Report METHAR Contract No. WA-96

Transcription

Report
METHAR
Contract No. WA-96-ca.005
Project
Coordinator:
World Maritime University (WMU), SE
Partners:
Hochschule Bremen, Fachbereich Nautik (HSHB-N), DE
Università degli Studi di Trieste (ISTIEE), IT
Shipping and Transport College Rotterdam, (STC R’DAM), NL
Escola Náutica Infante D. Henrique (ENIDH), PT
Work package 1:
Survey of the state of European MET
Date: February 1998, work packages 1.1/1.3 updated January 2000
PROJECT FUNDED BY THE EUROPEAN
COMMISSION UNDER THE TRANSPORT RTD
PROGRAMME OF THE 4TH FRAMEWORK
PROGRAMME
METHAR, WP 1
EC Waterborne Transport 4th Framework Programme 6.4.3
Task 43: Harmonization of European MET Schemes (METHAR)
Work Package 1: Survey of the state of European MET
Table of contents
Acknowledgement
3
Foreword
4
Work packages 1.1 and 1.3:
Survey of national MET systems, schemes and programmes and
Survey of national certificate of competency structures and validity
• Report
• Questionnaire
7
44
Work package 1.2:
Survey of relevant syllabus contents and teaching methods
• Report
• Attachments
• Questionnaire
52
58
65
Work package 1.4:
Survey of nationally available advanced MET facilities
• Report
• Attachments
• Questionnaire
72
77
83
Work package 1.5:
Survey of qualifications and careers of lecturers in national MET
institutions
• Report
• Attachments
• Questionnaire
85
92
103
METHAR, WP 1
1
Work package 1.6:
Survey of national MET administration and links of MET with
national ET system
• Report
• Attachments
• Questionnaire
107
111
115
Work package 1.7:
Country survey of the applicability of MET for shipboard positions
and shore-based positions in the maritime industry
• Report
• Attachments
• Questionnaire
117
122
131
Work package 1.8:
Survey of national provision for procedures and methods by which
MET adapts to new requirements
• Report
• Attachments
• Questionnaire
137
142
145
Work package 1.9:
Country survey of number and qualification of persons who choose
MET for a temporary or permanent seafaring career vs the number
of training places in national MET institutions
• Report
• Attachments
• Questionnaire
149
155
159
Appendix 1: Participants in Concerted Action on Maritime
Education and Training
161
Appendix 2: Participants in surveys for work packages 1.1-1.9
169
Appendix 3: List of addresses of maritime education and training
institutions where courses leading to certificates of
competency are offered
176
METHAR, WP 1
2
Acknowledgement
The collection of information on the state of maritime education and training (MET) in the
participating European countries was greatly supported by the partners in the METHAR
consortium, by the national representatives in the Concerted Action on MET (see Appendix 1
for both) and colleagues at most of the altogether 146 MET institutions offering courses
leading to certificates of competency (see Appendices 2 and 3). Without their support and
that of maritime administrators, responsible representatives of educational authorities,
shipowners and other representatives of the maritime industry, it would have been hardly
possible to collect such amount of information on fifteen national MET systems. I would like
to express the sincere gratitude of my colleagues in METHAR as well as my own gratitude
for such splendid support - that I also would like to take as a clear indication of an existing
interest of the “concerned” environment in MET.
My particular gratitude goes to Ton van Essen and Sjoerd Groenhuis at the Shipping and
Transport College in Rotterdam who were responsible for collecting information and
preparing the reports on sub-work packages 1.2, 1.7 and 1.8, to Hermann Kaps and Willi
Wittig at the Nautical Studies Department of the Polytechnic University in Bremen for subwork package 1.9, to my colleagues Jan Horck and Fernando Pardo for sub-work packages
1.1/1.3 and Peter Muirhead for sub-work packages 1.4 and 1.6.
This report is not the first report on EU MET during the last few years. A two-volume
“Study on Maritime Education and Training in the European Community” was prepared for
DG VII by Basil Catachanas, Len Holder and Monique Desautel Jamois in May 1994. The
Dutch maritime administration prepared a comparison of the national MET system with MET
systems in several EU countries. I am grateful to Fred Bloot, the vice-chairman of the
Concerted Action on MET, for having had this report translated into English and made
available to the METHAR consortium.
I also appreciate the help of Karin Ekberg, student at the School of Public Administration of
the University of Gothenburg, for helping WMU with evaluating these two reports.
Despite the substantial contribution to the compilation of this report by many, nobody has
spent more time and efforts on preparing it than my assistant Irene Rosberg. She deserves
therefore more praise than anybody else for her invaluable contribution.
Günther Zade
Coordinator, METHAR
METHAR, WP 1
3
Foreword
This survey on the state of maritime education and training (MET) for ship officers in the 15
participating countries* was prepared in a time of change.
Changes impacting on MET
The four keywords for the change are economy, society, technology and regulations.
The access to officers and, above all crews with lower wages than paid to seafarers from EU
countries reduces the need for MET in high labour cost countries. The change of attitude to
seafaring in the often affluent societies in west Europe diminishes the number of applicants
for MET. The increased use of IT in MET, on ships and in shipping have helped to reduce
the number of crew, have partly changed teaching methods and brought MET closer to
shipboard reality at institutes which can afford the purchase of costly simulators. These three
changes have had an impact on MET for some time already. They have led to the closing of
MET institutions, have caused a shortage of shipboard-experienced personnel in shore-based
positions where such professional background is required or of benefit and have also resulted
in more adaptive actions and shortcomings.
Whereas the impact from economic, societal and technical developments is long-term and
will continue to influence MET, the changes caused by regulations and particularly by the
requirements of the revised International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification
and Watchkeeping for Seafarers 1995 (STCW 95) will have to be implemented in the short
term of a few years, including the changes in national requirements stimulated in the wake of
the STCW 95 implementation.
It would therefore be useful to repeat this survey in a few years and compare the state of
MET to the one described in this report.
Structure of survey
The survey was divided in nine sub-work packages of which two (1.1 and 1.3) were dealt
with together whereas the remaining seven were approached separately. The survey of basic
facts on national MET systems (1.1) was combined with the survey of national certificate
structures (1.3) because national MET systems are normally oriented towards shipboard
functions and certificates of competency. The sub-work package survey of relevant syllabus
contents and teaching methods (1.2) covers academic and professional programmes and their
delivery. The following two sub-work packages deal with advanced facilities (1.4) and
teaching staff (1.5), i.e. with “tools” and people for the implementation of syllabuses. The
MET links to maritime administration and educational authorities is covered by work
packages 1.6 and the training-job gap between MET and shipboard as well as shore-based
requirements by work package 1.7 through enquiring about the applicability of MET. Subwork package 1.8 explores the management of change in MET and sub-work package 1.9
looks at the relation between applicants and study places in MET.
* Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands,
Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom
METHAR, WP 1
4
Seen from another aspect: sub-work packages 1.1, 1.2, 1.4 and 1.5 describe MET; sub-work
packages 1.3, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8 and 1.9 relate MET to its environment; 1.3 and 1.6 to the
regulatory environment, 1.7 to the shipping environment, 1.9 to the potential clients and 1.8
to the interaction between MET and its environment.
Combining the sub-work packages with the keywords for change; the following relationships
exist:
economy
society
technology
regulations
1.1
x
x
x
x
1.2
x
x
x
1.3
1.4
x
1.5
x
x
x
x
x
1.6
1.7
x
x
x
1.8
x
x
x
x
1.9
x
x
The matrix suggests that there may be overlaps between some sub-work packages. Although
a few overlaps have been introduced by purpose in order to have certain information of a
sub-work package confirmed by another sub-work package through different questions,
overlaps have in general be avoided.
Finally, the information collected through the survey will be used for a comparative analysis
of MET in the participating countries and for an evaluation which is to result in the
identification of strengths and weaknesses.
Approach to survey
Questionnaires form the basis of this survey. The questionnaires were developed by the
Shipping and Transport College in Rotterdam for sub-work packages 1.2, 1.7 and 1.8, for
sub-work package 1.9 by the Nautical Studies Department of the Bremen Polytechnic
University and for sub-work packages 1.1/1.3, 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6 by World Maritime
University. The challenge with the design of the questionnaires was to make them suitable
for a considerable variation of MET systems. This was achieved, in a first approximation,
by using already available information on MET systems in EU countries, Iceland and
Norway for the design of all questionnaires, in a second approximation, through discussion
on the suitability of a draft questionnaire with representatives of various national MET
systems and, in a third approximation, by a test run with other representatives of different
MET systems. Since the language of the questionnaires is English, special efforts had to be
made to avoid mistakes because of possible different interpretations of terms. In general,
lengthy texts were avoided and short and as precise as possible questions were asked. It was
also seen to it that the work of those who were to fill in the questionnaires was facilitated. A
short question approach was therefore, as far as possible, detailed into requests for figures or
for ticking yes or no boxes. Nevertheless, completed questionnaires from some countries
revealed differences in opinions in what the correct answer to certain questions was.
Differences appeared even in replies from a country to the same questions. Individual talks
were used to find out the reasons for the differences. In particular, the meetings of the
Concerted Action on MET proved to be effective occasions to obtain a consolidated view on
a country’s MET system.
METHAR, WP 1
5
Nevertheless, the information contained in this survey of the state of MET is a report on the
present state as further changes are under way (as explained in the first part of this
introduction), it is also a report that may be affected by a not fully satisfactory “tuning”
between those asking the questions and those answering them - although considerable efforts
have been made to avoid any shortcomings and make the information collection as accurate
and as complete as possible.
It can be noted with satisfaction that the meetings of the Concerted Action on MET, of which
four were held before the completion of this report, have had a very positive influence on the
collection of the information, on an increased understanding and appreciation of national
MET systems and a better comprehension of what was talked about, including definitions of
the meaning of certain terms and the objectives of certain procedures.
Since STCW 95 requirements and how to fulfil them were on the agenda of all meetings,
STCW 95 had a sort of catalyst function for bringing about a perception of commonalities
and common problems despite considerable variations between the national systems.
A more detailed comparative analysis and evaluation of the compiled information than
offered in this workpackage will be contained in work package 3.1.
Günther Zade
Coordinator METHAR
METHAR, WP 1
6
Task 43: Harmonisation of European MET Schemes
METHAR
Work Package 1 (WP 1):
WP 1.1 Survey of national MET systems, schemes and programmes
WP 1.3 Survey of national certificate of competency structures and validity
Updated January 2000
REPORT
World Maritime University, Malmö, Sweden
(Prepared by Fernando Pardo and Jan Horck)
September 1997
METHAR, WP 1.1/1.3, Report
7
Work packages 1.1 and 1.3
Survey of national MET systems, schemes and programmes
and
Survey of national certificate of competency structures and validity
Table of contents
Page
1
Introduction
9
Summary of findings
2
Shipboard positions/functions
9
2.1
Unlimited Trade
9
2.2
Limited Trade
9
3
Certificate Structure
10
4
Shipboard positions/functions and certificates of competency
11
5
Criteria for limitation of certificates
11
6
Manning scales
13
7
Government administration of MET (see also WP 1.6)
14
8
Maritime academies (see also Appendices 2 and 3)
14
9
Type of national MET
15
10
Admission requirements
16
11
Duration of school and sea time and sequence of MET for unlimited
17
certificates of competency
11.1
Duration of school time and sea time of MET for unlimited
17
certificates of competency
11.2
Sequence of MET for unlimited certificate of competency
22
12
Syllabuses (see WP 1.2 for more details)
38
13
Assessment and assessors
42
14
Academic degrees
42
15
Future planning
43
Questionnaire
44
8
1
Introduction
The objective of work package 1.1 and work package 1.3 is to collect information on the state
of national MET systems, schemes and programmes, national certificate of competency
structures and validity of certificates. The reports on work packages 1.1 and 1.3 have been
combined into one report because of the close relationship between MET systems and
certificate structures.
From the information obtained through the (attached) questionnaire the following main
conclusions can be drawn:
• There exists a great variety of national MET systems although some basic commonalities
can also be identified.
• National certificate structures show more (basic) uniformity for unlimited certificates than
for limited certificates of competency.
• Bivalent MET systems exists today in a minority of three countries. In one of these three
countries, such system exists together with a monovalent MET system.
• Some countries have adapted the content and duration of MET programmes to university
standards and prepare graduates for the award of an academic degree in addition to a
certificate of competency. In most of these countries, shipboard experience is only
acquired after completion of studies.
• Some countries continue to follow an MET programme that includes a component of
practical training before or during studies.
Responses to the questionnaire were received from all countries participating in the
Concerted Action on MET. Extensive follow-up communication has helped to clarify and
complete the information received. A very good co-operation with all information providers
has been the general rule during the information collection.
Summary of findings
2
2.1
Unlimited Trade
It exists a high degree of uniformity of shipboard positions in the unlimited trade
because all countries have the on-board positions of Master, Chief Mate, Mate, Chief
Engineer, 1st Engineer and Engineer Officer.
2.2
Limited Trade
The degree of uniformity of shipboard position on the limited trade is lower than in the
limited trade. In Italy, Netherlands and United Kingdom the names of the positions for the
limited trade are the same as for the unlimited trade. Belgium offers only unlimited
certificates.
9
Country
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
(1)
On-board positions in the limited trade
Skipper
A
B
C
A
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Mechanic
B
X
C
-
X
(2)
(2)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
(2)
Table 1
(1) only unlimited trade certificates, (2) same names of positions as in unlimited trade
3
Certificate structure
Country
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
UK
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Master
X
X
X
X(1)
X(2)
X
X
X
X(3), (4)
X(1)
X
X
X
X
X
Unlimited Certificates
Ch.Mate
Mate
Ch.Eng.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X(1)
X(1)
X(1)
X(2)
X(2)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X(3), (4)
X(1)
X(1)
X(1)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Table 2
1st Eng.
X
X
X(1)
X
X
X
X
X(1)
X
X
X
X
X
Engineer
X
X
X
X(1)
X(2)
X
X
X
X
X(1)
X
X
X
X
X
Bivalent (dual-purpose),
Bivalent (dual-purpose) or monovalent
Two kinds of Masters (“Capitano di Lungo Corso” and Capitano Superiore di Lungo
Corso”); and two kinds of Chief Engineers (“Capitano di Machina” and “Capitano
Superiore di Machina”)
Italy has ten different certificates for deck and another ten for engine officers
10
Limited Certificates
Country
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Iceland
Ireland
Italy (1) (2)
Netherlands
Norway
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
UK
A
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Skipper
B
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
C
X
Mechanic
B
-
X
X
A
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
C
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
Table 3
(1)
(2)
See (4) of table 2.
Some of the Italian limited or unlimited certificates correspond to the above categories of
Skipper and Mechanic.
4
Most shipboard positions in the unlimited trade require a certificate of competency approved
for the post. Nevertheless, there are positions for which certificates for a different post are
required. In Spain and Portugal the post of Master on board ships of less than 1,600 GT can
be taken by holders of an unlimited certificate of Chief Mate.
In the limited trade it is normally required to have a certificate of competency but in some
positions of ship mechanic on the lower level no certificate is required.
5
For deck certificates the main limitation criteria used are the tonnage and the geographical
area/range of navigation with exceptional cases of limitation by engine power, ship type and
other criteria like practical experience of a certificate holder. For engine certificates, the main
criteria used for limitation are engine power and geographical area/range of navigation.
11
Criteria used by countries
Certificates
Tonnage
Master
Chief Mate
Mate
Chief Engineer
1st Engineer
Engineer Officer
8
11
10
-
Skipper A
Skipper B
Ship Mechanic A
Ship Mechanic B
11
5
3
-
Geographical
area/range
Engine
power
4
1
6
1
6
1
3
11
4
12
3
7
13
1
4
5
9
1
3
Table 4
Type of
ship
Other
3
1
1
-
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
-
-
According to the information received, the limitation of certificates is in accordance with the
STCW 95 criteria, i.e. tonnage and geographical area/range of navigation for deck certificates
and engine power and geographical area/range of navigation for engine certificates.
There are different certificates in many countries ( 3rd Mate and 2nd Mate) for the officer in
charge of a navigational watch as regulated by STCW 95. In some countries there are also
two different certificates (1st Mate and Chief Mate) for the chief mate of STCW 95. In other
cases, the certificates are named by classes ranging from class 5 or 4 to class 1. Finally, in
some countries there are only two certificate categories, such as Officer and 1st Officer or
Watch-keeping Officer and Master.
Considering the above findings, there is room for harmonization because, for the deck
department, STCW 95 refers to Master, Chief Mate and Officer in Charge of a Navigational
Watch certificates. It establishes different requirements for officers on ships of less than 500
gross tonnage engaged in near-coastal voyages (Master and Watch Officer) and for ships
between 500 and 3,000 gross tonnage (Master and Chief Mate)
In the engine department a similar variety of certificates exists. Several countries have a 1st
Engineer and a Chief Engineer Certificate, sometimes in addition to a 2nd and even a 3rd
engineer certificate. On the other hand, some countries have an Engineer Officer and a
Chief Engineer only.
These findings invite a harmonization of certificates in accordance with STCW 95
requirements which establish only the Officer in Charge of an Engineering Watch, Second
Engineer Officer and Chief Engineer Officer, in the last case with lower requirements for
ships powered by main propulsion machinery between 750 kW and 3,000 kW (limited
certificate).
12
6
Manning scales
The table below shows which authority in the respective countries establishes the minimum
requirements for manning.
The name of this authority varies. This also applies to the Ministry to which the responsibility
for these Directorates, Divisions, Departments, Inspections, Boards, Administrations,
Agencies, etc. is assigned.
COUNTRY
AUTHORITY
MINISTRY/IES
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Portugal
Spain
Belgian Maritime Inspection
Danish Maritime Authority
National Board of Navigation
Ministry of Sea
Maritime Transport Division
Hellenic Coast Guard
Icelandic Maritime Administration
Department of the Marine
Ministry of Transport and Navigation
Directorate of Transport Safety
Norwegian Maritime Directorate
Ports and Maritime Institute
Directorate of Merchant Marine
Transport
Business and Industry (1)
Transport
Equipment, Housing, Transport and Tourism
Transport
Mercantile Marine
Education + Transport (2)
Education
Public Instruction
Foreign Affairs
Education
Transport
Sweden
UK
Swedish Maritime Administration
Maritime and Coast Guard Agency
Education and Employment (1)
Table 5
(1) 1 Ministry, (2) 2 Ministries
The criteria for determining the manning scales vary from country to country although they
are based on IMO requirements in all countries.
The following criteria for the determination of (safe) manning scales have been mentioned:
Tonnage
Type of ship
Power of main engine
Competence of crew
Proper and qualified lookout
All types of emergencies can be properly handled
Required repairworks can be done
Maintenance work can be carried out
Crew is given the required rest hours/the crew is not over-worked (fatigue)
Enough people are onboard to carry out mooring activities
Onboard technology can be handled
13
7
Government administration of MET (see also WP 1.6)
The Ministry of Education is involved in MET in 6 of the 15 countries; it shares
responsibility for MET with the Ministry of Transport in three countries and with another
ministry in one country.
The Ministry of Education is dealing with the organization of the studies, education and
training programmes and academic degrees (if any). In one country only these matters are in
the hands of the regional government but under the co-ordination of the Ministry of
Education. The Ministry of Transport deals with the professional certificates and the meeting
of the STCW requirements. In a few cases other ministries (Transport, Mercantile Marine,
Business and Industry, etc.) are involved in the administration of MET.
In the last years the Ministries of Education have been more and more involved in the
administration of MET because studies were upgraded to university level in some countries
and qualify for positions both on board ships and on shore in, for example, the maritime
administration and shipping companies.
8
Maritime academies/institutions
The table below gives the number of maritime academies in the various countries which offer
courses leading to unlimited certificates of competency (polytechnic, vocational institutes).
It includes only government-controlled maritime academies.
Courses for limited certificates of competency are not offered in Belgium. In most other
countries, courses for limited certificates of competency are offered at the same MET
institutes that offer courses for unlimited certificates of competency. There are, however, a
few countries in which limited certificates are also offered at special institutes for these
certificates (Germany) and there is a country where limited certificates are offered at special
institutes only (Spain).
Number of government controlled MET institutions
which offer courses leading to unlimited certificates of competency
40
35
30
22
20
10
11
1
5
4
8
13
9
3
1
IS
IE
1
7
2
4
0
BE DK
FI
FR DE GR
IT
NL NO PT ES SE UK
Addresses of all MET institutions, which offer courses leading to unlimited or limited
certificates of competency, are listed in Appendix 3.
14
9
The usual type of MET is monovalent (12 countries of 15), only France and Netherlands
have full bivalent MET, in Denmark studies leading to bivalent certificates on the OOW
level are offered. Sea time sandwiched between shore studies is a widely used system. Some
countries require sea training before studies. All countries require shipboard experience
after studies for obtaining the highest certificate of competency.
Knowledge-based MET is considered to be mainly focused on learning of theoretical subjects
with limited emphasis on the application of theories. Skill-based MET places emphasis on
the practical teaching subjects and the student is expected to demonstrate professional skills.
Knowledge-based training is the most usual system but in most countries it is claimed that it
is “blended” with skill-based training.
Type
Monovalent
BE
X
DK
X
FI
X
FR
DE
X
GR
X
IS
X
IE IT
X X
X
Bivalent
X*
X**
Semi-bivalent
Sea time before
X
X
X
studies
Sea time
X
X
X
X X
(1/2)
(2)
between studies
Sea time after
X
X
X X
X
X
X X X
studies
KnowledgeX
X
X X
X
X
X X X
based
Skill-based
X
X X
X
X X
(1) optional, (2) deck only. * Up to OOW level. ** Likely to cease
15
NL NO
X
PT
X
ES
X
SE
X
GB
X
X
X
X
(1)
(1)
(2)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
10
The following table shows which (minimum) admission requirements to maritime academies
that exist to courses for unlimited certificates of competency.
Existing criteria are marked with a yes (y).
Country
Belgium
Min. general Min. general ed. Medical
Mental
Special knowledge
Entry
education 12y Less than 12 y examination fitness test
required in
examination
subjects
deck eng.
deck
eng. deck eng. deck eng. technical language deck eng.
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
Denmark
y
y
y*
y*
y
y
Finland
y
y
y
y
Y
y
y
y
France
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
Germany
y
y1
y
y2
y
y
y
Greece
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
Iceland
y
y
y
y
y
y
Ireland
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
Italy
y
y
Netherlands
y
y
Norway
y
y1
Portugal
y
y
Spain
y
y
y
y
Sweden
y
y
y
y
y
y
UK
y
y
Remarks
Competitive examination
High School in technical
subjects
Also general education
of 8 y
y2
y
y
y
y
y
y
* No need if students have A-level background. 1 Certificates only. 2 Certificates + Degree
The admission requirements are in most countries the same for deck and engineer officers.
Italy allows admission with a general education shorter than 12 years.
Only Denmark, Finland, France and Spain require a general entry examination to nautical
and engineering studies.
Belgium and Sweden are the countries that have begun to examine the candidates for
mental fitness.
Six (non-Anglophone) countries require special knowledge in the English language. In
France, also the proficiency in French is examined.
In France the number of applicants exceeds the number of study places, therefore applicants
with the best examination results will be admitted. In Spain the number of study places is not
limited, therefore all of those who pass the examination will be admitted. Other countries,
16
despite some of them holding an entrance examination, admit everybody who meets the
requirements because the number of applicants is below the number of study places.
11
Duration of school and sea time and sequence of MET for unlimited certificates
of competency
The duration of school time is not relevant from the point of view of STCW 95 . The
Convention determines minimum requirements for standards of competence which should
normally be demonstrated through examination and/or assessment independent of the
school time required for acquiring the necessary knowledge and skills. In some countries the
duration of studies corresponds to that for university degrees and a substantial number of
subjects may then added to STCW 95 subjects.
MET in most countries requires a school time of about three years with some exceptions of
four or five years for countries with university level MET. Italy is the exception: although
studies have a duration of five years, they are on a lower level because of the age of 16 at
which students enter an MET institute.
According to the information received, the duration of school time for deck officers in UK is
not exactly defined. The UK MET system puts emphasis on the practical training and the
level of knowledge required to meet the requirements for the different certificates issued by
the Administration. The existing colleges offer courses of different duration for the
preparation of specific subjects or training with simulators.
This chapter has been divided into 11.1 Duration of school time and sea time and 11.2
Sequence of MET for unlimited certificates of competency.
11.1 Duration of school time and sea time of MET for unlimited certificates of
competency
•
•
•
•
School time for master and chief engineer
Sea time for master and chief engineer
School time + sea time for master
School time + sea time for chief engineer
17
Duration of MET
Duration of minimum school time for unlimited certificates of competency
70
60
60
60
54
48
50
48
48
48
45
40
36
36
35
36
36
Master
Chief Engineer
30
30
27
24
21 20
20
15
10
0
BE
DK
FI
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
Countries
18
NL
NO
PT
ES
SE
GB
Duration of MET
Duration of minimum sea time for unlimited certificates of competency
120
100
96
96
84
80
72
66
60
59
60
54
42
42
36
52
47
39
40
Chief Engineer
52
51
48
Master
60
36
36
36
36
20
0
BE
DK
FI
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
NL
Countries
19
NO
PT
ES
SE
UK
Duration of MET
Duration of minimum school time + minimum sea time for master
160
140
120
100
80
Sea time
School time
60
40
20
0
Age of entry into MET - age at which master mariner certificate is obtained
20
Minimum duration of school time + sea time for chief engineer
140
120
Months
100
80
Sea time
School time
60
40
20
0
GB 17 - 26
SE 17 - 25
21
ES 18 - 28
PT 18 - 26.5
NO 17 - 23.5
NL 17 - 25
IT 16 - 26.5
IE 17 - 24.5
IS 15 - 22
GR 18 - 29
DE 18 - 25
FR 18 - 25.5
FI 18 - 25
DK 17 - 23
BE 18 - 24
Age of entry into MET - age at which chief engineer certificate is obtained
11.2
Sequence of MET for unlimited certificates of competency
For the sequence of school and seatime see the following flowcharts:
It has been tried to develop a standard flowchart that is applicable to almost all national MET
systems in order to facilitate comparison between MET systems. The flowchart for the MET
system in some countries required the inclusion of additional information.
Three different symbols have been used in the flowcharts:
for sea time,
for school time
for certificates or degrees.
22
11.2
SEQUENCE OF MET: BELGIUM
DECK DEPARTMENT
ENGINE DEPARTMENT
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
SCHOOL TIME:
48 months
SCHOOL TIME:
36 months
SEA TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
DIPLOMA:
Licenciate in Nautical Sciences
DIPLOMA:
Ship’s Mechanical Engineering
0
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
24 months
SEA TIME:
24 months
CERTIFICATE:
2nd Mate
CERTIFICATE:
2nd Engineer
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
24 months
SEA TIME:
24 months
CERTIFICATE:
1st Mate
CERTIFICATE:
1st Engineer
SEA TIME:
24 months
SEA TIME:
0
CERTIFICATE (DEGREE):
Master
-
23
11.2
SEQUENCE OF MET: DENMARK
DECK DEPARTMENT
ENGINE DEPARTMENT
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
SCHOOL TIME:
36 months
SCHOOL TIME:
36 months
SEA TIME:
15 months (sandwiched within
school time)
SEA TIME:
school time
CERTIFICATE:
Junior Officer (Dual purpose)
CERTIFICATE:
Junior Officer (Dual purpose)
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
12 months
SEA TIME:
12 months
CERTIFICATE:
-
CERTIFICATE:
-
SCHOOL TIME:
18 months
SCHOOL TIME:
18 months
SEA TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
0
CERTIFICATE:
Mate 1st Class
CERTIFICATE:
Ship’s Engineer 1st Class
SEA TIME:
12 months
SEA TIME:
12 months
Master
Chief Engineer
24
11.2
SEQUENCE OF MET: FINLAND
DECK DEPARTMENT
ENGINE DEPARTMENT
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
SCHOOL TIME:
35 months
SEA TIME:
12 months (guided)
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
20 months if the
studies are for
Deck or Engine
Watch Officer
only
SCHOOL TIME:
35-41 months
SEA TIME + WORKSHOP
Combined with
school time
6-12 months
CERTIFICATE:
Deck Watch Officer
CERTIFICATE:
Engine Watch Officer
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
18 months
SEA TIME:
12 months
CERTIFICATE:
Chief Officer
CERTIFICATE:
1st Engineer
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
18 months
SEA TIME:
12 months
CERTIFICATE:
Captain
CERTIFICATE:
Chief Engineer
SEA TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
0
-
-
25
11.2
SEQUENCE OF MET: FRANCE
POLYVALENT
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
SCHOOL TIME:
36 months
DIPLOMA:
Merchant Marine Cadet Officer
SEA TIME:
12 months (Deck and Engine)
CERTIFICATE:
Watch keeping Officer (Polyvalent)
SEA TIME:
> = 8 months
SCHOOL TIME:
12 months
DIPLOMA:
High Studies of Merchant Marine
SEA TIME:
24 months (Polyvalent)
CERTIFICATE:
2nd Officer Polyvalent
SEA TIME:
48 months Officer Polyvalent
First Class Captain
26
11.2
SEQUENCE OF MET: GERMANY
DECK DEPARTMENT
ENGINE DEPARTMENT
In addition to
these
sequences,
Germany
MET offers
also dual purpose
training
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
6 months
SCHOOL TIME:
36 months (University) or
24 months Navigation School
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
12 months
SCHOOL TIME:
36 months (University) or
24 months Marine Eng. School
SEA TIME:
6 months
SEA TIME:
6 months
CERTIFICATE:
Officer in charge of a navigational watch
CERTIFICATE:
Officer in charge of an engine watch
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
12 months
SEA TIME:
12 months
CERTIFICATE:
Chief Officer
CERTIFICATE:
2nd Engineer
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
24 months as Officer, or
12 months as Chief Officer
SEA TIME:
24 months
CERTIFICATE:
Master
CERTIFICATE:
Chief Engineer
SEA TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
0
-
-
27
11.2
SEQUENCE OF MET: GREECE
DECK DEPARTMENT
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
ENGINE DEPARTMENT
Alternative:
Nautical Lyceum
Certificate
+
24 months sea
service
+
successfully
graduation from
special
masters/engineer
course
SCHOOL TIME:
36 months
SEA TIME:
school time)
CERTIFICATE:
3rd Class (Watch keeping Officer)
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
SCHOOL TIME:
36 months
SEA TIME:
school time)
CERTIFICATE:
Engineer Officer
SEA TIME:
36 months
SEA TIME:
36 months
SCHOOL TIME:
6 months
SCHOOL TIME:
6 months
CERTIFICATE:
Chief Mate
CERTIFICATE:
1st Engineer
SEA TIME:
48 months
SEA TIME:
36 months
SCHOOL TIME:
6 months
SCHOOL TIME:
6 months
CERTIFICATE:
Master
CERTIFICATE:
Chief Engineer
SEA TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
0
-
-
28
11.2
SEQUENCE OF MET: ICELAND
DECK DEPARTMENT
ENGINE DEPARTMENT
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
SCHOOL TIME:
9 months
SCHOOL TIME:
4.5 months
SEA TIME:
18 months
SEA TIME:
6 months
CERTIFICATE:
Coastal Navigation (200 GRT)
CERTIFICATE:
375 kW (Engine Officer)
SCHOOL TIME:
9 months
SCHOOL TIME:
9 + 4.5 months
SEA TIME:
3 months
SEA TIME:
3 months
CERTIFICATE:
Watch Officer (unlimited)
CERTIFICATE:
750 kW (Engine Officer)
SCHOOL TIME:
9 months
SCHOOL TIME:
13.5 months
SEA TIME:
9 months
SEA TIME:
9 months
CERTIFICATE:
Chief Mate
CERTIFICATE:
Engineer (STCW III/1)
SEA TIME:
12 months
School time:
13.5 months
Master
SEA TIME:
18 months
Chief Engineer (STCW III/3 and III/2)
29
11.2
SEQUENCE OF MET: IRELAND
DECK DEPARTMENT
ENGINE DEPARTMENT
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
SCHOOL TIME:
9 months + 2 months + 4 months
(sandwiched with sea time)
SCHOOL TIME:
36 months
SEA TIME:
12 – 15 months + 5-8 months
SEA TIME:
0
(sandwiched with school time)
CERTIFICATE:
NCEA Diploma
CERTIFICATE:
NCEA Diploma
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
9 months
CERTIFICATE:
Class 4 Deck Officer
CERTIFICATE:
Class 4 Engine Officer
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
18 months
SEA TIME:
18 months
CERTIFICATE:
CERTIFICATE:
Class 2 Engine Officer
SEA TIME:
24 months
-
SEA TIME:
18 months
Proposed Degree
in Nautical
Sciences/Marine
Engineering
Class 1 Motor/Steam + 6 months at sea
Steam/Motor endorsement
30
11.2
SEQUENCE OF MET: ITALY
DECK DEPARTMENT
ENGINE DEPARTMENT
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
SCHOOL TIME:
60 months
SCHOOL TIME:
60 months
SEA TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
0
CERTIFICATE:
Officer Apprentice (Deck)
CERTIFICATE:
Officer Apprentice (Engine)
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
18 months
SEA TIME:
18 months or 12 months + 6 months
in a mechanic plant
CERTIFICATE:
Mate
CERTIFICATE:
Engineer Officer
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
48 months
SEA TIME:
48 months or 36 months + 12 months
in a mechanic plant
CERTIFICATE:
Captain
CERTIFICATE:
Chief Engineer
SEA TIME:
120 months
SEA TIME:
120 months
Master (special ships)
Chief Engineer (special ships)
31
11.2
SEQUENCE OF MET: NETHERLANDS
DECK AND ENGINE DEPARTMENT (INTEGRADTED MARITIME OFFICERS)
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
SCHOOL TIME:
24 months
SEA TIME:
school time)
CERTIFICATE:
Maritime Officer (STCW level)
SCHOOL TIME:
12 months
Certificate BSc level
SEA TIME:
48 months
CERTIFICATE:
-
SCHOOL TIME:
3 weeks (management course)
SEA TIME:
0
CERTIFICATE:
1st Maritime Officer
SEA TIME:
18 months
Master
32
11.2
SEQUENCE OF MET: NORWAY
DECK DEPARTMENT
ENGINE DEPARTMENT
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
Optional
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
Optional
SCHOOL TIME:
10 months
SCHOOL TIME:
10 months
SEA TIME:
SEA TIME:
12 months
12 months
CERTIFICATE:
-
CERTIFICATE:
-
SCHOOL TIME:
20 months
SCHOOL TIME:
20 months
SEA TIME:
4 months
SEA TIME:
4 months
CERTIFICATE:
Deck Officer (Class 4)
CERTIFICATE:
Enginee Officer (Class 4)
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
18 months
SEA TIME:
18 months
CERTIFICATE:
CERTIFICATE:
Engine Officer (Class 2)
SEA TIME:
18 months
SEA TIME
18 months
Engine Officer (Class 1)
33
11.2
SEQUENCE OF MET: PORTUGAL
DECK DEPARTMENT
ENGINE DEPARTMENT
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
SCHOOL TIME:
36 months
SCHOOL TIME:
36 months
SEA TIME:
12 months for 3rd Mate
12 + 18 months for 2nd Mate
SEA TIME:
12 months for 3rd Engineer
12 + 18 months2nd Engineer
CERTIFICATE:
3rd Deck Officer /2nd Deck Officer
CERTIFICATE:
3rd Engineer/2nd Engineer
SCHOOL TIME:
12 months
SEA TIME:
18 months
CERTIFICATE:
1st Deck Officer
SCHOOL TIME:
12 or 24 months
12 months
academic
studies to get
the degree of
Honours in
Pilotagem
SEA TIME:
18 months
CERTIFICATE:
1st Engineer
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
24 months for Chief Officer
24 + 24 months for Captain
SEA TIME:
24 months
CERTIFICATE:
Chief Officer/Captain
24 months
academic
studies to get
the degree of
Honours in
Marine
Engineering
SEA TIME:
0
CERTIFICATE:
Chief Engineer
SEA TIME:
0
-
-
34
11.2 SEQUENCE OF MET: SPAIN
DECK DEPARTMENT
ENGINE DEPARTMENT
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
SCHOOL TIME:
36 months
SCHOOL TIME:
36 months
SEA TIME:
12 months
SEA TIME:
CERTIFICATE:
Watch keeping Officer
CERTIFICATE:
2nd Engineer
12 months
SCHOOL TIME:
24 months
SCHOOL TIME:
24 months
SEA TIME:
12 months
SEA TIME:
12 months
CERTIFICATE:
Chief Mate
CERTIFICATE:
1st Engineer
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
12 months
SEA TIME:
12 months
CERTIFICATE:
Master
CERTIFICATE:
Chief Engineer
SEA TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
0
Doctor in Sea Sciences
Doctor in Sea Sciences
-
35
11.2
SEQUENCE OF MET: SWEDEN
DECK DEPARTMENT
ENGINE DEPARTMENT
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
Time on training vessel and
merchant ship
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
Time on training vessel and
merchant ship
SCHOOL TIME:
36 months
SCHOOL TIME:
36 months
SEA TIME:
6 months (24 months without
pre-school sea training)
SEA TIME:
6 months (24 months without
pre-school sea training )
CERTIFICATE:
-
CERTIFICATE:
-
SCHOOL TIME:
24 months
SCHOOL TIME:
24 months
SEA TIME:
12 months
SEA TIME:
6 months at sea
6 months workshop
CERTIFICATE:
CERTIFICATE:
Engineer Officer
SCHOOL TIME:
12 months
SCHOOL TIME:
12 months
SEA TIME:
4 + 5+ 6 months
(sandwiched during school time)
SEA TIME:
4 months at sea
12 months workshop
CERTIFICATE:
CERTIFICATE:
SEA TIME:
36 months
SEA TIME:
36 months
Master
Chief Engineer
36
11.2
SEQUENCE OF MET: UNITED KINGDOM
DECK DEPARTMENT
ENGINE DEPARTMENT
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME
0
SCHOOL TIME:
4 + 6 + 3 + 6 months
SCHOOL TIME:
10 months
SEA TIME:
SEA TIME:
6 + 6 + 6 months (sandwiched
within school time)
9 months
CERTIFICATE:
1st Certificate of Competency
CERTIFICATE:
-
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SCHOOL TIME:
10 months
SEA TIME:
12 months
SEA TIME:
0
CERTIFICATE:
-
CERTIFICATE:
Class 4 Certificate of Competency
SCHOOL TIME:
2.5 months
SCHOOL TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
0
SEA TIME:
3 months (to satisfy STCW
requirements)
CERTIFICATE:
2nd Certificate of Competency
CERTIFICATE:
Class 2/1 Certificate of Competency
SEA TIME:
24 months
SEA TIME:
24 months
Deck Officer Class 1
Chief Engineer
-
37
12
Syllabuses ( see WP 1.2 for details)
The information in this chapter is limited to the number of syllabus hours since syllabus
contents are dealt with in work package 1.2. Small differences may be due to the fact that the
information in this WP is obtained from more than one MET institution within most countries
while the figures in WP 1.2 are from individual MET institutions.
The compilation of syllabus hours is shown in the table below and further elaborated on and
compared in the following tables. The figures give the total hours for the certificates of
competency for positions, i.e. if the figures are the same for, e.g., mate, chief mate and
master, then the studies are completed without sea-time in between.
Unlimited certificates
Country
BE
DK
FI
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
NL
NO
PT
ES
SE
GB **
*
Hour *
Master
60
45
45
60
45
45
40
45
60
60
45
50
55
45
60
3130
3990
4480
3172
3230
4016
4320
1680
5760
4900
3990
3655
3810
2 470
1560
Ch.Mate
4200
3172
3230
3267
4320
5760
4900
3990
3655
3810
2 470
1200
Mate
2444
3230
2700
2880
5760
1330
2790
3120
1 600
720
Ch.Eng.
Limited certificates
1st Eng.
2280
3990
4000
3172
3340
3715
5000
3300
5760
4900
3990
3655
3780
2 470
3030
4000
3172
3340
3351
3500
5760
4900
3990
3655
3780
2 470
2730
Eng.Off.
2444
3340
2700
2000
5760
1330
2790
3280
1 600
2430
Skipp.A
Skipp.B
Skipp.C
Mec.A
Mec.B
Mec.C
0
560
400
2444
2400
420
2916
1410
0
0
1330
0
0
400
0
0
0
120
1132
1800
275
1458
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1650
0
384
600
0
130
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
560
400
2444
2560
0
500
0
0
0
0
0
0
400
0
0
0
0
952
1320
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
800
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
duration of a lecture in minutes, ** figures for Glasgow College of Nautical Studies
The “zeros” indicate that no time was or could be given for the specific course, “no”
indicates that the course leading to the specific competency is not conducted in the country.
The duration of a lecture varies between countries as can be taken from the table above and
from the staple diagramme below.
Duration of lecture hours in minutes
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
BE
DK
FI
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
NL
NO
Duration of lecture hours in minutes
Out of 15 countries 8 countries use 45-minute lectures.
38
PT
ES
SE
GB
Only Iceland has a lecture time below 45 minute and 9 countries (Belgium, France, Ireland, Italy,
Netherlands, Norway, Spain and Great Bretain ) have a lecture period longer than 45 minutes.
When the hours are converted to lecture hours of 45 minutes the following figures apply:
Country
BE
DK
FI
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
NL
NO
PT
ES
SE
GB *
Hour
Master
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
4 173
3990
4480
4 229
3230
4016
3840
1680
7680
6 533
3990
4861
4657
2470
2080
Ch.Mate
4200
4 229
3230
3267
3840
7680
6 533
3990
4061
4657
2470
1170
Mate
3 259
3230
2700
2560
7680
1330
3100
3813
1600
960
Ch.Eng.
1st Eng.
3 040
3990
4000
4 229
3340
3715
4444
3300
7680
6 533
3990
4061
4620
2470
4040
4000
4 229
3340
3351
3111
7680
6 533
3990
4061
4620
2470
3640
Eng.Off.
3 259
3340
2700
1778
7680
1330
3100
4009
1600
3240
Skipp.A
Skipp.B
Skipp.C
Mec.A
Mec.B
Mec.C
no
560
400
3 259
2400
420
2592
1410
0
0
1330
0
0
400
0
no
0
120
1 509
1800
245
1296
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
no
1650
0
512
600
0
116
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
No
560
400
3 259
2560
0
444
0
0
0
0
0
0
400
0
no
0
0
1269
1320
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
no
0
0
1067
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
* figures for Glasgow College of Nautical Studies
When the hours are converted to lecture hours of 60 minutes the following figures apply:
Country
BE
DK
FI
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
NL
NO
PT
ES
SE
GB *
Hour
Master
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
3130
2993
3375
3172
2423
2358
2880
1260
5760
4900
2438
3046
3493
1853
1560
Ch.Mate
Mate
3375
3172
2423
2444
2423
2880
1920
5760
4900
2438
3046
3493
1853
1200
5760
1219
2325
2860
1200
720
Ch.Eng.
1st Eng.
2280
2993
3000
3172
2505
2358
3333
2475
5760
4900
2438
3046
3465
1853
3030
Eng.Off.
3000
3172
2505
2444
2505
2333
1333
5760
4900
2438
3046
3465
1853
2730
5760
1219
2325
3007
1200
2430
Skipp.A
Skipp.B
Skipp.C
Mec.A
Mec.B
Mec.C
0
420
525
2444
1800
0
1944
1410
0
0
1219
0
0
300
0
0
0
435
1132
1350
0
972
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1238
0
384
450
0
87
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
420
525
2444
1920
0
333
0
0
0
0
0
0
300
0
0
0
413
952
990
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
800
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
* figures for Glasgow College of Nautical Studies
The following table shows how many hours are used to educate and train the three deck officer
categories requiring a Certificate of Competency if all “hours” are converted into 45-minute
hours.
39
Lecture h ours a 45 m inu tes - D e ck O ffice rs
9 000
8 000
7 000
6 000
5 000
4 000
3 000
2 000
1 000
0
BE DK
FI
FR DE GR
IS
IE
M a ster
IT
NL NO PT
C h .M a te
ES SE GB
M ate
Lecture hours à 45 minutes - Deck Officers
The average number of 45-minute hours for Deck Officers is:
Master
4302 hours
Chief Mate 4073 hours
Mate
3145 hours
The highest amount was given for Italy with 7680 hours for all Deck Officer Certificates of
Competency. The lowest amount was given for Ireland with 1680 hours for Masters and
Chief Officers and Great Britain for Mates with 960 hours.
The following table shows how many hours that are used in order to educate and train the
three engine officer categories requiring a Certificate of Competency if all hours are
converted into 45-minute “hours”.
Le cture ho urs a 45 m in utes - E ng in ee r O ffic ers
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
B E D K F I F R D E G R IS
C h.E ng .
IE
1 st E ng .
IT
NL NO P T E S S E G B
E ng .O ff.
Lecture hours à 45 minutes - Engineer Officers
40
The average number of 45-minute hours for Engineer Officers is :
Chief Engineer
4130 hours
1st Engineer
4006 hours
Engineer Officer
3175 hours
The highest amount was given for Italy with 7680 hours for all Engineer Officers Certificate of
Competency. The lowest amount was given for Sweden with 2470 hours for Chief Engineers and
1st Engineers. Norway has the lowest figure for Engine Officers with 1330 hours.
The hours required for Certificates of Competency for the limited trade are rather different.
Only the Skipper A and Mechanic A have been taken up for comparison.
The following table shows how many hours that are used in order to educate Skipper A and
Mechanic A categories requiring a Certificate of Competency if all hours are converted into 45minute hours.
L e c tu r e h o u r s a 4 5 m in u te s - S k ip p e r A a n d
M e c h a n ic A
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
BE DK FI
F R D E G R IS
IE
S k ip p .A
IT
NL NO P T E S S E G B
M e c .A
Lecture hours à 45 minutes - Skipper A and Mechanic A
41
13
Seven countries have institutional assessment only, eigth have institutional and external
assessment.
Country
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
UK
14
Assessment
External
Institutional
X
Institutional + External
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Academic degrees
At MET institutes in seven countries, courses leading to unlimited certificates of competency
and academic degrees are offered. These countries are Belgium, France, Germany,
Netherlands, Norway, Portugal and Spain. In Netherlands and Norway and Germany an
unlimited certificate of competency can also be obtained without an academic degree. The
entry requirements in general education are lower to these MET institutes than to the MET
institutes where also academic degrees are awarded. In most countries, general education
requirements for certificate + degree studies at an MET institute are equivalent to university
entry requirements in general education. Five of the seven countries offer a degree
equivalent to a BSc, France offers a degree equivalent to an MSc (Bac + 5, baccalauréat plus
five years of study). Only in Spain can, after the BSc, also an MSc and a PhD be obtained.
The value of a BSc from MET institute for postgraduate studies is in most countries rather
limited because of the lack of study opportunities for an MSc degree in nautical or marine
engineering science. For obtaining an MSc degree, students with a BSc from an MET
institute in these countries will have to choose postgraduate studies in another maritime
subject (such as naval architecture) or in a subject where only a limited relation to matters
maritime exists (such as economics or law) although such postgraduate qualification may
become of increased value because of the additional maritime qualification. The time spent
on obtaining a BSc at an MET institution and the degree itself are therefore often hardly
taken into account in terms of time and credits for postgraduate studies.
42
15
Future plans
At present, MET systems are in a period of change. It is therefore only possible to describe a
less fluctuating and more consolidated state of MET after the present changes have been
completed and MET systems have come back to a normal steady long-term development.
Almost all future plans for changes in national MET systems are today geared towards the
implementation of the requirements of STCW 95: syllabuses and teaching methods are
adjusted; in a number of countries equipment and staff qualifications and equipment are
reviewed whether they are in compliance with STCW 95 requirements. Changes in the latter
two areas are difficult: for the upgrading of equipment they are dependent on the availability
of funds. The same dependence applies to any improvement of staff qualifications through
the recruitment of new staff. Such change is even more difficult since most of the lecturers at
MET institutes are employed on tenure and vacancies are normally only created through
retirements.
Considerable attention is given to the integration of STCW 95 requirements into national law
and the introduction of the STCW 95-required QA System. Partly, it is left to the MET
institution to deal with this, partly the maritime administration takes the leading role in
introducing such system. Classification societies have also become active players in this
field.
Other STCW-created changes range from the improvement of training record books to
balancing the professional certificate and academic degree requirements in syllabuses with
each other.
The spirit of change created by STCW 95 is also used to make other changes which are not
necessarily required by the Convention.
In the wake of STCW 95 requirements, previous limited certificates are upgraded to
unlimited certificates in a few countries by which the “through the hawse pipe” approach to
unlimited certificates is re-opened for students with a lower level general education. This
will lead to two options for obtaining an unlimited certificate of competency in some of the
seven countries where also academic degrees are offered: the certificate only option and the
certificate plus academic degree option (see also 14 Academic Degrees). The main motive
for the re-introduction of the “hawse pipe” option seems to be the lack of applicants with
appropriate general education qualifications for nautical or marine engineering certificate
plus degree courses.
Another change in the wake of STCW 95 which is not directly linked to the Convention
requirements is the adaptation of national law to the ILO requirements on the maximum
number of individual working hours on board ships.
STCW 95 has to some degree “stirred up” national MET and its environment and the
required implementation of the ISM Code has drawn shipping companies into changes, too.
It is generally perceived and also appreciated that the work at IMO for the improvement of
quality standards of seafarers and other people working in shipping has led to an increased
focus on people.
43
METHAR
Work Package 1 (WP 1) :
WP 1.1: Survey of national MET systems, schemes and programmes
WP 1.3: Survey of national certificate of competency structures and validity
QUESTIONNAIRE
(Prepared by Fernando Pardo and Jan Horck)
November 1996
44
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR DESCRIPTION OF
NATIONAL MET SYSTEM AND CERTIFICATE STRUCTURE
1
Country
2
Which shipboard positions/functions exist that can only be manned by holders of certificates of
competency?
Give names in national language.
UNLIMITED TRADE
Code
Position/Function
1
Master
2
Chief Mate
3
Mate
4
Chief Engineer
5
1st Engineer
6
Engineer Officer
7
8
9
10
LIMITED TRADE
11
Skipper (coastal trade)
12
Mechanic (coastal trade)
13
14
45
3
Certificate structure
Which unlimited and limited certificates of competency exist for the positions/functions listed
under 1.
Give names in national language.
UNLIMITED TRADE
Code
Position/Function
A
Master Mariner
B
Chief Mate
C
Mate
D
Chief Engineer
E
1st Engineer
F
Engineer Officer
G
H
I
J
LIMITED TRADE
K
Skipper A
L
Skipper B
M
Ship’s Mechanic A
N
Ship’s Mechanic B
O
Ship’s Mechanic C
P
Skipper C
46
4
For which positions/functions on board is which minimum certificate of competency required?
Position/
function
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
47
L
M
N
O
P
5
Which criteria are used for limiting the validity of certificates? How are they applied to
shipboard positions under 1?
Geographical range of size of ship/tonnage, sailing/navigation area, power of main engine,
type of ship, other criteria.
Position
Unlimited
Trade
1
Certificates
Tonnage
Navigation
Area/
Range
Engine
Power
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
LIMITED TRADE (position for which they are issued)
11
12
13
14
Note: Details of limitations to be asked for at a later stage.
* If other criteria exist then please name them.
48
Type of Ship Additional
Criterion/
Criteria *
6
Manning scales
Who establishes minimum manning requirements? Which criteria are used for determining
them?
7
Government administration of MET
Which government administrations/ministries are involved in MET and in what
role?
8
9
Maritime academies
8.1
Maritime Academies (governmental)
Numbers, names and addresses, courses offered, for which certificate of competency
and educational degrees (if any)?
8.2
Maritime Academies (private)
Monovalent, semi-bivalent, bivalent, shipboard experience before or after
studies, sandwiched? Knowledge- or skill-based?
10
Unlimited certificates and limited certificates.
After how many years and at which level of general education? Academic,
physical and other requirements? Entry examination? If yes, in which
subjects?
11
Duration and sequence of studies
Please confine unlimited to Master and Chief Engineer certificates of competency.
Duration of (minimum) school times and sea times for obtaining certificates of competency?
Flow chart.
Substitution of sea time by simulator time?
49
12
Syllabuses
Total number of hours? Duration of ”hour”: 45 minutes, 60 minutes or xx minutes?
Courses for UNLIMITED TRADE certificates of competency.
Code
Course
A
Master Mariner
B
Chief Mate
C
Mate
D
Chief Engineer
E
1st Engineer
F
Engineer Officer
Total number of hours
G
H
I
J
Courses for LIMITED TRADE certificates of competency
K
Skipper A
L
Skipper B
M
Ship’s Mechanic A
N
Ship’s Mechanic B
O
Ship’s Mechanic C
P
Skipper C
50
13
External or/and internal assessment?
If external assessment, then identify assessors and their organization/
affiliation?
14
Academic degrees
Do/can students obtain academic degrees in addition to professional
certificates of competency? If yes, which degrees?
15
Future planning
What changes to your national MET system are expected/intended? When?
51
METHAR
WP 1.2 Survey of relevant syllabus contents and teaching methods
REPORT
Shipping and Transport College , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
(Prepared by Sjoerd Groenhuis )
November 1997
METHAR, WP 1.2, Report
52
Work package 1.2
Table of contents
Page
1
Introduction
54
2
Methodology
54
3
General remarks on the received completed questionnaires
54
4
Education for deck officer
55
5
Education for marine engineer
56
6
Education for dual-purpose officer
57
7
Summary
57
Attachments
Table 1
Graph 1
Graph 2
Graph 3
Graph 4
Deck officer, hours per subject; MET institutes
Deck officer, hours per subject; Antwerp
Deck officer, hours per subject; Turku
Deck officer, hours per subject; Bilbao
Deck officer, hours per subject; Bremen
59
60
60
60
60
Table 2
Graph 5
Graph 6
Graph 7
Engine officer, hours per subject; MET institutes
Engine officer, hours per subject; Antwerp
Engine officer, hours per subject; S. Stefano
Engine officer, hours per subject; Tonsberg
61
62
62
62
Table 3
Graph 8
Graph 9
Graph 10
Dual-purpose officer, hours per item; MET institutes
Dual-purpose officer, hours per subject; Terschelling
Dual-purpose officer, hours per subject; Eemsmond
Dual-purpose officer, hours per subject; France
63
64
64
64
Questionnaire
65
53
1
Introduction
The objective of this work package is to collect relevant information on the contents of the
curricula of the European MET institutes as well as the use of advanced technologies for
lecturing on more theoretical subjects and enlarging the skill of students in more practical
subjects.
To attain this objective, as a first step, a questionnaire has been developed and sent to a large
number of European MET institutes. In order to enlarge the probability of response, the
questionnaire consisted of more general questions requesting the total amount of hours per
lecturing modules and total studying hours. Separate questions were incorporated to gather
information with respect to the use of simulators and practice hours in workshops. For
detailed information of the contents of the questionnaire see the attachments of this report.
The total number of distributed questionnaires was 64, of which the 22 returned answers
were analysed for this report. Although the relative low return rate of 34 % it was considered
to be sufficient for a first analysing action.
