The Prospects for `Mediate` Natural Theology in
Transcription
The Prospects for `Mediate` Natural Theology in
The Prospects for 'Mediate' Natural Theology in John Calvin Author(s): Michael L. Czapkay Sudduth Reviewed work(s): Source: Religious Studies, Vol. 31, No. 1 (Mar., 1995), pp. 53-68 Published by: Cambridge University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20019715 . Accessed: 18/03/2013 13:54 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. . Cambridge University Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Religious Studies. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded on Mon, 18 Mar 2013 13:54:58 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Rel. Stud. 31, pp. 53-68. ? Copyright 1995 Cambridge University L. CZAPKAY MICHAEL Press SUDDUTH THE PROSPECTS FOR 'MEDIATE' IN JOHN CALVIN NATURAL THEOLOGY One which of the perennial questions to be discussed continues in the history of Reformed in contemporary Calvin theology, and and scholarship discussion Calvin's of religion, involves the question of whether philosophy of the natural knowledge of God in the opening chapters of the Institutes of the Christian Religion can be taken as a presentation of arguments for the existence of God. How shall we construe the mode of man's natural knowledge of God in Calvin? More isman's precisely, or beliefs (other knowledge), or immediate? In the present paper of a mediate natural natural of God mediated knowledge by or is it something in some sense innate I would like to consider the plausibility on recent in Calvin. Drawing in developments reasons theology to argue I want that, though theology, philosophical a endorse traditional natural based on explicitly theology statements theistic arguments and makes several apparently negative regard? a are such there nonetheless for that ing project, good grounds holding epistemology Calvin does mediate implicit theology and not natural theology in or compatible to be canvassed I. THE can be construed with the salient and in such a way as to be either relevant features of Calvin's in this paper. NATURAL OF KNOWLEDGE GOD to Calvin, 'There According an awareness natural instinct, all men a certain understanding is within the human mind, and indeed by of divinity_God himself has implanted in of his divine majesty' (I. iii. i).1 In addition to this internal sensus divinitatis or engraved on the hearts of all inscribed source to draws Calvin another attention man's of natural knowledge people, of God: 'The knowledge of God shines forth in the fashioning of the universe v. and the continuing of it' has governing (I. i). 'Not only,' writes Calvin 'sowed in men's minds that seed of religion of which we have spoken God, but revealed himself in the whole workmanship and daily discloses himself men cannot open their eyes without As a consequence, being to see him' two apparently passages compelled (I. v. i). These suggest distinct modes natural of God. In book i, (or sources) of man's knowledge of the universe. 1 John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, tr. Ford Lewis vol. XX-XXI The Westminster Press, (Philadelphia: i960). Battles, in the Library of Christian Classics, This content downloaded on Mon, 18 Mar 2013 13:54:58 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions MICHAEL 54 L. CZAPKAY SUDDUTH that the knowledge of God has establishes 3 of the Institutes, Calvin chapter been naturally in next human In the the mind. implanted chapter, he argues that this (naturally of God has been smothered and knowledge implanted) on to say that, not only in book 1, chapter Then, 5 Calvin goes corrupted. has God sowed the seed of religion in the minds of men, but he reveals Himself of the unmistakable marks of His daily by means on his individual to Calvin works. Subsequent ments to the Institutes and it became Catechism) distinction here in the various (beginning on commentaries in Reformed commonplace in terms of a distinction glory which between He has placed in the Abridge? the Heidelberg to capture Calvin's internal and external circles an or revelation.2 are two distinct modes There by which man has a one a priori and another of innate and God, internal, knowledge a in the work of creation and external, posteriori. we view Calvin a natural as maintaining Whether of God by knowledge on we will depend how take Calvin's way of reasons or arguments heavily no a to distinction whether there is distinc? apparent (or beg questions ' ' between the of in God the mind and that tion) knowledge implanted witness natural 'set forth in creation'. This century Edward knowledge Dowey (following as B. B. Warfield) has suggested the raw material, that experience provides it were, out of which man draws conclusions about God. Hence the knowl? and based upon empirical observation. edge ' is inferential Dowey speaks of ' ' '3 character of Calvin's the highly inductive natural arguments, and asserts ' ' man to Calvin, of God from nature. infers certain attributes that, according on the other hand, L. Parker, that 'Neither argues as supplying to I of book be 5 chapter ought interpreted '4 to Parker St. Thomas' demonstrations. does equivalent T. H. 1 nor chapter the Calvinian not think that or sanctioning as in any way presenting inferential a of has God. Most Alvin added contribution recently, Plantinga knowledge to this debate by maintaining innate that we have been created with certain Calvin should be viewed to form belief in God in the appropriate where circumstances, dispositions at least include widely realized these circumstances conditions, experiential the starry night such as observing sky or some other aspect of the created seems to avoid the difficulty of two-mode interpretation one two to of the mode conditions, (at least) consisting by reducing to the individual. is external of which is internal and the other which order.5 This recent theories one Briefly addressed 2 See John of the debate then, these are the basic contours sketched, Calvin's should we construe here. How understanding Platt, 1573-1650 Theology, 3 Edward Dowey, Reformed Thought and Scholasticism : The Arguments for the Existence of God 3-6, and 8. chapters (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1982), especially The Knowledge of God in Calvin's Theology University (New York: Columbia to be of the in Dutch Press, !952), p. 77 4 T. H. L. Parker, Calvin's Doctrine of theKnowledge of God (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1959), pp. 7-9. 