docUnderstanding Global Cultures A “Four-Stage Model” of Cross-Cultural Understanding
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Understanding Global Cultures A “Four-Stage Model” of Cross-Cultural Understanding
Understanding Global Cultures A “Four-Stage Model” of Cross-Cultural Understanding A Four-Stage Model of CrossCultural Understanding I. four-cell typology of process / goal orientation II. more specificity III. inclusion of other “etic” or culturegeneral dimensions along which specific cultures have been shown to vary IV. cultural metaphors are employed for understanding a culture A Four-Stage Model of CrossCultural Understanding I. four-cell typology of process / goal orientation “Four-Stage Model” one variable of the is the degree to which process such as effective communication and getting to know one another in depth should precede discussion of specific goals “Four-Stage Model” another variable is the degree to which a culture fosters and encourages open emotional expression Fig. 1.1. Process, Goals, and Expression of Emotions (p. 14) Open Expression of Emotions and Feelings Lower Degree to Which Process Must Be Emphasized Before Goals Can Be discussed Lower Higher England, Ireland, and Scotland China, Japan, and India Higher United States and Germany Mexico, Spain, and Italy Cultural Metaphors four generic types of cultures horizontal collectivism community sharing vertical collectivism hierarchical (authority) ranking horizontal individualism equality matching vertical individualism market pricing Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15) INDIVIDUALISM Low (horizontal) POWER DISTANCE High (vertical) COLLECTIVISM Equality Matching Community Sharing (interval) (nominal) Market Pricing Authority Ranking (ratio) (ordinal) Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15) INDIVIDUALISM Low (horizontal) POWER DISTANCE High (vertical) COLLECTIVISM Equality Matching Community Sharing (interval) (nominal) Market Pricing Authority Ranking (ratio) (ordinal) Four Generic Types of Cultures 1. Horizontal Collectivism / Community Sharing reflects community sharing in which members of the in-group share all of their goods • as in a small village • even to the extent that there is no such phenomenon as theft Four Generic Types of Cultures 1. Horizontal Collectivism / Community Sharing not much differentiation between individuals ethics are based on group membership • in-group or out-group • members of out-groups are viewed as nonpersons Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15) INDIVIDUALISM Low (horizontal) POWER DISTANCE High (vertical) COLLECTIVISM Equality Matching Community Sharing (interval) (nominal) Market Pricing Authority Ranking (ratio) (ordinal) Four Generic Types of Cultures 2. Vertical Collectivism / Authority Ranking Cultures Ch. Ch. Ch. Ch. Ch. Ch. Ch. Ch. 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 The Thai Kingdom The Japanese Garden India: The Dance of Shiva Bedouin Jewelry and Saudi Arabia The Turkish Coffeehouse The Brazilian Samba The Polish Village Church Kimchi and Korea Four Generic Types of Cultures 2. Vertical Collectivism / Authority Ranking Cultures authority ranking found in large parts of Asia, Africa, and Latin America involves a psychological relationship between the leader or leaders and all others in the culture Four Generic Types of Cultures 2. Vertical Collectivism / Authority Ranking Cultures frequently, such a culture is symbolized not by the handshake, which reflects equality, but by different forms of bowing Four Generic Types of Cultures 2. Vertical Collectivism / Authority Ranking Cultures there is a dynamic, two-way relationship between subordinates and leaders in authority ranking cultures • although the leaders receive more rewards, they are responsible for safeguarding the livelihoods of subordinates Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15) INDIVIDUALISM Low (horizontal) POWER DISTANCE High (vertical) COLLECTIVISM Equality Matching Community Sharing (interval) (nominal) Market Pricing Authority Ranking (ratio) (ordinal) Four Generic Types of Cultures 3. Horizontal Individualism / Equality Matching Cultures Ch. 10 The German Symphony Ch. 11 The Swedish Stuga Ch. 12 Irish Conversations Four Generic Types of Cultures 3. Horizontal Individualism / Equality Matching Cultures equality matching