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COMMENTARY
Shreya Singhal and 66A
A Cup Half Full and Half Empty
Sunil Abraham
Most software code has
dependencies. Simple and
reproducible methods exist for
mapping and understanding the
impact of these dependencies.
Legal code also has dependencies
—across court orders and within
a single court order. And since
court orders are not produced
using a structured mark-up
language, experts are required
to understand the precedential
value of a court order.
A
s a non–lawyer and engineer, I
cannot authoritatively comment
on the Supreme Court’s order in
Shreya Singhal vs Union of India (2015)
on sections of the Information Technology Act of 2000, so I have tried to summarise a variety of views of experts in
this article. The Shreya Singhal order is
said to be unprecedented at least for the
last four decades and also precedent setting as its lucidity, some believe, will
cause a ripple effect in opposition to a
restrictive understanding of freedom of
speech and expression, and an expansiveness around reasonable restrictions.
Let us examine each of the three sections that the bench dealt with.
The Section in Question
Section 66A of the IT Act was introduced
in a hastily-passed amendment. Unfortunately, the language used in this section was a pastiche of outdated foreign
laws such as the UK Communications
Act of 2003, Malicious Communications
Act of 1988 and the US Telecommunications Act, 1996.1 Since the amendment,
this section has been misused to make
public examples out of innocent, yet
uncomfortable speech, in order to
socially engineer all Indian netizens
into self-censorship.2
Vidushi Marda, programme officer at
the Centre for Internet and Society, was
responsible for all the research that went into
this article.
Sunil Abraham ([email protected]) is at the
Centre for Internet and Society, Bengaluru.
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Summary: The Court struck down Section 66A of the IT Act in its entirety holding that it was not saved by Article 19(2)
of the Constitution on account of the expressions used in the section, such as
“annoying,” “grossly offensive,” “menacing,”, “causing annoyance.” The Court
justified this by going through the reasonable restrictions that it considered
relevant to the arguments and testing
them against S66A. Apart from not falling within any of the categories for
which speech may be restricted, S66A
was struck down on the grounds of
vagueness, over-breadth and chilling
effect. The Court considered whether
some parts of the section could be saved,
and then concluded that no part of S66A
was severable and declared the entire
section unconstitutional. When it comes
to regulating speech in the interest of
public order, the Court distinguished between discussion, advocacy and incitement. It considered the first two to fall
under the freedom of speech and expression granted under Article 19(1)(a),
and held that it was only incitement that
attracted Article 19(2).
Between Speech and Harm
Gautam Bhatia, a constitutional law
expert, has an optimistic reading of the
judgment that will have value for precipitating the ripple effect. According
to him, there were two incompatible
strands of jurisprudence which have
been harmonised by collapsing tendency
into imminence.3 The first strand, exemplified by Ramjilal Modi vs State of UP4
and Kedar Nath Singh vs State of Bihar,5
imported an older and weaker American
standard, that is, the tendency test, between the speech and public order consequences. The second strand exemplified
by Ram Manohar Lohia vs State of UP,6
S Rangarajan vs P Jagjivan Ram,7 and
Arup Bhuyan vs Union of India,8 all
require greater proximity between the
speech and the disorder anticipated. In
Shreya Singhal, the Supreme Court held
that at the stage of incitement, the reasonable restrictions will step in to curb
speech that has a tendency to cause disorder. Other experts are of the opinion
that Justice Nariman was doing no such
thing, and was only sequentially applying all the tests for free speech that have
been developed within both these
strands of precedent. In legal activist
Lawrence Liang’s analysis, “Ramjilal
Modi was decided by a seven judge
bench and Kedarnath by a constitutional
bench. As is often the case in India,
when subsequent benches of a lower
strength want to distinguish themselves
from older precedent but are unable to
overrule them, they overcome this
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COMMENTARY
constraint through a doctrinal development by stealth. This is achieved by creative interpretations that chip away at archaic doctrinal standards without explicitly discarding them.”9
Compatibility with US
Jurisprudence
United States (US) jurisprudence has
been imported by the Indian Supreme
Court in an inconsistent manner. Some
judgments hold that the American first
amendment harbours no exception and
hence is incompatible with Indian jurisprudence, while other judgments have
used American precedent when convenient. Indian courts have on occasion imported an additional restriction beyond
the eight available in 19(2)—the ground
of public interest, best exemplified by
the cases of K A Abbas10 and Ranjit
Udeshi.11 The bench in its judgment—
which has been characterised by Pranesh Prakash as a masterclass in free
speech jurisprudence12—clarifies that
while the American first amendment jurisprudence is applicable in India, the only
area where a difference is made is in the
“sub serving of general public interest”
made under the US law. This eloquent
judgment will hopefully instruct judges
in the future on how they should import
precedent from American free speech
jurisprudence.
