A SO2-selective electrode based on a Zn
Transcription
A SO2-selective electrode based on a Zn
Analytica Chimica Acta 787 (2013) 57–63 Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect Analytica Chimica Acta journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aca A SO2 -selective electrode based on a Zn-porphyrin for wine analysis ˜ a , Maria María Cuartero a , Célia G. Amorim b,∗ , Alberto N. Araújo b , Joaquín A. Ortuno b C.B.S.M. Montenegro a Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Regional Campus of International Excellence “Campus Mare Nostrum”, University of Murcia, Murcia E-30100, Spain b REQUIMTE/Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, R. Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t • An innovative SO2 -selective electrode based on coordinated complexes between amines and metalloporphyrins. • Lower detection limits allow the evaluation of SO2 in different wine preparation steps. • Can be applied to the analysis of the free and total SO2 in wine samples. • Higher accuracy and precision when compared with a reference method. a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 10 April 2013 Received in revised form 17 May 2013 Accepted 21 May 2013 Available online 29 May 2013 Keywords: Sulfur dioxide Wine analysis Metalloporphyrins Potentiometry Ion-selective electrodes a b s t r a c t This work describes the assessment of a SO2 -selective electrode based on the use of the neutral carrier 5,10,15,20-tetraphenyl(porphyrinate)zinc(II) in a PVC membrane plasticized with 2-nitrophenyl phenyl ether. After being conditioned in 2 mol L−1 diethylamine solution for 24 h, the electrode exhibited selective anionic response toward the analyte in a concentration interval of more than four decades, with an slope of −59.5 mV dec−1 , a practical detection limit of 3.7 × 10−6 mol L−1 and a low limit of linear range of 7.2 × 10−6 mol L−1 . The response mechanism is based on the displacement of the diethylamine:metalloporphyrin complex equilibrium within membrane bulk, inducing a variation in the cationic-sites to ionophore ratio. In turn, free hydroxyl ions are complexed by the displaced ionophore in a ratio 1:1 and translated as single negative charge nernstian response. Finally, the selectivity of the electrode is evaluated in view of its application to wine analysis. Results had high accuracy and precision when compared with a reference method. © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) and other sulfites additives (E-220-228) are commonly used as preservatives in food and beverages industries (Directive 95/2/EC, Directive 2006/52/EC). Particularly in wine industry, SO2 is an ally of the producer since it prevents the development of undesirable natural processes in the winemaking process which compromise the typical fruity flavor, color and freshness of wines. Indeed, SO2 is added to must and juices both for a germicidal ∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +351 918847877. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (C.G. Amorim). 0003-2670/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2013.05.038 action and for slowing down natural occurring oxidation processes [1–3]. At the pH of wine (3–3.8), part of the SO2 added remains free as bisulfite anion (HSO3 − ) and about 33–50% becomes chemically combined with other native compounds. Sulfites act as antioxidants by means of direct inhibition of polyphenoloxidases [4], hydrogen peroxide removal and through reduction of quinones meantime formed in the (bio)chemical oxidation processes [5]. The combined fraction is presented either in reversible or as irreversible adducts of aldehydes and ketones, due to its nucleophilic character. In part, most of the bound SO2 can be released by proper heating or treating with a strong base. Nevertheless, the final amount present in wines has to be strictly controlled since high levels of it produce 58 M. Cuartero et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 787 (2013) 57–63 undesirable aromas and tastes and are also hazardous to human health. Each country has regulations that establish the limit of total SO2 permitted in wines which once more underlines the importance of its control [6]. It would be convenient to have an expeditious technique that could be used to analyze the content of total and free SO2 in wines since the official method established by the European commission (EC) takes about 90 min per sample. For a simpler control, Portugal suggested the Ripper procedure; nevertheless this still takes about 30 min per sample [7]. Although the results obtained by the reference method are more accurate than those obtained by the Ripper method besides taking