerous grafting options
and fixation methods have been
described. Several authors have
had success with use of transosseous tunnels, suture anchors, and
EndoButtons in combination with
Achilles allograft, semitendinosus
allograft/autograft, and flexor carpi
radialis autograft27-31 (Figures 11,
12). Nonanatomical reconstruction
by tenodesis to the underlying brachialis can be clinically successful,
particularly in recovering flexion
strength. It is essential to properly tension the biceps muscle, or
pronounced weakness can result.
Flexion strength with tenodesis
has been reported to equal that
of anatomical repair, but half of
the patients who undergo tenodesis
lose 50% of supination strength.
Endurance in flexion and supination did not differ significantly
between acute repair and tenodesis.32
ec
te
d
cyclic load-displacement testing
of various fixation constructs has
been performed in cadaver models. Some authors have reported
that EndoButton fixation is stronger than either suture anchors or
bone tunnels as a biomechanical
construct.4,33-36 Other investigators have found interference screw
fixation superior to both suture
anchors and transosseous techniques.37,38 Still others have found
no meaningful difference between
these various fixation methods.39
In a single cadaveric study,
Mazzocca and colleagues35 evaluated various distal biceps repairs,
including transosseous tunnels,
suture anchors, tenodesis screw fixation, and EndoButton. They found
no significant difference between
methods in cyclic displacement,
which ranged from 2.25 to 3.5 mm
in all specimens. They determined
mean loads to failure to be 439 N
for EndoButton, 381 N for suture
anchors, 310 N for transosseous
tunnels, and 231 N for tenodesis
screw. The EndoButton load to
failure was significantly larger than
that of all other tested constructs.
No other relationships between
constructs reached statistical significance. Although significant
differences can certainly be demonstrated in the laboratory, they
may be less relevant in the clinical
setting. All techniques are likely
sufficient for early passive motion,
and EndoButton fixation may
allow early active motion.35 Active
elbow flexion in cadaveric specimens was shown to require only 25
N for flexion to 30°, 35 N for flexion to 90°, and 67 N for flexion to
130°.4 The largest specimen in this
study required 123 N for full elbow
flexion.4 Consequently, the loads to
failure reported by Mazzocca and
colleagues35 in the weakest construct still far surpassed the in vitro
forces required for immediate active
range of motion.
The effect of reinsertion location
on ability of a repair to restore
the normal flexion and supination
force imparted by the biceps ten-
Biomechanics
Given the numerous fixation
options, an understanding of the
biomechanics of various repair
techniques is essential to determining the optimal surgical construct. Both load-to-failure and
June 2010 293
Treatment of Distal Biceps Tendon Ruptures
Outcomes of Chronic Injuries
As already mentioned, significant
delays in treatment typically predispose patients to increased risk
for postoperative complications.41,43
However, surgically treated chronic ruptures can show significant
improvements in function and
strength. In a series of patients
evaluated a mean of 119 days after
injury, those treated without surgery demonstrated a persistent
20% loss of forearm supination
and elbow flexion strength, and
those treated with semitendinosus
d
of 0° to 141°, pronation-supination of 74° to 75°, and a mean
DASH score of 3.6.40 Both isometric and dynamic flexion strength
improved to mildly better than
that of the normal side, whereas
isometric and dynamic supination
returned to within 11% of the
normal side. In another series, all
45 patients treated with the 2-incision technique regained “without
a complication” normal motion
and neurologic function, according to retrospective review.41 A
review of 13 patients documented
ec
te
don was also examined in a cadaver
model.39 In the native state, the
radial tuberosity acts as a cam to
increase supination torque. When
the tendon is not reinserted anatomically into the posterior tuberosity, loss of the cam effect theoretically could result. In that cadaveric
study,39 1 elbow specimen from a
matched pair underwent a 1-incision anterior repair with transosseous fixation while a 2-incision
repair into the posterior tuberosity with transosseous tunnels was
performed on the opposite elbow.
and
Pr
Rehabilitation
Early, protected passive motion
traditionally has been used after
repair. Recently, several authors
have challenged this idea with
the institution of more aggressive
postoperative therapy protocols
that include early active motion.