5 in Faith and Rationality :Reason and Belief inGod, ed. Alvin Alvin Plantinga, 'Reason and Belief in God' of Notre Dame and Nicholas Wolterstorff Press, 1983), pp. 65-67. (Notre Dame: University Plantinga This content downloaded on Mon, 18 Mar 2013 13:54:58 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions of God? natural knowledge mediated by reasons? II. THE THEOLOGY NATURAL 'MEDIATE' it legitimately Can OF ASSESSMENT NEGATIVE the beginning it must be admitted disparaging as based especially comments in the way From ently) MEDIATE IN JOHN be construed NATURAL that Calvin of man's CALVIN makes natural 55 as inferential or THEOLOGY several knowledge (appar? of God, on arguments. ( i ) The principle of epistemicdeficiencyand thenoetic effectsof sin ' of God of which Calvin knowledge speaks is that primal and to which the very order of nature would have led us if simple knowledge in vain that so many Adam had remained upright' (I. ii. i). 'It is therefore The natural to show forth of the universe burning lamps shine for us in the workmanship us in bathe their the glory of its Author. radiance, yet they wholly Although in no way lead us into the right path. Surely they they can of themselves strike some sparks, but before their fuller these are light shines forth (I. v. the inner and outer witness of God, man falls 14). Despite ' to dull toward into superstition and fails worship God. We grow increasingly so manifest us' and they flow away without testimonies, (I. v. ii). profiting two in of is limited it is The natural God, ways. First, though, knowledge smothered' a knowledge of God of God as creator; but an adequate is knowledge only a and quite important, of Him as creator and redeemer. Secondly, knowledge man's of God is limited by the subjective conditions of man's natural knowledge of the two modes of man's natural knowledge discussion sinful state. Calvin's of God as creator is heavily qualified that this knowledge is by his insistence man in fall the of the of and sin the human presence by corrupted personality. ' The knowledge he has in view is the primal and simple knowledge to which ' have led us ifAdam had remained the very order of nature would upright si integer stetisset Adam, last phrase, indicates that (I. ii. 1). The a restriction on how far man can go in terms of knowledge introduces reason. Calvin based upon natural that for post-lapsarian recognizes the fall of God man is corrupted, and untrustworthy. the natural knowledge of God incomplete ' If men were to would hold certain or taught only by nature, they nothing as to solid or clear-cut, but would be so tied to confused principles worship an unknown tells us that the evidence of God in god' (I. v. 12). Calvin not profit man, his mind has been darkened. because Notice in nature revelation is not inherently that God's it is rendered obscure; we can man's unclear virtue of what call blindness. The human epistemic by so race is that the human is vitiated either from personality by sin, prevented creation does 'seeing' creation. the wonderful and clear We therefore knowledge marks 'lack of God' of God the natural (I. v. or perverts the witness in of God to mount up unto the pure ability 15). This content downloaded on Mon, 18 Mar 2013 13:54:58 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions L. MICHAEL 56 CZAPKAY (2) The principle SUDDUTH of moral inexcusability of God is to render man knowledge sees Romans before God. Calvin inexcusable morally chapter one as laying an important down the natural of God : governing principle knowledge to Paul that is 'Where teaches what be known of God ismade plain from the the fall Since the role of man's natural [Romans 1:19], he does not signify such a manifestation can but, rather, shows it not to go farther comprehend; v. than to render men inexcusable' (I. 14). God gives men a 'slight taste of so that they 'might not hide their impiety under a cloak of his divinity' creation of the world as men's discernment of the the original purpose (II. ii. 18). Although ignorance' (pre-lapsarian) in the mind in the natural order was of God implanted and revealed witness race to an adoration as well as to to stir the human and worship of God, man in the hope of the future this natural life, sin has twisted now in of sits the works of God knowledge by idly contemplation care over to the Maker and his the without world. But regard providential ' a to achieve all of God, pure and clear knowledge inability despite man's encourage so that man excuse is cut off because the fault (3) The principle of dullness is within us' (I. v. 15). of the evident nature of the external witness natural of God is to render him inex? of man's knowledge reason for God's then there is a prima facie self his Maker, to be quite evident. But arguments of involve a making of himself is not itself evident. But the external witness is evident which If the purpose before cusable revelation something something quite ence and nature 'very great account evident. Calvin's of God is from the created clarity' and 'so manifest emphasizes world. God how evident the exist? presents himself with testimonies.' see that no long or toilsome proof [demonstratio] is needed to elicit evidences since the few we [testimonia] that serve to illuminate and affirm the divine majesty; We have sampled at random, withersoever you turn, it is clear manifest and obvious that they can easily be observed with with the finger (I. v. 9). In this crucial luted syllogisms in creation that they are very the eyes and pointed out convo? cites as a reason for not constructing passage Calvin of the fact that there is no need to do so. The manifestation so there is no need to make is evident what is perspicuous, because in fact already evident. And Calvin has good reason for holding this, - as of the natural knowledge he believes that the function just seen above God of God for fallen man is to render him without excuse before God. This would and if men had to reason through cumbersome be compromised syllogisms a even at to In his of God's existence. arrive distinctions scholastic knowledge ' an on Acts, Calvin makes between distinction important philo? Commentary Paul and for with which the instance, simplicity, argumentation' sophical and Barnabas Gentiles treated the evidence of God's providence at Lystra. This content downloaded on Mon, 18 Mar 2013 13:54:58 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions in nature to the not I do the understand this manner philosophical to mean about IN THEOLOGY NATURAL 'mediate' that the they secrets offered of uninstructed, ordinary people. And so they had was known by all the uneducated. Nevertheless, order the iii. of nature the explicit Calvin is a certain prospects calvin: I should there begin by commitment for