2
Methodology
The figures of the returned questionnaires have been gathered in tables in order to compare
the total amounts per subject mutually as well as the total education programme hours.
Where relevant, some subjects of the questionnaire have been taken together to keep the
tables readable.
For a number of items it appeared for some institutes to be more difficult or impossible to
answer the questions. Where necessary from a statistical point of view, incomplete figures
have not been taken into account.
To indicate differences in the figures of the institutes a number of graphs have been prepared
as a quick reference information.
Average and standard deviation figures in the various tables have been used to indicate the
differences in hours per item compared to other subjects or between the institutes mutually.
3
The figures regarding the special courses could be included in the course or excluded. If
excluded was mentioned, the number of hours has been added to the total course hours (right
side of the appropriate cell). If included, the mentioned hours were not added to the total
amount of hours (left side of the appropriate cell).
Since most of the institutes indicated that the tanker courses are not within their normal
courses or additional programmes, these figures are not indicated in the tables below.
For many institutes it was difficult to indicate the amount of hours on operational level and
management level. Therefore only the total hours per module are indicated in the tables.
Considering the simulator and workshop activities as skill improving matters, those items
have been taken together. The ratio (C+D)/A is an indication regarding this matter and will
be mentioned where relevant.
54
With the interpretation of the figures in the different tables, one has to consider that
difference in pre-requisite knowledge and final level at the end of the MET will affect the
indicated hours per subject.
Differences between the figures in tables 1, 2 and 3 of this work package (WP) 1.2 and the
figures in tables on pages 33 and 34 (under syllabuses) of WP 1.1/1.3 may have been caused
by the reasons mentioned in the first paragraph of this chapter. Small differences may also
have been caused by the fact that the information in this WP was obtained from individual
MET institutions, while the figures in WP 1.1/1.3 are average figures for most MET
institutions in most countries.
4
Education for deck officers
Table in Attachment gives the hours per module for 13 institutes involved in deck officer
programmes. The following comments can be made.
There is a significant difference in total hours for the different institutes. (Turku 5184 Gothenburg 1329).
The following specific comments regarding these differences can be made.
In Bilbao the students follow a nautical education in the first 2 years. After the third year at
sea, they come back for another 2 years to the university for finalising the nautical study as
well as to follow other shipping related lectures to attain a BSc degree. It is confirmed by the
higher amount of hours under others.
In the United Kingdom it is possible to do examinations without the obligation to follow
courses at MET institutes. For that reason it can be expected that the institutes have study
programmes directly attached to the examination requirements. The number of hours for
Glasgow under others confirm this statement.
In Germany the students follow an academic programme. Students, as pre-requisite
knowledge, have passed a Schiffsmechaniker vocational training.
The standard deviations indicate a significant variation in hours for "operations", "national
language" and "others". Many countries do not teach their national language at MET
institutes any more. The high standard deviation within "others" might occur due to
uncertainty whether certain subjects are items within the mentioned specified STCW
modules or have to be considered as separate items.
The differences in both work packages for Sweden are not certain but it is assumed,
regarding the relative high number of hours for others, that the Kalmar Maritime Academy
has a programme with much more additional lectures than required by the Swedish
Administration.
The average total hours of 3003 is about similar to the average total amount for the
engineering courses.
Subjects like ship handling and ship construction within the deck officer studies are open to a
significant variation in interpretation how many details to be lectured. The high standard
deviation under "operations" confirms this.
55
The (C+D)/A* ratio for the different institutes varies from 0.05 (Bremen) to 0.30 (Antwerp).
At Bremen only 93 hours out of 613 "Navigation" hours have been used for simulation and
workshop activities and no simulation/workshop hours at all are mentioned for the module
"Operations". In Antwerp 318 simulation/workshop hours are mentioned out of 858
navigation hours in total and 237 simulation/workshop hours out of 687 "Operation" hours.
Other institutes also shows significant differences in this ratio.
For further analyses it is to emphasise that the question regarding the use of simulators and
workshops refers to hours under guidance of a lecturer/ instructor. A number of institutes,
however, will enable the students to train themselves on simulators or in workshops without
guidance of a lecturer. For instance the nautical institute in Amsterdam stated that only 25 %
of the total simulation time is with guidance of a lecturer / instructor.
Even for rather well defined modules like "personal survival", a significant difference in
lecturing hours is noted. In Glasgow only 8 hours are spend on this matter against 60 hours in
Bilbao.
Possibly due to differences in pre-requisite knowledge , also general subjects like
mathematics and physics indicate significant differences in lecturing hours.
For more detailed differences see the graphs for some of the institutes.
5
Education for marine engineers
The total hours per modules are given in Table 2.
The following comments can be made.
The total hours for the topic subject "marine engineering" varies mainly between 700-900
hours. Nevertheless there are some institutes indicating significant less hours
(Pori/vocational S. Stefano).
The average number of hours for mathematics, physics and chemistry is about 30% higher
than for the deck officers.
The relative high values of the standard deviation for the maintenance and repair might
confirm differences in the philosophy to what extent ship-board systems should be repaired
by ship personnel.
The standard deviation for "electricity" confirms the possibility that this subject can be
lectured with a large variation in details and depth.
The (C+D)/A* ratio shows a less significant variation between the various institutes than for
the deck officers. Possibly due to the fact that workshop activities are common for a much
longer time within engineering programmes.
* see Questionnaire for explanation
56
6
Education for dual-purpose officers
See also Table 3.
The difference in total hours between Flushing, Rotterdam and Terschelling (The
Netherlands) can be explained by the fact that in Flushing and Rotterdam the programme is
solely attached to the STCW requirements (an academic year will follow afterwards ), while
for Terschelling the additional subjects are already incorporated in the normal programme.
Although the knowledge of the dual-purpose (bivalent) officer has to be almost double that of
the monovalent officer, the total average hours are less. However, institutes with lower total
hours do indicate higher simulation and workshop hours as well as higher B/A* ratios (total
student contact hours).
On all the topic subjects (navigation, cargo, operation and marine engineering ) the total
average hours have been reduced compared to the monovalent programmes (see also the
graphs below).
The item "other" however has been significantly reduced compared to the monovalent
programmes.
Also under here a relative high standard deviation exists for the "mathematic, physics,
chemistry" subjects, possibly due to the pre-requisite knowledge.
Again, rather well defined subjects like "personal safety” indicate significant differences.
Most of the institutes have included the "extra" courses (personal survival, medical care ) in
their normal programme, with an exemption for medical care.
7
Summary
Significant differences are identified in the total number of hours for the whole programme
among the different MET institutes. These differences occur between different countries, but
also within countries.
When drawing conclusions from these differences, it has to emphasised that the following
aspects can affect the total number of hours:
• The pre-requisite knowledge of the students for entering the MET institute.
• The total hours : lecture hours ratio. Institutes with a high number of self study hours will
possibly reduce the number of lecture hours, especially with higher rates for the use of
simulators and practice in workshops.
Also among the subjects directly relevant to the profession, in a number of cases significant
differences have been identified.
In general, the identified differences confirm the need to investigate the contents of the MET
programmes of European MET institutes in more detail.
57
METHAR
ATTACHMENTS
Shipping and Transport College , Rotterdam, The Netherlands
February 1998
METHAR, WP 1.2, Attachments
58
Bremen
A
A
300
120
240
50
60
30
40
0
20
330
C+D
120
60
90
30
613
271
342
114
?
?
?
86
57
57
Tonsberg Gotenborg Oldenburg
C+D
93
8
0
10
3
A
560
267
473
135
11
14
9
9
30
68
C+D
206
10
45
105
20
A
323
240
282
100
10
10
14
10
60
50
B+C
37
88
12
80
6
15
8
80
A
554
216
324
81
40
40
24
10
30
162
C+D
122
54
Warnemünde
A
330
260
590
80
40
40
Turku
C+D
A
C+D
272
50
80
170
60 690
40 272
80 1070
50 136
34
10
16
16
16
30
68
100 391
Rauma
Stefano
A
A
595
647
68 1062
102
17 32
16 40
16
125
102
266
C+D
158
64
82
429
99
99
32
40
16
38
24
52
C+D
Marihamn
A
C+D
187
?
?
?
?
?
495
330 1013
268
561
102
13
26
13
26
102
99 293
50
Stand. dev.
NAVIGATION
CARGO
OPERATIONS
GEN. OPER. CERTF.
PERS. SURVIVAL
FIRE PREVENT
FIRST AID
PERS. SAFETY /SOC.
MEDICAL CARE
ENGLISH
Bilbao
Average
TABLE 1 DECK OFFICER UNLIMITED CERTF.
28
207
609
275
494
90
36
29
22
30
51
215
196
140
312
30
25
11
11
28
28
137
160 1564
244 1780
525
30
100
100
180
252
93
40
537
213
199
106
71
874
200
174
54
37
706
410 3425 1018 1652
160 2626
Kalmar
Antwerp
Glasgow
A
A
A
740
270
530
100
?
?
?
?
?
200
C+D
230
70
100
10
858
289
687
45
41
43
55
21
180
125
TOTAL STCW
1190
300 1540
114 1576
386 1099
326 1481
176 1640
370 2709
373 2672
506 1122
429 2417
237 1840
410 2004
NAT LANGUAGE
MATHEMATIC
PHYSICS
CHEMISTRY
OTHER
70
150
90
1660
57
114
29
371
0
0
56
35
550
120
15
15
240
135
189
54
378
160
190
130
100
391
391
40 136
30 102
1455
191
230
14
14
809
627
666
132
99
2601
294
255
102
77
861
50
120
40
1030
158
150
60
80
973
TOTAL
3160
390 2111
114 2217
426 2237
176 2220
440 5184
373 3930
506 5247
693 4006
237 3080
60
30
23
409 1489
20
20
60
59
132
132
C+D
318
154
237
15
23
640
160
360
60
8
24
20
40
40
30
747 1382
23
30
15
20
183
C+D
90
40
30
Reykjavick
A
591
431
83
74
80
40
30
C+D
108
11
38
24
40
23
244
Graph 1 - Antwerp / Deck Officer
1000
750
500
250
0
Graph 2 - Turku / Deck Officer
1600
1200
800
400
0
Graph 3 - Bilbao / DO
Graph 4 - Bremen / DO
800
2000
600
1500
400
1000
200
500
0
0
60
A
Tonsberg
C+D
A
C+D
Gotenborg
A
B+C
MAR ENGINEERING
840
300
825
115
651
MAINT. & REPAIR
360
240
506
450
ELECTRIC
390
385
206
OPERATION
300
120
Warnemunde
A
134
790
147
48
735
460
140
40
408
430
190
312
380
380
11
10
15
FIRE PREVENT
30
14
10
25 40
FIRST AID
40
9
18
9
10
60
8
68
168
110
170
2189
1203
1665
252
168
160
ENGLISH
TOTAL STCW
20
210
2250
NAT LANGUAGE
MATHEMATIC
PHYSICS
CHEMISTRY
660
2081
771
228
10
?
C+D
297
132
150
50
198
231
440
115
35
480
110
933
165
170
3693
210
110
746
1148
427
198
30
336
336
231
98
24
27
29
40
30
?
?
12
12
18
11
24
16
?
?
30
15
22
16
?
?
45
30
10
1
?
2052
464
?
0
495
99
150
1452
660
1755
120
627
50
432
666
140
55
190
40
264
63
40
130
30
72
80
99
413
378
240
100
100
528
2172
2987
1706
2245
630
3468
544
132
1000
792
61
360
132
5148
90
C+D
24
105
794
651
374
A
C+D
215
35
2585
3693
A
C+D
?
56
870
204
A
132
30
3460
729
Reykjavik
?
60
TOTAL
160
Glasgow
12
90
900
800
Antwerp
24
192
460
C+D
128
36
198
A
330
150
OTHER
23
Kalmar
300
15 50
120
70
A
C+D
135
254
MEDICAL CARE
A
C+D
912
60
PERS. SAFETY /SOC.
Stefano
230
PERS. SURVIVAL
8
Marihamn
Stand. dev
Bilbao
.Average
TABLE 2 - MARINE ENGINEERS UNLIMITED CERTF.
2945
360
187
27
31
192
123
90
45
1035
465
30
168
241
262
90
30
336
268
203
75
30
168
143
67
45
15
112
20
81
33
360
195
243
40
677
632
1605
765
6922
4463
0
0
800
5895
4403
Graph 5 - Antwerp / Marine Engineer
500
400
300
200
100
0
Graph 6 - S.Stefano / Marine Engineer
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Graph 7 - Tonsberg / Marine Engineer
1000
800
600
400
200
0
62
A
NAVIGATION
CARGO
OPERATIONS
ENGINEER, M&R
ELECTRIC
GEN. OPER. CERTF.
ENGLISH
PERS. SURVIVAL
FIRE PREVENT
FIRST AID
PERS. SAFETY /SOC.
MEDICAL CARE
TOTAL STCW
540
236
103
406
73
33
68
18
25
27
16
0
1459
A'dam
C+D
293
76
269
27
23
10
14
12
A
300
200
180
300
300
40
40
20
50
50
0
0
724 1360
Terschell
C+D
160
50
50
110
50
15
10
10
10
A
560
240
550
770
720
100
80
25
25
10
80
0
435 3160
C+D
Eemsmond
A
B+C
40
10
450
450
250
30 1100
1300
280
80
120
120
30
150
410
610
160
France
A
370
129
227
677
764
72
406
15
60
56
24
75
80 4030 1480 2645
63
Hamburg
C+D
106
75
7
361
334
36
A
432
108
135
621
432
54
108
C+D
54
30
30
Warnemünde
A
330
260
590
740
345
80
170
40
40
54
160
50
80
919 1890
114 2565
30
C+D
60
40
260
170
155
50
Rotterdam
A
420
170
415
920
280
80
120
40
C+D
40
20
30
160
40
20
10
40
40
40
10
735 2565
320
30
Stand.
dev.
Flushing
Average
TABLE 3 - DUAL PURPOSE UNLIMITED CERTF.
422
192
314
633
416
66
142
33
25
25
43
10
99
58
202
215
248
24
124
11
21
33
20
Graph 8 - Terschelling / Dual Purpose
800
600
400
200
0
Graph 9 - Eemsmond / Dual Purpose
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
800
Graph 10 - France / Dual Purpose
600
400
200
0
METHAR, WP 1.2, Questionnaire
64
METHAR
QUESTIONNAIRE
Shipping and Transport College , Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
(Prepared by Ton van Essen and Sjoerd Groenhuis )
March 1997
65
Work package 1.2
Completed by:
Institution
Address
Country
Contact person
Date
To enable comparison of hours spent on course subjects, STCW'95 function descriptions have been
listed. Please make estimate as accurate as possible. Please state situation as per 1 January 1997.
MET for ships over 3000 GT and/or 3000 kW, unlimited trade area only.
Type of MET:
Deck officer
Marine engineer
Dual purpose
Column
A.
All contact hours in 60 minutes units, including classroom hours, hours on simulators
(including briefing and debriefing), workshop and laboratory hours under guidance of
professor/lecturer/teacher/instructor. Excluding training vessel hours.
B
All student/pupil/course participant workload hours, in 60 minutes units, including hours
under A, and including assignments, homework, thesis preparations and writing and all other
activities including training vessel hours.
C
Hours (60 min) on simulators including briefing and debriefing sessions.
D
Hours (60 min) in workshops and laboratories.
If it is not possible to list hours separately for operational and management levels please list
total number of hours per function only.
Table
Function
A
B
C
All
work- simuhours
load
lator
Deck Officer up to and including master on ships over 3000 GT, unlimited trade
A-II/1
Navigation at the operational level
A-II/2
Navigation at the management level
Total NAVIGATION
66
D
workshop
A-II/1
Cargo handling and stowage at the operational level
A-II/2
Cargo handling and stowage at the management level
Total CARGO HANDLING
A-II/1
A-II/2
Controlling the operation of the ship and care for
persons on board at the operational level
persons on board at the management level
Total OPERATION OF THE SHIP
A-IV/2 Radiocommunications at the operational level
(General Operator Certificate)
National language
Mathematics
Physics
Chemistry
Total of all other (general) subjects not specified in this
list
Total of education and training for master
English language (please list separately, is included in
STCW'95 functions)
"Special" courses. Please indicate if these are included in the functions above for all students.
Oil tanker familiarization
included
not included
(Advanced) oil tanker training programme
included
not included
(Advanced) chemical tanker training programme
included
not included
(Advanced) liquefied gas tanker training programme
included
not included
A-VI/11
A-VI/12
A-VI/13
A-VI/14
A-VI/42
Personal survival techniques
included
not included
Fire prevention and fire fighting
included
not included
Elementary first aid
included
not included
Personal safety and social responsibilities
included
not included
In charge of medical care on board ship
included
not included
Please mail or fax to:
Ton van Essen
Shipping and Transport College
Soerweg 31
3088 GR Rotterdam. The Netherlands
Tel: +31-10-4298177
Fax: +31-10-4951508
67
Table
Function
A
B
C
D
All
work- simu- workhours
load
lator
shop
Marine Engineer up to and including chief engineer on ships over 3000 kW, unlimited trade
A-III/1
Marine engineering at the operational level
A-III/2
Marine engineering at the management level
Total MARINE ENGINEERING
A-III/1
Maintenance and repair at the operational level
A-III/2
Maintenance and repair at the management level
Total MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR
A-III/1
A-III/2
A-III/1
A-III/2
Electrical, electronic and control engineering at the
operational level
management level
Total ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
National language
Mathematics
Physics
Chemistry
list
Total of education and training for chief engineer
STCW'95 functions)
included
not included
included
not included
included
not included
included
not included
included
not included
68
A-VI/11
A-VI/12
A-VI/13
A-VI/14
A-VI/42
Personal survival techniques
included
not included
Fire prevention and fire fighting
included
not included
Elementary first aid
included
not included
Personal safety and social responsibilities
included
not included
In charge of medical care on board ship
included
not included
Ton van Essen
Soerweg 31
3088 GR Rotterdam
The Netherlands
Tel: +31-10-4298177
Fax: +31-10-4951508
69
Table
Function
A
B
C
D
All
workl- simu- workhours
oad
lator
shop
Dual Purpose Officer up to and including command positions on ships over 3000 GT and/or 3000
kW, unlimited trade
A-II/1 Navigation at the operational level
A-II/2
Navigation at the management level
Total NAVIGATION
A-II/1
Cargo handling and stowage at the operational level
A-II/2
Cargo handling and stowage at the management level
Total CARGO HANDLING
A-II/1
A-II/2
A-III/1
Marine engineering at the operational level
A-III/2
Marine engineering at the management level
Total MARINE ENGINEERING
A-III/1
Maintenance and repair at the operational level
A-III/2
Maintenance and repair at the management level
Total MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR
A-III/1
A-III/2
operational level
management level
Total ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
National language
Mathematics
Physics
Chemistry
list
Total of education and training for command position
STCW'95 functions)
70
included
not included
included
not included
included
not included
included
not included
A-VI/1- Personal survival techniques
1
included
not included
A-VI/1- Fire prevention and fire fighting
2
included
not included
A-VI/1- Elementary first aid
3
included
not included
A-VI/1- Personal safety and social responsibilities
4
included
not included
A-VI/4- In charge of medical care on board ship
2
included
not included
Ton van Essen
Soerweg 31
3088 GR Rotterdam
The Netherlands
Tel: +31-10-4298177
Fax: +31-10-4951508
71
Task 43 Harmonisation of European MET Schemes
METHAR
WP 1.4 Survey of nationally available advanced MET facilities
REPORT
(Prepared by Peter Muirhead)
September 1997
72
Work package 1.4
Survey of nationally available advanced MET facilities
Table of contents
Page
1
Introduction
74
2
Methodology
74
3
Simulation facilities in MET
74
4
Computing Facilities in MET
75
5
Workshops and Laboratories
75
6
Instructional Media
76
7
Report summary and conclusions
76
Attachments
77
Table 1: Summary of responses from European MET
Institutions
78
Figure 1: Marine Simulation facilities held by European MET
Institutions
79
Figure 2: Computing facilities held by European MET
Institutions
80
Figure 3: Workshops and Laboratories held and in use by
European MET Institutions
81
Figure 4: Instructional Media facilities held and used by
European MET Institutions
82
Questionnaire
83
73
1
Introduction
The objective of this work package is to provide an overview of the extent to which modern
technology and instructional media is in place and being used within European maritime
education and training institutions. The likelihood of success in attempting to utilise new
technology across Europe in a harmonised manner is very much dependent on the broad
spread and acceptability of new teaching and training equipment and methodologies. The
report not only provides a picture of overall equipment penetration but attempts to show how
the equipment is being used for training and or assessment to meet the requirements of
STCW 95.
2
Methodology
The author identified and targeted 56 maritime training institutions in the 15 member states
of the European Union ( excluding Austria and Luxembourg) plus Norway and Iceland. A
questionnaire (as attached) was developed for circulation to the directors of the institutions.
Responses were received from 36 of the 56 institutions, a return rate of 64.3%, a sample of
sufficient size from which to extrapolate a number of conclusions. The only country not
responding to the survey was Sweden.
The questionnaire sought information on the equipment held by MET institutions, together
with an indication of whether it was being used for STCW competency purposes of training
and assessment. In this regard three areas were explored namely marine simulation facilities,
computing resources and practical workshops and laboratories. In addition, information was
gathered on the extent to which teaching and instructional media was available within
institutions.
The results were then analysed and placed into a summary format in Table 1 in the
attachments, supported by figures 1-4 which provide a graphical picture of equipment
penetration. The report comments on each area under survey and draws a number of
conclusions.
3
Simulation facilities in MET
Radar and ARPA simulators are held by 97% of respondents and have a high degree of usage
for training (91%) and assessment (73%). They are thus well placed to handle the now
compulsory training requirements of STCW 95 in this area. Navigation simulators which
generally cover instrumentation such as GPS, Decca, Loran-C, Gyro compass etc. are
available in 83% of respondents. This does not necessarily imply a shortage in an institution
as most modern radar/ARPA simulators come equipped with much of this equipment. Both
these areas have been covered by simulation means for many years.
Simulators for shiphandling training are less readily available (58%) but it is an area of
growth as less costly equipment has come on the market. Whilst they have a high usage for
training, assessment of shiphandling skills is a somewhat newer and more difficult area of
activity.
Perhaps more surprising in the survey is the lack of engineroom, cargohandling and GMDSS
simulators in many institutions. With GMDSS becoming compulsory for all ships in 1999, a
considerable backlog of training exists and there appears to be room for further installations
74
in EU institutions where one third do not possess such equipment. Note the high levels of
usage of GMDSS for training (100%) and assessment (82%). Engine room simulation
training is not compulsory (only 39% of institutions so equipped), growth in this area being
inhibited in the past by the cost of such facilities and by the fact that many centres use
machinery space workshops for such experience. With the trend to computerisation of many
practical operations in the cargo handling field, the rather low use of simulation in this topic
area (47%) can be expected to grow.
Very few centres have access to automation, Inert Gas or refrigeration simulation facilities.
No centre possesses an oil spill simulation trainer.
Overall, amongst users, simulation equipment is used to a high degree in meeting training
needs under STCW. There is less confidence in using such facilities to assess candidates for
certificates of competency to meet STCW requirements.
4
Computing Facilities in MET
It is interesting to note that two thirds of all institutions surveyed are well supported with
computing equipment and resources. Thus the use of Personal Computers (PCs) for computer
assisted learning (CAL) and computer based training (CBT) within networked systems,
supported by the Internet and Email services is quite widespread in Europe. The use of such
facilities for training is however less marked at this stage than the associated simulation
facilities, and a reluctance to use the medium for assessment is understandable in view of the
uncertainty and inexperience in using computers to assess knowledge and skills. CD-ROM
facilities however have a high level of penetration (89%) and a marked use in training (63%).
Interactive video is only just starting to make an appearance. CAD-CAM applications mostly
relate to marine engineering and naval architecture, although its use for training is
surprisingly low. A lack of good training software in many practical areas of ship operations
is currently inhibiting further use of the medium, but much research activity is currently
underway to overcome this problem.
5
Workshops and Laboratories
Marine engineering training is well supported by electrical and electronic and diesel engine
labs in more than 75 % of centres. Some two thirds have access to fitting and turning and
welding and cutting equipment labs. In all cases the range of use for training (82-95%) and
for assessment (56-60%) is fairly consistent. Some of this work may be carried out by others
on training vessels where held. Most respondents have access to a navigation aids laboratory
which is used both for training (82%) and assessment (61%). Strangely, fewer than 1 in 5
have a dedicated cargo handling laboratory, yet confidence in its use for both training and
assessment (85%) is at its greatest.
Only 39% of institutions today operate training vessels and the trend is downwards, mostly
because of high operating and maintenance costs and the problem of raising capital for
replacements from Governments intent on hauling in public expenditure.
Nearly 55% of respondents have language labs, reflecting the increasing demand for
knowledge of maritime English both in the workplace and by new changes brought about by
STCW 95. Many centres are well placed to support the growing demands of the latter. A
high degree of usage for training and assessment is noticeable here.
75
Less than one third of centres have their own fire, survival and boat launching facilities on
campus and it may be that effective practical training is being limited by the use of nondedicated and non-specialised facilities externally.
6
Instructional Media
Technically, the institutions are well equipped with modern teaching and instructional media.
The overhead projector and whiteboard/blackboard is still the most popular method of
delivery in the classroom. The high level of availability of video projection and of CD-ROM
facilities (section 3 refers) is leading to a corresponding decline in 16mm film usage in
particular and to 35mm slide projection in general. Although PC based systems for teaching
are growing rapidly, the figure of 72% for the availability of PC projection is interesting in
view of the response in section 3. It is also surprising that Internet/Email sources are used for
teaching to the degree stated although the influence of the 'cyber university' syndrome has yet
to markedly influence teaching methodologies yet in the maritime sphere.
7
Report Summary and Conclusions
The European maritime MET community is well equipped to meet new statutory radar and
ARPA training needs contained in the revised STCW 78 Convention. There appear to be
gaps in the capability of European MET Institutions to meet the demands of GMDSS
training. For broader uniformity in the use of simulation equipment for training and
assessment, additional installations may be required in the area of shiphandling, engineroom
and cargo handling simulation if the full potential of this medium is to be realised. It is
surprising, in view of the European and International concern with the marine environment,
that no institution possesses an oil spill simulator or trainer. There appears to be a need to
further investigate the use of simulation to assess seafarers for competence, as encouraged
under the recently adopted STCW 95 Convention.
The use of computers in MET has achieved a reasonable level of penetration of
approximately 67% of institutions, but more investment is required to achieve 100%
capability. Increasing access to Internet and Email services is changing many traditional
attitudes and approaches to teaching and learning. Increased use of interactive video training,
CD-ROM and on-line data sources will influence the direction of MET in future. Growth in
activity is limited by a lack of suitable and effective software in many operational areas at
present. The use of computing systems for training can be expected to grow as more
institutions equip up. The use of computers for assessment of skills is little used and much
thought will need to be given to this aspect in the next decade.
Whilst a good spread of facilities in traditional workshop and laboratory areas (marine
engineering workshops, navigation aids) are generally available, the level of dedicated and
specialised firefighting, survival and craft launching facilities seems rather low. Cargo
handling workshops in particular do not seem to have attracted the support or importance
they deserve. Language laboratories are quite common (55%) and demand for their use can
be expected to increase as the effects of STCW changes regarding crew training impact on
MET institutions. Fewer institutions rely, it seems, on training vessels these days, the
modern marine simulator taking over much of this role.
Most institutions are well equipped with modern instructional media and continued growth in
interactive video and PC projection methods is predicted. The opportunities for the use of
distance learning methods and video links to students external to the institutions will be
enhanced by the further growth in use of computer and information technology.
76
METHAR
ATTACHMENTS
June 1997
77
Work package 1.4
Survey of nationally available advanced MET Facilities
USE OF ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY IN EUROPEAN MET INSTITUTIONS
Table 1. Summary of responses received from 36 of 56 Institutions ( 64.3%) respresenting 14 of 15 countries (93%) *
Computing facilities
Simulation facilities
Facility
Training
% of respondents
holding such equipment
Facility
Assessment
Extent (%) to which the
equipment is used for:
%
Training
Assessment
Radar / ARPA
97
91
73
Navigation
83
86
Shiphandling
58
Engine room
Training
% of respondents
Workshops and laboratories
Facility
Assessment
%
Training
Assessment
PC’s for CAL
67
67
34
55
PC’s for CBT
58
76
81
50
Network PC’s
64
39
93
54
Internet /
WWW
Cargo
handling
42
93
40
GMDSS
64
100
Electronic
switchboard
61
Fishing
17
Oil spill
NIL
Assessment
Instructional media
for teaching
% of respondents
Training
% of respondents
%
Training
Assessment
Elect. /
electronic
75
85
59
Overhead
projection
89
28
Diesel engine
75
93
59
Video
projection
89
74
36
Steam boiler
55
95
60
35 mm slide
67
55
50
10
Fitting / turning
64
82
56
16 mm film
44
Email
55
45
15
Welding /
cutting
64
82
56
Whiteboard
80
82
CAD / CAM
41
46
27
Training vessel
39
93
43
Blackboard
83
73
28
CD-ROM
89
63
26
Navigation aids
92
82
61
PC projection
72
83
50
Interactive
Video
19
71
33
Cargo handling
19
85
85
Internet / Email
41
Language
55
100
80
Automation
3
100
100
Fire fighting
33
83
58
I.G. gas
14
80
40
Survival pool
39
78
64
Refrigeration
6
100
100
Boat platform
28
70
50
* reply not received from Sweden
%
Compiled PM / WMU 23-06-97
78
Figura 1. Marine Simulation facilities held by European MET Institutions
Automation
Refrigeration
Inert gas
Fishing
Elec.Swtichboard
GMDSS
Cargo Handling
Machinery Space
Shiphandling
Navigation
Radar/ARPA
0
10
20
30
40
50
79
60
70
80
90
100
Figure 2. Computing Facilities held by European MET Institutions
Interactive video
CD-ROM
CAD/CAM
Email
Internet/WWW
Network PC's
PC for CBT
PC for CAL
0
10
20
30
40
50
80
60
70
80
90
Figure 3. Workshops and Laboratories held and in use by European MET Institutions
Boat Platform
Survival Pool
Fire fighting
Language
Cargo Handling
Navigation aids
Training vessel
Welding/cutting
Fitting & turning
Steam Boiler
Diesel Engine
Electrical/Electronic
0
10
20
30
40
50
81
60
70
80
90
100
Figura 4. Instructional media facilities held and used by European MET Institutions
Internet-Email
PC projection
Blackboard
Whiteboard
16mm film
35mm slide projection
Video projection
Overhead projection
0
10
20
30
40
50
82
60
70
80
90
METHAR
QUESTIONNAIRE
November 1996
83
EU RESEARCH PROJECT 43-METHAR: HARMONISATION OF EUROPEAN MET
USE OF ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY IN EUROPEAN MET INSTITUTIONS
Institution and Address:
Date
Facility
% of respondents
EU43WP1.4
Form 1
Training
Computing facilities
Training
Facility
Assessment
Training
% of respondents
Assessment
Workshops and laboratories
Assessment
Training
Facility
% of respondents
Assessment
Assessment
Instructional media
for teaching
% of respondents
Training
Training
Assessment
Radar / ARPA
PC’s for CAL
Elect. /
electronic
Overhead
projection
Navigation
PC’s for CBT
Diesel engine
Video
projection
Shiphandling
Network PC’s
Steam boiler
35 mm slide
Engine room
Internet /
WWW
Fitting / turning
16 mm film
Cargo
handling
Email
Welding /
cutting
Whiteboard
GMDSS
CAD / CAM
Training vessel
Blackboard
Electronic
switchboard
CD-ROM
Navigation aids
PC projection
Fishing
Interactive
Video
Cargo handling
Internet / Email
Other (state)
Other (state)
Language
Other (state)
Fire fighting
Survival pool
Boat platform
Please post, Email or Fax to: Professor Peter Muirhead, World Maritime University
PO Box 500, S 201-24 Malmö, Sweden. Fax: +46 40 128442, Email: [email protected]
84
METHAR
WP 1.5 Survey of qualifications and careers of lecturers in national MET institutions
REPORT
(Prepared by Günther Zade)
September 1997
85
Work package 1.5
Survey of qualifications and careers of lecturers
in national MET institutions
Table of contents
Page
1
Introduction
87
2
Lecturers and type of MET institutions
87
3
Lecturers and other staff at MET institutions, lecture and
work hours
88
4
Who decides on the number of lecturers at an MET institution
and on the basis of which criteria?
89
5
Qualifications of lecturers
89
6
Training and updating of lecturers
89
7
Employment conditions of lecturers
90
8
Part-time lecturers and part-time students
90
9
Suggestions for improvements made by academic staff of MET
institutions participating in the survey
91
Attachments
92
• Certificate of Competency and degree courses offered in 1996
• Number and composition of full-time staff, obligatory number of
teaching/work hours of full-time staff in 1996
• Decision and criteria for decision on number of full-time lecturers
• Qualification of full-time lecturers
• Training and updating of lecturers
• Employment conditions for lecturers
• Number of part-time students and part-time lecturers in 1996
• Subjects which are completely or partially taught by full-time or
part-time lecturers without certificate of competency
Questionnaire
93
94
95
96
98
99
101
102
103
86
1
Introduction
This work package provides information on lectures at MET institutions and the environment
in which they work.
It contains information on the number of lecturers and other staff at MET institutions, the
qualification of lecturers, their training and updating and their employment conditions. This
work package also contains information on who decides on the number of lectures at an MET
institution on the basis of which criteria and other information that may be relevant when
evaluating the maritime lecturer situation in the participating countries.
2
Lecturers and type of MET institutions
There are three types of MET institutions at which maritime lecturers are employed. They
are defined under 1, 2 and 3.
2.1
MET institutions which offer courses leading to unlimited and limited certificates of
competency.
Such institutions exist in most countries. Normally, lecturers at these institutions have about
the same qualifications and teach both students in courses for unlimited and limited
certificates. Occasionally exists some, mostly organizational division in such institutions as,
for example, into a department for courses leading to unlimited certificates and a department
for courses leading to limited certificates, and a principal of each department.
2.2
MET institutions which offer only courses leading to unlimited certificates of
competency. Such institutions exist only in some countries. In one of those, only such
courses are offered.
2.3
MET institutions which offer only courses leading to limited certificates of
competency. Such institutions exist in only in some countries, in some the countries under 2
and in one country under 1.
Lecturers at MET institutions which only offer courses leading to limited certificates can
have lower qualifications than lecturers at institutions which only offer courses leading to
unlimited certificates. They are normally also paid lower salaries.
2.4
In most countries, courses leading to unlimited certificates of competency are offered
which are monovalent, i.e. either for deck or engine officers. In a few countries, courses
leading to unlimited certificates are offered which are bivalent, i.e. for deck-engine or dualpurpose officers.
In one country, courses for bivalent, as well as monovalent, officers are offered, although at
different MET institutions. Lecturers with unlimited certificates of competency at
institutions where courses leading to dual-purpose certificates are offered, have, with the
partial exception of one country, a monovalent certificate.
2.5
In about half of the countries, academic degrees are offered together with courses
leading to unlimited certificates of competency. In most of these countries, the academic
degree is equivalent to a BSc, in one country it is equivalent to an MSc (see also 13.
87
Academic Degrees in report on work package 1.1/1.3). Most lecturers at these institutions
are the same who taught at the institutions before the latter were entitled to prepare students
also for the award of an academic degree. There is a tendency, however, to require newly
recruited lecturers to meet higher academic standards than their predecessors.
In one country, graduates can, after the BSc equivalent, obtain the national equivalent to an
MSc and PhD at the same institution. MET graduates of the other countries have to change
the institution if they want to obtain a higher academic degree.
3
Lecturers and other staff at MET institutions, lecture and work hours
3.1
The ratios of lecturers : academic management staff, lecturers : administrative staff
and lecturers : other staff vary between
21 : 1 and 4 : 1
16 : 1 and 2 : 1
19 : 1 and 1.5 : 1
for lecturers : academic management staff
for lecturers : administrative staff
for lecturers : other staff
The lecturer : academic management staff ratio has to be viewed with some caution as some
replies included lecturers, who were given management responsibility although they partly
continue as lecturers, under academic management staff who are supposed to be persons
qualified as maritime lecturers who work full-time in academic management.
Ireland has a ratio 30 : 1 for lecturers : administrative staff but also partly uses administration
staff for the entire college for the maritime department whose contribution is difficult to
quantify.
3.2
The ratio lecturers : all other staff varies between 5 : 1 and 1 : 1, i.e. in the majority of
countries lecturers are the largest group of the entire staff.
3.3
The average age of lecturers is 47, the average varies between 41 and 55. In 3
countries, the average age of lecturers is higher than 50. The youngest lecturers are 25, the
oldest lecturer is 69.
3.4
70.
The maximum age of employment for tenure is 45, the maximum retirement age is
3.5
The obligatory number of lecture hours per week varies between 6 - 12 times 45
minutes and 28 times 60 minutes; the number of teaching weeks between 27 and 40-48.
Taking both factors into account, lecturers in Portugal have to give the smallest number of
lectures, lecturers in Netherlands have to give the highest number of lectures.
3.6
Work hours for other staff per week vary less than the figures for lecture hours. They
vary between 36 and 40 times 60 minutes.
88
4
Who decides on the number of lectures at an MET institution and on the basis of
which criteria?
4.1
In 3 of 15 countries is the maritime administration involved in the decision on the
number of lecturers for an MET institution, in 7 countries is it an educational authority; in 1
country both the maritime administration and an educational authority decide on the number
of lecturers of an MET institution. In 2 countries another authority decides, in 2 countries the
decision seems to be left to the MET institution. In 9 countries of 15, the MET institution is
officially involved in the decision on the number of lecturers.
4.2
In 13 of 15 countries, the number of lecturers of an MET institution is decided on the
basis of the overall number of lectures to be given or the number of lectures to be given in
certain subjects. In 8 of these countries, the number of students is also taken into account,
although an official staff : student ratio appears to exist only in 4 countries. In 1 country, the
number of lecturers is decided on the basis of the number of students only. One country did
not reply to the question on the criteria for the decision on the number of lecturers.
5
Qualifications of lecturers
5.1
The majority of lecturers in 12 of 15 countries holds unlimited monovalent deck or
engine certificates of competency, only in one country could lecturers with bivalent
certificates of competency already have be employed. Many seafarers among these lecturers
have also obtained academic degrees.
5.2
In 3 of the 12 countries under 14, the ex-seafarers, who obtained also academic
degrees represent more than 50% of the teaching faculty. In these 3 countries, MET
institutions also offer academic degrees to students attending courses leading to unlimited
certificates of competency.
5.3
In the remaining 3 countries, non-seafarers with academic degrees outnumber exseafarers among the lecturers. In 1 of these countries, the MET institutions offers academic
degrees to students attending courses leading to unlimited certificates of competency.
5.4
The main qualification requirements are laid down in official regulations in 13 of 15
countries. In the remaining countries, these requirements are laid down in internal
regulations and can, in addition, be influenced by a case by case internal consent.
6
6.1
In 4 of 15 countries exists a formalized induction programme for lecturers who are
new in an MET institution although it exists in 1 country of the 4 only at 1 of 5 institutions
which completed the questionnaire. One country used to have course extending over a few
years leading to an MSc degree that was attended by new lecturers during weekends. This
programme is now under revision. Another country offers new lecturers a longer upgrading
programme. The shorter programmes are free for the lecturer, to the longer programme, he
has to make an own financial contribution.
6.2
In the remaining 9 countries, no formalized induction programme exists, although a
sort of mentor approach - a senior colleague introducing a newcomer - appears to be used,
factually, although not formally.
89
6.3
Upgrading for lecturers is offered in irregular intervals when an opportunity arises. It
seems to be up to the lecturer whether he takes advantage of such opportunity. Only two
countries provide sabbaticals after a certain period of service: one country provides 3 months
sabbatical after 3 years service and the other country provides 1 year sabbatical after 7 years
of service.
6.4
No country seems to have a formalized updating scheme after a lecturer has
completed the induction training or the initial updating or upgrading.
7
Employment condition of lecturers
7.1
In all countries, lecturers can obtain tenure after a probationary period that varies
from country to country between 6 months and 2 years. In 7 of the 10 countries which replied
to this question, lecturers can be employed on time contracts.
7.2
Different grades of lecturers exist in most countries, promotion from one grade to the
next is mainly dependent on performance but also seniority is taken into account as well as
the availability of a vacancy. In a few countries, each grade is allocated a percentage of the
entire teaching faculty.
7.3
Performance for promotion is in only two countries assessed by the director of the
MET institution. In most countries, a group of persons assesses performance for promotion.
Such group consists, in some countries, of senior colleagues. In other countries, it consists of
external members, mostly from the supervising authority/ies.
7.4
The salary of maritime lecturers is in most countries equivalent to that of a lecturer in
a non-maritime polytechnic and often also to the salary of a chief mate/chief engineer. One
country gives its lecturers the salary of university professors; at the other end, one country
gives its lecturers the salary of high school teachers. Obviously, this is in line with the level
of the MET institution in the national education system.
8
Part-time lecturers and part-time students
8.1
MET institutions in all 15 countries use part-time lecturers for teaching mostly
subjects which, in their opinion, do not require seafaring experience.
8.2
MET institutions in a majority of countries have part-time students in addition to fulltime students. In a minority of countries, no courses or parts of courses for part-time students
are offered.
90
9
Suggestions for improvements made by academic staff of MET institutions
participating in the survey
9.1
Suggestions for improvement were made in two categories, on improving
qualifications and on improving employment conditions.
Improving qualifications
9.2
Lecturers should regularly return to sea.
9.3
All lecturers in an MET institution should also have an academic degree, at least a
Bachelor degree.
9.4
Lecturers should have an unlimited certificate of competency, seafaring experience
and sound academic qualifications.
9.5
Lecturers should be given regular opportunities for updating through practice at sea or
in the shore-based industry and through involvement in research.
9.6
Lecturers should be enabled to attend updating course regularly.
9.7
MET institutions should be able to recruit a sufficient number of lecturers so that
attendance at updating programmes for at least some lecturers becomes feasible.
9.8
Lecturers at an MET institution of a polytechnic or another institution with other
departments should co-operate with lecturers in other departments where a relevance to
maritime programmes exists.
9.9
International co-operation among lecturers should be promoted, including exchange
programmes (also for students).
9.10 Collaboration between European MET institutions should also comprise collaboration
in research.
9.11 A European institution for maritime lecturers should be established where updating
and upgrading courses should be offered centrally.
Employment conditions
9.12 Employment conditions should be improved in order to facilitate attraction of
qualified persons as lecturers.
9.13
Salaries of present lecturers should be increased; suggestion from only two countries.
91
METHAR
ATTACHMENTS
September 1997
92
Certificate of Competency and degree courses offered in 1996
The request to provide information was limited to MET institutes which offer courses leading to unlimited certificates (1). If they also offer leading to courses
for limited certificates then those have been included.
BE
DK
FI
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
Deck officer/master
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
Engine officer/chief engineer
x
x
x
-
x
X
x
Dual-purpose
-
-
x
x (4)
-
Academic degree (BSc or equivalent)
x
-
x (3)
x
-
NL
NO
PT
ES
SE
GB
Remarks
x
x
x
x
x
x
(2) see
below
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
-
-
x
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
x
x
x
x (6)
-
-
Unlimited Cert. of Competency courses
(3) MSc equ.
-
Limited Cert. of Competency courses
NA
NA
NA = not
applicable
Deck officer/master
-
x
x
-
x
Engine officer/chief engineer
-
x
x
-
x
Dual-purpose
-
-
-
x
-
Radio officers
-
-
-
-
-
Number of national MET institutes (1)
1
11
5
4
7
9
3
1
34
9 (5)
22
1
7
2
6
Number of replies
1
2 (2)
2
3
6
6
2
1
17
3
11
1
4
2
5
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
(4) 3
institutes
x
x
x
(5) see
below
(6) also MSc
equ. and
PhD
-
Remarks: (2) Plus reply from Danish Maritime Authority on maritime lecturers in national MET. (5) The number of Dutch MET institutes for unlimited certificates was
raised from 4 to 9 after this survey was completed.
93
Number and composition of of full-time staff, obligatory number of teaching/work hours of full-time staff in 1996
BE
DK
FI
FR
Number of lecturers
32
160
12
Average age
45
46
45
Youngest
38
25
Oldest
62
69
Number of academic management staff who
would qualify as full-time lecturers
2
Number of administration staff
6
Number of other staff, if any
8
)
)
) 40
)
)
)
Number of obligatory teaching hours per
week for lecturers (1)
>10
*
(3)
Number of teaching weeks per year
GR
IS
IE
IT
NL
NO
PT
ES
SE
GB
Remarks
60
DE
(4)
62
101
29
11
531
75
211
53
35
208
(1) see
below
47
55
45
52
52
44
47
50
41
48
46
26
38
25
45
40
25
32
26
25
30
35
51
59
64
65
65
59
69
62
69
65
161
(7)
45
(7)
25
(7)
28
(7)
64
62
2
61
15
63
7
5
8
32
2
4
10
Number of obligatory work hours per week
for administration staff (2)
38
8
16
8
23
8-12
(8)
6-16
32
30
32
26
13
38
3
1/3
126
11.5
32
3
1
15
43
51
2
2
135
7
27
56
18 *
40
36
30
37
3737.5
39
37
3737.5
39
38
52
(7)
2
(7)
2
30
for academic management staff (2)
(3) 30 h
availability
(4) for 5 of
institutes
1820
20
(2) 60-min
“hours”
18
3638
3640
3640
16
2832
35
18
6-12
38
35
37
39
38
37.5
35
37
39
16
27
36
32
40
40
35
36
40
35
36
for other staff, if any (2)
(6) see
below
4-10
(6)
1822
32
38
37.5
28*
26
(5)
35
(5) 40 min
2224
4048
3637.5
(7) for 3 of
institutes
(8) 55 min
3637.5
39
3637
37.5
38
36
35
40
39
3635
3737
37.5
40
37.5
38
Remarks: (1) Teaching hours have a duration of 45 min or 60 min*, with the exception of Iceland (40 min) and Spain (55 min), (6) 4-10, at colleges where degrees are
offered
94
Decision and criteria for decision on number of full-time lecturers
BE
DK
FI
x
x
x
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
NL
NO
x
x
PT
ES
SE
GB
x
x
x
Remarks
The number of full-time lecturers is decided
by:
MET institution
x
Maritime administration
Educational authority
x
x
Another authority
Criteria for decision on number of full-time
lectures at an MET institution
Number of students
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
(1)
1:25 theory
1:8 practice
x
Full-time teaching staff-student ratio, 1:x
x
x
x
x
1:10
1:18
1:25
1:25
1:8
(1)
x
x
x
x
Overall number of lectures to be given
x
Number of lecturers to be given in certain
subjects
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
(2) 45h/year/
student
yes
yes
N/A
yes
yes
N/A = not
applicable
Availability of finance (if only criterion)
Other criteria
Do the same lecturers teach in courses for
unlimited and limited certificates? If no,
how many teach only in courses for limited
certificates?
N/A
yes
yes
yes
yes
N/A
yes
x
(2)
yes
95
yes
N/A
Qualification of full-time lecturers
(percentage of all full-time lecturers) (1)
BE
DK
FI
FR
DE
GR
(2)
Lecturers with only certificate of
competency
IS
IE
IT
NL
NO
(3)
PT
ES
SE
GB
Remarks
(2) 7
institutes
Unlimited certificate and service as ship
master or chief engineer
C1
15
Unlimited certificate and no service in a
position as above
C2
15
5
29
5
39
35
82
8
47
13
26
23
(3) 6
institutes
60
24
57
6
12
6
12
Limited certificate of competency
C3
17
6
39
2
21
1
Lecturers with academic degrees only
BA/BSc or equivalent
D3
10
MA/MSc or equivalent
D2
50
PhD
D1
10
21
25
41
3
15
6
5
9
35
21
)
)
) 94
)
)
13
14
7
9
2
4
14
11
8
1
1
(1) Only the figures for those MET institutes have been taken into account in this table which provided complete information on the number and qualification of full-time
lecturers.
96
Qualification of full-time lecturers (continued)
(percentage of all full-time lecturers) (1)
BE
DK
FI
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
NL
Lecturers with certificates of competency
and academic degrees
NO
PT
ES
SE
GB
(2)
C1 or C2 and D3
3
6
17
56
12
C1 or C2 and D1
8
18
Others
5
C1 or C2 and D2
10
18
15
Remarks
(2) 6
institutes
20
2
40
60
43
4
20
32
3
4
14
6
35
8
(1) Only the figures of those MET institutes have been taken into account in this table which provided complete information on the number and qualification of full-time lecturers.
BE
DK
FI
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
NL
NO
PT
ES
SE
GB
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
- in internal regulations
x
x
- are a result of a case by case internal
consent
x
x
The main qualification requirements for
lecturers are laid down
- in official regulations
97
Remarks
Does a special training programme for new
lecturers exist?
BE
not
yet
DK
yes
FI
yes
FR
yes
DE
no
GR
no
IS
yes
IE
no
IT
no
NL
yes
(2)
NO
no
PT
no
ES
no
SE
no
(3)
GB
yes
(4)
If yes, it is offered by:
Remarks
(1) 60
credits
(2) under
revision
- “internal” staff?
- “external” staff?
- both “internal” and “external” staff
x
Number of hours of such programme
300
x
x
x
2400
-
40
(3) funds for
individual
updating are
available
(3)
(1)
18
Duration in months
End examination?
30
no
yes
no
x
x
x
no
yes
Provision of updating opportunities
If yes:
- during holidays?
x
- irregularly, when opportunities arise?
x
x
x
x
- during sabbaticals, if any?
x
x
x
if sabbaticals are provided, how many
months of sabbatical after how many years
of service?
6m
after
3y
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
- regularly?
98
12m
after
7y
x
(4) 1
institute,
part-time
Employment conditions for lecturers
Are some lecturers employed on time
contracts?
If yes, average duration of time contract?
BE
yes
DK
yes
FI
yes
FR
DE
no
GR
IS
no
max
5x1y
1y
1y3y
66%
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
1y
1y
1y
1y
6m
2y
1y
no
m.a.
45
45
35
IE
9m
IT
yes
NL
yes
(4)
NO
yes
(5)
6-8
m
PT
ES
SE
no
GB
yes
varies
1y
9-12
m
yes
yes
yes
yes
varies
x
1y
no
m.a.
no
m.a.
Can lecturers obtain tenure?
Duration of probationary period for tenure
employment
Maximum age at which lecturers can be
employed for tenure;
yes
40
yes
yes
yes
1y
1y
1y
no
m.a.
no
m.a.
Remarks
m.a. =
maximum age
(4) newly
emplyed
lecturers
(5) at 2 of 7
institutes
Retirement age
65
Different levels/ categories of lectures
- professor
25%
x
- principal lecturer
x
x
- senior lecturer
x
x
- other
Criteria for promotion of lecturers
- performance
- seniority
- availability of funds (if only criterion)
- availability of vacancy
- other criteria
)
) (1)
)
)
x
x
x
x
SL1
SL2
L1
L2
(3)
x
x (4)
x
x
x
(1) docents +
work-leaders,
assistants
(ò30%)
x
x
x
x
x
15%
junior
x
x
85%
(6) professor
catedratico,
professor
titular
x
x
x (2)
x
x
x
x
70
67
15%
- associate professor
- lecturer
70
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
99
x
x
x
x
(2) lecturers
for practical
subjects
(3) different
levels of
lecturers
Employment conditions for lecturers (continued)
BE
DK
(8)
FI
(8)
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
NL
NO
(8)
PT
ES
SE
GB
(1) see below
Who assesses performance?
Director
x
Head(s) of department
x
Qualified faculty members
x
Remarks
(2) special
commission
x
x
(3) Ministry of
Mercantile
Marine
x
Other
(1)
(2)
(3)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(4) high school
teacher
(9)
(5) Selection
Board
Is the salary of lecturer about equivalent to
the salary of a:
(6) Board of
Governors
- ship master
- chief mate/first engineer
x
x
x
x
(7)
Management
(8) No reply
- university professor
- university lecturer
x
x
- another professor/lecturer in a nonmaritime polytechnic
x
x
x
x
- other equivalency
x
(4)
(1) Inspection Général de l’ Enseignment Maritime
100
x
x
x
x
(9) Academic
Commission
Number of part-time students and part-time lecturers in 1996
BE
Number of part-time students in 1996,
percentage
Number of part-time lecturers in 1996
15
(1)
15
DK
FI
FR
DE
164
130
(2)
1354
48
51
40
GR
IS
IE
205
30
13
6
Remarks:
101
IT
3 (3)
NL
NO
PT
ES
SE
GB
Remarks
56
none
none
870
2124
(1) repeaters
24
51
8
12
30
(2) only at
two institutes
26
Subjects which are completely or partially taught by full-time or part-time lecturers without certificate of competency
BE
DK
FI
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
NL
NO
PT
English
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Mother tongue
x
x
x
x
x
Mathematics
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Physics
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Chemistry
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
Electronics
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Automation
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Computers
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Medicine
x
Law
x
Sea transport economics
x
Statistics
x
Psychology
x
Radio regulations
x
Shipbuilding/naval architecture
x
Administration/management
x
x
x
x
SE
GB
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Meteorology
x
Social science
x
Others
x
ES
x
x
x
x
x
Remarks:
102
x
x
x
x
Remarks
METHAR
QUESTIONNAIRE
November 1996
103
Work package 1.5
Questionnaire on lecturers at MET institutions
___________________________________________________________________
name of institution, city, country
____________________________________
name of person who completed questionnaire
_____________________
position in institution
Certificate of competency and degree courses offered in 1996:
for unlimited certificates of competency
□ deck officer/master
□ engine officer/chief engineer
□ dual-purpose officer
for limited certificates of competency
deck officer/master □
engine officer/chief engineer □
dual-purpose officer □
□ radio officer
Does your institution offer academic degrees?
□ Yes □ No. If yes, please give level (equivalent to BSc,
MSc; PhD) and name of degree(s): _________________________________________________
Number of students in certificate of competency and degree courses in 1996:
Total number of students: ____
no. in courses for unlimited certificates:__
no. in courses for limited certificates: __
no. in courses for deck officer/master __
no. in courses for deck officer/master __
no. in courses for engine officer/chief engineer__
no. in courses for engine off./hief engineer __
no. in courses for dual-purpose officer __
no. in courses for dual-purpose offcer __
no. in courses for radio officer __
Which entry level in general education (GE) is required for studies
in courses for unlimited certificates of competency?
in courses for limited certificates of competency?
