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\GMHF OGEKYC OKXZPG OKJREGJS \GCZGTP
K\RGH\ QGIJKCN
QPVGBY KRGZ
OKK\ZCIF OK\GZK[C FYKI[F ,KRZP[F KJKNGVF OKNYBF ,NBZ[KC FIGGZF \RKEP \G[NIKF
GPM ,\GK\ZCI \GKTC \ZPIFN OKNKCGP L[P\PF KNMNMF QG\KPFG KPGBNF IGJKCF \GBCXYCG
GH \GBKXP .CTZG K\RGH\ QGIJKC ZSGI GPM ,\G[EI \GK\ZCI \GKTC \GZZGT\FNG ,KRGTG FNJCB
\GK\ZCI \GKTC KGFKH LKNF\C ,ZCTCP Z\GK UB ,\GIP\FN OKKNBKXGSF OKECGTFP \[ZGE
I\RPG ZB\P ZPBPF .QZGDKPN YCBPC FNKFYN TGKSCG OKTDVRN OKPNGF OKRTP IG\KVC ,Q\ZEDFG
-QC \JKSZCKRGBC \KNBKXGS FEGCTN FYNIPFP OKJREGJSG OKXZP GPHK[ K\ZCI KGRK[N JYKGZV
KNCYPP F[KZEC EYP\FG NBZ[KC K\RGH\F QGIJKCF \B OEYN ETGR JYKGZVF .CDRC QGKZGD
K\CC FRHFF NTVP YGI OGEKYCG OGHKKCG FKTCF OT \GEEGP\FN FKGBZ \GKRKEP I\VN \GJNIFF
\KJSKCKJYB F[KD CN[N Q\KR FC[ LZEN Z[BC OKK[TP OKJCKF FPMC EYP\P ZPBPF .ZVSF
FEGCTN OKJREGJS \Z[MFG KPEYB ZYIP OT ,\GK\ZCI \GKTC N[ Z[YFC ,K\ZCI KGRK[N
.\KNBKXGS
BGCP
\GKSGNMGBNG OKJZVN FZK[K \KTGXYP FZHT QKC CN[P \KNBKXGSF FEGCTF TGXYP
OKZXGKF OKK\ZCIF OKRCPF NTG \GKRKEP NT FTV[FN \K[TP \GNKTV QKCN \GYYHR
.(Banks, 2001; Specht & Courtney, 1994; Withorn, 1984) KRGTG FYGXP OKIKXRPG
(social action` ) K\ZCI KGRK[N \KJSKCKJYBF F[KDF SKSCC \EPGTF EGSKF \IRF
OGEKYN \K[TPG \KMZT ,\K\B \GCKGIP [K \KNBKXGSF FEGCTF TGXYPN[ BKF
GH F[KD [PPN KEM .(Mary, 2001; Mizrahi, 2001; Thursz, 1966) K\ZCI YEX
EIB ,FPDGEN .\K\NKFYF FEGCTF OGI\C EGIKKC FVRT \KTGXYP \GZVS FI\V\F
FRGMPF ,(social action) K\ZCIF OHKCKJYBF NEGP BGF \K\NKFY FEGCTC OKNEGPF
\GIP\FN \Z[VBPF \K[TPG \KJZGB\ \ZDSP NNGM FH NEGP .KJKNGVF NEGPF OD
\GZIB OKCB[P \GJGTP \GXGCYG FIGGZF K\GZK[ \GIGYN QGDZBN \GJK[C
Alinsky, 1971; Grosser & Mondros, 1985; Rothman, 2001; Rubin) O\NTVFNG
511
{
.(&
Rubin, 1992
531 511 ,4 ,FM ,FIGGZG FZCI
QPVGBY KRGZ
OKKZGCKX OKYCBPC OGKM OKNTGVG ZCTC GNTV ONGTCG WZBC OKKNBKXGS OKECGT
Mizrahi, ;1978 ,OKHZGM) \KTGXYPF O\GIKN[ \B LMC OKBJCPG K\ZCI YEX OGEKYN
OKECGTF EGDKB \ZDSPC OKCZGTP GKF OKKNBKXGS OKECGT ,NBZ[KC .(2001
Z\GKC OKCG[I OKKZGCKX OKYCBPC O\EGCT \GPGYP \ZDSPC GB OKKNBKXGSF
OKZGI[F OKZ\RVF N[ \GK\ZCIF FBIPF \GTGR\ ONNMCG ,K\ZCI YEX OGEKYN
QTPN OKYCBR OKKNBKXGS OKECGT ,EGTG \BH .(2002 ,LCSRPG QPVGBY) OKNFGBFG
KZSI ,OKNGT ,OKNCDGP ,OKRYH ,OKNJCGP ,OKENK GPM ,QGMKSC \GKSGNMGB N[ OFK\GKGMH
\ZDSPC GB OKKNBKXGSF OKECGTF EGDKB \ZDSPC OKZH OKECGTG OK[EI OKNGT ,ZGKE
OD .(NK\[G ENKF OGN[N FXTGPF ,K\NKFY ZGDRS ,EKEK QGDM) K\ZCI KGRK[N OKRGDZB
\KCP OKXZP \XGCY Z[BM OKTC[F \GR[C FCG[I \GNKTV F[IZ\F \KPEYB FPHKC
FNGTVF ETG .FNGTV ETG FPKYF \KZCTF FJKSZCKRGBC \KNBKXGS FEGCTN ZVSF
FIGGZF K\GZ[ \MZTP ZGVK[N OKN[GZKC OKKNBKXGSF OKECGTF YCBPC TKKSN SKKD\F
.(1972 ,ND-ZC)
,OKCZGTP \GKFN OKKNBKXGSF OKECGTFP \[ZGE OKKVNBF \GR[C F[YF \GBKXPF
OKPNGF OKRTPN YCBPCG Q\ZEDFG \GK\ZCI \GKTC KGFKH LKNF\C ,ZCTCP Z\GK UB
KJKNGVF OKNYBF ,NBZ[KC FIGGZF \RKEP \G[NIKF .GNB \GKTCP OKTDVR[ KPN
KNMNMF QG\KPFG KPGBNF IGJKCF \GBCXYCG OKK\ZCIF OK\GZK[C FYKI[F ,KRZP[F
;2002 ,KYSZKCS) KRGTG FNJCB GPM ,\GK\ZCI \GKTC \ZPIFN OKNKCGP L[P\PF
.CTZG K\RGH\ QGIJKC ZSGI GPM ,\G[EI \GK\ZCI \GKTC \GZZGT\FNG (2002 ,QJY
OKJREGJSG OKXZP GPHK[ K\ZCI YEX OGEKYN KR[EI JYKGZV I\RPG ZB\P ZPBP
,QNFN) CDRC QGKZGD-QC \JKSZCKRGBC ZXKV[ ["T \KNBKXGS FEGCTN FYNIPFP
CN[N Q\KR FC[ LZEN Z[BC OKK[TP OKIYN FPMC EYP\P LM LG\CG ,(FYNIPF
KPEYB ZYIP OT \GK\ZCI \GKTC N[ Z[YFC K\ZCI KGRK[N \KJSKCKJYB F[KD
.\KNBKXGS FEGCTN OKJREGJS \Z[MFG
K\RGH\F QGIJKCF \C[FN OKRTPG \GKRKEP OGEKY FKF JYKGZVF N[ KHMZPF ETKF
CDB ,NBZ[KC CTZFG K\RGH\F QGIJKCF ZSGI \KKTCP OKTDVRN (food security)
\IBM GBXPR[ ZVSF \KC NKDC OKEKPN\N EGCMC FRHFN \KRM\ OGEKYC \GEYP\F
OKKY\P K\RGH\ QGIJKC .(2004 ,GCR-OKRGNSG QPVGBY) \GKZYKTF QGMKSF \GXGCYP
IGJCG QKHP QGHP YKVSP DK[FN OKNGMK ,BGF[ QPH NMC ,\GIV[PG OKEKIK Z[BM
\GZGYP N[ O\ZHTN YYEHFN LZGX OFN QKBG ,\K\ZCI FRKICP \GNCGYP OKMZEC
QGIJKC ZSGI N[ CXP ,QKVGNIN .(Holben, 2002) QGHP \GCER [YCN GB QGHPN OGZKI
KRPPS OT K\RGH\ QGIJKC ZSGI Z\GK FZGPIF G\DZEC GB (food insecurity) K\RGH\
FTGCY \G[KDR QKB Z[BM [IZ\P (food insecurity with hunger evidence) CTZ
ZSGIP OKNCGSF \GIV[PG OKJZV N[ KDGNGMKSVFG KHKVF ,K\ZCIF OEGYV\ .QGHPN
.(Holben, 2002) \KPGK-OGKF FPZC EYV\N OK[Y\P OFG ,TDVR K\RGH\ QGIJKC
512
K\RGH\ QGIJKCN \GMHF OGEKYC OKXZPG OKJREGJS \GCZGTP
NT EPGT K\RGH\ QGIJKC ZSGIP OKNCGSF ZGTK[ ,OKPKKYF OKRG\RF KVN ,NBZ[KC
OKNCGSF ZGTK[ .(2003 ,NKKEYGZC-JRKG'D) \KCF KY[P NNMP OKHGIB OKR[G OKZ[T
Z\GK FCZF FGCD O\SRZVN KPGBNF IGJKCF \GBCXYC OKKGN\F CZYC GH FKTCP
.(2004 ,GCR-OKRGNSG QPVGBY)
JYKGZVC U\\[P-FVGXM ZCIPF \GV\\[F NT SSGCP JYKGZVF ZGBK\
OKPGSZV NT ;OKNGYGJGZVCG OKMPSPC \GNKTVF N[ UKYPF EGTK\F NT ;G\K[BZP
N[ KRG[BZ EGCKT NT ;\ZBG\PF \GNKTVN TDGRC \T KC\MCG \KPGKF \GRG\KTC OKCZ
ZYIP SZGYC GV\\[F[ ,KR[G QG[BZ ZBG\P OKJREGJS N[ OKCG\M \GIGE OKZ[T
\GIK[ NTG ;G\ZDSPC O\GSR\F N[ OKRG[ OKJCKF NT GIGGKEG ,K\ZCI KGRK[N FNGTV
N[ OKRG[ OKCN[C KYNI QVGBC GV\\[F[ OKJREGJS \GZ[T OT \GK\XGCY FMZTF
.JYKGZVF
N[ \GCZT\F EYGPM \GK\ZCIF \GKTCN TDGRC \GZVS \ZKYSC I\GV ZPBPF
