How to present your thesis A practical guide to requirements

Transcription

How to present
your thesis
A practical guide to requirements
in form and style
Research and Graduate Studies Office
Prepared by Catherine Pilbeam
September 2004; revised October 2005
Contents
INTRODUCTION
1
PHYSICAL ARRANGEMENT
Page setup
Arrangement of material
Page numbering
2
2
2
2
FORMATTING ISSUES
General text
Headings and display text
Quoted matter
4
4
5
6
FIGURES AND TABLES
Appearance
Placement
Labelling figures and tables
Notes to figures and tables
9
9
10
10
11
CITING SOURCES
Systems of documentation
Footnotes and endnotes
Formatting documentation
12
12
13
14
EXPRESSION
Grammar issues
Punctuation
Spelling and word choice
Abbreviations
Revision and proofreading
Presenting the finished thesis
16
16
17
20
20
22
23
APPENDIX 1 REGULATION 5.1 EXTRACTS
The Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Masters Degrees by Research
Professional Doctorates
24
24
26
27
APPENDIX 2 SAMPLE PAGES
30
Introduction
Most research students would probably be surprised at the number of theses
returned for revision (‘deferred’) by examiners simply because their authors did
not respect the basic conventions of document presentation and written
expression. Unless your thesis meets the required standard in both these areas,
it will not pass—however brilliant the content.
This guide introduces the major aspects of layout, format and expression that will
require your attention during the preparation of your thesis or portfolio. Although it
concentrates on thesis presentation, the advice given is also relevant to similar
aspects of portfolio and research paper presentation. The guide does not
address any issues concerning the research and development of intellectual
content.
All instructions in this guide are offered as general advice only. For more specific
advice, candidates should consult the most current style manual and dictionary
recommended for use in their discipline. Candidates should also take care to
determine whether their School, supervisors and examiners have any special
requirements regarding the presentation of the finished thesis.
Finally, it is the responsibility of all candidates to ensure that the thesis complies
with the requirements of University of Ballarat Regulation 5.1 for thesis and
portfolio presentation. Relevant excerpts of this regulation are reproduced at the
end of this guide for reference.
1
Physical arrangement
Page setup
•
•
•
•
Use international size A4 (210 x 297 mm) acid-free bond paper.
Text should appear on one side of the paper only.
Margins: Right: at least 1.9 cm; Left: at least 3.8 cm; Top & Bottom: 2.54 cm
All headings, text, figures and tables should remain within margins.
Arrangement of material
The material to be included in the thesis should be arranged within the following
sections:
•
•
•
Preliminary pages: All material necessary to prepare the reader for the main
text to come by giving information relating to its physical contents and
background.
Main text: The main body of the thesis divided into chapters.
End matter: All reference material that supports or adds to the reader’s
understanding of the main text.
Details of the contents of these sections and their usual arrangement are
displayed opposite. Sample pages of the various sections can be found at the
end of this booklet.
Page numbering
There are two distinct sequences of pagination:
•
•
The preliminary pages should be numbered in a single sequence (beginning
with the title page) using lower-case roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv…).
The main text and end matter should be numbered in a single sequence
(beginning with the first page of the main text and continuing through to the
final page of the end matter) using arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4…).
Although all pages are assigned a page number, it is conventional for the page
number not to be shown on the title page, any display or blank pages, or on the
pages appearing before the table of contents.
2
PRELIMINARY PAGES
Title Page
Required. See Sample Title Page (Figure 1) on page 6.
Abstract
Required. A summary of thesis. Not to exceed 300 words.
Statement of
Authorship
Required. To be signed and dated by candidate and supervisor
Statement of Ethics
Approval
If your research required approval from an ethics committee, a signed
approval statement from the relevant committee will need to be included.
Acknowledgements
Optional. An opportunity to acknowledge those who supported you
academically, financially or personally in the completion of your research.
Dedication
Optional. Do not exceed more than a few words.
Table of Contents
Required. List sections, chapters and main headings, and give opening
page numbers.
List of Figures
Include figure numbers, captions and page numbers.
List of Tables
Include table numbers, titles and page numbers.
List of
Abbreviations
Include only those abbreviations that are likely to be unknown to the reader,
or abbreviations devised for use in the thesis. If the list is lengthy, this
information may be better presented in a glossary in the end matter section.
Preface
Optional. Include here any information relevant to the background writing of
the thesis; for example, if parts of your thesis have been published
previously in other forms. (Note, however, that Introductory material to the
text itself belongs in the introductory chapter.)
MAIN TEXT
Main chapters
Can be numbered or just given titles. The chapters, their order and their
usual content may differ depending on the subject or discipline of the thesis.
END MATTER
Appendices
Information supporting or supplementing the text, e.g., sample
questionnaires, confidentiality forms.
Each appendix should be given a descriptive title and a brief explanation of
its purpose.
Glossary
Include only those technical or foreign words or terms unlikely to be known
by the reader.
Arrange items alphabetically, giving their definition (and translation, if
appropriate).
If the glossary contains only a few entries, it may be better placed in the
preliminary section.
References/
Bibliography
What is required here will differ according to the documentation style being
used; note style requires a bibliography; author-date style requires a
reference list, and sometimes a bibliography as well. (See section on Citing
Sources.)
3
Formatting issues
A lengthy and complex document such as a thesis should be formatted in a way
that will support close and concentrated reading. When you are making
formatting decisions, it is important to focus on producing a document that is easy
on the eye, logical in design and consistent in presentation.
General text
Type size and appearance
All body text should be set at 11 pt or 12 pt type size. Serif fonts (e.g., Times New
Roman) are considered easier to read (particularly if the text is fully justified), but
sans serif fonts (e.g., Arial) are also acceptable.
Line and paragraph spacing
Lines within paragraphs should be 1.5-spaced or double-spaced. Spacing
between paragraphs will depend on how new paragraphs are signalled: if the first
line of each paragraph is indented, there is no need for extra space between
paragraphs because the indention acts as a visual separator; however, if block
paragraphing is used, a space between paragraphs is needed to avoid the
paragraphs running together. Do not mix the two methods.
Spaces between sentences
Insert one space only between sentences. (Documents produced using wordprocessing software have proportionally spaced characters (unlike monospaced
typewriter characters) rendering the traditional two spaces unnecessary.
Paragraph alignment
Although documents may look ‘neater’ with fully justified text, ragged-right
alignment is easier to read (particularly in text-dense documents). Ragged-right
alignment also reduces the gaps between words and end-of-line hyphenation that
can occur with fully justified text.
Italicising, underlining and bolding
Italic type should be reserved for the following: titles of books, journals, plays,
films, television programs; foreign words and phrases; genera, species and
varieties; the first use of a new, technical, or key term or label; letters, words or
phrases cited as linguistic examples; and letters used as statistical symbols or
algebraic variables.
Do not use italics for common foreign phrases and abbreviations (‘et al.’, ‘per se’,
‘ad lib.’) or for emphasis (unless it is done very sparingly). Underlining and
bolding of type should be avoided in general text.
4
Headings and display text
The design of chapter headings, main headings and subheadings will depend on
personal preference and any established conventions in your discipline.
Remember that headings and subheadings act as signposts for the reader, so
use logic when planning their wording and structure, and use common sense
design principles when deciding on their appearance. Once formatting decisions
have been made, apply that formatting consistently and correctly to each heading
rank so that the readers can identify where they are with confidence.
Type size and appearance
Type size can be an obvious and effective indicator of a heading’s rank, but be
prepared to prune or reword headings if using a large type size. (Overly long
headings are not a good practice, in any case, regardless of size restrictions.)
Typeface should be chosen with the aim of producing a professional-looking
document. A sans serif typeface for headings looks crisp and can create an
effective contrast to serif body text. Boldface type can also be used to effect, but
be careful with underlining—too much is visually distracting.
Line spacing
Always have more space above a heading (or subheading) than below it, in order
to connect it visually to the text it heads. Headings should not appear alone or
with less than two lines of text at the bottom of a page. (Most word processing
programs do this by default by enforcing ‘widow/orphan control’ in paragraph and
heading formatting styles.)
Capitalisation style
When making design choices for headings, you will need to decide on a
capitalisation style. The three main styles of capitalisation are:
•
Headline (or title) style, which gives an initial capital to all words except
prepositions and conjunctions:
Anxiety Ailments Suffered by Students at the University of Ballarat and the
University of Melbourne.
•
Sentence style, which gives an initial capital to the first word in the heading
(and subheading) and any proper nouns:
Anxiety ailments suffered by students at the University of Ballarat and the University
of Melbourne.
•
Full capitalisation, which capitalises every letter in every word:
ANXIETY AILMENTS SUFFERED BY STUDENTS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF
BALLARAT AND THE UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE.
It is quite acceptable to use a different capitalisation style for different ranks of
heading (e.g., Heading A: full capitalisation, Heading B: sentence style, etc.), but
do not change capitalisation style within a heading rank.
5
Alignment
Headings can be left-aligned, centred or indented depending on personal
preference or discipline-specific convention.
Contents list entries
Entries in the table of contents, list of figures and list of tables may differ in
appearance to the corresponding headings in the main text; however, they
should match exactly the wording of the corresponding text headings. Entries
should show the beginning page numbers only. Page numbers are normally set
with a right-aligned tab stop, with optional leader dots. It can be a good idea to
regularly generate an ‘evolving’ table of contents as you write and use it to test
the following as you proceed:
•
Do the headings and subheadings follow in a logical sequence?