the nature and clear mediate a reasoned closely for nature, were they 57 in discourse addressing to set forth in simple words what they assume this principle that in manifestation of God.6 natural in theology inferential of CALVIN JOHN knowledge stating at once that the prospects to theistic arguments in Calvin for establishing any is quite bleak. Recent that the explicit endorse? has shown quite conclusively scholarship of arguments for the existence of God is something (and attributes) which entered into Protestantism the of Prot? formally through development estant scholasticism in the second half of the 16th century under Reformed ment such as Theodore theologians sinus and Girolamo Zanchi.7 Beza, Peter Martyr Vermigli, The significant methodological the calvinists suggest an explicit Calvin and place between tween biblical the Christocentric philosophical theology is interested theologian natural reason, Calvin theology of his followers. in a knowledge has a different of Calvin and where Consequently, of God's existence goal in mind. Zacharias Ur shifts that took distinction the be? theocentric the philosophical (and attributes) by a aims to develop a knowledge which affects He of God but knowledge (not simply of His existence), - a we and moves toworship that has an existential and knowledge, might way, out ethical dimension.8 to Edward Dowey that it is difficult down points pin an exact definition use of the word to Calvin's 'knowledge,' though he awareness at which that 'existential' best describes the affecting suggests at Calvin is aiming.9 in mind these So, bearing distinctions, any attempt or theistic arguments mediate in Calvin will have natural treating theology to rest content with rather modest claims. goals and cautious to the case for a mediate Crucial is the meaning natural of theology on we for the the what of former inferential knowledge, possibility depends to do some epis? understand by the latter. To this end, it will be needful and clarify the notion temology belief to be based on other beliefs. o? grounds of belief and what it means for a If we think of beliefs as the output of various or mechanisms, we can think of the ground of a belief as processes cognitive to the psychological the relevant and where this input cognitive mechanism, or input may be either beliefs experiences (in the broad sense). The based 6 John Calvin, Calvin's Commentaries : The Acts of the Apostles 14-28, tr. John W. Fraser and ed. David and Thomas Torrance F. Torrance and Boyd, (London: Oliver 1966), p. 13. 7 See John Platt, Reformed Thought and Scholasticism; John Patrick Donnelly, 'Italian influences on the of Calvinistic The Sixteenth Century Journal, VII:8i-ioi Scholasticism,' Development 1976), (April, 'Calvinistic Thomism,' The Intellectual Origins of the European Viator, 7:441-5 (1976); Alister McGrath, Blackwell 8. Publishers, Reformation (Oxford: 1987), chapter 8 It is this sort of knowledge is often under consideration which to the when Calvin draws attention of man's limitations natural knowledge of God. 9 The Knowledge of God in Calvin's Theology (New York: Columbia Dowey, Press, 1952), pp. University W. 24-27. This content downloaded on Mon, 18 Mar 2013 13:54:58 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions MICHAEL 58 L. CZAPKAY SUDDUTH on relation will then be spelled out in terms of the processes taking account of the appropriate features of the ground and the belief being formed - as it were - in the a ground will not be the total light of these features. Hence a to but those features of the input that are mechanism, input belief-forming taken account of in the actual formation can now draw of the belief.10 We a distinction two quite different one between or know believe ways may something one sense though Grounds or is mediated is knowledge by reasons. There can possess even mediated reasons, knowledge by process of inferring p from q. through any conscious where this belief in which a person S has not gone may be possessed and their being utilized in the formation implicitly not be something aware the subject is is happening. As long as other are attitudes the features of the account taken propositional input on some S believe even the basis of other of, may p belief, though S is not on the conscious of the fact that she is believing some of other beliefs grounds she possesses. This can be contrasted with a mediate that is the knowledge of a belief need p from some other proposition inferring some proposition an reason for latter type of mediate p. The adequate be called the former argumentative; nonargumentative. result of the subject constitutes q which can knowledge What has often confused matters is that both have been referred to as cases of inferential to theistic belief both could be classified and applied knowledge, as instances of mediate natural In both cases knowledge is formed theology. on the basis of other a person believes or knows. But we should not things a beliefs being based on other beliefs (and thereby being mediated a with the of belief from other beliefs.11 by them) activity inferring The distinction between these two types of believing for a reason has been at treated Robert and his distinction is Audi, length by the epistemologist confuse between inferential' beliefs quite helpful. Audi distinguishes 'structurally and inferential' are beliefs.12 S believe the that may 'episodically Jones's on. home for the reason that their living-room are not S does believe lights are home because he has gone that the Jones's through a process of inferring as a this conclusion from a premise S takes note of the (or set of premises). fact that the lights are turned on in the Jones's and, already living-room the belief that when the Jones's possessing living-room lights are turned on are in the evening the Jones's the belief that they are home is formed. home, S's belief that when the Jones's living room lights are turned on the Jones's are home is taken account of (along with the belief that the lights are now are home. What of the belief the Jones's on) in the formation a a reason is belief due to (or reasons), but not due to a reasoning turned here 10 This account (Ithaca: Cornell 11 See William is taken University Alston, from William Alston, 'An Internalist Externalism' we have process. in Epistemic Justification Press, 1989), pp. 228-231. of Epistemic 'Concepts Justification' and 'An Internalist Externalism' in Press, Epistemic Justification (Ithaca: Cornell University 227-229. 