\B DKXP BGF QMP ZIBN .K\ZCI KGRK[N OKJREGJS \Z[MFNG OKKNBKXGS OKECGT
,OKKRGDZB OKJCKF OKRGER OGKSC .G\ZDSPC FTXC\F[ \GNKTVF \BG JYKGZVF
.FZYIR[ \GNKTVN OKZG[YF OKK\NKFYG OKKPEYB
\GZVS \ZKYS
K\ZCI KGRK[N \GCZT\F EYGPM \GK\ZCI \GKTC
GEDR\F (Parsons, Jorgensen, & Hernandez, 1994) HERRZFG QGSRDZG'D ,SRGSZV
GB OKKNBKXGS OKECGT[ KEMP KEP \GCMZGPG \GNGED QF \GK\ZCI \GKTC[ FRTJN
OKMKZX ORKB OKKNBKXGS OKECGT ,O\RTJN .QZGDKPN NGTVN GNMGK OKZIB TGXYP K[RB
OKECGTF ,OFKZCEN .\GK\ZCI \GKTCP OKTDVRN ZK[K TGKSN O\GNKTV \B NKCDFN
OGKY \B \ZP[PF FYKPRKEC OKRG[ OKCKMZP NT TKV[FNG \GSRN OKMKZX OKKNBKXGSF
LZGXF \B G[KDEF (Rubington & Weinberg, 1989) DZCRKGG QGJDRKCGZ .\GKTCF
CXPM F\GB GSV\K ZGCKXC OKK\GTP[P OKZHDP[ QVGBC \K\ZCIF FKTCF \KKRCFC
Z[BM \Z\VR \K\ZCI FKTC ,O\TEN .QGZ\KV NTCG OKNCGYP OKMZT EDGR ,KGXZ K\NC
OKXGIRF OKCB[PF \B [KEYFN OKJKNIP OKK\ZCIG OKKJKNGV ,OKKNMNM \GESGP
LKNF\ BGF \GK\ZCI \GKTC QGZ\V LKNF\[ QKKX (Weick, 1984) YKKG .LM LZGXN
FKTCFP OKNCGSF ONNMCG ,TKV[FN OKRKRGTPF .\KZGCKXF FZKHC [IZ\PF KJKNGV
\BKXP CKKIP[ QVGBC KZGCKXF OGKF ZESN FKTCF \BNTFN OKNTGV ,TGXYP K[RBG
NT FTV[FN \KJKNGV FPXT \ZKXKN OKXGIR OKCB[P OGDKBN OKMZEF \IB .\GRGZ\V
513
QPVGBY KRGZ
\GKGV\G[ \PYFN GNKCGK[ OKK\NKFY OKMKNF\ EEGTN BKF \GJNIFF KNCYP
.(2001 ,QPVGBY) \GK\NKFY \GKXKNBGYG
\GRG[ \GK\NKFY \GMZTP FC FEKPFP TV[GP KGRK[F QMGS BNPP G\GB EKYV\F
Parsons, Jorgensen, &) \K\ZCIF FKTCN SIKC \KCKJYVB FNGTVN \GRDZGBP
\K\NKFY \GNKTV QFKCDN [K[ \GK\ZCI \GKTC KCDN \GNKTV .(Hernandez, 1994
\GV\G[G WGTKK NT ZYKTC \SSGCP \GKFN FNGMK ,\KZJRGNGG GB \KESPPP ,\RDZGBP
\KR[EI \GNKTV \[ZER ,\BH \PGTN .OKKYF ZGVK[ KCDN FNKFYC OKPZGD OT
QRKB \GZIB \GK\NKFY \GMZTPG OK\GZK[ \GMZTP[ \GK\ZCI \GKTC KCDN \KPHKG
FRGERF \K\ZCIF FKTCF ,L[PFC ZBG\K[ KVM .Q\KB \GEEGP\FN KGBZM \GRDZGBP
\KR[EI FPHGK \JKYR ,FCKKI NBZ[KC CTZG K\RGH\ QGIJKC ZSGI ,FH ZPBPC
.\KJSKCKJYBG
K\ZCI KGRK[N OKJREGJS \Z[MF
KGRK[N \RRMG\P \GNKTV BGF \KNBKXGSF FEGCTF N[ F\GKIPGP KPGI\P EIB[ UB
\G[KDC \GIP\FN \GKRM\ \GPKKY\P \KNBKXGS FEGCTN ZVS K\C JTPC YZ ,K\ZCI
\GKRM\C ,NNM LZEC .K\ZCI YEX OGEKYNG \GK\ZCI \GKTC OT \GEEGP\FN \GKJKNGV
FH OGI\C \GIP\FN OKRKKRGTPF OKJREGJS N[ OXPGXP ZVSP OKV\\[P GNB
OKYCBPC OEGY QGKSKR QKB OKJREGJSF \KCZPN .(Haynes & Mickelson, 2000)
\GNKTVC \K\GTP[P \GSR\F \GGING EGPNN \GRPEHF ,NNM LZEC ,QKBG ,OKK\ZCI
Johnson,) \K[TPF FZ[MFC GB F\KMC ,OFKEGPKN \ZDSPC K\ZCI KGRK[ OGEKYN
OKVKETP \KNBKXGS FEGCTN OKJREGJSF \KCZP[ FBZR ,LM NT USGR .(1998
Weiss, Gal,) FZCIFG FNKFYF \PZC KGRK[C BNG JZVF \PZC \GCZT\FC \GIP\FN
(& Cnaan, 2004
\GK\ZCI \GKTCC \VJG[F O\GNKTV \ZDSPC OKYSGT \KNBKXGS FEGCTN ZVS K\C
OKJYKGZV \ZDSPCG OKEGPKNF \KRM\P YNIM ,FE[C OKJREGJSF \Z[MFP YNIM
\NNGM FRKBG \KPEYBF \PZC \EYP\P \GNKTVF ,NNM LZEC .OKKZYIP
OHKCKJYBC OKRKKRGTPF OKJREGJSG OKXZP .CXPF KGRK[N \K[TP FNGTVN \GCKGIP
OKECGTF EGDKB QGDM ,\GKBJKSZCKRGB-WGI \GZDSPC K[KB SKSC NT OKNTGV K\ZCI
.(Mary, 2001) \GKJKNGV \GDNVP GB K\ZCI KGRK[N OKKZJRGNGG OKRGDZB ,OKKNBKXGSF
\KCKJYB \GNKTVN \KPEYB FBZGF QKC CGNK[ \GZ[VBPF \G[KDF \IB
action) K\ZCI KGRK[N FNGTV ZYIP BKF \GK\ZCI \GKTCC \K\GTP[P \GCZT\FN
OKDGSP \NECR GH F[KD .(Stoecker & Beckwith, 1992) (research for social change
\K[TP \GNKTVN K\NKFY IJ[ ZYIP QKC \CN[P BKF[ LMC FNGTV ZYIP N[ OKZIB
FNKFYN TKKSP K\ZCI KGRK[N FNGTV ZYIP .K\ZCI KGRK[ OGEKYN OKBXPPF OG[KKN
514
QGZ\KV \NTCM FKTCF \ZEDF .\KCKJZVGB FZGXC \GKTC \ZEDFN WGIR TEKP DK[FN
KEYGP \PYF N[ OKMKNF\ \EEGTPG CXPF KGRK[N \G[KZEG \GKRM\ IG\KV \Z[VBP
FKXYBZJRKBF .(Gaventa, 1993) \KCKJYBN \KCKSVP F\MKVFG FNKFYC OK[EI IGM
BN FKTC N[ Z[YFC [EI TEK IG\KV CKCS FNKFYF K[RB QKCN OKJREGJSF QKC
KVG\K[ \EEGTPG (1997 ,QES) ZYIPC OKV\\[PF N[ FPXTF \Z[VBP \ZMGP
K\ZCI KGRK[N KTXPB OD FNB FPXT KRVC FZJP YZ GRKB ZYIPF ,GH \RGM\PC .FNGTV
\Z[VBP FNGTV ZYIPC \GV\\[FF ,\BHP FZ\K .(Stoecker & Beckwith, 1992)
TEKF SKSC NT F[TPN FMNF K\ZCI KGRK[ KMKNF\ \NTVFC \GSR\FN OKJREGJSN
-KZYIPF LKNF\F \B OKNKCGPF OKXZPNG (Stoecker & Beckwith, 1992) ZCXR[
\K\ZCIF O\GCKGIP \B [PPNG ZYIPN FBZGF QKC CN[N FE[CG F\KMC KEGPKN
.K\ZCI YEX OGEKYN \KTGXYPFG
JYKGZVF
JYKGZVF \NTVFN \K\[\F \ZKXK
K\RGH\ QGIJKC ZSGI[ ,CDRC FIGGZF K\GZK[ \GIGYN CZYC FYGXPFG KRGTF \GZCD\F
WZBC OK[NIFP BGF CDRF ZGHB .TK\VP GRKB ,OZGCTC \KRGXKYG F[EI FKTC BGF
FIGGZF K\GZK[C OKXGXKYN EIGKPC TKDV BGF QMNG ,\KPGRGYB-GKXGS FRKICP
.(2003 ,QGZGE) \GRGZIBF OKR[C G[IZ\F[ KPGBNF IGJKCF \GBCXYC \GTKDVNG
FYNIPF N[ OKEGPKNF \KRM\C [DEF \ZCDFN FNKCGF FR\[PF \K\ZCIF \GBKXPF
.K\ZCI KGRK[ OGEKYN \GJK[C \GSR\FN \GKGZ[VB IG\KV NTG OKMZT \KKRYF NT
OKKZJRGNGG OKRGDZBC B FR[ KEKPN\N \KR[EI FZ[MF \KRM\ FI\GV 2001 \R[C
N[ U\G[PF OGZGVF" OYGF FR[ F\GBC .\GK\ZCI \GKTCCG K\ZCI KGRK[C OKYSGTF
\K\GCER\F \RGM\PC NTV OGZGVF .(OGZGVF ,QNFN) "K\ZCI YEXN OKJREGJSG OKXZP
.K\ZCI KGRK[N \K\NKFY FEGCTC FE[C QGKSKR NTC FXZP G\GB HMKZG \KNPZGV BNG
\TXFC \GBCXYF KNCYPC \GTKDVF EDRM \K\NKFY FNTVFN \GKRM\ FPM OHK OGZGVF
\MKP\N FMH OGZGVF .2002 \R[C OKMRF YCBPG (2001 ZCPXEC 27 ,[GNB) CKXY\F