•
Are the headings in each heading level of equal rank?
•
Does the heading wording give a clear indication of what is to come?
•
Is the wording parallel in structure?
•
Are there any ‘missing’ headings?
Headers and footers
The information displayed in headers and footers should be formatted differently
from the body text so that the reader does not mistake it for body text. Acceptable
ways of doing this are capitalising (full or initial capitals), italicising, bolding, or
using a smaller type size or font. The information displayed in the header/footer
should be limited to page numbers and—if acceptable in your discipline—chapter
titles. The headers and footers of display pages, blank pages, and any pages
appearing before the table of contents should be empty, as should the header of
the opening page of a chapter.
Quoted matter
Accuracy is paramount when transcribing quoted matter. Take care to preserve
the exact spelling, punctuation, and paragraphing of the original, and always give
credit to those you are quoting directly or through paraphrase. Be aware that in
special circumstances you may also be required to obtain permission from the
author (or owner of the copyright or literary rights) to use the quoted matter. It is
wise to avoid using too much quoted matter—quotes should be used to support
your argument, not establish it.
Epigraphs
An epigraph is a quotation or saying used to open a section or chapter of a book
and to point to its theme. Epigraphs are set off from the general text and do not
require surrounding quotation marks. The source is placed below the epigraph.
The surest way to make a monkey of a man is to quote him.
Robert Benchley
6
Run-in or set-off quotations
The length of the quoted matter will determine whether it is run-in (integrated into
the text) or set-off (set apart from the rest of the text).
Run-in quoted matter should be surrounded by quotation marks and set in the
same typeface and type size as the body text.
Roberts (2003, p. 21) refers to it as ‘structuration gone mad’, but his bias is well known.
Set-off quoted matter—also known as block quotations, excerpts, or extracts—
should be set in the same typeface as the body text but two points smaller in
size. It should be indented on the left side (and right side, if desired) to distinguish
it from the body text. Paragraphing should follow that of the original. Surrounding
quotation marks are not required.
This is the body text. This is the body text. This is the body text. This is the body
text. This is the body text. This is the body text. This is the body text. This is the
body text. This is the body text. This is the body text. This is the body text. This is
the body text.
This is an example of set-off quotation. This is an example of set-off quotation. This is an
example of set-off quotation. This is an example of set-off quotation. This is an example
of set-off quotation. This is an example of set-off quotation. This is an example of setoff quotation. This is an example of set-off quotation.
This is the body text. This is the body text. This is the body text. This is the body
text. This is the body text. This is the body text. This is the body text. This is the
body text. This is the body text. This is the body text. This is the body text. This is
the body text.
Different style guides give different advice as to how long quoted matter should
be before it is set-off (ranging from ‘over four’ to ‘over ten’ lines); however, the
determining factor should be the look and readability of your page. It is probably
kinder to your reader to set off any quoted matter that is longer than four lines.
Punctuation of quoted matter
The punctuation of quoted material differs according to the style being followed.
The traditional British/Australian style places full stops and commas inside the
quotation marks only if they are part of the quoted matter. The US style, however,
’tucks’ full stops and commas within the closing quotation mark even if they
belong to the surrounding sentence.
Style guides also differ in advice on whether to use of single or double quotation
marks. Some styles recommend using single quote marks (with double quote
marks for quotes within quotes), while others recommend using double quote
marks (with single quote marks within). Consult your chosen style guide for
specific advice.
7
Changes from original quotation
Occasionally, quoted material may require a correction, explanation, or
amplification in order for it to be understood correctly, as in the following cases:
•
Omission: If words or sentences have been omitted from quoted matter,
insert an ellipsis (three dots) at the point of omission. (Ellipsis points are
generally not used at the beginning or end of a set-off quotation.)
‘The belief…has been held for some time.’
•
Addition or alteration: If you need to add or alter something in the quoted
matter, place the added or altered material within square brackets. (This
should be practised judiciously: do it only when the quotation may be unclear
or misleading to the reader without your insertion.)
‘It was only when he [John Howard] heard about it, that action was taken.’
•
Apparent mistake: If the quoted matter has an obvious error, insert the word
‘sic’ (Latin for thus/this way) in square brackets next to the mistake to indicate
that it was present in the original (and not made by you).
‘The Eureka Rebellion of 1763 [sic] was a turning point in Australian history.’
•
Emphasis: If you wish to draw attention to certain words within quoted matter,
emphasis can be added with italics; however, you must make it clear to the
reader that it is your emphasis (not the quoted writer’s) by adding an
insertion.
‘The man entered the house through a window on the southern side [emphasis added].’
8
Figures and tables
Figures and tables should serve to supplement—not duplicate—the text. Discuss
the tables and figures in detail in the general text to demonstrate their reason for
inclusion. In the text, refer to all tables as tables and to all graphs, pictures,
charts, photographs, drawings, diagrams, or maps as figures.
All text references to tables and figures should include the table or figure number
(e.g., ‘The results of this experiment can be seen in Table 3’; ‘A map of the area
can be seen in Figure 6’. Do not write: ‘The results of this experiment are given in
the table below’ or ‘A map of the area can be seen on the next page’.
Note: Because the formatting of tables and figures is very time-consuming, it is
wise to leave the final formatting until after you have finished writing the text.
Additions or deletions to the text could result in a table or figure needing changes
to its contents, location or inclusion, and if you have already spent time making it
fit a particular space, you will have wasted valuable hours.
Appearance
Figures
If you are creating the figures yourself, ensure they are as visually crisp and
consistent in design as you can make them. Typeface and size can be different
from the body text, but try to maintain some consistency with all figures
throughout.
If you are creating your own graphs, use shading instead of colour, and make
sure all axes are clearly marked. If you have obtained your figures from another
source, and thus have no control over their design, concentrate on correct and
consistent placement and labelling.
Tables
There are no hard and fast rules here—your aim should be to produce clear,
clean tables. The typeface does not need to be the same as the body text; in fact,
a sans serif typeface (such as Arial) will probably give a cleaner look. It is better
to avoid bold type, although this can be used in the column headings. The type
size can be different from the body text, but do not use anything smaller than 8
point or larger than 14 point.
The correct alignment of data within table columns will depend on the type of
data contained in the table and the specific requirements of the subject area.
Generally, all whole figures should be right-aligned, and all decimals should be
aligned to the decimal point. Specific advice will be found in your chosen style
guide. Note: Avoid using the space bar to align data within tables; even though it
may look fine on the screen, in all likelihood the printed version will be a mess.
Use tabs or paragraph alignment instead.
9
Too many rules in a table can be distracting, and most are actually unnecessary.
All vertical rules and many horizontal rules can usually be left out of a table
without altering readability. An effective technique is to use less space between
rows of related information, and more space between rows of unrelated
information. Once again, different subject areas will have different conventions
regarding rules, so consult a manual in your discipline.
Placement
The figure or table must fit within the text area—do not go outside the page
margins. Try to insert it as close as possible to the paragraph where it is first
mentioned. Figures and tables are usually centred horizontally on the page;
although, in some special cases, figures may be inserted into a paragraph and
surrounded by text.
If a table or figure is bigger than one page (in total), try one of the following fixes:
•
Run it over two pages, making sure you repeat the heading row.
•
Change page set-up to ‘landscape’ (make sure the label is also re-oriented).
•
Use a larger page, folded and bound as a normal page.
Do not split a figure or table over two pages if it is less than one page in total.
Instead, carry the table or figure over to the next page—as long as you don’t
leave more than a third of a page of white space—or resize it to fit.
Labelling figures and tables
The size and appearance of type used for figure captions and table titles is open
to personal preference. Generally, the size should be similar to the body text size,
although the typeface can be different. Bolding of titles is an effective treatment.
Whatever you decide on, use the same formatting throughout.
Figures
Figures should be numbered consecutively throughout the thesis using arabic
numbers preceded by the word ‘Figure’ (or ‘Fig’). If you wish to use a separate
sequence in each chapter, make sure you include the chapter number as well
(e.g., Figure 4-2) so that each figure has a unique number to avoid confusion.
The title of the figure is followed by the legend—a brief explanation of the figure,
which can follow on directly from the figure title or be placed below it. The figure
label is positioned below the figure, either centred or set flush left against the
figure edge. Figure titles may be capitalised headline or sentence style, while
legends are generally capitalised in sentence style.
Figure 3 [number]. The Author’s Desk [title]. Left to right: Phone, lamp, blotter [legend]
10
Tables
Tables should be numbered consecutively throughout the thesis in one
sequence, using arabic numerals preceded by the word ‘Table’. If you wish to use
a separate sequence for each chapter, make sure you use the chapter number
as well (e.g., Table 5-7) to avoid confusion. The table number is followed by the
title, which briefly identifies the table. This label is positioned above the table.
Table 8. [number] Analysis of Variance for Classical Conditioning [title]
The table title can run on directly from the number or be placed on the line below.
Do not use a full stop at the end of the table number unless it is followed
immediately by the table title. Table titles can be fully upper case or capitalised
according to headline or sentence style, depending on preference. Labels for
tables can be set either flush left with the edge of the table, or centred.
Notes to figures and tables
Figures
Figures often require a note in the form of a credit line. This is a brief statement
giving information about the source and/or copyright permission. Notes to figures
are placed underneath the caption or legend.