Article 14 Challenge
The Article 14 challenge brought forward by the petitioners contended that
Section 66A violated their fundamental
right to equality because it differentiated between offline and online speech in
terms of the length of maximum sentence, and was hence unconstitutional.
The Court held that an intelligible differentia, indeed, did exist. It found so on
two grounds. First, the internet offered
people a medium through which they
can express views at negligible or no
cost. Second, the Court likened the rate
of dissemination of information on the
internet to the speed of lightning and
could potentially reach millions of people all over the world. Before Shreya
Singhal, the Supreme Court had already
accepted medium-specific regulation.
For example in K A Abbas, the Court
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APRIL 11, 2015
made a distinction between films and
other media, stating that the impact of
films on an average illiterate Indian
viewer was more profound than other
forms of communication. The pessimistic reading of Shreya Singhal is that Parliament can enact medium-specific law
as long as there is an intelligible differentia which could even be a technical
difference—speed of transmission. However, the optimistic interpretation is that
medium-specific law can only be enacted if there are medium-specific harms,
e g, phishing, which has no offline equivalent. If the executive adopts the pessimistic reading, then draconian sections
like 66A will find their way back into the
IT Act. Instead, if they choose the optimistic reading, they will introduce bills
that fill the regulatory vacuum that has
been created by the striking down of
S66A, that is, spam and cyberbullying.
Section 79
Section 79 was partially read down. This
section, again introduced during the
2008 amendment, was supposed to give
legal immunity to intermediaries for
third party content by giving a quick redressal for those affected by providing a
mechanism for takedown notices in the
Intermediaries Guidelines Rules notified
in April 2011. But the section and rules
had enabled unchecked invisible censorship13 in India and has had a demonstrated chilling effect on speech14 because of the following reasons:
One, there are additional unconstitutional restrictions on speech and expression. Rule 3(2) required a standard
“rules and regulation, terms and condition or user agreement” that would have
to be incorporated by all intermediaries.
Under these rules, users are prohibited
from hosting, displaying, uploading,
modifying, publishing, transmitting, updating or sharing any information that
falls into different content categories, a
majority of which are restrictions on
speech which are completely out of the
scope of Article 19(2). For example, there
is an overly broad category which contains information that harms minors in
any way. Information that “belongs to
another person and to which the user
does not have any right to” could be
vol l no 15
personal information or could be intellectual property. A much better intermediary liability provision was introduced
into the Copyright Act with the 2013
amendment. Under the Copyright Act,
content could be reinstated if the
takedown notice was not followed up
with a court order within 21 days.15 A
counter-proposal drafted by the Centre
for Internet and Society for “Intermediary Due Diligence and Information Removal,” has a further requirement for
reinstatement that is not seen in the
Copyright Act.16
Two, a state-mandated private censorship regime is created. You could ban
speech online without approaching the
court or the government. Risk-aversive private intermediaries who do not have the
legal resources to subjectively determine
the legitimacy of a legal claim err on the
side of caution and takedown content.
Three, the principles of natural justice
are not observed by the rules of the new
censorship regime. The creator of information is not required to be notified nor
given a chance to be heard by the intermediary. There is no requirement for the
intermediary to give a reasoned decision.