longer, it has the drawback of requiring the operator to be extremely attentive because the temperature, gas flow and time steps need to be carefully controlled [8]. Several methods have been published in the literature for the determination of sulfite in wines. Worth of mention are the large number of flow systems that have been proposed for this purpose, the main ones appearing in a review published in 2009 [4]. Generally, flow systems provide high sample throughput when compared to conventional batch techniques, and when coupled to electrochemical detection simple or none sample pre-treatment is needed [9]. However, the acquisition costs are higher and due to modular nature of the systems, require more skilled technicians. In recent years, voltammetric and amperometric (bio)sensors [10–13], chemiluminescence [14] and ion chromatography [15,16] methods have also been published for the SO2 determination, although they usually only analyze the total SO2 and they are indirect and time-consuming methods. The proposal of potentiometric methods is scarce and relies on the iodine oxidation by sulfite [17,18]. Previous distillation or the use of gas permeation devices was indispensable to improve selectivity relatively to other reducing compounds such as ascorbic acid in these methods. Amines form coordinated complexes with metalloporphyrins in reactions whose equilibrium could be shifted through addition of strong nucleophiles [19]. Based on this a novel SO2 -selective electrode for the analysis of the free and total SO2 content of different kinds of wine is presented. The principle of response was based on the displacement of the complex formed between the diethylamine and the lipophilic zinc(II)metalloporphyrin in the bulk of a permselective membrane. The developed electrode provides a simple, economical and time-saving method which could be used by any winemaker or controlling body. 2. Experimental 2.1. Reagents and solutions All chemicals were of analytical reagent grade and Milli-Q water was used throughout. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) of high molecular weight (81392 Fluka), dioctyl sebacate (DOS) (CDS000559 Aldrich), 2-nitrophenyl phenyl ether (NPPE) (73307 Fluka), 2-fluoro-2-nitrodiphenyl ether (FNDPE) (47390 Fluka), tetradodecylammonium bromide (TDABr) (87249 Aldrich), potassium tetrakis [3,5-bis-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]borate (KTPB) (60588 Fluka), Araldite M (10951 Fluka), Ren HY 5162 (068620205 RenShape Solutions), graphite powder (<45 m) (496596 Aldrich) and tetrahydrofuran (THF) (186562 Sigma–Aldrich). The ionophore 5,10,15,20-tetraphenyl(porphyrinate)zinc(II) (ZnTPP) was synthesized from 5,10,15,20-tetraphenyl-21H,23Hporphirine (H2 TPP) (247367 Sigma–Aldrich).and ZnCl2 (8816 Merck). Sodium metabisulfite (Na2 S2 O5 ), diethylamine (DEA), hydrochloric acid (32%, w/w), sulfuric acid, chloroform, dimethylformamide (DMF), n-octanol, 0.5 mol L−1 I2 solution, starch soluble, acetaldehyde, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), 2-(Nmorpholino)ethanesulfonic sodium salt (MES), sodium chloride, potassium chloride, magnesium chloride hexahydrate, copper(II) chloride (CuCl2 ), calcium chloride dehydrate, ferrous chloride tetrahydrated, sodium sulfite, sodium bicarbonate, sodium sulfate, di-sodium tartrate dihydrate, sodium dihydrogen phosphate anhydrous, sodium l-lactate, d,l-malic acid, histamine, tyramine, cadaverine, putrescine, phenylethylamine, spermine, l-proline, l-arginine, l-alanine and l-glutamine were also purchased from Sigma–Aldrich. A 0.1 mol L−1 Na2 S2 O5 standard solution was prepared by dissolving 0.19011 g of the commercial product in 100.0 mL of water. Working solutions 0.01 and 0.001 mol L−1 were prepared by dilution of the standard solution. A MES buffer solution of 0.1 mol L−1 (pH = 5) and HCl/KCl solutions (pH = 1.6) at different KCl concentrations were also prepared. To obtain a 0.1 mol L−1 standard solution of the corresponding sodium salt of malic acid, a 0.2 mol L−1 solution of the acid was potentiometrically titrated with 0.2 mol L−1 sodium hydroxide to end point. A 0.01 mol L−1 iodine standard solution was obtained by dilution of the commercial solution. 