1989), pp. 99-101, See Robert Audi, The Structure of Justification Press, (New York: Cambridge University 1993), pp. 237-239 Alston, 12 This content downloaded on Mon, 18 Mar 2013 13:54:58 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions NATURAL 'mediate' IN THEOLOGY CALVIN JOHN 59 to Audi, that underlies there is an argument this case, in the sense According one of'an is and abstract that structure', enthyme argumentai probably r to the target belief b. reason from the grounding matic, (or reasons) for a reason in such an instance is structurally inferential. On the Believing or internal other hand, b may arise from a tokening recitation of that structure by actually be episodically inferring h from r. Such a belief would a reason inferential. Although for belief that is inferential every episodically the converse is structurally inferential, The of consequences or mediate inferential does not hold. this for assessing the plausibility God of should be noted. knowledge in the passages we have for the existence of God, looked at, expresses this does not entail an of possessing Calvin, Although low view of arguments a rather a low view (or no view for that in is what Calvin says theology. implicit a of the Institutes inferential form of natural i, chapter 5 structurally that involves a knowledge of God based on other (justified) beliefs of mediate matter) in book theology or knowledge and believes natural There of the person. Perhaps S takes notice of the order in nature, for the reason that S takes such things as indications seems to think that there are many of a Designer. And Calvin (evidences) to us: such instances which themselves present in God are innumerable There wonderful evidences ; not wisdom those only both more and on earth in heaven recondite matters for the that declare closer his observation of which astronomy, medicine, and all natural science are intended, but also those that thrust themselves upon the sight of even the most untutored and ignorant so cannot that their to witness without persons, open eyes they being compelled them_ To be to look upon taught divine variety of his glory. only by Even the art, for it reveals of the is need the art of and to determine stars, of more their to note their properties. As God's one observes these, so the mind must their intervals, explicitly when been there sure, the motion investigate the of common the eyes, folk host_ heavenly be argued, tions of widely realized Likewise, be to order to measure shows itself more providence rise to a somewhat higher level untutored, of the unaware and yet distinct in regard in stations, the most and cannot itself in this innumerable body... the human body Artificer is rightly judged It might aid toil exacting assigned to the structure shows itself to be a composition a wonder-worker (I. v. 1, 2). who have excellence of and well-ordered of the so ingenious human that its that what we have here are merely though, descrip? in which circumstances belief in God is formed. As commonsense mentioned, Plantinga (drawing on the Scottish phil? can Thomas as has that Calvin be read that osopher Reid) argued holding we are designed in such a way that we have an innate disposition sensus (the to form beliefs about God under certain circumstances, such as divinitatis) those laid out by Calvin in the above passage. But then belief in God is based already on or reasons, and hence the I would in to this However, argue response of Calvin its philosophical that, despite interpretation the grounds of experience, not mediate. belief is immediate increasingly prevalent not other beliefs This content downloaded on Mon, 18 Mar 2013 13:54:58 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 6o MICHAEL L. SUDDUTH CZAPKAY it is as an interpretation of Calvin somewhat plausibility, misleading. not merely two elements to distinguish, in a single Calvin means involved in which man of theistic belief formation, but two distinct modes mode a natural knowledge of God. Note the contrast Calvin makes: 'He possesses in men's that seed of re? has not only minds [non solum] sowed ... but in the whole revealed himself and discloses himself [sed] daily ligion v. Calvin is quite emphatic of the universe' (I. i). Moreover, workmanship men's the 'sense of divinity... minds' about upon (I. iii. 3) as engraved [God] of God. knowledge constituting or belief-forming mechanism The sensus divinitatis is not a mere that is innate, the but knowledge disposition itself is innate.13 are not external evidences suggests that the innumerable a sensus conditions which the divinitatis theistic (as trigger merely experiential a as an theistic belief, but function and yield belief-forming mechanism) reasons in turn become of beliefs which basis for the formation experiential This, of course, It might be thought, though, the innate knowledge of God, a sense. be taken in Reidian We the relevant theistic proposition. for believing that even if the sensus divinitatis refers to an under consideration may currently terms of the experiential in for theistic belief conditions, solely believer's the of the without step forming a belief that is then used as adding mode account the ground one modes, two immediate has in view So really Calvin This and the other based on experiential conditions.14 on how one takes Calvin's in chapter the and claims 5, for theistic innate belief. obviously depends on the interpretation shows that this is no of that chapter history of debate to decide. However, I would is not favour the view that Calvin easy matter on the basis of are of that there indications God experiential merely saying which account sensory Calvin's in God having taken into believe that people to them in that these the things presented belief) (entertaining are Much of in of God's existence. fact indications experience the idea that people do in fact recognize does introduce discussion people but believe, to be signs or indications and of God's existence in question or not are will that these to know whether they compelled 'They ' v. 4). Elsewhere, are the signs of divinity... various after adducing (I. in the world, Calvin control of God's providential evidences speaks of such as a common way of seeking God ifwe but 'trace the outlines that evidences the evidences nature. above and below sketch a living likeness of him' v. (I. 6). Moreover, in the world refer many to facts order and symmetry examples are then used as evidences for the uncovered through scientific means, which In all these cases, I suggest that it is most plausible of a Designer. existence to be emphasizing the fact that many to take Calvin things we come to believe of Calvin's of 13 over innate natural knowledge of God, on the early controversy For a discussion Reformed Thought and Scholasticism. 