Tables
Tables often require a note (or notes) to credit a source or to explain or amplify
data included in the table. Notes to tables are placed flush left, directly below the
table. They can be listed one below the other or run on (separated by full stops),
but use one method consistently throughout. The main types of table notes and
their conventional order of appearance follow:
•
Source notes: These are used when the table has been introduced without
change from another source and are introduced by the word ‘Source’ (or
‘Sources') followed by a colon:
Source: Adapted from “Fussy Lions,” by Brian B. Brown, Lion Gastronomy 12, 8.
•
General notes: These relate to the table as a whole and are introduced by the
word ‘Note’ followed by a colon:
Note: This table is a summary of three experiments.
•
Specific notes: These refer to a specific column, row, or entry and are
introduced by a superscript lowercase letter, number, or symbol:
d
•
Sparky suffered from a tooth abscess during the first round of feeding.
Probability notes: These are used when a table contains values for which
levels of probability (p values) are given. A single asterisk is used for the
lowest level of probability, two for the next highest, and so on:
*p ≤ 0.05. **p ≤ 0.001
11
Citing sources
Systems of documentation
In the process of completing your research, you will have relied on a variety of
primary and secondary sources. These sources must be identified (at the
relevant point in your text) and credited by supplying complete and accurate
bibliographical details. Every direct quotation, all borrowed ideas, and all
statistical and other measurable information must be credited in this way. If you
fail to do this, you may be guilty of unethical behaviour, plagiarism and breach of
copyright. To avoid this, keep detailed records of all your sources from the
beginning. (The University of Ballarat strongly recommends the use of the
reference database software EndNote for this purpose.)
How the citations are organised, what they contain, and how they are displayed
will depend on the system of documentation being used and the particular
formatting conventions being followed. There is no single correct system of
documentation, although most disciplines will have a preference for the use of
one over others. The two most commonly used systems of documentation are the
author-date system and the documentary note system.
AUTHOR-DATE SYSTEM
DOCUMENTARY NOTE SYSTEM
Cites source to text in text, giving author
Cites source to text in footnotes or endnotes,
surname and date of publication only.
usually giving full bibliographical details.
Lists all cited sources in List of References.
Lists all cited sources in Bibliography. Entries
Entries contain full bibliographical details and
contain full bibliographical details and are listed
are listed alphabetically by author surname.
alphabetically by author surname.
May list background reading and suggestions
May list background reading and suggestions
for further reading in Bibliography. Entries give
for further reading in Bibliography. Entries give
full bibliographical details and are listed
full bibliographical details and are listed
Notes to text (footnotes and endnotes) contain
Notes to text (footnotes and endnotes) may
content information only.
contain content and citation information.
The author-date system
The author-date system identifies the source briefly (author surname and
publication date) in the relevant point in the text. Where there are several
references to one work within a paragraph, it is not necessary to repeat the year
of publication. Citations for different works within the same parentheses should
be listed alphabetically and separated by a semi-colon.
Bloggs and Cloggs (1922) showed that it was possible…
The subjects were interviewed using the standard technique (Garth & Grey, 1998)…
Many studies (Anderson, 1996, 1998; Benson, 1988; Crisp, 1995, 2002) have reported…
12
These brief text citations act as pointers to the full bibliographical details given in
an alphabetically arranged list of References (also called Literature Cited or List
of References) at the end of the document. Note that every entry in the
References must have appeared as a cited source in the text and, conversely, all
in-text citations must be included in the reference list. If you do wish to list other
works such as secondary sources or works you feel would be of further interest to
your readers, these should appear in a separate list, headed Bibliography.
The author-date system is often preferred by those writing in the fields of the
physical, natural and social sciences. Examples of styles using this system are
the APA, MLA and Harvard styles.
The documentary note system
The documentary note system uses footnotes or endnotes to cite the source
referred to in the text. If the full biographical details have been supplied in the
footnotes or endnotes, it is not necessary, technically, to provide a separate list of
cited sources, although it is conventional to provide one. This list is called a
bibliography. Apart from the references cited in the text, the bibliography may
also include works that have supported the author’s research, as well as
suggestions for further reading. The bibliography can take the form of a straight
alphabetical list of all cited sources, a list divided into categories, an annotated
bibliography, or a bibliographical essay.
The documentary note system of source citation is often preferred by those
writing in the fields of arts, history and literature. Examples of styles using this
system are the Vancouver and the Chicago styles.
Footnotes and endnotes contain notes to the text. Depending on the information
they contain, they can be classed as content notes or citation notes. Citation
notes, which contain the bibliographical details of references cited in the text, are
used in the documentary note system only. Content notes (also known as
substantive notes) contain any information necessary to supplement or explain
the text, and, as such, may be used in both the author-date system and the
documentary note systems.
Notes to text are added by inserting a superscript character (usually an arabic
number) into the text at an appropriate point to stand as the note reference. The
notes themselves are then displayed at the foot of the page (footnotes), or at the
end of a chapter or section (endnotes), depending on preference. When deciding
whether to use footnotes or endnotes, take into account the length of the
individual notes and their total. If there are a large number of citation notes or a
number of long individual content notes, it is preferable to use endnotes rather
than footnotes. If, on the other hand, you have only a sprinkling of content notes
throughout the work, then it may be more helpful to the reader to use footnotes.
Footnotes and endnotes should be numbered consecutively throughout each
chapter, and a new sequence of numbering should begin with each new chapter.
13
If chapters have citation notes and content notes, you may combine the two into
one sequence (footnotes or endnotes) or have two sequences (e.g., endnotes for
citation notes, and footnotes for content notes). If you do have two sequences, it
is probably less confusing for the reader if the endnotes are numbered and the
footnotes use a sequence of symbols. Do not run two sequences for only one
type of note.
Latin abbreviations vs. short form in citation notes
Citation notes are often repetitive: the same work by the same author may be
repeated many times. In such cases, instead of repeating the whole citation, it
has been traditional to use Latin abbreviations as space-savers; for example,
‘ibid.’ (ibidem, in the same place); ‘op. cit.’ (opere citato, in the work cited), and
‘loc. cit.’ (loco citato, in the place cited).
1.
Barry B. Bloggs, Psychological Problems in Retired Circus Monkeys (Ballarat: Eureka Press,
2001), 406.
2.
Ibid. [Repeats the exact immediately preceding reference.]
3.
Ibid., 95. [Repeats the immediately preceding reference but with a different page reference.]
4.
Harold H. Hunt, “One Loud Suit and No Respect”, in Circus Monkey Retirement Stories,
ed. James J. Jones (Melbourne: Wilson Press, 1982), 87.
5.
Bloggs, op. cit., 24. [Repeats the reference cited in 1 but with a different page reference.]
6.
Hunt, loc. cit. [Repeats the exact reference cited in 4.]
However, if the notes are lengthy and there are many references between the
repeated entries for the author or work, it can be frustrating (and potentially
confusing) for the reader to have to refer back to the first mention of the work in
order to find the title. Because of this, the use of ‘loc. cit.’ and ‘op. cit.’ has largely
been replaced by the use of the ‘short form’ (the author’s last name and the title
of the work) as a space-saver. If the title is longer than five words, it can be
shortened for brevity, but make sure it is still identifiable.
1.
Barry B. Bloggs, Psychological Problems in Retired Circus Monkeys (Ballarat: Eureka Press,
2001), 406.
2.
Ibid. [Repeats the immediately preceding reference.]
3.
Ibid., 95. [Repeats the immediately preceding reference but with a different page reference.]
4.
Harold H. Hunt, “One Loud Suit and No Respect”, in Circus Monkey Retirement Stories,
ed. James J. Jones (Melbourne: Wilson Press, 1982), 87.
5.
Bloggs, Psychological Problems, 24. [Repeats the reference cited in 1 but with a different page
reference.]
6.
Hunt, “One Loud Suit.” [Repeats the exact reference cited in 4.]
Formatting documentation
When you format your documentary sources, you need to decide on a particular
‘style’ to follow to ensure documentary consistency throughout your thesis.
‘Style’ refers to the way different types of citations (book titles, journal articles,
14
personal communication, web pages, emails, visual media, etc.) and the
elements within each citation (author, title, publisher, date and place of
publication, etc.) are presented ‘Style’ also refers to the treatment of order of
elements, punctuation, capitalisation, use of shortened or full forms, etc.)
What follows is general advice on aspects of formatting documentation, such as
line and paragraph spacing and type size and appearance. For direction
regarding specific aspects of formatting documentation, refer to your chosen style
manual. There are numerous guides available in print and online with specific
and detailed advice on all aspects of citations and their formatting: use the one
recommended to you by your supervisor and, as with all formatting throughout
the thesis, apply the style conventions consistently.
Typeface for footnotes and endnotes should be the same as the body text. The
type size should be two points less than the chosen body text type size (i.e., 9 or
10 pt). Paragraph formatting can be either first line indent or hanging indent. Note
that because footnote and endnote entries are not arranged alphabetically, there
is no need to place the surname before the given name.
Bibliography and List of References
Typeface size and appearance should be the same as the body text. A hanging
indent should be used for paragraphs.
Entries in a list of references or a bibliography should be arranged alphabetically,
with the surname preceding the given name. Works by the same author are
arranged chronologically—earliest first, and then alphabetically by title. Works by
a single author precede multi-author entries by the same author.