2.2. Apparatus Potentiometric measurements were made using a Crison MicropH 2002 potentiometer (Crison Instruments, S.A., Barcelona, Spain) and an Orion 90-00-02 Ag/AgCl double-junction electrode (Orion Research, MA) with a 10% KNO3 solution in the outer compartment acting as reference electrode. A spectrophotometer Jasco STR-707 V-660 and a pH-meter Crison GLP22 equipped with a Phillips GAH 110 combined pH glass electrode were namely used to characterize the synthesized ionophore 5,10,15,20-tetraphenyl(porphyrinate)zinc(II) and for the measurement of solution pH. 2.3. Procedures 2.3.1. Synthesis of the ionophore The ionophore Zn-TPP was synthesized via metallation of the free porphyrin (H2 TPP) using ZnCl2 [20]. Both the H2 TPP (0.1 g) and ZnCl2 (0.3 g) were dissolved in 10 mL of DMF and then refluxed at 153 ◦ C for 5 h. After the solution was cooled, DMF was completely evaporated under vacuum (175 mbar) at 97 ◦ C in a rotary evaporator. The solid residue was dissolved in CHCl3 and purified with a series of extractions in water. Afterwards, CHCl3 was evaporated for several hours in cabinet and the remaining solid was allowed to dry overnight. The resulting Zn-TPP was characterized by thin layer chromatography and UV–vis spectrophotometry. The UV–vis spectra revealed the maximum absorbance for H2 TPP and ZnTPP at 417.8 and 421.8 nm, respectively. The obtained values were in accordance with those reported in the literature [19,21]. Thin layer chromatography was carried out in an n-octanol/CHCl3 (1:9) phase to corroborate the purity of the synthesized compound. 2.3.2. Electrode construction The electrodes used in the present work consisted of solid contact electrodes with the PVC membrane added drop wise on the surface of a conducting solid support. To obtain this support a mixture of Araldite M and HR hardener 1/0.4 (w/w) was homogeneously prepared. Briefly, 0.24 g of graphite powder was added to 0.2 g of the prepared mixture and the obtained paste was kneaded to an appropriate homogeneity and consistency for incorporation in the electrode body. The paste thus obtained was sufficient to prepare about six electrodes. A portion of the paste was quickly introduced in one side of a common Perspex tube of 6 mm of internal diameter, to a height of 0.5 cm, taking care not to leave pores that might later have fluid leaks. On the opposite side a copper wire M. Cuartero et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 787 (2013) 57–63 Table 1 Compositions of the membranes assayed. Membrane Percentage (w/w) of components in the membrane DOSa A B C D E F a b c NPPEb FNDPEc PVC 66 33 32.8 32.8 33 33 33 66 65.5 65.5 66 66 TDA-Br 0.5 1 K-TPB Zn-TPP 0.5 1 1.2 1.2 established the electric contact with the graphite paste and, finally the support was allowed to harden for 24 h. The surface of the support was then polished using sandpaper of different grit sizes to provide an electrode surface with a specular gloss. Membrane cocktails were prepared by dissolving 180 mg of PVC, 360 mg of the plasticizer (dioctyl sebacate (DOS), 2-nitrophenyl phenyl ether (NPPE) or 2-fluoro-2-nitrodiphenyl ether (FNDPE)), 6 mg of the ionophore ZnTPP and 3 mg of ionic additive (KTCB or TDABr) in 6 mL of THF to obtain membranes with the compositions shown in Table 1. Note that the membranes are not always constituted by all the aforementioned components. The corresponding cocktail was drop wised on the surface of the support totally covering its area, and the THF was left to evaporate before the next membrane deposition. The cocktail drop was repeated further six times and finally left to dry overnight before conditioned in the corresponding conditions. When not in use, each electrode was kept immersed in a solution similar to that used to condition it. 2.3.3. General procedure for electrode calibration All potentiometric measurements were carried out with continuous magnetic stirring and at room temperature. When calibrating the electrode toward SO2 , the compound was generated in situ by additions of Na2 S2 O5 to a medium of HCl/KCl buffer at pH 1.6, following the reaction (Eq. (1)): (1) At a pH value of 1.6, according to the species distribution diagram, the 70% of the sulfur is in the SO2 form, a fact that has to be taken into account when constructing the calibration graphs. Serial calibration graphs of the electrodes evaluated were carried out by using micropipettes to add consecutively small volumes of the corresponding solutions in 25.0 mL of the medium. The steady-state potentials recorded were then plotted versus logarithmic values of the corresponding concentrations and the calibrations parameters, slope (S) and detection limit (LD), were calculated by fitting the calibration data to Eq. (2) [22]: E = E 0 + S log(CSO2 + LD) pH to ∼13. After 5 min the pH of the sample was lowered to 1.6 using commercial HCl and the sample was diluted with HCl/KCl buffer in a flask of 50 or 100 mL volume depending on the expected total SO2 amount in the wine. The wine sample was then immediately measured by the SO2 -selective electrode. 3. Results and discussion 1 1 Dioctyl sebacate. 2-Nitrophenyl phenyl ether. Nitrodiphenyl ether. 