14 am to me. out this possibility for pointing to Nicholas Wolterstorff I indebted This content downloaded on Mon, 18 Mar 2013 13:54:58 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions see John Platt, NATURAL 'MEDIATE' IN JOHN THEOLOGY CALVIN 6l to the senses or uncovered through more (that are evident a or some in grounding of role observation reasoning) play degree and if we recall the distinction between belief. And episodically the world about careful theistic has actual beliefs, we need not show that Calvin come to believe about God based that arguments things only people on other things they believe about the world and the fact that they take such an unsophisticated of God (in however sense). things to be evidence to it is reasonable take book So I would then that i, chapter 5 say, quite reasons for to external evidences that become of the Institutes as referring inferential structurally in mind, rather than mere experiential conditions which trigger the forma? believing, The exists mediation that God tion of the belief (without by reasons). one to not that and here is need go whole-hog grasp important point as doing in like the Five Calvin characterize anything remotely Aquinas In this respect Parker Ways. - no ab alio movetur calvinian is correct. we find no omne quod movetur to Thomas's demonstrations. But, In Calvin equivalent inferential and episodically above between structurally given the distinction no it doesn't follow that there is inferential of inferential beliefs, knowledge one does not necessarily infer through any syllogistic method God. Although God exists as a conclusion one does and from a series of premises that state the facts of design to believe in the existence of God (and perhaps on the basis of certain other beliefs one has about the come order, some of his attributes) order of nature and the relation We can call a mediate of this fact to the existence of a creator God. theology structurally inferential natural as an to episodically inferential natural theology. theology, opposed Is there such But what about an episodically inferential natural theology? a thing in evidence in Calvin? Well, if we assume the presence of a struc? turally believes tually such natural in the first instance natural then a person who theology, a reason ac? for inferential may, upon due reflection, structurally a discursive and reason out matters that were go through process inferential or implicit. And this can obviously take place at various to and Calvin refers and toilsome sophistication. 'long proofs,' in the philosophical 'reasoned discourse but manner', why suppose that this to any form of argument stands opposed for the existence implies that Calvin latent originally levels of of God. In fact, Calvin's in book 1, chapter 5 could discussion (or attributes) as a case in of such be taken fact basic forms of argument. easily (and has) are simple; others complex. And Some arguments this itself largely depends on one's audience. one And here should bear in mind Calvin's aim in the Institutes. He philosophical type of thing Nevertheless, a guide on to the Scriptures, not a textbook to not it in interested the is, put quite bluntly, the mind of the philosophical occupies theologian. is presenting theology. He which he does earlier we Although before the common recognize saw Calvin people, the value on argumentation. of carrying Paul of philosophical discourse disabusing the complete passage shows that Calvin This content downloaded on Mon, 18 Mar 2013 13:54:58 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions nonethe 62 claimed SUDDUTH an argument to be offering Paul and of sorts. Although ' ' Calvin natural God was manifested evidences, by Paul less considered Barnabas CZAPKAY L. MICHAEL that says: this to mean I do not understand the manner philosophical secrets the of order the of is watered fruits in nature by such is a there great and certain the because rain, abundance are sun are earth not moved own their by the conclusion is that this amazing of God_ [italics mine]15 ingenuity may the because surely gather all things. For the heaven even less much power, we year, Because its growth, quickens by from these things that there is some God who governs the addressing of God. manifestation the year produced they in discourse were to set forth in simple words what they assume this principle that in clear of heat reasoned for nature, uninstructed, ordinary people. And so they had was known by all the uneducated. Nevertheless, earth a closely that they offered about of nature plainly by points chance. and Therefore, to the providence at a more to carry on argumentation can be seen ifwe compare account with the previous sophisticated where of Paul at Athens before the Stoics and Epicureans, Calvin's discussion ' from nature who God is, what he showed by arguments he claims that Paul even Calvin the need recognizes level. This And again, is like, and how He is to be worshipped 'Moreover, properly.'16 he takes his proof from in debate with profane men, he is dealing because with them by his time in contending nature have wasted itself, for he would texts.'17 citing Scriptural the blindness Accordingly confronted by of awareness downwards, God's the they power, is all the more of men a clear such and obvious presence are bound of God. and goodness. wisdom, to fall shameful manifestation, Wherever on living, For God and intolerable, are they turn their they and indeed has not not when, moved eyes, countless, obscure given by or upwards reminders hints an of of His glory in the handiwork of the world, but has engraved such plain marks everywhere, that they can be known also by touch by the blind. From that we gather that men are not only blind but stupid, when they are helped by such very clear proofs, but derive no benefit from them.18 to a structurally inferential in book i, chapter 5, says implicit theology an episodically natural inferential we have grounds for asserting theology. not only by the prospects of rendering seems to be supported, The possibility com? Calvin's of consideration the but what is by positive implicit, explicit in various show St. Paul engaging ments on some key texts of Scripture which I think we natural can conclude that, in addition in what at least Calvin I take it that the points raised in from natural theology. types of arguments to respond to objection this section serve primarily 3 in section II, for if the are sound, natural there can be an inferential section in this judgments if given, and arguments, of God which does not require argument, knowledge seems to dislike. Moreover, if need not be the convoluted type that Calvin 15 Acts of the Apostles 14-28, 18 Ibid., pp. 118-119. 