□ highest GE (university entry) (12 or 13 years)
□ specialized GE (11 or 12 years)
□ medium level GE (10 or 11 years)
□ primary GE (8 or 9 years)
specialized GE (11 or 12 years) □
medium level GE (10 or 11 years) □
primary GE (8 or 9 years) □
Are there any seafaring requirements which have to be met before entering your institution for certificate of
competency studies?
for unlimited certificates : □ yes/□ no
If yes, give duration in months: ___
for limited certificates:
□ yes/□ no
If yes, give duration in months: ___
Number and composition of full-time staff in 1996:
Total number of full time staff: ___
no. of full-time lecturers: _____ Average age: ____Youngest: _____ Oldest: _____; no. of part-time teaching
or non-teaching academic management staff (who were or could be full-time lecturers): ______; no. of
administration staff: _____; no. of other staff, if any: _____
Work hours/teaching hours
no. of obligatory work hours per week for administration staff _____ and other staff, if any _____.
no. of obligatory teaching hours per week for full-time lectures: _____ ; no. of teaching weeks in 1996: _____
104
Can lecturers be given a reduction of their normally obligatory no. of teaching hours for special tasks? □Yes/No
□. If yes, for which of the following tasks: □ academic management, □ consultancy work, □ research, □ further
studies, □ other special tasks; if the latter, please specify:
__________________________________________________________________________________
Part-time students and part-time lecturers in 1996:
Do you have any students who do not attend a full certificate of competency course but only part of such course
or short refresher and updating courses? □Yes/No □. If yes, give total number of these students in 1996:
______.
Do you employ part-time lecturers? □ □Yes/No □. If yes, give no. of part time lecturers in
1996: _____, and total no. of lectures they have given: _____.
Number and qualification of full-time lecturers
Who decides on the number of lecturers?
□ your institution
□ the maritime administration/maritime division of the Ministry of Transport
□ an educational authority/Ministry of Education
□ another authority; please name it: ____________________________________________________
On the basis of which criterion/criteria is the number of lecturers at your institution decided?
□ number of students; if applicable, give teaching staff : student ratio: 1 :_____
□ overall number of lectures to be given
□ number of lectures to be given in certain subjects
□ finance available
□ other criterion/criteria; name it/them: _________________________________________________
The minimum qualification requirements for lecturers are laid down in
□ official regulations, □ internal regulations or are a result of a case by case internal consent □.
Do the same lecturers teach students in courses for unlimited certificates and in courses for limited certificates?
□ Yes/No □. If no, how many of the total number of lecturers are teaching only students in courses for limited
certificates? ______
Do you have lecturers with the following qualifications in your staff and if yes, how many?
□ unlimited master mariner or chief engineer certificate and service as ship master or chief engineer
in world-wide trade; no. ______
□ unlimited master mariner or chief engineer certificate without service as ship master or chief
engineer; no. ______
□ limited certificate of competency; no. ______
□ unlimited certificate of competency and academic degree: BA/BSc equivalent, no. ______;
MA/MSc equivalent, no. ______; PhD, no.: ______
□ limited certificate of competency and academic degree: BA/BSc equivalent, no. ______; MA/MSc
equivalent, no. ______; PhD, no.: ______
□ academic degree: BA/BSc equivalent, no. _____; MA/MSc equivalent, no. _____; PhD, no.: _____
Which subjects are taught by lecturers without certificate of competency, i.e. by lecturers with “only” academic
degrees?
□ English
□ mathematics □ physics
□ chemistry
□ electronics
□ automation
□ computers
□ others (please specify): _______________________________________________
105
Is there a special training programme for maritime lecturers? □ Yes/No □. If yes, is it offered by internal
(resident) □ or external □ staff or a combination of both □?
Who pays for it? ____________________________________________________________________
How many hours does it comprise? ______ What is the duration in months? ______
Is there an examination at the end of the programme? □ Yes/No □.
Do you provide lectures with opportunities for updating? □ Yes/No □. If yes, during holidays □,
in irregular intervals when opportunities arise □, in regular intervals (sabbaticals) □? If the latter, how many
months sabbatical ______ are granted after how many years of service ______ ?
Are lecturers at your institution employed on time contracts? □ Yes/No □. If yes, for how many months
_______ ? □ Are they employed for lifetime (tenure)? □ Yes/No □. If yes, after a probationary period? □
Yes/No □. If yes, give duration of probationary period in months _______. Is there a maximum age up to
which lecturers can be recruited for tenure? □ Yes/No □. If yes, please give this age. _____
Do you have different levels of lecturers? □ Yes/No □. If yes, please mention the different levels, such as
professor, associate professor, principal lecturer, senior lecturer and lecturer?
__________________________________________________________________________________
Is there a limited percentage/number for each level? □ Yes/No □. If yes, please give maximum
percentage/number for each level. _____________________________________________________
On the basis of which criteria are lecturers promoted to a higher level? □ performance, □seniority
□ availability of funds □ availability of vacancy
□ other criteria, please name them:
__________________________________________________________________________________
If on the basis of performance: who assesses performance? ________________________________
Who decides on promotion? __________________________________________________________
Do lecturers at your institution receive a salary that is about equivalent to:
□ the salary of a ship master?
□ the salary of a chief mate or first engineer?
□ the salary of a university professor?
□ the salary of a university lecturer?
□ the salary of another professor or lecturer in a “non-maritime” polytechnic?
Do you have any suggestions for improving the qualification and employment conditions of maritime lecturers?
Thank you for your co-operation.
Please return to Günther Zade, WMU, Malmö, Sweden, Fax: +46-40-128 442.
106
METHAR
WP 1.6 Survey of national MET administration and links of MET
with national ET system
REPORT
September 1997
107
Work package 1.6
Survey of national MET administration and links of MET
Table of contents
Page
1
Introduction
109
2
Methodology
109
3
Funding of MET Institutions
109
4
Approval of Certificates of Competency Programs and Courses
109
5
Issue of National Education Awards
110
6
Approval of changes to programmes
110
7
Summary
110
Attachments
111
Table 1 Summary of Responses to Questionnaire
112
Figure 1: Body responsible for the funding and oversighting
of MET institutions
113
Figure 2: Recognition and Approval of Certificate of
Competency programs and courses
113
Figure 3: Nationally recognized Educational Awards
113
Figure 4: Issue of Educational Awards in addition to certificate
of competence
114
Figure 5: Approval of changes to certificates of competency
courses
114
Questionnaire
115
108
1
Introduction
The work package seeks to provide an overall picture of how Governments are involved in
the administration and funding of MET Institutions and the manner in which certificate of
competency activities are linked or not to national education systems. Although the project is
unlikely to be able to harmonise the different systems of administration of MET in Europe,
the information here will assist the project team in trying to identify aspects and elements of
the different MET programmes and curricula that lend themselves to a more European wide
common approach.
2
Methodology
The author prepared a short questionnaire (Appendix A refers) which was circulated to the
European MET Institutions used under Work Package 1.4. A response level of 64% was
achieved from the institutions. Breaking these down into National country representation
resulted all 15 countries being covered. The information on Sweden was obtained through
direct sources.
The purpose of the questionnaire was to establish the links that exist between MET
administrations and MET institutions in each country, and in particular to highlight the extent
to which MET education is part of or separate from the national education system.
The results were analysed and placed in summary format in table 1 in the attachments,
supported by figures 1-5. The report summarises the position so found.
3
Funding of MET Institutions
The majority of European maritime education and training institutes (67%) are funded by the
relevant ministry or department of education, although in the case of the Federal Republic of
Germany it is a responsibility of the states ministry of education. The Ministry of Transport
is directly involved in France, Spain and Portugal and the Ministry of Merchant Marine in
Greece. Both in Denmark and Ireland the Marine Authority have this responsibility. In three
cases both education and transport portfolios are involved. The survey indicates the
difficulties faced in producing a harmonised approach to MET systems in Europe when such
diverse structures are in place. This supports an approach to harmonise MET activities within
the institutions themselves using the STCW 95 as the common denominator.
4
Approval of Certificate of Competency programs and courses
The programs and courses offered by MET institutions leading to the issue of certificates of
competency are approved by the relevant Ministry of Transport or Marine in 8 countries (
France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Iceland and Greece) and by the
Ministry of Education in Norway. In both Portugal and Spain the Department of Education
also retains an involvement. In the case of Belgium, Denmark, United Kingdom, Ireland,
Finland and Sweden the various Marine Safety Authorities or Board of Navigation performs
this function. In some countries such as Norway the division of responsibility for educational
and professional recognition and approval of courses may be split between a Ministry of
Education and a Maritime Safety Authority. Any attempts to change programs or the course
curriculum to create a harmonised approach to STCW 95 standards in teaching and training
face considerable communication and logistic difficulties.
109
5
Issue of National Education Awards
Some responses to the question may be somewhat ambiguous as the intention was to identify
where successful completion of a certificate of competency course not only led to the issue of
a marine license but also to the granting of an academic award under the national education
system ( e.g. certificate, diploma or degree). It is not clear whether all respondents grasped
this point.
However it appears that in two thirds of the countries under survey, MET courses leading to
certificates of competency certificates are also recognised within the state education system
through the granting of a separate educational award. The most common awards are either a
certificate and diploma with a degree or degree equivalent being gained at the highest levels
of study (master/chief engineer) in France, Germany, Portugal and Spain.
6
Approval of changes to certificate of competency programs
In all 15 cases a Government Authority is involved in the approval process leading to
alterations in MET certificate of competency programs. In the case of Finland the Institutes
are also directly involved in the process. Nowhere does an MET institution itself have the
authority or charter to change programs and self accredit external to Government control. On
a European wide front this makes the task of agreeing to changes in curriculum and training
methodologies difficult to achieve.
7
Summary
The picture presented is one of centralised management and control of many of the functions
and processes involved in European maritime education and training. Since much of this
activity relates to the training of seafarers against a recognised international safety standard
(STCW) leading to the issue of licences or certificates of competency to serve in approved
capacities onboard ships trading nationally and internationally, this is not surprising.
However, complicating the picture are the diverse systems and approaches taken to MET in
the countries surveyed. In proposing any changes in approach to harmonise curriculum,
teaching methods, use of equipment or assessment processes, the project report will need to
be mindful of the communication difficulties presented by such MET structures if change
leading to more uniform and acceptable MET outcomes in Europe is to be accepted across
borders.
110
METHAR
ATTACHMENTS
September 1997
111
LINKS OF MET TO NATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS
Table 1. Summary of Responses : representing 14 of 15 countries *
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Question
Response
Which government body has responsibility for the funding and oversighting of your MET
institution ?
Who recognises and approves the certificates of competency programs and courses offered by
your institution ?
Do the Certificate of competency programs and courses also lead to the issue of a nationally
recognised education award to the successful student ?
Indicate the type and the level of educational award issued to successful certificate of
competency candidates:
(a)
(b)
Ministry of Education **
Ministry of Transport
10
3
(c)
Maritime Safety Authority
2
(a)
Ministry of Education
1
(b)
Ministry of Transport or Marine
9
(c)
Maritime Authority / Inspectorate
5
Yes
No
5
If yes, please answer question 4.
Title of award
Certificate
2
1. Deck watchkeeper
5.
10
Diploma
Degree
%
4
3
64
50
2. Engine watchkeeper
3. Master mariner
1
3
3
2
3
3
56
4. Chief engineer
1
5
64
5. Dual trained officer
1
3
3
1
Who approves changes to the certificate of competency programs and courses in your country ?
*
Greece did not reply. Information from WMU sources
**
Founding in Federal Germany is a State responsibility
***
No. of responses exceed 15 as more than one body is involved in some countries
112
36
No. of responses ***
(a)
Government Authority
(c)
(d)
Maritime Institution
National Training Board
Compiled by PM / WMU 3-2-97
13
3
4
Figure 1. Body responsible for the funding
and oversighting of MET Institutions
M arine S afety
Authority or Board
14%
M inistry or
Department of
E ducation
72%
M inistry of
T ransport/
M erchant M arine
20%
Figure 2. Recognition and Approval of Certificate of
Competency Programs and Courses
Ministry or
Department of
Education
7%
M arine Authority or
Inspectorate
40%
Ministry of
T ransport or
Marine
53%
Figure 3. Do Cert.of Competency courses also lead to the
issue of a Nationally recognised Educational award?
No
27%
Yes
73%
113
Figure 4: Issue of Educational Award in addition to certificate of competency
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Deck watchkeeper
Engineer Watchkeeper
Master Mariner (unlimited)
Chief Engineer
Dual Trained Officer
Figure 5. Approval of changes to Certificate of Competency courses
(several authorities are involved in some cases)
National Training
Board
12%
MET Institution
6%
Government
Authority
82%
114
METHAR
QUESTIONNAIRE
November 1996
115
EU RESEARCH PROJECT 43-METHAR: HARMONISATION OF EUROPEAN MET
LINKS OF MET TO NATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS
Institution and Adress
No.
1.
Date :
Question
Response
Which government body has responsibility for the funding and oversighting of your MET
institution ?
2.
Who recognises and approves the certificates of competency programs and courses offered by
your institution ?
3.
Do the Certificate of competency programs and courses also lead to the issue of a nationally
recognised education award to the successful student ?
4.
Indicate the type and the level of educational award issued to successful certificate of
competency candidates:
(a)
Ministry of Education **
(b)
Ministry of Transport
(c)
(d)
Maritime Safety Authority
Other (State)
State: __________________________________
Yes
No
If yes, please answer question 4.
Title of award (Tick as appropriate)
Certificate
Diploma
6. Deck watchkeeper
7. Engine watchkeeper
8. Master mariner
9. Chief engineer
10. Dual trained officer
5.
Who approves changes to the certificate of competency programs and courses in your country ?
Please post, Email or Fax to: Professor Peter Muirhead, World Maritime University
PO Box 500, S 201-24 Malmö, Sweden. Fax: +46 40 128442, Email: [email protected]
116
(a)
The MET Institution
(b)
(c)
Government Authority
(d)
Other (state)
National Training Board
Degree
%
METHAR
WP 1.7 Country survey of the applicability of MET for shipboard positions and
shore-based positions in the maritime industry
REPORT
November 1997
117
Work package 1.7
Country survey of the applicability of MET for shipboard positions and
Table of contents
Page
1
Introduction
119
2
Methodology
119
3
119
4
Applicability of MET for shipboard functions
119
4.1
4.2
4.3
119
120
121
5
6
Deck officers
Marine engineers
Dual-purpose officers
Applicability of MET for shore-based functions
120
5.1
5.2
5.3
120
120
121
Deck officers
Marine engineers
Summary
121
Attachments
122
Table 1: Mentioned shore-based functions
Graph 1: Shipboard functions, deck officers
Graph 2: Shipboard functions, marine engineers
Graph 3: Shipboard functions, dual-purpose officers
Graph 4: Shore-based functions, deck officers
Graph 5: Shore-based functions, marine engineers
Graph 6: Shore-based functions, dual-purpose officers
Graph 7: More attention to subjects
Questionnaire
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
118
1
Introduction
The objective of this work package is to provide relevant information regarding the
applicability of the MET for the appropriate shipboard functions in the first place. In the
second place this report also will inform the project team about the applicability of the MET
for various shore-based professions in the maritime industry where the MET graduate has
sufficient knowledge to perform such function. These shore-based bodies are maritime
authorities and inspections, pilotage, MET institutes, shipping companies, classification
societies, ship brokers, port service, crew management, etc.
To attain this objective, a questionnaire was developed (as attached) and sent to as much as
possible European relevant bodies. In order to enlarge the probability of response, the
questionnaire only consisted of more general questions. Apart from an overall opinion about
the applicability, the questionnaire contained questions which subjects require more attention
to improve this applicability.
For more details see the questionnaire.
The total number of forwarded questionnaires was 47 and all of them were returned and used
for the analyses. It was considered that 47 responses were sufficient for the analyses.
2
Methodology
The figures of the returned questionnaires regarding the shore based functions have been
gathered in a table. Where relevant, figures of the questionnaire have been shown in graphs
for a quick interpretation.
The tables and graphs are attached to this report.
3
It is to emphasise that the replies on deck officers, marine engineers and dual- purpose
officers cannot be compared with each other. The figures under each group should be
analysed separately.
The total numbers under several items are restricted. From a statistical point of view in
several cases the differences of the figures of one item compared to another is not large
enough to talk about significant differences.
4
Applicability of MET for shipboard functions
For details see the graphs under Attachments.
4.1
Deck officers.
In general the education programme is considered "satisfactory". However, 5 out of 18
questionnaires indicated "not quite satisfactory" .
Several items require more attention. The results of the questionnaire indicate a slightly
higher demand of attention for practical skills and general management. However, from a
statistical point of view the differences cannot be said to be significant.
119
In general it is difficult to state that certain subjects require more attention than other
subjects.
4.2
Marine engineers
Compared to the figures of the deck officers, the figures for the marine engineers indicate a
relatively higher ratio "not quite satisfactory "/ "satisfactory". On the other hand, two times
the programme for the marine engineers was mentioned as completely satisfactory.
Compared to the figures for the deck officer, the figures for marine engineers indicate a less
equal demand for more attention to each subject. The demand for general subjects
(mathematics, physics, chemistry) is significant lower than for most of the other subjects.
More attention to the general management and crew management and administrative subjects
is mentioned in most of the questionnaires.
4.3
In 2 out of 9 replies the dual-purpose programme is considered "absolutely not satisfactory".
In should be interesting to gather more information regarding the arguments for this
statement.
Relatively more attention to simulator and practical skills is indicated for this group. Again,
from a statistical point of view the differences are not quite significant.
Also for the dual-purpose officer the attention to general subjects appeared to be sufficient.
5
Applicability of MET for shore-based functions
The results of the questionnaire is based on a wide range of shore-based functions. Maritime
authorities, port services, ship companies and pilotage were mentioned the most. See also
Table 1 of Attachments.
5.1
Deck officers
Comparing the "not quite satisfactory"/"satisfactory" ratio of the deck officers with the same
ratio for the marine engineers, it appeared that the deck officer programmes are less
appropriate for the shore-based functions.
As can be expected, the demand for more attention to subjects has been shifted from practical
skills to management and administrative aspects. Nevertheless it should be emphasised that
29 out of 36 questionnaires indicate that practical experience is absolute essential.
5.2
Marine engineers
In general the marine engineer programmes are considered satisfactory for shore-based
functions.
Also for the marine engineers shore-based functions require more attention to management
and administrative subjects compared to the figures for part 5.1. Also English is mentioned
frequently as a subject for more attention.
The technical knowledge appeared to be sufficient for the shore-based functions.
120
5.3
Dual-purpose officer
Compared to the marine engineers, the dual-purpose officer education is considered not quite
satisfactory more frequently. Even two times "absolutely not satisfactory" is mentioned.
For this group English was mentioned significantly more times than other subjects as a
subject requiring more attention. The figures in WP 1.2 indicate, on average, slightly smaller
total lecture hours for this subject compared to the average total hours for the deck officer
and marine engineer programmes.
Also for the dual-purpose officers the administrative subjects should be given more attention
for shore-based functions than required for ship-based functions.
6
Summary
In general, management and administrative subjects require more attention in the MET
courses. More attention to crew management is especially required for the marine engineer
programmes.
For shore-based functions the management and administrative subjects require more
attention. But also the practical experience is considered absolute essential for the mentioned
shore-based functions with direct connection to the marine industry.
The figures of the questionnaires do not indicate significant differences in a demand for more
attention to subjects like mathematics or physics as well as the subjects directly connected to
the maritime professions.
121
METHAR
WP 1.7: Country survey of the applicability of MET for shipboard positions and
ATTACHMENTS
November 1997
122
Work package 1.7
Table 1 - Mentioned shore-based functions
Bodies
Number
Maritime authority
Port services/VTS
Dredging
Pollution control
Cargo surveyors
Insurance
Ship/cargo broking
Legal
Shipping company
P&I
Crew management
MET
Marine equipment
Ports/stevedoring
Towage/salvage
Pilotage
Offshore
Surveyors/inspectors
Classification societies
Ship chartering
Ship builders
Consultants
Ship agents
Ship management
13
12
2
1
9
4
6
3
14
4
10
9
4
8
4
14
3
10
5
6
1
6
6
8
123
Graph 1: Shipboard functions / Deck officers
Administrative aspects
Financial aspects
Crew management
Simulator training
English
Commercial aspects
Legal aspects
General Management
Practical skills
General subjects
Vocational subjects
Absolutely not satisfactory
Not quite satisfactory
satisfactory
completely satisfactory
0
2
4
6
124
8
10
12
Graph 2: Shipboard functions / Marine engineers
Financial aspects
Crew management
Simulator training
English
Commercial aspects
Legal aspects
General Management
Practical skills
General subjects
Vocational subjects
satisfactory
0
2
4
6
125
8
10
12
Graph 3: Shipboard functions / Dual purpose
Financial aspects
Crew management
Simulator training
English
Commercial aspects
Legal aspects
General Management
Practical skills
General subjects
Vocational subjects
satisfactory
0
1
2
3
126
4
5
6
Graph 4: Shore-based functions / Deck officers
Financial aspects
Crew management
Simulator training
English
Commercial aspects
Legal aspects
General Management
Practical skills
General subjects
Vocational subjects
satisfactory
0
5
10
127
15
20
25
Graph 5: Shore-based functions / Marine engineers
Financial aspects
Crew management
Simulator training
English
Commercial aspects
Legal aspects
General Management
Practical skills
General subjects
Vocational subjects
satisfactory
0
2
4
6
128
8
10
12
14
Graph 6: Shore-based functions / Dual purpose
Financial aspects
Crew management
Simulator training
English
Commercial aspects
Legal aspects
General Management
Practical skills
General subjects
Vocational subjects
satisfactory
0
2
4
129
6
8
10
Graph 7: More attention to subjects
Financial aspects
Crew management
English
Commercial aspects
Marine insurance
Legal aspects
General management
0
5
10
130
15
20
25
METHAR
shore-based positions within the maritime industry
QUESTIONNAIRE
March 1997
131
Work package 1.7
shore-based positions within the maritime industry
This questionnaire applies to maritime education and training for merchant marine officers on
ships over 3000 GT and/or 3000 kW in the unlimited trade only.
Completed by:
Institution/Authority/
Company
Address
Country
Contact person
Date
The questionaire is filled out for:
Deck Officer MET
Marine Engineer MET
Dual Purpose Officer MET
Shipboard positions (PART 1)
Shore-based positions (PART 2)
Please return completed questionnaire ( PART,
PART 2) by mail or fax to:
Ton van Essen
Soerweg 31
3088 GR Rotterdam
The Netherlands
Tel: +31-10-4298177
Fax: +31-10-4951508
132
PART 1 Shipboard positions
1.
The current national MET for Deck Officers is
…Completely satisfactory
…Satisfactory
…Not quite satisfactory
…Absolutely not satisfactory
2.
The current national MET for Marine Engineers is
…Satisfactory
3.
The current national MET for Dual Purpose (integrated) Officers is
…Satisfactory
4.
The general level of national MET is:
…To high
…Just right
…To low
5.
Deck Officers MET: The following subjects should be given more attention (more
than one answer possible).
…Typical vocational subjects (navigation, cargo handling, maintenance etc)
…General (academic) subjects (mathematics, physics, chemistry etc)
…Practical skills
…Simulator training
…General management
…Crew management
…Legal aspects
…Financial aspects
…Commercial aspects
…Administrative aspects
…English
…Others (please specify)
..........................................
6.
Marine Engineers MET: The following subjects should be given more attention
(more than one answer possible).
…Practical skills
…Crew management
…Legal aspects
…English
..........................................
133
7.
Dual Purpose Officers MET: The following subjects should be given more attention
…Practical skills
…Crew management
…Legal aspects
…English
..........................................
Thank you for completing PART 1 of this questionnaire.
Please post or fax to:
Ton van Essen
Soerweg 31,
3088 GR Rotterdam,
The Netherlands
Tel: +31-10-4298177,
Fax: +31-10-4951508.
134
PART 2 Shore-based positions
1.
This questionaire is filled out with reference to positions of former merchant marine
officers or MET-graduates in:
…Maritime authority
…Port services, VTS
…Dredging
…Pollution control
…Cargo surveyors
…Insurance
…Ship/cargo broking
…P and I
…Legal
…Marine equipment
…Shipping company
…Crew management
…Maritime Education and training
…Ports/stevedoring/terminals
…Towage/salvage
…Offshore
…Surveyors/inspectors
…Classification
…Banking
…Ship chartering
…Loss adjusters
…Consultants
…Shipbuilders/repair
…Ship management
…Ships agents
…Pilotage
2.
The current national MET for Deck Officers is
…Satisfactory
3.
The current national MET for Marine Engineers is
…Satisfactory
4.
The current national MET for Dual Purpose (integrated) Officers is
…Satisfactory
5.
The general level of national MET is:
…Too high
…Just right
6.
…Too low
Deck Officers MET: The following subjects should be given more attention (more
than one answer possible).
…Practical skills
…Crew management
…Legal aspects
…English
..........................................
135
7.
Marine Engineers MET: The following subjects should be given more attention
…Practical skills
…Crew management
…Legal aspects
…English
..........................................
8.
Dual Purpose Officers MET: The following subjects should be given more attention
…Practical skills
…Crew management
…Legal aspects
…English
..........................................
9.
Referring to the positions marked by you under 1. Next to maritime education and
training experience at sea is
…Absolutely essential
…Advantage
…Not required at all
10.
Referring to the positions marked by you under 1. Next to (standard) maritime
education and training additional training is required in
…Crew management
…Legal aspects
…English
..........................................
Thank you for completing PART 2 of this questionnaire.
136
METHAR
WP 1.8 Survey of national provisions for procedures and methods
by which MET adapts to new requirements
REPORT
January 1998
137
Work package 1.8
Survey of national provisions for procedures and methods
Table of contents
Page
1
Introduction
139
2
Methodology
139
3
Identification of new requirements
139
4
Implementation of new requirements
140
5
Hampering
141
6
Summary
141
Attachments
142
Table 1: Parties to identify and monitor (the implementation
of) new MET requirements
Table 2: Order of importance related to identification
Graph 1: Identification Procedures
Graph 2: Implementation Procedures
Graph 3: Hampering
Questionnaire
143
143
144
144
144
145
138
1
Introduction
The objective of this work package is to collect relevant information on the ways and
procedures through which new requirements for maritime education and training are
identified and implemented.
To attain this objective, a questionnaire was developed and sent to European bodies in
different maritime sectors. In order to enlarge the probability of response, the questionnaire
consisted of the most relevant questions. The questions addressed the identification and the
implementation of new requirements and the reasons hampering required changes.
The following twelve countries have responded by returning the completed questionnaire:
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Italy, Ireland, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal,
Sweden, United Kingdom.
2
Methodology
The figures of the returned questionnaires were gathered in tables in order to compare the
total amounts per subject.
To analyse the figures in an appropriate way from a statistical point of view, only one
response per country has been incorporated. Since the differences in the questionnaires
within a number of countries were minor, the response of the party most involved in the
subject of the questionnaire, have been used for further analysis.
3
Identification of new requirements
In most of the questionnaires, more than one party has been mentioned as identifying new
requirements.
The Maritime Administration appears to be the most important body for the identification.
Next to it, the MET institutes and the national Shipowner Association play an important role
regarding the identification. The Ministry of Education has been mentioned less often,
probably due to the fact that this Ministry in a certain number of countries is not involved in
MET.
IDENTIFYING BODIES
1.
Maritime Adminsitration / Ministry of
Transport
2.a Individual Shipowner
2.b National Ship Owner Association
3. Trade/ Seafarers Union
4. Education Administration/Ministry of
Education
5. MET Institutes
6. National Officers Association
7. Other bodies
degree of importance
12
1st
1
7
3
7
1
1
4
1
5
2b
5
2a
3
6
9
4
2
2b
1
1
5
1
1
5
4
1
2b
4
139
2nd 3rd
5
2b
5
4th
7
4
2b
2b
6
5th
6th
4
5
1
3
6
Analysing the order of importance of parties for the identification of new requirements, the
Maritime Administration is significantly the most important one. For the following order of
importance no significant trend can be noted.
Also for the way of identifying the new requirements (how it is done), most of the responses
mentioned more than one method.
Seven out of twelve indicated to have a written procedure regarding identification, which is
in the first place used by the Maritime Administration but also by the MET institutes and
sometimes by the Shipowners and National Officers Associations.
Eleven out of twelve responses mentioned a direct response to IMO/ILO requirements.
Again the Maritime Administration is the major user of this source, followed by the MET
institutes.
Nine out of twelve have a “round table” arrangement to identify new requirements.
Identifying new requirements by research was only mentioned three times.
In the Scandinavian countries a regional organisation called NORMAR is available for this
kind of activities.
WAY OF IDENTIFICATION
Written procedures
From IMO / ILO
By research
By round table meetings
Other
4
7
11
4
9
2
Implementation of new requirements
Nine out of twelve responders indicated that written procedures are available to implement
new regulations. In almost all of the questionnaires the Maritime Administration is
mentioned as the user of such procedures. As a second party using these procedures, the
MET institutes are identified. Other parties are not mentioned frequently.
Seven out of twelve responses indicated that a body with representatives of the relevant
parties takes care of the implementation of new requirements.
In only one case a MET institute takes directly the initiative to implement new requirements,
without any cooperation with shipowners.
WAY OF IMPLEMENTATION
Written procedures
Request from party to MET
Preparation body
Direct MET initiative
Other procedure
9
3
7
1
1
140
Monitoring the implementation:
According to the responses from twelve countries, the implementation is monitored in ten
countries by the Maritime Administrations and/or the Ministry of Education. Only four times
MET institutes were mentioned as monitoring body. None of the responding countries
indicated the absence of a monitoring system.
In seven out of the twelve countries, a written procedure regarding the monitoring is
available. Mainly Maritime Administration, MET institutes and national Shipowner
Association make use of such procedure.
In seven out of twelve countries, a Quality assurance system is available to monitor the
implementation.
MONITORING
Nobody
MET
Maritime / Educational Administrations
Written procedures
Quality Assurance
Other measures
5
0
4
10
7
7
2
Hampering
Replies from most of the countries (8 out of 12) indicated that nothing hampers the
implementation of new requirements.
Only two indicated a lack of provision, one a lack of interest and one mentioned bureaucracy
as hampering the implementation.
6
Summary
In general there appears to be a well organized system in each country regarding the
The Maritime Administration plays the most active role in the identification and
implementation.
Also the MET institutes and the Shipowner and National Officers Associations are engaged
in the implementation, although only in a limited number of countries.
Most of the countries have written procedures for the identification and implementation.
More than 50% of the countries have written procedures to monitor the implementation.
Most of the countries do not see hampering factors in the implementation proces.
141
METHAR
WP 1.8 Survey of national provision for procedures and methods
ATTACHMENTS
November 1997
142
Table 1 - Parties to identify and monitor (the implementation of) new MET requirements
Bodies
Identifying
Monitoring
6
4
Individual shipowners
2
National shipowner association
1
Trade union
2
Education administration
5
MET institutions
3
4
Master/officer/engineers associations
1
1
Others
1
Table 2 - Order of importance related to identification
Bodies
First
4
Second
Third
Fourth
1
National shipowner association
1
Trade union
1
1
1
MET institutions
1
Sixth
1
Individual shipowners
Education administration
Fifth
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Master/officer/engineers associations
1
Others
1
143
1
Graph 1: Identification procedures
Other
0%
By round table
meetings
24%
Written procedures
24%
By research
19%
From IMO / ILO
33%
Graph 2: Implementation procedures
Direct MET initiative
7%
Written procedures
29%
Preparation body
35%
Request from party
to MET
29%
Graph 3: Hampering
Lack of interest
0%
Other reasons
34%
No hampering
22%
Lack of initiative
22%
Lack of provisions
22%
144
METHAR
WP 1.8 Survey of national provisions for procedures and methods
QUESTIONNAIRE
March 1997
145
Work package 1.8
Survey of national provisions for procedures and methods
Completed by: ......................................................................... Date: ...................................
Institution/Authority:
..............................................................................................................
Address: ................................................................................................................................
Country: ...........................................
Identification of new requirements for MET
Who does it? Which party/parties involved in MET identifies/identify new requirements for
MET? (more than one answer possible)
1
Maritime Administration/Maritime Authority/Ministry of Transport?
2a
2b
Individual shipowners?
National shipowner association?
3
Trade (seafarers) unions?
4
Education Administration/Education Authority/Ministry of Education?
5
MET institutions?
6
National association of ship masters/officers, marine engineers, etc.?
Any other party/parties than that/those mentioned above? If yes, then please name it/them.
7
........................................................................................................................
8
........................................................................................................................
9
........................................................................................................................
10
........................................................................................................................
11
If more than one party is involved, which is the most important (first initiative) party?
Number ........... (refer to numbers 1-10 above)
Please indicate the party/parties identifying new requirements in order of importance (in the
identification) by using the given numbers (1-10):
............................................................................................................................
146
How is it done? How are new requirements for MET identified?
12
Are there any written procedures and methods for identifying new requirements?
Yes …
No …
If yes, please give no/nos (1-10) of party/parties using them? ...........................
13
From international conventions of IMO and ILO?
Yes …
No …
If yes, then by which parties? Give no/nos (1-10) of party/parties: ..........
14
By research?
Yes …
No …
By research institute?
Yes …
No …
By party/parties? Give no/nos (1-10) of party/parties:...........................................
15
By calling all (or most) parties involved in MET to a round table and finding
consent on new requirements for MET? Yes …
No …
16
By any other method?
If yes, then name and/or describe it:
Yes …
No …
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
Implementation of new requirements for MET
What happens after a party has identified new requirements for MET?
17
Nothing
Yes …
No …
18
Are there any written procedures and methods for implementing new
requirements?
Yes …
No …
If yes, please give number(s) of party/parties using them .........................................
19
Party (which is not an MET institution) requests an MET institution to
implement the new requirements (bilateral negotiations)
Yes …
No …
20
The new requirements are given to a body consisting of representatives of different
parties for formal approval before they are implemented in all national MET institutions
(concerted approach). Please mention parties involved (by their number(s)) if such approach
is followd:
.......................................................................................................................
21
One or more national MET institution/institutions take the initiative and
implement the new requirements for their students (client orientation)
one institution
Yes …
No …
more than one institution
Yes …
No …
22
Something else than listed above.
Yes …
No …
If so, then please describe it: ..........................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
147
Monitoring and control of implementation of new requirement for MET
Who does it? Who monitors/controls the implementation?
23
…
Nobody
24
…
The MET institution
25
…
Any other party/parties? If yes, give no/nos (1-10) of party/parties
..............................
How is it done? How is the implementation monitored/controlled?
26
Are there any written procedures and methods for implementing new
requirements?
Yes …
No …
If yes, please give no/nos (1-10) of party/parties using them: ........................................
.....................................................................................................................................
27
Through quality assurance
Yes …
No …
28
The implementation is controlled through another measure than those
mentioned above, namely through.......................................................
.............................................................................................................
What is hampering the identification and implementation of new requirements for MET?
29
nothing
Yes …
No …
30
lack of interest
Yes …
No …
31
lack of initiative
Yes …
No …
32
lack of provision for procedures and methods
Yes …
No …
33
other reason(s); if yes, then name and/or describe them: Yes …
No …
.......................................................................................................................
Thank you for completing this questionnaire.
Please return this questionnaire to:
Ton van Essen
Soerweg 31
3088 GR Rotterdam
The Netherlands
Tel: +31-10-4298 177
Fax: +31-10-495 1508
148
METHAR
WP 1.9 Country survey of number and qualification of persons who choose
MET for a temporary or permanent seafaring career vs the number of
training places in national MET institutions
REPORT
Bremen Polytechnic University, Department of Nautical Studies, Bremen, Germany
(Prepared by Hermann Kaps and Willi Wittig)
September 1997
149
Work package 1.9
Country survey of number and qualification of persons who choose
MET for a temporary or permanent seafaring career vs the number of training
places in national MET institutions
Table of contents
Page
1
Introduction
151
2
Methodology
151
3
Analysis of results
152
3.1
3.2
3.3
152
153
153
4
Question group 1
Question group 2
Question group 3
Summary
154
Attachments
155
Diagram 1: Entry into MET by number of applicants
distinguished by educational background
156
Diagram 2: Entry into seagoing occupation by number of
graduates distinguished by degree obtained
157
Table 1: applicants - students graduated - student places
158
Questionnaire
159
150
1
Introduction
The identification of persons aiming at a seafaring career can principally be done at two
distinguished spots, namely:
•
•
first entry into an MET procedure,
first entry into a seagoing occupation.
Both spots are not equally determined in European countries. In some countries the first
entry into an MET procedure is sea service, either uncontrolled or within a professional apprenticeship, while other countries start with school-based vocational training or even academic studies.
The first entry into a seagoing occupation however will generally coincide with gaining the
appropriate certificate of competency. Yet there are sandwich-systems in place in certain
countries which make it impossible to clearly mark the transition from training to the professional career. This may lead to double counts.
The country representatives in the Concerted Action on MET meeting decided on 06
December 1996 to bring foreward a standardized approach and give an equal treatment to all
national MET systems. This was the basis for the development of the research concept in
work package 1.9 and the subsequent questionnaire for collecting data.
2
Methodology
The questionnaire consisted of three groups of questions:
2.1
First entry into MET procedures, represented by number of applicants to MET institutions and distinguished by general educational background.
The outcome of this group of questions would indicate in absolute figures the particular
national attitude of young men and women to choose a seafaring career as well as the
absolute attraction of such a career to holders of a higher educational background
against those with a basic educational background.
2.2
First entry into a seagoing occupation, represented by number of students completing
an MET procedure, distinguished by
•
•
•
level of certificate (limited, unlimited)
academic degree obtained (yes, no)
competency (deck, engine, bivalent).
These figures, amended by the presently still marginal choice of aiming for an academic degree in MET without a professional certificate, will shed some light onto the
accepted distribution of traditional or new professional qualification patterns as well as
the country-specific decision to provide an academic degree or not.
151
2.3
Number of first year training places available in national MET institutions, distinguished by
•
•
level of certificate (limited, unlimited)
competency (deck, engine, polyvalent).
The intersection of level of certificate with the academic degree has been omitted in
this group of questions because this feature would sufficiently be revealed by question
group 2 for each particular country.
Although it has been the principal aim of the researchers to keep the questionnaire as simple
and short as possible, the outcome still seemed to cause problems to the suppliers of the
information. A copy of the questionnaire is attached to this report.
The status of all data was limited to the year 1996. For this reason neither a consideration of
trends nor an indication of "losses" during MET procedures, as might be concluded from
differences between entrants to and graduates from MET, is intended in this study.
The response to the questionnaires can be considered as good. From fifteen countries concerned 14 workable answers were received which presents a rate of 93%. Most of the responses had been filled in by MET institutions and returned through the country representatives. This and the considerable delay of some of the responses indicate clearly the lack of a
centralized national documentation on MET performance in many European countries.
3
Analysis of results
The following results apply to the following European countries:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
3.1
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Ireland
Iceland
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
BE
DK
FI
FR
DE
GR
IE
IS
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
IT (not included)
NL
NO
PT
ES
SE
GB
Question group 1
The total number of applicants to MET institutions (first year students) in 1996 is 10,047.
Of these a number of 4,277 had a basic educational background, which can be considered as
9 or 10 years primary or semi-secondary school without a university entry level.
The remaining figure of 5,770 has a higher educational background, consisting of 12 or 13
years secondary school with university entry level in general.
152
Most individual countries reflect this average proportion in their own figures with exemption
of those few who provide no academic degree within MET at all. They have a majority of
applicants with basic educational background.
These figures reveal that a seagoing career, which most beginners intend as a permanent one,
is attractive to both holders of basic as well as advanced educational qualifications.
3.2
Question group 2
The total number of graduates in the observed countries amounts to 6,594 in 1996. This is
about 66% of the new entrants in the same year.
The huge discrepancy can be explained by two reasons:
•
"losses" during MET, either in the course of studies or during seagoing practice,
•
increase of attraction between 1996 and the years where the graduates of 1996 were
beginners.
There is no important reason visible for an increase of attraction of a seagoing career to
young people in Europe during the last 3 years. Thus the assumption is justified that losses
during MET are significant.
The coincidence of scope of certification and academic award shows the following figures:
unlimited certificate
limited certificate
without academic degree
2,493
2,136
with academic degree
1,608
189
These figures show a remarkable majority of MET graduates without academic degree originating from about 50% of the countries considered. However if an academic degree is
awarded together with the professional certificate then there is a strong preference to
associate the degree with the unlimited certificate.
The distribution of certificates to deck, engine and bivalent qualifications shows a slight
majority of engineers against nautical professionals and a relative low number of bivalent
qualified graduates.
The number of graduates from MET with an academic degree only is negligible although
there is some doubt on whether the questionnaire was fully considered in this respect.
3.3
Question group 3
The number of first-year student places cannot precisely be determined because a number of
replies indicated that there is no limitation. This may be interpreted that the present capacity
amply exceeds the expected number of entrants.
In order to get at least a total figure for training places the number of 1996 entrants was
multiplied by 1.2 for the following countries: BE, NL, DK, GR. With this assumption a total
of 10152 first year MET student places would be available.
153
Otherwise the number of MET student places matches the number of entrants quite well and
reflects the individual national MET system regarding the provision of limited and unlimited
certificates.
Again it can be shown that the number of graduates falls dramatically below the number of
student places which indicates a presently low efficiency of MET institutions, which may be
explained by low demand and/or high losses.
4
Summary
In summary the result of work package 1.9 reveals what is suspected by insiders since many
years.
The general attractivity of a seagoing career to young people in Europe suffers from a
declining reputation of shipboard life and work in general and in particular if compared with
shore-based conditions.
Consequently, a considerably smaller number - compared to recent decades - choose this career, initially mostly intending a permanent shipboard occupation, but traditionally changing
over to a shore-based occupation within the maritime industry sooner or later.
Finding shipboard conditions - in relative social and financial terms - inattractive, many of
them leave the scene even before completing MET.
Training institutions react slowly to this development by mainly two measures:
•
reducing capacity or closing completely,
•
upgrading training programmes, including the provision of academic awards and preparing for a post-sea career.
The latter measure seems to be the better choice for the future. What is missing is the
commitment of the maritime industry as a whole for conveying this concept and spreading
information to potential applicants.
There seems to be a lack of an agreed concept for monitoring the number of applicants,
graduates and training places for MET in the European countries.
154
METHAR
ATTACHMENTS
December 1997
155
Entry into MET by number of applicants distinguished by educational background
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Total
Higher education
General Education
Country
156
E n tr y i n to se a g o i n g o c c u p a ti o n b y n u m b e r o f g ra d u a te s d i sti n g u i sh e d b y d e g r e e o b ta i n e d
1400
1000
800
600
400
200
0
157
United Kingdom
C o u n try
U n limit e d c e rt ific a t e w it h o u t a c a d e mic d e g re e
Sweden
Spain
Portugal
Degree
obtained
L imit e d c e rt ific a t e w it h o u t a c a d e mic d e g re e
Norway
Netherlands
U n limit e d c e rt ific a t e w it h a c a d e mic d e g re e
Italy
Ireland
Iceland
L imit e d c e rt ific a t e w it h a c a d e mic d e g re e
Greece
Germany
France
A c a d e mic d e g re e o n ly
Finland
Denmark
To t a l
Belgium
Number of graduates
1200
Table 1
Engine
0
310
65
43
81
0
230
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
6
0
108
330
0
0
73
0
0
0
60
167
0
0
0
0
78
24
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
40
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
0
10
0
0
0
73
995
204
196
372
497
356
74
n.l
n.l
72
0
175
n.l
90
20
n.l
n.l
95
0
155
n.l
150
35
n.l
n.l
0
125
65
n.l
0
0
n.l
n.l
100
0
300
n.l
90
20
n.l
n.l
60
0
195
n.l
150
0
n.l
n.l
0
40
60
n.l
0
0
n.l
n.l
0
0
50
n.l
0
0
n.l
n.l
327
165
1000
n.l
480
75
1086
46
328
0
0
0
470
23
279
0
0
0
676
0
0
0
0
0
17
0
314
0
0
60
103
34
309
0
0
22
0
87
0
0
0
0
0
10
55
12
47
34
1
2
20
15
19
28
1
513
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
18
32
25
0
0
0
22
18
31
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
9
65
0
74
715
1305
76
189
200
1342
n.l
500
40
190
60
312
n.l
470
50
190
30
225
n.l
0
0
0
0
100
n.l
350
25
100
30
50
n.l
350
50
100
30
0
n.l
0
0
100
0
0
n.l
0
20
100
0
30
n.l
1670
185
780
150
717
10047
1082
1394
17
950
1094
92
676
312
620
75
71
43
168
6594
133
447
300
n.l = no limitations
158
TOTAL
Deck
Academic degree only
Polyvalent
0
210
58
35
84
0
82
4
889
Polyvalent
Engine
Academic degree only
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1800
Polyvalent
0
342
19
0
0
0
35
20
Engine
0
133
46
0
0
0
9
50
Deck
Deck
5770
TOTAL
4277
Polyvalent
TOTAL
Engine
United Kingdom
0
16
0
875
254
600
133
431
300
211
635
1200
Limited certificate
Deck
478
75
Polyvalent
2359
44
75
Unlimited
certificate
Engine
2359
Unlimited certificate
with academic
degree
Deck
162
426
341
752
799
Polyvalent
162
64
184
425
528
Unlimited
certificate with
academic degree
Engine
0
362
157
327
271
0
434
0
Limited certificate
without academic
degree
Deck
TOTAL
Unlimited certificate
without academic
degree
Higher education
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
STUDENTS PLACES
STUDENTS GRADUATED
APPLICANTS
General education
COUNTRY
METHAR
QUESTIONNAIRE
March 1997
159
Work package 1.9
Revised questionnaire for number and qualification of
MET applicants, MET graduates and student places
Please identify the number of applicants for MET in 1996:
______ applicants with finished compulsory general education and
______ applicants with finished higher secondary education.
Please identify the number of students having completed MET in 1996:
students completed an unlimited certificate course without academic degree
( ______ deck, ______ engine, _______ polyvalent ),
students completed a limited certificate course without academic degree
students completed an unlimited certificate course with academic degree
students completed a limited certificate course with academic degree
( ______ deck, ______ engine, _______ polyvalent ) and
______ students completed MET with an academic degree but without certificate
( please specify type of degree _____________________________ ).
Please identify the maximum capacity of first year MET student places available in 1996:
places available for unlimited certificate courses
places available for limited certificate courses
( ______ deck, ______ engine, _______ polyvalent ) and
______ places available for maritime academic degree courses in MET without
certificate.
Please return to Hermann Kaps/Willi Wittig, Fax: +49-421-5905 140
Thank you for your kind cooperation.
160
METHAR
Participants in Concerted Action on
Maritime Education and Training
APPENDIX 1
(Prepared by Irene Rosberg )
December 1997
METHAR, WP 1, Appendix 1
161
APPENDIX 1
Participants in Concerted Action on Maritime Education and Training
Representatives of METHAR partners in Italics
EUROPEAN COMMISSION (EC)
Astrid Schlewing
European Commission
Directorate-General VII Transport
Directorate E - Transport Policy Development; Research and Development
Rue de la Loi 200, 1049 Brussels
Tel: +32-2-296 9866/Fax: +32-2-296 8350
E-mail: [email protected]
BELGIUM (BE)
Hugo S. Verwerft
Hogere Zeevaartschool
Noordkasteel Oost 6, 2030 Antwerpen
Tel: +32-3-205 6430/Fax: +32-3-205 6472
Brenda O’Brien
Federation of Transport Workers’ Union in the European Union (FEST)
Rue de Pascale 22, 1040 Brussels
Tel: +32-2-2854 665 and 660/Fax: +32-2-2800 817
Tim Marking
European Community Shipowners’ Association (ECSA)
Rue Ducale 45, 1000 Brussels
Tel: +32-2-511 3940/Fax: +32-2-511 8092
E-mail:
Karsten Seidel
AMRIE
68, Ave. Michel Ange, 1000 Brussels
Tel: +32-2-736 1755/Fax: +32-2-735 2298
DENMARK (DK)
Andreas Nordseth
Danish Maritime Authority
Varmundsgade 38C. 2100 Copenhagen
Tel: +45-3927 1515/Fax: +45-3927 1251
162
FINLAND (FI)
Jouko Haavisto
National Board of Education
PB 380, 00531 Helsinki
Tel: +358-0-7747 7794/Fax: +358-0-7747 7865
e-mail: [email protected]
Seppo Rajamäki
Kymenlaakso Polytechnics
PO Box 13, 48231 Kotka
Tel: +358-5-2208 500/Fax: +358-5-2208 555
E-mail: seppo.rajamä[email protected]
FRANCE (FR)
André Blavec
Ecole Nationale de la Marine Marchande Marseilles
39 avenue du Corail
13285 Marseille Cedex 08
Tel: +33-491-768 240/Fax: +33-491-738 864
Jean Delobel
Inspection Général de l’Enseignement Maritime (IGEM)
3 square Desaix, 75015 Paris
Tel: +33-1 44 49 81 46/Fax: +33-1 44 49 81 40
E-mail:
Jean-Daniel Troyat
Confederation of European Shipmasters’ Associations (CESMA)
21 rue Nominoë, 35400 Saint Malo
Tel: +33-299 81 7777/Fax: +33-299 82 6688
E-mail:
GERMANY (DE)
Hermann Kaps
Fachbereich Nautik, Hochschule Bremen
Werderstrasse 73, 28199 Bremen
Tel: +49-421-5905 850/Fax: +49-421-5905 851
Willi Wittig
Fachbereich Nautik, Hochschule Bremen
Tel: +49-421-5905 686/Fax: +49-421-5905 140
Knud Benedict
Hochschule Wismar
Fachhochschule für Technik, Wirtschaft und Gestaltung
Richard-Wagner-Str. 31, 18119 Warnemünde
Tel: +49-381-498 3653/Fax: +49-381-498 3655
163
Dieter Grote
Institut für Schiffsbetriebsforschung an der Fachhochschule Flensburg
Kanzleistrasse 91-93, 24943 Flensburg
Tel: +49-461-292 22/Fax: +49-461-805 546
Jens Froese (MASSTER)
Institut für Schiffsführung, Seeverkehr und Simulation (ISSUS)
Elbchaussee 23, 22765 Hamburg (Altona)
Tel: +49-40-3807 2991/Fax: +49-40-3807 2668
GREECE (GR)
Constantinos Korontzis
Engineering Department
ADSEN Maritime Academy
16-18 Eslin Str., 11523 Athens
Tel: +30-1-557 6807/Fax: +30-1-557 6807 & 557 5985
E-mail:
Nicholas Themelaros
Seafarers Training Division
Helenic Seafarers’ Training Administration
92, Notara Str, 185 35 Piraeus
Tel: +30-1-4191 543/Fax: +30-1-4224 000
E-mail:
ICELAND (IS)
Gudjón Ármann Eyjólfsson
Stýrimannaskólinn Reykjavík
Navigation College
PO Box 8473, 128 Reykjavk
Tel: +354-551 3046/Fax: +354-562 2750
IRELAND (IE)
Daire Brunicardi
Department of Nautical Studies
Regional Technical College
Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, Cork
Tel: +353-21-326 100 and 326 229/Fax: +353-21-545 343 and 345 677
Daniel C. Burke
Department of Nautical Studies
Regional Technical College
Tel: +353-21-326 100 and 326 229/Fax: +353-21-545 343 and 345 677
164
ITALY (IT)
Elena Maggi
Università degli Studi di Trieste - ISTIEE
Via Lazzaretto Vecchio 13, 34123 Trieste
Tel: +39-40-311 464/Fax: +39-40-311 465
Marco Mazzarino
Università degli Studi di Trieste - ISTIEE
Via Lazzaretto Vecchio 13, 34123 Trieste
Tel: +39-40-311 464/Fax: +39-40-311 465
Carmine Giuseppe Biancardi
IUN - Instituto Universitario Navale
Via amm. F. Acton 38, 80133 Napoli
Tel: +39-81-547 5133 and +39-82-344 2642/Fax: +39-81-547 5133
Bruno Della Loggia (MASIS II)
Centro Per Gli Studi Tecnico Navale (CETENA)
Italian Ship Research Centre
Via Savona 2, 16129 Genova
Tel: +39-10-5995 492/Fax: +39-10-5995 790
THE NETHERLANDS (NL)
Sjoerd Groenhuis
Soerweg 31, 3088 GR Rotterdam
Tel: +31-10-429 8177/Fax: +31-10-495 1508
Ton van Essen
Tel: +31-10-429 8177/Fax: +31-10-495 1508
Fred Bloot
Director General for Freight Transport
Directorate of Transport Safety
Safety Management Division
PO Box 20904, 2500 EX The Hague
Tel: +31-70-351 1521/Fax: +31-70-351 1598
165
NORWAY (NO)
Arild Nodeland
Norwegian Shipowners’ Association
Rådhusgt. 25, PO Box 1452 Vika, 0116 Oslo
Tel: +47-2240 1546/Fax: +47-2240 1515
Arnt O. Rydningen
Tromsoe Maritime Skole
Sommerfeldsgt. 74/76
Postboks 1260, 9001 Tromsoe
Tel: +47-7766 6202 and 6200/Fax: +47-7766 6335
Mr. Svein Jarl Kildahl
Head of Department
Education, Qualification and Skills
Det Norske Veritas
Veritasvejen 1, 1322 Hoevik
Tel: +47-6757 9900/Fax: +47-6757 9705
PORTUGAL (PT)
João Silva
Escola Náutica Infante D. Henrique
Av. Eng. Bonneville Franco
Paco d’Arcos, 2780 Oeiras
Tel: +351-1-4430 864/Fax: +351-1-4429 546
E-mail:
Jaime Leca da Veiga
FRESTI, Lda
Rua Dr. Nicolau Bettencourt 45A
1050 Lisbon
Tel: +351-1-386 4731 and 4732/Fax: +351-1-386 4730
Rui Raposo
DGPNTM, Edificio Vasco da Gama
Cais Alcantara-Mar, 1350 Lisbon
Tel: +351-1-395 7866/Fax: +351-1-395 7863
SPAIN (ES)
Mercedes Herrera
Escuela Superior de la Marina Civil de Bilbao
M.a Diaz de Haro, 68
48920 Portugalete (Vizcaya)
Tel: +34-4-495 1300/Fax: +34-4-495 1400
166
SWEDEN (SE)
Jan Horck
World Maritime University
Citadellsvägen 29, PO Box 500, 201 24 Malmö
Tel: +46-40-356 345/Fax: +46-40-128 442
Peter Muirhead
Tel: +46-40-356 361
Fax: +46-40-128 442
Fernando Pardo
Tel: +46-40-356 348/Fax: +46-40-128 442
Günther Zade
Citadellsvägen 29
PO Box 500, 201 24 Malmö
Tel: +46-40-356 367
Fax: +46-40-128 442
Tomas Gustavsson
Swedish Maritime Administration
Slottsgatan 82, 601 78 Norrköping
Tel: +46-11-191 318/Fax: +46-11-191 247
Per-Åke Kvick
Nautical Department
Merchant Marine Academy
Stagneliusgatan 31, 392 34 Kalmar
Tel: +46-480-446 147
Fax: +46-480-446 150
UNITED KINGDOM (GB)
Jef Forshaw
Glasgow College of Nautical Studies
21 Thistle Street, Glasgow G5 9XB
Tel: +44-141-565 2727 and 565 2500/Fax: +44-141-565 2599
E-mail:
167
Claude Hamilton
Marine Safety Agency
Bay 3/16B, Spring Place, 105 Commercial Road, Southampton SO15 1EG
Tel: +44-1703-329 100/Fax: +44-1703-329 252
E-mail:
Alastair D. Couper (Neptune)
Seafarers’ International Research Centre for Safety and Occupational Health
Department of Maritime Studies and International Transport
University of Wales, College of Cardiff, PO Box 924, Cardiff CF1 3TS
Tel: +44-1222-874 620/Fax: +44-1222-874 619
Chris Walsh (MARCOM)
Seafarers’ International Research Centre for Safety and Occupational Health
Department of Maritime Studies and International Transport
University of Wales, College of Cardiff, PO Box 924, Cardiff CF1 3TS
Tel: +44-1222-874 620/Fax: +44-1222-874 619
168
METHAR
Participants in surveys for work packages 1.1 - 1.9
APPENDIX 2
February 1998
169
APPENDIX 2
Participants in surveys for work packages 1.1 - 1.9
Efforts have been made to include all MET institutes in the 15 participating countries in these
tables. The institutes are identified by the town or city in which they are located. To 13
locations “1 & 2” has been added. This is to mean that two separate institutions exist in the
same town or city. There are a few variations of such co-existence: The two institutions are
in their majority by location as well as organizationally-financially separated from each
other. In a minority, the two institutes are at the same location but only organizationallyfinancially separated from each other. Such separation can either mean a separation of deck
officer MET from engine officer MET or a separation of MET for unlimited certificates from
MET for limited certificates. The count of the number of MET institutes in the participating
countries amounts to 147 at 134 locations.
129 MET institutes offer courses leading to unlimited certificates and mostly also courses
leading to limited certificates, 18 MET institutes offer only courses leading to unlimited
certificates.
170
Participants in surveys for work Packages 1.1 - 1.9
Country/City
Course Cat.
1.1/
1.3
1.2
1.4
1.5
1.6
1
1
1
1
1
1.7
1.8
1.9
A B C D E
BELGIUM (BE)
Antwerp
National Authority(ies)
National Industry
DENMARK (DK)
Aalborg
Arhus
Esbjerg
Fanoe
Fredericia
Frederikshavn
Koebenhavn
Marstal
Odense
Svendborg 1 & 2
National Industry
FINLAND (F1)
Helsinki
Kotka 1 & 2
Mariehamn 1 & 2
Pori
Rauma
Turku 1 & 2
National Industry
FRANCE (FR)
Le Havre
Marseille
Nantes
St. Malo
National Industry
GERMANY (DE)
Bremen
Bremerhaven
Cuxhaven
Elsfleth
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
2
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
X
X
3
X
X
X
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
4
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
X
X
X
X
1
X
1
1
1
1
Course Categories. A unlimited, B limited, C dual-purpose, D deck, E engine
171
Country/City
Course Cat.
1.1/
1.3
1.2
1.4
1.5
1.6
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1.7
1.8
1.9
A B C D E
GERMANY (DE) (ctd.)
Flensburg 1 & 2
Grünendeich
Hamburg
Leer
Wismar/Wamemünde
National Industry
* only A
GREECE(GR)
Argostoli
Aspropyrgos
Chania
Chios
Hydra
Innousses
Kyrni
Nea Michaniona
Piraeus
Preveza
Syros
National Authodty(ies)
National Industry
ICELAND (IS)
Akureyri
Reykjavik 1 & 2
National Industry
IRELAND (IE)
Cork
National Industry
ITALY (IT)
Ancona
Bari
Brindisi
Cagliari
Carloforte
X
X
X*
X
X
X
X
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X*
X
1
X
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
1
1
1
1
1
X
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
1
1
1
1
X
1
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
X
X
X
X
1
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
X
172
Country/City
Course Cat.
1.1/
1.3
1.2
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
A B C D E
ITALY (IT) (ctd.)
Batania
Crotone 1 & 2
Gaeta
Gallipoli
Gela
Genoa
Inperia
La Maddalena
La Spezia
Livorno
Manfredonia
Messina
Napoli
Ortona a Mare
Palermo
Porto Torres
Pozzallo
Procida
Savona
Siracusa
Sorrento
S. Stefano
Termoli
Torre del Greco
Trapani
Trieste
Venezia
Mareggio
National Industry
NETHERLANDS (NL)
Amsterdam*
Appingedam
Den Helder
Ijmuiden
Rotterdam 1* & 2
Terschelling West*
Vlissingen 1* & 2
National Industry
* Degree
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
5
173
1
Country/City
Course Cat.
1.1/
1.3
1.2
1.4
1.5
1.6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1.7
1.8
1.9
A B C D E
NORWAY (NO)
Alesund 1 * & 2
Arendal
Aukra
Austevold
Bergen
Bodin
Farsund
Fredrikstad (Glemmen)
Froeya
Gravdal
Haugesund 1 & 2
Honningsvang
Kristiansand
Kristiansund
Maloey
Moerkved
Oslo
Roervik
Skjervoey
Stathelle (Croftholmen)
Stavanger
(Kalhammeren)
Toensberg
Tromsoe 1 * & 2
Trondheim
Vestfold 1 * & 2
National Industry
* degree
PORTUGAL (PT)
Oeiras
National Industry
SPAIN (ES)
Barcelona
Cadiz
Gijon
La Coruna
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
X
1
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
X
X
3
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
1
174
Course Cat.
Country/City
1.1/
1.3
1.2
1.4
1.5
1.6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1.7
1.8
1.9
A B C D E
SPAIN (ES) (ctd.)
Portugalete
Santa Cruz
Santander
National Industry
SWEDEN (SE)
Gothenburg
Kalmar
National Industry
UK (GB)
Aberdeen
Falmouth
Fleetwood
Fraserburgh
Glasgow
Gravesend
Liverpool
Lowestoft
Scalloway (Shetland)
South Shields
Stromness (Orkney)
Warsash
Ulster
National Industry
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
6
175
1
METHAR
List of addresses of maritime education and training institutions
where courses leading to certificates of competency
are offered
APPENDIX 3
December 1997
176
APPENDIX 3
List of addresses of maritime education and training institutions
where courses leading to certificates of competency are offered
BELGIUM (BE)
Hogere Zeevaartschool
Maritime Academy Antwerp
University of Professional Maritime Education
Noordkasteel Oost 6, 2030 Antwerpen
DENMARK (DK)
Aalborg Maskinmesterskole
Oester Uttrupvej 1, 9100 Aalborg
Århus Maskinmesterskole
Borggade 6, 8000 Århus C
Esbjerg Maskinmesterskole
Niels Bohrsvej 3, 6700 Esbjerg
Fanoe Navigationskole
Vesterveijen 1, 6720 Nordby Fanoe
Fredericia Maskinmesterskole
Fynsgade 24, 7000 Fredericia
Frederikshavn Maskinmesterskole
Hånbaekvej 54, 9900 Frederikshavn
Koebenhavns Maskinmesterskole
Jagtvej 163, 2100 Koebenhavn Oe
Marstal Navigationsskole
Ellenet 10, 5960 Marstal
Odense Maskinmesterskole
Allégade 79, 5000 Odense
Svendborg Maskinmesterskole
A.P. Moellervej 37, 5700 Svendborg
Svendborg Navigationsskole
Gråesvej 27, 5700 Svendborg
177
FINLAND (FI)
Helsinki Polytechnic (Technical College)
Bulevardi 18, 00320 Helsinki
Kymenlaakso Polytechnic (Maritime Institute)
Box 13, 48231 Kotka
Kymenlaakso Polytechnic (Technical College)
Box 13, 48231 Kotka
Ålands Sjöfartsläroverket/Ålands Sjömansskola
PO Box 47, or PO Box 52, 22101 Mariehamn
Ålands Tekniskaläroverket (Åland Institute of Technology)
PO Box 80, 22101 Mariehamn
Satakunta Ammattikorkeakoulu (Maritime College)
Tekniikantrie 2, 28600 Pori Polytechnic
Satakunta Polytechnic (Maritime Institute)
Suojantie 2, 26100 Rauma
Turku Polytechnic (Technical College)
Sepänkatu 1, 20700 Turku
Polytechnic South-West (Maritime Institute)
Malminkatu 5, 20100 Turku
FRANCE (FR)
Ecole Nationale de la Marine Marchande Le Havre
66, route du Cap, 76310 Sainte Adresse
Ecole Nationale de la Marine Marchande Saint Malo
4, rue de la Victoire, 35402 Saint Malo Cedex
Ecole Nationale de la Marine Marchande Nantes
rue Gabriel Péri, 44100 Nantes
Ecole Nationale de la Marine Marchande Marseille
39, rue du Corail, 13295 Marseille Cedex 8
GERMANY (DE)
Hochschule Bremen, Fachbereich Nautik
Hochschule Bremerhaven, Fachbereich Schiffsbetriebstechnik
An der Karlstadt 8, 27568 Bremerhaven
178
Staatliche Seefahrtschule Cuxhaven
Am Seedeich 36, 27472 Cuxhaven
Fachhochschule Oldenburg, Fachbereich Seefahrt in Elsfleth
Weserstrasse 52, 26931 Elsfleth
Fachhochschule Flensburg, Fachbereich Technik
Kanzleistrasse 91-93, 24943 Flensburg
Fachhochschule Flensburg
Munketoft 3, 24937 Flensburg
Seefahrtschule Grünendeich
Fachschule Seefahrt Kirchenstieg 30, 21720 Grünendeich
Fachhochschule Hamburg, Fachbereich Seefahrt
Rainvilleterrasse 4, 22756 Hamburg
Fachhochschule Ostfriesland, Fachbereich Seefahrt in Leer
Bergmannstrasse 36, 26789 Leer
Hochschule Wismar, Fachhochschule für Technik, Wirtschaft und Gestaltung
Auβenstelle Warnemünde, Richard-Wagner-Strasse 31, 18119 Warnemünde
GREECE (GR)
ADSEN (National Merchant Marine Academy) Kefalinias
Meitland Square, 28100 Argostoli
ADSEN (National Merchant Marine Academy) Aspropirgou
Paralio Aspropirgou, 19300 Aspropyrgos
ADSEN (National Merchant Marine Academy) Chanion
Blites Sudas, 73100 Chania
ADSEN (National Merchant Marine Academy) Chiou
26 Dimocrotias Str., 82100 Chios
ADSEN (National Merchant Marine Academy) Hydras
18004 Hydra
KESEN (Centre of Further Education for Merchant Navy Officers) Ioannis
48 Alexander Fleming Str. 18233 Agios Ioannis Rent
ADSEN (National Merchant Marine Academy) Innousses
Innousses, 82101 Chios
ADSEN (National Merchant Marine Academy) Kymis
Paralia Kymis, 34003 Evya
179
ADSEN (National Merchant Marine Academy) Makedonias
57004 Nea Michaniona
Merchant Marine Centre for Further Education
10 Deligiorgi Street, 185 33 Piraeus
ADSEN (National Merchant Marine Academy) Prevezis
Bathi Prevezis, 48100 Preveza
ADSEN (National Merchant Marine Academy) Sirou
1 Papadacy Str., Ermoupolis, 84100 Syros
ICELAND (IS)
Marine Engineering College
Box 8400, 128 Akureyri
The College of Navigation
Box 8473, 128 Reykjavik
Marine Engineering College
Sjomannaskolinnvid, Hateigsveg 105, Reykjavik
IRELAND (IE)
Cork Regional College
ITALY (IT)
Istituto Nautico “A. Elia”
Lungomare Vanvitelli 76, 60100 Ancona
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale “F. Caracciolo”
Via Abate Gimma 291, 70122 Bari
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale “Carnaro”
Via Benedetto Brin, 2, 72011 Brindisi
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale “Buccari”
Viale Colombo, 16, 09100 Cagliari
Istituto Nautico Statale
Lungomare C. Colombo, 09014 Carloforte (CA)
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale “Duca degli Abruzzi”
Viale Artale Alagona, 97, 95126 Catania
Istituto Tecnico Nautico
Viale Gramsci, 88074 Crotone (CZ)
180
Istituto Tecnico Nautico “Mario Ciliberto”
Via per Capocolonne, 88074 Crotone (CZ)
Istituto Tecnico Nautico “Giovanni Caboto”
Piazza Trieste, 7 04024 Gaeta
Istituto Tecnico Nautico “A. Vespucci”
Via Gramsci, 73014 Gallipoli (LE)
DIMARCA Service Estintori
Cassette Anticendio, Ctr Poggio Alessi Gela
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale “S. Giorgio”
Piazza Palermo 13, 16100 Genoa
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale “Andrea Doria”
Piazza Roma, 6, 18100 Imperia
Istituto Nautico “D. Millelire”
Via Terre Lugiana, 07024 La Maddalena (SS)
Istituto Tecnico Nautico “N. Sauro”
Viale Italia, 88 La Spezia
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale “A. Cappellini”
Piazza Giovine Italia 1, 57100 Livorno
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale
Via Dante Alighieri, 71043 Manfredonia (FG)
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale “Caio Duilio”
Via G. La Farina, 70, 98100 Messina
Istituto Tecnico Nautico “Luigi di Cavoia Duca degli Abruzzi”
Via di Pozzuoli, 5, 80100 Napoli
Via Mazzini, 66026 Ortona a Mare (CH)
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale “Gioeni Trabia”
C.so V. Emanuela, 19, 90133 Palermo
Via Lungomare, 07046 Porto Torres (SS)
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale “Giorgio La Pira”
Via Enrico Giunta 7, 97016 Pozzallo (RG)
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Commerciale “F. Caracciolo”
Via Principe Umberto 40, 80079 Procida (Napoli)
181
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale “Leon Pancaldo”
Piazza Cavallotti, 17100 Savona
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale “G. Arezzo della Tragia”
Piazza S. Giuseppe, 13, 96100 Siracusa
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale “Nino Bixio”
Via E. de Martino 16, 80063 Piano di Sorrento (Napoli)
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale “G. Da Verazzano”
Via Panoramica, 58019 Porto S. Stefano (GR), Monte Argentario
Viale Trieste, 86039 Termoli (Campobasso)
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale “Duca degli Abruzzi”
Largo Madonna del Principio, 80050 Torre del Greco
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale “Marino Torre”
Viale Regina Elena 94, 91100 Trapani
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statele “Duca di Genova
Piazza A. Hortis, 1, 34123 Trieste
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale “Sebastiano Venier”
Castello S. Guiseppe 787a, 30122 Venezia
Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale “Artiglio”
Via Amendola, 55049 Viareggio (Lucca)
THE NETHERLANDS (NL)
Hogeschool van Amsterdam, Afdeling Maritiem Techniek
Nieuwe Vaart 5-9, 1018 AA Amsterdam
Eemsmond College Afd. Zeevaartschool ”Abel Tasman”
Postbus 13, 9900 AA Appingedam
Noorder Hooft College, Sector Techniek, Afdeling Maritiem
Postbus 2146, 1784 BD Den Helder
Ijmond College Maritiem Instituut
Postbus 227, 1970 AE Ijmuiden
Hogeschool Rotterdam en Omstreken HTO EN NO
G.J. de Jonghweg 4-6, 3015 GG Rotterdam
Scheepvaart en Transport College ”Stakenburg”
182
Maritiem Instituut ”Willem Barentsz”
Postbus 26, 8880 AA Terschelling West
Hogeschool Zeeland Sector Technische en Maritiem Faculteit ”De Ruyter”
Boulevard Bankert 156, 4382 AC Vlissingen
Zeeland College Sector Maritiem Instituut ”De Ruyter”
Postbus 440, 4380 AK Vlissingen
NORWAY (NO)
Ålesund Maritime Skole
Sjoemannsveien 27, 6008 Ålesund
Hoegskolen i Ålesund
Postboks 5104, Larsgården, 6021 Ålesund
Arendal Maritime Videregående Skole
Floeyveien 28, 4800 Arendal
Aukra Vidaregående Skole
6420 Aukra
Fiskarfagskulen i Austevoll
5392 Storeboe
Bergen Maritime Videregående Skole
Vestre Stroemkaien 10, 5008 Bergen
Bodin Videregående Skole
8000 Bodoe
Eilert Sundt secondary school
4550 Farsund
Froeya Videregående Skole
Boks 23, 7260 Sistranda
Glemmen Videregående Skole
Postboks 104, 1601 Fredrikstad
Nordland Fiskerifagskole
8372 Gravdal
Hoegskolen i Stord/Haugesund
Skåregt. 103, 5500 Haugesund
Haugesund Maritime/Tekniske Videregående Skole
Salhusveien 68, 5500 Haugesund
183
Honningsvåg Fiskerifagskole og Videregående Skole
Postboks 173, 9751 Honningsvåg
Vestfold College
Ravej 197, 3184 Horten
Horten Vidaregående Skole
Bekkegata 2, 3181 Horten
Kristiansand Tekniske Skole
Postboks 566, 4601 Kristiansand S
Kristiansund Vidaregående Skole
6500 Kristiansund N
Måloey Vidaregående Skole
6718 Dekenpollen
Bodin Videregående Skole
Moerkvedtråkket 2, 8026 Moerkved
Oslo Tekniske-Maritime Skole
Postboks 9323, Vålerenga, 0610 Oslo
Ytre Namdal Videregående Skole
Hansvikveien 3, 7900 Roervik
Skjervoey Videregående Skole
9180 Skjervoey
Croftholmen Videregående Skole
Postboks 10, 3960 Stathelle
Stavanger Maritime Videregående Skole
Kalhammarveien 54, 4007 Stavanger
Hoegskolen i Vestfold
Postboks 2243, 3103 Toensberg
Toensberg Maritime Videregående Skole
Postboks 445, 3101 Toensberg
Hoegskolen i Tromsoe
Postboks 79, 9001 Tromsoe
Tromsoe Maritime Skole
Sommerfeldsgt. 74/76, 9006 Tromsoe
Ladehammeren Videregående Skole
Ladehammerveien 6, 7004 Trondheim
184
PORTUGAL (PT)
Escola Náutica Infante Don Henrique (ENIDH)
Avenida Eng. Bonneville Franco, Paco d’Arcos, 2780 Oeiras
SPAIN (ES)
Universitat Politécnica de Catalunya
Facultat de Nautica
Pla del Palau, 18, 08003 Barcelona
Facultad de Ciencias Náutica, Universidad de Cádiz
Complejo de Ciencias y Técnicas del Mar, Polígono Río Santa Pedro,
s/n, 11510 Puerto Real, Cádiz
Escuela Superior de la Marina Civil, Universidad de Oviedo
Carretera de Villaviciosa, s/n, 32203 Gijón
Escuela Superior de la Marina Civil, Universidad de la Coruña
Paseo de Ronda, 51, 15011 La Coruña
Escuela Superior de la Marina Civil, Universidad del País Vasco UPV/EHU
C/Ma. Diaz de Haro, 68, 48920 Portugalete, Vizcaya
Centro Superior de Náutica y Estudios del Mar, Universidad de La Laguna
Avda. Fco. Larroche, s/n, 38001 Santa Cruz de Tenerife
Escuela Superior de la Marina Civil, Universidad de Cantabria
C/Gamazo, 1, 39004 Santander
SWEDEN (SE)
Chalmers Technical University
Institutionen för Nautik
Box 8873, 402 72 Gothenburg
Högskolan Kalmar (Kalmar Maritime Academy)
Stagneliusgatan 31, 392 34 Kalmar
UK (GB)
Aberdeen College
Gallowgate, Aberdeen, Scotland, AB9 1DN
Falmouth and Penryn College
Falmouth Marine School, Killigrew St., Falmouth, Cornwall, TR11 3QS
Blackpool & The Fylde College
Fleetwood Nautical Campus, Broadwater, Fleetwood, Lancs FY7 8JZ
185
Banff & Buchan College of F.E.
Henderson Road, Fraserburgh, AB43 5GA
Glasgow College of Nautical Studies
21 Thistle Street, Glasgow, G5 9XB
The National Sea Training College
Denton, Gravesend, Kent DA12 2HR
Liverpool John Moores University
School of Engineering and Technology Management
Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF
Lowestoft College of Further Education
Maritime and Offshore Centre
St. Peters Street, Lowestoft, NR 32 2NB
North Atlantic Fisheries College
Shetland Fisheries Training Centre Trust
Iceatlantic Offices, Blacksness, Scalloway, Shetland ZE1 0TQ
South Tyneside College
St. Georges Avenue, South Shields, Tyne & Wear NE34 6ET
Stromness Academy (Nautical Department)
Victoria St., Stromness, Orkney, KW16 3BS
Southampton Institute of Higher Education
Warsash Campus, Newtown Road, Warsash, Southampton, SO3 9ZL
University of Ulster
Jordanstown, Co. Antrim, BT37 0QB, Northern Ireland
186
Report
METHAR
Project
Coordinator:
Partners:
Work package 2:
Country survey of MET philosophies of parties involved in European MET:
Concepts and objectives
Date: February 1998
PROGRAMME
METHAR, WP 2
EC Waterborne Transport 4th Framework 6.4.3
METHAR
REPORT
Escola Náutica Infante D. Henrique, Oeiras, Portugal
(Prepared by Jaime L. Veiga)
February 1998
METHAR, WP 2, Report
1
Work package 2
Table of contents
Page
Acknowledgement
3
Foreword
4
1
Introduction
5
2
Methodology
5
3
Analysis
6
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
6
7
9
10
11
12
13
14
14
15
16
16
4
Current and future MET policies and systems
MET systems
Simulator training
Duration of the course
Acquisition of skills
Post graduation courses
Harmonisation and achievement of higher standards
Achievement of STCW 95 standards
Cost of MET
MET in Western Europe
Aspects of MET
Conclusions
17
Attachment
18
List of organizations, institutions and individuals that
replied to the questionnaire
Questionnaire
21
2
Acknowledgement
Despite some obstacles it was possible to finalise this workpackage successfully. It was
possible because of the contribution of several persons who in one way or another - through
comments, suggestions or other forms of support - have helped me with the preparation of the
questionnaire and the preparation of the report.
I would like to refer first of all to Professor Günther Zade who was always giving comments
and useful suggestions and is the best chairman the project can have. I also want to give my
appreciation for the help that I received from Professor Peter Muirhead when preparing the
questionnaire.
In Portugal I want to thank Maria José who was invaluable in sending and collecting the
questionnaires and all other mailing. I also appreciate the help of António Fera, head of the
nautical department of ENIDH, who understood the benefits of the School being involved in
this project and of João Silva, the new Director of ENIDH. It would not be fair not to
mention Rui Raposo, the first one responsible for METHAR at ENIDH, who was always
interested in the success of the ENIDH participation and who gave me good comments when
preparing the report.
I also want to refer to Dr. Horta Santos who was Director of ENIDH during a bad period. He
was always interested in the commitment of the School to the project.
I also want to mention all the support I received from FRESTI’s staff and especially from the
General Manager, my colleague João Abreu. Without the resources of FRESTI the task
would have been much more difficult.
My thanks go also to all those in the fifteen participating European countries * who have
completed the questionnaire. Without their cooperation, there would be no report on this
work package.
Finally, I also want to thank my wife for her support and encouragement during the
development and completion of the work package.
Jaime Leça da Veiga
FRESTI
* Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway,
Portugal, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom
3
Foreword
The collection of information on MET philosophies from different parties in different
countries could have been hampered by a definition problem as well as an availability
problem: by a definition problem, because the term “philosophy” may mean Descartes,
Locke, Kant, Spinoza etc. to one person and practical things to another; by an availability
problem, because there may be persons in the maritime sector who apparently have not
thought about MET in some depth but are used to take it for granted as something that
somehow produces seafarers.
The questionnaire for the collection of information tried to avoid the definition problem by
“realizing” philosophy “into” widely known aspects of MET. The questionnaire asked for a
choice from existing options. This may appear as an underestimation of the addressees’ ability
to develop an own philosophy of MET with own words. The difficulty with such approach
would have been that it would have required more effort and time for a response than a
selection from given options. Moreover, it could be expected to result in a wide range of
replies which may have caused a problem of comparison. Thus, facilitating the work of the
respondents made it also easier for those who asked the questions to evaluate the replies.
The, from experience, not so rare non-availability of a sufficiently detailed MET philosophy
was also avoided by offering predefined options. There is some lack of mission statements at
MET institutions (which can be expected to be overcome by the introduction of Quality
Assurance). On the other hand, parties involved in, and profiting from, MET may not always
have a clear understanding of MET, of what it can provide and what not. The questionnaire
did therefore also serve the purpose not to reveal ignorance, it had a face-saving value.
The philosophy of MET, concepts and objectives of MET, what contribution MET is
expected to make, how, at what cost and for the benefit of whom - all this needs to be given
increased attention. The development of an institutional and organizational and better: a
national and best: a regional (read West European) MET philosophy is an important
prerequisite for West European MET being able to cope with the challenges of globalized
shipping and a globalized labour market.
We, the METHAR partners, hope that this report will stimulate thinking on the role and
purpose of MET in West Europe.
Günther Zade
Coordinator, METHAR
4
1
Introduction
The objectives of this work package are to examine European understanding of, and attitudes
to, concepts and objectives of maritime education and training in Europe and identify the
underlying philosophies of the parties involved. In order to obtain this information a
questionnaire was prepared.
The questionnaire was sent to the six below-mentioned parties in the fifteen west European
countries participating in the Concerted Action on MET:
•
•
•
•
•
•
2
Maritime Industry;
Trade Unions;
Maritime Administrations;
National Educational Authorities (when applicable);
National MET institutes;
Seafarers/MET students;
Methodology
The questionnaire is divided into eight sections.
The first section comprises questions on the current and future policies and systems of
Maritime Education and Training (MET). It was the main aim of these questions to ascertain
whether present MET meet the current needs and the future demands posed by STCW 95 and
ISM Code.
The second section is composed of questions related to the current MET systems. There are
different types of systems and the objective of the METHAR Project is to seek ways to
harmonize them. However, in order to obtain useful information it is important to see which
are the most widely used systems and which are considered the most desirable ones. It was
also asked which reasons contribute the most to the choice of a system.
The third section is related to formal qualifications of ships’ officers. According to previous
questionnaires, developed for other work packages, it was understood that in some countries
the graduates of MET institutes are awarded a certificate of competency and a national
recognised educational certificate or an academic degree. However, in other countries they
are only awarded a professional certificate of competency. To ascertain whether it is possible
to harmonise the different systems it is important to know what the different parties think
about this aspect.
5
The fourth section is one of the most comprehensives ones. Obtaining information on
• the requirements for admission at MET institutions,
• the body responsible for the determination of the maximum number of students to
be admitted,
• ratings careers towards certificates of competency as officer in charge of a watch,
• duration of the courses,
• acquisition of skills,
• simulator training,
• cost of MET
was the main aim of this section.
The fifth section deals with course contents. It is understood that there is some support for the
idea to offer ship officers higher education including subjects outside STCW 95 requirements.
The questionnaire was developed to find out which of these subjects should be paid more
attention in MET syllabuses.
The sixth section is related to postgraduate studies. Three options are given: Pursuance of
studies at MET institutions, at universities (if MET institutions are not part of a university) or
using long distance learning technology.
The seventh section, management and standards, aims at understanding the different
philosophies on the best way to achieve higher standards of MET.
Finally, the eighth section, MET in Western Europe, has the objective to find out whether in
this region the parties see any added value resulting from MET compared to MET in other
regions of the globe.
3
3.1
Analysis
In general, the current MET policies and systems meet the needs of the different parties in the
countries surveyed. Furthermore, future MET policies and planned future systems based on
STCW 95 and ISM Code seem to be appropriate in the majority of countries.
Shipowners are those who give more negative responses concerning MET policies and
systems. Four out of the ten answers from shipowners were negative. In contrast, MET
institutions seem in general to be satisfied with the policies and systems. The same is true for
the maritime administrations.
The current policies and systems were criticised in replies from Ireland, Germany and
Sweden. Lack of practical training and lack of connection between theoretical and practical
training are among the reasons mentioned. It is also referred to the fact that current systems
do not provide for conditions which make a seafaring career attractive to young people. Lack
of specialised courses and lack of modern simulators and new technologies were also
mentioned.
6
Portugal is the country from which responses were more negative. From Netherlands, Spain,
Norway and Denmark, the responses were STCW 95 requirements more positive.
The planned future MET systems did not receive so much criticism which may suggest that
the different parties expect that - with the meeting of the STCW 95 requirements and with the
implementation of the ISM Code - the quality of MET will improve. However, it is important
to keep in mind the comment of a MET institution in Germany which states that the STCW
95 requirements give too much leeway to reduce European standards to those of developing
countries. No other party referred to this constraint of STCW 95.
3.2
MET systems
As can be seen from the table, separate deck and engine room MET is still the most popular
system. It should be noted that the response is in most of the cases supporting the type of
system the country has. This may pose some difficulties in the harmonisation. It seems that
harmonisation should be achieved first in the curricula and later in the system.
BE
Front ended
training
Separate deck and
engine room
Sandwich course
DK
FI
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
NL
NO
PT
1
2
Dual-trained
watchkeeper
Post experience
(post sea)
Alternative
certification
Dual-trained
master/chief
engineer
2
2
1
1
2
8
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
2
5
SE
GB
1
1
1
4
4
1
1
29
2
3
10
2
14
1
6
2
8
1
15
1
1
1
1
ES
1
5
1
1
1
1
3
1
6
2
1
1
1
1
1
Table 1
Most of the responses were that the courses should be sea and shore oriented. The percentage
of responses agreeing with this is 85%.
BE
DK
FI
DE
GR
IS
2
Sea oriented
Sea and shore
oriented
FR
2
2
3
IE
IT
1
9
1
1
1
NL
NO
PT
ES
3
3
3
3
5
5
SE
GB
1
1
8
2
4
44
Table 2
More shipowners (than all other parties) prefer the courses to be sea oriented only. Four out
of ten responded in this way. This may reflect the need the shipowners have of highly
qualified officers at sea. Many shipowners prefer to have officers continuing their
professional life at sea. Most of the answers supported MET programmes which lead to a
certificate of competency plus a recognised national educational award or an academic
degree.
7
BE
DK
FI
Certificate
Certificate and
degree
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
1
2
2
3
1
9
2
1
2
3
NL
NO
3
1
3
2
PT
5
ES
5
SE
2
GB
1
6
4
46
Table 3
Some of those who believe that the courses should be sea oriented also agree that ship officers
should be awarded an academic degree.
All respondents agreed that ship officers should have knowledge and understanding of
subjects outside STCW 95 requirements (see table 4). In table 4, a choice of subjects is listed.
Eleven options were given. Eleven points could be given to the most important subject, ten to
the next most important one, until one point to the least important subject. It was left to the
respondents to add any other subject they consider important. The eleven subjects suggested
to those filling in the questionnaire were evaluated in the following way:
1. The subject with the highest score received eleven points and the subject with the lowest
score received one point. Additional subjects cited are also listed with reference to the
countries and the frequency they were mentioned.
2. Responses from BE, FI and IE considered all 11 subjects as being equally important. Six
points were given for each of the subjects, since 6 is the average between 1 and 11.
3. The subjects were arranged in order of importance for all countries.
From table 4 it can be taken that parties want disciplines such as ship maintenance, shipping
management and international maritime law to be included in the curricula. These three
disciplines reflect the general tendency to pay more attention to aspects connected to the need
of increasing the level of maintenance on board and proper management of the ships. Also
environmental protection and pollution combating received a high number of citations.
The conclusion that may be drawn from this is that the general tendency, at least in Western
Europe, is the acceptance of the fact that today ship officers are not expected to stay all their
professional life at sea but after some years at sea will look for jobs ashore. The people
responsible for further developing MET systems should bear this in mind.
8
BE
DK
FI
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
NL
NO
PT
ES
SE
GB
06
11
06
11
06
04
02
06
10
11
06
10
07
11
11
118
06
06
06
08
10
09
03
06
07
09
11
11
11
08
07
118
06
10
06
07
11
10
03
06
11
08
08
08
08
06
10
118
06
04
06
04
05
11
01
06
08
10
10
09
10
07
03
100
06
03
06
10
08
05
07
06
05
04
09
06
03
04
06
88
06
09
06
06
02
-
11
06
03
06
04
02
09
09
09
88
Economics
06
07
06
02
09
08
09
06
01
03
05
03
06
05
05
81
Maritime
administration
Physics
06
02
06
02
07
06
08
06
09
07
07
05
02
02
02
77
06
08
06
05
03
-
10
06
02
05
03
01
05
10
04
74
Cash
management
Port
management
06
05
06
01
04
-
04
06
04
02
02
04
04
03
08
59
06
01
06
03
01
07
06
06
06
01
01
07
01
01
01
54
Discipline
Ship
maintenance
Shipping
management
(including
Quality
Assurance)
International
maritime law
Environmental
protection and
pollution
combating
Engineering
disciplines
Mathematics
Additional subjects mentioned in the replies and frequency with which they were mentioned.
Mother tongue
01
English
Working
environment
and personnel
Computer
handling
Management of
operations
Commercial
management
Specialised
cargoes
HSC Code
requirements
Multicultural
management
Resource
management
Crew
management
01
01
02
01
01
02
01
01
03
01
04
03
02
01
03
01
01
01
01
01
01
01
02
01
01
01
01
03
Table 4
3.3
For officers:
The admission requirements reflect the fact that nowadays it is widely accepted that a student
to be admitted at a MET institution must have achieved the same minimum academic
standards required for admission at university. Furthermore, in the majority of the countries it
is believed that the students should spent at least two or three months at sea before being
enrolled at an MET institution.
9
The different options given were:
BE
DK
FI
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
10-12 years
NL
NO
PT
ES
2
1
3
4
SE
GB
1
12 years
1
12 years plus 2 or
3 months at sea
12 years plus 6
months at sea
12 years plus 12
months at sea
As much as
possible
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
4
3
1
2
1
2
3
5
1
1
Table 5
For ratings:
The general opinion is that ratings should be allowed to continue their studies to obtain higher
certificates of competency as officers in charge of a deck or engine watch, only if they have
the minimum academic qualifications. Once again, we may realise that the parties tend to
respond according to the type of system in existence in their countries.
3.4
Simulator training
The following two tables 6 and 7 are based on the responses concerning simulator training.
The first one is arranged by country and the second one by party.
Simulator training can substitute sea time
a) by country
BE
Yes
No
Partially
2
DK
1
1
FI
1
1
FR
DE
1
1
1
3
5
GR
IS
1
2
IE
1
1
IT
NL
NO
6
1
1
2
2
PT
ES
SE
GB
3
3
1
4
1
2
1
3
8
15
29
Table 6
b) by party
Yes
No
Partially
Shipowners
Trade Unions
Mar. Admin.
MET Institutes
1
2
7
1
2
1
4
4
5
3
15
Table 7
10
Seafarers
4
3
8
15
29
With the exception of the Netherlands, the majority of parties in all other countries do not
agree that simulator training should substitute sea time. Seafarers tend to oppose this
possibility more than others. The reason may be that seafarers tend to be conservative and
reluctant to change. Furthermore, the more time people spend at sea, the more they are
inclined to consider the importance of time at sea as a way to improve skills and
qualifications. Also maritime administrations do not seem to consider the substitute of sea
time by simulator training as desirable.
The majority of respondents believes that sea time may be partially substituted by simulator
training. Shipowners accept this possibility most easily. This may indicate a general
tendency towards this direction. It is up to the different countries and especially their
administrations in conjunction with IMO to decide upon the partial substitution of sea time by
simulator training.
It is important to notice that of those who answered partially, 5 referred to the master and
chief engineer level, 12 to the watchkeeping level and 12 to the master/chief engineer and
watchkeeping level.
Of those who answered yes, 1 (one) referred to the master/chief engineer level, 5 (five) to the
watchkeeping level and 2 (two) to the master/chief engineer and watchkeeping level.
3.5
Duration of the course
The duration of the course for a sea career received several types of responses. However, the
majority believes that three years is the appropriate duration for the course at watchkeeping
level and one year the appropriate duration for the master/chief engineer level. The total
should be four years.
When asked whether the course should be divided into two stages and how long the time
between the two stages should be, the answers were as follows:
11
BE
No to
2 stages
Yes to
2 stages
6 months
DK
FI
2
-
2
2
FR
DE
3
5
2
3
GR
IS
-
1
IE
2
IT
3
NL
NO
2
2
-
1
PT
6
ES
SE
1
3
2
-
GB
18
3
27
1
12
months
18
months
24
months
30
months
36
months
according
to STCW
1
1
2
1
1
3
8
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
6
1
2
1
1
1
3
7
1
2
3
Table 8
Four answered yes without giving an option for the time between the two stages.
3.6 Acquisition of skills
More than one answer possible.
a) by country
on board
experience
simulators
BE
DK
FI
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
NL
NO
PT
ES
SE
GB
3
1
3
2
8
2
1
2
3
6
3
4
5
3
4
50
3
-
3
1
2
1
1
4
2
3
2
2
2
26
2
1
3
1
1
2
1
14
workshops
3
Table 9
b) by parties
Shipowners
Trade Unions
Marit. Admin.
MET institutes
Seafarers
onboard
experience
simulators
9
4
8
22
7
50
7
2
4
12
1
26
workshops
3
2
3
6
-
14
Table 10
12
Main findings: Only two MET institutions in Germany and Portugal referred to simulators
without mentioning onboard experience. The majority of the respondents believe that
onboard experience is fundamental. Some of them totally rejected that simulator training
could substitute sea time for deck officers. Seafarers are those who seem to offer most
resistance to such approach.
The majority of the respondents gave the same answer to the question in what way shipboard
training improves skills. They replied that onboard training is a fundamental part of training
as cadet and improves skills through:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
practice of passage planning;
bridge management;
engine room maintenance planning;
proper watchkeeping;
practical seamanship;
securing of cargo;
handling of extreme nautical/technical situations including damage control;
repeated and monitored performance of real duties;
getting the feeling for the environment on board.
It is generally agreed that onboard training improves practical competency. One respondent
from the United Kingdom mentioned that on board training is essential, provided it is given
and supervised by good instructors on board.
Despite the development of simulators and practical facilities for training, most parties
consider onboard training as absolutely necessary and of fundamental importance.
3.7
Post graduation courses
These type of courses may be pursued at MET institutes, universities and onboard through
long distance learning, depending upon the type of course and the circumstances. However,
with the life that a seafarer has today on board, it has to be realized that, if many would favour
on board long distance post graduate courses further research needs to be done in this area.
The reduced number of crew members may pose some difficulties to the implementation of
this type of training.
13
3.8
Harmonisation and achievement of higher standards
Harmonisation and higher standards are better achieved through:
a)
b)
c)
d)
a national co-operative body with maritime administration, MET institutions,
shipowners and unions
a national co-operative body with maritime administration, MET institutions
and educational bodies
a national co-operative body with maritime administration and MET institutions
a national co-operative body with maritime administration, MET institutions,
shipowners and unions plus a regular quality assessment by an independent
body
BE
DK
a)
b)
c)
d)
* without unions
2*
-
FI
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
NL
NO
3
1
4
2
1
2
1
6
2
1
4
2
PT
ES
SE
GB
3
1
1
2
1
1
4
2
1
2
30
1
1
17
Table 11
3.9
Achievement of STCW 95 standards
STCW 95 standards can be best achieved through:
a) regular quality assessment
b) enhancement of the quality of lecturers
c) higher standards of admission at MET institutes
a) by country
a)
b)
c)
BE
DK
FI
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
NL
NO
PT
ES
SE
GB
2
1
3
1
1
2
6
3
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
4
4
2
1
2
4
2
2
3
1
1
2
3
1
3
2
1
1
34
23
15
Table 12
b) by party
a)
b)
c)
Shipowners
Trade Unions
Marit. Admin.
MET Institutes
Seafarers
9
3
3
3
2
2
7
2
1
11
11
8
4
5
1
34
23
15
Table 13
Most shipowners believe that STCW 95 standards are best achieved through regular quality
assessment. MET institutes are divided on this. Seafarers, as it could be expected, do not see
the problem of non-compliance connected to the need for higher standards of admission at
MET institutions, but rather to regular quality assessment and the enhancement of the quality
of lecturers.
14
This topic compared with the previous one seems quite interesting in respect of the
conclusions which can be drawn. When asked how higher standards are best achieved, the
majority did not refer to regular quality assessment by an independent body, but when asked
about the best way to achieve STCW 95 standards, the majority referred to regular quality
assessment.
It may also be concluded that, when asked about STCW 95, the replies tend to relate more of
its implementation to quality assurance than when being asked only about higher standards in
general.
3.10
Cost of MET
a) Free of charge
b) Free of charge for watchkeeping courses only
c) Payment for specialised courses
a) by country
a)
b)
c)
BE
DK
FI
FR
DE
GR
2
1
2
2
6
1
3
1
1
IS
1
1
IE
IT
NL
NO
PT
ES
SE
GB
1
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
4
4
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
Table 14
Although not directly connected to the content of the MET courses, the intention of this
question was to see to which extent the parties expect MET to be financed by the
Government. It was assumed that when choosing option a) the parties believe that the
Government should assume the cost of MET. The results for the parties were as follows:
b) by party
a)
b)
c)
Shipowners
Trade Unions
Marit. Admin.
MET Institutes
Seafarers
5
1
4
3
1
4
2
1
12
4
7
6
Table 15
15
1
30
8
13
30
8
13
3.11
More than one answer possible.
Which advantages has MET in Western Europe compared to MET somewhere else?
a) higher quality of education and training
b) easier harmonisation of curricula
c) easier introduction of a common language
d) none
a) by country
a)
b)
c)
d)
BE
DK
FI
FR
DE
GR
IS
IE
IT
NL
NO
PT
ES
SE
GB
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
7
3
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
5
4
2
1
5
3
5
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
39
21
11
Table 16
b) by party
a)
b)
c)
d)
Shipowners
Trade Unions
Marit. Admin.
MET Institutes
Seafarers
7
3
1
2
2
7
5
1
18
8
6
5
3
3
39
21
11
Table 17
3.12
Aspects of MET
Several options were given to the respondents. The objective was to find out which aspects of
an MET system were considered most important. The most frequently given aspects were the
shipping industry needs and the achievement of higher international standards. Frequent
references were also made to employment opportunities, international mobility and
professional mobility. Globalisation of the economy was rarely referred to as being an
important aspect of an MET philosophy.
Environmental concerns were not mentioned as often as expected, compared to the number of
times the achievement of higher international standards was mentioned.
16
4
Conclusions
In general, current MET systems seem to satisfy the needs of the different parties and planned
future MET systems are considered appropriate. Due to the different systems in place it may
be difficult to achieve harmonisation of systems beyond the harmonisation of basic syllabuses
through STCW 95. The majority of the parties still prefers separate deck and engine room
MET. Certification for dual-trained watchkeepers, and masters/chief engineers do not seem
popular with the exception of those countries where such system is already established.
Ship officers should have in their curricula subjects outside what is required by STCW 95.
Special emphasis should be put on shipping management, ship maintenance and international
maritime law. This appears to reflect a recognition by the parties that today ship officers do
not spend their entire professional life at sea. They should be awarded, besides a certificate of
competency, an educational award and an academic degree. Consequently, the courses should
be sea and shore-oriented.
Students admitted at an MET institute should have the same qualifications as students
admitted at a university. However, they should spend 2 or 3 months at sea before starting
their studies. Ratings admitted to studies for officer certificates of competency should have
the same general education as ship officers who took up studies directly.
Onboard training is still considered the best way to acquire the skills to perform the job,
specially if good trainers are available on board.
Quality assurance is accepted in the process of achieving higher standards and compliance
with STCW 95 requirements.
MET should be free of charge which suggests that the Governments are expected to pay also
for MET in future.
MET in Western Europe is perceived as having a higher quality than MET outside Western
Europe.
17
METHAR
ATTACHMENT
(Prepared by Jaime Leça da Veiga)
February 1998
METHAR, WP 2, Attachment
18
List of organizations, institutions and individuals
that have replied to the questionnaire
Belgium
• Antwerp Maritime Academy
• Union des Armateurs Belges
Denmark
• Danish Maritime Authority
• Danish Shipowners Association
Finland
•
•
•
•
France
•
•
Kotka Maritime & Transport Institute
Finnish Maritime Administration
Finnish Ships Officers Union
Ecole Nationale de la Marine Marchande, Marseille
French Shipmasters’ Association
Germany
• German Shipowners Association
• Fachhochschule Oldenburg
• Hochschule Bremerhaven
• Hochschule Wismar, Fachbereich Seefahrt Warnemünde
• Hochschule Bremen, Fachbereich Nautik
• See-Berufsgenossenschaft Hamburg
• Seafarers (3)
Greece
• Merchant Marine Academy of Hydra
• Constantinos Korontzis, Greek MET representative in Concerted Action on MET
Iceland
• College of Navigation, Reykjavik
Ireland
• Irish Chamber of Shipping
• Sea & Shore Safety Services, Ltd
Italy
• Confitarma - Confederazione Italiana Armatori
• Istituto Tecnico Nautico Statale “M.Torre”, Trapani
• Istituto Tecnico Nautico “S. Venier”, Venezia
19
Netherlands
• Shipowners Association
• Hogeschool van Amsterdam
• Maritime Institute “Willem Barentz”, West Terschelling
• Shipping and Transport College, Rotterdam
• Directorate General of Shipping
• Officers Union
Norway
• Norwegian Shipowners Association
• Vestfold College
• Norwegian Maritime Directorate
Portugal
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Spain
•
•
•
•
•
Merchant Marine Shipowners Association
Escola Náutica Infante D. Henrique - Nautical Department
Directorate General of Ports, Navigation and Shipping
Merchant Marine Officers Union - Sincomar
Merchant Marine Officers Union - S.C.O.P.C.R.M.M.
Seafarers (2)
Direccion Generale de la Marina Mercante
Escuela Superior de la Marina Civil La Coruña
Escuela Superior de la Marina Civil Cantabria
Escuela Superior de la Marina Civil Bilbao
Seafarers (2)
Sweden
• Swedish Shipowners Association
• Chalmers University of Technology, Nautical Department
• Swedish Maritime Administration
United Kingdom
• Marine Safety Agency
• The Nautical Institute
• Glasgow College of Nautical Studies
• Chamber of Shipping
• Seafarers (2)
Others
• Confederation of European Shipmasters’ Associations (CESMA)
• Federation of Transport Workers’ Unions in the European Union (FTWU) *
• International Transport Workers Federation (ITF) *
* These organizations replied that they are not going to complete the questionnaire:
• FTWU because they are working on a study on the same subject and
• ITF because they prefer their national members to complete the questionnaire.
20
METHAR
QUESTIONNAIRE
(Prepared by Jaime Leça da Veiga)
September 1997
METHAR, WP 2, Questionnaire
21
Work package 2
Country survey of MET philosophies of parties involved in
European MET: Concepts and objectives
Questionnaire
Aim:
To examine European understanding of, and attitudes to, concepts and objectives of MET by
Shipowners Associations, Trade Unions, Maritime Administrations, National MET
Institutions, National Educational Authorities and Seafarers/MET students.
Objectives:
To identify national attitudes to MET systems in Europe regarding:
• their role played in contributions to the shipping industry;
• their role played in contributions to the maritime infrastructure;
• whether the level of expectations matches the reality of the current situation;
• how European MET should contribute to the free movement of seafarers between ships of
the European States.
Questionnaire
1
1.1
Current MET policies and systems:
Do they adequately meet current needs of shipowners/administrations/
unions/seafarers? Yes
No
If No, specify where they are inadequate: _______________________
________________________________________________________
1.2
Future MET policies and systems
Are they adequate to meet the demands of new changes
No
a) STCW 95
Yes
If No, specify where they are inadequate: _______________________
_________________________________________________________
No
b) ISM Code
Yes
If No, specify where they are inadequate: ________________________
_________________________________________________________
22
2
MET systems
a)
Which type of system do you see most adequately meeting your current and
future needs?
Front-ended
Separate deck and engine room
Sandwich course
Dual-trained watchkeeper
Post experience (post sea)
Alternative certification
Dual-trained master/chief engineer
b)
Should the course be divided in two stages, one for junior officers and
the other for senior officers? Yes
No
If Yes, after how many years (months) of experience at sea, should the
officer return for further studies? ______________________________
c)
In your opinion MET should be:
Solely sea oriented
Sea and shore oriented
Shore oriented
d)
When choosing one of the above options, which was the importance of
the reasons listed below (in order of importance, starting with 1 - the
most important) for your choice?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
achievement of higher international standards
degree of specialisation
economic environment
employment opportunities
environmental concerns
globalisation of the economy
international mobility (between countries)
manning requirements
mobility between national fleets
national maritime policy
new technologies to be used in the maritime sector
professional mobility (sea-shore)
regional maritime policy
shipping industry needs
social environment
use of simulators in training
23
3
Formal qualifications
Should ships’ officers MET programmes result in:
a)
b)
4
The award of a professional certificate of competency only
The award of both a certificate of competency and a recognised
educational award or an academic degree
national
Admission requirements and course length
a)
Which of the following do you think to be the best requirements for
admission at MET institutions (officers only)
• 12 years of general education at high school
• 12 years of general education at high school plus 2 or 3 months of practice
at sea
• Other, please identify ____________________________________
b)
The number of students to be admitted at MET institutions should be
defined by:
•
•
•
•
•
MET institutions
Ministry responsible for maritime transport
National body with representation from above
Other, please identify _____________________________
c)
What is the best way for ratings to pursue studies for an officer
certificates of competency?
• after some years of experience at sea they can return to MET institutions for
further studies, independently of their academic qualifications
• after some years of experience at sea they can return to MET institutions for
further studies, only if they have the minimum academic qualifications
• the seafaring career should start as rating and then continue for higher
certificates
• Other, please identify _____________________________________
d)
According to your previous answers, the duration of a course for a sea
career should be:
Watchkeeping
Master/Chief Engineer
1 year
2 years
3 years
4 years
5 years
Other ______
24
e)
In your opinion, what is the best way for trainees to acquire the skills to
perform their job?
• on board experience
• simulators
• workshops
f)
Can simulator training substitute sea time in those countries where such
training is compulsory for obtaining higher certificates?
• Yes
• No
• Partially
g)
If your answer was Yes or Partially, please specify:
• At master/chief engineer level
• At watchkeeping officer level
h)
If you feel that on board training would improve skills, please specify in
which way________________________________________________
i)
In your opinion the cost of MET should be:
• totally free of charge
• free of charge for watchkeeper courses only
• paid for courses for special certificates (GMDSS, ARPA, Dangerous Goods
endorsement, etc…)
25
5
Course contents
a)
In the MET courses, it is necessary to comply with STCW 95
requirements. However, do you think that officers should also have
knowledge and understanding of subjects beyond STCW 95
No
requirements?
Yes
b)
If Yes, mark in order of importance (the subjects beyond STCW 95)
listed below (1 - most important):
• Port management
• Shipping management (including Quality Assurance)
• Maritime administration
• Environmental protection and pollution combating
• Economics
• Engineering disciplines
• Mathematics
• Physics
• Ship maintenance
• Cash management
• International maritime law
• Other (please, specify)_____________________________________
_________________________________________________________
6
Post graduation
Where is the best place for seafarers to pursue post graduate studies or other
professional upgrading?
• at MET institutions
• at universities
• on board, by long distance learning, using modern technologies (Email,
Internet, CD-ROM, etc)
• other, please specify ___________________________________________
7
Management and standards
a) In each country, higher standards of maritime education and training are best
achieved through:
• a national co-operative body with MET institutions, maritime
administration, shipowners and unions.
• a national co-operative body with maritime administration, MET
institutions and educational bodies.
• a national co-operative body with maritime administration and MET
institutions
• a national co-operative body with maritime administration, shipowners,
trade unions and MET institutions plus a regular quality assessment by an
independent body
• Other, please specify _____________________________________
26
b)
In your opinion, how can STCW 95 standards be best achieved?
•
•
•
•
c)
through regular quality assessment
through enhancement of the quality of lecturers
through higher standards of admission at MET institutions
Other, please specify_____________________________________
What could be the main problems in your country for the national shipping
industry if less young people would choose seafaring as a career?
• the national maritime industry will be deprived of people with shipboard
experience
• it will be necessary to recruit more people from other countries to man
national vessels
• there will be a shortage of former seamen in maritime administrations
• all the above
• other, please specify _____________________________________
8
What is in your opinion the added value from MET in Western Europe:
•
•
•
•
•
9
none
higher quality of education and training
easier harmonisation of curricula
easier introduction of a common language
other, please specify __________________________________________
Final comments
Any further comments you would like to add:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
27
Report
METHAR
Project
Coordinator:
Partners:
Work package 3:
Comparative analysis and evaluation of
European MET including identification of underlying concepts and objectives
Date: February 1999
PROGRAMME
METHAR, WP 3
Task 43 Harmonization of European MET Schemes
METHAR
Comparative analysis and evaluation of
European MET including identification of underlying concepts and objectives
EXTENDED REPORT
February 1999
1
Work package 3
Comparative analysis and evaluation of European MET including identification of
underlying concepts and objectives
Table of contents
Page
1
Introduction
1.1
1.2
1.3
2
4
Interpretation of the term “harmonization” in Harmonization of
European MET Schemes (METHAR)
MET in METHAR countries * and its environment
Extended approach to work package 3
MET demand vs MET supply
4
5
8
10
2.1
The international market for ship officers for on-board
Employment
11
2.2
The national markets for ship officers for on-board employment 11
2.2.1 Decline of interest in seafaring
11
2.2.2 Loss of students during MET and of graduates directly after MET 13
2.2.3 Limited retention of ship officers on board
14
2.3
The national markets for ship officers for on-shore employment
15
2.4
The international market for ship officers for on-shore employment17
3
Adaptation of MET to changes in demand and in its environment
18
3.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.3
18
19
20
21
21
22
23
24
25
Adaptation of MET to changes on the macro level
METHAR countries
Selected East European countries
Selected Asian countries
Adaptation of MET to changes on the central level
METHAR countries
Selected East European countries
Selected Asian countries
Adaptation of MET to changes on the micro level
* METHAR countries: Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland,
Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom
2
Page
4
5
Provisions for the supply of MET
27
4.1
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.3
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.4
4.4.1
4.4.2
27
28
32
33
35
35
37
39
42
43
44
MET authorities
MET syllabuses
MET vs shipboard requirements
Shipboard-confined syllabus vs ship-shore syllabus
Teaching staff
Types and qualifications of lecturers
Facilities
The use of modern technology in the environment of MET
The use of modern technology in MET
Conclusions and recommendations
49
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
49
51
53
53
54
55
57
Adaptation of MET to changes in demand and its environment
Authorities
Syllabuses
Teaching staff
Facilities
6
Selected references
58
7
Executive summary
62
8
Summary of research and development needs
65
3
1
Introduction
The introduction to the report on work package 3 clarifies the use of the term harmonization,
gives an overview on the environment that influences MET in METHAR countries and explains
the need for a more comprehensive (than initially planned) approach to this work package.
1.1
Interpretation of the term harmonization in Harmonization of European MET
Schemes (METHAR)
Already in the first meeting of the Concerted Action on MET (CAMET 1) in Brussels in June
1996, it was discussed how the term harmonization in Harmonization of European MET Schemes
(METHAR) should be interpreted. It was then (and is still today) the unanimous opinion of the
participants in CAMET that harmonization should not mean to aim at making MET in the 15
METHAR countries equal and achieving identity of contents and uniformity of schemes. It was
felt that this would not be possible because of the historically grown and firmly established
connection of MET with national ET systems and the great variety among the latter.
Theoretically, a harmonization in the sense of equality, identity and uniformity of national MET
systems would be possible if all national ET systems would be harmonized prior to the
harmonization of MET. Even if this would be feasible (although it is not), it would not be
desirable. National ET systems including MET systems have developed over centuries. They are
part of a country’s culture and are part of its national identity.
Nevertheless, the objectives of MET in all METHAR countries have in common that MET is
expected to qualify officers for shipboard service and that STCW 95 provides the basis for this by
specifying minimum requirements which ship officer MET has to meet. It is also accepted as a
fact in all METHAR countries that young people entering MET see shipboard service only as a
temporary part of their career and plan “to swallow the anchor” after a few or some years on
ships and then seek employment in the maritime industry ashore. It is also common
understanding that this transfer from ship to shore should be facilitated, although opinions differ
on how this could best be achieved. Beyond these commonalities, however, variations in
national MET systems become distinct, although there are also additional common elements,
although not in all 15 countries. Such commonalities can be found in several, some or a few
countries. The countries with additional common elements in their MET systems are not
necessarily the same, different groupings of countries for different common elements may exist.
At CAMET 1, it was agreed that harmonization beyond that which has already been created by
international regulations and common societal phenomena, should be treated as the effort to
improve national MET systems by learning from each other how MET is dealt with in each of the
15 countries and by providing for opportunities to take a detached view and reflect on the own
national MET, see how it compares to other national MET and how specific problems in other
countries’ MET are solved.
4
The consent that was found on the basis of this learning-from-each-other approach to improving
national MET – with the objectives of increasing the competitiveness of MET in METHAR
countries with MET in other regions and countries and the mobility of ship officers within
METHAR countries – and on calling it harmonization justifies the following statements:
•
•
•
•
harmonization has potential but also limits
harmonization is a process, not a state
harmonization should be bottom-up, not top-down
harmonization requries active involvement
The last statement was made because the participants in CAMET are expected to take home to
their countries’ MET what they learnt at CAMET from the findings of the METHAR research,
from discussions, and from each other. They should disseminate this information and become
multiplicators of the CAMET and METHAR efforts and, preferably, take their role so seriously
that they would become “change agents” by bringing back from CAMET to their national MET
new knowledge and insights which or part of which they would propose and help to integrate in
their national MET.
1.2
MET in METHAR countries and its environment
The main change in shipping is its globalization (see e.g. Gold 1999). MET in METHAR
countries (and world-wide) is influenced by this change in its environment (see e.g. Laubstein
1997) although it continues to be (at least in METHAR countries) a national service. It is this
conflict between international shipping and national MET in the context of which MET in
METHAR countries has to regain competitiveness in order to avoid marginalization and, in the
extreme, extinction.
The diagram on the next page illustrates – in a simplified form – the influences to which MET is
subjected, the consequences which these influences have and the actions undertaken to protect
MET in METHAR countries from negative influences and their consequences.
Brief comments on the various parts of the MET system are offered. They are to show that MET
is part of a complex system (see e.g. Obando-Rojas 1998) and dependent on developments in
national, regional and international environments. This is not supposed to mean that MET should
wait for directives, orders or another impetus before initiating own action. On the contrary, MET
can determine part of its future if it would take an active role and leave its often passive position
by which it has manoeuvred itself into a greater dependence than necessary (see e.g. Zade 1996).
Variable influences are made on MET by the parties concerned with it. The maritime
administration expects MET to meet international minimum requirements and occasionally also
higher nationally defined standards. Ship operators want officers to man their ships, they prefer a
shipboard-confined training and have little interest in providing students with opportunities to
prepare themselves for a career in the shore-based maritime industry after some years on board
ships. MET institutions are aiming at giving their students a good training and often also a good
education; they do exactly what they are told to do.
5
economic pressures
cheap labour from outside METHAR
countries
MET AND ITS ENVIRONMENT IN
METHAR COUNTRIES
PROTECTIVE
ACTION
cost of MET
NEGATIVE
INFLUENCES
control & increase
qualifications of
non-METHAR country
seafarers
parties
concerned
ship operators
decline of interest in
seafaring
trade unions
maritime
administration
s
VARIABLE
INFLUENCES
Maritime
Education and
Training
CONSEQUENCES
education
authorities
MET institutes
lack of shore-based
personnel with shipboard experience
ACTION
reduced need for
seafarers
ACTION
POSITIVE
INFLUENCES
loss of jobs
modern
technology
PROGRESSIVE ACTION
make seafaring more
attractive
broaden qualifications
national/ METHAR countries participation
in international sea trade
improve competitiveness of
shipping in METHAR
countries
jobs
6
Trade unions are mostly interested in employment conditions and in the welfare of their clientele.
Other parties concerned with MET in METHAR countries are educational authorities and
professional associations. Educational authorities could be seen as disturbing the balance of the
normally stable “trinity” government – industry – MET, because they are the party that rather
often expects MET to do more than to satisfy the requirements of the national maritime
administration and the national ship operators.
Professional associations are mostly trying to confirm the role and status of their members.
Notable exceptions are The Nautical Institute and The Institute of Marine Engineers, both based
in London and operating world-wide, which also give attention to improving the professional
qualifications of their members (see e.g. STCW 1994).
The influence of the increasing use of modern technology on ships and in offices ashore can, on
the one hand, have a negative effect through a loss of jobs; it can, on the other hand, have a
positive effect through giving shipping of METHAR countries an advantage, although it would
be false to believe that such advantage can be maintained for long. The increasing use of modern
technology has changed and will change work contents on ships and have an impact on MET
programmes and, through the use of simulators e.g., also on the implementation of these
programmes.
Negative influences are made on MET in METHAR countries by economic pressures, the
availability of cheap labour from outside METHAR countries and, in addition, by the high costs
of MET and the lacking concentration of resources.
Positive influences are made on MET by participation of METHAR countries in international sea
trade and the creation of jobs.
The main consequences from the negative influences on MET are a reduced need for seafarers
from METHAR countries and a loss of jobs which runs parallel, although independently, with a
decline of interest in seafaring.
MET in METHAR countries cannot wait for the creation of a “level playing field”. Although
officers from cheap labour countries are not as cheap anymore as before, it cannot be expected
that the difference between their wages and those of ship officers (and ratings) in METHAR
countries will become so small in the next ten years that it could be neglected.
Protective actions against the import of cheap labour can only have an effect if these officers do
not meet the minimum requirements of STCW 95, i.e. national protectionism by the unilateral
setting of specific requirements is a useless tool as long as international requirements are met.
Nevertheless, port state control will help to compensate for a possible lack of flag state control
and will help enforce minimum standards..
A way to improve the competitiveness of shipping in METHAR countries and, at the same time,
to bring more qualified candidates to seafaring is to make the seafaring career more attractive and
offer an MET that is desired by potential applicants. Increased emphasis on education rather than
training is the key for attracting more qualified young people to seafaring. It would also help to
7
overcome the shortage of officers with shipboard experience for positions in the shore-based
national maritime industry, if on-board jobs on national ships for nationals could be regained with
the help of direct or indirect financial support from national and EU funds to ship operators.
In East Europe and Asia exists no shortage of applicants for MET, the wages of ship officers are
attractive and normally higher than those paid ashore. The attention to work conditions and
social conditions for seafarers is less developed than in METHAR countries (see e.g. Lane 1998).
The number of parties involved in MET is smaller as is the range of views and opinions on MET
and the attention to dissenting views and opinions. The trinity administration – ship operators –
MET is, with the partial exception in East European countries, still mostly undisturbed by other
parties.
1.3
Extended approach to work package 3
In the original description of the METHAR project, work package 3 (Comparative analysis and
evaluation of European MET including identification of underlying concepts and objectives)
consisted of the two work packages 3.1 (Comparative analysis and evaluation of surveys under
work package 1) and 3.2 (Comparative analysis and evaluation of surveys under work package
2), i.e. work package 3.1 was to evaluate the "Survey of the state of European MET" (work
package 1) and work package 3.2 was to evaluate the "Country survey of MET philosophies of
parties involved in European MET: Concepts and objectives" (work package 2). This approach is
still valid and if it would be extended to a comparison of work package 1 (MET as it is) with
work package 2 (MET as it is to be), then the information collection of work packages 1 and 2
could be fully used towards the harmonization of European MET by identifying commonalties
and differences of MET in the 15 countries which are participating in the METHAR project
through representatives of MET institutions and administrations in the Concerted Action on
Maritime Education and Training (CAMET).
A shortcoming of this comparative analysis and evaluation of MET in the 15 METHAR countries
would be the exclusion of MET in countries from which officers are employed on ships flying the
flag of a METHAR country or its second register. Since this supplement to the insufficient
supply of ship officers from METHAR countries will most probably have to be maintained, it is
also necessary to take the quality and quantity of MET in those countries into consideration
which help meet the demand of METHAR countries for ship officers.
Countries in East Europe and Asia are the main foreign suppliers of officers for METHAR
countries' ships.
From East Europe, information on MET in Croatia, Estonia, Poland and Slovenia has been
collected. The latter three countries were included because they are countries with MET which
are expected to join the European Union ahead of all other East European countries with MET,
i.e. ahead of Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Russia, Ukraine and a few other countries.
Croatia was included because it is a traditional supplier of officers for METHAR countries' ships.
Russia is also such a supplier but it has been excluded from the research since, in contrast to
Croatia, the future of its MET is affected by uncertainties, created by the disastrous economic
situation of the country.
8
Information on MET in these four selected East European countries has been obtained by the use
of the questionnaires for METHAR work packages 1 and 2. Croatian, Polish and Slovenian
MET was also presented by national MET experts and discussed at CAMET 6 in Trieste in April
1998.
Information on MET in China, India, Indonesia and the Philippines has been collected for a
study on MET in these countries (CIIPMET) with which World Maritime University and its
partner, the Seafarers' International Research Centre (SIRC) at Cardiff University of Wales, were
entrusted by the Directorate-General for Transport. The survey forms for this study were
developed on the basis of the questionnaires for work package 1. The main objective of
CIIPMET was to find out whether MET in the four selected countries, which are important
suppliers of officers (and ratings) for the international market, meets the minimum requirements
of STCW 95. The completion of the survey forms was followed by visits of study teams to the
four countries who verified and completed the information collected through the survey forms.
Indian MET was also presented by a national MET expert and discussed at CAMET 7 in Lisbon
in September 1998.
The inclusion of MET in selected countries in East Europe and Asia in the comparative analysis
and evaluation provides for a comparison of MET in METHAR countries with the MET in
countries supplying officers to those METHAR countries which are not in the position to meet
their demand through nationals. This comparison allows the identification of strengths and
weaknesses in METHAR countries' MET. If the weaknesses would be overcome, then MET in
these 15 countries would become more competitive. This is not only a question of costs as it
appears to have become in the minds of many people, it is also a question of quality, although
rather for the employment of national ex-ship officers in the national land-based maritime
industry of METHAR countries than on board their ships where the meeting of the minimum
requirements of STCW 95 is mostly considered a satisfactory standard that can also be ensured
by the recruitment of foreign officers.
The globalization of shipping and the international market for seafarers, the supply shortage in
METHAR countries and the supply surplus in the selected countries in East Europe and Asia
influence the quality and quantity of the demand for, and supply of, MET for ship officers for onboard and on-shore employment in the maritime industry.
Demand and supply have therefore been used as framework for this comparative analysis and
evaluation and demand vs supply, adaptation to changes in demand and in its environment and
provisions for supply have been used in chapter headings of this report. This use of economic
market terms in chapter headings is not to suggest that MET is all cost and quantity. The quality
of MET is of importance if MET in METHAR countries is to become more competitive.
Another shortcoming of this comparative analysis would be an exclusion of environmental
influences on MET, particularly those of an economic, societal, regulatory and technological
nature, the consequences of these influences and efforts made to weaken or even neutralize
negative influences. What happened in and with MET can better be understood if environmental
influences on MET are appreciated. On the other hand, this report should not become a
comprehensive description of MET that attends to details in each of the 15 METHAR countries
but it should rather identify general evolution and trends, treat METHAR countries as a whole
9
and outline significant developments in a majority of countries which may extend to all
METHAR countries. This not-all-but-most-countries approach is justified because of the
common international environment of MET in METHAR countries, although its influences on
national MET environments and MET may produce different results.
METHAR countries sit - regarding MET - in a common as well as in a national boat. The
transition that world shipping is undergoing indicates that the common boat aspect will
increasingly gain importance over the national boat aspect and that this development will be
supported by the further growing together of Europe.
Eventually: the compilation of references under 6 does not aim at providing a complete listing of
publications on all the subjects and points covered but is limited to selected publications which
highlight important subjects or points.
2
Work package 1.9 dealt with an aspect of the demand for, and supply of, MET by a “Country
survey of number and qualification of persons who choose MET for a temporary or permanent
seafaring career vs the number of training places in national MET institutions”. It identified,
among others, that “there seems to be a lack of an agreed concept for monitoring the number of
applicants, graduates and training places for MET in the European countries”. This finding is
rather cautiously worded. In some countries exists hardly anything that could be called a
“concept” for the collection of these data. Figures for applicants, students and graduates are
available at each MET institution but only rarely from a central national register at a supervising
authority. The figures for surplus study places seem occasionally to be subject to institutional
interpretation.
The findings from work package 1.9 are used in this chapter that covers a wider range than the
work package. This extension of range will help identify the causes of the mismatch between
national demand for, and national supply of, ship officers in most METHAR countries and put
them as well as demand and supply in an international context.
Demand for MET and supply of MET world-wide have both a quantitative and a qualitative
dimension. There are shortcomings in both dimensions. Quantitative shortcomings do normally
not exist in East Europe and Asia where a number of countries produce more ship officers than
are required to man ships flying the national flag. However, quantitative shortcomings exist in
most METHAR countries and they will continue to exist if the present shortage of applicants can
not be overcome. Qualitative shortcomings are addressed by the minimum requirements of
STCW 95. This has led (and will lead) to improvements of standards in those countries where
these requirements are not met yet but may also lead to reduced standards in countries where
STCW 95 requirements are already exceeded.
Ship officers are employed in two markets, in the international and the national market, and in
two sectors, in the on-board and the on-shore sector.
In the following, the situation in the two markets and two sectors is reviewed. Both the
quantitative and the qualitative dimension are considered.
10
2.1
The international market for ship officers for on-board employment
There exists a global shortage of ship officers and a surplus of ratings (BIMCO/ISF 1990, 1995).
The greatest shortage exists in most METHAR countries while there is a surplus of ship officers
produced in some East European and Asian countries. The shortage is reflected in a surplus of
study places at MET institutions in most METHAR countries, the surplus of ship officers is e.g.
indicated by the 47 commercially operated private MET institutions in Indonesia and the about
120 such institutions in the Philippines.
There are not only quantitative differences in the demand for, and supply of, ship officers on the
international market, but also qualitative ones. MET in almost all METHAR countries, in the
selected East European countries and in China and India meets STCW 95 requirements and often
exceeds them. MET offered by private institutions in Indonesia and in the Philippines is not
always meeting the minimum requirements of STCW 95. These two countries will not be able to
produce more ship offices "for export" if they do not substantially increase their standards,
because it is now, with STCW 95 in force, much more difficult, if not impossible, to "export"
ship officers of insufficient quality.
2.2
The national markets for ship officers for on-board employment
Despite a reduced demand, there exists a shortage of ship officer supply in many METHAR
countries. It is mainly a result of a decline of interest in seafaring as a career.
Decline of interest in seafaring can be observed in almost all METHAR countries. The notable
exception is France where about 5 qualified applicants apply for each study place.
Concern about this negative development has existed for several years already, it was given
public expression in the conference on "Is the European Union Seafarer an Endangered Species?"
in Dublin in December 1996. Transport Commissioner Neil Kinnock answered the question then
with "On present trends, yes". (Kinnock 1996, see also e.g. Holder 1997 and Zade 1997). “The
problem we are considering obviously has two facets: The demand for EU seafarers is falling
and so is the ability of Union Member States to supply trained seafarers.” (Kinnock 1996)
Repeated efforts have been made in METHAR countries to identify the reasons for the reluctance
of young people to choose seafaring as a (temporary) career. Already some 20 years ago it was
the "issue for the majority of seafarers (is) not whether to leave the sea but when" (Frank Main,
Head, Department of Marine Studies, Liverpool Polytechnic, UK). Since then the development
from choosing seafaring as a career until retirement to choosing it as a temporary career has
further deteriorated to not choosing seafaring as a career at all. Discussions of experts on, and
research into, the reasons for this development have concluded that the decline of seafaring as
career objective is most distinct in so-called affluent societies (and that even growing youth
unemployment in these societies does not have much of a counterbalancing effect). The main
reason for this development is obviously an increased unwillingness to accept the separation from
family and friends and a private life of own choice, and this despite today's often fairly generous
leave provisions. It seems to add to the staying away from seafaring that the image of the
11
industry is not good, partly because publicity is mainly given to negative events, including the
hardships seafarers may have to endure and the sometimes difficult and bad working conditions.
Various research projects have tried to identify possible measures by which seafaring could be
made more attractive again to young people. The latest research in this area was undertaken by
the MASIS II (Human Element in Man-Machine Interface) project. Some findings from the
advanced draft report on the topic (which was prepared by CETEMAR, Centro de Estudios
Técnico-Marítimos, in Barcelona) is quoted in the following:
"how to attract them? …………………..
• If education for the shipping industry is only "training" in a technical sense, career
expectations will diminish and young people will look elsewhere.
• If we can offer young people a good education and will qualify them for a job at sea and that
will also qualify them for decent jobs at management level on shore, they will be
"recruitable.””
"how to retain them?
This challenge is placed on … the management. Living and working conditions on board and
personal expectations are important points in this context."
"The changing industry will not attract the personnel it needs now and in the future if it does not
recognize what motivates young people today".
"There is a direct connection between the condition of the industry and the availability of
intelligent, well-paid and motivated people."
It should also be mentioned in this context that former seafarers were sometimes motivated for
their career by the desire to see foreign countries and used the ship as the "vehicle" to achieve
this. This motivation has become invalid with the opportunities offered by today's mass tourism.
Also the promotion of a seafaring career with catchwords like independence of decision making
and responsibility for people, a very expensive ship and most valuable cargo has not brought the
clients back.
A variation of efforts to attract more young people to seafaring is to concentrate on the selection
of those who would be specially suitable for shipboard work. This “matching” of shipboard
requirements with personality traits is pursued in Sweden (see e.g. Schager 1993). The main
personal qualities of a good shipboard officer are, according to Schager: technological
comprehension, intellectual capacity, perceptiveness, sociability, self-control and stress tolerance.
It could be assumed that MET students with those qualities would also show increased “sea
stability”, i.e. that they would remain longer on ships than their colleagues who may not be
equally suitable for shipboard work.
12
Besides not choosing MET at all, there are three "points" at which those who have entered MET
may reconsider their choice of career:
1
2
3
during MET studies
directly after graduation
after a limited time on ships.
The change of career choice at "point" 1 marks normally a "total loss", at point 2 may mark and
at point 3 normally marks a transfer to the maritime industry ashore.
2.2.2 Loss of students during MET and of graduates directly after MET
An until now not fully appreciated finding from work package 1.9 is that there is a loss,
occasionally a considerable loss of students during MET. No research results are available yet
which specify the number of students leaving during MET, at what stage and for what reasons,
including those who leave MET because they are not able to cope with the academic
requirements of their studies. The hypothesis that a closer acquaintance with seafaring during
MET studies may make young people re-consider their career choice is not proven, neither is the
more basic hypothesis that young people are not fully aware of what they have to expect from
shipboard life. There is a need for research into this phenomenon.
Part of the attrition during studies may have been caused by the change of most MET systems to
a front-entrance approach, i.e. by admitting students to MET institutions directly after completion
of their general education. Previous systems with time on ships before entering an MET
institution have helped to "open the eyes" of MET candidates and may have made those with
different job expectations change their mind on pursuing a seafaring career. The Polish Higher
Merchant Marine Academy in Gdynia e.g. uses its sail training vessel "Dar Mlodziezy" to give
MET candidates an exposure to the sea, shipboard practice and required team work under rather
difficult conditions before admitting them to studies.
Only 5 of 15 METHAR countries require shipboard experience before entering an MET
institution, namely Denmark, Iceland (only for nautical officer students), Norway (only for
nautical officer students), Sweden and UK. In Germany pre-MET shipboard experience is no
longer mandatory for every beginner.
The figures of work package 1.9 do not provide a clear indication whether the loss during MET is
smaller in the countries which require shipboard experience before MET than in the countries
which do not require such experience. It would be of benefit to know for the retention of students
in MET whether their first experience with shipboard reality has had any influence on their
decision to continue studies and, earlier, whether shipboard experience before MET has
weakened or strengthened their desire to pursue MET.
There seem to be no publications on efforts to keep students in MET, another indication that loss
of students during MET has until now not raised particular concern.
13
Another part of the attrition during studies may have been caused by a shortage of places for
trainees (cadets) on board ships, a problem that does not only exist for trainees in the maritime
industry but also in other industries in many METHAR countries.
No reliable figures are available on shipboard places for trainees. It is difficult to obtain them
because of changes in the numbers of trainee places on board which are often a result of changes
in the size of national merchant marine fleets and are affected by variations in ship operators’
attitudes to providing places for trainees on board their ships. Ship operators who provide
training places on board their ships “express their frustration at investing in cadets only to see
officers poached by competitors.” (Fairplay 1996)
It has also to be noted that the introduction of academic degrees in MET has facilitated the
change from ship to shore and that, in the extreme, MET graduates may consider not to go on
board at all but seek employment ashore directly after graduation from an MET institution. Such
behaviour is widely spread in Spain where those obtaining a Bachelor degree at the maritime
department of a university continue to study for a Master degree at the same or another
department of the university or seek employment ashore. These graduates are certainly not as
qualified as graduates with shipboard experience and they may “misuse” MET for another
objective than it is provided for.
2.2.3 Limited retention of ship officers on board
Efforts to “keep men at sea” (KEMAS, "Wally" Wakeford, director, Southampton School of
Navigation in Warsash, UK, in the 70s) and other efforts to retain ship officers have had only a
limited and overall disappointing effect.
It is of considerable importance that differences in expectations between ship operators and
seafarers have to be taken into account, addressed and minimized (Stevenson, June 1998). “In
the maritime industry the shipowner is profit motivated and the seafarer is satisfaction motivated.
It is the balancing of these apparently contradictory factors that lies at the heart of the problem.
Without taking into account the concerns of both sides of the employment equation there is
unlikely to be a satisfactory outcome for either party.”
Efforts to retain officers on board ships have led to on-board provisions and opportunities to
obtain additional qualifications. In future, also distance learning can be expected to gain a role in
these provisions. The rapid development of IT facilitates communication between ship and
shore. Modern technology will however also be used to control ship operations from the head
office ashore. Nevertheless, the ship remains a "total institution" and the disadvantage of the
physical separation from the shore can never be fully overcome.
Other efforts to "keep man at sea" are directed at improving the living conditions on board by
using ergonomic design and facilitating work, particularly physical work, and the obtaining,
processing and evaluation of safety relevant information. Progress with man-machine systems
has been considerable although it has not been applied on all ships.
14
In contrast to such efforts to make life and work for shipboard personnel more interesting and
easier stand (too) often employment conditions which seem to suggest that seafarers are treated
as nothing more than a commodity (see e.g. Lane 1998).
Stevenson, in the preliminary analysis of his research into the retention of ship officers on board
(Stevenson, February 1998), identifies five main factors which ship officers consider important
when considering whether they should stay at sea “1: pay, 2: leave; 3: having a responsible job,
4: making my own decisions, 5: having reliable fellow workers”.
The manpower situation is the opposite (to that in METHAR countries) in the selected East
European and Asian countries. MET institutions in these countries have a surplus of applicants.
Seafaring is considered an attractive profession, apparently also because of the salaries offered.
In India, about 30 qualified persons apply for a study place.
2.3
Whilst missing national ship officers in METHAR countries can be replaced by ship officers
recruited on the international market, this approach can hardly be applied to shore-based
positions for ex-ship officers. The national maritime industry prefers to recruit ship officers who
speak the national language and are familiar with national manners and customs. They are
employed as pilots, ship and cargo surveyors, Port State Control officers, managers in ship
operation and manning agencies, in marine insurance and other maritime enterprises, maritime
administrations and at MET institutions. In many of these positions shipboard experience is
essential, in some of them it is desirable.
There is already a shortage of nationals with shipboard experience in some METHAR countries
and there is a forthcoming shortage in some other METHAR countries (see e.g. McConville 1995
and Gardener 1996).
There is no shortage of former ship officers in shore positions in the maritime industry in the
selected East European and Asian countries as long as attractive salaries are offered. An
"attractive salary", according to individual interviews, seems already to be half the salary of a
chief mate or first engineer. One may wonder about the loss of income ship officers are willing
to accept for staying ashore. There are, however, occasionally additional benefits offered in onshore employment, as e.g. free housing. Such benefits are rather offered in teaching positions
than in better paid positions in commercial operations where no dependence from governmental
subsidies exists and profit has to be made.
Until now there is no satisfactory solution in sight for overcoming the growing shortage of such
personnel in METHAR countries. Three main approaches are applied, a fourth approach could
be re-applied and a fifth and sixth approach may be needed in future. All the approaches have
serious limitations. Success in the first approach is the main solution for the problem of shortage
of ship officers for on-shore employment.
1
More young people are attracted to a seafaring career. Promotional efforts towards this
objective are made well focussed and coordinated in e.g. the Netherlands and the UK.
15
2
The possible number of those obtaining an unlimited certificate of competency has been
increased for applicants for unlimited certificates of competency in e.g. Germany, Netherlands
and Norway by admitting students with less than 12 years of general education to courses for
unlimited certificates of competency. This extension of the pool of potential master mariners and
chief engineers is made possible by the minimum requirements of STCW 95. It could also be
argued that this extended opportunity to obtain an unlimited certificate of competency will not
increase the total number of certificate holders as it will only upgrade those who already chose to
attend a course leading to a limited certificate of competency. It remains to be seen what
consequences this lowering of entry conditions for courses leading to unlimited certificates of
competency will have. It may help to attract additional applicants to MET.
Figures of work package 1.9 show that 54% of MET students have completed a higher education
(of normally 12 years) and 46% a lower general education (of normally 10 years). Students with a
higher general education prefer to attend courses leading to unlimited certificates, at least in the 7
countries where a higher general education is required for courses also leading to an academic
degree. This restriction has now been lifted in the countries which have upgraded MET for
limited certificates to MET for unlimited certificates without academic degree (although it has
not been lifted for MT leading to certificates for skipper or engineer positions on ships engaged
in near-coastal voyages). In the 8 countries where only non-degree MET leading to unlimited
certificates of competency is offered, students with a higher general education have no choice
than to attend a non-degree course if they want to become ship officers.
3
Another approach to lowering entry requirements with the purpose of increasing the pool
of personnel for shore-based positions, would be to admit ship officers with limited certificates to
positions as e.g. positions for pilots, in which today mostly unlimited certificates of competency
are required. This would in fact be an approach equivalent to the previous one. It could be
extended by the retroactive upgrading of limited to unlimited certificates.
4
The previous, only partly successful graduate entry scheme in the UK could be reintroduced. It was based on the assumption that young people with first university degrees in
science would be interested in a temporary career in seafaring and would be prepared to attend a
course that qualifies them to serve as ship officers. For applicants with science degrees, such
course could be shorter than the normal course leading to watchkeeping certificates of
competency. The assumption that these people would be interested in seafaring was partly based
on their difficulty to find employment ashore. Although the employment opportunities for these
graduates with first degrees have, in general, not visibly changed, it remains doubtful whether
many of them would be interested in "advanced standing" admission to an MET institution.
Although they would qualify for an MET “shortcut", they would still have to fulfil the seafaring
requirements of STCW 95.
A similar approach could be used by upgrading the qualifications of navy officers who retired in
their 50s or even earlier.
5
It is likely that positions in the maritime industry ashore in which shipboard experience is
only desirable, will in future be occupied by persons who do not have any shipboard experience.
16
6
Last but not least, if foreign ship officers who sail on ships flying the flag of a METHAR
country or its second register, will learn the language of the country and get acquainted with
national manners and customs then they would become also qualified for work in the national
shipping industry ashore. There exists a greater resource of such personnel for France, Portugal,
Spain and, above all, the UK than for other METHAR countries. This staff resource would also
comprise ship officers of other METHAR countries, provided certificates of competency would
be mutually recognised by METHAR countries' administrations, or a European ship officer
certificate would be introduced.
Approaches 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 would maintain shipboard experience as qualification although 2 and
3 could be expected to result in some loss of standards. The latter would probably be most
distinct if approach 5 would be used too often.
National ship operators and trade unions, administrations and professional associations are all
aware of the existing or forthcoming shortage of ship officers and its negative impact on the
shipping industry ashore. Most METHAR countries already try to attract more young people to
sea, some countries try to identify the qualitative and quantitative demand (on board and onshore). Ship operators (ECSA, European Community Shipowners' Association) and trade unions
(FEST, abbreviation of French name for Federation of Transport Workers' Union in the European
Union) make efforts to identify demand for, and necessary supply of, ship officers within the
European Union.
2.4
The international market for ship officers for on-shore employment
The restrictions for employment of non-nationals in the shore-based shipping industry of a
METHAR country do normally not apply to senior management positions in an international
maritime enterprise, where knowledge of the national language and familiarity with national
“particularities” are not always seen as necessary prerequisites. English is the lingua franca then
and the business practices and culture are international.
In summary, it can be said that the market for ship officers for on-board employment has become
an international market (as exemplified through the meeting of the demand in METHAR
countries by a supply from East Europe and Asia). The market for ship officers for on-shore
employment has remained a national market. A shortage of personnel with unlimited certificates
of competency and shipboard experience in a national market requires an increase of the number
of nationals who are able and willing to pursue, at least, a temporary career at sea. Efforts in
METHAR countries should therefore be directed at providing potential applicants not only with
what would qualify them for shipboard employment but also with what would make them decide
for such career.
17
3
Work package 1.8 surveyed the “national provisions for procedures and methods by which MET
adapts to new requirements”. The questionnaire used for obtaining this information did not
define what was meant by "new requirements". It assumed that the replies would be based on
changes required by STCW 95 and possible other changes with an impact on the structure and
contents of national MET programmes. The correctness of this assumption was confirmed by the
answers. Interviews with a random sample of those responding confirmed that "new
requirements" were interpreted as an updating of MET curricula in response to changes in
regulatory and, to a lesser extent, also in industry requirements.
Whilst it was important to collect this information on the national adaptation to changes in the
environment of MET in order to compare the approaches used in METHAR countries, there was
no mentioning in the questionnaire (and the replies) of how national MET has (or has not) tried to
adapt to changes in the numerical demand for its services. It was also intentionally neglected in
the questionnaire to find out how individual MET institutions try to improve and occasionally
extend their MET offer, also for using surplus faculty and facilities.
Although the macro level (capacity adaptation) and the micro level (institutional improvement
and extension of MET) were not covered by the questionnaire for sub-work package 1.8, some
information on adaptation on the macro level was collected through sub-work packages 1.1/1.3
(Survey of national MET systems, schemes and programmes/Survey of national certificate of
competency structures and validity) and 1.9; information on adaptation on the micro level was
collected through interviews after it was repeatedly noted that there exist in some countries
variations in the offer of MET institutions which would normally be expected to provide the same
national programmes. Such variation is apparently a result of differences in institutional and
individual efforts, of differences in the qualification of staff and the availability of facilities.
The evaluation of the adaptation of MET to changes in demand is therefore extended to
adaptation on the macro and the micro level. For easy reference, the level between macro and
micro level, with which sub-work package 1.8 deals, is called central level.
3.1
Adaptation of MET to changes on the macro level
The ratio of the number of study places at MET institutions to the number of applicants in
METHAR countries differs from such ratio in the East European and Asian countries, which
provide seafarers for the international market. In most METHAR countries exists a surplus of
study places and the ratio is mostly 1 : < 1, in East European and Asian countries exists a surplus
of applicants and the ratio is normally 1 : > 1.
18
3.1.1 METHAR countries
There exists a surplus, often even a considerable surplus of study places at MET institutions in
many METHAR countries.
This surplus of study places is a direct consequence of a surplus of MET institutions in most
METHAR countries. Altogether 147 MET institutions exist in the 15 METHAR countries at
134 locations. The difference of 13 has mainly to be attributed to separate institutions for deck
MET and engine MET at the same location. 129 of the 147 MET institutions offer courses
leading to unlimited certificates of competency and mostly also courses leading to limited
certificates of competency whereas 18 MET institutions offer only courses leading to the lower
certificates. The number of the 18 institutions has been considerably reduced because MET at
most of these institutions also meets the minimum requirements of STCW 95 for unlimited
Assuming that in the near future there would only be one MET institution at 134 locations and
deducting 7 institutions for Belgium, Ireland and Portugal where only one national MET
institution each exists, Sweden and Iceland where 2 MET institutions exist (Sweden) or would
then exist (Iceland), 127 MET institutions in 10 countries would remain, i.e. an average of 13
institutions per country. It is then interesting to note that only Italy (35) and Norway (25) are
above this average. The countries with a number of MET institutions between 6 and 13 are
Greece (11), Denmark (11), Germany (9), Netherlands (7), and Spain (7). The remaining
countries with a number of MET institution between 3 and 5 are Finland (5), France (4) and UK
(4).
A considerable national surplus of study places makes it advisable to reduce the national capacity
of study places and seek a concentration of resources. A possible approach to achieve this
objective and also an effective one would be the closing of a number of MET institutions.
This approach has until now only been used to a considerable degree in Greece (16 to 11), in
Sweden (5 to 2) and in the UK (about 20 minor to 4 major institutions – Glasgow,
Southampton/Warsash, South Shields).
There is no need to reduce the number of MET institutions in Belgium, Ireland and Portugal since
these countries have only one MET institution each. The in varying degree existing need to
concentrate resources has not led to any (further) decisive action by the governments in the
countries concerned, although a reduction of the 25 MET institutions in Norway to about half the
number is under consideration. A reduction is also under consideration in others of the 9 abovementioned countries, although it is not always publicly and officially talked about. There are
countries where nautical schools and marine engineering schools are sometimes at different
locations. This applies to Denmark, Finland, Germany, Greece, Iceland and Norway.
The absence of central government interference in this matter can be explained for Germany and
Spain which are (together with Austria) the only countries with a federative structure among the
EU member countries. MET institutions in Germany are under the authority of the “Länder” and
financed by them, MET institutions in Spain are under the authority of the “autonomias” and
financed by them.
19
The reluctance and perhaps even the inability of central governments to reduce the number of
national MET institutions seems to be caused by resistance on the local level. The institutions
use their often long-standing local importance in vocational education and training as an
argument against closure and that they are in many cases also partly locally financed. It is also
difficult for a central government to find convincing arguments for closing a part of the MET
institutions if all MET institutions suffer from a shortage of applicants. This prevailing of
parochial and occasionally also political preferences over national necessities has a negative
impact on MET quality (see e.g. Zade 1989). MET institutions may lack the means to acquire
modern equipment such as sophisticated simulators. If the financing authority has to save
expenditure, then the recruitment of new staff for the MET institution is, in the best case (for the
quality of MET), connected to the retirement of staff. In the worst case (for the quality of MET),
the staff is reduced to the number needed for taking care of the smaller number of students, i.e.
not all retiring staff is replaced; the average age of staff grows and with this readiness for change
tends to decline. Another negative consequence of such development can be a lack of expertise
in a subject and the assignment of a not fully qualified member of the “remaining” staff to
teaching this subject.
Surplus facilities may be used for other purposes, particularly if the MET institution is a
department of a bigger unit as e.g. a polytechnic.
Taken together, the quality of national MET often suffers from a lack of concentration of
resources at a smaller number of MET institutions. The quality also suffers from the lack of
recruitment of new staff in cases when retiring members of staff are not always replaced.
In France, where a surplus of applicants exists, decides a round table of all parties concerned
(CSFPM - comité spécialisé de la formation professionnelle maritime) also on the macro level, as
e.g. on the number of applicants to be admitted to national MET institutions. In most other
METHAR countries such round table, if it would exist at all, could not even take this decision
because of a shortage of applicants.
3.1.2 Selected East European countries
East European countries with their former strongly centralized and non-democratic governments
did never have as many MET institutions as existed in most METHAR countries. The number of
institutions was kept low, an approach that was dictated by limited resources but was also
intended in order to use MET institutions as maritime research centres (a development that has
also taken place at a few MET institutions in METHAR countries, although not as a result of a
governmental decree but of institutional initiative).
Before 1989, there were only 1 MET institution in the German Democratic Republic, 2 in Poland,
4 on the top level in the Soviet Union, 2 on different levels in Bulgaria as well as in Romania.
The exception was Yugoslavia that had several MET institutions where officers for unlimited
certificates of competency were educated and trained. This higher number of MET institutions
was partly a reflection of the ethnic division of the country.
20
After 1989, the overall number of MET institutions was almost maintained although in new state
configurations in Germany (united), Soviet Union and Yugoslavia (both divided). The MET
institutions in the Baltic States Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, which were not on the top level
before, were upgraded to it.
Since the number of applicants, with the exception of Germany, has remained higher than the
available number of study places, no surplus of study places was created and no adaptation of
capacity became necessary.
3.1.3 Selected Asian countries
There are 5 governmental MET institutions which offer courses leading to unlimited certificates
of competency in China, 3 of the 5 on university level, 4 (3 pre-sea and 1 post-sea) in India, 2 in
Indonesia and 1 in the Philippines. In Indonesia, there are additional 47 private, commercially
operated institutions which offer courses leading to certificates of competency, and in the
Philippines about 120. The proliferation of private institutions in Indonesia and the Philippines is
the result of the inability of the government institutions to meet the growing demand for officers
from these countries for the international market.
3.2
Adaptation of MET to changes on the central level
On this level, the adaptation to new regulatory requirements is dealt with, i.e. requirements of
STCW 78, as amended in 1995 (STCW 95), and the adaptation to new industry requirements, i.e.
requirements resulting from an increased use of modern technology and other changes on
board ships as well as growing economic pressure.
STCW 78 was an appreciation of the contribution of ship officers to ensuring safety, pollution
prevention and efficiency of shipping. STCW 78 was the first IMO convention solely devoted to
what is now referred to as the “human factor” (see e.g. Schager 1997). The identification of the
“human factor” as the most frequent “ingredient” in events leading to maritime accidents gave
shipboard personnel this importance. On the other hand, the limitation of technical
improvements brought people in the focus of attention as a resource for further improvement of
safety, environment protection and efficiency of shipping. Between STCW 78 and STCW 95 lies
also the appreciation that the qualification of shipboard personnel alone will not eliminate the
“contribution” of the “human factor” to the causes of maritime accidents. Human failure on the
bridge of a ship may be initiated in the headoffice of a ship operator who does not see to it that
the ship is fitted with the necessary equipment, has undergone the necessary surveys and that
everything is done for the ship’s crew to take a ship to sea that meets all safety and pollution
prevention requirements. This inclusion of the shore side in the responsibility for the ship has
also a managerial, organizational and procedural dimension. IMO’s International Safety
Management Code (ISM Code) reflects this wider scope and distribution of responsibility and
helps develop procedures and attitudes which give the necessary importance and attention to
safety matters and, through this, help shape a “safety culture” among all parties concerned. Only
such a comprehensive approach to safety, environment protection and efficiency of shipping can
lead to quality shipping. Concern, communication, co-operation, coherence are the keywords for
further improvement into this direction.
21
The responses to the questionnaire show that the government authority responsible for MET, i.e.
the national maritime administration and occasionally a national educational authority, sees to it
that changes in international regulations are identified to MET and their implementation is
initiated and monitored. Changes in the industry requirements, and the
necessity to adapt MET to them, are communicated by the national ship operators association or
individual ship operators to the responsible government authority or directly to MET institutions.
Those asking for changes in MET are those who would benefit from these changes. Those
affected by the changes, the ship officers, are represented by professional associations and trade
unions, although the latter normally limit their involvement to employment and work conditions
for seafarers. The MET institutions stand between those ordering or requesting the changes and
those affected by them.
Nine of the twelve countries from which replies were received to the questionnaire of work
package 1.8 bring together the main parties involved in MET – i.e. maritime administration,
educational authority, ship operators association, trade unions, professional bodies, MET
institutions – at round tables and jointly decide on necessary changes in the MET offer.
Nine of the twelve countries also answered that they have written procedures for the
identification, initiation and implementation of changes, and partly also for the monitoring of the
implementation. The number of countries with the latter procedure will increase to 15, i.e. all
METHAR countries, through the introduction of Quality Standard Systems at MET institutions,
as required by STCW 95. Since also external audits can be expected to become part of the future
quality control of MET, the implementation of new requirements should be well covered. This,
however, is only true for the meeting of new regulatory requirements. The meeting of new
industry requirements will still have to be negotiated at round tables or by national ship operator
associations through the responsible national administration to national MET or by individual
ship operators to individual MET institutions.
If ship operators would not be fully satisfied with existing MET and its adaptation to new
requirements then it can not be excluded that they may decide to involve themselves in MET.
This has already happened in Sweden with COMET (Concept for Maritime Education and
Training). Such industry involvement in MET or rather MT will lead to shipboard-confined
syllabuses meeting the minimum requirements of STCW 95, without additional provisions for
professional mobility.
An alternative to direct industry involvement in MET is the use of an existing MET institution for
the training of ship officers for a ship operator as e.g. the use of the MET institution in Hamburg,
Germany for the education and training of dual-purpose officers for the local ship operator
Hapag-Lloyd. This approach was widely spread in the early stages of MET in Europe when
major shipping companies used to send their future staff to certain MET institutions and/or
recruited their staff from them.
22
Another industry-controlled approach to MET is the “farming out” of MET from METHAR
countries to developing countries. Norwegian ship operators are particularly active with this
approach. They opened MET institutions for the training of students in the Philippines and last
year also an institution in India. It may only be a question of time until Chinese ship officers are
trained in China by a ship operator from an industrialized country. It can also be expected that
China will in some years compete with the Philippines for being the foremost supplier of ship
officers and ratings for the international market. Norwegian ship operators have recently also
formed an alliance with the State Maritime Academy “Makarov” in St. Petersburg, Russia, for the
training of Russian ship officers for Norwegian ships.
It is not suggested that MET will lose its role as national provider of ship officers for the national
shipping industry, although it should be kept in mind that major ship operators could offer
training to their own staff not only in the form of updating and upgrading courses but could even
take over the entire MET for their company at home or abroad. This will probably not happen as
long as the government pays for MET. A more likely approach could therefore be that ship
operators form alliances with MET institutions and ask them to cater for the training of their staff.
With the lack of applicants and the eagerness of MET institutions to use their surplus capacity,
this will ensure a more important role of the industry in the definition of MET programmes.
Finally, it is interesting to note that the majority of those responding to the questionnaire for work
package 1.8 do not see the implementation of new requirements hampered. Only a few identify a
lack of provisions as hampering the implementation of new requirements. This could mean a
lack of provisions for equipment or staff. Both these provisions require funds.
The identification and implementation as well as the monitoring of the implementation of new
requirements by decree may be an approach of the past. It can however be assumed that such
established procedures during the cold war period may still prevail today, if the close
governmental control of MET continues to exist.
A change may take place in the influence of ship operators on MET. These operators used to be
national state-owned companies, which were not always operated on the basis of strict economic
criteria, but are today often private companies with an independent commercial responsibility.
This transformation of a state economy towards a market economy (see e.g. Seck 1998) may have
an impact on the former close connection between administration, MET and national shipping
companies. It could develop towards a financial separation of the industry from this "trinity".
Whether other parties will involve themselves in MET as e.g. trade unions and professional
associations remains to be seen. The present economic conditions are not conducive to such
involvement.
MET institutions in East European countries are interested in providing services to national and
foreign ship operators in order to make an income to maintain and, if possible, improve education
and training standards and compensate for the loss of governmental financial support in the wake
of negative developments in national economies.
23
3.2.3 Selected Asian countries
The adaptation to new regulatory requirements is well established in China and India. It is
ensured by a strong central administration and the provision of clear procedures to initiate and
monitor the implementation of changes. Since ships under national flags are often those of
national shipping companies, even more so in China than in India, it is also ensured that national
MET meets national industry requirements.
The Chinese Ocean Shipping Corporation (COSCO) and the Shipping Corporation of India (SCI)
have their own institutions that provide MET for ship officers of the company. The Ocean
Shipping Mariners' College of COSCO in Qingdao offers MET for unlimited certificates of
competency as well as updating and upgrading courses. The Maritime Training Institute of SCI
in Powai near Mumbai offers updating and upgrading courses. Both COSCO and SCI are such
big shipping companies that their own MET institutions cater only for a part of their staff.
The situation is different in Indonesia and the Philippines. There exists insufficient control of the
quality of MET offered at profit-oriented private institutions, including insufficient control of the
In Indonesia, this seems to be partly a result of a shortage of qualified staff in the national
administration responsible for MET and a subsequent lack of attention to the standards of private
MET institutions at some of which also government employees, who are to act as controllers of
standards, are occasionally involved as guest lecturers.
In the Philippines, the main reason for the insufficient control of MET offered at private
institutions – including the implementation of new regulatory requirements – is the involvement
of too many government authorities in the implementation of new requirements at MET
institutions.
"The organizational structure of the maritime administration in the Philippines and its
relationship with the maritime education and training system indicate that the administration,
monitoring and control of the certification of seafarers and their education and training is a
shared responsibility of different offices. These offices belong to different Departments
(Ministries), a few of them operate directly under the Office of the President. The authority for
control of standards of curricula in the academies is with the Commission for Higher Education
directly under the President. The examinations and assessments for the issue of licences are the
responsibility of the Professional Regulation Commission, a separate department under the
President. The short mandatory courses are controlled by the Maritime Training Council under
the Department (Ministry) of Labour. The authority of Port State Control rests with the Coast
Guard under the Department (Ministry) of National Defence. The endorsement of licences and
certificates of mandatory courses is the responsibility of the Maritime Industry Authority of the
Department (Ministry) of Transportation and Communication. Such multi-authority control is
not only complicated, at times there are chances that it may lead to a situation of one office either
overstepping the authority of another or a dilution of control in certain areas. For the
authorities themselves, the MET institutions and the seafarers it is not only confusing but also
ineffective and tedious to deal with so many different authorities." (CIIPMET, p 135)
24
Both in Indonesia and the Philippines are unsatisfactory standards often created by insufficiently
qualified teachers, who e.g. hold limited certificates of competency and teach students in courses
leading to unlimited certificates of competency, and by inadequate teaching equipment.
3.3
Adaptation of MET to changes on the micro level
MET institutions in METHAR countries and in the selected East European and Asian countries
have normally some range of freedom in the development of additional MET programmes
although such freedom differs in degree; the degree is higher in METHAR countries and lower in
the selected East European countries and, if the comparison is limited to government MET
institutions, also in the selected Asian countries. Since private MET institutions in Indonesia and
the Philippines are not controlled as much as necessary, they have partly a “free hand” in what
programmes they offer. This statement is limited to the standards of programmes. Although it
could be applied to new programmes, the "free hand" is not used in this respect since paying
clients can only be expected to attend courses which are said to lead to government-issued
The government control is stronger in the final examinations.
In Indonesia, only about 10% of students at private MET institutions pass the examinations for a
certificate of competency. In the Philippines, the central examination should prevent students at
private academies with low standards from obtaining a certificate of competency.
However, there seem to be more certificates of competency in use than were issued by the
Philippine authorities. Occasional reports on forged Philippine (and also other countries’)
certificates and on attempts to change such certificates into valid certificates of other countries
are given in the shipping press. What started as a rumour has now been proven by actual cases.
The surplus of study places and occasionally also staff at MET institutions in METHAR
countries has led to the offer of short specialized updating and upgrading courses at MET
institutions by which a quicker adaptation to industry requirements has taken place than through a
centrally introduced adaptation by the government. Another positive effect of the surplus of
study places and sometimes also staff at METHAR countries' MET institutions is the occasional
extension of activities to consultancy and research. Short courses, consultancy and research have
helped to produce an income for some MET institutions.
It has however to be noted that such extension of MET activities has only taken place at
institutions where staff was and is both qualified and motivated to take up new activities. Most
MET institutions have, because of the lack of these prerequisites, rather "administered" the
surplus than tried to reduce it.
MET institutions in the selected East European countries do not have a surplus of study places.
Nevertheless, they endeavour to improve their training and make an income from the offer of
short specialized courses to national industry clients. They have occasionally also attracted
paying clients from foreign countries as e.g. the Polish Higher Merchant Marine Academy in
Gdynia for the training in manoeuvring on model ships in a lake (that was first offered in France
25
some 20 years ago at the training centre of an engineering and consultancy company in a lake
near Port Revel, close to Grenoble).
The improvement of MET on the micro level depends on the same two factors as the extension of
MET, it depends on qualification and motivation of staff. This is also a main reason for
variations in the quality of programmes offered at various MET institutions and the strengths and
the weaknesses of individual MET institutions in certain subject areas and individual subjects.
The importance of the adaptation to new regulatory requirements and, particularly, to new
industry requirements on the micro level should not be underestimated.
Only slightly simplified, it could be said that the adaptation of programmes to new regulatory
requirements is initiated by the responsible national authorities, whilst the adaptation of
programmes to new industry requirements is initiated by national authorities and/or ship
operators and/or individual MET institutions.
It is advisable to maintain the provisions for adaptation on the micro level by giving institutions a
certain degree of freedom, also for making an own income. Such limited institutional freedom in
the offering of additional programmes and engaging in consultancy and research will also help to
improve the quality of MET. It should by no means be used to lower entry and programme
standards in the hope to attract a bigger portion of the national applicants.
In summary, it could be said that - on the macro level in METHAR countries – the necessary
adaptation of MET capacity to a reduced demand has only taken place in a minority of countries
where resources have been concentrated at a smaller number of MET institutions or MET
institutions have been integrated as department in larger higher education institutions. Such a
reduction and concentration or integration of MET capacity is not necessary in the selected East
European and Asian countries, it is rather an increase in capacity that governmental MET
institutions in these countries should seek if they would continue to provide ship officers for the
international market. Nevertheless, a drastic reduction in the number of private MET institutions
in Indonesia and the Philippines may help to bring the often insufficient quality of MET offered
at these institutions up to STCW 95 standards at the remaining MET institutions.
Adaptation on the central level to the new requirements of STCW 95 is working in most
countries at governmental MET institutions. The adaptation to new training requirements of the
industry takes place in general at the central level too but specific requirements of individual ship
operators are mostly met at the micro level by individual MET institutions. Adaptation on the
micro level is particularly developed in METHAR countries.
As long as MET in METHAR countries is financed by the government, most ship operators can
be expected not to be interested in taking over MET themselves, but to be satisfied with seeking
increased influence on syllabus contents.
26
4
MET is provided by maritime lecturers who use facilities to implement education and training
programmes (syllabuses). Their work is supervised and controlled by government authorities.
The following chapters elaborate on the three cornerstones of MET: syllabuses, teaching staff and
facilities. They begin with a brief review of the governmental supervision and control of MET.
4.1 MET authorities
This chapter builds mainly on findings from work package 1.6 that surveyed the “national MET
administration and links of MET with national ET systems”.
For the last 50 years and often even longer, MET in most countries has been under the authority
of the ministry (also) dealing with sea transport. In a few countries, the Ministry of Education
has been responsible for MET. The certificate-issuing authority has, however, always been the
Ministry of Transport or one of its agencies.
With the increase of standards and the introduction of academic degrees in several countries in
addition to certificates of competency, the supervision of MET by one ministry changed to the
supervision by two ministries. The Ministry of Transport continued as the responsible authority
for ensuring that minimum international requirements – as today specified by STCW 95 – were
met by MET. If applicable, the Ministry of Education became responsible for the academic
degree content of the syllabus. The Ministry of Transport continued also as the certificate-issuing
authority. If applicable, the Ministry of Education became the degree-supervising authority. The
award of the degree was normally left to the MET institutions.
The financing was centrally provided by a ministry (as in France) or decentrally by a state (of the
federation) ministry (as in Germany). Additional funds were sometimes provided by shipping
companies and by the city in which the MET institution was located.
This situation continues to exist today.
The division of the supervision of MET institutions between two ministries or their specialized
agencies has occasionally created conflicts because both ministries have a say in the programme
offered by MET institutions. In most countries the influence of the Ministry of Education has
increased since it also decides on the required general education qualification for admission to
MET institutions which offer academic degrees.
The offer of (first) certificate cum degree or degree-equivalent courses in 7 of 15 METHAR
countries (Belgium, France, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain) marks a further
integration of MET in the national ET system. It can be seen as a consequence of this
development that the time for pre-MET shipboard experience was reduced or even discontinued
in favour of a front-entrance system which provides for admission to MET directly after
completion of the general education. Such front-entrance system exists today in 9 of the 15
METHAR countries, namely in Belgium, Finland, France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands,
Portugal and Spain. In Iceland and Norway only the engine officer students can use the front
entrance. Deck officer students in these two countries have to go to sea before entering MET.
27
Both engine officer and deck officer students have to gain shipboard experience in Denmark,
Germany and UK before taking up studies. The meeting of this requirement is no longer
mandatory in Germany for every beginner. Shipboard experience will in future be integrated in
the front-entrance programme of degree courses. It is sometimes difficult to obtain a training
place on board to fulfil the pre-MET sea time requirements. Moreover, some countries gave up
the “sandwiching” of studies and sea times in favour of continuous studies. Part of the thinking
behind this change was the intention to put MET on a par with university studies by giving
potential applicants with university entrance qualifications the choice of MET without any delay
as it would have been caused by requiring time on ships before entering MET. This has not had
the desired effect, with the exception of France where baccalauréat holders see MET as a good
alternative to university studies. With this postponement of shipboard experience, the attrition
may also have been shifted to a later stage and after further investment in the MET of individuals.
It is hardly possible to reverse this development. It would rather deteriorate than improve the
image of seafaring in METHAR countries if it was attempted. MET had to lose the reputation of
being a rather isolated ET for a particular type of person (which was corroborated by the mutual
reassurance of a special status by those concerned) in favour of being accepted as one form of ET
among many others.
4.2 MET syllabuses
Work packages 1.1/1.3 surveyed “national MET systems, schemes and programmes/national
certificate of competency structure and validity”, work package 1.2 surveyed “relevant syllabus
contents and teaching methods” and work package 1.7 “the applicability of MET for shipboard
positions and for shore-based positions in the maritime industry” whereas work package 2
surveyed “MET philosophies of parties involved in European MET: objectives and concepts of
MET”. This chapter builds on findings from these work packages.
MET syllabuses world-wide converge towards the minimum requirements of STCW 95.
Only one METHAR country may have to increase its MET standards to those set by STCW 95.
In almost all METHAR countries are present standards equal to or above those of STCW 95.
The latter countries tend to lower their MET standards towards Convention standards. Maurice
Storey, chief executive of the British Maritime and Coastguard Agency, was quoted in the
November issue of “telegraph” with: “Where UK standards are higher than international
standards we must look at that, and if there is not good justification for it we should look at
removing the excess”. The vague part of this statement is the interpretation of “justification”. In
Germany and The Netherlands, previous limited certificates of competency have been upgraded
to unlimited certificates of competency without any additional training requirement.
Other countries outside METHAR countries where STCW 95 requirements are not met yet, will
have to enhance MET standards.
Taken together, STCW 95 can be expected to create syllabuses world-wide which will differ less
from each other than before. IMO is supporting this development by the provision of model
courses for various subjects and comprehensive model syllabuses which are based on STCW 95
28
requirements for certain types of officers. The Convention Code represents also a step into this
direction.
This convergence towards international uniform syllabus contents does not necessarily mean that
the quality of MET will also become the same. It is only the contents of the syllabuses which
appear to be identical, their implementation is dependent on the qualifications of the teaching
staff and the facilities available. Variations in “liveware” and “hardware/software” make a
difference in the quality of MET.
Present MET syllabuses do not cater enough for ships on which much modern technology is
used. They are, as usual, behind the development in shipboard reality for which they should
educate and train management personnel (ship officers). There exists an MET-job gap which
reflects the difference in pace with which the industry on one side and the international and
national regulations and MET on the other side are developing.
An example for the MET-job gap is the extent to which the subject celestial navigation is often
maintained in the syllabuses for nautical officers. The subject is still being taught at many an
MET institution with time spent on spherical geometry and the development of formulas for
extensive calculations, instead of being reduced to learning the skills to handle a sextant for
taking star altitudes and determine the position with a hand-held calculator.
The predicted near-uniformity of syllabuses has not been reached yet. Today, there are
differences in syllabus contents and time. They are partly a result of the differences between
degree and non-degree courses. A consequence of this is a difference in the number of hours for
entire syllabuses which reflects the differences in qualifications with which students enter MET.
The high figure of more than 5000 “hours” at an Italian MET institution can partly be explained
with the low entrance age of 15 years, whereas the about 2000 “hours” less at an MET institution
in Spain may seem, in comparison, to be justified because of the entrance age of 18 years, after
three years more of general education than in Italy.
It should be noted that there is a difference in the length of “hours” at MET institutions in
METHAR countries; it varies between 40 minutes (Iceland), 45 minutes (Denmark, Finland,
Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, UK), 55 minutes (Spain) and 60
minutes (Belgium, France, The Netherlands).
A third factor that creates differences in the time spent on syllabuses lies in the definition of the
“hour” content. Part of the MET institutions counted only lecture hours, others counted also lab
hours.
Nevertheless, the sometimes considerable differences between the time spent on syllabuses
leading to an unlimited certificate of competency can not be explained only with the abovementioned reasons.
Since also the numbers of syllabus “hours” at MET institutions in the same country sometimes
differ, it would seem to be a useful exercise to collect exact figures from MET institutions in the
15 METHAR countries in order to obtain comparable data. Such investigation would allow to
identify the time spent on meeting STCW 95 requirements and could contribute to the mutual
29
understanding of syllabus contents. Such numerical exercise would also facilitate the insight in
syllabus contents if it would provide figures for “hours” of various syllabus subjects and would
make a definition of these subjects necessary. A data base on syllabus “hours” and subjects in
courses for unlimited certificates of competency in METHAR countries could perhaps become a
useful tool for the harmonization of syllabuses in a bottom-up approach since it would allow for
the identification of commonalities and differences. One difficulty with this approach to seek
harmonization of study contents by comparing existing syllabuses is the present change in
syllabuses in many countries in the wake of STCW 95 requirements. Another difficulty is
created by differences in the definition of a number of syllabus subjects. It would therefore be a
more effective method to define a common syllabus on the basis of STCW 95 requirements,
begin with a general approach and steadily progress into more detail. This would be a more
forward-looking and promising method instead of “doctoring” at present syllabuses which are in
many countries in a state of flux.
The identification of commonalities and differences has already been completed for the structure
of MET systems. The results of the exercise are contained in the flowchart on the next page
where the number of countries is given which use the elements school time, sea time and
certificate in various frequencies. It should be noted that the various elements (boxes) of the
flowchart represent qualities; there are differences in quantities (durations) for the various
qualities.
The requirements of STCW 95 are to be competency- and skill-based, requirements of the
preceding STCW 78 are knowledge-based This is not a shift from knowing how to do something
to being able to do it, from theory to practice, it is an extension of the required qualification and
not a substitution.
30
FREQUENCY OF SCHOOL TIMES AND SEA TIMES IN THE 15 METHAR COUNTRIES
DECK DEPARTMENT
ENGINE DEPARTMENT
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME:
3
PRE-SCHOOL SEA TIME:
5
SCHOOL TIME:
15
1st
Period
SCHOOL TIME:
15
SEA TIME:
15
1st
Period
SEA TIME:
15
CERTIFICATE:
15
1st
Certific.
CERTIFICATE:
15
SCHOOL TIME:
11
2nd
Period
SCHOOL TIME:
8
SEA TIME:
13
2nd
Period
CERTIFICATE:
15
2nd
Certific.
CERTIFICATE:
15
SCHOOL TIME:
2
3rd
Period
SCHOOL TIME:
2
SEA TIME:
13
3rd
Period
SEA TIME:
12
CERTIFICATE:
13
3rd
Certific.
CERTIFICATE:
12
SEA TIME:
4
4th
Period
CERTIFICATE :
5
4th
Certific.
31
SEA TIME:
14
SEA TIME:
4
CERTIFICATE :
4
It is however not so easy to make this extension in MET if it is not supported by a more intensive
use of appropriate equipment, such as simulators, which also provide for the assessment of
competence and skills.
A major “syllabus issue” is the MET-job gap, i.e. the gap between what is taught at an MET
institution and what is required on board ships. Another major “syllabus issue” is whether MET
should only qualify for shipboard work or should also provide for professional mobility in the
maritime industry.
A shipboard-confined syllabus is offered to students with lower general education qualifications,
it covers the school part for a limited certificate of competency which, in a number of countries,
has now been upgraded to an unlimited certificate of competency.
A ship-shore syllabus can be – and is already in 7 of the 15 METHAR countries, in East
European countries and in China and India – offered to students with higher general education
qualifications which normally also qualify for university entry. Such syllabus leads not only to
an unlimited certificate of competency but also to an academic degree. The two systems can
exist together as it is already the case in France, Germany, Netherlands, Norway and Portugal.
In Belgium and Spain only degree courses are offered.
4.2.1 MET vs shipboard requirements
The report on work package 1.7 on “Country survey of the applicability of MET for shipboard
positions and shore-based positions in the maritime industry” concludes that most of the
responses indicate satisfaction with the applicability of present MET to shipboard positions. On
the other hand, most of those responding (from all sectors of the maritime industry) to the
questionnaire would prefer more attention, in both deck and engine syllabuses, to a training in
practical skills, simulator training (only deck) and human resources management, legal and
commercial matters, English and administration matters. It is interesting to note that most of
these subjects are part of ship-shore syllabuses which give ship officers mobility in the maritime
industry.
The report on work package 2 also confirms general satisfaction with present MET and proposes
more attention to subjects as shipping management, international maritime law, and ship
maintenance of which only the latter subject is shipboard focussed.
There may be a contradiction in the satisfaction of the majority with present MET and the request
of a majority to give more attention to a number of subjects. The latter could be a consequence
of the above-mentioned subjects and a few more being mentioned in the questionnaires as add-on
options.
The outcome is therefore inconclusive and a more in-depth investigation into satisfaction with
the applicability of present MET for shipboard purposes is needed if reliable results should be
obtained.
32
The majority of respondents wants MET for deck officers and MET for engine officers also to be
separated in future, wants ship-shore syllabuses offered and an academic degree issued in
addition to a certificate of competency after successful completion of MET studies. Most favour
12 years of general education or, more precisely, a general education that also qualifies for
university studies and 2-3 months ship-board experience before enrolling at an MET institution
(see also 2.2.2 on pre-MET sea time requirements). Most are also of the opinion that sea time
can be substituted by simulator training - but only partially. Ship operators and MET institutions
favour this possibility most. There is, however, a great majority in all parties questioned that puts
shipboard experience above simulator training for the acquisition of skills. Most of those
responding favour MET in two stages with an overall duration of 4 years, 3 years for the
watchkeeping level and 1 year for the master/chief engineer level with a sea time of 12, 24 or 36
months between the two stages.
4.2.2 Shipboard-confined syllabus vs ship-shore syllabus
This issue is often approached from an either-or point of view, although it should better be dealt
with as an as-well-as concept. It should also be noted that ship-shore syllabuses would rather
help nautical officers to transfer to the maritime industry ashore than engineer officers who can
more easily change from ship to shore without obtaining additional qualifications. The value of a
ship-shore syllabus for ship engineers lies in the status which an academic degree would give
them and the facilitation of further studies, although a syllabus enriched by economics, law,
management and other non-engineering subjects would also enhance the qualification of ship
engineers for shore-based position on the managerial level. For nautical officers such an enriched
syllabus is of greater importance for a transfer to the shore. On the other hand, nautical officers
are more in demand for on-shore positions in the maritime industry than engineer officers
because marine engineers can more easily be replaced by other engineers without shipboard
experience.
The MET for both types of syllabuses can also in future be expected to be government-financed,
i.e. subsidized by the tax-payer. The ship-shore curriculum will be more costly but it will offer a
better return of investment since somebody already pre-qualified for employment in the maritime
industry ashore will find it easier to reach a position comparable to the one he used to occupy on
board. A graduate from a shipboard-confined curriculum may find it more difficult to be
employed in the maritime industry ashore in a position comparable to the one he used to occupy
on board (and which was equivalent to the position occupied by his colleagues who attended the
ship-shore syllabus and obtained an academic degree). Programmes of further education are
available to these graduates although the admission to the higher ones of those is often limited to
persons with the highest general education qualification of normally 12 years.
It is occasionally claimed that modern sophisticated ships require officers with academic degrees
in subjects rather related or even limited to the actual operation of ships than to economics, law,
management, and other subjects which would facilitate a ship-shore transfer (and will also be of
some use on board). Such claim may have been justified before but it can hardly be maintained if
the ease is considered with which user-friendly modern technology can be operated today.
33
The provision of syllabuses which facilitate ship-shore transfer is not only of benefit for
individuals and would increase the attraction of seafaring for potential applicants, it also ensures
the supply of qualified personnel with shipboard experience for the maritime industry ashore.
It can not be said that it does not matter whether the additional qualification is obtained during or
after MET. Those trying to upgrade their education after MET are often disadvantaged by having
to pay for an additional qualification after a limited number of years of shipboard service. They
are also disadvantaged by their degree-holder colleagues’ ability to use some of their additional
knowledge in e.g. maritime economics, maritime law and management already during their time
on board ships.
It should however be noted that distance education can be expected to provide for opportunities
to obtain additional qualifications when working on ships.
Nevertheless, the lower general education entry to MET needs to be maintained and bridging
programmes for shore-based employment should be provided for graduates from ship-board
confined programmes together with possibilities to obtain academic degrees by e.g. recognizing
shipboard experience as additional qualification towards admission to academic degree studies.
Shipboard experience is already counted as increasing an academic qualification in France where
the studies for the unlimited dual-purpose certificate of competency require 4 (3+1) years but,
together with shipboard experience, are counted as (baccalauréat plus) 5 years (bac + 5) which
brings the holder of the Capitaine de 1ère Classe de la Navigation Maritime on a level equivalent
to a Master of Science degree.
Differences in opinion on whether shipboard-confined or ship-shore syllabuses are to be
preferred are normally a result of the personal experience of those who express the opinion.
There is a lasting loyalty to what one has done. This is also a reason for the absence of radical
changes in national MET systems. MET (and most other ET) is (are) rather progressing in an
evolutionary than in a revolutionary pace.
There are countries among the 15 METHAR countries where MET is still viewed as mainly
training and a service to ship operators only. There are other countries where MET is viewed as
education and training and a service to the maritime industry as a whole. This difference in
attitude to MET appears to coincide with the national status of vocational education and training,
i.e. whether it is clearly separated from academic education or allowed to cross the borderline
between the two. The main argument for “vocational” is that operating a ship requires no
academic degree and the main argument for “academic” is that, although this statement about
“vocational” is true, an MET degree would be of benefit in the maritime industry ashore and
would provide professional mobility, which would eventually pay off and would therefore not
only be justified but even desirable.
The change from “vocational” to “academic” is partly also a change from offering a sequence of
separate courses for acquiring specialized knowledge and skills to a more coherent, less
“sandwiched” and less interrupted (by sea times) programme which integrates all courses under a
framework and exploits possible synergy effects.
34
4.3
Teaching staff
Special attention has been given to teaching staff, not only because of their crucial importance for
the quality of MET but also because of the normally good quality of this resource in METHAR
countries. Unfortunately, this resource is threatened by over-ageing: not an appropriate provision
for implementing changes in MET which are necessary to regain at least some of the lost
competitiveness.
The description of the teaching staff situation is based on information collected for, and findings
from, work package 1.5 through which the “qualifications and careers of lecturers in national
MET institutions” were surveyed. The chapters cover types and qualifications of lecturers, their
training and updating and their employment conditions.
4.3.1 Types and qualifications of lecturers
Teaching staff at most MET institutions consists of full-time staff and part-time staff; the fulltime staff consists of former seafarers with certificates of competency and staff with nonseafaring qualifications; most part-time staff have non-seafaring qualifications.
Former seafarers with certificates of competency are in the majority at MET institutions in
METHAR countries and, to a lesser extent, also in East European countries. They are in the
minority at MET institutions in China, form about half of the teaching staff at MET institutions in
India, and are in the majority at governmental MET institutions in Indonesia and in the minority
at governmental MET institutions in the Philippines.
The statement on China is not only true for Dalian Maritime University, Shanghai Maritime
University and Wuhan Transportation University which also offer non-maritime courses but it is
also true for institutions which concentrate on MET as e.g. Dalian Maritime College and Qingdao
Ocean Shipping Mariners College where only 37 of 161 and 34 of 170 teaching staff,
respectively, hold certificates of competency (January 1998). In the Philippines, the
governmental Philippine Merchant Marine Academy has 17 ex-seafarers with certificates of
competency among its teaching staff of 43 (October 1998).
A distinct difference between the lecturers with certificates of competency exists between MET
institutions in METHAR countries, East European countries and India on one side, and MET
institutions in China, Indonesia and the Philippines on the other side. Almost all lecturers at
MET institutions in the first group of countries hold unlimited certificates of competency,
whereas lecturers in the second group hold mostly limited certificates. At the Philippine
Merchant Marine Academy e.g. only a few of the 17 lecturers with certificates of competency are
master mariners or chief engineers, most of the lecturers hold a 3rd mate or a 4th engineer
certificate, i.e. they may have no more than 12 months shipboard experience and miss another 48
month of shipboard service, some upgrading courses and three examinations for meeting the
requirements for an unlimited master mariner or chief engineer certificate of competency.
The full-time faculty of MET institutions is completed by lecturers with non-maritime
qualifications for subjects as science and foreign languages, above all English (provided English
is not the mother tongue of the students).
35
The third category of teaching staff at MET institutions consists of part-time lecturers. These
lecturers are often used at MET institutions in METHAR countries. They teach the national
language - in Belgium (Flemish and French), Finland, France, Iceland, Italy and Netherlands
(only in non-degree courses) - English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, electronics, automation,
computers and medicine (mainly first aid) and a few other subjects with a small number of hours
in the syllabus for which no full-time staff or no additional full-time staff for the subject needs to
be employed. Among the part-time lecturers are full-time lecturers at other ET establishments or
other departments of a polytechnic which also comprises an MET department. The national MET
institution in Belgium, the Hogere Zeevaartschool in Antwerp, makes use of part-time lecturers
for more subjects than MET institutions in other METHAR countries.
MET institutions in East European countries as well as private MET institutions in Indonesia and
the Philippines also use part-time lecturers. Part-time lecturers are to a much lesser extent used at
governmental MET institutions in China and India, where the teaching faculty of MET
institutions is fairly self-contained.
A growing number of full-time lecturers with certificates of competency obtain academic
degrees. Not counted among those are the lecturers who were awarded an academic degree,
mostly a Bachelor or an equivalent degree in nautical or marine engineering science, after
successfully completing MET studies. If graduates of an MET institution want to obtain a higher
academic degree, then they have to attend universities. Only in Spain can the equivalent to a
Master of Science degree and even a doctoral degree be obtained at one of the 7 MET institutions
which are all part of universities. Graduates in France and some MET institutions in East
European countries already graduate with an equivalent to a Master of Science degree and can
sometimes - although not in France - obtain a doctoral degree at the same institution as e.g. in St.
Petersburg. It is also possible for these graduates to obtain a doctoral degree at a university.
Lecturers with certificates of competency who have obtained additional academic qualifications
are mostly employed at MET institutions in METHAR countries which are departments of
polytechnics or universities (as in Spain) because their colleagues in other departments are
required to have at least a Master degree and increasingly often also a doctoral degree.
At MET institutions in METHAR countries, more lecturers with unlimited certificates of
competency, shipboard experience and postgraduate academic degrees (Master or Doctor degree)
are required in order to “match” qualifications of MET staff to qualifications of representatives
of other parties involved in MET and to faculty at higher ET institutions on the same or similar
level with MET, to develop MET in a complex professional and higher education environment, to
give MET a more active role, to extend MET activities to the offer of short intensive professional
development courses and to involvement in research and consultancy - and, overall, improve and
activate MET and develop it into a valued and competitive partner in shipping and academic
circles.
Lecturers at MET institutions in East European countries with certificates of competency
normally hold Master degrees if they graduated from the institutions at which they are now
teaching. A minority of them has also obtained doctoral degrees.
36
In China and India most lecturers who hold certificates of competency, which applies to a
minority of the teaching faculty at Chinese MET institutions and to about half of the teaching
faculty in India, hold also equivalents to Bachelor degrees since those are obtained together with
the first certificate of competency. In Indonesia, former ship officers with academic degrees who
work as lecturers at MET institutions can rarely be met, whereas they are common in the
Philippines, although with Bachelor degrees which are not quite equivalent to Bachelor degrees
in other countries because of the requirement of only 10 years general education for entry to a
(first) certificate of competency cum Bachelor course.
4.3.2
Training and updating of lecturers (see also Parker 1997, Zade 1997)
In 4 of 15 METHAR countries exists a formalized, mostly pedagogically focussed induction
programme for lecturers who are new in an MET institution, although it exists in one country of
the 4 only at one of 5 MET institutions (which answered this question). Only the Netherlands
used to offer (at “Cornelis Douwes” in Amsterdam) a five-year course leading to a Master of
Science degree. This course was attended by new lecturers during weekends. The programme is
not offered now because of lack of students, a consequence of a decreased recruitment of new
lecturers. Another country offers new lecturers the choice of a rather long upgrading programme.
To this long programme, the lecturer has to make an own financial contribution, shorter
programmes are free for new lecturers.
In the remaining 9 countries, no formalized induction programme exists, although a sort of
mentor approach – a senior colleague introducing a newcomer – is normally used, factually,
although rarely formally.
There is an obvious lack of pedagogical training for lecturers at MET institutions in METHAR
countries. (This lack also exists at most universities.) Learning by doing is the approach used
most often – with all its shortcomings.
The situation varies at MET institutions in the selected East European countries. At MET
institutions in Croatia (Rijeka) and Poland (Gdynia) an induction programme exists. At the MET
institution in Slovenia no induction programme is offered to new lecturers. At the MET
institution in Estonia, an upgrading programme for lecturers and a programme for the general
improvement of standards is sponsored by technical cooperation agencies in Denmark,
Netherlands and Sweden.
A lack of pedagogical training exists at MET institutions in China and the Philippines. The IMO
model course 6.09 Training Course for Instructors is offered in India at the Maritime Training
Institute of the Shipping Corporation of India in Mumbai for lecturers at all Indian MET
institutions, although those find it – because of a high workload – difficult to release their
teaching staff for the course. Lecturers at MET institutions in Indonesia attend a basic course in
pedagogics.
No country has a formalized updating scheme after a lecturer has completed the induction
training or the initial updating or upgrading.
37
Updating for lecturers at MET institutions in METHAR countries is offered in irregular intervals
when an opportunity arises. It is up to the lecturer whether he takes advantage of such
opportunity. Only two countries grant lecturers sabbaticals after a certain period of service:
Portugal grants 3 months sabbatical after 3 years service and Sweden grants 1 year sabbatical
after 7 years of service.
Continued updating is interpreted by most lecturers with certificates of competency as going
back on ships and sail as officer or as "observer". With the fairly long summer holidays at almost
all MET institutions, there is enough time to return to sea. According to personal interviews, the
interest in such updating appears to decline with progressing age.
It would be of benefit for the qualification of lecturers at MET institutions, if they would all have
to undergo a training in preparation and delivery of lectures, assessment and other pedagogical
methods and skills. It is equally important that lecturers are updated on developments in
technology which may influence MET as e.g. distance learning or new simulators, or changes in
the on-board environment, as e.g. the use of modern navigation equipment, and changes in the
regulatory and technical environment in the shipping industry, as e.g. the ISM Code and new ship
designs and cargo carriage, loading and unloading provisions, respectively. Going back on ships
should be only one element of a more comprehensive updating programme. Help with the
introduction of Quality Standards Systems is part of a lecturer’s responsibility and professional
development. It is not only the ship, its operation at sea and in ports in which a lecturer needs to
be abreast of developments, it is today also of importance that a lecturer is familiar with
developments in the environment of MET and the influences which changes in this environment
may have on MET.
Two examples: Lecturers using simulators would profit from training in simulator pedagogics
and from findings of the MASSTER project, and most faculty at MET institutions would profit
from learning about the potential of IT use in MET institutions for teaching.
Updating and upgrading courses should preferably not only be offered institutionally or
nationally but also centrally for faculty at MET institutions in METHAR countries. A central
offer for all METHAR countries would not only provide for the involvement of the best teachers
but would also have the additional benefit for the attending lecturers that it would be offered in
English.
Lecturers at MET institutions in almost all countries depend on seizing opportunities for updating
when they are offered. Personal initiative plays therefore an important role and is most often the
decisive factor for the individual lecturer’s updating.
The entrance requirement for all professional updating and upgrading courses for lecturers with
maritime background should be the highest certificate of competency. It makes little sense e.g. to
teach lecturers how to teach if they do not master the subjects which they are expected to teach.
38
4.3.3 Employment conditions for lecturers
In many countries exist various levels of teaching staff as e.g. lecturer, senior lecturer and
principal lecturer at a British MET institution or assistant lecturer, lecturer, associate professor
and professor at a Chinese University that offers MET programmes. Promotion to the higher
rank depends on seniority and performance as well as the availability of a vacancy and funds.
Normally, the supervising authority approves the recruitment of new teaching staff, the selection
of the most appropriate person is left with the MET institution, the institution’s choice has in
most cases to be approved by the supervising authority. These basic rules apply at almost all
governmental MET institutions whereas private MET institutions have more freedom in choosing
teaching staff. Provided funds are available, then the supervising authority agrees to the
recruitment of new teaching staff on the basis of need. Such need can be defined as lack of staff
for covering a subject or the total number of hours of a programme, or in relation to the number
of students (student : staff ratio).
Workloads for teaching staff at MET institutions in METHAR countries differ considerably. In
Norway, between 6 and 12 lectures à 45 minutes per week have to be given by teaching staff at
MET institutions which offer courses also leading to a first academic degree, the weekly lecture
load of teaching staff at MET institutions which do not offer degree courses is between 18 and 22
lectures à 45 minutes. Comparatively low weekly lecture loads also exist in Portugal (6 – 12
lectures à 45 minutes), Sweden (6 – 12 lectures à 45 minutes) and Spain (8 – 12 lectures à 55
minutes). The highest weekly lecture load in METHAR countries exists in the Netherlands with
28 lectures à 60 minutes, followed by the UK with 22 – 24 lectures à 45 minutes and Iceland with
26 lectures à 40 minutes.
The weekly lecture load in Croatia is 12 times 45 minutes, in Poland 8 times 45 minutes and in
Slovenia 10 times 45 minutes.
The weekly lecture load in China and in India is 30 times 45 minutes for lecturers (higher ranks
have a reduced lecture load) and 15 times 60 minutes, respectively, and at the governmental
MET institutions in Indonesia and Philippines 15 times 50 minutes and 30 times 60 minutes,
respectively.
The total lecture load of faculty members at MET institutions does not only depend on the
number of lectures per week but also on the number of teaching weeks per year.
In METHAR countries, the number of yearly teaching weeks is lowest at MET institutions in
Iceland (27 weeks), followed by France and Spain (30 weeks), Portugal and Sweden (32 weeks).
The number of yearly teaching weeks is highest at MET institutions in Denmark and Netherlands
(40 weeks) and in the UK (40-48 weeks).
The number of teaching weeks is 30 in Croatia, 40 in Estonia, 32 in Poland and 30 in Slovenia,
the number of teaching weeks is 36-37 in China, 46 in India, 40 in Indonesia and 40 in the
Philippines.
39
A lecturer at a Dutch MET institution has to give 28 lectures/week x 40 weeks x 60
minutes/lecture, i.e. 67,200 minutes of lectures per year, whereas e.g. the lecturer at the national
Portuguese MET institution would only be required to give the minimum of 6 lectures/week x 32
weeks x 45 minutes/lecture, i.e. 8,640 minutes of lectures per year - close to one eighth of the
lectures of his Dutch colleague. Even if the Portuguese lecturer would give the maximum of 12
lectures à 45 minutes a week, he would only give close to one fourth of the lectures of his Dutch
colleague.
It is normal practice at all MET institutions that the lecture load of teaching personnel is reduced
if they take over administration and management work. Also committee, consultancy and
research work may qualify for a reduction of lecture load.
Salaries of government-employed lecturers in METHAR countries mostly compare to salaries of
equivalent ET institutions as e.g. to the salaries of lecturers at non-maritime polytechnics in 9 of
15 METHAR countries. These salaries, including fringe benefits as free times, health care,
retirement provisions, etc. compare rather well to salaries of senior ship officers. Salaries in 2
countries compare to salaries of a university lecturer and a university professor, respectively.
Lecturers at MET institutions in 4 countries said that their salary compared to that of a chief mate
or first engineer. It was interesting to note that only lecturers from two countries found their
salary not satisfactory.
This rather complacent attitude towards the salary is the opposite at MET institutions in East
European and in Asian countries. The salaries compare normally to salaries at other ET
institutions but not to salaries of ship officers. Lecturers at ET institutions normally receive a low
salary, whereas salaries for ship officers are much higher. The ratio shipboard officer salary :
MET institution salary is often between 5 : 1 and 3 : 1 and this even, if there are additional
benefits offered as e.g. free housing, as it may be the case in China.
The conclusion from this is not necessarily that everybody who is a certified ship officer will go
back to sea for a better salary. This is partly true for East Europe and for the Philippines, but it is
less true for China, India and Indonesia. Those who want to stay ashore will either have to be
able to afford it or will have to look for an additional source of income as e.g. from a second job
ashore. The conclusion that most of those who remain as lecturers at MET institutions where
poor salaries are offered represent a negative selection may not be wrong for most holders of
certificates of competency, it is, however, probably wrong for teaching staff whose qualifications
are not especially in demand outside MET. The need for making an additional income is bound
to result in a reduced interest in the main job. Thus, the best lecturers are probably those who
could work somewhere else for a better salary but can afford and prefer to stay at an MET
institution.
Despite low salaries, India does not seem to have this problem because of an abundance of talent
and the prestige of working in education. In the Philippines, the "negative selection" stigma
applies most, the fluctuation of faculty to better paid jobs is high.
India has the added advantage of using the income from a training levy imposed on shipping
companies for paying the lecturers. For the Philippines, a proposal was made for alternating
between teaching and seafaring in regular intervals (Martinez 1996). It has however not been
40
possible to implement this proposal. It would require holders of certificates of competency with
a genuine and strong interest in teaching.
Although the salaries of lecturers in East Europe are not satisfactory, senior professors at e.g. the
State Maritime Academy "Makarov" in St. Petersburg do not retire at the age of 65. They stay on
as their pension would amount to only half of the salary at the academy that is nevertheless too
low for a "decent living".
It could be assumed that, in general, the quality of lecturers at MET institutions in METHAR
countries is highest because they are paid the highest salaries in comparison to salaries of senior
officers on board ships. This correlation between quality and salary is also true – although in its
negative sense – for the quality of lecturers at MET institutions in Indonesia and Philippines and
partly also China where low and often unsatisfactory salaries are paid. The correlation can
however not be upheld for the quality of lecturers at MET institutions in India and East European
countries. The quality of lecturers in those countries is normally high, the salaries are almost
always low.
Lecturers at MET institutions in METHAR countries have the added advantage over their
colleagues in East Europe and Asia that it is easier for them to access information on latest
developments in shipping, on ships and in MET. This advantage can probably be maintained for
several years more although it can be expected to be steadily reduced by a facilitated access to
information, including the wider spread of access to the internet.
There is an increasing disadvantage of teaching staff at MET institutions in METHAR countries.
The average age of the teaching staff is getting higher and higher because of the reduced and
sometimes even suspended employment of new and young staff, a consequence of the declining
number of students. The average age of teaching staff at MET institutions in Germany, Iceland
and Norway is 50 or higher. Only at the national MET institution in Portugal, the Escola Náutica
Infante D. Henrique (ENIDH), is the average age of staff with 42 below 45. The oldest members
of teaching staff are older than 65 in Denmark, Greece, Iceland, Italy, Norway and Portugal. The
youngest members of teaching staff are older than 40 in Iceland and Ireland. They are youngest
with 25 or 26 in Denmark, France, Greece, Italy, Norway, Portugal and Spain.
The average age of lecturers at the MET institutions in Rijeka, Croatia is 35 (and the youngest
and oldest members of faculty are 23 and 65, respectively), the figures for Estonia are 56 (25 and
69), for Poland 43 (25 and 71) and for Slovenia 43 (26 and 65).
The average ages at Dalian Maritime University in China are 54 for professors, 44 for associate
professors, 32 for lecturers and 28 for assistant lecturers; the overall average is 40, the minimum
age is 28, the maximum age 61.
The figures for the Maritime Training Institute of the Shipping Corporation of India are: average
age 48, minimum age 39, maximum age 58.
The “mono-culture” of the separately located and independently operated MET institution is, in
the long term, counterproductive to development of staff qualifications. It provides ex-seafarer
lecturers at such institutions with the “opportunity” to stay away from other educational
41
environments. Ex-seafarer lecturers at MET institutions which are departments of larger ET units
are “drawn into” a wider educational environment and a broadening of their minds in ET matters
takes place - nolens or volens.
In summary, it could be said that a certificate of competency is the qualification most widely held
by lecturers at MET institutions in METHAR countries although all MET institutions have also
lecturers with non-maritime qualifications on their teaching staff. More lecturers at MET
institutions than before obtain also academic qualifications. Part-time lecturers are widely used,
particularly for teaching subjects with a number of hours that does not justify the recruitment of a
full-time lecturer. These part-time lecturers are in their majority specialists with other than
maritime qualifications.
There is a lack of an organized induction programme for new lecturers at MET institutions in
METHAR countries including training in pedagogics. Also the updating of lecturers is mostly
left to the individual who is free to take an opportunity for updating if and when it arises.
Updating is by most lecturers rather narrowly interpreted as going back on board of ships. A
wider interpretation of updating is today desirable that comprises also the maritime industry
ashore.
The lecture load for teaching staff at MET institutions in METHAR countries varies widely.
The qualification of lecturers in most countries and at most MET institutions world-wide is
related to the salaries offered and how those compare to salaries for ship officers.
Lecturers at MET institutions in METHAR countries are in general older than their colleagues at
MET institutions in East Europe and Asia. This over-ageing will continue if no new and young
lecturers are recruited.
4.4
Facilities
Facilities have also been given special attention, not only the “nationally available advanced
MET facilities” as surveyed by work package 1.4 but also modern IT technology that is
increasingly used in shipping and in education in general. This can be expected to have an
impact on MET, its future contents and its future delivery. Also the report on work package 4.4
on “Assessment of the potential of the use of new teaching and training technologies and
methodologies in MET; distance learning through onboard training” has been taken into
consideration for the preparation of the chapters on facilities. The chapters begin with an
appreciation of the changes in the environment of MET which have been and are caused by the
increased use of modern technology on ships and in shipping and have had and have an impact on
MET; thereafter, the use of modern technology in MET is covered, its influence on
methodologies and the extent to which MET institutions have responded and respond to this
development and have access to technologically advanced teaching and training facilities.
42
4.4.1 The use of modern technology in the environment of MET
Modern technology, above all advanced IT, is today used on ships (see e.g. Patraiko 1998), in
the surveillance of traffic on waterways, in ports, by ship operators and other enterprises in the
maritime and other sectors of transport.
The increased use of advanced IT has made it possible to integrate the transport of goods by sea
into the transport chain from producer to user, from sender to recipient. It has also supported the
merging of companies operating in different sectors of transport or, more specifically, the
merging of ship operation companies with companies in land and air transport. This extension
and diversification of transport companies across the sectors sea, land and air and the simplified
transfer of goods from one sector to another, which is facilitated by a continuous monitoring of
goods movements and an increased standardization of computerized documentation, has
“deprived” sea transport of its previous status as relatively independent transport sector. This
development has coincided with the design and construction of specialized ships for the carriage
of various types of cargo, with container ships and specialized tankers emerging as the most
important new types of ships, and the minimizing of lay times in ports, the maximizing of sailing
times and distances covered through the use of more effective loading/unloading technology in
ports as well as on ships.
This development, pursued through the increased use of modern technology for economic
competitiveness, has developed the work conditions and the work content of ship officers. The
role of ship officers has developed into that of “caretakers” of ships, people and cargo between
ports. They need not involve themselves as much as before in the planning of the loading and
stowing of cargo and the paper work connected with this. Cargo securing has remained the ship
officers’ responsibility, although probably to a lesser degree than before because of an increased
delegation of shipboard work to port labour. It is also no more required to have a detailed
knowledge of a great variety of cargoes and their properties.
Also the controlled movement of ships, i.e. navigation, has been greatly facilitated by the
increased use of electronic equipment on bridges of ships, above all by the use of satellite
navigation. If good weather conditions would always exist at sea, ships could already today be
steered across the oceans by remote control. Only in the coastal approach a few qualified
people would have to come on board and bring the ship safely into the port. Since watch-free
engine rooms already exist today and the engine is controlled from the bridge, engine officers
could even be made superfluous before bridge officers (see e.g. Psaraftis 1996).
This all-is-possible-through-modern-technology scenario could only be implemented, if it would
be possible to develop "behaviour programmes" for ships under all wind and sea conditions and
all traffic situations. Nevertheless, a no-man-ship may even then be more expensive than a ship
operated by officers and ratings, disregarding whether they are expensive, as crews from
METHAR countries, or cheap, as crews from East European and Asian countries. Even the
Japanese who are closest to the no-man-ship, seem to have slowed down in their efforts to further
replace “liveware” on board ships by advanced hardware and software.
43
The use of modern technology on ships and in maritime transport as a whole will continue to
progress under the observation of cost benefit criteria. It has already led to a change in work
conditions and work content for personnel on board and in the maritime industry ashore. It also
resulted in the “shore” keeping the ship on a “short leash” because it can be reached by modern
means of communication day and night. This development is seen by many officers as an erosion
of shipboard responsibility. However, such modern means of communication can also be used to
the benefit of shipboard personnel by e.g. facilitating their communication with family and
friends ashore. Such social use of modern IT also be extended to an educational use by e.g.
making distance learning programmes available on board (see e.g. Davies 1997).
The changes in the environment of MET have an impact on the MET of both engineer and
nautical officers, although probably more on the MET of the latter than on the MET of the
former.
The MET for engineer officers has to put more emphasis on electronics, automation and
computer use and less on the training of maintenance and repair skills. The MET for nautical
officers has to prepare students more than before for computer use and for coping with
considerable amounts of information in complex situations when navigating the ship. The
previous need to obtain information has changed to it being continuously offered. Calculations
which were required before are no more necessary. It is the interpretation of information that
matters today and the coping with sometimes too much information. The work content of a
bridge officer is today becoming closer to that of an engineer officer. The work contents of both
converge towards a more intensive use of computers and information handling. The work that
has become more important for the officers in managerial positions and, especially, the master, is
the efficient and effective management of resources while observing strict economic criteria, and
in particular the management of smaller personnel resources.
The change in work content is accompanied by a change in work conditions, which today are
requiring less physical strength but, at the same time, more physical endurance because of the
more frequent and much shorter visits to ports. Technology is available that relieves ship
personnel from physical work; IT is available for previously time-consuming mental routine
work and for the support and facilitation of decision making. Also the social environment has
changed with the considerable reduction in crew sizes during the last about 20 years.
4.4.2
The use of modern technology in MET
For the teaching of basic skills, MET institutions use what is often called a workshop, where
engineer students e.g. learn how to operate a lathe and nautical students how to splice a rope.
In the more advanced form of laboratories, engineer students could e.g. learn how to operate,
maintain and repair an engine and nautical students how to use a radio direction finder, a radar
and other electronic navigation equipment.
In METHAR countries, the use of workshops and laboratories for the training of engine and
nautical officers is slightly decreasing. Part of the skills are no more needed on board because
the work has been taken over by land labour or the type of equipment is no longer used or, if it is
still used, it has been made so user-friendly that no extensive training is anymore necessary.
44
A few basic facilities will also be required in future for the safety training of both officers and
ratings, as e.g. fire fighting and life saving facilities. There is also a demand for laboratories in
which the basics of automation can be learnt, and for modern computer-based English language
laboratories. Good computer-assisted learning software in practical areas of ship operation needs
to be developed. MET institutions in METHAR countries, which are still equipped with
workshops and laboratories or have access to them, find it often difficult to secure the funds for
upgrading or replacing costly equipment.
In general, there is a growing need for computer laboratories and for appropriate application
software which can be used for the training of both engineer and nautical officers.
This increased use of computers and application software is not matched by the development of
“computer pedagogics”. Most lecturers at MET institutions learn teaching computer use by
teaching it and have had no training in an appropriate pedagogical use of the “tool” PC. There is
also little confidence among maritime lecturers in the use of computers for assessment. In brief,
in the training of computer use often exists what could be called an equipment-use gap (in
addition to an MET-job gap). This equipment-use gap has, in addition to the “how” (to teach
computer use) side, a “what” (to teach in computer use) side. The development on the “what”
side is hampered by a not always clear perception of what the industry needs. A co-operation
between MET institutions and the industry for the definition of common objectives would
therefore be a useful undertaking.
In general, MET institutions in most METHAR countries are, despite their great number,
normally better equipped with computer labs and other IT technology than MET institutions in
the selected East European and Asian countries. (See next page for instructional media facilities
held at MET institutions in METHAR countries.) Also other laboratories and workshops are,
although they are in decline in METHAR countries, mostly better equipped in these countries
than in the selected countries in East Europe and Asia.
45
Figure 4. Instructional media facilities held and used by European Maritime
Institutions
Internet-Email
PC projection
Blackboard
Whiteboard
16mm film
% held
35mm slide projection
Video projection
Overhead projection
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
46
70
80
90
The new facilities, the use of which has made a great and perhaps even the greatest impact on
MET in the last 20 years, are simulators. In the beginning, the potential of simulators was rather
limited and required the ingenuity of experienced instructors to be “solicited” and put to use.
Present simulators have created the opposite situation. They have a greater potential than an
average experienced instructor is able to use.
Today, with radar and navigation simulators widely spread, it is commonly acknowledged that at
least half the effect of simulator training depends on the quality of those using a simulator for
training officer students. There is still a lack of knowledge in the full exploitation of simulator
potential and particularly the use of simulators for the assessment of student performance is not
satisfactorily developed yet. This has led to the creation of the International Maritime Lecturers
Association’s (IMLA) biennial International Navigation Marine Simulator Lecturers Conference
(INSLC) in 1980 (initially named International Radar Simulator Teachers Workshop, IRSTW),
the establishment of the International Marine Simulator Forum (IMSF) in 1978 that is also
dealing with technical aspects of simulators and, eventually, to the MASSTER project of DG VII
that, among others, has developed standardized scenarios for use in ship handling simulators.
Simulators, which are basically dynamic models of environments on the ship (engine room
simulators, (liquid) cargo handling simulators) or of the ship and its environment (radar
simulators, radar and navigation simulators, shiphandling simulators), are costly and can in their
most sophisticated form (shiphandling or “full mission” simulator) only be afforded by a limited
number of MET institutions. Even in METHAR countries exists such division between countries
with “poor” MET and countries with “rich” MET.
The most sophisticated and most expensive shiphandling simulators are available in Denmark,
Finland, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, UK and, although on a slightly lower level, in France,
Portugal and Sweden. The spread of sophisticated shiphandling simulators at MET institutions in
East Europe and Asia is, compared to MET institutions in METHAR countries, rather limited.
Expensive shiphandling simulators are sometimes not available at MET institutions but at
maritime research institutes as e.g. in Denmark and Finland. If they are available at MET
institutions, then they are normally used to extend the activities of these institutions to research.
The availability or non-availability of a sophisticated ship handling simulator has become a
distinguishing factor between MET institutions. Those who have such simulators are better
prepared for giving their students good training and for “surviving” a national concentration
process if it would be enforced by the closing of MET institutions.
IMLA has also founded in 1991 the biennial International Conference on Engine Room
Simulators (ICERS) as response to the growing number of such simulators. Nevertheless, there
is still a shortage of engine room simulators, even at MET institutions in METHAR countries.
The number of cargo handling simulators is small. There is no need to develop a simulator for
the handling of general or container cargo. The planning of loading and unloading of such cargo
is mostly done by shore personnel. Even simulators for the handling of liquid cargoes are rarely
built by the industry as their production in small numbers is not profitable. On the other hand,
only very few MET institutions would have the staff to build such a simulator on their own. The
47
third reason for the small number of liquid cargo handling simulators is that a normal PC and
appropriate software can provide a cheap partial substitute for a sophisticated and expensive
liquid cargo handling simulator.
Cheaper PC software solutions are used as substitutes for liquid cargo handling simulators but
also as substitutes – although considerably poorer ones – for engine room or radar simulators. It
makes sense to use such part task trainer for basic training before taking trainees in a much more
costly simulator which could also be used for research.
There are many other applications of simulation in more or less costly simulators. The general
development in this sector goes in the direction of PC use with application software, although
more expensive purpose-designed simulators have been built for VTS, GMDSS and even for
combating oil spills. However, the latter type of simulator is not used at any MET institution
yet.
It will have to be seen to what extent virtual reality could be used in simulator training in future.
The value of simulator training is appreciated so much that simulators are even used for
substituting sea time. In France, 4 weeks in simulators - 2 each in a shiphandling and an engine
room simulator - are considered equivalent to 20 weeks of shipboard experience (for dualpurpose officers). This 1 : 5 ratio simulator time: shipboard time for the learning of a limited
range of tasks was also confirmed by Dutch research. Nevertheless, it is not satisfactorily clear
yet exactly which transfer and how much of it takes place from simulator training to shipboard,
although simulators are a case in point for the facilitation of transfer by a similarity between the
training environment and the working environment.
The limited access to simulators at MET institutions in several METHAR countries can be
overcome by a reduction of the number of MET institutions in countries where too many of them
exist today.
In summary, it could be said that the availability and use of continually improved IT and other
modern technology (see e.g. Muirhead 1998) poses a growing challenge to MET institutions
which those are not fully prepared to meet yet. There is a lack in “computer pedagogics”,
“simulator pedagogics” and use of simulators for assessment which accompanies an often
insufficient exploitation of the existing potential of modern technology. Moreover, countries
with more than a few MET institutions find it difficult to provide all institutions with the latest
equipment. This unsatisfactory state is another reason for concentrating resources at a few MET
institutions and close down others in countries where too many MET institutions exist. Such
concentration would also provide for the extension of the range of activities of a smaller number
of MET institutions to research, for which sophisticated simulators are an excellent tool. It is
necessary that the lecturers at MET institutions keep themselves abreast of development not only
in IT and advanced technology but also in their use on board ships and in shipping on-shore. The
availability of distance learning on board ships is expected to increase as well as the “social” use
of shipboard IT (for communication). Virtual reality is a relatively new development from which
MET could profit in future.
48
5 Conclusions and recommendations
The conclusions and recommendations follow the sequence of the chapters. They address points
of major importance (and neglect points of minor importance). They show that MET in
METHAR countries will on its own hardly be able to improve its quality and competitiveness
without a concentration of national MET resources and an extension of activities by the
remaining, much smaller number of MET institutions.
It can hardly be expected that the number of MET institutions in the countries which have many
of them will be reduced in two or three years, although a quick response to the need to
concentrate MET resources would also quickly help to improve the quality and competitiveness
of MET. It is therefore proposed to support the concentration of resources by networking the
most advanced MET institutions in METHAR countries. Such group of maximally 15 MET
institutions could form the nucleus of a new European MET with more competitive standards.
This group could give a quicker national and regional response to emerging MET needs of the
industry through short intensive professional development courses and would be able to
participate in research and consultancy.
MET will also hardly be able to attract more national students if the image of the industry will
not be improved and the provision of trainee (cadet) places on board and the employment of
national certificate holders will not be financially facilitated for (still) national ship operators.
5.1
The shortage of applicants for ship officer MET in METHAR countries can partly be overcome
by offering potential applicants MET for both ship and shore and an academic degree in addition
to a certificate of competency. Such offer would, on the one hand, acknowledge that hardly any
ship officer will stay on board a ship until retirement and, on the other hand, that the society that
finances MET through its tax payers would receive a better return on its investment by providing
ship officers with professional mobility in the maritime field. MET for ship and shore is not a
luxury but a necessity. The simultaneous offer of non-degree shipboard-confined programmes is
also necessary in order to exploit the often scarce resource of MET applicants to its maximum.
Also this offer has to acknowledge that the issue for the ship officer is “no more whether to leave
the sea but when”. Possibilities for later upgrading should therefore be offered for graduates
from non-degree MET and they should include the possibility of obtaining the academic degree
which is awarded to those graduating from ship-shore degree programmes.
Both offers should preferably be available in each METHAR country.
It would facilitate the attraction of young people to MET if the image of the shipping industry
would be improved. This image can not be expected to become better solely by reporting on
positive aspects of the shipping industry and life on board ships but it also requires improvement
of the social and working conditions on board by those ship operators whose ships today
contribute to the negative image of the industry.
49
Particular attention needs to be given to informing potential candidates about the demands and
the environment which they can expect to meet on ships. This information has to be given before
young people are admitted to MET. A prior-to-MET exposure to shipboard life may to be an
appropriate approach to reducing attrition during MET. Research into the reasons for the dropout of students during MET is required.
The retention of ship officers on board ships has also to be given more attention than until now
and efforts have to be made to prolong their stay on board. Such efforts will succeed or fail with
the working and social conditions offered. Modern communication facilities and IT on board
should be used to make shipboard life more interesting and provide educational and additional
recreational possibilities. Modern communication facilities should also be used to provide more
frequent contact with family and friends ashore.
It would be useful to identify the reasons for the surplus supply of MET applicants in e.g. France.
There may be lessons to be learnt for other countries on how to increase the attraction of
seafaring for young qualified people.
It is suggested that central national data bases are established in which the number of applicants
for ship officer MET is collected, the number of persons admitted to, and graduated from, MET
and the number of years ship officers stay on board before transferring to the maritime industry
or sometimes other shore-based activities (engineers). Such quantitative national data base
should preferably be extended to the inclusion of qualitative data as e.g. the qualification of
applicants and students and the position from which ship officers change from ships to the
maritime industry ashore and to which position. A proposal for such data base should be
developed.
An increased attraction of national applicants to MET in METHAR countries is crucial for
ensuring a sufficient supply of qualified personnel for positions in the maritime industry ashore in
which shipboard experience is essential or at least desirable. The national maritime industry
ashore prefers to employ nationals whereas shipboard positions for officers can also be manned
with qualified foreigners. Nevertheless, a sufficient number of shipboard positions would also in
future have to be occupied by nationals in order to maintain the necessary supply of national
shipboard-experienced personnel for the national maritime industry ashore.
Whilst the national supply of ship officers in METHAR countries is negatively affected by
societal factors and the decline in attraction of seafaring as a career, the employment of ship
officers from METHAR countries is endangered because these officers are more and sometimes
even much more expensive than ship officers from other than METHAR countries. It would
therefore be advisable to provide indirect or direct financial support for the employment of
national ship officers in METHAR countries. Such support should also be made available for the
employment of trainees (cadets) on board ships flying the flag of a METHAR country. The
scenario that should be avoided is that
“those who could, won’t”
i.e. there is no interest in seafaring anymore, and
“those who would, can’t” (Zade and Horck 1997)
because they cannot find a place on board as trainee (cadet).
50
It would help to increase the number of training places onboard ships and of officer positions for
nationals if ship operators would also be financially encouraged to bring their ships under foreign
flags back under national flags of METHAR countries or, at least, their second registers (see e.g.
Bergantino 1997).
5.2
The adaptation to a reduced quantitative demand for ship officers in most METHAR countries brought about by the increased use of modern technology on ships and economic pressure - has
taken and is taking place without having been intentionally initiated but as a consequence of a
change in attitude to seafaring as a career. This lack of interdependence between the reasons for
a reduced demand and the reason for a reduced supply has led to the situation that the reduction
in demand has been overtaken by the reduction in supply and that the resulting shortage in supply
was compensated for by the employment of ship officers from non-METHAR countries.
The bridging of the gap between quantitative demand and supply has been dealt with in chapter
5.1. It is a matter of national policy and requires permanent communication and co-operation
between all parties concerned on what has previously been referred to as the macro level.
The adaptation to an increase in qualitative demand by the reduction of the normally existing gap
between MET and shipboard reality, the MET-job gap, is under way as far as the meeting of the
new minimum requirements of STCW 95 is concerned, although reports of the representatives of
national MET at CAMET meetings indicated initial difficulties with the implementation of
Quality Standard Systems (QSS). There was also the occasional misinterpretation of the
limitation of QSS to the status quo: say what you do and show that you do what you say. QSS
is, however, also meant to improve (and not only confirm) standards, at least to the level of
STCW 95 requirements. CAMET meetings have helped to harmonize the understanding of what
a QSS is and what it is expected to achieve.
Doubts remain whether all MET institutions have, after an initial show of determination to
implement QSS, maintained this commitment. There are indications that the attention to QSS
implementation may have slackened a bit despite the occasional involvement of classification
societies in institutional audits. It is a not so rare attitude to look at the implementation of QSS
rather as a duty exercise than an opportunity to improve MET.
The bridging of the MET-job or MET-qualitative demand gap takes place or at least should take
place on what has previously been referred to as the central level and the micro level. Adaptation
to changes in international regulatory requirements is taken care of by governmentally initiated
measures. MET-supervising authorities are by nature slow in reacting to changes in the industrial
environment. They have to develop regulations and this process is normally taking time. METsupervising authorities may also not be sufficiently well prepared to identify changes in the
industrial environment which may have to be reflected in MET. Governments normally expect
the industry to express their wishes for changes in MET. Governments react, they can hardly
ever be proactive in favour of MET. Since also MET institutions are used to take a passive role
and wait for new demands to be put to them, one could assume that the contents of MET beyond
international regulatory requirements are influenced by the industry and that its wishes arrive at
MET institutions with some delay, if they are processed through government channels. The
response of MET to new demands is per se slow. It takes 3-4 years of studies and at least three
51
years more in seatime before a ship officer obtains an unlimited certificate of competency. This
time delay until changes “arrive on board” shows the importance of continued further education
and training for ship officers. It adds to the picture of an in itself rather static MET that changes
in non-industry environments, which have influence on MET, such as changes in the society (for
which nobody feels responsible to bring them to the attention of the authorities and asks for
changes in MET), will not receive the necessary attention until they will begin to “hurt” as e.g. by
the insufficient supply of seafarers in METHAR countries.
It is difficult to speed up government “processing”. However, it would probably speed up
decision-making (although not necessarily rule-making) if there would be national round tables at
which the maritime administration, ship operators, MET institutions, educational authorities,
trade unions, professional bodies and other national organizations involved in MET would be
represented and at which policy matters would be discussed and visions on the future role of
MET in vocational and higher education and in the maritime sector. Joint national efforts should
be used to become proactive on MET and get away from the present normally reactive behaviour
that is partly imposed on MET by its supervising authorities but is partly also the result of a lack
of initiative by MET.
MET has to take a more active role (see e.g. Zade 1996) and abandon its presently too often Iam-waiting-for-somebody-else-to-tell-me-what-to-do attitude. MET could best take such new
role if it would not have to give too much attention to its competitors in the countries where too
many MET institutions exist. The argument that national competition would help improve the
MET offer is not true if the number of national study places in MET exceeds the number of
applicants for MET. It may lead to a lowering of standards because more applicants could be
expected and would be able to join an MET institution then. This trying to be “cheaper” than the
other so that more students “buy” is a development that can affect the reputation of MET only
negatively. It is another reason for reducing the number of MET institutions in countries with too
many such institutions that the national resources could be concentrated and a better MET be
offered. The equations too many national MET institution = lower MET standards, less national
MET institutions = higher standards apply to some degree in most countries. The main reason
supporting these equations is, however, not a numerical one, but the variation in the quantity and,
above all, quality of facilities in countries with too many MET institutions.
It is also more difficult for MET to take a more active role if the present too many national MET
institutions (in the countries concerned) are maintained. Staff that has not been used for a few
decades to meeting new challenges will hardly be able to change attitudes in the last decade
before retirement. Only those MET institutions which have been active for many years, offer
updating and upgrading courses, are involved in consultancy and research and through this also
have permanent communication and co-operation with the industry and other educational and
research institutions, will be able to make a contribution to developing MET into a more
proactive role but they would be hampered by other MET institutions if those would have to
share national funds with them.
The supervising authorities should try to become more proactive by establishing a permanent
communication and co-operation with the maritime industry, the MET institutions and others
involved in MET. The MET institutions should support these efforts and become themselves
more active. An effective provision which national authorities could make to stimulate this
52
development would be a concentration of MET resources at a smaller number of institutions in
countries where too many MET institutions exist.
The keywords for a better adaptation to changes in the qualitative demand – required by industry
or society – are concentration of resources, coordinated national efforts (round table) and
proactive behaviour instead of scattering of resources, uncoordinated institutional or individual
efforts and reactive behaviour.
5.3
5.3.1
Authorities
The increased involvement of educational authorities in MET in addition to the
already existing strong involvement of maritime administrations has ended the “splendid
isolation” of MET (as it used to be seen by a part of those concerned) and has integrated MET
into a wider context. This development has not always gone smoothly and there are today still
those who consider the increased involvement of educational authorities as an intrusion and
disturbance of a working system. This opinion is most widely spread at “independent” MET
institutions which are not a part of a more comprehensive ET institution and are also physically
separated from such institutions. This view is embedded in the perception of seafarers being a
“caste” on their own, and, carried further, of maritime transport being an independent mode of
transport.
The integration of sea transport in the transport from producer to user, the acceptance of the fact
that seafaring is only the beginning of a career in the maritime industry and the increased
involvement of educational authorities in MET has exposed MET to a more complex as well as
complicated environment. MET has not fully appreciated these changes as opportunities yet,
they are too often seen as threats which make the work of MET institutions more difficult.
The basic remedy for overcoming this unsatisfactory state of affairs is to take it as an opportunity
and, at the same time, as a challenge, and try to use it to the advantage of an MET that meets the
requirements of both the industry and the individual. It would also be helpful if a permanent
communication with the parties involved in MET would be established (round table). Such
communicative and desirably also co-operative approach is particularly necessary since ET
institutions which “produce” qualified personnel for other sectors of industry (than the maritime
industry) are normally not as directly dependent on the (international) market as MET.
It is this operation between national particularities and international requirements that puts
additional demands on MET. This “dual” dependence should not be overstressed since also the
manufacturing industry in most METHAR countries has moved part of its production to cheap
labour countries. The service industry, however, to which maritime transport belongs, has to
employ nationals of the country in which it provides its services. The speciality of maritime
transport is that it is a service industry that employs personnel of cheap labour countries – but not
for working in these countries but for working on ships flying flags of national or second
(national) registers of METHAR countries.
53
5.3.2
Syllabuses
Syllabuses in most countries world-wide converge against meeting the minimum
requirements of STCW 95. Countries with lower standards have increased and are still
increasing the standards of their MET programmes; countries with higher standards tend to take
the opportunity to decrease the standards of their MET programme. This development leads to
shipboard-confined syllabuses whereas ship-shore syllabuses would be needed to increase the
number of those who would be willing to attend MET.
Ideally, all METHAR countries should have at least one MET institution at which ship-shore cum
degree MET is offered and not only the 7 countries where such an MET is already available. The
most effective approach to a ship-shore syllabus is the integrated one, i.e. ship and shore MET are
dealt with in one consecutive course. It is also possible to separate the ship MET from the shore
MET and provide for the latter after the end of shipboard service. This divided approach is not as
good for those concerned as the integrated one. It may require the provision of own means and it
may not be accessible to everybody because of general education entrance requirements which
those who joined MET with 10 years general education may not fulfill. It would therefore be
useful if ship board experience could be counted towards entry requirements for academic shore
MET, so that also ship officers with shipboard-confined MET would be given access to the
shore-oriented part of ship-shore MET and to an academic degree.
It takes normally 3 years MET and some more years shipboard practice to obtain an unlimited
certificate of competency. Even if MET would be fully up-to-date, a student would only be able
to apply what he has learnt after some years when on-board requirements may already have
changed again. It is therefore important that MET syllabuses do not only cover subjects but also
principles and methods so that MET graduates are enabled to keep themselves up-to-date. The
offer of short intensive professional development courses would facilitate such updating.
MET syllabuses often lag behind what is required to be able to cope with shipboard work.
Lecturers at MET institutions tend to adhere for too long to the teaching of subjects with which
they are familiar. MET institutions are not always in permanent contact with the industry in
order to identify new training needs. Nevertheless, the readiness to update oneself appears to be
today as strong at MET institutions in METHAR countries as it used to be when seafaring was
still in “splendid isolation” and MET part of a simple and relatively small system, compared to
the complex and comprehensive system of which it is a part today.
Time spent on courses leading to unlimited certificates of competency differ widely between
METHAR countries. There are two main reasons for these variations – the difference in years of
general education with which students enter MET and, connected with this, whether they attend a
degree or a non-degree course – but they do not fully explain the differences in syllabus times.
Assuming that the quality of teaching staff and the availability of modern facilities is about the
same in all METHAR countries then there must be differences, occasionally even considerable
differences, in the quality of MET between METHAR countries. Including the existing
differences in the availability of facilities in the consideration, then the numerical differences
could perhaps be explained if modern technology would be available at MET institutions of the
countries with the lowest number of syllabus hours. This is however not necessarily the case so
that the hypothesis of differences in MET quality in METHAR countries can be maintained.
54
Differences may even exist within a country if not all MET institutions are well enough equipped
with modern technology.
A common syllabus for MET in METHAR countries should be developed on the basis of the
minimum requirements of STCW 95.
Although the responses from most parties in most METHAR countries indicate a preference for
separate deck and engine MET, it has to be noted that these responses are influenced by the
personal experience of the responders with on-board experience who normally used to sail on
ships in a “monovalent” capacity. France introduced “bivalent” (and not polyvalent) MET in
1967 and has had success with this then new type of MET about which all other countries were
rather sceptical in the beginning. Dutch MET followed in 1985 and the MET institution in
Hamburg, Germany, offers today a programme for dual-purpose officers for the local ship
operator Hapag-Lloyd.
One may wonder why dual-purpose MET has not spread to other countries too because of its
advantages of making ship officers more mobile in the industry and allowing for a flexible use of
such personnel on board. An additional advantage of dual-purpose officers for ship operators lies
in the possible reduction of the necessary personnel reserve and, through this, a reduction of
costs.
If MET in METHAR countries wants to become competitive again then it can not neglect the
possibility of offering dual-purpose MET in more than just 3 of the 15 countries.
Dual-purpose MET is more effective as an integrated approach, programmes for obtaining an
engineering certificate after a nautical certificate or vice versa are not really dual-purpose MET
although they lead to two certificates of competency. Such one-after-the-other approach lacks
the synergy effects of the at-the-same-time approach.
It would be of benefit for the mobility of ship officers within METHAR countries if the structure
of national MET systems is adapted to STCW 95 requirements by reducing the number of
certificates of competency to the two required by STCW 95. In 8 of the 15 METHAR countries
still exist today 3 certificates of competency for nautical and for engineer officers. In 5 and 4
countries, respectively, exist 4 certificates of competency for nautical and engineer officers.
Only in 2 and 3 countries, respectively, is the number of certificates 2 and equal to the number of
certificates required by STCW 95.
5.3.3
Teaching staff
The greatest asset of MET institutions in METHAR countries is the teaching staff. Most of the
lecturers hold unlimited certificates of competency and have gained shipboard experience before
joining an MET institution as lecturer in which position they have again gained substantial
experience. This experience includes familiarity with pedagogical matters, i.e. how to prepare
and deliver lectures, how to assess students, how to develop curricula etc.
Nevertheless, it would be of benefit for the quality of MET, if lecturers would not only hold
unlimited certificates of competency and would have gained shipboard experience, but would
55
also have obtained academic degrees, preferably degrees in addition to those they may have
obtained together with their certificate. The holding of academic degrees, Master or Doctor
degrees, has become the rule at other departments of higher ET institutions where also an MET
department exists. It is the complexity of the environment of MET, its regulatory, societal,
technological, economic and political aspects and the continued adaptation and development of
MET that requires also a faculty that is qualified to do more than MT and MET and is able to
offer short intensive professional development courses, involve themselves in research and
consultancy and take an active role in the development of MET.
The approach of learning by doing, as it is followed at most MET institutions, is today considered
unsatisfactory and pedagogics have in the last years been included in the upgrading of teaching
staff at many a higher education institution. Despite this development, most MET institutions
have no organized induction programme for new lecturers but continue to rely on the mentor
approach in which a senior colleague takes care of a newcomer. This lack of introduction of new
lecturers into pedagogics has not raised concern for several years because of the rather limited
and often even suspended recruitment of new teaching staff.
It would be advisable to offer such training of lecturers centrally and in English, in order to
provide, on the one hand, for a sufficient number of participants so that such course would be
worth holding and, on the other hand, to help new lecturers to improve their English in order to
enhance their qualification for keeping themselves up-to-date in their fields of expertise. Most
publications on progress in maritime matters are today published in English. Also experienced
lecturers would benefit from a training in modern teaching and assessment methods. A central
offer would have the additional advantage of providing for the involvement of the best experts in
such upgrading (of new lecturers) and updating (of experienced lecturers) courses for lecturers.
A problem that has not received satisfactory attention until now is the approaching or already
existing overaging of teaching staff at many MET institutions in METHAR countries. This
negative development is a result of the reduced and sometimes even discontinued recruitment of
lecturers because of the declining number of students. It may have contributed to a growing
inertia of faculty in respect of adaptation to new developments, including the readiness to use a
part of lecture-free periods for going back to sea or to the maritime industry ashore. This
overaging, taken to the extreme at MET institutions where the average age of the teaching staff is
approaching 60, could lead to a “biological extinction” of these MET institutions before 2010.
MET in METHAR countries can not wait much longer to recruit new lecturers with unlimited
certificates of competency and academic degrees. Such partial rejuvenation of MET teaching
staff has to begin as soon as possible. It should be implemented at MET institutions which are
the best today and offer, in addition to MET for certificates of competency, updating and
upgrading courses, are involved in consultancy and research and make an income on their own.
Such support of the fittest should be backed up by closing MET institution which are not fit
enough to meet the requirements of a more competitive MET.
56
5.3.4
Facilities
In about half of the 15 METHAR countries exists the highest simulator “density” in
the world. Substantial experience has been gained in the use of simulators, most of it at the best
equipped institutions. Nevertheless, there is a lack of knowledge in “simulator pedagogics” at
many MET institution. The experience that a good instructor contributes at least half the value to
simulator training is now more than ever appreciated. The introduction to the operation of a
simulator, which is provided by the manufacturer, is only the very beginning of using a
sophisticated simulator which today offers a potential that can also be exploited for research.
Although the development of standard scenarios has progressed (MASSTER) it is still not
sufficiently clear yet which simulator exercises are the most effective ones and how and to what
extent simulators can be used for assessment. Also the potential of simulator training as a
substitute for shipboard training or experience is not specified yet. Further research using
simulators should also give more attention to human factors and the reason for human failure.
It can be expected that modern IT facilities will in future be used to offer distance learning and to
provide for the use of application software on board ships. Such enrichment of shipboard life
should also be extended to a more frequent communication with family and friends ashore. It is
already a result of this development that the head office ashore can, continuously and closely,
monitor a ship’s operation.
MET has to involve itself in developing programmes for distance learning. Communication and
co-operation with the industry is required for identifying priority subjects which should be
offered in a distance learning format. Communication and co-operation with experts in the
preparation of distance learning programmes is also required in order to find effective ways for
presenting and delivering the programmes and exploiting technical possibilities. The use of the
internet is also in the category of providing modern technology for the benefit of seafarers on
board ships.
Another consequence for MET from the availability and use of increasingly advanced IT is the
preparation of students for the “electronic age” by, above all, improving their computer skills and
rather teach the use of pre-processed information than the obtaining of information. Calculations
and other information processing skills can be reduced in MET syllabuses and a black box
approach to equipment use applied instead of teaching equipment details, maintenance and
occasionally also repair. Diagnostic tests will limit and facilitate the involvement in maintaining
the functioning of equipment.
57
6
Selected references:
Bergantino, A S and Marlow, P B, 1997: Flagging in/flagging out: An econometric
approach. Seafarer’s International Research Centre, Cardiff University of Wales, UK.
BIMCO/ISF, 1990: The world-wide demand for and supply of seafarers. Institute for
Employment Research, Warwick University, UK.
BIMCO/ISF, 1995: Manpower update, the world-wide demand for and supply of
seafarers. Institute for Employment Research, Warwick University, UK.
CIIPMET (30 July 1998):
Study on the maritime education and training systems of China, India, Indonesia and the
Philippines, prepared by World Maritime University (WMU) and Seafarers International
Research Centre (SIRC) at Cardiff University of Wales, UK; co-ordinated by Zade, G
(WMU).
Davies, A and Parfett M, 1997: The Internet - A feasibility study into its possible role in
improving the welfare and education of seafarers, IRC report, May 1997, IRC, University
of Wales, Cardiff
Fairplay, 24th October 1996: European officers. The price of doing nothing.
Gardner, B M and Pettit, S J, 1996: A study of the UK economy’s requirements for people
with experience of working at sea. Cardiff University of Wales, UK.
Gold, E, 1998: World shipping: a global industry in transition, lecture at WMU on 12
February 1999, text available from WMU
Holder, L A, 1997: Is the European Union Seafarer an endangered species? Official
summary of conference with same title, Dublin, 17-18 December 1996.
Kinnock, N, 1996: Is the European Union seafarer an endangered species? Keynote
speech to conference with same title, Dublin, 17-18 December 1996.
Lane, T, 1998: Global seafarers: citizens or displaced persons? SEAWAYS, June 1998.
Laubstein, K, 1997: Globalization of Maritime Education and Training, Proceedings
of IMLA Conference on The New World of Maritime Education, 7-11 September
1997, St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada.
Martinez, E R, 1996: The development of an instruction system based upon multiple
sources and task related training schemes: its adoption to effect the delivery of relevant
maritime education and training, unpublished dissertation, World Maritime University.
McConville, J, 1995: United Kingdom seafarers - their employment potential, Marine
Society and Guildhall University, London.
58
METHAR work packages (WPs)
WP 1
Survey of the state of European MET (February 1998).
WP 1.1 Survey of national MET systems, schemes and programmes and
(September 1997, prepared by Pardo, F and Horck, J).
(February 1998, prepared by Groenhuis, S).
(September 1997, prepared by Muirhead, P).
WP 1.5 Survey of qualifications and careers of lecturers in national MET
institutions (September 1997, prepared by Zade, G).
WP 1.6 Survey of national MET administration and links of MET to national
education and training system (September 1997, prepared by Muirhead, P).
for shore-based positions in the maritime industry
(November 1997, prepared by Groenhuis, S).
WP 1.8 Survey of national provisions for procedures and methods by which
MET adapts to new requirements (January 1998, prepared by Groenhuis, S).
training places in national MET institutions (September 1997, prepared by Kaps, H
and Wittig, W).
WP 2 Country survey of MET philosophies of parties involved in European
MET: Concepts and objectives (February 1998, prepared by Veiga, J L).
WP 4.4 Assessment of the potential of the use of new teaching and training
technologies and methodologies in MET; distance learning through onboard training
(August 1998, prepared by Muirhead, P).
Morrison, W S G, 1997: Competent crews = safer ships, an aid to understanding
STCW 95, World Maritime University Publications, ISBN 91-973372-O-X.
Muirhead, P M, 1998: IT developments in shipping - are MET institutions ready for the
training challenge? Proceedings of the Tenth IMLA Conference on Maritime Education
and Training, St. Malo, France, 14-18 September 1998. IMLA 1999.
59
Obando-Rojas, B; Gardner, B; Naim, M, 1998: A system dynamic analysis of officer
manpower in the merchant marine, Cardiff University of Wales, UK.
Parker, C J, 1997: Continuous professional development for maritime educators, in
Maritime Education and Training - a practical guide. Nautical Institute, in conjunction
with World Maritime University.
Patraiko, D, 1999: IT@sea. SEAWAYS, January 1999.
Psaraftis, H N, 1996: Reduced manning to increase fleet competitiveness. Proceedings of
the Ninth IMLA Conference on Maritime Education and Training, Kobe, Japan, 16-20
September 1996, ISBN 91-630-4990-2.
Schager, B, 1993: Nytt urvalssystem för sjöbefälsskolorna. Beskrivning av
utvecklingsarbetet (A new assessment system for (applicants to Swedish) maritime
academies. Description of the development work). Svensk Sjöfarts Tidning 5, 1993.
Schager, B, 1997: Den mänskliga faktoren (The human factor), Svensk Sjöfarts Tidning
40, 1997
Seck, F von, 1998: Transformation der Seeschiffahrt. Privatisierung und Restrukturierung
im Ostseeraum (Transformation of the shipping industry. Privatization and restructuring
in the Baltic Sea area), Deutscher Universitäts Verlag, Wiesbaden, Germany, ISBN 38244-6829-8.
STCW 1994: priorities for change, supplement, SEAWAYS, July 1994.
STCW 95: International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and
Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978, as amended in 1995, International Maritime
Organization.
Stevenson, C, 1998: Recruiting and retaining seafarers, SEAWAYS, February 1998.
Stevenson, C, 1998: Who is tomorrow’s seafarer? SEAWAYS, June 1998.
Zade, G, 1989: Zur Ausbildung von Schiffsoffizieren: Erkennbare Schwächen in der
Bundesrepublik Deutschland (On the maritime education and training of ship officers:
visible weaknesses in the Federal Republic of Germany). HANSA 11/12, 1989. Also
published as Conduite du navire. La formation en RFA. Journal de la marine marchande,
14 September 1989.
Zade, G, 1996: Maritime education and training - quo vadis? Proceedings of the Ninth
IMLA Conference on Maritime Education and Training, Kobe, Japan, 16-20 September
1996, ISBN 91-630-4990-2.
Zade, G, 1997: Is the European Union seafarer an endangered species? Report on
conference with same title, Dublin, 17-18 December 1996, HANSA 2/1997.
60
Zade, G and Horck, J, 1997: Seeking excellence through co-operation - the European
Commission’s METHAR project and Concerted Action on MET. Proceedings of IMLA
Conference on The New World of Maritime Education, St. John’s NF, Canada, 7-11
September 1997, IMLA.
Zade, G, 1997: The training, updating and upgrading of maritime lecturers in Maritime
Education and Training - a practical guide. Nautical Institute, in conjunction with World
Maritime University.
Zade, G, 1999: Zur Entwicklung der Ausbildung von Schiffsoffizieren in Europa (On the
development of maritime education and training of ship officers in Europe). In Festschrift
on the 200th anniversary of nautical education and training in the State of Bremen.
Hochschule Bremen, forthcoming.
61
7
Executive summary
MET in METHAR countries is today considerably influenced by the globalization of
shipping.
The best response to changes in the regulatory environment, to influences from
technological and societal developments and economic pressures is the concentration of
MET resources, the extension of MET activities and politically decided financial support
for the employment of national cadets and ship officers. These measures will improve the
quality and competitiveness of MET in METHAR countries, will maintain jobs for their
nationals and ensure a supply of qualified nationals with shipboard experience to shorebased positions in the maritime industry.
*
The meeting of the new international regulatory requirements of STCW 95(1) does not seem to
pose any major problem to MET (2) institutions in almost all METHAR (3) countries (4). The
acquisition of new technological facilities for use in MET and the response of MET to the
increased use of modern technology in the industry does however pose a problem to many MET
institutions. This problem could best be solved by a concentration of MET resources at a smaller
number of MET institutions in the METHAR countries where many MET institutions and a
surplus of study places exists. Such a centralization would also facilitate co-operation between
MET institutions in different METHAR countries. The best response to societal developments,
which resulted in a decline of interest in seafaring and ship officer MET, is the offer of a syllabus
that provides for mobility in the shipping industry from on-board to on-shore positions where
shipboard experience is essential or at least desirable. The best response to economic pressures
on MET is again the concentration of resources at a smaller number of institutions. These
institutions could also make an own income from the
offer of short intensive professional development courses and the involvement in research and
consultancy. Economic difficulties of ship operators in METHAR countries to employ national
ship officers should be facilitated by a political decision to provide indirect or direct financial
support from national and EU funds.
*
(1) International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for
Seafarers, 1978, as amended in 1995
(2) Maritime Education and Training
(3) Harmonization of European MET Schemes
(4) METHAR countries: Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland,
Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom
62
Altogether there are 147 MET institutions at 134 locations in the 15 METHAR countries. The
difference of 13 between the two figures indicates mainly a separation of the institutions for deck
officer and engine officer MET at the same location.
Education and training of ship officers in most of the 15 countries which participate in the
METHAR project and in CAMET (5) is negatively affected by a shortage of applicants and,
consequently, by a surplus of study places. The European Union ship officer is an endangered
species, if present trends would continue (Kinnock, 1996).
The shortage of applicants is mainly a consequence of a decline of interest in seafaring, a widely
spread development in mostly affluent societies. This decline is worsened by the bad image of
the industry. The surplus of study places at MET institutions is also a consequence of the
globalization of shipping, the increased use of modern technology in shipping and the availability
of ship officers from East European, Asian and other countries who are cheaper and sometimes
considerably cheaper than ship officers from METHAR countries.
The insufficient supply of national ship officers in most METHAR countries could be overcome
by the employment of seafarers from cheap labour countries although this would
(5) Concerted Action on MET
lead to a further loss of jobs in shipping in METHAR countries. The often held belief that
ship officers form METHAR countries are better qualified than ship officers from cheap labour
countries requires differentiation. Some of the cheap labour countries are producing ship officers
of good quality.
The serious problem remains that an insufficient supply of national ship officers already exists or
can be expected to develop for positions in the national industry where shipboard experience is
essential or at least desirable and where the employment of ex-ship officers from other countries
is restricted because of a language barrier and a preference of national employers for nationals. A
consequence of such an insufficient supply of nationals will be a lowering of standards and a
reduction of the quality of services and, eventually, a loss of competitiveness.
MET in METHAR countries is not in the position to overcome the shortage of applicants for ship
officer MET by solely own efforts. It can however contribute to solving this problem if
environmental conditions would be created which would make the MET contribution possible.
The main contribution of MET to its improvement would be co-operative efforts towards the
development of syllabuses which are up-to-date, represent best practice and would be widely
used at MET institutions in METHAR countries.
A main condition which METHAR countries with too many MET institutions and a surplus of
study places have to meet is not the reduction of study places at each institution but the closing of
some of the MET institutions with a small number of students, and the concentration of resources
at a smaller and sometimes much smaller number of MET institutions with a then larger number
of students. If this condition will not be fulfilled within the next 5-10 years then it will be more
difficult and later on even impossible to provide MET with which lost competitiveness can be
regained.
63
A concentration of MET resources at a smaller number of institutions would improve the
prerequisites for offering short intensive professional development courses to ship officers for
keeping them abreast of new developments in their work environment. The taking up of research
and consultancy as well as the making of an own income would be facilitated through a
concentration of expertise and advanced (and expensive) equipment at a smaller number of
national MET institutions. Moreover, fewer MET institutions with greater potential would also
facilitate a co-operation between MET institutions in different METHAR countries and a
harmonization of efforts towards a further improved MET quality.
The national concentration of MET resources can be expected to be a lengthy process. It would
help to speed up this process if the leading MET institutions in METHAR countries would begin
to form a network and cooperate with each other.
More METHAR countries (than the present 3) should consider to offer dual-purpose MET which
offers advantages for both ship officers and ship operators.
Another main condition for attracting more young people to MET is the wider spread of an MET
for professional mobility, the so-called ship-shore MET, as it is today already offered in 7 of 15
METHAR countries where also academic degrees can be obtained.
In addition to ship-shore MET, shipboard-confined MET should be maintained also in future for
those who do not meet the higher general education entry requirements for ship-shore MET.
These students should be given opportunities to obtain, after some time at sea, qualifications
similar to their colleagues who graduated from ship-shore MET.
Both offers, the one for unlimited certificate of competency cum academic degree and the one for
unlimited certificate of competency only should be maintained in order to exploit the potential of
MET applicants to its maximum. Both types of MET should preferably be offered at the same
MET institutions.
Ship-shore MET is an appreciation of the fact that ship officers see shipboard service as a
temporary part of their career and will seek employment in the maritime industry ashore after a
few or some years on board. Ship-shore MET should therefore add a part to shipboard-confined
MET that prepares for professional mobility in the maritime industry.
The minimum requirements of STCW 95 will lead to a converging of world-wide shipboardconfined syllabuses towards these requirements. This will first become true for syllabus
specifications. However, there are differences in the quality with which these specifications are
implemented, they are a result of variations in the quality of lecturers at MET institutions and the
quality of equipment available. These variations are another strong reason for a concentration of
resources for improving the competitiveness of MET in METHAR countries.
It should be noted that the high average age of teaching staff and the reduced and occasionally
even suspended recruitment of new staff at many MET institutions in METHAR countries can
pose a hindrance to changes in MET.
64
National ship operators in METHAR countries should be encouraged to employ national trainees
(cadets) and ship officers. This should be financially facilitated for them by reduced taxation and
the use of appropriate national and EU funds.
There is a lack of quantitative and qualitative data on national MET applicants, students,
graduates and ship officers. The development of uniformly structured national data bases
containing this information is necessary.
Provisions for the mutual recognition of certificates of competency among METHAR countries
are a necessary prerequisite for the mobility of seafarers within these countries. It would
facilitate this recognition if METHAR countries would reduce the number of certificates to two
(in accordance with STCW 95). Today, only two countries meet this condition.
MET should receive better national recognition by inclusion of its representatives in national
round tables of those concerned with, and involved in, MET. National MET should be
appreciated as an equal partner in national efforts for its improvement.
8
Summary of research and development needs
There exist considerable research and development needs in MET which, if met, can be expected
to lead to the improvement of national MET and to a furtherance of the harmonization of MET in
METHAR countries. The meeting of the research and development needs would also make MET
in METHAR countries more competitive with MET outside these countries and would facilitate
the mobility of seafarers between METHAR countries, provided the legal provisions for the
mutual recognition of certificates of competency would be in place.
The contribution of research and development to a better, more harmonized and more
competitive MET would be more effective if national MET staff and equipment resources would
be concentrated at a smaller number of MET institutions and if those would extend their activities
to the offer of short intensive professional development courses, to research and consultancy, and
would make an own income.
The four main areas in which most research and development needs exist are:
1 syllabus development
2 up-dating of teaching staff
Results from research and development are expected to be applied at MET institutions in
METHAR countries. It would therefore not be sufficient to simply disseminate the results to
MET institutions (where they may be “shelved”). It will be necessary to familiarize future
implementors with the results and their application and, develop them into and use them as
“change agents”.
3 understanding the “unknown species” ship officer
4 MET economics
65
ad 1: syllabus development:
• development of a common syllabus on the basis of STCW 95 requirements
• within STCW 95: development of syllabuses for subjects of increasing importance (e.g.
maritime English) and decreasing importance (e.g. celestial navigation)
• outside STCW 95: development of syllabuses for subjects by which the shipboard-confined
STCW 95 requirements are extended (e.g. maritime pollution) or enriched towards a shipshore syllabus (e.g. maritime economics).
It would facilitate the implementation of syllabuses on the above-mentioned subjects if they
would be developed by a few experts from different countries and if those, who are expected to
teach them, would be familiarized with the syllabuses in tailor-made courses.
ad 2: updating of teaching staff:
• development of an instructional skills course
• development of a course on the use of IT in MET
• development of a course for simulator instructors
It will not be sufficient to develop syllabuses for these and other professional updating courses
for the teaching staff at MET institutions, it will also be necessary to offer these courses - at a
central location with the participation (as lecturers) of experts from various countries - to
maritime lecturers in METHAR countries in order to ensure an implementation of these
syllabuses.
ad 3: understanding the “unknown species” ship officer
• development of a framework for national data bases on number and qualification of
applicants for, and number and qualification of those admitted to, MET, number of graduates
who went to sea or directly to the shore (and positions there), number and position of ship
officers leaving the sea for a shore-based position in the maritime industry, positions they
leave for and after how many years this happens.
These data bases should have the same structure in all METHAR countries in order to provide for
a comparison of the data collected, which form the numerical basis for research into the reasons
for choosing seafaring as a (temporary) career, the reasons for the drop-out of students during
MET and whether it is influenced by pre-MET requirements or other factors; the reasons for the
variations in the lengths of stay on board after graduation from MET and the choice of
employment ashore.
The MET students and the ship officers are not only an “endangered species”, they are also a
rather unknown species. To make them a known species would help to understand them better
and seek possibilities to influence their decision in favour of (or against) seafaring and in favour
of (or against) staying in MET and on board.
More knowledge about MET applicants, MET students and ship officers also allow to identify
METHAR countries where MET is successful in attracting young qualified people to seafaring,
keeping them in MET and, after graduation, on board. Lessons learnt from successful concepts
may be transferable from one country to another.
66
ad 4: MET economics:
It is assumed that it is possible to reduce the costs of MET and, for a small number of MET
institutions, to make an own income. It is not clear today how MET in the various MET
countries is financed and what sources of financing are available. It is also not clear how much
MET for an unlimited certificate of competency with or without academic degree costs and how
the costs compare to ET for other industries. If this information would become available then
possibilities for savings could be explored.
67
Report
METHAR
Project
Coordinator:
Partners:
Work package 4:
Identification of present and future MET needs
Date: October 1998
PROGRAMME
METHAR, WP 4
Work package 4:
Table of contents
Page
Introduction and acknowledgement
WP 4.1
Provision of a common understanding of the
requirements of the revised STCW Convention
and how to meet them
4
Possible support for the implementation of the ISM
Code
WP 4.2
Assessment of the impact of an increased use of
technology in the maritime industry on MET.
Consultation and cooperation with the European
manufacturing industry on advances in technology
36
WP 4.3
Consultation and collaboration with the "operating"
maritime industry (shipowners, port mangers, etc.) on
the identification of future training needs
36
WP 4.4
Assessment of the potential in the use of new teaching
and training technologies and methodologies in MET;
distance learning through on board training
86
METHAR, WP 4
1
Introduction and acknowledgement
Work package 4 (WP4) covers a broader range of subjects than its title “Identification of
present and future training needs“ suggests. It stretches from help with the meeting of present
training needs, above all the requirements of STCW 95 (WP4.11), to the potential of modern
technology for the meeting of (present and) future training needs (WP4.42).
Between these two work packages, the impact of the use of more and more advanced modern
technology in the industry on MET is assessed through the producers of hardware (WP4.23)
and the users of these products (WP4.34); the users were also asked to give their opinion on
future training needs.
The titles of WPs 4.2 and 4.4 refer to technology and the placing of WP4.3 on the maritime
industry’s views on future training needs between these two WPs suggests that also these
future training needs have something to do with the increased use of modern technology. This
makes the majority of WP4 technology-orientated. Such design was intended, as it should
reflect the importance of the development and use of new technology for both the industry
and MET. Technology creates new training needs and it helps to meet them.
The ISM Code was originally included in WP4.3 as a future training need. This was in 1996.
Today, meeting the requirements of the ISM Code is no more a future but a present training
need (although the requirements of the ISM Code had already to be met by August 1998).
Meeting the STCW 95 requirements was in 1996 treated as a present training need. Since both
are now present training needs, a reference to the ISM Code and a comparison between it and
STCW 95 was added to WP4.1 which deals with present training needs (and the reference to
the ISM Code in WP4.3 was deleted).
The reports on WP4, particularly those on WPs 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 show that the use of advanced
technology in the industry has become a must for improving efficiency and competitiveness
of shipping in the 15 countries covered by the METHAR project. The same applies to MET
(Muirhead 19985).
We hope that the reports of this WP will help to create an awareness of the potential of
modern technology and provide useful suggestions for what it can be used in MET.
1 WP4.1: Provision of a common understanding of the requirements of the new STCW Convention
and how to meet them. Possible MET support for the implementation of the ISM Code.
2 WP4.4: Assessment of the potential of the use of new teaching and training technologies and
methodologies in MET; distance learning through on board training.
3 WP4.2: Assessment of the impact of an increased use of technology in the maritime industry on
MET. Consultation and cooperation with the European manufacturing industry on advances in
technology.
4 WP4.3 Consultation and collaboration with the “operating“ maritime industry (shipowners, port
managers, etc) on the identification of future training needs.
5 Muirhead, P M (1998) “IT developments in shipping - are MET institutions ready for the training
challenge?“ Tenth IMO Conference on MET, Communication - Cooperation - Coherence; St.
Malo, France, 14-18 September 1998
METHAR, WP 4
2
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to my colleague Peter Muirhead for preparing
the reports on WPs 4.1 and 4.4 and to Marco Mazzarino and Elena Maggi of the University of
Trieste for preparing the reports on WPs 4.2/4.3. My colleague Rajandra Prassad and Marco
Mazzarino/ Elena Maggi deserve appreciation for their reports on the ISM Code which were
added to WP4.1.
I would also like to thank the members of the Concerted Action on ME for their readiness to
share information on problems and solutions with meeting STCW 95 requirements in our
(almost) regular STCW 95 implementation update, the results from which have also helped to
prepare the report on WP4.1. The members of CAMET have also to be credited for their
valuable contributions to the drafts of WPs 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4.
Günther Zade
Coordinator, METHAR
METHAR, WP 4
3
Task 43 Harmonisation of European MET Schemes.
METHAR
WP 4.1 Provision of a common understanding of the requirements
of the revised STCW Convention and how to meet them *
Possible MET support for the implementation of the ISM Code **
REPORT
* World Maritime University, Malmö, Sweden
April 1998
** World Maritime University and Università di Trieste
(Prepared by Rajendra Prasad and Marco Mazzarino/Elena Maggi)
October 1998
4
Work Package 4.1
Provision of a common understanding of the requirements
of the revised STCW Convention and how to meet them
Table of contents
Page
STCW 95
1
Introduction
7
2
Methodology
7
3
STCW 95: Change and implication for EU MET systems
8
3.1 Quality Standards Systems
3.2 Courses of education and training
3.3 Instructor qualifications and experience
3.4 Assessor qualifications and experience
3.5 Training supervisors
3.6 Simulator performance standards
3.7 Simulator training
3.8 Refresher and upgrading training
3.9 Onboard training programs
3.10 Sea service requirements
8
9
9
10
11
11
12
13
13
14
4
Recognition of Certificates of Competency
14
5
Results of Survey of Maritime Administrations
15
6
Results of Survey of MET Institutions
15
7
Council Directive 94/58/EC on minimum level of training of seafarers
16
8
16
8.1 Conclusions
8.2 Recommendations
16
17
References and supporting documentation
5
18
Page
ISM Code
9.
Possible MET support to the implementation of the ISM Code
19
9.1
19
19
9.2
Consistencies between the ISM Code and STCW 95
9.1.1 Regulatory regimes to promote safety with focus on the
human element
9.1.2 The ISM Code
9.1.3 The revised STCW Convention
9.1.4 Purpose of the ISM Code and STCW 95
9.1.5 Some common issues not addressed in STCW 95
20
20
21
23
The influence of the ISM Code on MET
9.2.1 The results of the questionnaire
24
24
Attachments
1. Questionnaire pro-forma
2. Table 1. Summary of responses from European Maritime Administrations
3. Table 2. Summary of responses from European MET Institutions
4. Table 3. Overview of attitudes to STCW harmonisation in Europe
6
28
30
32
34
1
Introduction
The objective of this work package is to examine attitudes of those involved in implementing
the changes emanating from ‘STCW 1995’ that impact upon education and training activities
within the European Union sphere of interest, and to consider the feasibility of developing a
common strategy to meet such new requirements with a view to harmonising the approach to
such implementation.
The revised STCW 78 Convention (hereafter described as STCW95) produced many changes
affecting maritime education and training that involves administrations, MET institutes and
ship operators. For the project to achieve any meaningful outcomes, it is necessary to identify
and pursue those aspects of changes where there is some reasonable degree of consensus of
harmonisation amongst participants in the concerted action project.
2
Methodology
The major changes emanating from STCW 95 were identified from such sources as relevant
IMO documentation, literature search of papers dealing with the development and
implementation of the revised convention, Captain W. Morrison’s recently published book on
the STCW 95, and the writer’s own experience as consultant to the IMO on the revision and
implementation of the convention. A total of 37 specific items under 11 main headings that
affect MET implementation were established. Reference sources are listed in the Appendix.
In order to establish views held on the feasibility of achieving a common approach to
implementation of STCW 95, a questionnaire was prepared and circulated to the
Administrations responsible for the Convention in the 15 member states of the European
Union (excluding Austria and Luxembourg but including Norway and Iceland). In addition,
56 MET institutions within the aforementioned countries were asked to respond to the same
questionnaire. A summary of responses received from the administrations is attached as table
1 and that from the training institutions is attached as table 2.
Responses were received from 12 of the 15 states (France, Italy and Belgium did not reply), a
return rate of 80%, and only 11 responses ( covering 6 states) from the institutions targeted,
representing a return rate of 21%. Post survey comments on the draft report were received
from the Danish Maritime Authority and are summarised in section 8.
The following question was posed. “ In the view of your Administration or Institute, to what
degree is it realistic to expect the following STCW95 changes to be implemented in a
harmonised way across the European MET system?”. Respondents were asked to answer
against three criteria namely ‘Fully’, ‘In Part’, or ‘Not at All’ for each of the 37 identified
items, supported by any relevant comments.
The responses were collated separately for both administrations and institutes as raw
percentages for each criterion, blank entries were treated as undecided (tables 1 and 2). The
results from two the areas were compared on the basis of ‘fully or in part’ versus ‘not at all’
view (Table 3) in an attempt to identify consensus or common ground for achieving
harmonisation. Clarifying comments from respondents were provided.
7
The results were presented in a draft form at the CAMET meeting No 5 for evaluation and
comments by members in order to identify which items could realistically be met across a
harmonised European perspective. In addition, the work package provided an important guide
to the project team on the areas of changes in the STCW 95 that could be pursued with some
confidence of a successful outcome. In this regard it provides a key element to the
development of work packages 5.1, 5.2 and 6. In this final report an evaluation has been
undertaken of the overall responses as well as of the comments and recommendations
proposed on those aspects of STCW 95, as they affect MET which realistically can be brought
together across the 15 member countries in a harmonised way.
3
STCW 95: Change and implications for EU MET systems
This section examines briefly the changes in the revised Convention that are having a direct
effect upon education and training standards, activities and associated relationships between
Maritime Administrations and MET Institutes, and to a lesser extent upon ship owners in
regard to onboard training. Comments from the survey relating to the topics are summarised
in each section. An evaluation of questionnaire outcome together with that of comments on
the potential for harmonisation of areas in each section is made.
3.1
Quality Standards Systems (QSS)
Overview:
Regulation I/8 deals with QSS and its provisions which came into effect on 1 February 1997.
It applies to the administration of the certification, endorsement and revalidation system, all
maritime training courses and programmes, examinations and competence assessment carried
out by or under the authority of a Party. It also covers the qualifications and experience
required, of instructors and assessors. In establishing a QSS each Party must ensure that,
under A-I/8 of the Code, an external evaluation of the quality standards system is conducted
by suitably qualified and independent persons. The main criteria is demonstrating ‘fitness for
purpose’. Skill acquisition is also a part of competency examinations and this must be taken
into account in the documentation of national programme objectives. Part B-I/8 provides
extensive guidance on the establishment of a quality standards system.
STCW 95 did not adopt a standard model such as ISO 9000 series which provides a
framework for any type of organisation to assure customers of compliance with stated
objectives. If this is not used, the model developed must ensure that quality is achieved. A
Party may use an existing QSS in use in the national MET or administrative system, modified
as necessary to meet particular requirements of the Convention where these are not covered.
For example the quality standards system must contain clearly defined education and training
objectives, establish minimum standards for examination and competence assessment and a
mechanism to monitor the training, assessment and certification processes. Documented
procedures for external evaluation need to be established.
Survey comments:
National framework and internal self evaluation-guidance needed (Denmark)
External evaluation : Broad outlines need to be developed (Finland)
QSS: It is up to the commission if there shall be a central quality system. If true, everyone
should have to comply with it (Sweden)
QSS : MSA being the National Administration maintains ISO9002 ; Institutes maintain their
own QSS which is supervised by the MSA and relevant technical Education Authorities as the
awarding body. (UK)
ISO 9000 : Most haven’t started yet (COMET-Sweden)
8
Summary evaluation:
The first result illustrates the problem of a harmonised approach to QSS. A majority of both
administrations (66%) and institutions (81%) support using a national framework. However
many institutions see this being within ISO 9000 but administrations are split in using other
alternatives. Perhaps the most encouraging outcome is that harmonisation of internal
evaluation procedures received strong support all round, and only slightly lesser support for
developing common guidelines for external evaluation.
3.2
Courses of education and training
Overview:
Regulation I/6 (new) which came into force on 1 February 1997 imposes on Parties an
obligation to ensure that training and assessment of seafarers are administered, supervised and
monitored in accordance with the STCW Code. Reference to A-I/6 further directs attention to
ensuring that all education and training is structured in accordance with written programs, and
includes training objectives, teaching syllabus, the methods of delivery, media support, course
material, procedures and means of assessment. Note that Part A requires such programs to be
approved by the Party as defined under regulation I/1.
Survey comments:
Entry Standards: 9/12 CE plus Medical standards (Finland)
Fully plus National requirements (Iceland)
Too many different education systems (Ireland)
Dependant on national vocational schooling system (Netherlands)
Impossible to harmonise (Sweden)
Only sea service standards (UK)
Common Training Objectives: Impossible to harmonise (Sweden)
Common Syllabus to Code A: Too many different education systems (Ireland)
Assessment-knowledge based: 50% for passing? (COMET-Sweden)
Assessment-competence based: No awareness in schools (COMET-Sweden)
Summary evaluation
In the matter of entry standards the response indicates that many doubt the practicality of
setting a common entry standard bearing in mind the diverse systems in place in Europe. In
regard to achieving common training objectives and syllabus to Code A requirements, support
is very strong that something could be done. The teachers indicate that many aspects of course
delivery and use of instructional media could be harmonised. Administrations are much more
sceptical. The use of a functional course structure is least supported by institutions of all items
in this section, while administrations do not see this as an area for likely success. The
opportunity for harmonisation of assessment processes either wholly or in part gains strong
support from both sides.
3.3
Instructor qualifications and experience
Overview:
Regulation I/6 makes it clear that those responsible for STCW related training and assessment
activities are to be appropriately qualified for the particular types and levels of training or
assessment being conducted, whether aboard or ashore. For in-service training section A-I/6
specifically requires the trainer to be qualified in the task (i.e. able to perform the task), have
an appreciation of the training program and understand the specific training objectives
9
concerned. Those supervising training must have a full understanding of the training program
and the specific objectives for each type of training being conducted.
Section 7 of part A-I/6 of the Code also requires Parties to ensure that not only are trainers
and assessors appropriately qualified and experienced, but that they have been trained in
instructional techniques, in training and assessment methods, have had practice as well as
meet the requirements specified in the previous paragraph. Although not explicitly stated, the
requirement to be qualified in the task implies that the instructor shall have practical
experience in performing the task. This is certainly relevant when considering the emphasis
in the Code of demonstration of competence.
Survey comments:
Pedagogical competence: Refer to teacher training in EU generally (NVQ) (Finland)
There is no national demand (COMET-Sweden)
Practical Experience: Highest seagoing qualification of respective discipline, a degree in some
cases with sea-going and industrial experience is usual. (UK)
Summary evaluation:
Interestingly, a strong consensus exists both in administrations and institutions that
pedagogical competence amongst lecturers is important enough to warrant some harmonised
approach. From the comments received there appears to be little or no formal requirement for
pedagogical training of lecturers or instructors in MET institutes in Europe. This is a
weakness which could be partly overcome through the development of a common program for
all lecturers, or through the completion of a pedagogical course based on IMO model course
6.09 as a minimum standard for approval across the European Union.
Similar strong support exists for ensuring that instructors have practical experience in the
tasks.
3.4
Assessor qualifications and experience
Overview:
Concerning assessors, there is little difference to the requirements for instructors in regard to
qualifications, the focus being on having an appropriate level of knowledge and understanding
of the competence to be assessed, be qualified in the task being assessed, to have received
appropriate guidance in assessment methods and practice and have gained practical
assessment experience. Although the Convention clearly separates out the roles of instructor
and assessor, nowhere does it require that such functions be carried out by different people.
Educationally it is not good practice to be both judge and jury, but peer review processes in
overcome such difficulties. The training of assessors must take into account the relevant
assessment criteria set out in the tables in Code A by which the assessor is going to evaluate
whether a seafarer has achieved the competence required by the Convention.
Survey comments:
National Vocational Qualifications scheme (NVQ) provides assessor training (UK)
No scheme for this in Sweden, possibly starting in 98. (COMET-Sweden)
Survey evaluation:
Both sides indicate strong support for the need for a common approach to training in
assessment techniques. There is little evidence that any formal training is available in this
important aspect.
10
3.5
Training supervisors
Overview:
Those persons with a responsibility for supervising the training and assessment of
supervisors under Regulation I/6 are required to be appropriately qualified for the particular
types and levels of training or assessment. Section A-I/6 clarifies further that this includes
having a full understanding of the training program and of the specific objectives for each
type of training being conducted.
Survey comments:
Shipboard in-service training is only the first stage of assessment; final assessment is
conducted only at approved centres by qualified assessors (UK)
Summary evaluation:
A strong consensus exists amongst most respondents that this is an area of approach that
could be harmonised.
3.6
Simulator performance standards
Overview:
Regulation I/12 (new) lays down standards which are immediately applicable to all mandatory
simulator-based training and to any use of simulators for assessment of competency or the
demonstration of continued proficiency mandated by the Convention. Section A-I/12 of the
Code gives general performance standards for all methods and types of simulator used in
training and assessment. Additional performance standards for mandatory radar and ARPA
simulator training are also prescribed here. While no other forms of simulator training are
mandatory, Part A of the Code refers to approved simulator training in many places in column
3 of the competency tables as one method of demonstrating competence. If this path is
followed then the simulator must comply with the performance standards of regulation I/12.
In regard to existing simulators or simulators installed or brought into use before 1 February
2002, regulation I/12 allows for some relaxation from meeting the new performance standards
in that such simulators may be exempted by Parties (at their discretion) from full compliance
with any or all of the standards. Such exemptions can only apply to the simulators themselves
and not to the requirements of part 2 of A-I/12. Simulators so exempted may continue to be
used without time limit.
Survey comments:
Meeting the standards should be an absolute requirement of any contract with the simulator
supplier (Iceland)
The Commission decides and raises the necessary funds (Sweden)
UK institutes meet the mandatory requirements of STCW and require no exemption; Some
institutes are still to have full visual scenario simulators with ECDIS. (UK)
Summary evaluation:
A high level of agreement is shown by institutions (90%) and by Administrations (66%) that
the requirement to meet the performance standards could be achieved wholly or in part across
Europe. In regard to a harmonised approach to granting exemptions or not, some
administrations are more pessimistic on this aspect, probably reflecting an uncertainty as to
11
the situation with existing simulators in their countries. Surveys of EU simulators
(MASSTER project) however show a high degree of compliance by European simulators in
European countries at present.
Despite the high degree of support shown for developing a common approach to the granting
of exemptions, administrations are best placed to deal with this aspect at the workface. The
main problem is the lack of experts to advise administrations on whether simulators comply
with performance standards or not.
3.7
Simulator training
Overview:
In addition to the requirements of regulation I/12 and A-I/12, regulation I/6 has an impact
here. A-I/6 requires all training programs to be structured in accordance with written
programs. They need to be approved by the Administration. This applies to simulation
training, also Section 6 of A-I/12 requires Parties to ensure that the aims and objectives of
simulator-based training are defined within an overall training program, and that specific
training objectives and tasks are selected so as to relate to shipboard practices and tasks.
It should be noted that Part 2 of section A-I/12 of the Code must be met in full by all
simulator the instructors and assessors, regardless of whether simulator equipment itself has
been exempt by an administration from complying with performance standards in Part 1.
Regarding the qualifications and experience of instructors and assessors, A-I/6 requires
instructors conducting training using a simulator to have received appropriate guidance in
instructional techniques involving the use of simulators and to have gained practical
experience on the type of simulator being used. If conducting assessment by simulator, the
assessor must have gained practical experience on the particular type of simulator under the
supervision and to the satisfaction of an experienced assessor.
Survey comments:
Approval of Radar/ARPA courses: Initial approval & periodical monitoring is in place (UK)
Approval of other simulators: Tanker training & ER simulators approval in hand (UK)
Guidance in Instructional Techniques: The producer of the simulator has to provide a relevant
course for the instructor (Sweden)
Assessment procedures: In approved assessment centres (UK)
Assessor training: Fully trained and qualified (UK)
Summary evaluation:
In considering the responses to the seven items listed under simulator training, institutions are
almost of one voice in supporting harmonisation in these areas to some degree or other. They
are less certain in regard to the use of other forms of simulation (other than radar/ARPA)
when used as a method of assessment under Code A. Administrations are less positive but still
see great potential for some forms of harmonisation of approach in training objectives,
guidance in instructional techniques and practical operational experience.
12
3.8
Refresher and upgrading training
Overview
Under regulation I/11 Parties, in consultation with others, must formulate the development of
a structure of refresher and updating courses. The purpose is to ensure that holders of
certificates continue to be recognised and qualified for seagoing service. Such courses need to
be approved by the administration and shall include changes in national and international
regulations concerning safety of life at sea and protection of the marine environment. The
courses shall also take account of any updating of the standard of competence concerned.
Refresher courses required by regulations V/2 and V/3 under Chapter V are specific to the
ship served on. A seafarer however may provide evidence of having achieved the required
standard of competence within the previous 5 years in lieu of undertaking such refresher
courses.
Survey Comments:
Approval of courses: Fresh approval under STCW95 requirements are in hand (UK)
Objectives and syllabus content: this is now being reviewed (UK)
Summary evaluation
While a harmonised approach to approvals of such courses and training programs is desirable
and strongly supported, the requirement for each administration to develop such outcomes in
consultation with the industry will make it very difficult to achieve a harmonised consensus
across 15 countries. Use of model courses should be supported as a basis for a common
approach. The work of the EU MASSTER project should be taken into account.
3.9
Onboard training programs
Overview
Both sections II/1 and III/1 of chapters II and III require candidates for certification as an
officer of the watch to have undergone a period of on board training which is to be
documented in an approved training record book. The approval of such books is to be carried
out by the Party which is to issue the certificate. Section B-II/1 provides detailed guidance on
recommended procedures on the preparation and use of training record books.
Survey Comments:
Training record book: This is part of the approved cadet training program (UK)
Summary evaluation:
The support for a harmonised training record book is high amongst institutions and only
slightly less by administrations. With the availability of the STCW95 orientated ISF and IMO
training record books, most countries could use these as a model or develop their own
national training record book from them. Considering the requirements of the standards in
competence tables in Part A of the Code, it ought to be possible to have a high degree of
consensus about practical onboard training requirements.
13
3.10
Sea service requirements
Overview:
Regulation I/1 defines seagoing service as meaning service on board a ship relevant to the
issue of a certificate or other qualification. In regard to the type or size of the ship on which
seagoing service can be acquired, the Convention lays down no minimum gross tonnage or
propulsion power. The onus is on the Party issuing the certificate, in approving particular sea
service, to ensure that the size or propulsion power of the ships served on correspond to the
category of certificate to be issued. Specific minimum periods of sea service for
watchkeeper's certificates are laid down in Chapters II and III.
Survey comments:
Harmonisation possible in part, but difficult with the different scope for judgement on the
length of sea service. (Greece)
Apart from watchkeeping testimonials it is necessary to have a portfolio of evidence of tasks
undertaken (UK)
Summary evaluation:
It is interesting to note that the institutions (100%) see harmonisation of minimum sea-service
requirements potentially possible. However the different interpretations of what is acceptable
sea service amongst administrations, leads to the response from administrations to be more
circumspect on the matter, only some 58% seeing possibilities here.
4
Recognition of certificates of competency
Overview:
Procedures to be followed by an Administration under STCW 95 in recognising certificates
issued to masters, officers and radio operators are prescribed in regulation I/10. Regulation
I/2, section 5 also deals with the endorsement of such certificates by the Administration to
attest its recognition. The administration may only carry out the latter step when it has
confirmed that the original certificate has been issued in compliance with the standards of
competence required by the Convention. As well the Administration must have an agreement
with the other Party concerned that prompt notification will be given of any significant
change in the arrangements for training and certification as provided for compliance with the
Convention.
Survey comments:
Harmonised in accordance with STCW (Denmark)
Only via endorsement-most regulations common (Finland)
If their diploma fulfils STCW requirements (Iceland)
On a reciprocal basis only (Ireland)
Procedures are set down in Directive 94/58/EC as amended (Netherlands)
All ‘White List’ countries (Netherlands)
Other countries: these have not yet been defined (Portugal)
All recognition is done after evaluation & assessment as required under I/10 (UK)
Other countries: As above for some Commonwealth countries (UK)
If all the systems in operation in member states are systematically equated a norm will
emerge. It is this norm which could be used as a harmonised approach. (Ireland)
14
Summary evaluation:
This question tackles the crux of the harmonisation issue. If the European community is to
have free movement of labour in the sea going industry then administrations need to assure
themselves that the standards achieved in all 15 member states comply with the requirements
of the Convention. Of all questions asked in the survey, this particular topic was the only one
to produce no ‘not at all’ responses. Administrations were positive in viewing the possibilities
of a harmonised approach ( fully at 67%) whilst institutions, no doubt noting earlier
responses, were more hesitant in giving full support. One country indicated that it did not
support MET harmonisation in Europe except in the recognition of certificates across the EU.
5
Results of survey of Maritime Administrations
Table 1 attached shows the responses received from the representatives of 12 countries,
France, Italy and Belgium administrations did not respond. The German Administration stated
that it was not in favour of harmonisation in general, but accepted the need for recognition of
certificates of competency because European jurisdiction exists in this area. Denmark made
the point that her policy on this question was that harmonisation should be approached
globally. The foregoing illustrates the difficult challenge facing European Administrations
and Academies in looking at ways to ensure ease of recognition of standards across European
borders.
Examination of table 1 clearly indicates a lack of consensus in many of the identified topics
particularly in the area of standard courses of education and training which is surprising in
view of the fact that all countries should be working to achieving the same objectives laid
down in STCW 95. The difficulty arises because in many countries the STCW programs are
encapsulated within general educational course frameworks, and these courses may not be
directly under the control of the maritime administration. Apart from the positive response,
that harmonisation is fully possible in the questions on meeting simulator performance
standards and on the recognition of certificates of competency, administrations are very much
divided on the chances of success with other items.
6
Results of survey of MET institutions
Table 2 provides a summary of responses received from 11 academies from 7 countries. A
late response was received from Ireland and the comments made have been included in the
report. The general feedback from institutions leans much more positively to the view that
much is possible in the way of harmonisation fully or in part, as might be expected from those
working at the frontline of maritime education and training. The strongest support can be
found in harmonising of the training of supervisors, the approval of radar/ARPA courses, the
setting of simulator training objectives and the sea service requirements for watchkeepers.
The areas least likely to succeed similarly fall in the item covering standard courses of
education and training. However the small sample return needs to be treated with some
caution (50% of countries).
15
7
Council Directive 94/58/EC on minimum level of training of seafarers
It is pertinent to refer also to the EC directive of 22 November 1994 as amended, since it has
jurisdiction in the matter of recognition of certificates in 13 of the member states taking part
in this METHAR project. The directive adopts the standards contained within STCW 95 as
the minimum training standards to apply to seafarers serving on board ships flying the flags of
Member States. Member States shall take the measures necessary to ensure that seafarers hold
certificates issued by or under the authority of a Member State. Article 3a also lays down the
procedures for recognition of certificates through endorsement in the same way as under the
Convention. In regard to seafarers not possessing certificates issued by a Member State, the
procedures to be adopted for recognising, by endorsement, an appropriate certificate issued by
a third country, are set out in paragraphs 3 and 4 of Article 9.