Consult your preferred style manual for specific advice as to the treatment of
initials versus full names; whether or not to invert only the first author’s name;
how many joint authors before you should use ‘et al.’; how to treat date and place
of publication and publisher; which capitalisation style to use; and so on. These
issues will differ according to different style guides; the important thing is to be
consistent throughout in whichever style you use.
Treatment of page numbers in citations
The use of ‘p.’ in front of the page number being cited is not necessary, although
it does sometimes reduce ambiguity—particularly when citing journal articles. If
you do use ‘p.’ with the page number, insert a space between the ‘p.’ and the
page number being cited. If there is more than one page reference within a note,
or if citing inclusive numbers, use ‘pp.’ Note that is important to be consistent in
every citation when using or not using ‘p.’—mixing the two will confuse your
reader, as well as look sloppy. (This is an area to concentrate on when
proofreading.)
15
Expression
The key to all successful writing lies in meeting the requirements of your
audience. The audience for your thesis—your supervisor, peers, and
examiners—will expect an organised, coherent and well-presented record of your
research. In order to deliver this, you will need to pay attention to your written
expression and have respect for the tools of grammar, spelling and punctuation.
Be sure that your paragraphs are organised to help your argument along by
building on what came before and preparing the reader for what comes next. A
paragraph should contain only one developed idea. Do not repeat the same idea
in different words in successive paragraphs. It is also important to watch the
length of your paragraphs—if they run as long as a page they are too long. A
paragraph break gives the reader a chance to process what they have just read.
Avoid long, convoluted sentences; it is better to have two short clear sentences
than one long and confusing one. If your readers need to re-read a sentence,
they will be irritated rather than impressed. To keep your reader interested, vary
the rhythm of your writing. Too many short sentences one after the other can
irritate, while too many long sentences in a row may tire your reader. Try reading
your writing aloud to pick up any problems in this area—this is also a good way of
noticing missing or misplaced punctuation.
Grammar issues
Misplaced and dangling modifiers
Modifiers are words or phrases that modify (add to or restrict) the ‘head’ noun in a
sentence. Problems arise when the modifier is misplaced (away from the noun it
is modifying) resulting in ambiguity. Be particularly aware of falling into this trap
when writing in the passive voice or when using long and complex sentences.
Modifiers can dangle when the noun they are meant to be modifying is assumed
but not written, thus causing the noun that is there to be modified incorrectly—
with ambiguous results. Misplaced and dangling modifiers can be avoided by
always keeping the modifier close to the noun it is meant to be modifying.
Passive and active voice
Historically, the passive voice has been used in academic—particularly
scientific—writing as a way of implying distance or impartiality on the part of the
researcher. However, use of the passive voice can sometimes lead the careless
writer to produce confusing and tortuous sentences containing an overabundance of nominalisations and prepositions. Aim for clarity above all else.
16
Tense
Depending on the mode of writing at the time (reporting, discussing, attributing or
analysing) the tense required may change; however, interpretations of the
‘correct’ tense to use can vary between disciplines, so it is wise to consult your
supervisor for the accepted convention in your area of research.
In general, use the past tense when reporting something that happened entirely
in the past, such as the reporting of methods, experiments and results, or specific
past findings or statements.
The lions were each fed 3 kg of raw minced beef at two-hourly intervals.
The lions gained weight during the summer months.
In their 1989 study, Bloggs and Cloggs reported that…
However, if part of what you are saying exists in the present (for example, a
generally established fact or statement), then you should use the present tense
for that part:
In 1632, Galileo discovered that the earth orbits around the sun.
Use the present tense when writing about something existing in the present, such
as an analysis, interpretation, or conclusion of material under discussion. (The
reason for using the present tense here is that, even though what you are writing
about happened in the past, your interpretation, analysis, or conclusion is taking
place in the ‘eternal’ present.)
In The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald presents Daisy as…
Punctuation
The purpose of punctuation is to make the meaning of a sentence clear by
separating its elements. Correct use of punctuation, particularly commas, may
make the difference between comprehensible and incomprehensible writing,
especially when there are long and complex sentences involved.
Full stop
Use a full stop at the end of a grammatically complete sentence. The following
items do not end with a full stop: headings or display lines (unless text follows on
the same line); table titles or figure captions (unless a legend follows on the same
line); or items in a vertical list (unless grammatically complete sentences).
Semicolon
A semicolon is used to separate two independent clauses of equal importance
(connected in thought) that are not joined by a conjunction. Semicolons are also
used to separate elements in a list or series that already containing commas, or
where the elements themselves are long:
The thesis was a disaster; he would never pass.
I can’t stay much longer because I have to post the letters; buy the meat, bread, and
vegetables; feed the cat and the children; and work on my thesis.
17
Colon
A colon marks a pause for explanation, expansion, enumeration or elaboration. A
colon should be used to introduce the following: a list; a block quotation (and in
some cases a short quotation within a sentence); or a second clause which
explains, elaborates on, or expands the first clause.
Apostrophe
An apostrophe is used to indicate contraction (where the apostrophe stands for
omitted letters) or possession. An apostrophe is not used with the plural form.
isn’t/hadn’t/it’s/can’t/you’ve/shouldn’t/what’s/who’s/they’re [contraction]
Margaret’s book/The dog’s bone/The nation’s psyche/The children’s pet [possession]
I ate the avocados /She went on holidays/The 1920s… [plural forms, so no apostrophe]
A common mistake involving apostrophes is to use ‘it’s’ instead of ‘its’ and vice
versa. The simple rule is that the pronoun ‘its’ (as with the pronouns ‘his’, ‘hers’,
‘theirs’, etc.) does not take an apostrophe to indicate possession. For example:
The car lost its wheel/Its rear wheel needed replacing/Every dog has its day [pronoun]
If, on the other hand, your ‘its’ is a contraction (of ‘it has’, ‘it is’, etc.) then an
apostrophe is required. For example:
It’s been a really dry summer/I don’t think it’s up to her to decide [contraction]
Hyphens and dashes
Hyphens and dashes are not the same and are not used for the same things.
•
A hyphen (-) separates the two parts of a compound word. Note that
compound words can become single words over time (e.g., multi-disciplinary
to multidisciplinary) so check your recommended dictionary to establish the
current and correct usage of compound words.
•
An en dash/rule (–) is used to indicate a range of years or numbers (e.g.,
1922–1925; pp. 7–10). An en-dash is also used to join compound adjectival
phrases (e.g., post–Civil War).
•
An em dash/rule (—) is used to indicate a break in a sentence, often with
more emphasis intended than would be suggested by a comma. Em dashes
can be closed (no space on either side) or open (space on either side)
depending on the style followed.
•
A 3-em dash/rule (———) is often used in bibliographies and indexes to
stand for repeated successive entries of the same surname or item.
En and em dashes can be inserted as special characters in word processing
program.
18
Comma
A comma is used to separate the following elements within a sentence:
•
Independent clauses joined by conjunctions (and, but, for, or, nor, yet, so). If
the clauses are short, the comma can be omitted.
She was anxious to submit her thesis by the end of May, but her supervisor felt it
needed intensive revision and restructuring).
Her dog was sick but she didn’t care. [short independent clauses]
•
Items in a list or series of three or more items. If there is a conjunction joining
the last two items in a series or list and there is likely to be ambiguity (as in
the second example below), a ‘serial’ comma is used.
She bought butter, milk, jam, oranges, apples and bananas.
His interests included volleyball, astronomy, cooking fresh produce, and cats.
•
Introductory phrases
During the June semester break, Jennifer travelled to Sydney to attend a conference.
•
Contrasting phrases
The research was difficult, not easy.
•
Conjunctive adverbs (i.e., namely, however, consequently, therefore, hence).
Note that if the conjunctive adverb comes between two independent clauses
(as in the second example below), it should be preceded by a semi-colon
It was, however, the last time that such a meeting would take place.
He had spent the entire weekend working; however, his thesis was still behind schedule.
•
Forms of address
‘What are you doing, Bill?’ ‘I’m eating, Jack.’
•
Co-ordinate adjectives
She did not know how she had produced such a long-winded, incomprehensible report.
•
Quoted elements within a sentence
As Bill Bloggs always says, ‘good research needs commitment’.
•
Non-restrictive phrases and clauses (the information added is incidental and
does not define the subject).
Jennifer’s thesis, which had caused her no end of heartache, was awarded the prize.
Barry’s yellow Torana, which he had bought five years ago, was involved in a bad accident.
Restrictive phrases and clauses, on the other hand, are not set off by
commas because they restrict (or define) the subject. The information they
add to the sentence is essential to the definition of the subject.
The thesis that was submitted by Jennifer Grant won the research prize.
The yellow Torana that was driven by Barry was responsible for the accident.
19
Not understanding the distinction between non-restrictive and restrictive phrases
and clauses can result in ambiguous writing. For example, consider the following
sentence, which has two completely different meanings depending on the
absence or presence of commas:
All students at the University of Ballarat who are lazy and disorganised will fail.
[Meaning: Only the lazy and disorganised UB students will fail]
All students at the University of Ballarat, who are lazy and disorganised, will fail.
[Meaning: All UB students will fail, and they are also lazy and disorganised.]
Spelling and word choice
Nothing lowers your academic credibility more effectively than poor spelling. If
you are not sure of the correct spelling of a word or term, consult the dictionary
recommended in your field, and avoid swapping between British/Australian and
US spelling. Remember that although computer spellcheckers are useful in
picking up typographical errors, they will not pick up correctly spelled words that
have been used incorrectly. Contractions (it’s, don’t, can’t, etc.) are inappropriate
in formal writing, as are clichés, jargon, slang, and gender-specific, racist or
stereotypical language.
Abbreviations
Acronyms
An acronym is an initialism or shortened form made into a word. Acronyms are
not capitalised because they are treated as words:
Radar: RAdio Detection And Ranging
Sonar: SOund Navigation And Ranging
Laser: Light Amplification by Stimulation Emission of Radiation
Aids:
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
Units of measurement
Abbreviate units of measurement when they are used with numerical values, but
use the full form when they are used with words. (A space should be inserted
between the number and the unit of measurement.)
A 14 m length of rope was used to measure the track.
The track was measured in metres.
Initialisms
Do not use full stops with initialisms (e.g., UB not U.B.). When using initialisms in
text, the first use should always be preceded by the full form, with the initialism
used in subsequent references.
The University of Ballarat Rowing Club (UBRC) held its annual camp last week. The UBRC…
20
Symbols
Check an approved guide in your discipline for specific advice on how to
abbreviate and set units of measurement, mathematical symbols, chemical
compounds, statistical symbols, equations, and so on.
Latin abbreviations
It is conventional to confine Latin abbreviations (a list follows) to reference and
parenthetical use only. In normal running text, the English form is preferred. (An
exception is ‘et al.’, which is used in text and parentheses when citing sources.)
ABBREVIATION
FULL LATIN FORM
ENGLISH TRANSLATION
c. or ca.
circa
about (used with dates)
cf.
confer
compare
con
contra
against
e.g.,
exempli gratia
for example
et al.
et alii (alia)
and others
et seq.
et sequentes
and the following
etc.
et cetera
and so forth
f.v.
folio verso
on the back of the page
fl.
flourit
flourished (used with dates)
i.e.,
id est
that is
ibid.
ibidem
in the same place
id.
idem
the same
inf.
infra
below
loc. cit.
loco citato
in the place cited
loq.
loquitur
he (or she) speaks
MS
manuscriptum
manuscript
N.B.
nota bene
take careful note
ob.
obit
died
op. cit.
opere citato
in the work cited
pass.
passim
throughout (here and there)
PPS
post postscriptum
a later postscript
pro tem.
pro tempore
for the time being
PS
postscriptum
postscript
Q.E.D.
quod erat demonstrandum
which was to be demonstrated
q.v.
quod vide
which see (use in cross-refs)
sic
sic
so, thus, in this manner
sup.
supra
above
viz
videlicet
namely
vs. or v.
versus
against
21
Revision and proofreading
Revision and proofreading are laborious jobs and—because they must take place
at the very end—ones for which you will likely have little enthusiasm. However, it
is important to resist the temptation to do a superficial job; errors left uncorrected
in the final draft may lead to the thesis being deferred. Note that you should allow
sufficient time for revision and proofreading when calculating deadline dates.
To review your thesis effectively, put yourself in the place of your reader and ask
the following questions: Is the structure clear and logical? Does the introduction
reflect the final draft? Are the headings logical and helpful? Is the thesis as
comprehensive as it needs to be, and does it deliver what it promises? Does it
successfully communicate what was intended to be communicated? If the answer
to any of these questions is a less than a resounding ‘yes’, be prepared to rewrite
and/or restructure.
To ensure consistent treatment of words, terms and phrases throughout the
thesis, it can be helpful to make use of a style sheet. A style sheet is simply a
record of your own ‘house style’ of spelling, capitalisation, punctuation, word
spacing, hyphenation and so on of names, places, terms, methods, experiments,
equations, symbols and anything else likely to cause problems with consistency.
During your research and preliminary writing, record the relevant item in the
preferred style. The style sheet can then be consulted and added to when writing
and proofreading. It can also be helpful to make a separate sheet to record
general formatting decisions such as treatment of levels of heading, quoted
matter, and figures and tables, as well as details of margins, paragraph
alignment, and header and footer treatment.
Proofreading requires a systematic and disciplined approach; some errors do not
reveal themselves until they are hunted down. Leave some time between
finishing the final draft and starting the proofreading. (Remember to allow for this
when working out your final deadline.) This will not only refresh you mentally, it
will also make it easier to change hats from ‘writer’ to ‘proof reader’.
Divide the proofreading into jobs of one task. It is impossible to read through a
lengthy document in one take and pick up every typographical error, spelling
mistake, wrongly-formatted heading, and incomplete reference. It is easier to pick
up mistakes when focusing on one thing. Do not try to do it all in one sitting—you
will lose focus; take breaks, or even space the job over several days. It is a good
idea to ask someone else to help you by checking the figures in the final draft
versions of tables, formulae, calculations and so on, while you read aloud from
the original, correct versions.
22
When proofreading, concentrate on accuracy and consistency in the following
areas:
•
General text: headings and display text; quoted matter; footnotes and
endnotes; bibliography and reference entries.
•
Page layout: margins; line and page breaks; large gaps of white space;
headers and footers; page numbers.
•
Figures and tables: appearance; placement and alignment on page;
alignment of data and ruled lines; labelling (naming and numbering); notes.
•
Documentation: all required entries present, complete and correct; in-text
citations; footnotes and endnotes; bibliography and reference entries.
•
Table of Contents/List of Figures/List of Tables: all entries present and
complete; wording of entries match text entry; no redundant entries; no
missing entries.
•
General details: spelling and word choice; punctuation; grammar and
syntax; abbreviations, mathematical symbols, etc; calculations, conversions,
formulae, equations, etc; names of people, places, tests, technical terms,
etc; page references and chapter references in text match final version;
bulleted items, numbered lists, and alphabetical lists correct, in sequence,
and consistently treated.
•
Physical arrangement: all sections complete; all pages and sections in
correct order; pagination sequences complete and correct.
Presenting the finished thesis
The finished thesis should be presented for examination in soft binding (spiral or
cloth) as follows:
•
•
Masters candidates should present three copies for examination.
Doctoral candidates should present four copies for examination.
Once the thesis is passed, candidates should lodge four hardbound copies of the
passed thesis in its final form with the Research and Graduate Studies Office to
be distributed as follows: two copies for the University Library, one copy for the
School, and one copy will be retained by the Research and Graduate Studies
Office.
23
APPENDIX 1
Regulation 5.1 extracts
The following extracts from the University of Ballarat’s ‘Regulation 5.1: The
Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Masters Degrees by Research and Professional
Doctorates’ (pp. 7–9; 15–17; 27–29) relate to thesis and portfolio presentation
and have been included in this booklet for ready reference.
The Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Presentation of a Thesis
9. (1) The thesis presented by a candidate for examination shall conform with
the requirements of this section unless otherwise agreed by the Board.
(2) A PhD thesis will normally be:
(a) a text of not more than 100,000 words reporting original
scholarship and research carried out by the candidate under
supervision, or
(b) a major work or collection of works, including but not restricted to
visual presentation, literary production or computer software
development, carried out by the candidate under supervision and
accompanied by an exegesis or scholarly commentary of between
20,000 and 40,000 words.
(3) Intention to submit
A candidate shall complete the approved proforma for his/her 'Intention
to Submit' at least one month prior to their intention to present his/her
thesis for examination. This proforma will identify the precise title of the
thesis and be endorsed by the Principal Supervisor. The proforma must
be accompanied by a summary of the thesis not exceeding 300 words.
The student will be eligible to receive the grade of 'TD' on submission of
the thesis to the Vice-Chancellor or nominee.
(4) Presentation
Candidates for higher degrees shall present for examination four copies
of the thesis text. If the thesis includes a major work or collection of
works, the major work or collection of works shall be presented in a
format suitable for examination. A thesis may be rejected as unfit for
examination if it does not conform to the requirements set out in this
section.
(5) General requirements
(1) Unless the Board determines otherwise, written work submitted for
examination shall be in the English language.
(2) If the thesis is based on research conducted jointly, the nature and
extent of the candidate's contribution to the research shall be clearly
indicated.
24
(3) A candidate shall identify all sources of knowledge and the extent to
which the work of others is being relied upon by providing appropriate
acknowledgment, citation and reference in the text of the thesis and
in the bibliography.
(4) The text shall be written as concisely as possible.
(5) The text shall be typed on good quality acid-free paper, international
size A4 (297mm x 210 mm), using at least one and a half line
spacing.
(6) Text should be typed with margins of not less than 38 mm and 19
mm in width on the left-hand and right-hand sides respectively.
(7) The candidate must check the typescript to ensure there are no
typographical errors and that the spelling, punctuation and grammar
are correct.
(6) Arrangement
(1) The thesis text shall incorporate, in the following order:
(a) A title page setting out in the following order:
(i) the full title of the thesis,
(ii) the name and degrees of the candidate,
(iii) the degree for which the thesis is submitted and a
statement of whether the thesis is submitted in total or partial
fulfilment of the requirements for that degree,
(iv) the name of the School,
(v) the name of the University and its address as follows:
University of Ballarat
PO Box 663
University Drive, Mount Helen
Ballarat, Victoria 3353,
Australia
(vi) the month and the year in which the thesis was submitted
for examination.
(b) an index of contents
(c) a summary of not more than 300 words.
(d) A statement in the following words, signed and dated by the
applicant:
'Statement of authorship’
Except where explicit reference is made in the text of the thesis, this
thesis contains no material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or
in part from a thesis by which I have qualified for or been awarded
another degree or diploma. No other person’s work has been relied
upon or used without due acknowledgment in the main text and
bibliography of the thesis.
25
Masters Degrees by Research
Presentation of a Thesis
9. (1) The thesis presented by a candidate for examination shall conform with
the requirements of this section unless otherwise agreed by the Board.
(2) A Masters by research thesis will normally be:
(a) a text of not more than 40,000 words reporting original scholarship
and research carried out by the candidate under supervision, or
(b) a major work or collection of works, including but not restricted to
visual presentation, literary production or computer software
development, carried out by the candidate under supervision and
accompanied by an exegesis or scholarly commentary of between
10,000 and 20,000 words.
thesis for examination. This proforma will identify the precise title of the
thesis and be endorsed by the Principal Supervisor. The proforma must
be accompanied by a summary of the thesis not exceeding 300 words.
The student will be eligible to receive the grade of 'TD' on submission of
the thesis to the Vice-Chancellor or nominee.
(4) Presentation
Candidates for higher degrees shall present for examination four copies
of the thesis text. If the thesis includes a major work or collection of
works, the major work or collection of works shall be presented in a
format suitable for examination. A thesis may be rejected as unfit for
section.
(2) If the thesis is based on research conducted jointly, the nature and
indicated.
acknowledgment, citation and reference in the text of the thesis and
in the bibliography.
size A4 (297mm x 210mm), using at least one and a half line
spacing.
are correct.
26
(6) Arrangement
(1) The thesis text shall incorporate, in the following order:
(i) the full title of the thesis
(iii) the degree for which the thesis is submitted and a
statement of whether the thesis is submitted in total or
partial fulfilment of the requirements for that degree,
PO Box 663
Australia
(vi) the month and the year in which the thesis was submitted
for examination.
applicant:
Except where explicit reference is made in the text of the thesis, this
thesis contains no material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or
in part from a thesis by which I have qualified for or been awarded
another degree or diploma. No other person’s work has been relied
upon or used without due acknowledgment in the main text and
Professional Doctorates
Presentation of a Portfolio
13. (1) The portfolio presented by a candidate for examination shall conform
with the requirements of this section unless otherwise agreed by the
Board.
(2) A Professional Doctorate Portfolio will normally be:
(a)
advanced study reports for the units of coursework undertaken by
the candidate; and
(b)
a research component, which may vary in length with each
discipline with the norm being 60,000 words (or equivalent if
presented in an alternative medium approved by the Board),
undertaken by the candidate. This component may take the form
of, for example:
(i)
a single research report; or,
27
(ii)
a series of research reports bound together and
accompanied by a written exegesis or scholarly commentary.
If a series of separate research reports is submitted in the
portfolio, these must demonstrate a systematic line of
enquiry and investigation, and the accompanying exegesis
should reveal and elaborate the line of enquiry and
investigation pursued in preparation of the reports and
provide commentary on individual reports and overall. The
length for any one research report would normally be 7,500
words or equivalent, or
(iii) any other combination of research output totalling around
60,000 words (or equivalent) approved by the Board, and
(c ) evidence used for the granting of any credit by the Board
portfolio for examination. This proforma will identify the precise title of
the portfolio and be endorsed by the Principal Supervisor. The proforma
must be accompanied by a summary of the portfolio not exceeding 300
words. The student will be eligible to receive the grade of 'TD' on
submission of the thesis to the Vice-Chancellor or nominee.
(4) Presentation
Candidates for higher degrees shall present for examination four copies of
the portfolio text. If the portfolio includes a major work or collection of
works, the major work or collection of works shall be presented in a format
suitable for examination. A portfolio may be rejected as unfit for
section.
(2) If the portfolio is based on research conducted jointly, the nature and
indicated.
acknowledgment, citation and reference in the text of the portfolio
and in the bibliography.
size A4 (297mm x 210mm), using at least one and a half line
spacing.
are correct.
28
(6)
Arrangement
(1) The portfolio text shall incorporate, in the following order:
(i) the full title of the portfolio
(iii) the degree for which the portfolio is submitted and a
statement of whether the portfolio is submitted in total or
partial fulfilment of the requirements for that degree,
PO Box 663
Australia
(vi) the month and the year in which the portfolio was
submitted for examination.
applicant:
Except where explicit reference is made in the text of the portfolio, this
portfolio contains no material published elsewhere or extracted in whole
or in part from a thesis / portfolio by which I have qualified for or been
awarded another degree or diploma. No other person’s work has been
relied upon or used without due acknowledgment in the main text and
bibliography of the portfolio.
29
APPENDIX 2
Sample pages
Examples of the following elements of a typical thesis are displayed on the
attached sample pages:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Title page
Abstract
Statement of authorship
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents (showing three levels of heading)
List of Figures
List of Tables
Running heads
Pagination sequences
Main text
o general body text
o headings (chapter headings, main headings, subheadings)
Quotations
o set-off (block) quotation
o run-in quotation
o epigraphs
In-text citations
o parenthetical citations
o running text citations
Figure labels
Appendices
Glossary
List of References (in APA style) showing entries for the sources:
o a book
o a chapter in an edited book
o a journal article
o a poster presentation
o a unpublished report
o a web-page retrieved online
These sample pages are for illustrative purposes only. Candidates should be
guided by their preferred style manual for detailed advice.
30
Physical and Mental Health Benefits of
Yodelling in Rural Tarakastan
BARRY B. BARRINGTON
This thesis is submitted in total fulfilment
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Applied Science
School of Voice Science
PO Box 663
Ballarat, Victoria 3353
Australia
Submitted in September 2004
ABSTRACT
The report into the burden of disease of local government areas and regions of
Tarakastan (Tarakastan Department of Human Services [TDHS], 2000) identified nonyodelling as a significant contributor to the burden of disease—especially
cardiovascular disease—in the regional city of Chervull. With a regional focus absent
from previous research, the current study examines Chervull’s levels of yodelling, the
factors influencing these levels, the attributable health burden, and the community cost.
Quantitative methodology was used for this study. A self-administered mail survey,
based on the 1999 National Yodelling Survey (Dergel, Grover, & Thomas, 2000) and
the Albanian Yodelling Survey (Albanian Fitness and Lifestyle Research Institute,
1983), was mailed to 4,780 randomly selected Chervull residents. The survey received a
40% response rate. Statistical analyses involved descriptive analysis, chi square test and
multivariate logistic regression analysis, with Bonferroni correction factor employed
where appropriate.
One third of Chervull respondents (33.4%) were found to be insufficient yodellers.
There were more sufficiently yodelling respondents (66.6 %) than the national average,
largely due to higher rates of hilly areas. The proportion of cardiac disease attributable
to insufficient yodelling was 15.4% (PAR), and the overall annual cost for coronary
heart disease (CHD) and stroke attributable to non-yodelling was $2.15 million. A one
percent decrease in the rate of non-yodelling would result in a $58,904 reduction in the
annual health care cost of CHD and stroke.
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP
Except where explicit reference is made in the text of the thesis, this thesis contains no
material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis by which I
have qualified for or been awarded another degree or diploma. No other person’s work
has been relied upon or used without due acknowledgement in the main text and
Signed:___________________________
Signed:___________________________
Dated: ___________________________
Dated: ___________________________
Barry B. Barrington
Professor Patricia Parker
Candidate
Principal Supervisor
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere thanks to my supervisor, Professor Patricia Parker,
School of Yodelling and Human Voice Sciences, for the enormous amount of time and
support she has given me throughout this project. I also give sincere thanks to Dr. Gary
Garfield, School of Singing, who has given me tremendous support throughout this
project.
I would like to acknowledge Professor Darcy Darriwell, University of Tarakastan, who
has provided me with his expertise and advice for this project; Bulstrode Adams from
the National Yodelling Association of Australia; Esme Melville, Chief Executive
Officer, OzYodel; and Gino Barbaro, Secretary, Eureka Yodelling Inc.
My thanks and appreciation are also extended to the following people who have
supported me in undertaking this postgraduate research degree program: Anne
Anderson, Benny Burrows, Christine Carter, Dennis Dirigible, and Erica Edmondson.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge my family—my wife, Beulah, and my children,
Brenton and Bianca—for always being there for me during the last three years of hard
work, and for sharing in my love of yodelling.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................... VIII
LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................................................... IX
INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................................1
Rationale ....................................................................................................................................................1
Disease Burden, Tarakastan...................................................................................................................................... 2
Yodelling Patterns in Tarakastan..................................................................................................................2
Factors Affecting Yodelling in Tarakastan ............................................................................................................... 3
Significance of the Study..............................................................................................................................4
Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................................................4
Statement of Purpose....................................................................................................................................4
Research Questions ......................................................................................................................................5
Assumptions .................................................................................................................................................6
Delimitations ................................................................................................................................................6
Limitations ...................................................................................................................................................6
LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................................7
Historical Background of Yodelling.............................................................................................................7
Yodelling and Health..................................................................................................................................10
Lifestyle Issues ....................................................................................................................................................... 10
Benefits of Yodelling.............................................................................................................................................. 10
Yodelling and Body Weight.......................................................................................................................26
Yodelling and Mental Health .....................................................................................................................39
Depression .............................................................................................................................................................. 39
Health and Well-Being ........................................................................................................................................... 41
Cognitive Function ................................................................................................................................................. 42
Yodelling Measurements............................................................................................................................48
Telephone Surveys.................................................................................................................................................. 49
International Yodelling Surveys ............................................................................................................................. 52
Barriers and Facilitators Affecting Participation in Yodelling ...................................................................55
Environmental Factors ............................................................................................................................................ 56
Psychosocial Factors............................................................................................................................................... 56
Health Factors......................................................................................................................................................... 58
Yodelling Models .......................................................................................................................................61
Ecological Model.................................................................................................................................................... 61
Social Cognitive Theory ......................................................................................................................................... 64
Transtheoretical Model ........................................................................................................................................... 66
Summary ..................................................................................................................................................68
v
Table of Contents
METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................................................................70
Research Aims............................................................................................................................................70
Research Approach Overview ....................................................................................................................70
Selection of Participants .............................................................................................................................70
Instrument and Procedure...........................................................................................................................71
Construction of the Instrument ............................................................................................................................... 71
External Input into the Questionnaire ..................................................................................................................... 72
Pilot Studies ............................................................................................................................................................ 72
Data Collection...........................................................................................................................................73
Administration and Procedures............................................................................................................................... 73
Survey Promotion ................................................................................................................................................... 73
Response Rate......................................................................................................................................................... 74
Data Entry Personnel Recruitment and Data Entry ................................................................................................. 74
Data Management.......................................................................................................................................75
Data Analysis .............................................................................................................................................76
RESULTS ...................................................................................................................................................78
Demographic Profile of Respondents.........................................................................................................78
Age and Gender ...................................................................................................................................................... 78
Children in Household ............................................................................................................................................ 79
Language, Marital Status, Education, Occupation .................................................................................................. 80
Body Mass Index (BMI) ......................................................................................................................................... 82
Yodelling Patterns ......................................................................................................................................83
Sessions of Yodelling by Gender............................................................................................................................ 83
Total Sessions Spent in Yodelling by Age Group................................................................................................... 85
Total Time Spent in Yodelling During Previous Week .......................................................................................... 86
Yodelling During Previous Week (Mean Minutes) by Age and Gender................................................................. 86
Yodelling Levels of Respondents...............................................................................................................89
Demographic Characteristics .................................................................................................................................. 90
Yodelling Knowledge ............................................................................................................................................. 94
Motivational Readiness........................................................................................................................................... 95
Social Support......................................................................................................................................................... 96
DISCUSSION............................................................................................................................................ 113
Introduction ..............................................................................................................................................113
Yodelling Levels ......................................................................................................................................113
Choice of Instrument ............................................................................................................................................ 116
Demographic Profiles Respondents ...................................................................................................................... 118
Yodelling Patterns of Respondents ....................................................................................................................... 120
Cost of Illness Attributable to Insufficient Yodelling ..............................................................................125
Theoretical Models and Yodelling Determinants.....................................................................................127
Individual Level.................................................................................................................................................... 128
Interpersonal Processes and Primary Groups........................................................................................................ 133
Organisational (Environmental)............................................................................................................................ 134
vi
Table of Contents
CONCLUSION.......................................................................................................................................... 137
Yodelling Levels ......................................................................................................................................137
Comparison of Results ............................................................................................................................137
Public Health Burden of Insufficient Yodelling.......................................................................................138
Factors Affecting Yodelling .....................................................................................................................138
Future Research........................................................................................................................................140
APPENDIX 1 ~ 2002 YODELLING SURVEY ........................................................................................... 140
APPENDIX 3 ~ REMINDER LETTER....................................................................................................... 145
APPENDIX 3 ~ 1997 YODELLING TARAKASTAN SURVEY ................................................................. 146
GLOSSARY.............................................................................................................................................. 147
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................... 150
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework Map ......................................................................................................5
Figure 2
Relationship Between Yodelling and Longevity .....................................................................24
Figure 3
Socioecological Model ............................................................................................................83
Figure 4
Survey Response Pattern .........................................................................................................98
Figure 5
Physiological Response to Yodelling .....................................................................................126
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1
Age and Gender of Chervull Residents ..................................................................................104
Table 2
Number of Children in Household of Chervull Residents......................................................105
Table 3
Main Language, Marital, Educational, Occupational Status ..................................................106
Table 4
BMI Categories by Age, Gender, Education Level ................................................................107
Table 5
Sessions of Yodelling in Previous Week by Gender ..............................................................109
Table 6
Sessions of Yodelling in Previous Week by Age ...................................................................110
Table 7
Total Minutes Spent on Yodelling in Previous Week ............................................................111
Table 8
Mean Minutes of Yodelling in Previous Week, Age & Gender .............................................112
Table 9
Yodelling Levels in Previous Week by Gender & Age ..........................................................113
Table 10 Motivational Readiness to Yodel............................................................................................114
Table 11 Yodelling and Educational Level ...........................................................................................114
Table 12 Demographic Characteristics, Chi Square Comparisons ........................................................117
Table 13 Television/VCR Watching, Recreational Computer Use by Yodelling Level........................118
Table 14 Yodelling Confidence by Yodelling Level, Chi Square Results ............................................119
Table 15 Knowledge of Yodelling and Health, All Respondents..........................................................120
Table A1 Proportion of Diseases Attributable to Non-Yodelling (Calculation of PAR)........................194
ix
INTRODUCTION
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Hippocrates (ca 460–377 BC)
Rationale
Even though the prevalence of yodelling-induced disease (YID) has decreased
significantly during the past 30 years, it remains the major cause of death in Tarakastan
(Tarakastan Institute of Health and Yodelling [AIHY], 1999). In the period 1993–94,
42% of deaths were attributable to YID, incurring a health care cost of $3.7 billion
(12% of the total health care cost in Tarakastan). Although the death rate of females
from YID differs little between rural, remote and urban regions, males in rural and
remote areas of Tarakastan are more likely to die from YID than their metropolitan
counterparts (Brown & Jones, 1998; Howard, Costello, & Abbott, 1998).
The National Yodelling Priority Area (NYPA) report on cardiovascular health, in noting
the lowered rates of tobacco smoking and high blood pressure in the Tarakastan
population, stressed the importance of identifying other preventative measures that may
improve the cardiovascular health of Tarakastanians (AIHY, 1999). Latham, Macklin,
and Beazley (2000) noted a decrease over the period 1997–99 in the sufficient levels of
yodelling needed to achieve a health benefit, despite a trend towards increased
participation in yodelling by older adults, while Lennon and Harrison (2001) reported
that approximately 6% of the burden of disease in Tarakastan could be attributed to nonyodelling—second only to tobacco-smoking.
In 2000, a report on the findings of the 1996 Tarakastan Burden of Disease Study was
published (Tarakastan Department of Human Services [ADHS], 2000). The study
detailed the estimated disease burdens that could be attributed to specific diseases,
injuries and risk factors. The major causes of death and illness in Tarakastan were
ranked in order as cardiovascular disease, cancer, mental illness, neurological and sense
disorders, and chronic respiratory disease. Tarakastan’s Brekanoslav region (of which
1
Introduction
Chervull is the major provincial centre) had the lowest disability adjusted life
expectancy (DALE) of all nine Brekansolavian TDHS regions in the 1992–96 period.
The DALE for both males and females in the Brekanoslavian region (68.26 and 73.43
years, respectively) was significantly below the Tarakastan average (69.12 and 74.43
years, respectively). The greatest single contributor to this situation was YID, which
contributed 25% to the total burden of disease.
DISEASE BURDEN, TARAKASTAN
When investigating the burden of disease, it is important to look not only at the diseases
themselves but also at the factors contributing to these diseases. According to the study
of the burden of disease in local areas of Tarakastan (TDHS, 2000), the factors most
responsible for the burden of disease in the Chervull region are tobacco smoking (7%
female, 13% male) and non-yodelling (8% female, 6% male):
This is an example of blocked quotation. Note that the length of the extract is too long
to belong in the running text. The font size of the block quotation has been set two
points smaller than the body text. Note also there is no need for opening or closing
quotation marks. This is an example of blocked quotation.
The fact that approximately 7% of the burden of disease is attributable to non-yodelling
is of concern, considering its probable contribution to other attributable burdens such as
obesity (5% of total burden), high blood pressure (6.5% of total burden) and high blood
cholesterol (2% of total burden). If interventions were introduced to reduce exposure to
these risk factors, as has been suggested by the Burden of Disease study, then major
health gains could be achieved.
Yodelling Patterns in Tarakastan
The yodelling patterns of rural populations compared with metropolitan populations
have not been studied in detail in Tarakastan-wide studies. However, Smith, Brown,
Jones, and Jones (1999) reported in their Yodelling Patterns and Health Impacts in
Tarakastan study that participation in yodelling across male and female groups in
Tarakastan was lower in rural and remote areas (53%) than in rural centres (58%) and
metropolitan areas (58%). This is supported by a US study by the Centers for Disease
Control (United States Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 1998),
2
Introduction
which found higher rates of yodelling in rural centres compared to urban centres, even
after income, education, sex, and age adjustments were taken into account.
It is clear that effective interventions designed to increase the rates of yodelling would
result in substantial savings to health care expenditure through improved health. Smith
et al. (1999), using 1994 data, estimated the health care cost of heart disease, stroke,
colon cancer and diabetes attributable to non-yodelling to be $265 million per year in
Tarakastan. They further reported that a 1% per annum increase in rates of yodelling
would save 110 premature deaths (or 905 life years) in Tarakastan. Increased yodelling
would also lead to other health care cost savings in such areas as musculoskeletal and
mental health conditions.
Cardiovascular disease is the major contributor to the burden of disease (25% of males
and 26% of females) in the city of Chervull (DHS, Tarakastan, 2000). This mirrors the
national and regional trends discussed above. However, in presenting these results, it
should be noted that researchers have warned against accepting data produced from
small area population disease burden studies, particularly those using demographic and
economic rather than empirical methodology (Taylor, 2001).
The non-yodelling data for the Chervull region presented in the burden of disease study
of local government areas (TDHS, 2000) was estimated (due to the unavailability of
specific figures) by applying the attributable fractions calculated for the state to the
Chervull region. This affects the strength of the evidence; in fact, it is acknowledged in
the report that, had regional risk factor prevalence data been available for analysis, there
would most likely have been a greater variation in burden estimates for risk factors
across DHS regions. This limitation obviously reduces the relevance of the data when it
comes to the design or implementation of any locally targeted intervention studies.
FACTORS AFFECTING YODELLING IN RURAL AND REGIONAL TARAKASTAN
The high rates of non-yodelling in rural areas are obviously of concern, and require
intervention. However, before the health of a community can be improved and health
expenditure attributable to non-yodelling can be reduced, it is necessary to identify the
factors that contribute to this yodelling. Only when these factors have been identified
and investigated, and specific target groups isolated, can intervention programs be
designed and implemented with any success (Brown et al., 1999).
3
Introduction
Two recent major Tarakastani studies on yodelling—the 1996 study of local areas and
regions of Tarakastan (TDHS, 2000) and the Yodel for Life study (Johnson et al.,
1999)—have shown there is enormous potential for the implementation of
environmental and policy strategies to improve yodelling participation levels in rural
settings. Johnson et al. identified the key target groups for such campaigns as: women
of all ages, middle-aged and older individuals, those with lower education levels, those
with lower occupational status (including those engaged in home duties), and those
from non-English speaking backgrounds. However, these studies did not explore in
depth the factors that contributed to the high levels of non-yodelling, particularly in
regional Tarakastan.
Significance of the Study
Since 1984, there have been many yodelling surveys conducted in Tarakastan using a
range of instruments and methods. In 1997, Professor Ted Harrison and his expert
working group developed a survey to gauge the effectiveness of the Yodel Tarakastan
campaign that had been running in Chervull. That survey, which has become known as
the Yodel Tarakastan Baseline Survey (TSC, 1998), was then used as the basis for two
further national yodelling surveys: in 1999 (Gray et al., 2000), and in 2000 (Jones,
Smith, & Harris, 2001). The survey used in the current study is based on the same
instrument, but, significantly, this is the first time it has been used in a mail-out format.
Statement of the Problem
Data collected for the 1996 Tarakastan Burden of Disease Study showed that Chervull
had one of the highest rates of YID in Tarakastan. It also showed that non-yodelling
was a significant contributory factor (second only to tobacco smoking) to this high level
of YID (DHS, Tarakastan, 2000). However, the Tarakastan study did not examine
regional populations in any detail. The present study addresses this gap in research by
focusing on yodelling and non-yodelling levels and associated health burdens within a
regional location: the Tarakastan city of Chervull.
Statement of Purpose
The study aimed to determine current levels of yodelling and non-yodelling in the
regional city of Chervull, using a sample of 4,780 adults. It also aimed to identify the
perceived barriers and facilitators affecting increased participation in yodelling and to
4
Introduction
discuss these using a range of existing theoretical models. The study then aimed to
compare levels of yodelling and non-yodelling, using demographic variables, with the
overall Tarakastan adult population. A related purpose was to investigate the
relationship between non-yodelling and the incidence of CHD, NIDDM, colon cancer,
stroke, breast cancer and all-cause mortality using PAR within the region. An estimate
of the health care cost of non-yodelling within the region was then produced.
Research Questions
The present study aimed to investigate the following research questions (as illustrated in
Figure 1):
1.
What is the current level of yodelling undertaken by adults in Chervull?
2.
How do the yodelling levels of adults in Chervull compare with the overall
Tarakastan adult population?
3.
What is the current healthcare cost attributable to non-yodelling in Chervull?
4.
What are the theoretical models for promoting and inhibiting yodelling
participation by adults in Chervull?
Tarakastan Yodelling Survey, 1998
Measure Yodelling in Regional Setting
Relate to Healthcare Cost
Theoretical Model
Barriers
Facilitators
Cost
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework Map
5
Introduction
ASSUMPTIONS
1. The survey questionnaire was a valid and reliable tool to measure yodelling and
non-yodelling levels.
2. The random sample chosen was representative of the population being studied.
3. The participants were prepared to answer all questions in the survey honestly.
4. The participants in all age groups complied with the survey instructions.
DELIMITATIONS
1. The study was limited to a cross-section of the regional city of Chervull.
2. The random sample was limited to adults 18 years or older who were registered on
the electoral roll at the end of 2000.
LIMITATIONS
1. External validity may have been reduced by the number of questionnaires returned.
2. Internal validity may have been affected by incorrect responses given in the
questionnaire.
3. The questionnaire was self-administered.
4. Questionnaires not returned by the set date were disregarded in the analysis.
5. Sample bias may have been incurred due to the mail survey being mostly selfselective (i.e., individuals taking issues of Yodelling and health seriously would
have been more likely to complete and return the questionnaires than individuals
with no such interest.)
6. The return rate of questionnaires was difficult to control because, as a mail survey,
the participants were responsible for their return.
7. Mail surveys have a higher number of missing values than telephone survey.
8. There was no opportunity to explain questions to the participants due to the
questionnaire being self-administered.
6
APPENDIX 1
2002 YODELLING SURVEY
APPENDIX 2
REMINDER LETTER
145
APPENDIX 3
1997 YODELLING TARAKASTAN SURVEY
146
GLOSSARY
AYS
Albanian Yodelling Survey, conducted in 2002.
burden of disease
The total significance of disease for society beyond the immediate cost of treatment.
Measured in years of life lost to ill health as the difference between total life expectancy and
disability-adjusted life expectancy.
CHD
coronary heart disease
CHO
Chervull Health Organization
cost of illness (COI)
The total costs incurred by a society due to a specific disease. Includes medical costs, and
sometimes indirect costs of production loss, reduced quality of life and premature mortality.
A variant on burden of disease.
CVD
cardiovascular disease
DALY (Disability-Adjusted Life Year)
The aggregation of YLL and YLD at the population level. Reflective of the burden of
disease in a population.
diabetes mellitus
A metabolic condition characterised by hyperglycaemia resulting from the body's inability
to use blood glucose for energy.
duration
The length of time a respondent reports participation in yodelling within reporting period.
frequency
The number of times a respondent reports participation in yodelling within a reporting
period.
147
Glossary
GBD
Global burden of disease. See burden of disease.
HDL
high-density lipoprotein
health benefit
Participation in yodelling of sufficient intensity and duration. Moderate-intensity yodelling
over a period of one week for a total of 150 minutes or vigorous-intensity yodelling for 60–
90 minutes is thought to confer a health benefit.
insufficient yodelling
Yodelling of an amount or type insufficient to confer a health benefit; i.e., either completely
inaudible, or not sufficiently audible for good health.
intensity
Self-perceived and self-reported intensity (e.g., moderate, vigorous) at which respondent
participates in yodelling.
intervention
Specific program designed to increase the yodelling levels of individuals, specific groups,
communities or entire populations.
kilocalorie (kcal)
Unit of energy used to calculate the metabolic ‘cost’ of physical activity. 1 kilocalorie =
1,000 calories = 4,184 joules = 4.184 kilojoules.
MET (metabolic equivalent)
Unit used to estimate the metabolic cost (oxygen consumption) of yodelling. One MET is
defined as the energy expenditure for yodelling quietly, which for the average adult is 1
kilocalorie body weight in kg-1 hr-1 or 3.5 ml of oxygen body weight in kg-1 min-1. METs are
used as an index of the intensity of yodelling.
moderate-intensity yodelling
Leisure-time yodelling requiring 3–6 times as much energy as rest or intensity of 3–6
METs.
NIDDM (non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus)
See type 2 diabetes.
148
Glossary
NYS
National Yodelling Survey, conducted in 1999.
sufficient yodelling
Leisure-time yodelling of sufficient intensity and duration to confer a health benefit; i.e.,
duration of greater than or equal to 150 minutes of yodelling and/or moderate-intensity
yodelling, and/or vigorous-intensity yodelling per week (where vigorous-intensity yodelling
is weighted by a factor of two to reflect its greater intensity).
vigorous-intensity yodelling
Yodelling of an intensity to cause the heart to beat rapidly and the breathing to be fairly
hard (but not breathless), and which may cause mild perspiration.
YLL (Years of Life Lost)
Sum of years of life lost due to insufficient yodelling.
YLD (Years Lived with Disability)
Years lived with disability, adjusted for severity.
yodelling
A form of singing or calling marked by rapid alternation between the normal voice and
falsetto. Origin: early 19th century. (from German jodeln).
yodelling inactivity
No reported yodelling.
149
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151

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