16 p. 13. 17 Ibid., p. 109. This content downloaded on Mon, 18 Mar 2013 13:54:58 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Ibid., p. 112. 'MEDIATE' of man the mind NATURAL has been that, though the external (as Calvin emphasizes), in every instance. person evident as Calvin But not follow surely there 63 says it has, then it may be evident order is objectively darkened, in the natural witness it does CALVIN that it will is a possibility to every made be evident of it being by argument. A STRENGTHENED NATURAL THEOLOGY: IV. IN JOHN THEOLOGY CASE AN FOR EPISODICALLY INTRA-FAITH FUNCTION INFERENTIAL FOR NATURAL THEOLOGY for an episodically inferential in Calvin natural also prospects theology - an on how we construe the function of natural often depend theology to an overlooked the I debate. There is believe aspect interesting analogy The that can be drawn between what Calvin in Scripture and evidence for or role of natural function theology. faith says about the relationship the credibility of Scripture between and the the topic of arguments introduces Interestingly enough, Calvin explicitly in relation to the knowledge comes to us through of God as redeemer which God's Word the Holy Scriptures.19 Calvin notes that 'since for unbelieving men seems to stand alone, religion by opinion they, in order not believe or lightly, both wish anything foolishly Moses and the Prophets spoke divinely' and demand rational proof that and (I. vii. 4). But the prophets on not tells 'do dwell to rational and us, apostles, proofs,' according our a to 'we in seek conviction than human Calvin, ought higher place or conjectures, that is, in the secret testimony of the reasons, judgments, vii. 4). 'The testimony of the Spirit is more excellent than all Spirit' '(I. as sees Calvin. The basic Calvin it is that faith in reason, explains problem as no or God's Word but rational Scripture argument requires certainty, are the very Word that the Scriptures of proof can establish with certainty God. 'The certainty it deserves with us, it attains by the testimony of the seems to think of the of the (I. vii. 5). Calvin Spirit' testimony Holy Spirit as an actual source of belief and one that is superior to inference or argument Calvin it produces beliefs with a greater degree of strength or conviction. No can a firm no one such should argument conviction; therefore, produce believe on the basis of argument that Scripture is the Word of God. Consider Calvin's statement: suffice for a saving following 'Scripture will ultimately when of God its is founded the inward upon knowledge only certainty of the to to those who wish unbelievers persuasion Holy prove Spirit_But that Scripture is the Word of God are acting foolishly, for only by faith can this be known' (I. viii. 13). since 19 Calvin's discussion 'evidence' and 'proofs' to Scripture, the terms here could very well shed light on how we are to understand such terms as in the earlier sections which treated the knowledge of God as creator. In relation ' are clearly used to indicate and 'proof(s)' 'evidence(s) 'argument,' especially since the latter term is used in close connection with (perhaps even as an equivalent to) the former terms. This content downloaded on Mon, 18 Mar 2013 13:54:58 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions L. MICHAEL 64 CZAPKAY SUDDUTH the said this, Calvin Nevertheless, goes on to say that, though having ' a no isGod's Word it is conviction that Scripture reason, knowledge requires then Calvin the best reason agrees' with which goes on to (I. vii. 5). And support this in book 1, chapter 8: 'So far as human the credibility firm proofs are at hand to establish reason goes, sufficiently ' As Calvin of Scripture. sees matters, strive to build up faith in Scripture 'those who through dis? are This that backwards.' suggests actually things actually doing putation a or evidences to in faith. that is do have role fact, This, subsequent disputation what is exactly Calvin says in chapter 8 : Unless this certainty, higher and stronger than any human judgment, be present, it to establish it by will be in vain to fortify the authority of Scripture by arguments, common agreement of the church, or to confirm it with other helps. For unless this once we is laid, it's authority will always remain in doubt. Conversely, foundation have embraced it devoutly as its dignity deserves, and have recognized it to be above the common sort of and fix the certainty What but play - those arguments in our minds of Scripture not - strong become enough to before very useful aids. engraft (I. viii. 1) that that leads to the conclusion this is an argument a role that is not antecedent in the life of the believer, to faith. from emerges evidences things, a role consequent (A) Calvin believed that faith in Scripture requires the testimony of the Holy Spirit, since the certainty which faith requires cannot be generated by argumentation from truths of natural reason. is 'in accord with the best faith in Scripture as God's Word (B) Nevertheless, ' ' reason and there are sufficiently firm proofs at hand to establish the credibility ' of Scripture. (C) Calvin relevant sees for argumentation the Christian, (D) Argumentation the framework This is a most role for natural and ' as evidences confirmations for ' the and is legitimate as an activity posterior of faith, (from (A)-(C)) 'credibility aids. useful of ' Scripture as to, and carried out within, as it sheds light on a most argument, illuminating has been obscured which unfortunately theology plausible since the and philosophers theologians period, when con? it has usually been natural of natural theology theology as tradition and this has been true in the Reformed strued as apologetic, that unless one well.20 And this has often been conjoined with the assumption which such a belief is irrational has reasons for belief in God, something But natural denied. have consistently tradition and the Reformed Calvin Enlightenment. have thought In the modern so narrowly it was In medieval construed. theology theology was not always can call We o? often part of an intra-faith faith seeking understanding. project - a a faith natural this consequent natural theology presupposes theology which 20 as apologetically of theistic arguments introduction In fact, it was the case very early on. The out by John Platt in Reformed Thought and is carefully brought oriented among Reformed theologians for the purpose of Christian theistic arguments Scholasticism. The interest in employing begins apologetics in Daneau and appears