Emerging treatment strategies for glioblastoma multiforme Review Abstract

Transcription

Review
Emerging treatment strategies for
glioblastoma multiforme
Steven K Carlsson, Shaun P Brothers & Claes Wahlestedt*
Abstract
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the deadliest form of brain
tumor with a more than 90% 5-year mortality. GBM has a paltry
median survival of 12.6 months attributed to the unique
treatment limitations such as the high average age of onset,
tumor location, and poor current understandings of the tumor
pathophysiology. The resection techniques, chemotherapic strategies, and radiation therapy currently used to treat GBM have
slowly evolved, but the improvements have not translated to
marked increases in patient survival. Here, we will discuss the
recent progress in our understanding of GBM pathophysiology,
and the diagnostic techniques and treatment options. The discussion will include biomarkers, tumor imaging, novel therapies such
as monoclonal antibodies and small-molecule inhibitors, and
the heterogeneity resulting from the GBM cancer stem cell
population.
Keywords biomarkers; brain imaging; cancer stem cells; epigenetics;
glioblastoma multiforme (GBM)
DOI 10.15252/emmm.201302627 | Received 14 April 2014 | Revised 27 August
2014 | Accepted 10 September 2014
See the Glossary for abbreviations used in this article
Introduction
Gliomas are the most commonly occurring form of brain tumor.
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most malignant form of
glioma causing 3–4% of all cancer-related deaths (Louis et al,
2007). The World Health Organization defines GBM as a grade IV
cancer characterized as malignant, mitotically active, and predisposed to necrosis. GBM has a very poor prognosis with a 5-year
survival rate of 4–5%, which perhaps is an overestimation (McLendon
& Halperin, 2003). GBM has a paltry median survival of 12.6
months attributed to unique treatment limitations such as a high
average age of onset, tumor location, and poor current understandings of the tumor pathophysiology (Louis et al, 2007). Current
standard of care for GBM includes tumor resection with concurrent
radiotherapy and chemotherapy. However, no marked improvements have been achieved that increase survival rates close to other
glioma subtypes (Stewart, 2002). The development of proteomic,
genetic, and epigenetic tools highlighted here may hold the potential
to improve survival rates for GBM patients.
The diagnosis of GBM
Medical imaging
For the last 20 years, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been
the standard in brain tumor imaging to define lesion boundaries
including size, shape, and location of the tumors. There are,
however, a number of emerging MRI developments with the potential to provide more detail about the structural changes that differentiate the higher-grade glioma subtypes. For example, advanced
diffusion-weighted imaging can differentiate soft tissue populations
based on cellular density, thus discriminating GBM from malignant
lymphoma (Yamasaki et al, 2005). Such techniques provide useful
information beyond the initial tumor diagnosis. Perfusion weight
imaging can be used to monitor the clinical effectiveness of antiangiogenic drugs like bevacizumab through the use of posttreatment parametric response map comparisons (Aquino et al,
2014). Relative cerebral blood volume (rCBV), a measure of
microvascular density, is decreased in patients that responded to the
anti-angiogenic treatments. Elevated rCBV values also correlate with
EGFR amplification which may have prognostic and treatment monitoring applications in the future (Gupta et al, 2014). Despite the
well-characterized diagnostic and treatment applications of MRI,
tumor assessment is still largely confined to the evaluation of
changes in brain anatomy and structure, which does not profile
real-time tumor dynamics.
Methods of identifying solid tumors based on alterations of
metabolism are now being actively developed. As first observed by
Otto Warburg in 1927, cancer cells switch glucose metabolism
favoring glycolysis followed by lactic acid production over oxidative
phosphorylation, even in the presence of sufficient oxygen
(Warburg et al, 1927). Although this aerobic glycolysis is less
efficient than oxidative phosphorylation, higher biomass incorporation
through glycolysis is advantageous to proliferating cancer cells by
providing the necessary organic substrates for nucleic acid and lipid
synthesis. About 90% of all glucose consumed in glioblastoma cells
is converted to lactate or alanine, which may be useful to differentiate GBM tumors from surrounding tissue (DeBerardinis et al, 2007).
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center for Therapeutic Innovation, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
*Corresponding author. Tel: +1 305 243 7694; Fax: +1 305 243 2523; E-mail: [email protected]
ª 2014 The Authors. Published under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license
EMBO Molecular Medicine
1
Emerging treatment strategies for glioblastoma multiforme
Glossary
2-hydroxyglutarate Isocitrate is metabolized to alpha-ketoglutarate
by IDH-1. Mutated IDH-1 (with a histidine
substitution at arginine 132) can further
metabolize alpha-ketoglutarate to 2-hydroxyglutarate. This onco-metabolite has been
associated with a dysregulation in reactive
oxygen species.
Aerobic Glycolysis The conversion of glucose to lactic acid even in
the presence of oxygen
Adenovirus
Non-enveloped virus that contains singlestranded double DNA capable of using host
machinery to propagate
Biomarker
Cellular component capable of predicting the
biological state of a cell population
Bromodomain
Alpha helical protein domain that recognizes
acetylation marks on histone tails
Epigenetics
The study of transcriptional regulation not
caused by DNA sequence. Epigenetic changes
can lead to transient or sustained alterations to
gene expression based on the type of
modification such as histone acetylation or DNA
methylation.
Pericyte
Vasculature-wrapping cells critical in
maintaining the blood–brain barrier through
interactions with endothelial cells, neurons, and
astrocytes. G-pericytes are those derived from
glioblastoma multiforme.