\B YHING ZV[N KEM .OKNKTVN FZYGF Q\PG \GNKTVF EGSCS FNNM[ FYNIPF
NNMGF 2003 2002 OKR[C OGZGVF \ZDSPC K\ZCI KGRK[N \KZJRGNGGF \GNKTVF
KGRK[N FNGTV ZYIP \[KD ."K\ZCI KGRK[N FNGTV ZYIP" SZGY OKEGPKNF \KRM\C
\GKGI\V\F .\K\NKFYF FEGCTF OGI\C EGIKKCG OKVSGR OKSZGYC OD FCNG[ K\ZCI
\GMZTP GYVKSG JYKGZVF \NTVFN \K\[\ G[PK[ ,L[PFC ZBG\K[ KVM ,GNB
{
515
QPVGBY KRGZ
FBZGF N[ OKKPEYB OKJZERJS NT FZKP[ CDB FNKFYC \GKPKJKDN \GCZT\FG FNGTV
.ZYIPG
FNGTVN OKETK \TKCYG QGICB
\GKGETP FYNIPC GEPN OKTDVRF N[ O\YGXPG CTZF \KKTC KEPPC NGEKDF NT
GVSBR[ OKRG\RPG CTZ \YGXPP OKNCGSF \GIGYNC GNY\R[ OKJREGJS N[ FE[FP
WZPC ,EGTG \BH .FYNIPFP NDS \ZCI FPKYF[ OKYYHRN "TCG[ ZBC" \ETSPP
\I\ OKIPGPG FNKFY K[RB \GV\\[FCG FYNIPF \PHKC KZGCKX SGRKM OKKY\F 2000
F[TR[ FKTCF N[ K\NKFY QGICB DXGF SGRKMC ."?NBZ[KC CTZ [K OBF" \Z\GMF
K\RGH\F QGIJKCF ZSGI \KKTC[ FNT SGRKMC OKKY\F[ QGKEFP .OKJREGJS KEK NT
\GEEGP\FN FMGH FRKB QMNG ,\K\ZCI FKTCM ,F[TPN ,\ZEDGP FRKB NBZ[KC CTZFG
[GZEN GB/G OKRTP ,\GKRKEP YVSN \GZGPB[ \GRG[ \GMZTP N[ QEXP \K\GTP[P
IK[F NFR\P GC[ NVZGTPF QVGBF BKF LMN \GKZYKTF \GCKSF \IB .FKTCN QGZ\V
\K\NKFY \GNKTV EGEKTC FYV\SF FN[PPF .FKTCN Z[YFC KTGXYPFG KZGCKXF
\B ZYCN GJTKPG \KZGCKXF \GRCERF \B GICK[ \ZG[Y\F KNMG ,B[GRC \K\GCER\F
OEXP OKXPBP G[TR BN[ LMN NKCGF FH CXP .K\RGH\ QGIJKC ZSGI \ZXGKF \GKRKEPF
\GKSGNMGB \GFHN ,FKTCF KEPP \B EGEPN FIGGZF K\GZK[G \GKRKEPF KTCGY N[
TGXYP K[RB ,FKTCFP OKNCGSF[ LMNG ,FZGDKPN \GKRM\G OKRTP I\VNG QGMKSC
FZGXC GNTV BN ,OKK\NKFY OKRGDZBG LGRKIFG \GBKZCF \KNBKXGSF FEGCTF KPGI\P
.FNKTKG \RDZGBP
FKTCFP \GPNT\FF \GCYTC[ F\KKF OKJREGJSG OKXZP CZYC F[GI\F
OKRTPG \GKRKEP IG\KV OEYN KEM CZT\FN \KZSGP \GCKGIP FR[K FK\GZGYPPG
FNNM F[CGD[ K\RGH\F QGIJKCF OGEKYN \GCZT\FF \KRM\ .OKXGIRG OKPKB\P
:FNGTVN OKKZYKT OKETK F[GN[
.\K\ZCI FKTCM \K\RGH\F FYGXPF \ZEDF LKNF\ OGEKY FKF QG[BZF ETKF .1
U\\[FN FNKFYC OKRG[ OKPZGDN \Z[VBP \K\ZCI FKTCM KGXZ BN CXP \ZEDF
TGKS \GKRM\NG \GRGZ\VN \GKGVKET KZESNG \GVGNIN SIKC KZGCKXF IK[C
YCBPC \KZCF-\GXZBC ZCJXF[ QGKSKRF \GCYTC OD ,FH ETK [GPKP .OKTDVRN
GZ[VBK[ OKNMG OKD[GP \MZTP IG\KV [ZE (Eisinger, 1998) CTZF \KKTCC
.QGMKS \GXGCY KGFKHG FKTCF KEPP \EKEP
\GFHN [ZE FH ETK [GPKP .\KCKJYVB FNGTVN FNKFYF SGKD FKF KR[F ETKF .2
.CXPF KGRK[N FNGTVN O\GB EEGTNG FNKFYC QKKRT KNTC OKPZGD
\GKGMHF \[KD SKSC NT \GEEGP\F KMZEG \GRGZ\V \KKRCF FKF K[KN[F ETKF .3
SIKC KTGXYPFG KZGCKXF IK[F KGRK[N OGZDN KEM (Riches, 1997) \GK\ZCIF
516
GPM ,\GK\ZCI \GKGMH NT \GSSGCPF \GKRM\ .FKTCF OT \GEEGP\FF KMZEN
K\CC OKENKF NNMN \GK\MNPP FRHF \KRM\ GB KPGBNF IGJKCF \GBCXY
.(Poppendieck, 1998) KIZHB EGCMG \KPXT FZKIC \GEEGTPM \GSV\R ,ZVSF
QGHP K[GN\ \YGNI GB KGIP\ K\C GPM ,\GRCER NT \GSSGCPF \GKRM\ ,Q\PGTN
F\KKF ,QMN .(Eisinger, 1998) QFKNB OKRGVF \B \GDKK\PM \GSV\R ,OKYYHRN
\GMHF SKSC NT \KXZBFG \KPGYPF FPZC \GKRKEPN \GVGNI IG\KVN \GCK[I
OKVETGPG OKKGXZ \GRGZ\VM OKRG[ OKK\NKFY OKPZGDN QYGG[NG K\RGH\ QGIJKCN
.FKTCN
\KKTCN SIKC OKK\GTP[P KGRK[ KMKNF\N HZHM F[PK[ L[PFC ZBG\\[ \GNKTVF
.FNKI\MNP GTCYR[ OKETKFP FPM OGEKY ONNMCG ,K\RGH\F QGIJKCF ZSGI
{
\GNKTVF ZGBK\
,\GV\\[F N[ \GRG[ \GPZC ,YNI FC GNJRG ,2004 2002 OKR[C FTXC\F \GNKTVF
OKK\ZCI OK\GZK[C FPKKY\F \K\NKFYF \GNKTVF .OKCZ NDSF K[RBG OKJREGJS
\GJK[C G[P\[F F\ZDSPCG ,\SRMF \GRGZESPCG CGIZC ,OKK\NKFY OKRGDZBCG
,\ZG[Y\F KNM \GTXPBC \KZGCKX \GTEGP \BNTF QGDM ,\KJKNGV FTV[FN \GRG[
.FYKYI KGRK[N KCGNG \GKXKNBGY \KKRC ,OKK\NKFY FBIP KSRM ,\GPGXT NT FP\IF
YNIN Q\KR .OKK\NKFY OKZYS \MKZTG OKJREGJS \Z[MF FNNM \KPEYBF \GNKTVF
IK[F KGRK[C \GNKTVF FEYP\F QG[BZF CN[C .OKCN[ KR[N \GNKTVF \B
\GNKTVF FEYP\F KR[F CN[C .NBZ[KC "CTZ"F \KKDGSN Z[YC KTGXYPFG KZGCKXF
\GTXPBC { ZVSF K\CC OKEKPN\ { \KVKXVS ETK \KKSGNMGBN FRTP OGEKYC
. F RHF N T V P
K\RGH\ QGIJKCN \GMHF { KZGCKXF IK[F KGRK[N \GNKTV :QG[BZ CN[
K\RGH\F QGIJKCF CXP \EKEPN ZYS
EEPC NBZ[KC FRG[BZN [P\[F[ K\NKFY ZYS OKKY\F 2002 ZCPXE [EGI LNFPC
-OKRGNSG QPVGBY) K\RGH\ QGIJKC N[ \GRG[ \GPZ \RKICN \GI\GVP \GXZBC NCGYP
OKCG[KK 11-C FIGGZ K\GZK[ QGGDP N[ \GIGYN 953 CZYC LZTR ZYSF .(2004 ,GCR
,OKJREGJS KEK NT TXC\F ZYSF .OKBGEC KCG[KKG IG\KV \GZKKT ,OKZT OFKRKC ,CDRC
OFKEGPKNP YNIM FPK[PF LZGXN GSKKD\F[ ,OPXTC FIGGZ K\GZK[ KECGT OYNI
GKF ZYSF \GZJP .K\ZCI YEXN OGZGVF KZCI OKCER\P KEK NTG FNGTV ZYIP SZGYC
\GXGCY Z\BN \GSRNG ,GYECR[ \GKSGNMGBF CZYC K\RGH\F QGIJKCF \EKP \B QGICN
NT G[CGD G\ZCTF KNFGRG QGNB[F .K\RGH\ QGIJKC ZSGI KCXPP \GNCGSF \GRG[ QGMKS
517
QPVGBY KRGZ
ZYIP SZGYC OKV\\[P \XGCY OT FYNIPFP OKZYGI G[T[ FRMF \EGCT SKSC
N[ \ZIB FXGCY FRGPP F\KKF O\Z[MFG ZYSF \ZCTFN OKCER\P SGKD NT .FNGTVF
\GNCGSF \GIV[P OT YPGT \GRGKBZC FYST \VSGR FXGCYG ,FH SZGYP OKJREGJS
\ZJP .QGHP \YVSFN \G\GPT K[BZG OKKNBKXGS OKECGT OTG \K\RGH\ FYGXPP
KMZE \BG K\RGH\F QGIJKCF \KKTC \B OKRKKBGZPF \SKV\ \B QKCFN F\KKF \GRGKBZF
OKRMGP GKFK[ ,OKRGDZBG \GIGYN ,FNKFYC OKPZGD \GFHN FK\GMN[F OT O\GEEGP\F
.FZGDKPN YCBPN UZJXFNG \KZGCKXF FPZC FKTCF \B DXKKN
ZCPXEC 24 ,KRKS) KZGCKX EFN GMHG \ZG[Y\ KNM QGGDPC GPSZGV ZYSF KBXPP