explicitly to emerge in Ursinus by 1583. This content downloaded on Mon, 18 Mar 2013 13:54:58 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions context. This is quite and Proslogion, in the context in St. Anselm evident arguments of life in a monastic who was a demonstration sought the truth which his heart CALVIN wrote 65 the Monologion both of God were And community. ' an example of meditation Anselm to understand IN JOHN for the existence in which clear, the Monologion and in the Proslogion in order THEOLOGY NATURAL 'MEDIATE' undertaken, himself made as Anselm on the grounds of faith' of God of the existence believed and loved. What one about the existence is impressed with here is how the project of reasoning In Cur Deus Homo?, Anselm towards Christians. and nature of God is directed to set forth (for the necessity of the incar? says that the proofs he is about ' ' means are to not for the sake of attaining faith by of reason, but nation) ' on those and that believers be may meditating gladdened by understanding and that, as far as possible, they believe, things which they may always be of who demands any one [presumably Jews and Moslems] ready to convince in which is us' Even them a reason ofthat i, here, (Book Chapter i).21 hope one is struck with the emphasis ismentioned,22 purpose though an apologetic on the intra-faith believes by faith of ority Scripture. if Calvin But knowledge Scripture of arguments and proofs by which what one first is then demonstrated of the auth? by reason, independent relevance to a saving for Scripture (as the means as relevant of God) for the Christian that who already believes is theWord of God by the testimony of the Spirit, might not natural ' ' as as a useful aid also function construed inferential, episodically theology, or a 'rational sees evidences confirmation' for what the believer has taken on faith? This to be a most pertinent For once we take natural question. context in and the all it of three of the earlier objections faith, put theology are to a mediate natural for they all assume a non-faith removed, theology context. The natural is no longer separated of God from the knowledge appears to me of God communicated in Scripture supernatural knowledge by the Spirit. Its can now mere be elevated that of purpose beyond inexcusability, perhaps to its original restored of stirring us to a recognition and place as a means of God. worship or But how precisely should we conceive of such arguments, for Scripture as 'useful aids'? Useful for God, for what? What of confirmation? type Calvin is admittedly of 'confirmation', vague on the meaning though his is often similar to Anselm's, states the for instance when Calvin language as a means of such evidences 'the and purpose whereby (a) dignity majesty are affirmed in godly hearts' of Scripture and (b) Scripture is 'brilliantly vindicated against suggests an apologetic the whiles purpose, of its disparagers'. I would highlight Calvin here Although the intra-faith emphasis 21 Cur Deus Homo? in St. Anselm: Basic Writings, 2nd ed., tr. S. N. Deane Anselm, (1962; reprint, La Illinois: Open Court Publishing Company, 1964), p. 178. But the apologetic here is in all probability directed towards non-Christians (Jews and Moslems) rather than non-theists, as it is, not the existence of God, but the doctrine of the incarnation that is at stake. Salle, 22 This content downloaded on Mon, 18 Mar 2013 13:54:58 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 66 MICHAEL L. CZAPKAY SUDDUTH his discussion. Calvin also seems taken by the aesthetic as in much well the the same way that aspect (as nature), Scriptures ' as Anselm of the his of attractive for value and the proofs spoke beauty '23 a But Calvin is little vague about what is actually for achieved reasoning. the Christian the such evidences. (beyond aesthetics) by considering that characterizes of Left with the question of the function and with no clear statement enterprise, forced I think Calvin. from Calvin theology as an intra-faith on the matter, we are to look for possibilities at least be compatible that would with there are two, closely related, possibilities. has been engaged in developing the last 12 years, Alvin Plantinga here And During a Reformed of natural epistemology, of theistic basicality proper even if it is not based the central belief- thesis that belief of which in God is what he calls can be a rational the belief on other beliefs of a person. or reasons So arguments a are not needed that is, it is possible for a person for justified belief in God; reasons for the belief and to believe in God without having (or there being) so not be violating in duties intellectual any believing. Most recently, Plan? as this thesis along the lines of rationality understood tinga has developed or to transform of which is sufficient (that quantity enough quality true belief into knowledge). In 'The Prospects for Natural Plan? Theology,' natural that although (mediate) theology (construed tinga maintains epi? a not for theistic such warranted is belief, necessary arguments sodically) warrant increase the warrant could of a belief in God. Hence, Plantinga says: perhaps good theistic arguments could play the role of confirming and strengthening my belief in God, and in that way they might increase the degree of warrant belief in God has that belief from mere Thomistic for me. Indeed, in such a way true belief; project they such arguments as to nudge might of transforming in might it over some belief increase the degree the boundary cases therefore of warrant separating serve of knowledge like something the into knowledge.24 here is quite helpful. On the one hand, we can say Plantinga's suggestion of the Holy that the immediate sources of theistic belief (the testimony Spirit ' are sensus in general epistemically' and the superior sources of belief divinitatis) a greater degree of warrant. On the other beliefs with since they produce in God in a basic way has a belief hand, suppose that a person who believes reasons - weak, If and wavering. intermittent that is for various possible as we view theistic belief as produced (such by theistic cognitive mechanisms or the testimony of the of our cognitive mechanisms things go are interfered with and frequently processes as it ought. Moreover, not function it may the sensus divinitatis other immediate degree sources and mediate of warrant which it would could also be combined not have 23 i (p. 179). Cur Deus Homo ? Book i, Chapter 24 for Natural 'The Theology,' Prospects Plantinga, as happens with Spirit), at times. wrong Belief-forming our cognitive does equipment Holy to hold