C. Athanassopoulos, Harper College R. Oliver, Geosyntec G. Corcoran, Geosyntec
Transcription
C. Athanassopoulos, Harper College R. Oliver, Geosyntec G. Corcoran, Geosyntec
Design Considerations for Geosynthetics in Cover Systems Over Mine Waste Rock and Tailings C. Athanassopoulos, Harper College R. Oliver, Geosyntec G. Corcoran, Geosyntec TAILINGS AND MINE WASTE 2014 Conference Sponsors AMEC Earth & Environmental Knight Piésold and Co. Ausenco MWH BASF Chemical MineBridge Software, Inc. CETCO Paterson & Cooke ConeTec Robertson GeoConsultants, Inc. DOWL HKM SRK Consulting, Inc. Engineering Analytics, Inc. Tetra Tech, Inc. Gannett Fleming URS Golder Associates, Inc. Community Sponsor CDM Smith TAILINGS AND MINE WASTE 2014 Introduction • Waste rock dumps and tailings impoundments are common features at mine sites. • Many of these facilities contain sulfide-rich minerals, which generate acid mine drainage. • Control of AMD can be achieved by removing one or more of the three essential components in the acid-generating process: sulfides, air, or water. Introduction Engineered Cover Systems • Possible cover systems include: “Store-and-release” or ET Compacted clay or low permeability soil Geosynthetic composite covers Design Considerations • Hydraulic Performance • Shear Strength and Slope Stability • Longevity and Maintenance Water Balance Covers • Temporary storage of precipitation in the soil followed by removal of the stored water by evaporation and vegetation transpiration during dry periods. • Can perform well, especially in drier climates. • Advantageous from a cost-perspective if onsite materials can be used. • Can be costly from a materials, design, testing, and monitoring standpoint. Compacted Clay Covers • Traditionally used in mine closure and reclamation projects to limit infiltration of surface water into underlying waste. • Clay source factors into cost. • Thicker profile of 0.6 – 0.9 meters makes them more difficult to puncture accidentally. • Difficult to construct and are subject to deterioration from various factors (differential settlement, desiccation, freeze-thaw action). Geosynthetic Composite Covers • Geosynthetic barrier layer (geomembrane) placed over a compacted clay or low permeability soil layer. • The soil may be replaced by a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL). • Commonly used geomembranes include HDPE, LLDPE, PVC, fPP, CSPE, and EPDM. • Drainage layer and cover soil are typically placed above the geosynthetic barrier layer - provide lateral drainage, protect the geosynthetics, and provide growth media for vegetation. Geosynthetic Composite Covers • GCLs are considered equivalent to CCL with respect to hydraulic and physical/mechanical properties (Koerner and Daniel, 1993). • Because GCLs are thinner, they are considered more susceptible to puncture damage and lateral squeezing during construction than a CCL. • Installation damage can be limited with sound construction practices and quality assurance. USEPA ACAP Study • Alternative Cover Assessment Program (ACAP) • 12 field sites nationwide • Various types of covers (clay, GCL, ET caps) • GM/GCL composite liner percolation Source: Alternative Covers for Landfills, Waste Sites, and Mine Sites. Course Notes. April 1, 2010. Austin, TX. USEPA ACAP Study • GM/GCL composite cover percolation: – Apple Valley, CA: 0 mm over 3 years – Boardman, OR: 0 mm over 3 years • GM/compacted soil cover percolation: – Five sites, ranging from 0 to 2.6 mm/yr • Compacted soil cover percolation: – Three sites, ranging from 3.3 to 172 mm/yr (0.814.6%), and increasing with time, likely due to desiccation, freeze/thaw, roots, etc. • ET cover percolation: – Twelve sites, ranging from 0 to 207 mm/yr (0-22.5% of percolation), with highest values in humid and sub-humid areas GCLL Case study: Wisconsin Power Plant • Ash monofill cover in Wisconsin. • Lysimeter under a GCLL. • Two phases: In the first phase, the GCLL was installed with the geofilm downward. The geofilm was oriented upward in the second phase. • Percolation averaged only 2.6 and 4.1 mm/yr for the two lysimeters over a five-year period (2001-2005), with no signs of increasing. • Represents approximately 0.5% of precipitation. Source: Benson, Thorstad, Jo, and Rock. (2007), Hydraulic