Cheung and colleagues42 used a
postoperative protocol beginning
with immediate passive motion in
a hinged brace limited between
full flexion and 60°. The extension
block was increased by 20° every
2 weeks until full extension was
achieved. No reruptures or complications were reported. Cil and colleagues40 advocated a more aggressive protocol in which no extension block is required. Twenty-one
patients underwent 2-incision
repair; after surgery, they were
treated with a sling for 1 to 2 days
and then allowed full active motion
with daily activities and a 1-pound
weight restriction for 6 weeks. At
minimum 2-year follow-up, there
were no clinical disabilities or tendon ruptures.
ig
Functional Outcomes
Complications
that flexion strength of 91% and
supination strength of 84% of the
contralateral side were regained.42
Mean motion loss of 3° pronation,
8° supination, and 6° extension
was reported.
ht
No significant difference was found
between groups in either forearm
supination torque or elbow flexion
force with a similar load applied
to the biceps muscle. These results
suggest that whether the tendon
is reinserted anatomically into the
footprint or into the anterior aspect
of the tuberosity, the functional differences are likely to be minimal.
ot
“...significant delays in treatment typically predispose patients
to increased risk for postoperative complications.”
C
op
yr
Outcomes of Acute Injuries
Recent reports have described success in using the 1-incision anterior approach in restoring patient
function and minimizing complications. A single-surgeon series of 53
acute repairs with suture anchors
found restoration of normal motion
to within 5° in all parameters.6
Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder,
and Hand (DASH) scores were not
significantly different from those of
normal controls. No reruptures or
heterotopic ossification was reported. Another single-surgeon series
with suture anchors found 7 good
and 46 excellent results according
to Andrews-Carson scores.5 No
patients reported fair or poor results.
A series of 21 patients treated
with a 2-incision technique demonstrated mean flexion-extension
294 The American Journal of Orthopedics®
autograft augmented reconstruction regained normal supination
and flexion strength compared
with a group of uninjured controls. Neither group demonstrated
a change in endurance strength.31
Other investigators have reported similar encouraging results for
reconstruction of chronic ruptures.27,30 Supination and flexion strength typically recovered
to 80% to 90% of normal, and
motion recovered to near normal.
Supination strength in chronic ruptures that were primarily repaired
was mildly decreased compared
with supination strength in chronic
ruptures that underwent reconstruction with a graft.
Complications
Several authors have reported complications after acute repair with
a 1-incision technique. In a singlesurgeon series of 53 cases, patients
sustained 1 wound complication, 2
transient paresthesias of the LABC
nerve, and 1 posterior interosseous nerve palsy that resolved in
6 weeks.6 In another series of 53
patients, no infections or reruptures
were reported, but mild motion
limitation due to heterotopic ossification was found in 4% of patients,
and a transient radial nerve palsy
occurred in 2% of patients.5
B. J. Widmer and R.Z. Tashjian
Figure 13. Anterior heterotopic bone
formation after 1-incision repair with
EndoButton (Smith & Nephew, Andover,
Mass).
d
ot
Pr
ht
small series of reconstructions are a
fraction of the size of most series
published on acute repairs.
yr
op
C
Conclusions
Distal biceps tendon rupture is a
relatively unusual injury typically
reported in the dominant extremity of middle-aged men. Clinical
findings are the mainstay of diagnosis, but MRI or ultrasound
imaging can provide additional
information. Either an anterior
1-incision approach or a 2-incision
approach is acceptable for repair.
Various fixation techniques have
been reported, all with comparable
biomechanical results and clinical
“Either an anterior 1-incision
approach or a 2-incision approach is
acceptable for repair.”
Heterotopic Ossification
Although relatively uncommon,
radioulnar heterotopic ossification
with or without synostosis is one
of the most frustrating and difficult postoperative complications
to manage for both patient and
surgeon (Figure 13). In a series of 8
patients who developed radioulnar
heterotopic ossification after 2-incision repair, motion was severely limited.44 All patients had been treated
with primary repair within 14 days
of injury. Flexion ranged from 115°
to 135°, and rotation averaged 25°
and was absent in 2 patients. All
patients underwent open resection
of heterotopic ossification a mean
of 6 months after primary repair.