dominant in Scandinavian nations • Sweden • Norway all individuals are considered equal, even when some are taxed heavily Four Generic Types of Cultures 3. Horizontal Individualism / Equality Matching Cultures it is expected that those who cannot make individual contributions to the common good will do so at a later time if possible Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15) INDIVIDUALISM Low (horizontal) POWER DISTANCE High (vertical) COLLECTIVISM Equality Matching Community Sharing (interval) (nominal) Market Pricing Authority Ranking (ratio) (ordinal) Four Generic Types of Cultures 4. Vertical Individualism / Market Pricing Cultures Ch. 13 American Football Ch. 14 The Traditional British House Four Generic Types of Cultures 4. Vertical Individualism / Market Pricing Cultures market pricing found in the United States and other market-dominated nations Four Generic Types of Cultures 4. Vertical Individualism / Market Pricing Cultures although individualism is emphasized, so, too, is the free market • inequality resulting from the operation of the free market is deemed acceptable Four Generic Types of Cultures 4. Vertical Individualism / Market Pricing Cultures there is equality of opportunity and a level playing field • but not equality of outcomes Four Generic Types of Cultures 4. Vertical Individualism / Market Pricing Cultures ethics revolves around the operation of a free market Cultural Metaphors four generic types of cultures, plus “Cleft National Cultures” • one in which the subcultures of the diverse ethnic groups are difficult to integrate . . . “Torn National Cultures” • one, such as Russia, that has been torn from its roots at least once Cultural Metaphors “Cleft National Cultures” Ch. 15 The Malaysian Balik Kampung Ch. 16 The Nigerian Marketplace Ch. 17 The Israeli Kibbutzim and Moshavim Ch. 18 The Italian Opera Ch. 19 Belgian Lace Cultural Metaphors “Torn National Cultures” Ch. 20 The Mexican Fiesta Ch. 21 The Russian Ballet Cultural Metaphors “Same Metaphor, Different Meanings” Ch. 22 The Spanish Bullfight Ch. 23 The Portuguese Bullfight Cultural Metaphors “Beyond National Boarders” • Ch. 24 The Chinese Family Altar Scaling 1. nominal 2. ordinal 3. interval 4. ratio After H. Russell Bernard, Research Methods in Anthropology, 1994 Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15) INDIVIDUALISM Low (horizontal) POWER DISTANCE High (vertical) COLLECTIVISM Equality Matching Community Sharing (interval) (nominal) Market Pricing Authority Ranking (ratio) (ordinal) Scaling 1. Horizontal Collectivism / Community Sharing nominal scaling only names are given to entities • in-group vs. out-group Scaling nominal scaling naming something Scaling nominal scaling a nominal variable is an item on a list of things • the variables are mutually exclusive • but they do not exhaust the possibilities Scaling religion Hindu Moslem Buddhist Christian Druid “Other” Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15) INDIVIDUALISM Low (horizontal) POWER DISTANCE High (vertical) COLLECTIVISM Equality Matching Community Sharing (interval) (nominal) Market Pricing Authority Ranking (ratio) (ordinal) Scaling 2. Vertical Collectivism / Authority Ranking Cultures ordinal scaling individual A may be more important than individual B, and individual C may be more important than individual B, but there is no common unit of measurement Scaling ordinal scaling putting things in order Scaling ordinal scaling ordinal variables are exhaustive and mutually exclusive and their values can be rank ordered Scaling ordinal scaling • high • medium • low Scaling socioeconomic class (SES) • upper class • middle class • lower class Scaling types of political organization • “peasant society” • “primitive state” • “chiefdom” • “tribe” • “band” Scaling ordinal scaling in general, concepts are measured at the ordinal level Scaling level of acculturation • very acculturated • somewhat acculturated • unacculturated Scaling ordinal scaling what ordinal variables do not tell us is how much more the most important characteristic of ordinal measure is that there is no way to tell how far apart the attributes are from one another Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15) INDIVIDUALISM Low (horizontal) POWER DISTANCE High (vertical) COLLECTIVISM Equality Matching Community Sharing (interval) (nominal) Market Pricing Authority Ranking (ratio) (ordinal) Scaling 3. Horizontal Individualism / Equality Matching Cultures interval scale culture does have a common unit of measurement, but it does not make value judgments about individual worth • there are too many dimensions along which individuals can be measures Scaling interval scaling putting items at fixed intervals Scaling interval scaling interval variables are exhaustive and mutually exclusive and their values can be rank ordered Scaling interval scaling and the distances between the attributes are meaningful Scaling interval scaling •30° Fahrenheit •40° Fahrenheit •70° Fahrenheit •80° Fahrenheit Scaling interval scaling • 40° F - 30° F = 10° F • 80° F - 70° F = 10° F Scaling interval scaling • but there is no “zero point” • i.e., 80° Fahrenheit is not twice as warm as 40° Fahrenheit Scaling interval scaling concrete, observable things are often measured at the interval level • but not always Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15) INDIVIDUALISM Low (horizontal) POWER DISTANCE High (vertical) COLLECTIVISM Equality Matching Community Sharing (interval) (nominal) Market Pricing Authority Ranking (ratio) (ordinal) Scaling 4. Vertical Individualism / Market Pricing Cultures scale is ratio there is a common unit of measurement and a true zero point • allows members of the culture to transform every other dimension and compare them monetarily Scaling ratio scaling interval variables that have a zero point there are few interval variables that are not also ratio variables Scaling ratio scaling a 40-year-old is 10 years older than a 30-year-old a 40-year-old is twice as old as a 20-year-old Scaling ratio scaling it is common practice in the social sciences to refer to ratio variables as interval variables Scaling ratio scaling • • • • • • years of education income in dollars, Euros . . . years spent migrating population size # doctors / 100,000 # violent crimes / 100,000 Fig. 1.2. Four Generic Types of Cultures (p. 15) INDIVIDUALISM Low (horizontal) POWER DISTANCE High (vertical) COLLECTIVISM Equality Matching Community Sharing (interval) (nominal) Market Pricing Authority Ranking (ratio) (ordinal) A Four-Stage Model of CrossCultural Understanding I. four-cell typology of process / goal orientation II. more specificity III. inclusion of other “etic” or culturegeneral dimensions along which specific cultures have been shown to vary IV. cultural metaphors are employed for understanding a culture Emics / Etics emics from “phonemics” viewing a culture from the inside etics from “phonetics” viewing a culture from the outside other “etic” or culture-general dimensions achievement motivation uncertainty avoidance time horizon femininity or assertiveness tightness or looseness of rules collectivistic / individualistic etc. Culture Counts and it counts quit a bit but when does culture matter? When Culture Does, and Does Not Matter frequently occupational similarities neutralize culture • e.g., two doctors working on a problem When Culture Does, and Does Not Matter similarity of class can diminish the importance of culture • e.g., middle class use of positive reinforcement in raising children When Culture Does, and Does Not Matter sometimes powerful groups will exclude others from opportunities and then stereotype them negatively, thus consigning them to permanent inferior status • e.g., English / Irish in Ireland • e.g., Apartheid in South Africa • e.g., Rom (Gypsies) in many countries When Culture Does, and Does Not Matter sometimes the nature of the problem minimizes the importance of cultural differences • e.g., companies from two countries working on problem supported by top managements When Culture Does, and Does Not Matter when trust is present, culture decreases in importance When Culture Does, and Does Not Matter culture is particularly important in cross-cultural negotiations When Culture Does, and Does Not Matter culture is also important when individuals move to another nation or culture for an extended period of time When Culture Does, and Does Not Matter to what extent do technological changes such as the Internet influence culture? • internet crime • more differentiation than integration • any indirect form of communication, such as e-mail, presents special difficulties and opportunities Cultural Metaphors “Metaphors are not stereotypes.” Why?