that be plausible to yield a belief with a if it were Philosophical based Perspectives This content downloaded on Mon, 18 Mar 2013 13:54:58 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions on either 5 (1991), pp. one of 311-312. NATURAL 'MEDIATE' the sources and her Now noetic alone. All of this will IN JOHN THEOLOGY of course depend CALVIN on the particular 67 individual situation. Calvin effects for one emphasizes of sin sin has effects have come to call the theologians on the human person's cognitive faculties. what so that it doesn't with the sensus divinitatis problems some at in certain times and/or under certain people properly with the result that we form belief in God in a sort of half-hearted conditions, to note that in book i of the Institutes Calvin way or not at all. It is interesting Perhaps function sin causes separates his discussions of belief in God on the basis of the sensus divinitatis on in in God the basis of the external evidences (in chapter 3) and belief a on the noetic of sin creation effects (in chapter (in chapter 5) by digression in different ways and is perverted 4). Calvin explains how the seed of religion of God quickly the knowledge Calvin writes: 'Yet that seed degenerates. remains which can : that there is a seed of divinity be uprooted ; worst that by itself it produces the fruits' (I. only of how goes on to a consideration immediately in no wise this seed is so corrupted iv. 4., italics mine). Calvin but cre? himself revealed himself and daily discloses throughout sees as as Calvin these evidences ation, already emphasized something from the sensus divinitatis. Could the development in chapters quite distinct for mediate I think so. The noetic natural 3-5 indicate a function theology? God has also and of sin, rather than present a reason against mediate a reason for it.What be evident would provide actually not to fected by sin is the mind affected always evident effects open the possibility in Calvin grounds of making for holding it evident that one natural theology, to the mind unaf? leaves by sin. This more are So there (or evident). to an role that might be afforded natural is that of increasing inferential the warrant of episodically theology if there is some kind of cognitive malfunction theistic belief, especially in the source (s) of theistic belief. immediate to I would like to suggest another, However, though closely related, way conceive of the place of episodically natural inferential for the theology a plausible to understands^ believer which introduces way quaerens intel is governed aims. Some of these aims are by many not such should have cognitive. only specific aims as increasing in her understanding of Scripture, but more general aims such as epistemic true ones. her stock of beliefs and minimizing false There is also increasing lectum. The life of faith The Christian I will call reflective rationality, which the goal of what consists status of one's beliefs. rational beliefs about the epistemic have to in coming In the present rational beliefs about into the desideratum of acquiring case, this translates status of one's belief in God, or the epistemic that it is justified, warranted a to constitutes It is be knowledge. generally thought (from a good thing to at of arrive sound about the cognitive point view) judgments epistemic status of our beliefs. By thinking over reasons for in God, and believing to the adequacy of such reasons, the Christian form evaluating begins This content downloaded on Mon, 18 Mar 2013 13:54:58 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 68 L. MICHAEL rational rational beliefs, not in God status of his belief CZAPKAY SUDDUTH (that can be had without argument), in God.25 Here faith moves toward of the rational for theistic belief- but in the an under? toward the higher-level be good confirma? standing grounds that belief in God is rational. Such beliefs would proposition tions of a faith Christians have received from God.26 So it seems immediately that another function of an episodically inferential natural could be theology on the that of a consequent in natural which Christians mediate theology for belief grounds faith function of position on in the rationality of theistic belief. This higher-level, intra seems quite compatible theistic arguments with Calvin's the immediate knowledge v. of God. CONCLUSION an attempt to canvass two important I have made In this paper consider? ations which bear on the plausibility of a mediate natural in John theology Calvin: of inferential and (a) the nature knowledge (b) the intra-faith are of natural I function have that there for theology. argued good grounds holding natural would over, tepid) a in Calvin inferential structurally implicit and that even an episodically inferential natural theology theology, be compatible with salient features of the reformer's theology. More? the latter contention is supported commitment by Calvin's (even if that there to evidences is at as least 'confirmations' for the believer. a function an apt context for developing for natural provides of faith the context of faith, a calvinistic seeking conception for the existence of God can strengthen arguments Perhaps I believe, theology within This, understanding. the warrant of or a some can such arguments theistic belief for make people, maybe signifi? cant contribution toward satisfying the cognitive of reflective goal rationality to belief in God.27 with respect Oriel College, Oxford OXi 4EW 25 with believing in God in a basic way, such that it is formed and justified This is not incompatible status is a reason for believing in that belief in God has some positive epistemic immediately. Believing in God. But having a reason God, and if a person has this belief she will clearly have a reason to believe to believe that p or believing that p but doing so on some with either not believing that p is compatible can still possess a properly that it basic theistic belief, even if she believes So a Christian other ground. is a rational belief because of reasons. 26 and Higher in considerable detail in my 'Alstonian Foundationalism I develop this line of reasoning and it is in the International Journal for Philosophy of Religion), Evidentialism' Level Theistic (forthcoming ' ' and Reformed inmy Bi-Level Evidentialism (forthcoming Apologetics applied to Reformed Apologetics in Faith and Philosophy. 27 and Nicholas Wolterstorff Swinburne I would like to thank Robert Audi, Alister McGrath, Richard on earlier drafts of this paper. for commenting This content downloaded on Mon, 18 Mar 2013 13:54:58 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions