Document 6602815
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Document 6602815
Sciknow Publications Ltd. FBLS 2014, 2(4):90-97 DOI: 10.12966/fbls.12.05.2014 Frontiers of Biological and Life Sciences ©Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) 24-h Urinary Vanillylmandelic Acid (VMA) is not a Sensitive Parameter to Identify Acute or Chronic Stress Generated by High Intensity Exercise in Animal Model Gustavo Puggina Rogatto1,*, Priscila Carneiro Valim-Rogatto1, Ricardo JoséGomes2, JoséAlexandre Curiacos Almeida Leme3, and Eliete Luciano3 1 Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Lavras, Lavras, Brazil Department of Biosciences, Federal University of São Paulo, Santos, Brazil 3 Department of Physical Education, São Paulo State University, Rio Claro, Brazil 2 *Corresponding author (Email: [email protected]) Abstract - Vanillylmandelic acid (VMA) is the main urinary end-stage metabolite of epinephrine and norepinephrine. Its concentration can be elevated in some cases of cancer, but also after other stress stimuli. The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of high intensity physical training (HIPT) and acute exercise on urinary VMA concentration and metabolic aspects related to glucose metabolism in animal model. Wistar rats underwent four sets of 10 jumps/day supporting a load equivalent to 50% of body weight, in a water tank for six weeks. A control group was kept in sedentary condition during the same period of time. After six weeks, sedentary and trained animals underwent an exercise session with the same characteristics of HIPT. Acute high intensity effort did not change 24-hour urinary VMA concentration in both trained and untrained rats. Both groups increased glycaemia and lactacidaemia while serum insulin reduced. Acute exercise elevated free fatty acid concentration and decreased gastrocnemius muscle glycogen content in sedentary animals. It was concluded that high intensity physical training and acute exercise interfere on glucose metabolism profile without change 24-h VMA. Keywords - Physical Exercise, Metabolism, Vanillylmandelic Acid, Stress, Rats 1. Introduction The indication that physical exercise is associated with positive health is not recent or original. Physical training benefitis associated to correct exercise prescriptions, involving adequate intensity, duration and frequency. Most of experimental exercise protocols for animal model are based in low/moderate intensity and long-term (Andrade et al., 2014; Yoon et al., 2014). Short-term high intensity and intermittent physical training promotes physiological and morphological adaptations that differ from those generated by some aerobic exercise programs, since metabolic demands are dissimilar (Lemeet al., 2007; Ribeiro et al., 2012). Exercise intensity is related to stress response influencing hormonal secretion and substrate consumption. Moreover, inadequate physical stimulus, generated by erroneous exercise prescription, can result in some undesirable effects such as those related to overtraining and overreaching. Organisms exposed to stressful stimuli including exhaustive and/or prolonged exercise respond with increased secretion of ACTH and, consequently, elevation of circulating glucocorticoid levels. These hormones exert important effects on glucose, fat and protein metabolism stimulating catabolic processes. Other mechanisms involving central nervous system can also influence metabolic response resulting in modifications on catecholamine release. Janikowska et al. (2014) observed that trained road cyclists submitted to maximum exercise showed increase in plasma epinephrine but not in norepinephrine concentrations. However, Williams et al. (2013) observed that recreationally active males presented higher epinephrine and norepinephrine concentrations when submitted to an acute high-intensity interval exercise session. Vanillylmandelic acid (VMA) is the main urinary end-stage metabolite of norepinephrine in the peripheral sympathetic nervous system (Kopin, 1985). Its measurement may provide an index of peripheral NE activity. VMA concentration can be elevated in some cases of cancer, but also after other stressful stimuli. Physical stress caused by exercise training can increase the rate of norepinephrine release (Wang et al., 2013). Actually, physical activity has been shown to increase the level of urinary or plasma NE (Aucouturier et al., 2013; Williams et al., 2013). However, very few studies have investigated the