Gamma Knife
Stereotactic high-dose radiation targeting the
brain region of interest
Immunoconjugate Antibody conjoined to a second molecule,
usually cytotoxic, in order to direct the
cytotoxin to the target of interest
Microvesicle
Plasma membrane-derived membrane-enclosed
bodies that may contain miRNA, mRNA, or
protein, and are capable of intercellular
communication.
Perfusion
Contrast dye visualization of cerebral blood flow
Weight Imaging
in vessels using magnetic resonance imaging
In this respect, the emergence of positron–emission tomography
(PET) has been critical. High-grade glioma can be differentiated
from CNS lymphoma using the tumor’s ability to avidly uptake the
glucose analog deoxy-2-(18F)fluoro-D-glucose (FDG) (Kosaka et al,
2008). Increased FDG uptake negatively correlates with patient
survival in glioma patients (Pardo et al, 2004). In GBM and in
general brain tumors, however, the poor signal-to-noise ratio due to
the elevated glucose uptake in the brain compared to other tissues
somewhat limits the usefulness of FDG. In fact, radiolabeled amino
acids such as C-methionine (C-MET) are preferred over FDG due to
their lower uptake in normal brain cells (Stolc et al, 2011). C-MET
is actively transported into proliferating cells through the carriermediated transport activity of LAT1, which is upregulated in malignant glioma (Kobayashi et al, 2008). C-MET and not FDG was found
to be a significant prognostic factor for GBM based on uptake in
proliferative cells (Kim et al, 2005). As far back as 1986, pathological histology has defined GBM boundaries beyond those determined
through MRI (Lunsford et al, 1986). While C-MET is likely a better
imaging technique than FDG, the use of C-MET may be advantageous over conventional MRI as well. MET PET imaging substantially enlarges the three-dimensional volume of an active tumor in
comparison with gadolinium–DTPA-enhanced MRI (Galldiks et al,
2
Steven K Carlsson et al
2010). In conclusion, while MRI remains the standard for GBM
brain imaging, advances in technology and wider availability
support the use of PET as a complementary technology.
Biomarkers
While GBM tumors may present similar or overlapping phenotypes,
differences in tumor progression and molecular mechanisms require
diagnosing beyond histological profiling. Histological profiling per
se presents a challenge as the required resection or biopsy can be
problematic given the location and sensitive nature of brain tissue.
Clearly, non-invasive diagnostic measures able to better identify and
differentiate GBM tumors would expedite non-resection therapeutic
methods ultimately improving patient survival.
Biomarkers are potentially a non-invasive and universal diagnostic tool that focuses on molecular markers over the phenotypic
differences described through biopsy. GBM microvesicles may prove
to be useful in this respect. Microvesicles are plasma membranederived membrane-enclosed particles that are released from cells
through membrane fission and can carry mRNA, miRNA, and
proteins from the parent cell (Cocucci et al, 2009). When these
microvesicles are GBM derived, the tumor-specific contents can
adjust the nearby microenvironment to be more hospitable to tumor
growth (Skog et al, 2008). One example is the GBM driver mutant
form of the EGF receptor EGFRvIII, which can induce neighboring
cells to transform into GBM-like phenotypes. Microvesicles carrying
EGFRvIII can transfer the oncogenic receptor to induce EGFRvIII
activity in the receiving cell (Al-Nedawi et al, 2008). Patient serum
may provide prognostic information as it has also been used to
detect a small non-coding RNA, RNU6-1, which is an independent
predictor of GBM (Manterola et al, 2014). Clearly, the serum
composition of GBM patients should be further studied as it may
non-invasively provide highly valuable prognostic information for
treating GBM beyond the current paradigms.
Microfluidic chips can be used to detect microvesicles in the
bloodstream and have been shown to detect a significant dosedependent post-temozolomide (TMZ) treatment decline in total
microvesicle populations (Shao et al, 2012). In addition, microvesicles can accurately model the profile of the tumor cell including
changes in IDH-1, EGFR, and EGFRvIII. The information provided
by microvesicle detection may provide a quick and non-invasive
biomarker of GBM status using patient blood samples. Microvesicles
and mRNA are not the only potential biomarkers; however, a
number of peptides have been found to change in CSF samples
between normal and GBM patients (Schuhmann et al, 2010). Elevations in albumin, osteopontin, and others, although not GBM
specific, might suggest that peptide levels in the CSF reflect changes
in the nervous system environment that could be used to determine
the status of a GBM tumor. Routine blood sampling after GBM resection may allow early detection of recurrence, thus reducing the time
from tumor regrowth to second-line treatment.
GBM molecular pathophysiology
Epidermal growth factor receptor
A common driver of GBM progression is epidermal growth factor
receptor (EGFR) amplification, found in nearly 40% of all GBM
cases (Hatanpaa et al, 2010). EGFR phenotypic changes in GBM can
ª 2014 The Authors
occur by overexpression, amplification, and mutation. Amplification
of EGFR can occur by reverse transcription from RNA or insertion,
for example. Essentially, all cases of EGFR amplification in GBM are
accompanied by EGFR overexpression, contrasted to the 97.7% of
non-amplified EGFR GBMs that instead have no EGFR overexpression (Shinojima et al, 2003).
Amplification of EGFR is associated with the presence of EGFR
protein variants. In 68% of EGFR mutants, there is a deletion in the
N-terminal ligand-binding region between amino acids 6 and 273
termed EGFRvIII. Deletion in the ligand-binding domains of EGFR
can lead to ligand-independent activation of EGFR (Yamazaki et al,
1990). Due to the specific nature of these exon 2–7 deletions in
EGFRvIII, common tyrosine kinase inhibitors such as gefitinib have
limited therapeutic use (Schulte et al, 2013). Therefore, approaches
to address the lack of extracellular receptor are being pursued.