CXPC OKBXPR OKZYSRFP CZYP 28% YZ[ LM NT Z\KF QKC GTKCXF OKBXPPF .(2002
N[ OFKENK[G (ZKES QVGBC QKHP QGHP O\IV[PN YVSN \NGMK) K\RGH\ QGIJKC N[
USM FKF BN OFKZGFN KM NMGB BNN ZVSF \KCN OKPTVN GTKDF OKZYSRF \KXIP
.(2004 ,GCR-OKRGNSG QPVGBY)
OKKG[T[ FNKFYC OKRG[ OKPZGD CZYC GXVGF GK\GRYSPG GKBXPP ,ZYIPF IGE
\KHMZPF FM[NF ,KPGBNF IGJKCF ,FIGGZF EZ[P :ONNMCG B[GRC OKRKKRGTP \GKFN
OKRGDZB ,OKKNBKXGSF OKECGTF \XTGP ,\GKEGFKF \GKXZEVF QGDZB ,FYKJSKJJSN
.\SRM KZCIG FIGGZ K\GZK[ KNFRP ,QGHP \YVSFN \G\GPT K[BZ ,K\ZCI KGRK[N
"EGCMC NGMBN \GMHF" K\NKFY SGRKM
,FJKSZCKRGBC K\NKFY SGRKM K\NKFY YEXN OGZGVF OHK IGEF OGSZVN L[PFC
BK[R GKF OKZCGEF QKC .OKBXPPF N[ \GKCKJZVGBF \GKGTP[PF GRGER G\ZDSPCG
OKIPGP ,CTZG K\RGH\ QGIJKC ZSGIP \GNCGSF \GIV[P \DKXR ,FJKSZCKRGBF
\Z\GM .QGHP \YVSFN \G\GPT K[BZG ZGCKXF \GBKZC ,FIGGZF \GKRKEP OGI\P
\GKSGNMGB CZYC CTZF KKGJC NB SIKK\FN FTKXF "EGCMC NGMBN \GMHF" SGRKMF
FZBK\[ \GIV[PF \DKXR KZCE .\KSKSC \K\ZCI \GMH \ZVFM NBZ[KC \G[NI
FYKVSP FRKB \GBCXYP F\SRMF[ QGGKM CTZ KCXP \GGIN \XNBR BKF EXKM JGZKVC
KZCEC .(2002 ZCPXEC 26 ,[GNB) OKKXZBG OKKPGYP OKRG\KTC OBGNPC GJJGX
ZCPXEC 24 ,K\ZCI YEXN OGZGVF) \GRG\TN FTEGFC OD GJJGX[ ,SRMF N[ FIK\VF
:FZGDKPN YCBPNG FKTCF \ZEDFN \GRGZYTN SIKC ZGZC ZSP ZCTGF (2002
FNB[C QGKEP .NBZ[KC CTZF \KKTCC KZGCKXF QGKEF QVGB \B \GR[N GRKNT
NGMBN" N[ \KSKSCF \GMHF \B OKIKJCP LKB :GPM \GNB[N "?CTZ [K OBF"
LKB ?NBZ[K \RKEP KC[G\N K\RGH\ QGIJKC FKF GC CXPN OKZHGI LKB ?"EGCMC
QGHPF \B \GRYN O\NGMKC QKB[ OKENKG \GIV[PP FNV[FG NCSF \B OKTRGP
OGYN FMKZX ,LM LZGXN ?NBZ[K \RKEPP "CTZF \VZI" \B OKZKSP LKB ?WGIRF
\GIV[PG OKK\NKFY OKRGDZB ,OKRG[ OKPGI\P TGXYP K[RB N[ FCIZ FKXKNBGY
.\GRGZ\V [GZENG OKTDVRF
518
OGEKYN KZGCKX QKKVPY NT OGZGVC OKNKTVF OKJREGJS GHKZMF SRMF LNFPC
NGTVN \GESGPG OKRGDZB SGKDG FPGXT NT FP\IF NNM QKKVPYF .EGCMC NGMBN \GMHF
F[KZE FNNM FPGXTF .NBZ[K KC[G\N K\RGH\F QGIJKCF \ZHIFN KZGCKX KCGNM
,\GZIB \GRKEPC NCGYPM ,NBZ[KC K\RGH\F QGIJKCF CXP \B EGEPN FN[PPFP
OKEPGNF OKJREGJSF SGKD LZGXN .FKTCFP OKNCGSF NT FNYFN OK\GZK[ I\VNG
FYNIPC OKEPGNF OKJREGJSFP OKCZ .FZCSF TSP OKKY\F OKPK\IPM FYNIPC
OKECGT CZYC FP\IF NT O[GF EIGKP [DE .\GPK\I KVNB GVSBRG FPK[PN GSKKD\F
FZJPF .\K[TP FZ[MF OKJREGJSF OKZCGT OFC[ FIGGZ K\GZK[ N[ \GIGYNG
NT TKV[FN ,OK\GZK[C OGKF ZESN K\RGH\F QGIJKCF \KKDGS \B \GNTFN F\KKF
.FNGTVN \GIGYN \GRDZB\F EEGTNG \GIGYNN OKECGTF QKC IK[F
EGCMC FRHFN \GMHF { ZVS K\CC FRHF NTVP YGI OGEKYN \GNKTV :KR[ CN[
GPEYK[ \GKRKEPG \GKRM\ QTPN YCBP OGHKN OKZGF KETGG \GCER\F KRGDZB EEGTN KEM
FPKB\P FKDGSM ZVSF K\CC OKENKF \RHF \KKDGS FZICR K\RGH\ QGIJKCN \GMHF \B
\G[KDV FPM GRDZB OGZGVF KZCI .(Bobo, Kendall, & Max, 2001) KZGCKX YCBPN
\B OEYN GPKMSF OKRGDZB FPM QMBG ,B[GRC NGTVN OFN GTKXFG OKRG[ OKRGDZB OT
\\GPT ,(FYGXP \GKSGNMGBN \GKGMH KHMZP FNKTVPF) EKEK \\GPT OFKRKC ,B[GRF
KETG EDBPF ,OGZEC LGRKIF OGEKYN OGZGVFG (OKK\ZCI OKRKKVPYC FIP\PF) SKHBGB
.N"K\[ \\GPT TGKSC NTGVG LGRKI KNKTVG OKZGF
ZVSF K\CC FRHF NTVPN YGI \TXF
OGEKYN FNGTV \GRGZYT [CDN ETGR[ FJKSZCKRGBC SGRKM OGZGVF QDZB 2003 NKZVBC
OKRGDZBF \B FNNM[ ,\KNPZGV BN ,FKXKNBGY [GCKDN NKCGF SGRKMF .FRHFF YGI
NT .\SRM KZCIG ZVS K\C KNFRP ,QMN OEGY GZMHGFG B[GRF OGEKYN NGTVN GPKMSF[
\GZCI OT UG\K[C GRKMF EKEK \\GPT KRJV[P ,SGRKMC G[CGD[ \GRGZYTF SKSC
SKSC NT FRHF NTVPN YGI \TXF (KGRK[) KRCN K\BG (FEGCT) ZKP\ KNGK \SRMF
\TXF OGEKY LZGXN .(2003 KBPC 9 ,EGE) NBZ[KC ZVSF K\C KENK NNMN KNSZCKRGB
FP\IF TXCP NNM QKKVPYF .\KZGCKX FNGE[ [GCKDN \GNGTV \ZES GPKKY\F YGIF
FIGZB FTKDP ENK NMN { QJCFP OKZCEP" \Z\GMF \I\ ,EKEK \\GPT \PHKC ,KXZB
FRKEPF BK[RN G[DGF[ \GPK\I UNB 100-P FNTPN GVSBR QKKVPYF \ZDSPC ."FPI
KGSKMF .YGIF \TXF \B WPBN FN[PPFP F[KZEC CGIZC FBIP \GNGTV G[TRG
WIN GNKTVF YGIF \TXFN \SRMC FCZF FMKP\FG QKKVPYF FMH GN[ CZF K\ZG[Y\F
\RMFN OKZ[ \ETG OKYF ,QGZ[ NBKZB ,FN[PPF [BZ :B[GRC NGTVN FN[PPF NT
OK[GN[C \KRGKSKR \KRM\ OHK FIGGZF EZ[P ,(2004 ZBGRKC 13 ,QGNB) FRHFF \KRM\
519
QPVGBY KRGZ
OFZCB FPIGZ \SRMF \ZCIG ,NTGVC FRHFF OG[KK \B YGECN FETGR[ ZVS K\C
\KJPZE FTCXFC 2004 WZPC .FN[PPF OTJP \KEDR YGI \TXF FPHK (EGMKN)
\GZ[T OFCG FRHFF OGEKYN FKXKNBGYF KZCI OKBXPR TKXKC Z[BM ,\SRMC
N[ YGIF \TXF \KPGZJ FBKZYC FZ[GB ,\KNBKXGS FEGCTN FYNIPFP OKJREGJS
OKKTGC[ .FRKEPF \GKZIBC KRNNGMG KXZB FRHF NTVPN KRCNG ZKP\ \SRMF \GZCI
FNECR GH FTXF .OFZCB \SRMF \ZCI N[ \KEDRF YGIF \TXF OD FZ[GB QMP ZIBN
KZGHBC OKEKPN\N \PXPGXP FRHF \KRM\ FTKXF[ LMC FRG[BZF YGIF \TXFP
.OKZGFF \GV\\[FPG \GPGZ\P ZYKTC FKFK FRGPP[ FYGXP
"\GKV \PK\S GB EGCMC FRHF" SGRKM
FH B[GRC EYP\F[ USGR FNGTV ZYIP LZTR ZVS K\CC FRHFF \KKDGS \B QGICN KEM
\B YEC QG[BZF ZYSF .(2004 ,GCR-OKRGNSG QK'XNDRB-NDS ,QPVGBY) OKZYS KR[ NNMG
\BG OGZEF ZGHBC OKRG[ OKCG[KKC ZVS K\C Z[T-F[KPIC K\RGH\F QGIJKCF CXP
OKMGZMF OKRG[ OKJCKFN SIKC OKMRIP-OKZGP 163-G OKZGF 2,194 N[ \GEPT
KPGI\P TGXYP K[RB 185 N[ OFK\GEPT \B YEC KR[F ZYSF .FRHF \KRM\ \NTVFC
KBXPP .OKENK CZYC K\RGH\ QGIJKCN SIKC \KNBKXGSF FEGCTFG LGRKIF ,FBGVZF
OKZGFFP 17% ,FPDGEN .ZVS K\CC FRHF NTVP \PYFC \GVKIEF NT GTKCXF OKZYSF
FR[F LNFPC[ LM NT GIGGKE KBGECF ZHDPFP OKZGFFP 48%-G KEGFKF ZHDPFP
CGZ .S"FKCN NMGBC OFKENK \B EKKXN O\GZ[VBC FKF BN OFC OKCXP GKF FRGZIBF
FRHF \KRM\ \NTVFN YGIF \TXFC GEEKX (97%) OKZGPFPG (94%) OKZGFFP JNIGP
FPI FIGZB OGK NMC NCYK NBZ[KC ENK NM[ IKJCFN FETGR[ LGRKIF \GESGPC
YVSN G\GKZIBC[ KZYKTF OZGDF \B FN[PPC GBZ ,TGXYPF K[RB .\IB FRKHPG
FMGPRF G\GKZIB[ OZGDM OKRCERFG OKKZJRGNGGF OKRGDZBF \BG OKENKN FPI FIGZB
DZGEP OGN[\G \GKNSZCKRGBF \GRGZYT NT FRHFF NTVP \B SSCN GTKXF OCGZ .Z\GKC
.FSRMF KVN
2004 KRGKC 1-C OKKY\F[ USGR KZGCKX SGRKM OGZGVF OHK OKZYSF KBXPP \GCYTC
[GN[P FNTPN GV\\[F SGRKMC ."\GKV \PK\S GB EGCMC FRHF" \Z\GMF \I\
OKXZPG OKJREGJS :OKZYIRFG OKZYGIFP OKCZ ONNMCG ,OKV\\[P \GBP
DKXR .OKRGDZBF KDKXRG \SRM KZCI ,OKKNBKXGS OKECGTG OKBVGZ ,OKZGF ,FYNIPFP
LPS NT FRHF \KRM\ OGEKYN KZGCKX TXCP NT TKEGF OGZGVF N[ OKJREGJSF
G[CGD SGRKMF OGKSC FPKKY\[ FRESG OKZYIPF KBXPP SKSC NT .G[CGD[ \GRGZYTF
\KZYIPF \GNKTVFG SGRKMF ."EGCMC FRHF \KRM\N TGXYPF K[RBG FNKFYF \GRGZYT"
\BH .(2004 KRGKC 1 ,EGE) \ZG[Y\F KTXPBC OKEFN GMH G\GB F\GGKN[ \KZGCKXFG
2004 KNGKC .FRHFF YGIN \SRMF \ETG KRVC DXGF QMGF[ \GRGZYTF LPSP ,EGTG
FKXKNBGYF \ZCI N[ YGIF \TXF \B WPBN FRHFF YGIN \SRMF \ETG FJKNIF
520
KEK NT OD Z[GB \PXPGXPG \KCKJYNS \RGM\PC FRHFF YGIG ,OFZCB FPIGZ
\SRMC YGIF \TXF FZ[GB 2005 ZBGRKC .(2004 JSGDGBC 12 ,EPNP) FN[PPF
NT \KXZB FRHF \KRM\ FNTVGF \KVGSF FZG[KB KRVN EGTG ,\K[KN[G FKKR[ FBKZYC
.(2004 ZCPXEC 28 ,KRKSG YGSC) WZBC OKRG[ OKCG[KKC FN[PPF [BZ EZ[P KEK
22 ,KGN) OKEKPN\ UNB 180 \KRM\C U\\[FN OKKGVX G"S[\ OKEGPKNF \R[C
.(2005 ZCPJVSC
K\RGH\F QGIJKCF OGEKYN \GNKTVF \PGZ\
FKTCF \ZEDF LKNF\N \GNKTVF \PGZ\
KEPP NT ZYIPF KBXPP OGSZVC F\KKF FKTCF \ZEDF OGEKYN \K\GTP[P FPGZ\
QGIJKC" NBZ[KC FYGXPFG KRGTF \GKTCC QGKEN KRGKIG [EI D[GP .O\XVFG FTVG\F
,FPDGEN LM .OKCZ KVC ZGD[G WGVRN LVF ZYIPC FRG[BZN GC G[P\[F[ "K\RGH\
"K\RGH\ QGIJKC" D[GPC [P\[FN GNIF OKVSGR OKK\NKFY OKPZGDG FIGGZF Z[
NVZGTPF D[GPFP FRG[C ,FH D[GP .(2003 KBPC 9 ,EGE) CTZF \YGXP N[ Z[YFC
\GZCI"M \GZEDGPF \GZCIC CTZF \KKTC B[GRC KPG[KKG KTEP QGKE Z[VBP ,"CTZ"
Z[VB[ IKMGFG K\RGH\F QGIJKCF \GPZ \YKECN EEPC [P\[F ZYIPF ."TV[
OKBXPRF OK[RBN CTZG K\RGH\ QGIJKC ZSGI N[ CXPC OKBXPRF OK[RB QKC QKICFN
ZVS K\C KEKPN\ GZEDGF FPDGEN LM .\GRG[ QGMKS \GXGCY \GFHNG ,K\RGH\ QGIJKCC
GJJGX ZYIPF KBXPP .OZGCTC FRHF \KRM\ I\VN [K[ QGMKS \XGCYM FYGXP KZGHBC
.FKTCF OGKYN KZKVPB SKSCM \SRMC OKRGKEC FCIZFC
FIKNXF BN \GNKTVF KJKNGVFG KZGCKXF IK[C OKGSPF KGRK[F \GZPN ,\BH OT
\BHM \GKZIB .FKTCN NNGM QGZ\V NT \GKZIB \IYN \GKRKEPF KTCGYN OGZDN QKKET
FM[NF N[ OKKXZB OKZYS \ZDSPC K\RGH\F QGIJKCF CXP \EKEPC BJC\FN FNGMK
K\RGH\F QGIJKCF ZSGI OGXPXN OKK\R[ OKETK \TKCYC ,FYKJSKJJSN \KHMZPF
FIV[P NMN K\RGH\ QGIJKC GZ[VBK[ LM OGPKRKPF ZM[G \GBCXYF \NEDFCG
YZ SIKK\FN ,FH CN[C ,GVKETF \GKRKEPF KTCGY .(2004 ,GCR-OKRGNSG QPVGBY)
12 ,EPNP) FRHF NTVPN YGIF \ZDSPC FYGXP KZGHBC OKEKPN\ N[ FRHFF \KKTCN
.(2004 JSGDGBC
\K\NKFYF \GCZGTPF KGRK[N \GNKTVF \PGZ\
KBR\ BGF FKTCN Z[YFC \KCKJYB \GCZGTPN \KCKSV \K\NKFY \GCZGTPP ZCTP
N[ \GSKKD\FC FBJC\F \GNKTVF \INXF .FKTCF QGZ\VN \GVGNI OGEKYN CG[I
ZESN OKENK \RHF B[GR \B GVKSGF[ K\ZCIF KGRK[F OGI\C OKKHMZP OKRGDZB FPM
521
QPVGBY KRGZ
\KZGCKXF FZKHC OKRGDZBF N[ O\GNKTV .(2003 KBPC 9 ,EGE) K\PK[PF OPGK
\B ZKCDFN OKK\N[PP OKEZ[PG OKBYKJKNGV GPM ,OKVSGR OKPZGD \B FXKBF
.B[GRC O\NGTV
,OKENKF \RHF OGI\C NGTVN K\ZCI KGRK[N OKRGDZB EGEKTC FINXFF \GZPN
K\GZK[ \GIGYN ,\K[BZ .LKNF\N OKV\G[ ORKB QKKET FNKFYC OKK\GTP[P OKCKMZP
ORKBG OKRDZGBP ORKB ,K\RGH\ QGIJKC ZSGIP OKNCGSM OCGZC GBXPR[ ,FIGGZF
OKNCGSF OT ZK[K Z[YC OKBXPRF OKKNBKXGSF OKECGTF .B[GRC YKVSP OKNKTV
OKZDRSPM NGTVN \GIGYNN TKKSN OEKYV\N YKVSP OKTEGP ORKB QKKET FKTCFP
,ZGCKXF \GBKZC K[RBG OKBVGZ OKZGP GPM ,OKVSGR TGXYP K[RB SKKDNG OGI\C
OKRGDZB ,QM GPM .\KXZBFG \KPGYPF FPZC K\RGH\ QGIJKC \IJCFN YCBPN
QGHP \YVSF GB OKENK \GKGMH OGEKY ,OK[R \GKGMH OGEKY O\PK[P[ OKKZJRGNGG
,OKBVGZG OKZGP KEGDKB ,OKNGI K\CG OKNGI \GVGY GPM ,OKKESGP OKRGDZB ,OKYYHRN
\G[NGIF \IB .YCBPN GVZJXF OZJ OKVSGR OKKZGCKX OKPZGDG \GKPGYP \GKG[Z
OGEKYC KECNC QVGBC YSGTF K\ZCI KGRK[N QGDZB ZETKFC \BJC\P \GKZYKTF
QM\KK .(YZGK-GKRC NTGVF CTZC YCBPN FKXKNBGYF QGDZB FPDGEN GPM) K\RGH\ QGIJKC
OKMGH ORKB FRHFF \KRM\ TGXKC OGI\C OKNEIPG OKK[Y[ LMN \GCKSF \IB GH[
.(2005 KRGKC 21 ,KRKS) [ZERM \KZGCKX \ZGYKCN
\GK\ZCI \GKGMH N[ Z[YFC FKTCF \KKRCFN \GNKTVF \PGZ\
QGIJKCF ZSGI \KKTC B[GRC \ZG[Y\C KZGCKXF QGKEF QVGB KGRK[N \GKGET \GZMKR
\GRCERG QGHP KYRC ,KGIP\F K\C \PYF EGEKTC G\K[BZC EYP\F[ QGKEF .K\RGH\F
\KKTCN \K\ZCI \GKRKEP QKC Z[YN \GSIKK\F OD FRGZIBN NNGM ,KZYKT QGZ\VM
F[DGF[ (ZKP\ M"I N[) FRG[BZF YGIF \TXFC QGKEF ,FPDGEN .K\RGH\F QGIJKCF
FZKP[ CDB KNSZCKRGB QVGBC \GZK[F Q\P \GCK[I \B [KDEF FRHFF NTVP B[GRC
\KRM\ \B NKTVFN FN[PPF \JNIF ,\BH OT .(2003 KBPC 9 ,EGE) OKENKF EGCM NT
LM NT FTKCXP EKPN\ NM N[ \KSKSC \GMHM WZBF NMC BNG FYGXP KZGHBC YZ FRHFF
KNCP ZKESG QKHP QGHPN \GMHF GRKKFE ,EGCMC FRHFN \GMHF GPM ,\GRGZYT NT YCBPF[
.G\K[BZC QKKET ,\NGMK ZSIM DKG\P \GKFN
OKRGDZB N[G FYNIPFP OKJREGJSG OKXZP N[ \K\NKFYF \GNKTVF ,OGMKSN
\KKDGSC KZGCKXFG KTGXYPF IK[C OKGSP KGRK[N FPZ\ K\ZCI KGRK[N OKK\ZCI
K\RGH\F QGIJKCF D[GP CKCS QGKEF EGYKPC BJC\F KGRK[F .K\RGH\F QGIJKCF
\GTXPBC \GK\ZCI \GKGMH N[ SKSC NT QGZ\V OGEKYN \RDZGBP \K\NKFY \GNKTVCG
\K\NKFY \GNKTV QKB QKKET ,\BH OT .ZVSF K\CC K\MNPP FRHF \GZK[N YGI \TXF
OKNCGSF \KCF KY[PP OKHGIB OKZ[TP Z\GKN K\RGH\ QGIJKC YVSN \K\GTP[P
522
QGMKS \GXGCYG OKBGEC ,OK[K[Y ,\GKZGF EI \GIV[P OKNNGMF K\RGH\ QGIJKC ZSGIP
.\GVSGR
OKJREGJSF \Z[MFN \GNKTVF \PGZ\
\KJSKCKJYB F[KDC TEKG OKMZT OKJREGJSN \GRYFN FKF JYKGZVF N[ OKETKF EIB
FMNF \GNKTVC \GSR\F \GTXPBC \GK\ZCI \GKTC N[ Z[YFC K\ZCI KGRK[N
,\GNKTVC K\GTP[P QVGBC GV\\[F[ OKJREGJS \GIGE N[ KRG[BZ IG\KR .F[TPN
OFKZCE .\K\GTP[P \K\KKGGI \GSR\F GZCT O\KCZP[ LM NT TKCXP ,F\K[BZP
.GZCX[ \GKGGIF \B G[KIPK
KZCEP EGPNN Z[VB \KTGXYP \GFH [GCKDG \K[KB FPXTF N[ OKMKNF\ NT *
:QG[BZ ZBG\N OKEKPN\
.OKESGPP Z\GK OKVGD N[ FNB OKRG\R UGSBN GREKYV\ BN FH[ K\C[I FNI\FC
KEPPP EBP K\T\VGF .OKRGNB[F \B KPXTC ZKCTFN K\NI\F[M NI KGRK[F
\B F[TR[ CG[I FPM ET K\RCF .\GBXG\C KGJKC KEKN FBC BKF[ KVM FTVG\F
NT TKV[FNG OKVKSF \GPB \B \XYPC GNG ZTRN KEM GHF \KRG[BZF FEGCTF
.FJKSZCKRGBCG FZCIC KZGCKXF OGKF ZES
\B DXKKNG ZKCSFN KNT FKF GC CXPC K\EPT FP\IFF QMGE \B K\[KKB[ QPHC
ZYKTCG TGRM[ Z[GMN ,CIZR TEKN K\[ZER LM O[N .GNGM YCBPF N[ QGKTZF
NT NCGYP ,K\T\VFN FKF BN GKNBP QCGP FKF KZGCT[ B[GRF .KPXT QGIJKCN
\GRGZ\VF \B GNCY BN GB FKTC [K[ GRKPBF BN OYNI .OKJREGJSFP YNI
FKNB K\RRGM\F BN[ FKGVX BN FPK[P { ZGDRSF \EPTC K\EPT .GRN[
YNI BKF GRN[ \GNKTVF[ \GBZNG QKCFN GRNGMK OKJREGJSM GRB[ FECGTF
QKPBFN KN FPZD ,KTGXYP QGRM\ ZPGNM ,UGSG TXPB FNI\F GN [K[ LKNF\P
K\ZCIF Z[YFC FKK[T F\KKF QBM F\KMC NKDZ SZGYP FRG[C .TKV[FN Z[VB[
CIZ QVGBC OD FZG[YG ,\GNKTV \EEGTP ,\GTP[P FVKSGP GH FKK[T .CIZF
.\KNBKXGSF FEGCTF N[ FEKYV\N Z\GK
:QG[BZ ZBG\N OKJREGJSF KZCEP EGPNN Z[VB G[MZR[ OKMZTG \GKGRPGKP NT *
OGKS ZIBN NGTVN FXZB GC OGI\F GFH KM F[GI\F \B KC YHKI SZGYF
LKZX[ K\EPN .NGEDC EGCTN K\GB GEPN "OGZGV"CG SZGYC \GSR\FF .OKEGPKNF
\GNKTVF N[ KG\KTF CG[I FPM ,DRKCGN GPM \GKGRPGKP K\[MZ .FZJPC FRGPB
\GNKTV N[ FIGMC FRKPBP KRB .FD[F \GZC \GZJP \ZEDF FCG[I FPMG
.ONGT KZES \GR[N \K\NKFY
YCBPN OGZ\K BNGPK[ QGNB[ NM[ ,SZGYC QG[BZF ZGTK[C ,GRN ZPBR Z[BM
\B K\EPN GK[MT ...KPKJVGB EBP OEB FBZRM FXZPF[ K\C[I ,CTZF ZGDKPN
."K\ZCI KGRK[N FNKFYF SGKDNG TEKP UGSKBN KNMM QGNB[F N[ GIGM
523
QPVGBY KRGZ
ECN NGTVN Q\KR BN[ K\EPN .\K[KBG \KTGXYP \GFH [GCKD LKNF\C BXPR KRB
KPXT NT K\EPN .YCBPC OKV\G[ Z\GK[ FPM CZTN LZEF \B BGXPN LKZXG
TCGY[ BGF FBXG\F QICP[ C[GI KRB ."GRKSKR" EKDFNC YV\SP BN KRB[
KMZE L[PFC OD KNXB GZB[KK GNB \G[GI\[ FGGYP KRB .TXPBC YKSVFN ZGSBG
.\K[KBFG \KTGXYPF
ZCTPG NGED GF[P KN GBZR K\ZCI YEX OGEKYN OKNGED OKRKKVPY GK[MT ET
K\NC BGF[ ZCE QKB[ FRYSPN K\TDF .LM FH QKB[ K\IMGR OGKM .K\NGMKN
OKETXF FPG \NTGV \KJKNGVF \MZTPF LKB Z\GK CGJ FRKCP KRB OGKF .KZ[VB
.K\ZCI KGRK[ LZGXN OFC JGYRN [K[
,OKYK\G OKKNBKXGS OKECGTG KR[ ZBG\N OKJREGJS NT \GSR\FF \TV[F NT *
:FNBF OKZCEFP EGPNN Q\KR TGXYP K[RBM OEKYV\ \B O\SKV\ \RKICP
.O\GR[N GB OFKNT TKV[FN K\NGMKC QKB[ OKB[GR [K[ K\NDZGF ESPP \ECGTM
FP \EKPC FRKJYFG K\ZCI KGRK[N NGTVN K\NGMKC[ [KDZFN KN FPZD \GNKTVF
.KN[ OKRGBF ZSGI \B
QFG FKPEYBC QF ,\GEYP\FF KM K\C[I OKK\R[ KRVN KEGPKN \B K\PKKS Z[BM
N[ \GNKTVC K\NY\R[ FRG[BZF OTVF \BH ...KRJZV NGVKJC BKF ,IJ[C
FH ...GKNT ZCEN YZ BNG F[TPN FMNF K\ZCI YEX OEYNG KGRK[ ZGXKN FKPEYBF
\GKSGNMGB QTPNG OT NGTVN BGF GRN[ KEGIKKF JERPF KM FRGPBF \B KC YHKI
.TP[R BN QNGY[
OKRG\R UGSBN KEM \GIGYNF OT GRN[ Z[YC [P\[FN \GRPEHF GRN F\KKF
,FXGIR \KJKNGV \GNKTV F\KKF GH KRKTC .K\ZCI KGRK[ OEYN QGKSKRC OKK\GTP[P
,FIGGZF \GM[NC OKECGT OF[ OKJREGJS GRN ,F\KKF[ \KPEYBF \GSIF KNC[
.F\G[TN F[Y FKF
QVGBC \GSR\FF \B OMKS K\ZCI KGRK[N QGDZBC YSTGPF KR[ ZBG\N JREGJS *
:FXPP
OGZ\N ,FRPP YNIM K\NGMK NT FHF FZYPCG FKPEYBF N[ F\NGMK NT K\EPN
ZG\KB LG\ FKTC N[ ZYIPG FEKPN KEK NT ZYKTC OKK\ZCI OKB[GR OGEKYN
FRDVFN OKBXGK[ KRVN[ K\GB FEPN \GSR\FF .LKNF\C FVG\K[G FKKSGNMGBF
.FKTCF \EKPNG OKRG\RF UGSKB NT Z\GK CMT\FN KGXZ ,FBIP \GNKTVN GB
\GNKTVC OKCZGTP GKF[ OKJREGJSN ZYKTC FPZ\ \GNKTVF[ QKKXN CG[I
YZ GV\\[F[ ,FYNIPC OKJREGJSF \KCZP .QPH L[PC FC OKNKTV GKFG F\K[BZP
\GIV GPZ\R (FPGXT NT FP\IFC GB SRMC \GV\\[F ,FPDGEN) \GKGNKTVFP YNIC
CZ QPH TKY[FN GXNBR[ LM NT FBIPG \GEDR\F GTKCF UB OFP FPM .JYKGZVFP
.OFN[ KEGPKNF OGKF ZES [BZC \EPGT FRKB[ \GNKTVC
524
OKKRGDZB OKIYN
,ZICR[ EKYV\F ,I\V\F[ FNGTVF NEGP GPZ\ FPKKY\F[ \GNKTVF \INXFN
.JYKGZVF \NKI\ KRVN \PKKY F\KKF[ \K\[\FG \K\NKFYF \GCKGIPF
\GK\ZCI \GKTCC KGRK[ OGEKYG FBZGF ,ZYIP QKC CGNK[N NEGP
\GNKTVG FBZGF ,ZYIP QKC CGNK[ Z[VB[ FNGTV SGVE I\V\F JYKGZVF LNFPC
GPXT NT ZHI FNGTVF SGVE .\GK\ZCI \GKTCC KGRK[ OGEKYN \KCKJYVB \K\NKFY
.OKETX FTCZB NNMG \GNKTVF N[ OKCN[F KR[C
ZMGP K\NC JCKFN SIKC FNKFYC KZKVPB FNGTV ZYIP \MKZT { QG[BZF ETXF
\GXGCY ZG\KBG ETKF \KKSGNMGB CZYC FKTCF KEPP \EKEP ,FPDGEN .FKTCF N[