2HCl + Na2 S2 O5 → 2SO2 + 2NaCl + H2 O 59 (2) 2.3.4. General procedure for the determination of free and total SO2 in wines using the SO2 -selective electrode For the determination of free SO2 , the standard addition method was applied considering the sample treatment needed. About 30 mL of the sample were treated with concentrated HCl (32%) to obtain a pH of 1.6. Just after, an aliquot of 25 mL was quickly measured potentiometrically by the electrode and suitable volumes of Na2 S2 O5 solutions were successively added. For the determination of total SO2 in wines the sample was first treated to unbind combined SO2 . This was carried out according to the method suggested by OIV [23]. A volume of 10.0 mL of wine was alkalinized with 1.6 mL of 4 mol L−1 NaOH solution, adjusting the As above described amines form coordinated complexes with metalloporphyrins in reactions whose equilibrium could be shifted through addition of strong nucleophiles. A good example of it is the donor–acceptor reaction between the SO2 and diethylamine (DEA) after the displacement of the last from its Zn-tetraphenylporphyrin (ZnTPP) complex [19]. The Kassoc values of about 1.5 × 104 and 4.7 × 102 kg mol−1 for the complexes DEA:SO2 and DEA:ZnTPP in chloroform, quantify the extent of this displacement which was considered sufficiently sensitive to accomplish the colorimetric determination of SO2 . However, the implementation of such simple colorimetric procedure is problematic when dealing with colored samples as it is the case of wines. An alternative is to use the very same chemistry and to follow potentiometrically the equilibrium of DEA:ZnTPP in polymeric organic membranes exposed to different concentrations of SO2 . It should be noted that several metalloporphyrins have been used as neutral or charged carriers in the composition of membranes for potentiometric sensors, successfully providing an improvement of sensor performances regarding the sensitivity and selectivity achieved [24]. Since the potentiometric behavior of the membrane was a priori unknown, polymeric membranes plasticized with NPPE of three different types were implemented: one containing solely ZnTPP and the other two containing additionally an anionic or a cationic additive (membranes A, B and C, Table 1). In the first attempts, the incorporation of DEA in the membrane cocktail at different molar ratios with respect to the incorporated amount of ZnTPP was tried but the electrodes were irresponsive after immersion in solutions containing SO2 . A possible explanation is that the cocktails medium used to prepare the membranes did not favor the formation of the amine:metaloporphyrin complex fast enough to avoid significant evaporation of the amine together with THF during the polymerization of the PVC. Hence, it was assessed the alternative incorporation of DEA in a conditioning process after the electrodes construction. Therefore, the electrodes were soaked for 24 h in aqueous solutions of DEA with concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 3 mol L−1 . Noteworthy, the original dark red color of the membranes changed to green when the DEA entered into the membrane and the complex was formed. This color change was evident for electrodes constructed with the TDABr additive and for those with membranes without any ionic additive, after being immersed in DEA solutions with concentrations higher than 1 mol L−1 . The electrodes with KTPB additive in the membrane composition did not change noticeably the red color, which suggested a limited diffusion of DEA into the membrane. The calibration graphs, potential versus log[SO2 ], using the implemented electrodes conditioned in DEA are shown in Fig. 1. Two major features can be observed: one is that higher DEA concentrations rendered electrode responses shifted to more negative potentials, and the other is the reduced response toward the analyte presented by the membranes containing KTPB (Fig. 1a). The membranes with TDABr and without ionic additive (Fig. 1b and c) displayed slight potential increase to SO2 when conditioned in solutions of DEA below to 1 mol L−1 . However this last electrode, containing only the carrier in the membrane and conditioned in the DEA 2 mol L−1 solution exhibited a nernstian negative slope (-58.1 mV dec−1 ), a rather good practical detection limit (3.9 × 10−6 mol L−1 ) and a lower limit of linear range of about 60 M. Cuartero et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 787 (2013) 57–63 Fig. 1. Calibration graphs for SO2 obtained with (a) membrane B; (b) membrane C and (c) membrane A, after conditioning the corresponding electrode for 24 h in 0.01 mol L−1 (), 0.1 mol L−1 (), 1 mol L−1 (), 2 mol L−1 (䊉) and 3 mol L−1 () DEA. 7.1 × 10−6 mol L−1 . The same type of electrode conditioned in DEA 3 mol L−1 , gave higher slopes but only for SO2 concentrations above 10−4 mol L−1 . So the best conditioning was obtained in DEA 2 mol L−1 . 3.1. Rationale for the electrode response The clues emerging from Fig. 1, help in the establishment of the response mechanism of the electrode. First, taking into account that membranes are immersed in water, the equilibrium of DEA in aqueous solution (Eq. (3)) should be considered (pKa = 11.09 [25]): DEA(aq) + H2 O ⇔ DEAH+ (aq) + OH− (aq) (3) equilibrium above. The potential enabled by membranes containing anionic or cationic lipophilic additives differs only slightly regardless the concentration of DEA in the solution used for conditioning (Fig. 1a and b). In fact, the equilibrium described above is displaced to the left due to electrostatic repulsion by ions with the same charge signal previously added during the preparation of the membrane. For the membrane without any lipophilic additive, the described effect is absent and so the potential of the electrodes is strongly affected by the respective concentrations in the conditioning solution. For this membrane the heterogeneous co-extraction constant is defined by Eq. (5): Kcoex = ][OH− : ZnTPPn(org) ] aOH−(org) [DEAH+ (org) aDEAH+ aOH− [ZnTPP(org) ]n aOH− org (aq) After neglecting the effect of ionic strength for simplicity reasons, the concentration values at equilibrium for both ions on the right, increase approximately one decade (3 × 10−3 to 6 × 10−2 mol L−1 ) while the DEA(aq) increases almost three decades (from 7.1 × 10−3 up to 2.94 mol L−1 ) in the conditioning solutions used. Such great excess of DEA(aq) relative to the ions and a value for its octanol–water partition coefficient (kow ) of 0.58 [26], reflect in an increase in the transport into the bulk membrane due to the diffusion gradient across the solution–membrane interface, where it forms a coordinated complex with ZnTTP. This complex confers a green color to the membrane at ambient light, which is due to the batochromic shift of about 15 nm in the Soret band of the metalloporphyrin (absorption spectra not shown). Consequently, the amount of ZnTTP that remains free in the membrane bulk is drastically reduced. Two different mechanisms should be considered for the entry of DEAH+ ions into the membrane, beyond the entry due to its (aq) lipophilicity, the first is due to a cation-exchange with cations associated with the anionic impurities present in the PVC and, the second is promoted by coextraction together with OH− ions. Considering these two phenomena, the following equilibrium can be proposed according to the following equilibrium (Eq. (4)): DEAH+ + OH− + nZnTPP(org) ⇔ DEAH+ org (aq) (aq) + OH− : ZnTPPn(org) + OH− org (4) The potential ranges observed for the three membranes at the lowest SO2 concentration can be now described in light of the = kDEAH+ kOH− ˇOH− :ZnTPP (5) n(org) being ki the extraction constants into organic phase of DEAH+ and OH− and ˇ the cumulative binding constant for the complexes OH− :ZnTPP and OH− :ZnTPP2 in membrane bulk. The binding constants of 3.9 × 105 and 3.1 × 103 kg mol−1 for the mentioned 1:1 and 1:2 complexes, respectively, depending of high or low cationicsite to free ionophore ratio, were reported in a recent work [27]. For a constant ZnTPP(org) in membrane, they are indicative that the amount of complexed hydroxyl increases with the activity of both ions in the conditioning solution. In accordance with phase boundary model [28], the developed potential in such membrane would be predicted by Eq. (6): EM = Econst + EPB = Econst + aOH− RT (org) ln F aOH− (6) (aq) where R, T and F are respectively the universal gas constant, the absolute temperature and the Faraday constant, and aOH(org) the activity of free hydroxyl ion in the organic phase. The term E const includes the contribution of the reference electrode, the standard potential of the selective membrane, the liquid junction potential at the sample/bridge electrolyte interface and chemical potential difference of the hydroxyl anion in both phases in standard conditions. From this model, it can be concluded that to the increase of complexed hydroxyl ions corresponds a decrease of the free OH− (org) and so of EM potential. As shown in Fig. 1, the reason why for a constant SO2 concentration the potentials presented by membranes M. Cuartero et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 787 (2013) 57–63 61 decrease according the DEA amount in the conditioning solution is now clear. After being conditioned, the electrodes are immersed in a solution containing SO2 and this will displace the DEA:ZnTPP increasing the amount