EGFRvIII is implicated in the PKA-dependent phosphorylation of
DOCK180, a guanine exchange factor for Rac1. Overexpression of
mutant DOCK180 lacking the phosphorylation site at S1280 in an
EGFRvIII-containing cell line inhibited receptor-stimulated proliferation and survival (Feng et al, 2014). This EGFRvIII/PKA/DOCK180
interaction may offer a unique therapeutic target if EGFRvIII-specific
PKA phosphorylation can be inhibited. However, EGFRvIII is not
prognostic of overall median survival except in cases of survivors
of ≥ 1 year which may limit the therapeutic value of this target
(Heimberger et al, 2005).
p53 and PTEN
p53 is a well-known tumor suppressor protein that plays a fundamental role in the formation of high-grade tumors (England et al,
2013). p53 initiates DNA repair, or apoptosis if DNA damage is irreparable. There is a strong correlation between the presence of mutant
p53 and the transition from low-grade astrocytoma to the high-grade
glioblastoma (Sidransky et al, 1992). p53 mutant cells are more
likely to expand to high-grade glioma as these cells outgrow and
overtake the non-p53 mutant cell population (Sidransky et al,
1992). There is evidence that nuclear localization is correlated with
long-term survival rates as nuclear p53 is responsible for apoptotic
induction limiting tumor cell expansion. Long-term survivors
(> 3 years) have tumors with high levels of nuclear p53 compared
to short-term survivors. This is not caused by differences in the
mutation rate (Burton et al, 2002). Recent gene therapy experiments
with nanoparticle delivery of the p53 gene targeting glioblastoma
and cancer stem cells showed induction of apoptosis after standard
chemotherapy (Kim et al, 2014b) and improved survival in a mouse
model. To date, this has not been tested in a clinical trial.
Multiple concurrent tumor suppressor mutations are common in
GBM progression. One study found that primary tumors expressing
mutant p53 had concomitant PTEN mutations or deletions in 6 out
of the 10 samples (Zheng et al, 2008). PTEN is a phosphatase tumor
suppressor critical in cellular homeostasis that is mutated in between
5 and 40% of GBMs and can be a prognostic indicator in patients
> 45 years old (Srividya et al, 2011). Under normal conditions,
PTEN facilitates homeostasis by preventing cell cycle entry, thus
maintaining the neural stem cell population. Unsurprisingly, PTEN
null mutants are more sensitive to growth factors and more prone to
proliferation than wild-type neural stem cells (Groszer et al, 2006).
Diagnostically, PTEN may turn out to be a valuable marker as PTEN
levels are positively correlated with patient survival (Ermoian et al,
ª 2014 The Authors
2002). The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), a collaborative effort
between the National Cancer Institute and the National Human
Genome Institute, has elucidated PTEN mutations that may influence GBM development using genomic sequencing. The presence of
PTEN non-sense mutations resulted in lower survival than wild-type
in a murine xenograft model (Xu et al, 2014). Bryostatin, an inhibitor of PKC downstream of PTEN, suppressed tumor growth in the
non-sense PTEN background suggesting that PTEN non-sense mutations can be indirectly targeted for treatment of GBM.
Isocitrate dehydrogenase
The transition from low-grade gliomas to secondary GBM relies on
the convergence of many pro-oncogenic events. In addition to the
critical roles of PTEN and p53, isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH-1)
mutations are now considered to be a fundamental step in this transition. Although rare in primary GBM at a rate of 5%, this mutation
is found in 83% of all secondary GBM cases (Kloosterhof et al,
2011). IDH-1 mutations are, in fact, now believed to be one the
earliest events in the formation of low-grade gliomas preceding any
mutation that may occur in the p53 gene (Watanabe et al, 2009).
Mutations in IDH-1 exist as somatic point mutations and can simultaneously result in a reduction in enzyme efficiency or enzymatic
gain of function depending on the substrate. The known point
mutation resides in the active site, which prevents the enzyme
from successfully converting isocitrate to alpha-ketoglutarate.
More importantly, the arginine at codon 132 is replaced with a
histidine in 90% of cases (Yan et al, 2009). The R132H mutation
causes IDH-1 to gain the ability to convert alpha-ketoglutarate to
2-hydroxyglutarate (2HG), an onco-metabolite. Since IDH-1 mutations
occur on one allele, this allows both normal and mutant IDH-1 to
co-dimerize or act in cis to produce this onco-metabolite by converting isocitrate to 2HG in a two-step metabolism (Fig 1). Loss of wildtype IDH-1 when the R132H mutation is present on the other allele
results in a 14-fold lower level of 2HG suggesting that both isoforms
must be active for onco-metabolite production (Jin et al, 2013). 2HG
may prove to be a suitable biomarker for the presence of IDH-1 mutations as 2HG levels can be detected using magnetic resonance (Kalinina et al, 2012). However, IDH-1 mutations have not been shown to
effect median survival rate or progression-free survival in secondary
GBM (Juratli et al, 2012). IDH-1 is now being targeted for therapeutic
use for instance by Agios Pharmaceuticals, who are currently moving
forward with the drug candidate AG-120 after their tool compound
inhibitors were found to be successful in glioma xenografts (Rohle
et al, 2013). AG-120 is currently undergoing a phase I trial (clinicaltrials.gov; NCT02073994).