Four, different classes of intermediaries are all treated alike. Since the internet is not an uniform assemblage of homogeneous components, but rather a
complex ecosystem of diverse entities,
the different classes of intermediaries
perform different functions and therefore contribute differently to the causal
chain of harm to the affected person. If
upstream intermediaries like registrars
for domain names are treated exactly
like a web-hosting service or social
media service then there will be overblocking of content.
Five, there are no safeguards to prevent abuse of takedown notices. Frivolous complaints could be used to suppress
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COMMENTARY
legitimate expressions without any fear
of repercussions and given that it is not
possible to expedite reinstatement of content, the harm to the creator of information may be irreversible if the information is perishable. Transparency requirements with sufficient amounts of detail
are also necessary given that a ­human
right was being circumscribed. There is
no procedure to have the removed information reinstated by filing a counter notice or by appealing to a higher authority.
The judgment has solved half the
problem by only making intermediaries
lose immunity if they ignore government orders or court orders. Private
takedown notices sent directly to the
­intermediary without accompanying
government orders or courts order no
longer have basis in law. The bench
made note of the Additional Solicitor
General’s argument that user agreement
requirements as in Rule 3(2) were common practice across the globe and then
went ahead to read down Rule 3(4) from
the perspective of private takedown
­notices. One way of reading this would
be to say that the requirement for standardised “rules and regulation, terms and
NEW
condition or user agreement” remains.
The other more consistent way of reading this part of the order in conjunction
with the striking down of 66A would be
to say those parts of the user agreement
that are in violation of Article 19(2) have
also been read down.
This would have also been an excellent opportunity to raise the transparency
requirements both for the State and for
intermediaries: for (i) the person whose
speech is being censored, (ii) the persons interested in consuming that
speech, and (iii) the general public. It is
completely unclear whether transparency
in the case of India has reduced the state
appetite for censorship. Transparency
reports from Facebook, Google and
Twitter claim that takedown notices
from the Indian government are on the
rise.17 However, on the other hand, the
Department of Electronics and Information Technology (DEITY) claims that government statistics for takedowns do not
match the numbers in these transparency
reports.18 The best way to address this
uncertainty would be to require each
takedown notice and court order to be
made available by the State, intermediary
and also third-party monitors of free
speech like the Chilling Effects Project.
Section 69A
The Court upheld S69A which deals with
website blocking, and found that it was a
narrowly-drawn provision with adequate safeguards, and, hence, not constitutionally infirm. In reality, unfortunately, website blocking usually by internet service providers (ISPs) is an opaque
process in India. Blocking under S69A
has been growing steadily over the
years. In its latest response to an RTI
(right to information)19 query from the
Software Freedom Law Centre, DEITY
said that 708 URLs were blocked in 2012,
1,349 URLs in 2013, and 2,341 URLs in
2014. On 30 December 2014 alone, the
centre blocked 32 websites to curb Islamic
State of Iraq and Syria propaganda,
among which were “pastebin” websites,
code repository (Github) and generic video
hosting sites (Vimeo and Daily Motion).20
Analysis of leaked block lists and lists received as responses to RTI requests have
revealed that the block orders are full of
errors (some items do not exist, some
items are not technically valid web
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COMMENTARY
addresses), in some cases counter speech
which hopes to reverse the harm of illegal speech has also been included, web
pages from mainstream media houses
have also been blocked and some URLs
are base URLs which would result in
thousands of pages getting blocked
when only a few pages might contain
allegedly illegal content.21
Pre-decisional Hearing
The central problem with the law as it
stands today is that it allows for the originator of information to be isolated from
the process of censorship. The Website
Blocking Rules provide that all “reasonable efforts” must be made to identify
the originator or the intermediary who
hosted the content. However, Gautam
Bhatia offers an optimistic reading of
the judgment, he claims that the Court
has read into this “or” and made it an
“and”—thus requiring that the originator must also be notified of blocks when
he or she can be identified.22
Transparency
Usually, the reasons for blocking a website are unknown both to the originator
of material as well as those trying to
access the blocked URL. The general
public also get no information about the
nature and scale of censorship unlike
offline censorship where the court orders banning books and movies are usually part of public discourse. In spite of
the Court choosing to leave Section 69A
intact, it stressed the importance of a
written order for blocking, so that a writ
may be filed before a high court under
Article 226 of the Constitution. While
citing this as an existing safeguard, the
Court seems to have been under the impression that either the intermediary or
the originator is normally informed, but
according to Apar Gupta, a lawyer for
the People’s Union for Civil Liberties,
“While the rules indicate that a hearing
is given to the originator of the content,
this safeguard is not evidenced in practice. Not even a single instance exists on
record for such a hearing.”23 Even worse,
block orders have been unevenly implemented by ISPs with variations across
telecom circles, connectivity technologies, making it impossible for anyone to
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APRIL 11, 2015
independently monitor and reach a conclusion whether an internet resource is
inaccessible as a result of a S69A block
order or due to a network anomaly.