of free metalloporphyrin. The amount of released metalloporphyrin is than able to react with free OH− , thus causing a (org) potential decrease. For the electrode conditioned in DEA 2 mol L−1 , with the amount of free ZnTPP newly formed complexes OH− (org) the stoichiometric ratio of 1:1, as evidenced by the nernstian slope of the calibration curve obtained. For the electrode conditioned in DEA 3 mol L−1 the amount of free metalloporphyrin is much lower as result of shifted equilibrium with the excess of DEA(org) within the membrane bulk. Thus the electrode does not change the potential until 10−4 mol L−1 of SO2 . The behavior of those electrodes can now be summarized according to the sequence of equilibriums presented in the two following equilibriums (Eqs. (7) and (8)): SO2 DEA(aq) ⇔ DEA(org) + ZnTPP(org) ⇔ DEA : ZnTPP(org) −→DEA : SO2 + ZnTPP(org) ZnTPP(org) + OH− ⇔ OH− : ZnTPP(org) (org) (7) (8) The electrodes conditioned in the less concentrated solutions of DEA (≤0.01 mol L−1 ) exhibit response profiles to SO2 very different. The amount of the complex DEA:ZnTPP(org) is probably very low, as well as DEAH+ and hydroxyl ions more strongly complexed (org) in 1:2 ratio with the metalloporphyrin. In the presence of SO2 an increase of free metalloporphyrin is promoted which pulls back the in DEA with consumption of OH− . Under conversion of DEAH+ (org) (org) these conditions, a potential increase is observed with increasing SO2 concentrations. Finally, the electrode initially immersed in the 1 mol L−1 of DEA shows a bell shaped response as a consequence of both trends explained before. The potentials generated by solutions containing SO2 up to the concentration of 3.2 × 10−5 mol L−1 show a slight increase as explained for the electrodes conditioned in the less concentrated DEA solutions. Thereafter, the behavior becomes similar to the electrodes presenting negative slope, but as the amount of is limited, constant potential readings are observed for free OH− (org) highest SO2 concentrations. To evidence the fundamental role of the neutral carrier in the selective response mechanism of the electrode toward SO2 , a membrane containing PVC, NPPE and TDABr but without ZnTPP (membrane D, Table 1) was tested either after or not the preliminary conditioning step with 2 mol L−1 DEA. As expected, SO2 did not affect potential, because no reaction occurred between hydroxyl ions and the neutral carrier. However, when the pH of the assay conditions were raised from pH 1.6 up to 5 using a MES buffer solution, the electrode showed the typical anion response mechanism, now due to the presence of bisulfite (Fig. 2). At the same time, the membrane A tested in solutions at pH of 5 (at this pH value SO2 is quantitatively converted to bisulfite anion) exhibited constant potentials only. Fig. 2. Calibration graphs obtained using a membrane with PVC, NPPE and ZnTPP (membrane A) conditioning in DEA 2 mol L−1 at pH 1.7 () and 5.0 () and conditioning in water at pH 1.7 (); and using a membrane with PVC, NPPE and TDABr (membrane D) conditioning in DEA 2 mol L−1 at pH 1.7 () and 5.0 () and conditioning in water at pH 1.7 (䊉). and the corresponding electrodes evaluated after being conditioned in 2 mol L−1 DEA for 4, 5, 17 and 24 h (Fig. 3). It was found that an initial conditioning period of 24 h was necessary for the three electrodes to provide nernstian anionic responses. With more conditioning time the potentiometric response of the electrodes did not change. When the conditioning time was shorter, insufficient DEA entered in the membrane and the responses obtained were of the same type as when the electrodes were conditioned using less concentrated DEA solutions. Nernstian anionic responses were obtained for the membranes plasticized with DOS and NPPE (slopes of −57.3 and −59.5 mV dec−1 , respectively) while the slope was lower with FNDPE (−50.5 mV dec−1 ). The best PLD and LLLR values were obtained with NPPE (3.7 × 10−6 and 7.2 × 10−6 mol L−1 , respectively), followed by DOS (5.1 × 10−6 and 1.2 × 10−5 mol L−1 , respectively) and FNDPE (1.0 × 10−5 and 2.2 × 10−5 mol L−1 , respectively). Also, the membrane plasticized with DOS had a higher drift (1.2 mV min−1 ) than those plasticized with NPPE and FNDPE (0.2 and 0.3 mV min−1 , respectively). It was supposed that potential drifts observed were due to DEA leaching from the membrane into the sample solution since the membrane changed its color from green to dark red with time. In accordance, it was decided to follow further evaluations using only the electrodes with membrane A, plasticized with NPPE, conditioned for 24 h in 2 mol L−1 DEA solution. Between measurements the electrode was kept in the same solution in order to avoid leaching or evaporation. 