Genomics
Personalized medicine for GBM is evolving in part due to progress in
genomic sequencing. TCGA has made the genomic databases of over
20 cancers public in an effort to enhance integrated analysis on a
common data set. In 2008, TCGA detailed a multi-dimensional analysis of 216 cases of GBM that identified genetic changes that include
inactivation of the Neurofibromin 1 gene, ERRB2 mutations, and
MGMT methylation (Cancer Genome Atlas Research Network,
2008). TCGA GBM data set continues to provide new insights in the
development of GBM. A recent evaluation of TCGA RNA-Seq data
revealed a neurotrophic tyrosine kinase receptor type 1–neurofascin
gene fusion in GBM. In vitro, this gene fusion showed increased
3
et al, 2014). miR-21 is upregulated in response to TMZ and confers
a certain degree of resistance to the drug, while the loss of miR-21
in TMZ-resistant cell lines resensitized them to the drug (Wong
et al, 2012). Hence, while miR-21 inhibition or TMZ alone may be
insufficient, their combination may significantly enhance cancer
stem cell death (Zhang et al, 2012).
OH
OH
HO
O
HO
O
O
ISOCITRATE
IDH-1
R132
Cancer stem cells
O
IDH-1
HO
OH
Nucleus
O
O
α-KETOGLUTARATE
IDH-1 mutant
H132
IDH-1
R132H
Cytoplasm
IDH-1
R132H
IDH-1 (R132H)
selective
antagonist
OH
OH
HO
O
O
2-HYDROXYGLUTARATE
ONCOMETABOLITE
Figure 1. Inhibition of 2-hydroxyglutarate production in heterozygotic
IDH-1 cells.
Wild-type IDH-1 converts isocitrate to alpha-ketoglutarate. Heterozygotic IDH-1
(R132H) mutant protein can convert alpha-ketoglutarate to 2-hydroxyglutarate,
an onco-metabolite. Selective therapeutics against IDH-1 (R132H) prevent
2-hydroxyglutarate production while leaving normal IDH-1 enzymatic function
intact.
proliferation of 3T3 cells, suggesting an oncogenic-like role (Kim
et al, 2014a). Oncogenic gene fusion analysis is a growing field, made
possible through the exploitation of large databases like TCGA.
However, TCGA GBM data set has use beyond targets of oncogenesis and has potential prognostic value. For example, although
miRNA does not appear to add prognostic power to multidimensional genomic models in GBM (Zhao et al, 2014), the involvement
of miRNAs in GBM is evident and has been greatly elucidated due
to TCGA. Loss of MIR-491 has been recently implicated in the proliferation and invasion of GBM. MIR-491, the gene encoding for miR491-5p and miR-491-3p, is frequently deleted in GBM. This deletion
is inversely correlated with the overexpression of EGFR, CDK6,
and IGFBP2 (Li et al, 2014). In addition, the presence of functional
MIR-491 impairs the propagation of GBM cancer stem cells through
the EGFR, CDK6, and IGFBP2 proliferative pathways. Reintroduction of MIR-491 has promising therapeutic potential through the
suppression of the proliferative pathways listed above. This depth
of analysis would not have been possible without the volume of
data available through TCGA.
miRNA pathways in GBM can influence the effectiveness of
current treatments as with TMZ. For instance, miR-455-3p and
miR-10a* confer cellular resistance to TMZ. Knockdown of either
miR did not lead to cell death, but enhanced sensitivity to TMZ
(Ujifuku et al, 2010). Other miRs such as miR-21 are differentially
upregulated in GBM compared to lower-grade gliomas (Berthois
4
GBM, similarly to others, is a heterogeneous tumor comprised of
many cell types. A 2004 study first identified a small CD133+ stem
cell-like population in GBM responsible for the maintenance and
proliferation of the tumor (Yuan et al, 2004). Transplantation of
CD133-positive, but not CD133-negative, cells from patient biopsies
in severely compromised immunodeficient mice produced a phenocopy of the patient’s original tumor (Choy et al, 2012). Targeting
CD133 is a potential therapeutic strategy to eliminate the cancer
stem cell population. CD133 silencing in GBM-derived stem cells
was shown to increase post-implantation survival in an in vivo
mouse model (Brescia et al, 2013).
Normal neural stem cells rely on NOTCH signaling for cellular
homeostasis (Alexson et al, 2006). Gamma-secretase-mediated inhibition of the NOTCH pathway depletes CD133 and blocks tumor
growth in vivo and neurosphere formation in culture (Fan et al,
2010). CD133 cells can also be depleted by knockdown of BMI1, a
transcription repressor that prevents stem cells from altering pluripotency, indicating the importance of CD133 for cancer stem cells.
There is a clear negative relationship between GBM progression
and tumor location in the adult subventricular zone (SVZ). Fortyseven percent of patients with SVZ-located tumors experienced
progression-free survival after 6 months after treatment compared
to 69% of non-SVZ-contacted tumor patients (Jafri et al, 2013).
Over 95% of GBMs expressed SSEA-1, a known stem cell marker in
the SVZ (Son et al, 2009). SSEA-1+ cells are capable of differentiation and expansion in neurospheres similarly to CD133+ cells (Son
et al, 2009). In addition to recurrence, SVZ-associated GBM cases
also progressed more than their non-SVZ-located counterparts.
A new pathway has been discovered that links GBM stem cells to
the development of GBM-specific endothelial cell-related pericytes
(G-pericytes). Pericytes are core components of the neurovasculature critical to the maintenance of the blood–brain barrier (BBB)
and microvasculature regulation. Pericyte-deficient mice have extensive endothelial cell hyperplasia in addition to morphological
changes such as increased vessel diameter (Hellstrom et al, 2001).
In addition, 14- to 16-month-old pericyte-deficient mice have a 20to 25-fold plasma-derived immunoglobulin buildup in the cortex
and hippocampus compared to age-matched controls suggesting
blood–brain barrier breakdown (Bell et al, 2010). While these pericytes
are beneficial to normal brain function, TGFb induction of G-pericyte
differentiation from the cancer stem cell lineage has been shown to
preserve mutations present in the stem cell population, thus facilitating in tumor-specific growth (Cheng et al, 2013a). Pericyte signaling pathways are stimulated by hypoxic-specific exosomes released
from GBM cells that trigger paracrine stimulation of pericytes by
endothelial cells (Kucharzewska et al, 2013). This signaling pathway promotes pericytic release of regulatory factors such as VEGF-A
to maintain proper vascular function. Thus, G-pericyte prevention
ª 2014 The Authors
or elimination may rescue ineffective angiogenic therapies for GBM
that modulate VEGF-A.
Metastasis
While lung or breast cancers often metastasize to the brain, GBM
distal metastases are exceedingly rare and have only been reported
in 0.44% of all cases (Robert & Wastie, 2008) The metastatic potential of GBM has nevertheless been recorded. For example, a case
study found that two patients who had received organs from a
single GBM donor eventually developed GBM metastases that led to
their death. (Armanios et al, 2004). Most probably, the relative
paucity of documented extracranial metastasis for GBM is in part
due to the short lifespan of GBM patients. It is also possible that
GBM cell escape is limited by the lack of lymphatic transport in the
brain (Robert & Wastie, 2008). Indeed, the few reported metastasis
cases were postulated to have been initiated by surgical resection
causing BBB disruption (Schonsteiner et al, 2011). Clearly, GBM
does have metastatic potential, similar to most other solid tumors,
but this does not appear to be a significant factor in patient survival
rates; as GBM-directed therapeutics improve patient life span,
however, this may become an emerging issue.
Current standard of care
Resection
The current standard of care for GBM is maximally possible surgical
resection of the tumor followed by combination radiotherapy and
chemotherapy. Maximal resection for each tumor is case-specific
based on tumor size, shape, and location of blood vessels, arteries,
or sensitive brain regions. Surgical resection is generally classified
as gross total resection (GTR), and subtotal resection (STR) when
complete removal of the tumor is not met. Not surprisingly, oneyear survival is significantly higher for patients with more than 90%
tumor resection compared to those with less than 90% tumor resection (Orringer et al, 2012). It is thus essential that the surgeon’s ability to resect the tumor as much as possible is improved to increase
GBM patient survival. A current clinical trial is testing tumor-specific
fluorescent staining to help surgeons differentiate between tumor
and non-tumor cell tissue. 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) was the first
attempt to show how this approach could aid in tumor resection
(Stummer et al, 2000). ALA induces the accumulation of porphyrins
specific to GBM that fluoresce under violet-blue light. The contrast
in color between the porphyrin-containing tumor and adjacent
normal tissue allows for more specific and thorough resection of
tumor cells. ALA is likely to be very safe, with no associated deaths
and only 1% of patients experiencing any neurological effects. Sixtyfive percent of resections using ALA obtained GTR, while only 36%
met GTR criteria using conventional methods (Stummer et al,
2006). Other fluorescent compounds are being tested to provide
better resolution for optimal resection such as sodium fluorescein,
which is both safe and feasible to use (Schebesch et al, 2013).
applied to tumors were found to be dose-dependently correlated
with median survival rates (Walker et al, 1979). Radiation therapy
induces severe DNA damage causing the cells to undergo apoptosis
due to double-strand breaks. Standard external beam radiation
therapy includes six weeks of localized radiation therapy five times
per week. Resistance to radiotherapy can be problematic in GBM as
EGFRvIII confers cellular resistance to such treatment options by
upregulating the DNA double-stranded break repair machinery
(Mukherjee et al, 2009). Therefore, EGFRvIII inhibitors may
increase overall tumor sensitivity to radiation therapy. While external beam radiation therapy (EBRT) is the standard of care, radiosurgical techniques have been developed to increase radiation therapy effectiveness in patients experiencing GBM recurrence. Gamma
knife therapy delivers stereotactic high doses of radiation that
confine treatment to the targeted GBM area. Gamma knife is considered as ineffective in the treatment of primary tumors due to the
excessively large tumor volume. However, gamma knife monotherapy in a GBM mouse xenografts model increased survival (Skeie
et al, 2013). This may be advantageous in future treatment regimens
if routine biomarker analysis for recurrence is implemented. Quick
identification of recurrence would allow for gamma knife treatment
while the tumor remains volumetrically small.
Chemotherapy
The current standard for chemotherapy for GBM is TMZ. First
described in 2005, concurrent TMZ and radiotherapy increased
median survival rates to 26.5% at 24 months, a vast improvement
over the 10.4% with radiotherapy alone (Stupp et al, 2005). TMZ is
a brain-penetrant alkylating agent that methylates purines (A or G)
in DNA and induces apoptosis. TMZ is effective in a rechallenge
setting where TMZ is reintroduced after a TMZ-free time period.
TMZ rechallenge maintained similar progression-free rates seen in
constant administration paradigms (Wick et al, 2009). However, as
previously described, the genetic background of a given GBM greatly
affects drug effectiveness. TMZ sensitivity was found to be correlated
with the methylation state of O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) promoter in cancer cells committed to differentiation
and not in the stem-like progenitors. MGMT is a mediator of DNA
mismatch repair that corrects TMZ-induced damage (Villalva et al,
2012). Lower cellular concentrations of MGMT due to gene silencing
are correlated with higher sensitivity to TMZ and longer overall
survival; this may be useful as a biomarker (Hegi et al, 2005; Esteller
et al, 2000). Indeed, patients with MGMT gene silencing had survival
rates of 21.5 versus 15.3 months. TMZ efficacy in stem cells may
also be dependent upon the presence of MGMT. GBM cancer stem
cells expressing MGMT did not respond as well as non-MGMT
expressing cancer stem cells at the same dosage (Beier et al, 2008).
The downside to TMZ use is the significant risk arising from TMZdependent DNA damage in healthy cells. This risk, combined with
the possible inefficacy on GBM cells, strongly indicates that additional chemotherapy options are urgently required to improve both
targeting of treatment to GBM cells and improving efficacy.
Novel therapies
Radiotherapy
When GTR is unfeasible, radiotherapy has been used in conjunction
with surgery as early as 1979 when increasing levels of radiation
ª 2014 The Authors
Although current therapy regimens have improved over the past
20 years, overall patient survival has not risen to the levels obtained
5
Table 1. Potential GBM treatments currently in clinical trial.
Treatment
Intervention
Molecular target
Clinical phase
TRC105 + Bevacizumab (Avastin)
Antibody + Drug
Endoglin/VEGF
1
Amgen386
Antibody
Angiopoietin-1 and -2
1
AMG595
Antibody Drug Conjugate
EGFRvIII
1
PSMA ADC MMAE
Antibody Drug Conjugate
PSMA/Tubulin
2
Ketogenic Diet
Dietary Adjustment
N/A
1
Bevacizumab (Avastin) + TPI 287
Drug
VEGF/Tubulin
2
AR-67
Drug
Topoisomerase 1
2
PD 0332991 (Palbociclib)
Drug
Cyclin-dependent Kinase 4/6
2
Pazopanib (Votrient) + Topotecan (Hycamtin)
Drug
Tyrosine Kinase Receptors (multiple) +
Topoisomerase 1
2
G-202
Drug
Sarcoplasmic/Endoplasmic Reticulum
Calcium ATPase (SERCA) pump
2
Aldoxorubicin
Drug
DNA
2
Dovitinib (TKI258)
Drug
FGFR/VEGFR/PDGFR
1
AG-120
Drug
IDH-1 R132H
1
Axitinib (Inlyta) + Radiation Therapy
Drug + Radiation
Tyrosine Kinase Receptors (multiple)
2
NovoTTF-100A device + TMZ
Electrical device + Drug
N/A
3
DC-Vax L
Immunotherapy
N/A
3
HER2 Chimeric Antigen Receptor Expressing
CMV-Specific Cytotoxic T Cells
Immunotherapy
N/A
1
Rindopepimut
Immunotherapy
EGFRvIII
3
Parvovirus H-1 (ParvOryx)
Virus
N/A
1
Live attenuated, oral (Sabin) serotype 1
poliovirus vaccine
Virus
N/A
1
DNX2401 and Temozolomide
Virus + TMZ
N/A
1
for other solid tumors. New therapies with novel empirical designs
are currently in clinical trials (Table 1). All such therapies are
designed for use in combination with the current standard of care as
a means to improve treatment efficacy, and range from personalized
medicine approaches targeting the tumor cells to the disruption of
the tumor microenvironment.
Monoclonal antibodies
One of the leading new classes of therapeutic agents is based on the
use of monoclonal antibodies that recognize cell surface receptors
and ligands, to prevent receptor signaling through the disruption of
receptor–ligand interactions and downstream receptor activation.
FDA approved Avastin (bevacizumab), an antibody against vascular
endothelial growth factor (VEGF), currently leads the way. GBM
tumors, as they grow, secrete VEGF to promote neoangiogenesis.
Systemic injection of Avastin aims to block the response to VEGF
and thus prevent neovascularization of the tumor and consequently
decrease its size (Ferrara et al, 2005). This treatment destabilizes
the tumor microenvironment and does not target tumor-specific
receptors or antigens, which is beneficial as the treatment is not
restricted to a specific tumor type. There are, of course, side effects
caused by a broad blockage of VEGF signaling, such as deep vein
thrombosis (Hosokawa et al, 2010). Indeed, recent data show that
Avastin in combination with the standard treatment did not improve
overall patient survival compared to standard treatment alone
6
(Gilbert et al, 2014); in addition, the group receiving Avastin experienced a significant impact in terms of angiogenic side effects.
Avastin did improve progression-free survival to 10.6 months up
from 6.2 months as reported by Genentech as part of the AVAglio
phase III study. Prevention of GBM progression while not improving
overall survival suggests that Avastin is more a means to contain
GBM growth, rather than eliminate the tumor. As such, Avastin
may be more useful for mitigating early-stage progression. An independent investigation showed that VEGF blockade reduced tumor
size as expected, but unfortunately bolstered tumor invasiveness in
human and mouse models (de Groot et al, 2010), possibly due to
starvation-induced stimulation of tumor cell escape. Avastin is
nevertheless still considered one of the best new treatments for
GBM due to the relatively limited added toxicity compared to standard treatment of care.
In contrast to tumor agnostic antibodies like Bevacizumab,
AMG595 specifically targets EGFRvIII and is currently being tested
in phase I clinical trials. AMG595 is a non-cleavable linker immunoconjugate between a human monoclonal antibody directed against
EGFRvIII and the cytotoxic agent mertansine (DM1). Once AMG595
engages EGFRvIII, receptor-mediated internalization occurs, thus
targeting cytotoxic DM1 to the tumor cells expressing EGFRvIII.
AMG595 comes with its own set of limitations. As described previously, EGFR is mutated in roughly 40% of GBM cases. Of these,
65% have EGFRvIII mutations, which thus leaves only a limited
ª 2014 The Authors
percentage of the total GBM cases that can potentially benefit from
AMG595 as a possible treatment option and only in those cases that
can be easily identified through immunohistological staining of
tumor biopsies or microvesicle detection.