Rule 16 under S69A requires confidentiality with respect to blocking requests
and complaints, and actions taken in
that regard. The Court notes that this
was argued to be unconstitutional, but
does not state their opinion on this question. Gautam Bhatia holds the opinion
that this, by implication, requires that
requests cannot be confidential. Chinmayi Arun, from the Centre for Communication Governance at National Law
University Delhi, one of the academics
supporting the petitioners, holds the
opinion that it is optimism carried too
far to claim that the Court noted the
challenge to Rule 16 but just forgot about
it in a lack of attention to detail that is
belied by the rest of the judgment.
Free speech researchers and advocates have thus far used the RTI Act to
understand the censorship under S69A.
The Centre for Internet and Society has
filed a number of RTI queries about websites blocked under S69A and has never
been denied information on grounds of
Rule 16.24 However, there has been an
uneven treatment of RTI queries by DEITY
in this respect, with the Software Freedom Law Centre25 being denied blocking
orders on the basis of Rule 16. The Court
could have protected free speech and
expression by reading down Rule 16 except for a really narrow set of exceptions
wherein only aggregate information would
be made available to affected parties
and members of the public.
Conclusions
In Shreya Singhal, the Court gave us
great news: S66A has been struck down;
good news: S79(3) and its rules have
been read down; and bad news: S69A
has been upheld. When it comes to each
section, the impact of this judgment can
either be read optimistically or pessimistically, and therefore we must wait for
constitutional experts to weigh in on the
ripple effect that this order will produce
in other areas of free speech jurisprudence in India. But even as free speech
activists celebrate Shreya Singhal, some
are bemoaning the judgment as throwing
vol l no 15
the baby away with the bathwater, and
wish to reintroduce another variant of
S66A. Thus, we must remain vigilant.
Notes
1 G S Mudur (2012): “66A ‘Cut and Paste Job,’”
The Telegraph, 3 December, visited on 3 April,
2015,
http://www.telegraphindia.com/1121
203/jsp/frontpage/story_16268138.jsp
2 Sunil Abraham (2012): “The Five Monkeys and
Ice Cold Water,” Centre for Internet and Society, 26 September, visited on 3 April 2015,
http://cis-india.org/internet-governance/
www-deccan-chronicle-sep-16-2012-sunil-abraham-the-five-monkeys-and-ice-cold-water
3 Gautam Bhatia (2015): “The Striking Down of
66A: How Free Speech Jurisprudence in India
Found Its Soul Again,” Indian Constitutional
Law and Philosophy, 26 March, visited on
4 April 2015, https://indconlawphil.wordpress.com/2015/03/26/the-striking-down-ofsection-66a-how-indian-free-speech-jurisprudence-found-its-soul-again/
4 Ramjilal Modi vs State of UP, 1957, SCR 860.
5 Kedar Nath Singh vs State of Bihar, 1962, AIR 955.
6 Ram Manohar Lohia vs State of UP, AIR, 1968
All 100.
7 S Rangarajan vs P Jagjivan Ram, 1989, SCC(2),
574.
8 Arup Bhuyan vs Union of India, (2011), 3 SCC
377.