3.3. Characteristics of the electrode response 3.2. Selection of the plasticizer It is well known that potentiometric characteristics of ionselective electrodes are influenced by the nature of the membrane plasticizer, namely by affecting the solubility and mobility of ions and molecules within membrane bulk and the leakage of membrane components into the sample matrix [28]. Hence, three PVC membranes containing ZnTPP and plasticizers with increasing dielectric constant DOS (ε = 4.0), NPPE (ε = 24.0) or FNDPE (ε = 50.0) (membranes E, A and F, respectively) were implemented Calibration parameters of the developed SO2 -selective electrode, slope and practical detection limit, together with other important performances characteristics, are shown in Table 2. The response time of the electrode was taken as the time needed to reach the steady-state potential ±0.1 mV for the lowest and the highest concentrations corresponding to its linear range. Repeatability of the electrode was evaluated by making four successive calibrations in the same day and conditioning the electrode in the DEA solution between calibrations for about 20 min until 62 M. Cuartero et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 787 (2013) 57–63 Fig. 3. Calibration graphs for SO2 obtained with (a) membrane E; (b) membrane A and (c) membrane F, after conditioning the corresponding electrode in DEA 2 mol L−1 for 4 (), 5 (), 17 () and 24 h (䊉). the original potential baseline was restored (±5 mV). This reconditioning step is necessary to obtain a good repeatability of the electrode response and if not carry out, the green color of the membranes is lost in consecutive calibrations as reflected by a loss of the potentiometric response of the electrode. The long-term stability was studied by recording the response of an electrode over one month. Visually, the membrane changed its initial appearance when the electrode was used repeatedly. After 30 days, the membrane became opaque and showed inhomogeneities like little bubbles and roughness in the surface. Finally, the membrane becomes bicolor, being the center green-brown and the borders green. After more than 1 month, the membrane started to separate from the electrode body. However, the electrode could be used in continuously work for 15 days without appreciable variation in the calibration parameters. Finally, the responses displayed by six different electrodes, all of them constructed with the same membrane cocktail, were evaluated for the between-electrode intraday repeatability. The results obtained are also enabled in Table 2. Taking into account all the above mentioned characteristics, it can be said that the developed SO2 -electrode provided a reproducible nernstian response above a SO2 concentration of about 6 × 10−6 mol L−1 , with a low detection limit of 3.2 × 10−6 mol L−1 . The response time was lower than 20 s Table 2 Response characteristics of the developed SO2 -selective electrode. Parameter Value Slope (mV dec−1 )a Practical limit of detection (mol L−1 )a Lower limit of the linear range (mol L−1 ) Response time (s)b Long-term stability Slope (mV dec−1 )a Practical limit of detection (mol L−1 )a Lower limit of the linear range (mol L−1 )c Intra-day repeatability Slope (mV dec−1 )c Practical limit of detection (mol L−1 )c Lower limit of the linear range (mol L−1 )c 59.8 ± 2.5 (3.7 ± 0.8) × 10−6 (8.4 ± 1.4) × 10−6 <20 a b c 58.8 ± 1.3 (3.2 ± 0.5) × 10−6 (6.0 ± 0.7) × 10−6 57.5 ± 1.5 (4.3 ± 1.9) × 10−6 (9.8 ± 0.1) × 10−6 Mean ± SD (n = 4). Corresponding to SO2 concentration range 1 × 10−6 to 1 × 10−3 mol L−1 . Mean ± SD (n = 7) over 15 days. and the electrode worked for at least 15 days in continuous operation. 3.4. Interferences The response of the developed electrode was evaluated toward the main cations and anions present in wines, in their chloride and sodium forms, respectively, and also toward the amino acids and biogenic amines, which are prone to enter into the membrane by forming a complex with ZnTPP. Proline, arginine, glutamine and alanine are the main amino acids present in wines and their common levels are well known, while putrescine, cadaverine, spermine, histamine, tyramine and phenylethylamine are biogenic amines that may be present in wines. Although there are no definitive regulations regarding the concentration of biogenic amines in wine, some countries have set histamine import limits and Office international de la vigne et du vin (OIV) recommendations state that the histamine content should not exceed 12 mg L−1 . The separate solution method [29,30] was used to test the selectivity of the electrode toward several cations and anions (Na+ , Mg2+ , Cu2+ , Ca2+ , HCO3 − , SO4 2− , H2 PO4 − , malate, tartrate and lactate). This method was selected since the ion does not induce an output of DEA from the membrane and so the re-conditioning of the electrode was not necessary. No selectivity coefficients were calculated for these compounds since the electrode displayed no response for any of them. In the case of K+ , since KCl is a component of the buffer used for the medium, the fixed interference method was used by making calibrations for SO2 in HCl (at pH 1.6) in presence of 0.2, 0.02 and 0.002 mol L−1 KCl. The presence of 0.2 mol L−1 KCl favors the response of the electrode toward SO2 at the higher SO2 concentrations since it maintains the ionic strength of the medium constant. To evaluate the influence of amino acids and biogenic amines, the amount at which the base line of the electrode varies in 10 mV as a consequence of the entry of the nitrogenous compound into the membrane through complexation with ZnTPP was obtained. The results obtained, together with the amount of each amino acid normally present in wines are shown in Table 3. For biogenic amines, a value of 12 mg L−1 was used as reference. As can be seen, all the compounds tested lowered the potential baseline of the electrode in approximately 10 mV when the amounts largely exceeded the normal stated values. M. Cuartero et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta 787 (2013) 57–63 Table 3 Interference studies. Compound Approximate content in wine (mmol L−1 ) Amount from which the potential base line varies in 10 mV (mmol L−1 ) Proline Arginine Alanine Glutamine Histamine Tyramine Cadaverine Putrescine Phenylethylamine Spermine 45 1 2 1 0.065 0.069 0.069 0.075 0.076 0.035 1000 200 1000 200 320 280 400 620 630 460 1 2 3 4 5 6 a b Free SO2 (mg L−1 ) Total SO2 (mg L−1 ) ISEa ISEa 16.70 63.23 11.76 21.53 32.70 18.74 Referenceb ± ± ± ± ± ± 0.49 3.12 0.84 0.66 2.58 0.58 17.61 59.41 10.82 20.10 34.95 17.75 ± ± ± ± ± ± 2.30 2.43 1.27 3.17 2.17 1.0 129.87 147.74 102.78 112.08 147.86 125.81 Referenceb ± ± ± ± ± ± 4.55 3.19 3.74 4.62 3.36 3.01 127.90 150.69 109.43 111.51 141.41 133.08 ± ± ± ± ± ± 3.40 2.65 1.27 2.14 3.38 0.62 Mean value ± SD of two determinations made with three electrodes. Mean value ± SD of two determinations. The usefulness of ion-selective electrodes in the analysis of interfering colored matrices as is the case of wines, is here evidenced in the determination of SO2 . The pair diethylamine:zinc(II)-metalloporphyrin as the main membrane component of the proposed SO2 electrode ensured an anionic nernstian response and enabled a selectivity toward the analyte. The quality of results furnished was statistically similar to the reference procedure commonly used. Simplified sample pretreatments, reduced analytical costs and time of analysis were here evident in an easiest implemented procedure with increased physical ruggedness. Point out that potentiometric analysis of sulfur dioxide is a good alternative to usual control procedures adopted in wineries. Acknowledgements M.C. and J.A.O. gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología, Spain (project CTQ201127049). M.C. is grateful to the University of Murcia for a grant. 3.5. Determination of SO2 in wines The developed SO2 -electrode was applied to the analysis of the free and total SO2 in table wines using the process suggested in Section 2. The results are shown in Tables 4 and 5. The results obtained for white wines were compared with those enabled by the Ripper method. In the case of red wines, the Ripper method provides dispersive results, since wine color interferes with the end point detection of the titration, so recovery studies were performed Table 5 Results obtained for the determination of free and total SO2 in red wines. Red wine sample Free SO2 a (mg L−1 ) Added (mg L−1 ) Found (mg L−1 ) Recovery (%) 1 14.17 ± 0.49 25.6 51.3 76.9 26.8 ± 1.3 49.0 ± 1.5 76.6 ± 0.9 104.7 ± 4.4 95.5 ± 3.0 99.6 ± 1.2 2 8.52 ± 0.31 25.6 51.3 76.9 25.3 ± 1.1 51.2 ± 0.9 76.1 ± 1.2 98.7 ± 4.1 99.9 ± 1.8 98.9 ± 1.6 3 14.30 ± 0.97 25.6 51.3 76.9 25.9 ± 0.7 51.0 ± 0.6 76.8 ± 1.8 101.1 ± 2.6 99.4 ± 1.2 99.8 ± 2.4 Red wine sample Total SO2 a Added (mg L−1 ) Found (mg L−1 ) Recovery (%) 1 124.03 ± 3.5 256.4 512.8 769.2 259.3 ± 6.5 518.9 ± 8.5 765.2 ± 7.1 101.1 ± 2.5 101.2 ± 1.7 99.5 ± 0.9 2 132.28 ± 4.87 128.0 256.4 384.6 129.3 ± 3.5 258.3 ± 2.8 390.1 ± 3.3 101.0 ± 2.7 100.8 ± 1.1 101.4 ± 0.9 3 92.31 ± 2.48 128.0 256.4 384.6 129.9 ± 2.8 257.4 ± 2.4 383.6 ± 3.0 101.5 ± 2.2 100.4 ± 0.9 99.8 ± 0.8 a instead. In all cases the recovery results ranged from 95.5 to 104.7, and in general were quite close to 100%. 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