\B CGZYP ZKMFN OFN TKKS ZYIPF TGXKCCG QGRM\C OKJREGJSF UG\K[ .QGMKS
ZYIPC [P\[FNG FNKFYC OKPZGD OT OKZ[Y ZGXKN ,FRPP OKNCGSF \BG FKTCF
OT \V\G[P FEGCTC GSR\F OKK\NKFYF OKRGDZBF .\K\NKFY FNTVFN UGRPM
.OKKZKVPB OKBXPP NT OFK\G[KZE \B SSCN OFN FZ[VB[ FKPEYBF
ZYIPF KBXPP \DXFN FJKSZCKRGBC K\NKFY SGRKM QGDZB { KR[F ETXF
KPEYB QGKE Z[VB SGRKMF .FNKFYF K[RBG OKJREGJS ,ZYIPF KV\G[ \GV\\[FC
OG[KKN \V\G[P \K\NKFY FNGTVN \K\[\ \IRFG OKBXPPF \GTP[PC K\NKFYG
.\GKCKJZVGBF \GRYSPF
\B FNTF OGSZVF .\ZG[Y\F KNMC OKZYIPF \GBXG\ OGSZV { K[KN[F ETXF
\GNKTVF L[PFN WKZP\ ZXKG KZGCKXF OGKF ZESN ZYIPF YST FC[ FKDGSF
\GZCGEC OKCZGTP GKF[ FNKFYF K[RBG OKJREGJSF .\V\G[PF \K\NKFYF
OKBRG\KT OT OKZ[Y GZXK ,\ZG[Y\F NGP EGCTNG ZKMFN GEPN \K\ZG[Y\F
.\GK\ZCI \GKTCN \GRGZ\V \KKRCFN \ZG[Y\C [GPK[C GSR\FG
OKJREGJSF .\GKRKEP KGRK[ OGEKYN KZGCKX QKKVPY N[ OGHKK { KTKCZF ETXF
KGRK[ OGEKYN GH \KRGKI FYKJYJC [P\[FN GEPN QKKVPYF QGDZBC OKCZGTPF
GZ[VB \GPGXTF NT \GP\IF KTSPC \GSR\FF .(Rubin & Rubin, 1992) K\ZCI
\GSR\FN ,\GIGYNG OK\KPT N[ OKK\NKFY SGKD KMKNF\C \GSR\FN OKJREGJSN
.OKBYKJKNGV CZYC KCGNCG YCBP \KKXKNBGYC \GNKTVC
.1
.2
.3
.4
K\NKFY HZHG OHK N[ EKYV\
N[ QG[BZF CN[C EGIKKC ,FYNIPF FBNKP[ KZYKTF EKYV\F QGERF FZYPC
\GKZYIP \GKGNKTV \ZES \MKZTC BJC\F OHKF EKYV\ .HZHG OHK N[ FKF ,\GNKTVF
KZGCKXFG KTGXYPF IK[F \B \GR[NG FKTCF KEPP \B UG[IN GETGR[ \GKZGCKXG
525
QPVGBY KRGZ
OKRGDZB EGIKKC ,FNKFYC OKRG[ OKPZGD EGEKTC BJC\F HZHF EKYV\ .FKNB SIKC
\GJNIFF KNCYPP [GZENG \V\G[P FNGTVN QDZB\FN \GIGYN KRGDZBG K\ZCI KGRK[N
,\KSIK ZXY QPH YZVC ,FH CN[C \GNKTVF KD[KF .OKPNGF OK\GZK[G \GKRKEP
NT TGXKCN \KSIK OKNYG OKPKB\P HZHG OHK N[ OKEKYV\F KGNKP[ LM NT OKTKCXP
FK[DE ,\GNKTVF KVGB NT FBNP JTPM FJKN[ F\KKF FYNIPN .KPEYB QGDZB KEK
OKC[IR OKSGRKM QGDZBG OKJREGJS \NTVF ,OKZYIP \MKZT .FN[ OKRPHF IGNG
,FNKFYFP [ZER[ FNGTVF UG\K[ ,QGERF FZYPC .FKPEYBC OKNCGYPG OKKPKJKDNM
OKZD\BF .KNBPKRKP FKF ,OKZYS \ZCTF Z[VBN G[YC\F[ FIGGZF K\GZK[P EGIKKC
NT FZKP[ ;OKXZPFG OKJREGJSF SGKD :\KRGDZB-OKRV FPZC GEYP\F OKKZYKTF
\KRGDZB WGIF FPZC .\K\NKFYF \GCZT\FFG ZYIPF OGI\C OKKPEYB OKJZERJS
K\ZG[Y\ QKKRT \ZKXKG OKRGDZBF N[ FKXKNBGYF \PYFC TGKS FKKF KZYKTF ZD\BF
.KZGCKXG
FEP\FN \GCKGIP
\GKGI\V\F GKF ,FNKFYC \GCZT\FC \GCGZY OK\TN FZGY[ KVM ,ZBG\PF FZYPC
B[GRC QKKVPY LGZTN FJNIFF GPM ,[BZP O\GB \GVXN FKF Q\KR BN[ OKMKNF\G
ZZC\F Z[BM OD \GNKTVC FEP\FN \GCKGIP F[ZER QMN .ZVS K\CC FRHFF NTVP
\GKVKXP OD FTCR FEP\FN \GCKGIPF .KGVXN ZCTP \MZB\P KGRK[F KETK \D[F[
OKCB[PG FMKP\ NCYN FKKVKX QFKRKC ,YCBPN GSKKD\F[ OKK\NKFY OKPZGD N[
QVGBC \GNKTVN FSKRM .OKXZPFG OKJREGJSF GRKKFE ,"K\NKFYF KGRK[F QMGS"P
F[GI\ ZGXKN F\KKF FNGMK KPTV-EI TGZKB LZGXNG NCDGP QPHN ,ECNC "K\ECTP"
CKKIP LKNF\F NGFKR QMN .OKKPEYB OKETK \D[FN FNKFYF NGXKR N[G \GKRGZJV N[
.KJYZVF EXFP \GIV BN KMZTFG K\BF EXF \[DEF
FNKFYC \GCZT\FN \KPEYBG \KRGDZB \K\[\
\NTVF GZ[VB JYKGZVF \NTVF KRVN EGT FYNIPC GI\GV[ FNGTV \GZDSP K\[
OGZGVF { \KNPZGV BN \ZDSP :FNKFYC K\ZCI KGRK[N \GCZGTPG OKJREGJS
ZYIP SZGY { \KNPZGV \ZDSPG { K\ZCI YEXN OKJREGJSG OKXZP N[ U\G[PF
FZ[VB[ \KRGDZB \K\[\ ZXK OGZGVF .K\ZCI YEX OGEKYN \GJK[C FNGTV
,QM GPM .\GCER\FC K\ZCI KGRK[N \KCKJYB \GNKTVN OKXZPG OKJREGJS \NTVFG SGKD
OKPZGD QKCN FYNIPF QKC FNGTV UG\K[N \K\[\ \ZKXKN FPZ\ OGZGVF \GNKTV
\GIGYN KRGDZB ,ZGDRS KRGDZB ,CDRC FIGGZ K\GZK[ QGDM ,FNKFYC OKRG[
SIKC OKZYS TGXKC Z[VB FNGTVF ZYIP SZGY .\KXZBG \KPGYP \ZG[Y\ K[RBG
FNKFYC \KPKJKDN FZGXC K\RGH\F QGIJKCF ZSGI \KKTC N[ OKRG[ OKJCKFN
526
SKSC NT K\ZCI KGRK[ \GNKTVN FNKFYF QGDZBC \GSR\FN OKJREGJSN Z[VBG
.OKZYSF KBXPP
QGIJKCF ZSGI \KKTCC FYNIPC CZ TEK ZCXR JYKGZVF \BZYN ,LM NT USGR
\NTVFC FN[ \GCZGTPF \GCYTCG B[GRC OKZYGI FPM N[ QKKRTF \GCYTC K\RGH\F
FYKJYZVC QGKSKRG TEK F\KKF \VSGR FXGIR \GKIPGP .OKYYHRN "TCG[ ZBC" \ETSP
.NDSF KZCIP EIB \NIR F\KKF BKFG ,OKKZGCKX OKYCBP N[G K\ZCI KGRK[ N[
FVGNIM SV\R JYKGZVF[ LMN FPZ\ \KPEYBFG \KRGDZBF \K\[\F N[ FPGKY
,F[TPN FMNF ,\GSR\FN OKZYGING OKJREGJSN ,\K\ZD[ BN KM OB ,\KZ[VB
\B [KEYFN \GRMGPF OD F\KKF QMN .\GK\ZCI \GKTCC \GCZT\F N[ OKMKNF\C
TGXKCN ,OKJREGJSG OKXZP N[ OKZYK QPH KCB[P ZYKTC ,OKXGIRF OKCB[PF
,OKEGPKNF \KRM\C \GPKKY \GZDSPC \GNKTVF CGNK[ .G\MZTFNG GEGTK\N ,JYKGZVF
N[G OKJREGJSF N[ SPGTF NT NYF OKNKTV OKZYIPG \K[TP FZ[MF ,OKSZGY QGDM
.\GNKTVN OKV\G[ GKF[ NDSF K[RB
QGKE
FEGCTC \GKHMZP \GKDGS K\[ OT EEGP\FN \Z[VBPF F[KD DKXP ZBG\[ JYKGZVF
KMZE IG\KVC LZGXF :(Fisher & Karger, 1997) "\K\ZCI KJRB" FVGY\C \KNBKXGS
OGI\C OKJREGJS \Z[MFN \GZDSP IG\KVC LZGXFG \GK\ZCI \GKTCC \GCZT\F
,JYKGZVF SSC\F FKNT[ ,K\ZCI KGRK[N FNGTVF ZYIP \[KD .K\ZCIF KGRK[F
\K\GTP[P \GCZT\FN \KZYIP \GNKTV QKCN OKJREGJS \Z[MF QKC CGNK[ FZ[VB
\GZPN .FNKFYC OKRG[ OKPZGD EXP ONGF FRTPN F\MH BN[ \K\ZCI FKTCC
FYKYIC ,B[GRC K\ZG[Y\F OGKF ZES NT FTV[FC GBJC\F[ QKTC OKD[KFF
\K\NKFYF FPZC FTXC\F[ \GNKTVF \PGZ\ IG\KR ,FRKEPF KEK NT OKRTP \PYFCG
\GRG[ \GNCDP [K ,IKRFN Q\KR[ KVM .GD[GF OKETKFP YNI YZ[ LM NT TKCXP
.FNKFYC BPKKY-ZC K\ZCI KGRK[ OGEKYN \KCKJYVB \KPEYB \GCZT\F NT \G[YPF
Q\KR KIMGRF FZYPFP .(Kaufman, 2004) ZIB ZPBPC FCIZFC GRGER GNB \GNCDP
\K\[\CG \GCKGIPC LZGXF :OKPGE OKJYKGZV IG\KVN SIKC OKIYN FPM EGPNN
;FKTCF N[ K\NKFYF Z[YFF \ZMF ;FNKFYC OKJREGJS \NTVF Z[VB\[ \KRGDZB
\GCZT\F KMKNF\ IG\KVN \K\NKFY \GNKTVG \KZYIP \GNKTV QKC CGNK[F \GCK[I
.OKPKB\P
GKF ZYKTC OZ\R[ KP[ FBZR OKJREGJSF \Z[MFN JYKGZVF \PGZ\ \RKICP
JYKGZVF N[ OKRG[ OKCN[C \K\GTP[P FZGXC OKCZGTP \GKFN GZIC[ OKJREGJSF
527
QPVGBY KRGZ
,FYNIPC OKJREGJSF \KCZP ,\BH \PGTN .\K\GCER\F \ZDSPCG OKSZGY \ZDSPC
\GIV GPZ\R (\GP\IFC GB OKSGRKMC ,FPDGEN) \GKGNKTVFP YNIC YZ GV\\[F[
\GKGNKTVC U\\[FN LZGXFP QGXZ \GTKC[ ZSGI GTKCF UB OK\TNG ,JYKGZVFP
IZMFC FRKB K\ZCI KGRK[N \KJSKCKJYB \GNKTV QMB .GMNFPC GPKKY\F[ \GRG[
ZVSF K\CC OKJREGJSF \KCZP N[ \GKGVKETF ONGS [BZC \EPGTF \GNKTVF
OKMKNF\ IG\KV N[ FPK[PF[ LM NT OKTKCXP OKCZ OKZYIP .\KNBKXGS FEGCTN
OHKCKJYBF OGI\C OKJREGJS N[ OFK\GVETFCG OFK\GEPTC K\GTP[P KGRK[N
.(Weiss & Kaufman, in press) ZYKTG NNM FJG[V FRKB K\ZCIF
\GKTCC K\ZCI KGRK[N \KJSKCKJYB \GCZT\FN OKNMG F[KD \KKRYF OBF LM OB
FBZR ?\KZ[VB K\NC FPK[P BKF \KNBKXGS FEGCTN OKJREGJSN \GK\ZCI
QKKRT OKNDP[ OKJREGJS OT OGI\C OKD[KFN TKDFN Q\KR[ FBZF JYKGZVF[
I\VN [K ,F[KDC QKKRTF \B CKIZFN OKRKKRGTP OB ,ONGBG .\GNKTVC FCZ \GCZGTPG
.OKRGGDPG OKRG[ ,OKVSGR OKNEGP QGICNG
OGMKS
\GKGMHNG FIGGZ \RKEPN \GEDR\PF \GSKV\C FK[ZG[[ \KNMNM \K\ZCI \GKRKEP
\GK\ZCI \GKTC N[ Q\ZKXKN UBG ,\GK\ZCI \GKTC N[ Q\VZIFN FNKCGP \GK\ZCI
N[ EKF \NHBG \GPNT\FF .CTZFG K\RGH\F QGIJKCF ZSGI \KKTC GPM ,\G[EI
OKEPGTF OKKNBKXGSF OKECGTF KV\M NT FCZ \GKZIB FNKJP \GKG[ZG \GN[PP
.OKTDVRF ZVSPCG OKMZXC NGEKDF IMGRN OKRTP [VIN OKXNBRG \K\ZCIF \KHIC
KGRK[N \KJSKCKJYB \GNKTV BGF CXPF \B \GR[N OKNGMK[ FNGTVN OKRGGMF EIB
K\NC YNI OF K\ZCI YEX N[ OKMZT OGEKYG \K\ZCI \GKRKEP NT FTV[F .K\ZCI
\GRYFN OKBZYR \KNBKXGS FEGCTN ZVS K\C .\KNBKXGSF FEGCTF TGXYPP EZVR
\GNKTV .K\ZCI KGRK[N \GCZT\F \GJK[C O\GB ZK[MFNG OKJREGJSN GNB OKMZT
FEGCT N[ OKMZT \[DEF CDB FNKFYF UG\K[C \GK\ZCI \GKTCC K\ZCI KGRK[N
TGXYPF K[RBNG FIGGZF K\GZK[ \GIGYNN \Z[VBP ,\GK\ZCI \GKGMH GPM ,\KNBKXGS
\RKEPC FTKDVFG FJZVFF \GKRKEP N[ ECMF K\ZCIF ZKIPN O\GTEGP \B ZKCDFN
.(Fisher & Karger, 1997) K\ZCI KGRK[N \GKXKNBGYC FNGTV U\[NG FIGGZF
OT \GEEGP\FF OGEKYN OGZ\N FNGMK ,ZYIRF FZYPC FPKKY\F[ KVM ,\GNKTVF
,K\ZCIF KGRK[F OGI\C OKJREGJSN \GKGRPGKPG OKMZT \KKRYFN ,\GK\ZCI \GKTC
QKC \BJC\PF \GJNGC .FNKFYCG FJKSZCKRGBC \KRGDZB \GJNGCN UBG KPEYB ZYIPN
.\GKRKEP KTCGY CZYC QKKRT \ZKXKCG FCIZ \K\ZG[Y\ FVK[IC Z\KF
528
FKXPKJKDNN \PZG\ OKK\NKFY OKYCBPN ,OIG\KRG OKRG\R ,KPEYB EPP \VSGF
OD OKNGMK OKXZPG OKJREGJS .FYGXPC \GXGCY N[ K\ZCI YEXN \G[KZEN \KZGCKXF
\NTVFC FNKTV \GV\\[F \GTXPBC O\NTVFNG OPGHKKN FXGIRF FKDZRB UKSGFN
.OKYCBPF
FKK[TN (role model) \K[KB FPDGE OK[P[PF ,OKXZP N[ \V\G[P \GNKTV
KRMGSM NGTVN ORGXZ \BG O\GCKGIP \B ZKCDFN FKG[T OKJREGJSF N[G ,\K\ZCI
K\ZCI KGRK[N \GCZT\F \GJK[ EGPKNN OKJYKGZV .OFKEGPKN OGKS ZIBN K\ZCI KGRK[
,(1985 ,ENVRHGZ) \KNBKXGSF FEGCTF TGXYP FIP\P GC[ OGI\ ,\GK\ZCI \GKTCC
\GCZT\F \G[KDCG NNMC OKKNBKXGS OKECGT \Z[MFC KHMZP CKMZP \GKFN OKMKZX
N[ CXP TRP\ \BHM FZ[MF[ \GVXN Q\KR .JZVC (generic practice) \GKRNNGM
\GK\ZCI \GKTC N[ \GBKXP NGP OKKNBKXGS OKECGTG OKJREGJS N[ OKRGB ZSGI
NT F[YPG \GIGYN NB \RZYGPF F[GI\ ,OKKVNBF \GR[ \B \RKKVBPF \GVKZIP
ZBG\[ JYKGZVF .(Fisher & Karger, 1997) K\ZCI KGRK[G FPXTF KMKNF\ IG\KV
\GNKTVN FPDGE [P[P K\ZCI KGRK[N FNGTVF ZYIP \[KD NT SSC\FG ZPBPC
\GCZT\FC \K\GTP[P \GSR\FG OKNM \[KMZ (OKRKKRGTPF) OKV\\[PN \Z[VBPF
YHIN BKF FZJPF OB ,ONGBG .OKK\NKFY OKZYSC [GPK[ CDB \GK\ZCI \GKTCC
[ZER ,K\ZCI KGRK[ KRMGSM NGTVN OKKNBKXGSF OKECGTF NNM N[ O\NGMK \B ZV[NG
Parsons, Jorgensen, &) OKKNBKXGS OKECGT \Z[MFN \KCKJZDJRKB \KRM\ I\VN
K[TPG KJZGB\ ,KMZT SKSC \GRYFN \BHM OKEGPKN \KRM\ NT .(Hernandez, 1994
\GKTCFP OKTDVRN OKZK[K FZHTG TGKS Q\P QKC GCN[K[ \GKGCZT\F IG\KVC
OKRCPFG \GKRKEPF NT TKV[FN \ETGKPF K\ZCI KGRK[N \GNKTV QKCN \GK\ZCIF
.Q\GB OKZP[PG OKZXGKF OKK\ZCIF
\GZGYP
.ZVSF K\C KENKN FRHF \KRM\ \RMFN OKZ[ \ETG FRKP FN[PPF [BZ .(2004 ZBGRKC 13) .D ,QGNB
.WZBF
FEGCTN FYNIPF N[ K\ZCI YEXN OGZGVF :YCBPN \SKKD\P FKPEYBF .(2001 ZCPXEC 27) .X ,[GNB
.\GRGZIB \GTKEK .FRKEPF CKXY\C OKXGXKYC QGKEN SRM\F QGKZGD-QC \JKSZCKRGBC \KNBKXGS
.\GRGZIB \GTKEK .CTZ GGI OGZEC FYGXP \GIV[PP \KXIPM :ZYIP .(2002 ZCPXEC 26) .X ,[GNB
.OKKEGSKF ZVSF K\C KEKPN\N \KPGK FIGZB YGI \TXF FZ[GB .(2004 ZCPXEC 28) .Z ,KRKSG .P ,YGSC
.WZBF
OKR[ F"M .(LZGT) .K ,SEZV :LG\C .OKN[GZK \KKZKTC ETSF \GKRKEPG OKKNBKXGS OKECGT .(1979) .E ,ND-ZC
.SZV UZD :OKN[GZK .(237 241 'PT) NBZ[KC \K\NKFY FEGCTN
.NKKEYGZC QGMP :OKN[GZK .OKKZYKT OKBXPP :NBZ[KC K\RGH\ QGIJKC-KB NT QGMET .(2003) NKKEYGZC JRKG'D
{
529
{
QPVGBY KRGZ
\GIGZBG \GYYHR \GIV[PN QGHP K[GN\ YNI\ FRKEPF .OK[GN\ GNCY ,NMGB QKB OB .(2003 KBPC 9) .P ,EGE
.CKZTP .TRXF KPKC GPM { OKCTZ OKEKPN\N \GPI
FNDP QGKZGD QC \JKSZCKRGB N[ ZYIP :'WKGERS ENKN QKMFN USM QKB OKZGFFP TCZN .(2004 KRGKC 1) .P ,EGE
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