9 Lawrence Liang, Alternative Law Forum, personal communication to author, 6 April 2015.
10 K A Abbas vs Union of India, 1971 SCR (2), 446.
11 Ranjit Udeshi vs State of Maharashtra,1965 SCR
(1) 65.
12 Pranesh Prakash (2015): “Three Reasons Why
66A Verdict Is Momentous”/ Times of India/(29
March). Visited on 6 April 2015, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-times/
all-that-matters/Three-reasons-why-66A-verdict-is-momentous/articleshow/46731904.cms
13 Pranesh Prakash (2011): “Invisble Censorship:
How the Government Censors Without Being
Seen,” The Centre for Internet and Society, 14
December, visited on 6 April 2015, http://cisindia.org/internet-governance/blog/invisiblecensorship
14 Rishabh Dara (2012): “Intermediary Liability in
India: Chilling Effects on Free Expression on
the Internet,” The Centre for Internet and Society, 27 April, visited on 6 April 2015, http://
cis-india.org/internet-governance/chilling-effects-on-free-expression-on-internet.
15 Rule 75, Copyright Rules, 2013.
16 The Draft Counter Proposal is available at
http://cis-india.org/internet-governance/
counter-proposal-by-cis-draft-it-intermediarydue-diligence-and-information-removal-rules2012.pdf/view
17 According to Facebook’s transparency report,
there were 4,599 requests in the first half of
2014, followed by 5,473 requests in the latter
half. Available at https://govtrequests.facebook.
com/country/India/2014-H2/ also see Google’s transparency report available at http: //
www.google. com/transparencyreport/removals/
government/IN/?hl=en and Twitter’s report,
available at https:// transparency.twitter.com/
country/in
18 Surabhi Agarwal (2015): “Transparency Reports of Internet Companies are Skewed: Gulashan Rai,” Business Standard, 31 March,
viewed on 5 April 2015, http://www.businessstandard.com/article/current-affairs/transparency-reports-of-internet-companies-areskewed-gulshan-rai-115033000808_1.html.
19 http://sflc.in/deity-says-2341-urls-were-blockedin-2014-refuses-to-reveal-more/
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COMMENTARY
20 “32 Websites Go Blank,” The Hindu, 1 January
2015, viewed on 6 April 2015, http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/now-modi-govtblocks-32-websites/article6742372.ece
21 Pranesh Prakash (2012): “Analysing Latest List
of Blocked Sites (Communalism and Rioting
Edition),” 22 August, viewed on 6 April 2015,
http://cis-india.org/internet-governance/
blog/analysing-blocked-sites-riots-communalism. Also, see Part II of the same series at
http://cis-india.org/internet-governance/analyzing-the-latest-list-of-blocked-sites-communalism-and-rioting-edition-part-ii and analysis
16
of blocking in February 2013, at http://cis-india.org/internet-governance/blog/analyzinglatest-list-of-blocked-urls-by-dot
22 Gautam Bhatia (2015): “The Supreme Court’s
IT Act Judgment, and Secret Blocking,” Indian
Constitutional Law and Philosophy, 25 March,
viewed on 6 April 2015, https://indconlawphil.
wordpress.com/2015/03/25/the-supremecourts-it-act-judgment-and-secret-blocking/
23 Apar Gupta (2015): “But What about Section
69A?,” Indian Express, 27 March, viewed on 5
April 2015, http://indianexpress. com/article/
opinion/ columns/but-what-about-section-69a/
24 Pranesh Prakash (2011): DIT’s Response to RTI
on Website Blocking, The Centre for Internet
and Society, 7 April, viewed on 6 April 2015,
http://cis-india.org/internet-governance/blog/
rti-response-dit-blocking). Also see http://cisindia.org/internet-governance/blog/analysisdit-response-2nd-rti-blocking and http://cisindia.org/internet-governance/resources/reply-to-rti-application-on-blocking-of-websiteand-rule-419a-of-indian-telegraph-rules-1951
25 http://sflc.in/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/RTIblocking-final-reply-from-DEITY.pdf
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