Treatment after resection included immediate continuous passive
motion, 700-cGy external beam
radiation on postoperative day 1,
and use of oral indomethacin for 3
weeks. Testing performed a mean of
57 months after resection revealed
mean flexion to 135°, supination
ig
A series of 74 patients treated
with a 2-incision, transosseous tunnel technique and not stratified by
chronicity revealed a complication
rate of 31%.43 Six patients had persistent anterior elbow pain, 5 had
sensory paresthesias, 4 had heterotopic bone formation, 3 had loss
of rotation, and 3 had superficial
infections. In addition, 1 patient
had a rerupture, and 1 developed
complex regional pain syndrome.
When stratified by chronicity, the
overall complication rate was 24%
in acute ruptures (<10 days), 38%
in subacute ruptures (10-21 days),
and 41% in delayed ruptures (>21
days). It should be noted that other
investigators typically do not report
persistent anterior elbow pain as a
complication. Another study, of 45
cases, found that 27% of patients
had 12 complications: 7 nerve
complications, 3 functional synostoses, 1 rerupture, and 1 case of
complex regional pain syndrome.41
Patients treated within 14 days of
injury had a 20% complication
rate, and patients treated 15 days
or more after injury had a 40%
complication rate. Although the
trend toward fewer complications
in interventions performed within
the first 2 weeks is not significant,
the authors found the procedure
technically much easier to perform
within 14 days of injury.
The increased complexity of
operative intervention for chronic
ruptures suggests a higher compli-
to 86°, and pronation to 65°. These
range-of-motion values were found
to be no different from those for
acute repair controls.
ec
te
cation rate, but the authors who
compared operative and nonoperative treatment reported no infections, radial nerve palsies, heterotopic ossification, or ruptures in the
7 patients treated surgically.31 In a
series of 4 patients who underwent
Achilles tendon allograft reconstruction, no complications were
noted at a mean follow-up of 3
years.30 One in a series of 7 patients
with Achilles allograft reconstruction developed heterotopic ossification that did not limit motion.27 No
other complications were encountered in the series. These studies
imply a complication profile lower
than that found in acute repairs,
but it is important to note that these
outcomes. Complication rates are
lower in patients treated closer
to time of injury. Tendon retraction associated with chronic ruptures can present a difficult surgical problem. Advanced soft-tissue
imaging adds helpful information
about the level of biceps tendon
retraction and possible reparability. When the tendon can be reapproximated safely at less than 45°
to 90° of elbow flexion, then primary repair may be performed.
When reapproximation is not possible, options are reconstruction
and tenodesis. Reconstruction performed through 1 or 2 incisions
with either allograft or autograft
has successfully restored both
motion and power.
Authors’ Disclosure
Statement
The authors report no actual or
potential conflict of interest in relation to this article.
References
1. Biancheri TM. Sulla rottura sottocutanea
del bicipite brachiale. Chir Organi Mov.
1925;9:580-602.
2. Dobbie RP. Avulsion of the lower biceps
June 2010 295
Treatment of Distal Biceps Tendon Ruptures
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
ht
28.
29.
30.
32.
op
yr
31.
d
21.
ec
te
20.
of the distal biceps brachii tendon: isokinetic
power analysis and complications after anatomic reinsertion compared with fixation to
the brachialis muscle. J Shoulder Elbow Surg.
2003;12(6):607-611.
33. Kettler M, Lunger J, Kuhn V, Mutschler
W, Tingart MJ. Failure strengths in distal
biceps tendon repair. Am J Sports Med.
2007;35(10):1544-1548.
34. Kettler M, Tingart MJ, Lunger J, Kuhn V.
Reattachment of the distal tendon of biceps:
factors affecting the failure strength of the
repair. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2008;90(1):103106.
35. Mazzocca AD, Burton KJ, Romeo AA,
Santangelo S, Adams DA, Arciero RA.
Biomechanical evaluation of 4 techniques
of distal biceps brachii tendon repair. Am J
Sports Med. 2007;35(2):252-258.
36. Spang JT, Weinhold PS, Karas SG. A biomechanical comparison of Endobutton versus suture anchor repair of distal biceps
tendon injuries. J Shoulder Elbow Surg.
2006;15(4):509-514.
37. Idler CS, Montgomery WH, Lindsey DP, Badua
PA, Wynne GF, Yerby SA. Distal biceps tendon
repair: a biomechanical comparison of intact
tendons and 2 repair techniques. Am J Sports
Med. 2006;34(6):968-974.
38. Krushinski EM, Brown JA, Murthi AM. Distal
biceps tendon rupture: biomechanical analysis
of repair strength of the Bio-Tenodesis screw
versus suture anchors. J Shoulder Elbow
Surg. 2007;16(2):218-223.
39. Henry J, Feinblatt J, Kaeding CC, et al.
Biomechanical analysis of distal biceps tendon repair methods. Am J Sports Med.
2007;35(11):1950-1954.
40. Cil A, Merten S, Steinmann S. Immediate
active range of motion after modified 2-incision repair in acute distal biceps tendon rupture. Am J Sports Med. 2009;37(1)130-135.
41. Bisson L, Moyer M, Lanighan K, Marzo J.
Complications associated with repair of a
distal biceps rupture using the modified twoincision technique. J Shoulder Elbow Surg.
2008;17(1 suppl):67S-71S.
42. Cheung EV, Lazarus M, Taranta M. Immediate
range of motion after distal biceps tendon
repair. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2005;14(5):516518.
43. Kelly EW, Morrey BF, O’Driscoll SW.
Complications of repair of the distal biceps tendon with the modified two-incision technique.
J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2000;82(11):15751581.
44. Wysocki RW, Cohen MS. Radioulnar heterotopic ossification after distal biceps tendon
repair: results following surgical resection.
J Hand Surg Am. 2007;32(8);1230-1236.
ot
19.
Pr
18.
ics, and the effect of smoking. Clin Orthop.
2002;(404):275-283.
Frank CB, Shrive NG, Lo IKY, Hart DA.
Form and function of tendon and ligament.
In: Einhorn TA, O’Keefe RJ, Buckwalter JA,
eds. Orthopedic Basic Science: Foundations
of Clinical Practice. 3rd ed. Rosemont, IL:
American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons;
2007:191-222.
Kannus P, Jozsa L. Histopathological changes
preceding spontaneous rupture of tendon. A
controlled study of 891 patients. J Bone Joint
Surg Am. 1991;73(10):1507-1525.
Schamblin ML, Safran MR. Injury of the distal biceps at the musculotendinous junction.
J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2007;16(2):208-212.
O’Driscoll SW, Goncalves LBJ, Dietz P. The
hook test for distal biceps tendon avulsion.
Am J Sports Med. 2007;35(11):1865-1869.
Dellaero DT, Mallon WJ. Surgical treatment of
partial biceps tendon ruptures at the elbow.
J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2006;15(2):215-217.
Kelly EW, Steinmann S, O’Driscoll SW. Surgical
treatment of partial distal biceps tendon
ruptures through a single posterior incision.
J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2003;12(5):456-461.
Baker BE, Bierwagen D. Rupture of the distal
tendon of the biceps brachii. Operative versus
non-operative treatment. J Bone Joint Surg
Am. 1985;67(3):414-417.
Saldua N, Carney J, Dewing C, Thompson
M. The effect of drilling angle on posterior interosseous nerve safety during open
and endoscopic anterior single-incision repair
of the distal biceps tendon. Arthroscopy.
2008;24(3):305-310.
Wright TW. Late distal biceps repair. Techn
Hand Up Extrem Surg. 2004;8(3):167-172.
Darlis NA, Sotereanos DG. Distal biceps
tendon reconstruction in chronic ruptures.