effects of high intensity and intermittent physical exercise on VMA secretion and excretion. Tang et al. (1981) investigated the effects of a controlled Frontiers of Biological and Life Sciences (2014) 90-97 91 exercise program (treadmill walking and bicycle exercise) and found that VMA levels in plasma increased after acute exercise. However, urinary VMA concentration did not present any change when compared to rest condition. week (beforelactate test, urine collection and euthanasia). Studies on metabolic and hormonal responses using intermittent high intensity physical exercise with animal model are even rarer. Thus, it becomes clear need for studies on the effects of this kind of physical exercise on metabolic and hormonal adaptations generated by exercise training in longitudinal design. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of high intensity physical training (six weeks) and acute exercise on urinary VMA concentration and metabolic aspects related to glucose metabolism in animal model. 2.3.1. Body measurements At the beginning of the experiment and during the following six weeks all rats were measured and weighted weekly. The body mass was evaluated with an analytical scale with rats in fast condition. Nose-anal length was measured with an anthropometrical measuring tape from animal tip of the snout to its base of the tail. Body weight and length of each rat was recorded every seven days. 2. Subjects and Methods 2.1. Animals Forty young male Wistarrats (Rattusnorvegicusalbinus) were supplied from Animal Care Unit within São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu. They were maintained at 25±1oC on a 12-h light-dark cycle, with free access to standard rat chow and water. Animal care and all experimental procedures used were in accordance with those detailed in the Guide for Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, which was published by U. S. Department of Health and Human Services and were analyzed by university ethics Committee on the use of animals (Protocol 063/2013 - CEUA –Federal University of Lavras). Animals were selected randomly and distributed in two groups: sedentary (S) and trained (T, animals submitted to exercise training sessions for six weeks). In the experiments using acute exercise, rats were subdivided in four groups: sedentary kept in rest (SR), sedentary acutely exercised (SE), trained kept in rest (TR) and trained acutely exercised (TE). 2.2. Exercise training The physical exercise session consisted of 4 sets of 10 jumps/day in water, supporting a load (compact lead cube) equivalent to 50% of each animal body mass attached to thorax by elastic bands (Rogatto & Luciano, 2001a). Rats were previously familiarized to the jump exercise, performing sets of exercise with progressive intensity (loads equivalent to 0%, 5%, 10%, 20% and 40% of body mass). Jumps were performed inside a PVC (poly-vinyl-chloride) tube with a diameter of 250mm. The bottom of the tube was perforated to keep rat inside the tube and to permit water to way in and to draw off. The tube was inserted in a 100cm x 70cm asbestos tank filled with water at depth corresponding to 150% of rat individual body length (Rogatto & Luciano, 2001a). The water temperature was kept at 31±1oC (Gobatto et al., 2001). Training loads were adjusted every week to promote physiological adaptations. This exercise protocol was performed during six weeks by TR and TE rats. SE and TE rats performed the exercise session acutely at the end of the sixth 2.3. “In vivo” assessments 2.3.2. Lactate test At the end of the sixth week rats from sedentary and trained groups underwent lactate test to evaluate acute responses to high intensity effort. Test execution was according training regimen (4 sets of 10 jumps supporting a load equivalent to 50% of body weight and with water at depth corresponding to 150% of body length). Blood samples (25l) were collected from a small cut of tip tail at different times: rest (R), at the end of the first (F1), second (F2), third (F3) and fourth exercise sets (F4), as well was at three (A3), five (A5) and 10 minutes (A10) after the last jump set. Blood samples were stored in Eppendorfs tubes with NaF (1%), for posterior analysis in a lactimeter(YSL 2300 STAT, Yellow Spring, Inc. E.U.A.). 2.3.3. Urinary Vanillylmandelic acid (VMA) Rats from trained and sedentary groups, in both rest and acutely exercised condition, were kept at individual metabolic cages to 24-h urine collection.Previously to urine collection, 100l of chloridric acid were added to the urine collection containers to acidify and stabilize VMA concentration. After 24 hours rat urine was removed from metabolic cage and analyzed bymethod proposed by Doles reagents (Doles Reag. Equip. para Laboratório Ltda®, Goiânia, Brazil). Urine samples were also utilized to evaluated urinary creatinine concentration using Doles Reagents Creatinine kit (Doles Reag. Equip. para LaboratórioLtda®, Goiânia, Brazil). 2.4. Euthanasia and biological material collection and analysis At the end of the experimental period the SR and TR animals were maintained to 48h resting and 12h fasting and were euthanized by decapitation. SE and TE rats were sacrificed after exercise session. Blood samples were collected in tubes without anticoagulant for posterior analysis of the biochemical parameters (glucose, insulin and free fatty acids) by specific kits. Glucose was determined by enzymatic glucose peroxidase method (Henry et al., 1974). Insulin was dosed using DPC insulin radioimmunoassay kit (Diagnostic Products Corporation®, Los Angeles, EUA). Free fatty acids concentration was determined according to Nogueira et al. (1990). Gastrocnemius muscle was removed and its white portion was excised to analyze muscle glycogen concentration according to Sjörgreen et al. (1938) and Dubois et al. 92 Frontiers of Biological and Life Sciences (2014) 90-97 (1956). 3. Results 2.5. Statistical analysis All experimental results were first evaluated with Shapiro-Wilks normality test to establish the necessity for using parametric statistics. The data were determined to have a normal distribution. Results were analyzed by ANOVA followed by a post-hoc Bonferroni test when necessary. Results are presented as mean ±standard deviation and for all analysis p<0.05 was considered significant. All results are expressed as mean and standard deviation. Figure 1 shows animals’ body weight and nose-anal length following six weeks of experiment. Both sedentary and trained rats presented progressive weight gain from the second to the fifth week (Figure 1-A). However, no significant differences were observed in body mass between experimental groups.Body growth was determined by measuring the nose-anal length of each rat. Body length evolution is presented in figure 1-B. Animals from both groups presented body growth at 1st and 3rd week of the experimental period (p<0.05). No significant diferences were observed between groups. †‡ 400 Sedentary 350 †‡ Trained Sedentary 23 † Trained 22 250 Length (cm) Weight (g) 300 24 †‡ 200 150 100 A 50 †π † †π †π †π † 21 20 19 B 18 17 0 Time 0 1th 2nd 3rd Weeks 4rd 5th Time 0 6th 1th 2nd 3rd Weeks 4rd 5th 6th Note. †different from Time 0.‡different from previous week.π different from 1st week.No significant differences between groups Fig. 1. Rats body weight (graphic A, left) and length (graphic B, right) during the experimental period Figure 2 shows blood lactate concentration of sedentary and trained rats during the lactate test. Blood lactate concentration during the test presented immediately elevation after 2nd(F2) and 3rd(F3) jumps sets in sedentary and trained animals respectively (p<0.05). At the end of 4th (F4) and last exercise set both groups continued elevating blood lactate concentration. Blood lactate concentration was still elevating at three (A3) and five (A5) minutes after last exercise set (F4).At 10th minute after exercise (A10) trained animal began to decrease blood lactate. However, no significant differences were observed in lactacidaemia when sedentary and trained groups were compared. 12 Sedentary Lactate (mmol/L) 10 †‡π Trained 8 † 6 4 † † †‡π †‡π †‡ †‡π †‡π †‡π A3 A5 A10 †‡ 2 0 R F1 F2 F3 F4 Time Note. †different from R. ‡ different from F1.π different from F2. different from F3. No significant differences between groups Fig. 2. Blood lactate during the lactate test [Blood collection at rest (R), at the end of 1st (F1), 2nd (F2), 3rd (F3) and 4th (F4) sets of jump, and at 3rd (A3), 5th (A5) and 10th minutes after the last exercise set] Frontiers of Biological and Life Sciences (2014) 90-97 Figure 3 shows urinary creatinine (3-A) and vanillylmandelic acid (3-B) concentrations of sedentary and trained rats at rest and acutely exercised. Both exercise and physical training did not result in changes in urinary creatinine and VMA concentrations. Table 1 shows serum glucose, insulin and free fatty acids, and muscle glycogen concentration of sedentary and trained rats at rest and after the exercise session. Acute exercise increased serum glucose and decreased insu- 120 4.5 B 4 3.5 100 VMA (mg/L) Creatinine (mg/dL) linaemia in sedentary and trained rats (p<0.05). Free fatty acids concentration did not alter by acute effort or exercise training. Chronic exercise increased white gastrocnemius muscle glycogen content. Acute exercise reduced muscle glycogen concentration only in sedentary rats. Trained animals showed higher post exercise muscle glycogen concentration than sedentary group (table 1). A 140 93 80 60 40 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 20 0.5 0 0 SR TR Time SE TE SR TR Time SE TE Note. No significant differences between groups Fig. 3. Urinary creatinine (graphic A, left) and urinary vanillylmandelic acid (VMA) (graphic B, right) in sedentary (S) and trained (T) rats kept in rest (R) or submitted to acute exercise (E). Table 1. Serum glucose, insulin and free fatty acids concentration and gastrocnemius muscle glycogen content of sedentary and trained rats submitted or not to acute exercise († different from sedentary equivalent group; ‡ different from rest condition) Experimental groups Sedentary rest (n=10) Trained rest (n=10) Sedentary exercised (n=10) Trained exercised (n=10) Glucose (mg/dL) Insulin (UI/mL) Free Fatty Acids (mEq/L) Glycogen (mg/100mg) 102.1 ±4.7 16.5 ±3.9 123.0 ±26.6 0.43 ±0.07 91.1 ±5.6 16.1 ±2.4 140.5 ±23.7 0.60 ±0.08† 152.5 ±15.7‡ 8.7 ±2.5‡ 207.2 ±50.2‡ 0.31 ±0.07‡ 148.8 ±12.8‡ 8.3 ±0.5‡ 138.0 ±25.6† 0.56 ±0.02† 4. Discussion Exercise has been regarded by some authors as a promoter of wellness and health to its practitioners, contributing favorably with circulatory, respiratory, immune and other physiological systems, and reducing the risk of disorders related to sedentary behavior (Ästrand, 1991; Radak et al., 1999; Rogatto & Luciano, 2001a). Studies on the effects of physical exercise through experimental models in laboratory animals allows deeper examination about physical activity on exercised organisms, enabling new discoveries and ways of treating and preventing diseases. In our study we analyzed some endocrine-metabolic adaptations of rats submitted to high-intensity physical training, assessing the interrelationships of these adaptations in acute and chronic exercise. Numerous studies have investigated the effects of regular physical exercise at different levels of analysis. Chronic physical activity may result in benefits, since oriented and applied properly. On the other hand, exercises performed improperly, either by inadequate intensity, frequency and/or duration may result in damage and even affect growth and development of different organs and tissues. Such characteristics may be related to overtraining condition, compromising the performance and physical health and generating stress to the exercised organism (Selye, 1965; Tabata et al., 1991; Watanabe et al., 1991;Sothmann et al., 1992; Azevedo, 1994; Wittert et al., 1996). Much of experimental models of physical training for 94 Frontiers of Biological and Life Sciences (2014) 90-97 animals have been based on aerobic activity, long-lasting, and moderate intensity. This fact leaves a gap on the possibilities for study high intensity physical activity. Weight loss and/or impairment of body growth may be useful indicatives to identify the inadequacy of physical exercise for the animals. In the current study any impairment in these variables were observed, since exercise trained rats, as well as the animals in the sedentary group showed significant gains in weight and body length in relation to the beginning of the trial. In addition, no significant differences in body growth between S and T groups were detected which confirms the idea that exercise training did not negatively affect the animals. Moreover, urinary creatinine levels did not change by acute or chronic exercise training showing that physical effort did not compromise renal function. The lactate test allowed us not only to detect level of conditioning of animals subjected to chronic exercise, but also to report the anaerobic characteristics of the exercise model proposed. Thus, we observed that physical training used in the present study can be termed as intense, given the significant and large increase in blood lactate concentrations during the test. Blood lactate levels of sedentary and trained animals were not different from each other, which could indicate a possible inefficiency of physical training in modifying this substrate production