While therapeutic antibodies carry great potential due to the
inherent specificity of binding and the multitude of surface proteins,
there are specific issues in the case of GBM (and other brain
tumors). In fact, any drug administered systemically would require
transport across the blood–brain barrier, which normally impedes
access to the vast majority of drugs. There are, however, various
endothelial uptake mechanisms, which may be exploited to make
antibody delivery to brain tumors possible. The transferrin receptor
mediates the transfer of ligands via iron-mediated endocytosis (Qian
et al, 2002). Antibodies might be adapted to use this system for
brain delivery by enhancing their affinity for the transferrin receptor
and thus increase passage across the BBB.
Innate immunotherapy
As an alternative approach, some groups are attempting to reengineer the patient innate immune system in order to combat their
own GBM tumor. DCVax-L by Northwest Biotherapeutics is
currently in phase III trial for newly diagnosed GBM cases. The phase
I/II clinical trials showed that median life expectancy for DCVax-Ltreated patients increased to nearly 3 years. DCVax-L uses patientderived tumor and healthy dendritic cell tissues to educate the
innate immune response to recognize GBM tissue for elimination
and has been shown to be safe (Yu et al, 2004) (Prins et al, 2011).
Differentiated dendritic cells are presented with the tumor biopsy
and then reintroduced in the patient, thereby promoting T-cell
aggregation and elimination of tumor cells. Prepared DCVax-L is
administered intradermally three times with 2 week intervals
between each administration. This is a clear example of personalized medicine as it requires immunization against a person’s own
tumor. DCVax-L immunization also requires tissue samples to be
shipped to the DCVax-L laboratory for vaccine manufacturing.
A recent press release from Agenus on their Prophage G100
vaccine details the positive outcomes of a phase II trial (www.agenusbio.com). As with DCVax-L, clinicians use tumor biopsies to
develop a personalized vaccine which induces the patient’s T-cell
population to eliminate the tumor. Heat-shock protein glycoprotein 96
and bound tumorigenic peptides partners are extracted from a
patient’s tumor and reintroduced intradermally to activate innate
antigen-presenting cells, which expands the T-cell population. This
vaccine is used in conjunction with the standard treatment of care.
The released results of the phase II study indicate that the median
survival rate had increased to 23.3 months from the 14.6 months
with standard treatment alone. The positive outcome of the multiinstitutional phase II study has clear promise as a combination therapy, but Prophage G100 has not entered a randomized phase III trial
as of yet.
Oncolytic viruses
Oncolytic viruses have potential use as a treatment for GBM. These
viruses are replication incompetent except in specific cell populations such as tumors. Once the selected viruses find their host cell
through surface marker identification, the viruses undergo lytic
expansion, thus destroying the cell population, and remain replicative incompetent once the cell population is eradicated. After the
ª 2014 The Authors
tumor cell population is eliminated, patients can be treated with
anti-viral medication to remove excess virus. These viruses are readily genetically manipulated and are effective unless the patient has a
pre-existing immunity to the viral type used. Selectivity of these
viruses depends on the cell surface expression of targeted receptors.
EGFRvIII, PDGFR, and IL-13R have all been used as selectivity
receptors for GBM in oncolytic virus production.
Oncolytic viruses are under investigation for use in GBM, including Herpes Simplex 1 as it contains double-stranded DNA and is a
common infectious human pathogen. HSV-1 M032 is being explored
as it lacks the y134.5 neurovirulence loci which prevents virus
latency and has appropriate bio-distribution after intracerebral injection in non-human primates with no adverse clinical signs (Roth
et al, 2014). HSV-1 M032 is in phase I trial, which has not been
opened for recruitment to date. GBM Adenovirus trials have also
begun using DNX-2401. Formerly known as Delta-24 this adenovirus is selective for GBM due to the deregulation of retinoblastoma
protein in several cancers like GBM. Delta-24 replication is dependent on functionally inactive retinoblastoma protein (Fueyo et al,
2000). The addition of an RGD-4C peptide gives the virus high affinity for integrins avb3 and avb5 and increases oncolytic activity
against GBM compared to non-RGD-containing analogs (Fueyo et al,
2003). Although the mechanism remains unclear, the adenovirus
may promote cell death through autophagic activity as noted
through the appearance of autophagic vesicles. In mouse xenograft
models, Delta-24-RGD-4C therapy decreased tumor size and
increased mouse survival. Preliminary results indicate that Delta-24RGD-4C single-dose injections resulted in either stable, partial, or
complete regression in 52% of GBM cases (Pol et al, 2013).
Small-molecule inhibitors
Targeted screening has led to potential GBM small-molecule inhibitors such as NSC-154829 which selectively upregulates caspases 3
and 7 in EGFRvIII-expressing GBM cells promoting apoptotic death
(Trembath et al, 2007). NSC-154829 does not have any downstream
pathway effect and does not elicit a response in secondary GBM cell
lines which may suggest caspases 3 and 7 as markers of primary
GBM (Trembath et al, 2007). There is limited public data on
NSC-154829 to estimate the feasibility of this small-molecule
inhibitor as a treatment.
The WNT pathway inhibitor SEN461 is another potential smallmolecule therapeutic target for GBM. The WNT pathway is not
traditionally considered a GBM-relevant one; however, SEN461 was
found to inhibit GBM growth both in vitro and in vivo (De Robertis
et al, 2013). The compound interferes with b-catenin phosphorylation, which is required for the anchorage-dependent growth of
GBM, and although its efficacy has been shown both in patientderived cells and in a Xenopus embryo model in vivo, no clinical
progress has been reported to date.
Screening of a NIH diversity set of 1364 compounds identified
Vacquinol-1 as an inducer of non-apoptotic cell death in glioma cells
(Kitambi et al, 2014). Cell death was the result of micropinocytotic
vacuole accumulation, which led to redistribution of the cytoplasm
causing cell membrane rupture. The effect of Vacquinol-1 appears
glioma cell specific. While the exact mechanism is unknown, shRNA
knockdown of MMK4, a factor critical in micropinocytosis, rendered
glioma cells resistant to Vacquinol-1. Of relevance, the compound
crossed the blood–brain barrier in a murine xenograft model of
7
A
B
Silenced
gene
Active
gene
Bromodomain
reader/
Histone
interaction
Drug
inhibition
Active
gene
Silenced
gene
Figure 2. Drug modification of epigenetic regulation.
(A) Bromodomain readers recognize modified residues on histone tails which can lead to unraveling of the DNA/histone complex contingent on the bromodomain-containing
complex composition. Unwound DNA is available for transcription complex interaction and transcription. (B) Unwound, transcriptionally active DNA reliant on
bromodomain-containing complexes can be therapeutically targeted. Drugs blocking the bromodomain/histone tail modification interaction can prevent the helicase activity
by bromodomain-containing complexes, thus stereohindering transcription regulators and silencing genes.
GBM, where it significantly increased survival providing positive
preclinical validation of the compound. This novel and potentially
effective compound may in turn provide a unique therapeutic strategy given its mode of action.
While the two small molecules described above are pathway
inhibitors, small-molecule epigenetic modulators are also receiving
considerable attention as a possible therapeutic option. Such
compounds alter the epigenetic landscape and may impact many
downstream pathways simultaneously. For instance, epigenetic
drugs may affect tumor growth by regulating gene expression
through the availability of heterochromatin. Bromodomain (BRD)containing proteins are sensors that bind to acetylated lysines on
histone residues and recruit protein complexes to alter gene expression by modulating heterochromatin (Sanchez & Zhou, 2009). The
inhibition of epigenetic readers can prohibit complex formation and
subsequent transcription (Fig 2). JQ1, an inhibitor of the Bromodomains and extra terminal (BET) domain family of proteins, has been
shown to reduce GBM size in mice, which might be of clinical relevance even though JQ1 is unlikely to be useful in the clinic due to
its short half-life and low CNS delivery (Cheng et al, 2013b). JQ1,
however, is but one of many BET inhibitors that are currently under
investigation. For instance, IBET-151 or IBET-762 is currently being
investigated in GBM as a possible alternative, although they are not
brain penetrant (Dawson et al, 2011). For instance, Bromodomain 4
disruption using the small-molecule inhibitor IBET-151 led to GBM
cell cycle arrest in cell line models (Pastori et al, 2014). Epigenetix
Inc. appears to have brain-penetrant long-lasting BRD inhibitors
useful for GBM, though no clinical trials have been initiated yet
(epigenetix.com, personal communication). No epigenetic smallmolecule inhibitor is currently under clinical trial for GBM; it is
therefore impossible to assess this approach in terms of treatment
8
outcomes. It is, however, clear that epigenetic regulation plays an
important role in tumorigenesis, and thus, this approach is one of
the most exciting potential developments in GBM therapy development, and we eagerly anticipate future clinical trials in this space.
Conclusion
Current GBM treatments have not improved overall patient
survival rates to the levels achieved for other brain tumors. From
the basic science standpoint, there is a critical need to understand
how GBM arises or is evolved from earlier gliomas. Targeted therapies may prove to have limited efficacy as GBM can arise from a
variety of mutations. Early diagnosis may be the key to improving
patient survival rates through the prevention of tumor growth,
and therefore, the identification of early biomarkers is critical.
Non-invasive blood monitoring of tumor microvesicles may
provide quick, accurate, and early detection of GBM. Early subtyping of GBM tumors could occur before patients undergo tumor
resection to identify treatment regimens that may reduce tumor
volume pre-resection. The combination of treatment approaches
detailed here may prove an effective regime for the treatment of
GBM tumors.
We suggest, for example, that early detection of an EGFRvIIIpresenting GBM, diagnosed through blood microvesicle screening,
could perhaps one day allow a therapeutic regimen that would
extend patient survival well beyond current levels. Such a patient
could also be given epigenetic drugs to arrest differentiating GBM
tumor cells and prevent tumor growth and development in a neoadjuvant setting. Indeed, should the tumor in such a patient be
located distally from the SVZ and the patient undergoes dye-assisted
ª 2014 The Authors
Pending issues
Tumor heterogeneity is a major impediment to successful GBM
treatment.
Creating near-term solutions to bridge current diagnostic techniques
will inform therapeutic development to combat heterogeneity.
GBM cell models rarely recapitulate actual tumor heterogeneity.
Patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models may address heterogeneity as
a personalized medicine investigative technique.
Epigenetic therapy may limit tumor heterogeneity if identified with
early diagnosis.
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likely to be even better. Current TMZ and radiotherapy treatment
options to kill the remaining tumor cells will continue to be used to
prevent any possibility of recurrence. Considering all the possible
new treatments that are under investigation, we posit that we are on
the verge of a watershed moment in GBM management.
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Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
De Robertis A, Valensin S, Rossi M, Tunici P, Verani M, De Rosa A, Giordano C,
Varrone M, Nencini A, Pratelli C et al (2013) Identification and
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Emerging treatment strategies for glioblastoma multiforme Review Abstract

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