J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2006;15(5):614-619.
Levy HJ, Mashoof AA, Morgan D. Repair of
chronic ruptures of the distal biceps tendon
using flexor carpi radialis tendon graft. Am
J Sports Med. 2000;28(4):538-540.
Hallam P, Bain GI. Repair of chronic distal biceps tendon ruptures using autologous hamstring graft and the Endobutton.
J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2004;13(6):648-651.
Sanchez-Sotelo J, Morrey BF, Adams RA,
O’Driscoll SW. Reconstruction of chronic ruptures of the distal biceps tendon with use of
an Achilles tendon allograft. J Bone Joint Surg
Am. 2002;84(6):999-1005.
Wiley WB, Noble JS, Dulaney TD, Bell RH,
Noble DD. Late reconstruction of chronic distal
biceps tendon ruptures with a semitendinosus
autograft technique. J Shoulder Elbow Surg.
2006;15(4):440-444.
Klonz A, Loitz D, Wohler P, Reilman H. Rupture
ig
brachii tendon: analysis of fifty-one previously
unreported cases. Am J Surg. 1941;51:662683.
3. Boyd HB, Anderson LD. A method for reinsertion of the distal biceps brachii tendon. J Bone
Joint Surg Am. 1961;43(10):1041-1043.
4. Greenberg JA, Fernandez JJ, Wang T, Turner
C. Endobutton-assisted repair of distal biceps
tendon ruptures. J Shoulder Elbow Surg.
2003;12(5):484-490.
5. John CK, Field LD, Weiss KS, Savoie FH 3rd.
Single-incision repair of acute distal biceps
ruptures by use of suture anchors. J Shoulder
Elbow Surg. 2007;16(1):78-83.
6. McKee MD, Hirji R, Schemitsch EH, Wild
LM, Waddell JP. Patient-oriented functional
outcome after repair of distal biceps tendon
ruptures using a single-incision technique.
J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2005;14(3):302-306.
7. Sotereanos DG, Pierce TD, Varitimidis SE. A
simplified method for repair of distal biceps
tendon ruptures. J Shoulder Elbow Surg.
2000;9(3):227-233.
8. Morrey BF, Askew LJ, An KN, Dobyns JH.
Rupture of the distal tendon of the biceps
brachii. A biomechanical study. J Bone Joint
Surg Am. 1985;67(3):418-421.
9. Landin D, Myers J, Thompson M, Castle R,
Porter J. The role of the biceps brachii in
shoulder elevation. J Electromyogr Kinesiol.
2008;18(2):270-275.
10. Basmajian JV. Electromyography of two joint
muscles. Anat Rec. 1957;129(3):371-380.
11. Osullivan LW, Gallwey TJ. Upper-limb surface
electromyography at maximum supination
and pronation torques: the effect of elbow
and forearm angle. J Electromyogr Kinesiol.
2002;12(4):275-285.
12. Seiler JG 3rd, Parker LM, Chamberland PD,
Sherbourne GM, Carpenter WA. The distal
biceps tendon. Two potential mechanisms
involved in its rupture: arterial supply and
mechanical impingement. J Shoulder Elbow
Surg. 1995;4(3):149-156.
13. Hutchinson HL, Gloystein D, Gillespie M. Distal
biceps tendon insertion: an anatomic study.
J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2008;17(2):342-346.
14. Eames MH, Bain GI, Fogg QA, van Riet RP.
Distal biceps tendon anatomy: a cadaveric
study. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2007;89(5):10441049.
15. Athwal GS, Steinmann SP, Rispoli DM.
The distal biceps tendon: footprint and relevant clinical anatomy. J Hand Surg Am.
2007;32(8):1225-1229.
16. Ramsey ML. Distal biceps tendon injuries:
diagnosis and management. J Am Acad
Orthop Surg. 1999;7(3):199-207.
17. Safran MR, Graham SM. Distal biceps
tendon ruptures: incidence, demograph-
C
This paper will be judged for the Resident Writer’s Award
296 The American Journal of Orthopedics®