Performance of Geosynthetic Clay Liners in a Final Landfill Cover, J. Geotech. and Geoenvironmental Eng. vol. 133, No. 7. Modeling Geosynthetic Composite Cover Performance • Flow through a geomembrane is typically is very low, it is considered impermeable. • As a result, flow through a geosynthetic cover system is evaluated assuming defects in the geomembrane barrier. • Can be evaluated using Giroud’s Equation (1997): ( Q = Cqo 1 + 0.1 ⋅ (h t s ) 0.95 )a 0.1 ⋅h ⋅k 0.9 0.74 Slope Stability • • • • • Cover failures can be caused by: Buildup of water in the cover Excessive gas pressure beneath the cover Excessively long or steep cover slopes or Excavation at the toe of the slope (ITRC, 2003). Challenge: driving forces ≤ resisting forces for liner to be stable. GM/GCLs on Slopes – Caps Cincinnati Test Plots (1994) • Cover soil/GC/GM/GCL/subgrade • 5 plots at 3H-to-1V (18.4°) • 9 plots at 2H-to-1V (26.6°) Cincinnati Test Plots • All 3H:1V plots have remained stable for over 18 years • Some of the 2H:1V plots slid soon after installation: – At interface between geomembrane and woven geotextile side of GCL – Internal failure of unreinforced GCL • However, slides could have been predicted by lab direct shear tests and simple slope stability analyses Source: Bonaparte, R., Daniel, D.E., and Koerner, R.M. (2002), “Assessment and Recommendations for Improving the Performance of Waste Containment Systems,” EPA/600/R-02/099. Infinite Slope Analysis WITHOUT WATER, WITHOUT COHESION tan δ FS = tan β δ = critical (lowest) friction angle β = slope angle If FS ≤ 1.0, slide could occur 5 Calculated Factors of Safety Interface Peak Friction Angle FS on 3H:1V slope (18o) FS on 2H:1V slope (26o) Unreinforced GCL / textured GM 20o 1.1 0.7 Reinforced GCL (woven side) / textured GM 23o 1.3 0.9 Reinforced GCL (nonwoven side) / textured GM 29o 1.7 1.1 FS calculated using infinite slope analysis. Assumes well-drained slopes (no pore pressures), and no cohesion. See Daniel et al (1998). Peak Interface friction angles (δ) of GCLLs with various cover materials GCLL Silty Sand Internally Reinforced with (20-mil textured geomembrane) 28 - 35o Internally Reinforced with (smooth geofilm) 18o Clay Gravel 36 - 39o 33 - 36o 19o 20o Drainage Geocomposite 31o 14o Laboratory direct shear testing performed under low normal stresses (<400 psf), representative of a cap. Project-specific shear testing is always recommended. Example Slope Stability Problem Smooth and Textured GCLL/cover soil Slope (H:V) Slope (angle) 26.6o FS with Smooth film GCLL ≤1 FS with Textured GM GCLL 1.1 to 1.6 2H:1V 3H:1V 18.4o 1.0 to 1.1 1.6 to 2.4 3.5H:1V 15.9o 1.1 to 1.3 1.9 to 2.8 4H:1V 14.0o 1.3 to 1.5 2.1 to 3.3 FS calculated using infinite slope analysis and δ = 18 to 20 degrees. Assumes well-drained slopes (no pore pressures), and no cohesion. Longevity • Degradation methods for water balance covers include biointrusion, cracking, and differential settlement. • Factors that can change the performance soil properties include: Biointrusion, desiccation cracking, erosion, puncture, freeze-thaw cracking, differential settlement, etc. • Improve longevity by using select soils, placing/compacting at less than optimum M.C., or use thicker protective cover soil. Longevity • Service life of a geosynthetic cover is dependent on the polymer chemistry, exposure condition, and duration of exposure. • Cover environment is ideal for maximizing longevity of geosynthetics due to low chemical aggressiveness, low overburden stresses, and low temperature. Longevity • Muller et. al. (2008) identified the lower service life of a GCL to be at least 250 years. • A covered geomembrane will last much longer than an exposed. • Buried HDPE at 20˚C is predicted to last 446 years, at 40 ˚C - 69 years (Koerner et. al. 2011) • Under exposed conditions, HDPE is expected to have a lifetime of 36 years, PVC up to 18 years. Conclusion • While commonly used in final cover systems for solid waste landfills for over 30 years, geosynthetic covers have seen much less use in cover systems for mine waste closures. • Studies were presented highlighting advantages and disadvantages of three common cover systems, including hydraulic performance, slope stability, and longevity. 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