and/or removal. However, cannot be disregarded the fact that other metabolic adjustments occurred as increased energy reserves and modulation of hormonal secretions. At the end of six weeks of experiment, animals of trained and sedentary groups were euthanized at rest and after acute exercise performance. Given that physical exercise is a condition in which there is rapid energy mobilization and redistribution to guarantee muscle activity, numerous changes in hormonal secretion and metabolism become necessary for the maintenance of organic homeostasis (Martin, 1996; Marliss et al., 2000). The reduction of serum glucose concentrations at rest could indicate a metabolic adaptation to increased uptake of this substrate by peripheral tissues (Reaven & Chang, 1981; Tan et al., 1982; Plourde et al., 1991.). However, in our study, no significant differences in serum glucose concentrations of sedentary and trained animals at rest were detected. This fact is possibly due to similar levels of glucose uptake and insulin secretion from animals’ pancreas. However, during acute exercise, glucose uptake can increase dramatically, reaching levels 7-20 times above baseline (Felig & Wahren, 1975; Koivisto et al., 1980; Ivy, 1987; Lapman & Schteingart, 1991). When submitted to acute exercise session, both sedentary and trained rats showed elevation of blood glucose compared to resting values.This glycemic increase possibly due to hepatic gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis that are important factors to preserve homeostasis during exercise. The occurrence of these events can be related to increased levels of some hormones such as glucagon, glucocorticoids and catecholamines among others. Only sedentary rats showed significant increase in serum free fatty acids (FFA) concentration after acute effort. This acute metabolic response resulted in differences between sedentary and trained groups in post-exercise condition. The observation of such occurrence may be due to some metabolic adaptation promoted by physical training, which can have contributed to free fatty acid uptake into mitochondria for oxidation during the course of acute exercise. Insulin secretion is another variable that can be altered by chronic physical exercise and thus influence the energy distribution in the body. Physical exercise can reduce insulin levels both at rest and in acute post-exercise condition. In our study, we found that at rest serum insulin concentrations did not differ between animals from sedentary and trained groups which is possibly related to the observation of similar glucose levels at rest. After the single exercise session, only animals from sedentary group showed lower levels of serum insulin. In a previous study (Rogatto & Luciano, 2000a) we observed that acute exercise reduced insulinaemia in 50% in both sedentary and trained individuals. Similar phenomenon was observed by Nakatani et al. (1997), where rats subjected to endurance training showed significant reduction in plasma insulin levels immediately after the completion of a workout. In the present study, the reduction of insulin after the completion of acute exercise observed in sedentary animals may be due to a "protection mechanism" of the organism in order to promote the maintenance of glucose homeostasis, since glucose uptake can present increased after exercise performance, resulting in hypoglycemia. However, Nakatani et al. (1997) reported that after completion of acute exercise, both trained and sedentary animals showed progressive increase in insulin until a period of 48 hours post-exercise, which can promote increase in glucose uptake. This metabolic response can favor the accumulation of glycogen in post-exercise period. In the present study, increases in glucose uptake may also have occurred in the post-exercise, in view of the observation of increased muscle glycogen stores, even considering similar concentrations of insulin. This fact has been observed by our group in previous studies using the same model of physical training (Rogatto & Luciano, 1999, 2000a, 2001b, 2001c). Chronic physical exercise induces several biochemical adaptations in different organic levels, as in muscle and liver tissues, facilitating the mobilization and oxidation of triacylglycerols and favoring removal of lactate produced during the performance of physical exertion (Saitoh et al., 1983; Kudelska et al., 1996; Hickner et al., 1997; Murakami et al., 1997). Besides favor aerobic metabolism, increasing number and size of mitochondria, long-term and moderate intensity physical training promotes, among other positive adaptations, increase in energy reserves in different organs and tissues (Donovan & Brooks, 1983; Henriksson, 1992; Luciano & Mello, 1999). Such adaptation contributes to the ability of the organism to develop and maintain muscle work, thus improving performance. The increase of glycogen content in skeletal muscle may be due to, among other, an increase in glycogenesis by Frontiers of Biological and Life Sciences (2014) 90-97 overcompensation mechanism, where after complete depletion of this energy substrate, intense activation of glycogen synthase (GS) enzyme occurs. Numerous studies have shown depletion of glycogen content in skeletal muscle after acute exercise (Nakatani et al., 1997) with subsequent increase in its concentration after 48 hours of resting (Lamb et al., 1969). Furthermore, increased peripheral insulin sensitivity observed in post-exercise may persist for a prolonged period of time (Cartee et al., 1989; Nakatani et al., 1997). The glucose uptake during exercise can also occur independently of insulin action, resulting from mechanical stimulation from muscle contraction process (Rodnick et al., 1992; Young & Balon, 1997), and increased translocation of glucose transporters "GLUT 4" in muscle (Host et al., 1998ab). In the present study, high-intensity physical training contributed for trained animals present higher muscle glycogen levels. Previous studies have found that increased glycogen storage by post-exercise overcompensation mechanism has been higher in trained animals (Lamb et al., 1969; Tan et al., 1984; Nakatani et al., 1997). Furthermore, increase in muscle glycogen in trained group, even with similar serum glucose and insulin levels in both groups at rest, may also be due to increased glucose uptake and/or peripheral insulin sensitivity arising the last training session. This adaptation, mainly observed after acute performance of physical activity, may improve glucose tolerance. Luciano & Mello (1998), studying diabetic rats submitted to aerobic swimming training, observed increase in glycogen reserves after four weeks of exercise training. The same physiological adaptation was observed in our previous studies (Rogatto & Luciano, 2000b, 2000c, 2001b) where rats were submitted to high intensity and intermittent exercise training. Muscle glycogen accumulation can also occurred by increase in glucose uptake by repeated muscle contractions mechanism, or by reducing the "turnover" of muscle glycogen during exercise (Rodnick et al., 1992; Azevedo et al., 1998). The overcompensation observed after glycogen depletion may also be due to higher glucose transporters "GLUT 4" activity and glycogen synthase (GS) enzyme, which favor the repletion of muscle glycogen (Kristiansenet al., 2000). Other datasets have suggested depletion of muscle glycogen after performing intense physical effort (Kudelska et al., 1996; Murakami et al., 1997; Rogatto & Luciano, 1999). This fact may influence the activation mechanism of overcompensation. The depletion of muscle glycogen by acute exercise may be due to, among other factors, the activation of adrenal medulla. In the present study, we observed no significant changes in urinary vanillylmandelic acid concentration. However, this may not be reflecting adrenal activity and catecholamine secretion in time of stress generated by performing physical exercise.Actually, very few studies have investigated the effects of physical exercise on VMA secretion and excretion. Tang et al. (1981) investigated the effects of a controlled exercise program (treadmill walking and bicycle ergometry exercise) and found that VMA levels in 95 plasma increased after acute exercise. However, urinary VMA concentration did not present any change when compared to rest condition. For those authors, the lack of change in the corresponding urinary metabolite, despite significant changes in plasma levels, clearly suggests that factors such as renal clearance and/or metabolism of this metabolite or their precursors attenuate or dampen any activity-dependent changes. On the other hand, Pequignot et al. (1979) observed increase in VMA excretion in men submitted to short-term (15 min) exercise. These findings confirm that the VMA is influenced by different factors which hamper its use as a screening parameter of the stress effects caused by exercise. 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