8
8.1 Conclusions
The situation in the EC is worth summarising. The administration of a Member State, in
recognising the certificate of a seafarer from another Member State, must establish what
measures are necessary to afford such recognition. Will it be through accepting that the
certificate issued by a fellow Member State complies with STCW 95 standards particularly if
the Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) of IMO has pronounced that the Member State is in
full and complete compliance with the Convention, the requirements of which also form part
of the directive? Or will the Administration require full details of the training and assessment
program in the other Member State? If the former, then harmonisation of MET in Europe is of
lesser importance. If the latter then there are distinct advantages to achieve as high a level of
harmonisation as possible.
In considering compliance with STCW 95, all countries should be aiming to attain the same
objectives and outcomes. The route and methods of getting there can be quite different due to
varying MET structures, resources and practices. It is thus not surprising that the survey has
resulted in quite diverse views of what can and cannot be harmonised. It is clear that one
cannot harmonise systems when they operate within different educational and control
frameworks. So the survey has endeavoured to look at MET sub-systems and activities in the
training and assessment sphere directly related to the requirements of STCW 95 where the
likelihood of commonality of purpose and practice is more possible. But even at this level the
degree of consensus regarding full harmonisation of specific STCW items is limited.
The comments of the Danish Maritime Authority on the draft report are noted here for
balance. In Denmark the policy is that harmonisation should be implemented in the
international society through the work of IMO. Reference is usually made to the Treaty of
Rome which specifically keeps Training and Education out of harmonisation issues. If
METHAR recommends harmonisation as suggested, there is a risk that the report will be
considered of less importance by the administrations and will hence not be used for reference.
The Danish view is that maritime student and lecturer exchange programmes should be
promoted by the Commission as actual harmonisation is best achieved by people meeting
across borders and cultures.
16
Further note has been made of comments and views expressed on the draft report at the recent
CAMET meeting in Trieste on 2 April 1998. However it is considered important that items in
this STCW 95 orientated survey be identified where there appears to be reasonable support
by CAMET members to achieve some form of harmonisation or common approach in MET.
The weight of opinion and views expressed in the survey are relative and need to be kept in
context. 60% registered support for full or part harmonisation of an item represents basically
only about 45% of overall administration weight in the EC.
8.2
Recommendations
Harmonisation of STCW 95 implementation items
The following aspects of maritime education and training in Europe can be identified from
the survey as having the potential to influence progress towards closer harmonisation of
purpose in European MET. The extent to which this can be achieved depends upon the
willingness of administrations, institutions and individuals to work together across borders.
In some cases the recommended approach could be to develop common guidelines through
the auspices of IMO STCW Sub-Committee procedures and processes.
Quality standards systems
Development of internal self-evaluation procedures and processes
Development of basic guidelines on external evaluation
Course of education and training
The development of common training objectives
The development of common syllabus content to meet the requirements of Code A as
appropriate.
The development of guidelines for competency based assessment
Instructor qualifications and experience
Development of a basic pedagogical training course for instructors
Development of guidelines for training in assessment techniques
Guidelines on this could be achieved in conjunction with the previous item.
Simulator standards
A checklist based on Part A-I/12 could be used to assist administrations.
Simulator training
Standard procedures for the approval of simulator courses
Development of common training objectives
Development of simulator instructor training course
On board training programmes
Training Record Books produced by IMO and ISF should be used as a basis.
The establishment of a common procedures for the recognition of certificates held by a
seafarer that has been issued by another European Member State.
17
References and supporting documentation
European Commission, Council Directive 94/58/EC of 22 November 1994 as amended 1997.
Minimum level of training of seafarers. Brussels: EC
IMO, (1996), International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and
Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978, as amended in 1995 (STCW 95 Convention),
London:IMO
IMO, (1997), MSC/Circ.796 Training and Watchkeeping-Procedures regarding the
consideration of information communicated in accordance with Article IV and regulation I/7
of the STCW Convention and section A-I/7 of the STCW Code.
IMO, (1997), MSC Resolution.66(68) Adoption of amendments to STCW 1978, as amended.
London:IMO
IMO, (1993-1997), MSC Committee : Reports of meetings 64-69. London:IMO
IMO, (1993-1998), STW Sub-Committee: Reports of meetings 24-29, London:IMO
Morrison W.S.G (1997), Competent Crews = Safer Ships: an aid to understanding STCW 95,
Malmö: WMU Publications
18
9
Possible MET support to the implementation of the ISM Code
9.1
Consistencies between the ISM Code and STCW 95
9.1.1 Regulatory regimes to promote safety with focus on the human element
Background
During the last four decades the concentrated effort of the maritime community world over
has been towards promoting safety of life and property at sea and protection of marine
environment under the auspices of the International Maritime Organization. These efforts
culminated into development of a number of international safety conventions with a
predominant role of improving the standards of design, construction and equipment of ships
together with regulations for safe operations based on types of cargoes and geographical
operating areas of the ships. Realising that the ships and equipment are only as good as the
persons operating them, attention was also focused, during the last two decades, on the
standards of training and qualifications of the seafarers. These efforts undoubtedly resulted in
improved ship designs and better onboard equipment but unfortunately did not succeed in
their endeavour to achieve desired level of safety of life, property and the marine
environment.
Degradation of shipboard management standards
The technological developments, over the years have brought about marked sophistication on
ships by way of automation, special designs, construction and equipment for carriage of a
variety of cargoes demanding specialised operation. The ships grew in size, had faster
turnaround and carried a variety of hazardous cargoes. Thus not only increasing the work load
on the ship’s staff but also putting on them increasing demands of specialised skills. At the
same time however, in order to cut costs of operations, the of size of staff was reduced.
Quality of the seafarers had, in the meantime, gradually deteriorated as the standards of
education and training in most of the labour supplying countries did not keep pace with the
changing technology. Another contributing factor to this deterioration has been the decline of
"on job training" which was prevalent on the ships belonging to the traditional shipowners,
keeping continuity of employment and thus promoting loyalty. This depletion of the
shipboard management staff and their professional standard had an evident damaging effect
on the quality of operations.
Reactive approach to investigations and corrective actions
The approach of the regulating bodies, towards preventing accidents, has been more of a
reactive nature. The investigations are aimed at finding the immediate causes of failures and
imposing more stringent construction rules, requirements of improved equipment, modified
operational procedures and specific training requirements. This approach evidently conforms
to the belief that accidents are caused exclusively due to technical factors, which are the ones
to be taken care of. The studies however, reveal a contrary picture, indicating that the cause
of only 20% of the shipping accidents is technical-related. The cause of the overwhelming
80 % of all marine accidents is found to be human-related. The analysis of accidents further
19
reveals that 20 % of the accidents having human-related causes are controlled by the operator
and the cause of 80 % of the human-related accidents is controlled by the management.Every
major accident that occurs is from amongst many unpublicised minor incidents and hundreds
of near misses.
Revised, pro-active approach
The immediate cause of an accident may appear to be equipment-related or human related (as
human error is normally referred to). But deeper investigation is necessary to find the root
cause which may lie in the 80 % of the management controlled causes. There is a need of a
holistic, pro-active approach to safety which should address underlying root causes of the
accidents. Only this approach could be effective in reaching the highest level of safety, the
absolute safety, of course, being an unachievable ideal. The three constituting elements of
quality operations are reliable equipment, sound procedures and competent operators. The
recent attention of the international maritime community has been towards this end, to
establish regulatory regimes for promoting quality operations. The two recent international
treaties, namely the ISM Code and the revised STCW 95 convention, address the issues of
quality and reliability.
9.1.2 The ISM Code
The ISM Code is the International Code for Safe Operation of Ships and for Pollution
Prevention ( International Safety Management (ISM) Code ). It was adopted by IMO
through Resolution 741(18) as an amendment to the International Convention on Safety of
Life at Sea of 1974 (SOLAS 74) and given mandatory effect on 24th May 1994 by the
conference of contracting Governments to the convention. The Code entered into force on 1st
July 1998. It will be applicable to certain types of ships from this date and will be mandatory
for all the other ships by 1st July 2002. The ISM Code is a formal recognition of the shore
management’s responsibility for safe operation of ships and pollution prevention. For
compliance with the Code, the shipping companies are required to establish a Safety
Management System (SMS) approved by the Flag State Administration. A Document of
Compliance (DOC) is issued by the Administration to the company which complies with the
Code. The DOC is a pre-requisite for a company to operate ships. A Safety Management
Certificate (SMC) is issued, by the Administration, to the ship which operates its shipboard
management in accordance with the approved SMS. The provisions of Port State control are
applicable to the ship which is issued with SMC.
9.1.3 The revised STCW Convention
This is the International Convention on Standards of Training Certification and Watchkeeping
for Seafarers (STCW 78) as amended in 1995 (STCW 95). The first ever convention dealing
with the standards of training and certification of seafarers, was adopted in July 1978 and
entered into force on 28th April 1984. The text of the convention provided a great deal of
flexibility in laying down the minimum standards of training and requirements for
certification. The standards not being very precise, much was left to the Flag Administrations
to set actual standards. This resulted in widely varying standards based on the interpretations
of the individual administration. The standards were knowledge based and little was
mentioned about the requirements and evaluation criteria of skills and competency. Provision
for remission of sea time, through shore based training in lieu of shipboard training, allowed
the administrations to reduce duration of shipboard training and consequently practical on job
20
skills development. Demands of cheaper, trained manpower, employed by some of the
traditional maritime nations increased. This encouraged some of the labour supplying
countries to take advantage of this opportunity of employment for their seafarers and a
substantial foreign exchange resource who commercialised the maritime education and
training with consequent degradation of standards. The investigations into the spate of
shipping casualties and pollution incidents in late 1980s and early 1990s, attributing the
causes to the human error, further diminished the confidence in the STCW 78. This, coupled
with the public criticism, forced IMO to make all out efforts for necessary amendments to the
convention to remove the deficiencies in precision of standards and lacunae in enforcement
measures. The revision process was put on fast track and text of revised convention prepared
in record time, was adopted in July 1995, it entered into force in February 1997. The revised
convention is more detailed and precise on the standards of knowledge, skills, practical
training, the competencies and the criteria for assessment of them. The details are contained
in a mandatory Code to the convention. Verification and control mechanism have been
included to ensure that the parties give effect to the provisions of the convention.
9.1.4 Purpose of the ISM Code and STCW 95
In conformity with objectives of the IMO, the purpose of both, the ISM Code and the STCW
95 convention is to improve the safety on board ships. These two developments in the
international regulatory regime intend to achieve safety of operations through emphasis on the
quality of shipboard operations. It is a known fact that "when quality is at discount the safety
is usually a casualty". Once quality is established the safety is automatically taken care of.
The ISM code, which requires establishment of a sound management system, envisages safety
management objectives to provide safe practices and working environment on board,
safeguard against all identified risks and continuos improvement in the safety management
skills of the persons. The system intends to ensure that each company establishes a clear and
concise safety and environment protection policy with strategies for its achievement, levels of
authority and lines of communications amongst them and between shipboard and shore
personnel. To ensure that companies develop, in line with the applicable legislation, well
defined procedures for normal shipboard operations, emergency response, reporting nonconformities, internal audits and management reviews. In line with basic principle of any
quality assurance system i.e. say what you do and do what you say, all the above elements are
required to be in documented form, both on board ship and ashore, with a necessary
mechanism to ensure compliance and continued operational improvements. In order to use
the documented procedures in the spirit and intentions they have been developed in, the
personnel responsible have to have the required knowledge, skills, competence and an
appropriate attitude. These qualities and values are to be developed, augmented or modified
as appropriate for the persons responsible for operations and control, both on board as well as
ashore. Provisions of the STCW 95 have been developed keeping in view the requirements of
knowledge, skills and competence appropriate to the level of responsibility. While the ISM
Code requirements may be the end, the STCW is one of the means. The latter is
complementary to the former.
Quality Assurance System - requirement of STCW 95
It is to be noted that the Maritime Education and Training arrangements are not directly
covered nor they fall in the purview of the ISM Code, which is applicable to the companies
and their ships. Mindful of the fact that if competent persons are to be developed the training
establishments should have consistency of standards and reliability of product (trained
21
personnel), the STCW 95 requires that the training establishments be covered by a suitable
Quality Assurance System. Thus the establishments should have a well documented clear and
concise policy, well defined procedures for training and assessments, qualifications of trainers
and assessors, procedures of review, procedures for reporting and correcting nonconformities. Similar to the DOC and the SMC for the company and its ships respectively,
the training establishments are required to have the Quality Assurance Certificate.
The company
The definitions of the company in both the ISM Code and the STCW 95 are identical. The
responsibilities of the company for provision of professional quality and adequacy of human
resources are consistent in both the treaties.
Qualifications of the seafarers
The Code requires that the Master is qualified for command, the seafarers are qualified,
medically fit and certified in accordance with national and international requirements and that
the persons involved in the SMS have an adequate understanding of relevant rules,
regulations, codes and guidelines. These requirements conform to those laid down in the
STCW 95, which itself is an internationally agreed document setting standards for training
and certification. It stipulates that the seafarers are qualified for the function and relevant
level of shipboard operations and that they are fit for duty. The knowledge and understanding
of relevant rules and regulations are stipulated requirements for the certificates of
competency. As regards medical fitness, the STCW 95 has made it a pre-requisite for
certification. Under the section Fitness for Duty, the convention requires proper rest periods
for the watch keepers to ensure that efficiency of watches is not impaired by fatigue.
Familiarisation with the ship and duties
The Code requires that the seafarers are given proper familiarisation with their duties. This
requirement is identical to that laid down in the STCW 95 and is contained in a separate
chapter devoted to the familiarisation training. In fact the STCW stipulates written
instructions, from the company to the master, detailing its policy on familiarisation and
procedures thereof.
Communications
The difficulties in communication, especially with the multilingual and multicultural crew on
board are increasing and can be detrimental to safety especially in case of emergency
operations and situations. The Code requires the companies to ensure that the ship’s
personnel are able to communicate effectively in the execution of their duties related to SMS.
This requirement is also adequately addressed in the STCW 95. In effect the convention
stipulates adequate knowledge in English as one of the required competencies for watch
keeping officers with clear communication and understanding as assessment criteria. In case
of the ratings also, the convention requires that a clear and concise communication is ensured.
22
Operational and contingency plans
The Code requires procedures for development of plans for key shipboard operations and
emergency operations. The STCW convention stipulates competence of officers at the
management level in developing such plans and knowledge in personal management for
organising, managing and training the persons to effectively use such plans.
Maintenance of the ship and its equipment
According to the Code, procedures are to be established to ensure maintenance of the ship in
conformity with the relevant rules and regulations and any other requirements established by
the company. The requirements of knowledge, understanding and proficiency for
certification in the STCW convention cover these aspects under the knowledge and
understanding of statutory rules and regulations as well as those of classification societies and
ships operational routines.
Control of documents
Both the Code and the STCW convention stipulate control of documents as required by the
regulations. Although there is no explicit mention of the documents pertaining to the SMS in
the STCW convention, the control of statutory documents implies control of SMS documents
as well, specially since SMC is subjected to the Port State Control.
Verification, Review and Evaluation
The Code requires periodical internal audits and evaluation to ensure compliance with SMS,
identification non-conformities and corrective measures in accordance with laid down
procedures. Similar are the requirements pertaining to the Quality Assurance system for
training establishments, subjected of such audits with a view to ensure compliance, detection
and correction of non-conformities and improvement in the system.
Validity
The validity of the DOC is five years with annual inspection/verification and that of SMC is
five years with intermediate inspection/verification. In case of the Quality Assurance System
for the MET establishments the external verification is essential at least within five years with
regular periodical internal inspections by persons independent of the areas being audited.
9.1.5 Some common issues not addressed in STCW 95
The Code requires the companies to establish procedures to identify any training which may
be required in support of SMS for persons concerned. The STCW Convention being basically
concerned with the training and certification of the seafarers has no provision in this regard.
This training pertaining to the SMS is applicable to both, persons on board ships as well as
those ashore. Hence companies have to make efforts to identify needs and to arrange the
specific training required conforming to their policies and procedures and shipboard
management systems. This may be done internally or through a professional training
establishment.
23
The Code stipulates preparation of plans for the key shipboard operations, critical operations
and emergency operations. The first two basically deal with the company’s policies on
operations and do not form part of general knowledge, understanding and proficiency
requirements for certification and hence out of the purview of the STCW Convention.
However the contingency planning for emergency operations is adequately covered in the
convention requirements.
Another area where the requirements of the Code and the Convention do not fully match is
the requirement of language for communication. While the Convention is very specific
regarding the knowledge of English for clear and concise communication in respect of
unrestricted certificates, such requirements are not included in the competency requirements
for the Near-Coastal Voyages. While problems may not be envisaged as long as multilingual
crew does not form part of the ship’s complement, the situation will be different with crews of
different nationalities without a common language.
9.2 The influence of the ISM Code on MET
An objective of the part of this work package concerning the ISM Code is to identify what
support the operators expect from the national MET system to implement the Code.
In order to achieve this objective, a questionnaire was prepared and circulated to European
shipowners, ports and the European Associations of Pilots. Unfortunately, we received only a
few number of responses, with an overall return rate of 12,5%, from the following countries:
• Belgium
• France
• Finland
• Italy
• Sweden
• The Netherlands.
• The United Kingdom.
9.2.1 The results of the questionnaire
All the operators think that MET should give substantial support to the implementation of the
ISM Code, but the largest part of them highlight also the importance of some practical
training onboard.
The person to be designated to implement the Safety Management System (SMS) should be a
master mariner, possibly with a long experience at sea on various type of vessels or a person
ashore from the company's management or both the first and the second.
In any case, in order to keep in touch with onboard problems, this person must have some
experience as an officer for 5 years or 10 years or 20-25 years or, finally, from only one
respondent 35 years.
24
As required by the Code, almost all the operators have already designated a person for a
periodical verification of the SMS efficiency: in some cases this controller is the same person
as that designated for the SMS implementation, in other cases a small group of people from
the land organisation who are certified to audit the vessels are given the task and, sometimes
both the master and a person ashore of the company's top management. The people who carry
out the verification have also some experience, for example 2 or 5 years.
A high percentage of the respondents agree that it is very important to revise the education
and training syllabus for the certificate of competency in order to completely achieve the
objectives of the ISM Code. This aim could be reached in the following ways:
•
•
•
•
•
By a redefinition of objective and standards development
By a revision of some teaching subjects (e.g. explanation of the aim of the ISM Code,
teaching practical guidelines to implement the ISM Code)
With the addition of specific courses on environmental protection and Total Quality
Management
By a greater international standardization of certificates, both in nomenclature for the
competency level and contents
By an increase of the mandatory practical period - from only one respondent
The qualification and the requirements that the personnel ashore should have in order to
achieve the objectives of the ISM Code are mainly the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
A greater awareness of safety problems and environmental ethics
Specific training in ISM administration and auditing (e.g.: ISM audit training course)
Knowledge of the ISM Code and the quality manual of the company
Open mind to and knowledge of some other quality system (e.g.: ISO 9000)
Experience in auditing and in ship management
A specific qualification: university degree for the top management and technical
qualification for the department managers.
Finally, all the operators, except a small part of them, highlight the development of new
technologies in achieving the objectives of safety and environmental protection. The most
important technologies for such a task are those related to reduction of the injuries and
damage to property. Generally speaking, development of following for greater safety
onboard:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Automation or IT
ECDIS
GMDSS
VTS
PCS (Port Communication System)
Technologies related to voyage planning
Technologies related to cargo handling.
25
In conclusion, the answers received support the following three main conclusions:
•
•
•
The awareness that national MET systems could help the operators in implementing the
ISM Code and in auditing its application is widespread;
Consequently, a general revision of syllabus and harmonization of MET systems and
international certificates is considered very important;
Finally, since the evolution of technology seems to give substantial support in achieving
the objectives of the ISM Code, the use of new technologies has to be included in the
programmes of education and training of the seafarers.
26
Task 43 Harmonisation of European MET Schemes.
METHAR
WP 4.1 Provision of a common understanding of the requirements
of the revised STCW Convention and how to meet them
ATTACHMENTS
April 1998
27
Attachment 1 – Questionnaire pro-forma
Attachment 1
METHAR 4.1
Survey of STCW 95 for a harmonised approach to MET within Europe.
Question: In the view of your Administration or Institute, to what degree is it realistic to expect the following STCW95 changes
to be implemented in a harmonised way across the European MET system?
Please tick the appropriate column
STCW 95 Implementation Items
STCW95 Reference
Fully
In part
Not at all
I/8, A-I/8, B-I/8
Quality Standards System
National framework
B-I/8 (1) (3)
ISO 9000
Other (State)
Internal self-evaluation
B-I/8 (1.4, 2.4)
External evaluation
I/8, A.I/8 (3) (4)
Standard courses of Education and Training
Entry Standards
I/6, A-I/6 (1)
Common training objectives
I/6, A-I/6 (1)
Common syllabus to Code A
I/6, A-I/6 (1)
Methods of delivery
I/6, A-I/6 (1)
Instructional Media
I/6, A-I/6 (1)
Functional course structure
I/6, A-II,II,IV
Assessment : knowledge based
I/6, A-I/6, Code A
Assessment : competence based
I/6, A-I/6, Code A
Instructor Qualifications & Experience
Pedagogical competence
I/6, A-I/6 ( 1,3,4,5,6,7)
Practical experience in the tasks
A-I/6 ( 4.2, 6.2)
Assessor Qualifications & experience
Training in assessment techniques
A-I/6 (3, 6.3)
Training Supervisors
Knowledge of training programmes
A-I/6 (3, 4.5)
Knowledge of specific objectives
A-I/6 (3, 4.5)
Simulator standards
Meeting performance standards
I/12, A-I/12 (Part 1)
Exemption by Administrations before 2002 I/12 (2)
28
Sheet 1
Comments
Attachment 1
METHAR 4.1
Question: In the view of your Administration or Institute, to what degree is it realistic to expect the following STCW95 changes
to be implemented in a harmonised way across the European MET system?
Please tick the appropriate column
STCW95 Reference
Fully
In part
Not at all
Simulator Training
Approval of Radar/ARPA courses
I/6, Ch II, A-II & tables
Approval of other simulator T & A
I/12, A-I/12, A-II & tables
Training objectives
A-I/12 (6)
Guidance in instructional techniques
A-I/6 (4.3), A-I/12 (7) (9)
Practical operational experience
A-I/6 (4.3)
Assessment procedures
A-I/12 (8)
Assessor training
A-I/12 (9)
Refresher/Upgrading Training
Approval of courses
I/11, A-I/11 (2)
Objectives & syllabus content
A-I/11 (2), B-I/11
Onboard Training programs
Training record book
Ch II Reg II/1 ( 2.2),
III/1 ( 2.3)
Deck officer
Ch II, Reg II/1 (2)
Engineer officer
Ch III, Reg III/1 (2)
Sea Service Requirements (minimum)
Deck watchkeeper
Ch II Reg II/1 ( 2.2)
Engineer watchkeeper
Ch III Reg II/1 (2.2)
Other EU officers
Associate members ( Norway, Iceland)
Other countries ( please state)
Other items (please list)
29
Sheet 2
Comments
Attachment 2 – Summary of responses from European Maritime Administrations
Attachment 2
METHAR 4.1
Sheet 1
Table 1 : Summary of responses from European Maritime Administrations Survey of STCW 95 for a harmonised approach to MET within Europe
Question: In the view of your Administration or Institute, to what degree is it realistic to expect the following STCW95 changes to be implemented in a harmonised way
across the European MET system
National framework
ISO 9000
Other (State)
External evaluation
Entry Standards
Methods of delivery
Instructional Media
Simulator standards
Exemption by Administrations before 2002
STCW95 Reference
Fully
In part
Not at all
Undecided
%
%
%
%
B-I/8 (1.4, 2.4)
I/8, A.I/8 (3) (4)
41
41
0
8
33
33
25
25
33
8
41
25
17
8
25
17
0
17
17
26
42
67
26
25
I/6, A-I/6 (1)
I/6, A-I/6 (1)
I/6, A-I/6 (1)
I/6, A-I/6 (1)
I/6, A-I/6 (1)
I/6, A-II,II,IV
I/6, A-I/6, Code A
I/6, A-I/6, Code A
25
41
33
17
17
8
8
17
17
33
25
17
25
17
33
50
41
17
33
50
41
58
41
0
17
9
9
16
17
17
18
33
I/6, A-I/6 ( 1,3,4,5,6,7)
A-I/6 ( 4.2, 6.2)
17
33
41
33
17
17
25
17
A-I/6 (3, 6.3)
33
25
25
17
A-I/6 (3, 4.5)
A-I/6 (3, 4.5)
17
17
50
50
8
8
25
25
I/12, A-I/12 (Part 1)
I/12 (2)
56
8
8
33
8
33
28
26
I/8, A-I/8, B-I/8
B-I/8 (1) (3)
30
Attachment 2
METHAR 4.1
Sheet 2
Table 1 : Summary of responses from European Maritime Administrations (continued)
Simulator Training
Training objectives
Assessor training
Approval of courses
Deck officer
Engineer officer
Deck watchkeeper
Other EU officers
STCW95 Reference
Fully
In part
Not at all
Undecided
%
%
%
%
A-I/12 (6)
A-I/6 (4.3), A-I/12 (7) (9)
A-I/6 (4.3)
A-I/12 (8)
A-I/12 (9)
33
17
41
41
50
33
33
25
41
33
25
17
25
33
17
17
8
17
17
25
17
25
25
18
17
16
17
17
I/11, A-I/11 (2)
A-I/11 (2), B-I/11
33
33
17
25
25
17
25
25
III/1 ( 2.3)
Ch II, Reg II/1 (2)
33
41
8
18
33
41
25
25
17
17
25
17
33
33
25
25
17
17
25
25
67
67
8
8
17
8
0
0
8
25
16
76
31
Attachment 3 – Summary of responses from European Maritime Institutions
Attachment 3
METHAR 4.1
Sheet 1
Table 2 : Summary of responses from European Maritime Institutions Survey of STCW 95 for a harmonised approach to MET within Europe
National framework
ISO 9000
Other (State)
External evaluation
Entry Standards
Methods of delivery
Instructional Media
Simulator standards
STCW95 Reference
In part
Not at all
Undecided
%
%
%
%
B-I/8 (1.4, 2.4)
I/8, A.I/8 (3) (4)
18
27
9
36
27
27
63
45
9
45
63
9
18
9
9
0
10
10
73
10
10
I/6, A-I/6 (1)
I/6, A-I/6 (1)
I/6, A-I/6 (1)
I/6, A-I/6 (1)
I/6, A-I/6 (1)
I/6, A-II,II,IV
I/6, A-I/6, Code A
I/6, A-I/6, Code A
27
54
54
18
18
27
27
27
45
45
45
63
63
27
54
54
27
0
0
18
18
36
9
9
0
0
0
0
0
10
10
10
I/6, A-I/6 ( 1,3,4,5,6,7)
A-I/6 ( 4.2, 6.2)
45
54
36
27
18
18
0
0
A-I/6 (3, 6.3)
54
27
18
0
A-I/6 (3, 4.5)
A-I/6 (3, 4.5)
72
63
18
18
9
9
0
10
I/12, A-I/12 (Part 1)
I/12 (2)
36
27
54
36
0
18
10
19
I/8, A-I/8, B-I/8
B-I/8 (1) (3)
Fully
32
Attachment 3
METHAR 4.1
Sheet 2
Table 2 : Summary of responses from European Maritime Institutions (continued)
Simulator Training
Training objectives
Assessor training
Approval of courses
Deck officer
Engineer officer
Deck watchkeeper
Other EU officers
STCW95 Reference
Fully
In part
Not at all
Undecided
%
%
%
%
A-I/12 (6)
A-I/6 (4.3), A-I/12 (7) (9)
A-I/6 (4.3)
A-I/12 (8)
A-I/12 (9)
63
18
72
27
54
54
36
36
72
18
45
36
36
45
0
9
9
9
0
9
18
0
0
0
19
10
0
0
I/11, A-I/11 (2)
A-I/11 (2), B-I/11
54
54
27
36
18
9
0
0
III/1 ( 2.3)
Ch II, Reg II/1 (2)
45
36
9
10
54
54
27
27
9
9
10
10
81
81
18
18
0
0
0
0
27
18
9
45
45
18
0
0
9
28
37
64
33
Attachment 4 – Overview about attitudes to STCW harmonisation in Europe
Attachment 4
METHAR 4.1
Sheet 1
Survey of STCW 95 for a harmonised approach to MET within Europe
Table 3 : Overview of attitudes to STCW harmonisation in Europe
Maritime Administrations
Maritime Institutions
Fully or in part
Not at all
Fully or in part
Not at all
National framework
ISO 9000
Other (State)
External evaluation
Entry Standards
Methods of delivery
Instructional Media
Simulator standards
%
%
%
%
66
66
33
16
74
58
17
8
25
17
0
17
27
81
72
18
81
90
0
9
18
9
9
0
42
74
58
34
42
25
41
67
41
17
33
50
41
58
41
0
72
100
100
81
81
54
81
81
27
0
0
18
18
36
9
9
58
66
17
17
81
81
18
18
58
25
81
18
67
67
8
8
90
81
9
9
66
41
8
33
90
63
0
18
34
Comments
Attachment 4
METHAR 4.1
Sheet 2
Survey of STCW 95 for a harmonised approach to MET within Europe
Table 3 : Overview of attitudes to STCW harmonisation in Europe (continued)
Maritime Administrations
Maritime Institutions
Fully or in part
Not at all
Fully or in part
Not at all
%
%
%
%
Simulator Training
Training objectives
Assessor training
0
58
58
74
66
67
58
66
8
17
17
8
17
17
25
17
100
90
90
72
90
90
81
0
9
9
9
0
9
18
Approval of courses
Deck officer
Engineer officer
Deck watchkeeper
Other EU officers
50
58
25
17
81
90
18
9
74
58
66
8
17
17
81
81
81
9
9
9
58
58
17
17
100
100
0
0
75
84
16
0
0
8
72
63
27
0
0
9
35
Comments
METHAR
WP 4.2 Assessment of the impact of an increased use of technology in the maritime
industry on MET. Consultation and cooperation with the European manufacturing
industry on advances in technology
WP 4.3 Consultation and collaboration with the “operating” maritime industry
(shipowners, port managers, etc.) on the identification of future training needs
REPORT
I.S.T.I.E.E. - Università di Trieste, Italy
(Prepared by Marco Mazzarino and Elena Maggi)
August 1998
36
Acknowledgement
The work carried out within the METHAR Project and specifically on WPs 4.2 and 4.3 has
been a tremendous experience for our Institute (ISTIEE) and the University of Trieste. The
involvement in an European project is always an effort whose results go beyond the scientific
field. In this sense, I would first like to thank Professor Borruso and Dr. Zanetti who have
been very committed in developing the project.
All the staff of WMU gave us precious suggestions and support in order to complete our work
and they receive our sincere gratitude.
Even if it was not easy to obtain answers to the questionnaire (but I realize this is a “common”
problem), I would like to thank all the institutions, associations and persons that tried to ease
our efforts. A particular thank goes to our secretarial staff that did an unpayable job.
We would also like to thank all the partners and participants in the Concerted Action on MET
from which we received important remarks about our work during the various meetings.
Last but not least, a particular thank goes to Professor Paolo Stenner for having supported us
at the beginning of the project and to the International Maritime Academy and the Istituto
Tecnico Nautico for their real interest in the project as demonstrated during the meeting in
Trieste.
Dr. Marco Mazzarino
University of Trieste
37
Assessment of the impact of an increased use of technology in the maritime
and
Consultation and collaboration with the “operating” maritime industry (shipowners,
port managers, etc.) on the identification of future training needs
Table of contents
Page
1
Introduction and methodology of WPs 4.2 and 4.3
39
2
Which are the new technologies?
40
2.1 The European marine equipment manufacturers’ point of view
2.2 The shipowners’point of view
2.3 The pilots’ point of view
2.4 The port managers’ point of view
41
42
42
43
Impact on MET (syllabuses and strategies) and future training needs
43
3.1 The European marine equipment manufacturers point of view
3.2 The shipowners’point of view
45
47
48
50
Summary and conclusions
52
4.1 The scope of the new technologies
4.2 The impact on MET
52
53
3
4
4.2.1 The organizational aspects of MET (the way it should be)
4.2.2 The operational aspects of MET (the way it should work)
4.2.2.1 General framework for the operational aspects
4.3 Conclusions
53
54
55
58
Questionnaire
60
38
1
Introduction and methodology of WPs 4.2 and 4.3
The “economic” problem of navigation can be stated as follows: we have to maximize the
efficiency of the used economic resources subject to the constraints of given safety (and
environment protection) requirements.
Navigation is clearly an economic issue, for which the running costs, specifically the manning
scale onboard, play a great role. How can such a problem be solved?
The answer is: by developing new technologies so as to enable a reduction in the size of the
personnel while assuring safety and enhancing the efficiency of maritime transport.
This qualitative and quantitative transformation of the characteristics of the ships brings about
a necessary change in the characteristics of the personnel involved in the operations.
In this respect, the objective of our work packages is to estimate (WP 4.2) and predict (WP
4.3) the effects due to the development of the new technologies onboard on the characteristics
of the maritime personnel in terms of Education & Training. This is actually the reason why
we put both work packages together: while WP 4.2 aims at evaluating the short-term or
immediate impact on MET, WP 4.3 evaluates the medium or long-term impact.
This objective is achieved by means of questionnaires. By and large, there are two ways for
evaluating the impact of a certain number of independent variables on a dependent variable:
•
•
A quantitative way, for example by estimating an econometric model;
A qualitative way, i.e. by means of questionnaires, surveys, interviews, etc.
The subject of our work is more suitable for the second type of evaluation. In this sense, we
first tried to figure out the independent variables, i.e. those explaining the new technologies
on board (first part of the questionnaires). Then, we outlined a certain number of “impact
indexes” which express the relevant characteristics of the dependent variable, i.e. the MET
systems. Subsequently, we prepared questionnaires to be sent to operators that are directly or
indirectly involved in MET issues all over Europe, specifically ship owners, marine
equipment manufacturers, port managers and pilots. We chose these categories of operators in
order to highlight the following aspects:
• Conceiving MET issues in a context of integration of on-board and on-shore positions
for MET graduates (see the analysis of WP 1.7);
• Getting comments on MET not only by those who effectively use MET graduates, but also
by those who provide MET graduates with “tools” (i.e. new technologies) that have to be
used by them.
Finally, by analyzing the responses to the questionnaires it is possible to achieve the objective
of our work packages: to give indications of the new and updated requirements for education
and training due to the developments of the new technologies on board. For instance, this
objective can be summarized by the following scheme:
new technologies -> new professional profiles and requirements -> impact on MET
39
2
Which are the new technologies?
Equipment and technologies related to automated ships can be described as follows:
1.
2.
2.1
2.1.1
Simulators
Integrated Ship Control (Unmanned Machinery Spaces)
Ship Operation Centre
Integrated bridge systems and design (Navigation Control Console - NCC)
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
System
Planning (Voyage planning)
Control (Track planning, Automatic Track Control System)
Monitoring
2.2.3.1
2.2.3.2
PMS (Planned Maintenance System)
Navigation tools and position fixing:
2.2.3.2.1
2.2.3.2.2
2.2.3.2.3
2.2.3.2.4
2.2.3.2.5
2.2.3.2.6
2.2.3.2.7
2.2.3.2.8
2.2.3.2.9
2.2.3.2.10
2.2.3.2.11
2.2.3.2.12
2.2.3.2.13
2.2.3.2.14
2.2.3.2.15
2.2.3.2.16
2.2.3.2.17
2.2.3.2.18
2.2.3.2.19
2.2.3.2.20
2.2.3.2.21
2.2.3.2.22
2.2.3.2.23
2.2.3.2.24
2.2.3.2.25
2.2.3.2.26
2.2.3.2.27
Sensors
ARPA (S-BAND and X-BAND)
Radar
Radar plotting facilities
Speed and distance indicator
Auto pilot
Loran
Decca Navigator
ECDIS
GPS
DGPS
Transit
Glonass
Inmarsat
Geostar
Locstar
Skyfix
Transponders
Sat-Nav receiver
Gyrocompass
Echo sounder
Barometer
Anemometer
Doppler sonar log
Microwave doppler system
Steering systems
Dead reckoning
2.2.3.3
2.2.3.3.1
2.2.3.3.2
2.2.3.3.3
2.2.3.3.4
Engine control system
Watertank level
Fuel gauges
Critical engine component monitoring
Rudder indicator
40
2.2.3.3.5
2.2.3.3.6
Fuel temperature sensor
Oil pressure
2.2.3.4
2.2.3.4.1
2.2.3.4.2
2.2.3.4.3
2.2.3.4.4
2.2.3.4.5
Damage and emergency control
GMDSS
Collision avoidance systems
Fire detection systems
Fire alarm
General alarm
2.2.3.5
2.2.3.5.1
Diagnosis and alarm handling
Expert systems for fault diagnosis
2.2.3.6
2.2.3.6.1
2.2.3.6.2
Cargo handling and documentation
Sensors (gas, fire, refrigerated cargo, temperature and humidity)
Stock control
Questionnaires were sent to equipment manufacturing companies all over Europe.
Almost all the technologies shown in the questionnaires are regularly provided by the
European marine equipment manufacturers as requested by the owners/shipyards. In
addition, other technologies are manufactured such as visual systems, navigation tools in
dangerous waters, etc.
These technologies are applied on almost all the types of ships and in particular on tankers,
containerships, gas carriers and ferries. They are also applied on passenger vessels, yachts,
etc.
The objectives of applying new technologies on board seem to be for increasing safety,
decreasing cost (especially the crew number) and enhancement of operational and economic
efficiency.
In developing new technologies, both technical and human factors are given the same priority,
but in some cases human factors are given higher priority. The new technologies having the
most significant impact on MET seem to be the following:
•
•
•
•
•
Integrated bridge system;
Damage and emergency control, in which diagnosis and alarm handling should be
included;
ARPA/Radar;
Visual system;
Maneuvering control.
41
2.2
The shipowners’ point of view
Many of the technologies shown in the questionnaires are used by European shipowners.
They are applied mostly on tankers, containerships, gas carriers and ferries, but also on ro-ro
ships, research vessels, waterway administration vessels and bulk carriers. These
technologies are applied in order to improve safety standards and operational and economic
efficiency. The objective of cost reductions does not seem to be of real importance.
In applying such technologies technical and human factors are given the same priority. In
other words, there is no predominance of one of the two factors, technical and human.
The European shipowners think that the technologies that will have the main impact on MET
are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Integrated bridge systems;
ARPA/radar;
ECDIS;
Simulators;
Control and fault diagnosis;
GMDSS.
On the contrary, the technologies that will not have a great impact on MET seem to be:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Loran;
Decca;
Transit;
Dead reckoning;
GPS;
Glonass.
We received answers to questionnaires from pilots’ associations in Sweden and France.
The main technologies which are used on board are those related to navigation tools and
position fixing, i.e. ARPA/Radar, ECDIS, GPS, DGPS, transponders, gyrocompass, echosounder, doppler sonar log, VTS system, and so on.
The main objectives for new technologies to be built and applied on board seem to be for
increasing safety and decreasing costs, particularly regarding the crew number. Among the
new technologies considered, there is no specific technology that is able to have a major
impact on MET, while all seem to be important in terms of impact. At the same time,
technologies such as Decca and Loran should not have a great impact on MET.
42
We received answers from port managers in Belgium, Ireland and Germany. Like in case of
pilots’ association, the answers are not so many but in this case they are very interesting
because of their completeness and because they provide a lot of details.
The main objectives of using the new technologies on board are those related to:
• Safety increase, particularly for technologies related to planning, control and monitoring;
• Costs decrease, especially in the case of OMBO (One Man Bridge Operations);
• Enhancement of operational and economic efficiency.
The most important impact on MET comes from the following technologies:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Integrated bridge systems and design;
Diagnosis and alarm handling;
Damage and emergency control;
Cargo handling and documentation;
Engine control systems;
Navigation tools and position fixing.
Conversely, the technologies that should not have a great impact on MET are those related to
standard equipment such as steering systems, log, barometer, etc.
3
Impact on MET (syllabuses and strategies) and future training needs
The main problem in Europe is that there are different MET systems and certificates of
competency. This is shown in WPs 1.1 and 1.3. A general scheme, through which to assess
the impact due to the new technologies on MET, is needed.
Generally speaking, the primary impact of the new technologies relates to reduction in crew
size. Obviously, such a quantitative effect also means a qualitative change in the knowledge
and skills of seafarers. The problem is that of matching the application of new technologies
on board with “new” educational and training requirements for maritime personnel while
improving (or maintaining) the economic and technical efficiency of maritime transport
without compromise on aspects such as safety.
Through the questionnaires we tried to figure out the “shape” of the new educational and
training requirements for maritime personnel in order to help them adapt to the new
environment on board due to the new technologies. This aim is particularly important in order
to avoid a pure reduction in crew size and/or a recruitment of low-cost non-skilled personnel.
An observation should be made: the new educational and training requirements will not only
have to be envisaged but practically applied and have to be effective. The main problem is a
scarce link between knowledge-based training programs and provision of practical
experience. Furthermore training programs often tend to be poorly effective since there
appears to exist a lack of commitment to the training responsibilities on board ships by
operators.
43
A specific sector in which training programs often give rise to a number of problems is that of
ECDIS.
The main impacts of the new technologies in terms of reorganization of crew duties seem to
be:
•
•
•
•
More operations concentrated on the bridge, especially the monitoring and surveillance
role of other systems, fault diagnosis and initial action to prevent the shut down of critical
machinery and equipment;
Greater integration of duties;
Increase in the use of satellite communications technologies and of computerized data
display;
Increase in decision making role and in fatigue levels.
These aspects certainly require maritime personnel to be polyvalent, in particular:
•
•
The bridge watchkeeper will need to have multi-skilled, cross disciplined background;
The skills of ratings will have to be upgraded in order to assist and support the
management team in the operations, especially in the field of maintenance and control.
The real issue for MET in coping with these needs is that a pure “blending” of old syllabuses
has to be avoided; on the contrary, really “new” competence and educational programs have
to be created.
An example of compulsory units for maritime personnel could be the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Navigation processes and control
Integrated bridge systems and equipment
GMDSS satellite communications
Digital selective calling equipment
Marine machinery system
Physics, instrumentation and control
Bridge operations: systems monitoring and control
Computing
Stability, cargo and ballast operations
Operational safety and emergencies
Nautical knowledge
Engineering knowledge
Occupational health and safety (first aid, fire).
A crucial problem for MET institutions in training needs analysis is the following: is it more
important to know exactly, which the training needs required by new technologies are at any
point of time or to implement ad-hoc procedures and programs to monitor and keep track of
such training needs? In other words, is it more important to know which the “contents” of the
training needs (static approach) are or to know how to identify them over time (dynamic
approach)? Perhaps training needs which are important today may not be important tomorrow
and MET institutions must implement a strategy to keep track of such changes and upgrade
its organizational structure in order to cope with new training needs.
44
In a work by WMU an attempt has been made for such a strategy to be implemented.
The results are the following guidelines:
•
•
•
•
Identification of training needs made by the students of MET institutions. This research
exercise, presented in the form of a report, could be accredited accordingly.
Identification made by course professors on annual basis. This exercise should be the
basis of course adjustments such as teaching modules, visiting professors, field studies,
etc.
Identification made by the Vice-Rector which should be an overview of the general
developments in the maritime sector worldwide presented in the form of an official report.
It should be aimed at overcoming the shortcomings of course contents if they may no
longer be responding to the real potential needs.
Identification made by a large group of experts. In fact, MET institutions need to know on
a regular basis the opinion of the industry’s experts.
The MET for the certificates of competency that will be more affected by the new
technologies are those of deck officer and master.
In terms of MET institutions, it is quite clear that the new technologies will stress the need for
quality standards to be applied, but the results do not indicate a type of standard more
important than the others. All we can say is that a systematic monitoring arrangement and a
periodic independent quality evaluation (external audit) seem to be the most relevant
standards.
The entry level in MET institutions should be not very high but vocational, i.e. navigation
school, training in emergency conditions, etc.
In MET institutions the optimal ratio between professors/lecturers and students should vary
between 5-6 students for one professor, even if sometimes a ratio of 1:20 is indicated.
The most suitable qualification for lecturers and professors in MET institutions should be the
unlimited certificate of master mariner or chief engineer with service as ship master or chief
engineer. This has come out of the questionnaires very often, even through sometimes a
qualification such as unlimited certificate of master mariner or chief engineer without service
has also been indicated. The opinion mainly being a pure academic qualification does not
seem suitable for teaching in MET institutions today.
As far as the subjects to be reformed in MET institutions are concerned, there is no clear
indication whether a “general” knowledge (English, mathematics, physics, chemistry) should
be preferred to a more “professional” one (automation, electronics) or vice versa. It is quite
sure that “English” should be given more importance.
45
The advanced instructional technologies that are used in MET institutions and are likely to be
of great help for managing new technologies on board seem to be:
•
•
•
Simulation facilities such as GMDSS, ARPA/Radar, Navigation, Engine room;
Computing facilities such as network PCs, Internet, CD ROM;
Workshop and laboratories such as ship handling, cargo handling.
Audio-visual aids are considered less important.
In order to keep track of new technologies, it is also advised that:
•
•
Officers, especially deck officers, follow a regular training at least every two years;
Crew should be trained in fire fighting and damage control systems.
There is an extensive agreement for mandatory updating courses for seafarers and maritime
lecturers to be set up, even if sometimes such courses do not seem to be mandatory for shorebased personnel.
Such courses should be offered and arranged by MET institutions or mixed agencies set up by
shipowners, marine equipment manufacturers, maritime colleges/academies, etc. and not only
by shipowners’ agencies.
The structure of the courses should be characterized by a 70-80% of the total time devoted to
on-shore seminars on specific topics and the rest to on board training. These programs should
neither be arranged during the periods of their employment on board, nor just before
engagement for voyages or as a cyclic retraining. They should also require a final
examination.
In this sense, training should be more effective rather than more costly.
Generally speaking, the educational issues that should be given more attention should be
those related to knowledge topics, both of vocational (specialized) and multidisciplinary type,
and to skills and training aspects. Psychological issues do not seem very important for marine
equipment manufacturers in Europe.
Moreover, the operational sector that will probably produce the major impact on training
needs seems to be safety, but also environment and computer are very often indicated.
Relatively less importance is given to sectors such as automation and on-shore activities.
As far as the implementation of the ISM Code is concerned, the indications are toward
including the ISM Code in mandatory updating courses, rather than including it in MET
syllabuses or organizing ad-hoc professional courses.
46
3.2 The shipowners’ point of view
The MET for certificates of competency that will be more affected by the new technologies
seem to be MET of either deck and engine officer or dual-purpose officer.
New technologies will stress the need for quality standards in MET institutions to be applied,
especially the quality system, i.e. quality standards related to the organizational structure,
responsibilities, compliance with procedures, processes of documentation, self assessment of
operations, etc. Quality standards such as systematic monitoring arrangement and a periodic
independent quality evaluation seem to receive less importance.
The entry level in MET institutions should not be of the university entry level but of other
specific requirements such as the entry level for a polytechnic (as a minimum entry level).
More specifically, Maersk indicated UK GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education)
standard.
The best professor/student ratio should be about 1:12-15. The most suitable qualification
requirements for lecturers and professors should be not only those related to certificates of
competency and service experience (such as unlimited master mariner or chief engineer's
certificate with service as ship master or chief engineer) but also to an academic background.
Mainly, the subjects that should be reformed in MET institutions because of the new
technologies seem to be those more specific and vocational, such as automation, computer
and electronics, rather than those related to a “general” knowledge (such as English,
mathematics, physics, and so on).
The most important subjects referring to new technologies seem to be electronics,
Radar/ARPA and communication in the context of navigation.
The most important facilities used in MET institutions in order to manage the new
technologies on board will be:
•
•
•
Simulation facilities such as Radar/ARPA (very important), ship handling (very
important), navigation, cargo handling, engine room, oil spill and GMDSS;
Computing facilities such as PC, networked PCs and Internet;
Workshop and laboratories such as diesel engine, cargo handling, language and fire
fighting.
New subjects that should be set up in MET institutions are management of emergency
procedures (planning, exercising, training, reviewing) and shipboard safety.
In addition, mandatory updating courses for seafarers and maritime lecturers should be set up
and they should also be arranged for shore-based personnel. Such courses should be offered
mostly by mixed agencies but also by MET institutions. The structure of these courses should
be:
•
•
About 60% of total time for on-shore seminars or specific courses;
About 40% of total time for on board training.
47
It has to be pointed out that sometime the opposite ratio (40/60) has been indicated.
These courses should be organized at regular intervals (cyclic retraining) and they should
have a final examination.
Mainly, new technologies imply a kind of training that is both more costly and more effective.
Specifically, the educational issues that should receive more attention are the psychological,
and skill training ones. Knowledge-based issues are given less importance.
For the future, European shipowners think that the operational sectors that will produce the
main impact on training needs will be:
•
•
•
•
Computers;
Safety;
Environment (pollution, etc.);
Human aspects of life and work on board.
Finally, the implementation of ISM Code should be supported by MET institutions mostly by
organizing ad-hoc professional courses, but also by including it in MET syllabuses and by
including it in mandatory updating courses.
The certificates of competency that will probably be affected by new technologies on board
are particularly of deck officer/master, and, to a lesser extent, engine officer/master and dualpurpose officer.
The development of new technologies on board will stress the need for quality standards in
MET institutions to be introduced. Specifically, quality system will be important, that is
organizational structure, responsibilities, compliance with procedures, processes of
documentation, self assessment of operations, etc.
The entry level at MET institutions should be of vocational type, i.e. crew having already an
experience in the maritime sector. The optimal ratio of the number of professors with respect
to the number of students should be one professor for 15-20 students.
The most suitable qualification requirements for professors in MET institutions should be the
unlimited certificate of competency and academic degree (such as Ph.D. or master’s degree).
In this respect, pilots seem to pay attention to both the academic background and to the skillbased experience to the same extent.
Because of the development of new technologies, the need to reform some subjects arises.
These subjects are, above all, electronics and also computers. Moreover, English, physics and
automation also need to be adapted to new technology requirements.
48
In order to acquire the experience for new technologies on board, a great help can be given by
new technologies used in schools. The most important technologies used in MET institutions
seem to be:
•
•
•
Simulation facilities: Radar/ARPA and navigation, and to a lesser extent ship handling,
cargo handling and GMDSS;
Computing facilities: PC and audio-visual aids, and to a lesser extent Internet and CD
ROM;
Workshop and laboratories: training vessels, language, fire-fighting and survival pool.
In particular, modules about CD ROM techniques related to the new technologies should be
developed.
Pilots’ associations think that mandatory updating courses for seafarers and maritime lecturers
should be set up in order to cope with the development of new technologies. Yet there are
different views on whether shore-based personnel also should be put through such courses.
Some say that pilots also should be involved, others say that shore-based personnel should not
attend updating courses at all.
At any rate, these course should be offered mostly by MET institutions, and also by mixedagencies set up by shipowners, MET institutions, classification societies and so on.
As far as the organization of these courses is concerned, it should provide on-shore seminars
for about 25% of the total time scheduled, and on board training for the remaining 75% of the
time.
Moreover, the courses should preferably be arranged at regular intervals rather than before
voyages and during non-navigation periods. They should also require an examination at the
end.
By and large, because of new technologies the training of seafarers could be more effective
rather than more costly.
The educational issues related to the use of new technologies on board that should receive
more attention are the psychological ones (attitudes and motivation, leadership, mental
workload, etc.) and skills and training aspects, i.e. physical and mental abilities. The
knowledge issues that are related to specialization and multidisciplinary aspects seem to be
less important.
The operational sectors that will produce the main impact on training needs in the future
should be those related to safety and environment, and, to a lesser extent, those related to
computers, automation and on-shore activities (ports, etc.).
Finally, pilots’ associations suggest to include the implementation of the ISM Code in MET
syllabuses and also in mandatory updating courses.
49
The certificate of competency that should be very much affected by the development of new
technologies on board is of the deck officer/master, but often all the certificates in the
questionnaires are indicated.
The development of the new technologies will stress the need for quality standards in MET
institutions to be applied, especially the “quality system”.
The entry level for new entrants into in MET institutions should be both, an entry level at
university for degree as well as other requirements which should be related to training and
experience on deck and in engine room. Moreover, a change in entry examination would be
needed; specifically, IQ Test and Human Behavior Test are advised.
A good ratio of the number of professors with respect to the number of students should be one
professor for 10-20 students. There is no clear-cut indication given, there is large variation of
the ratio.
The most suitable qualification requirements for lecturers and professors in MET institutions
is the unlimited certificate of master mariner or chief engineer with service as ship master or
chief engineer. But following one also indicated:
•
•
Unlimited certificate of competency and academic degree;
Academic degree, particularly for General Courses such as mathematics, physics,
chemistry, Languages, etc.
The subjects that will need to be reformed because of the development of new technologies
are:
•
•
•
Electronics;
Automation;
Computers, particularly by providing logistics softwares and system analysis (but not
necessarily computer languages).
The most important technologies used in MET institutions which can be of great help for
managing new technologies on board are:
•
•
•
Simulation facilities: all the facilities shown in the questionnaire, such as Radar/ARPA,
ship handling , navigation, cargo handling GMDSS, engine room, oil spill;
Computing facilities: network PC’s, Internet, PC;
Workshop and laboratories: all the facilities shown in the questionnaire, such as diesel
engine, training vessels, cargo handling, fire-fighting, etc.
50
Many indications are given regarding new subjects to be set up in MET institutions. The
following emerge from the answers:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
VTS (Vessel Traffic Systems);
Pilotage;
Port Authority’s personnel;
Port economy and management;
Port technology;
Intermodal transport logistics;
Tele- and data communications.
In the main, the subjects which are considered very important with reference to the new
technologies are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Automation;
Tele- and data communication;
Cargo handling;
Oil spill;
Internet;
Network PCs.
Port managers think that mandatory updating courses for seafarers and maritime lecturers
should be set up in order to cope with the future training needs related to the new
technologies. These courses should be set up also for shore-based personnel and they should
be organized mostly by mixed agencies formed by shipowners, MET institutions, etc.
Yet there is no clear indication on how to arrange the program of such courses. For example,
some say that about 80% of the total time should be devoted to on-shore seminars on specific
topics and about 20% to on board training; others indicate values, respectively, of 40% and
60%.
Moreover, such courses should be scheduled at regular intervals (cyclic retraining), but the
schedule mainly depends on the subjects. At the end of these courses, an examination should
be provided.
Coming to the conclusions, port managers argue that the development of new technologies
will result in a more costly training than in a more effective one. The educational issues
related to new technologies that should receive more attention are the psychological issues,
the knowledge issues and the skills training issues.
The operational sectors that will produce the main impact on training needs in the future are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
All the sectors indicated in the questionnaire (safety, environment, automation, on-shore
activities, etc.);
Handling of dangerous cargoes;
VTS and VTIMS;
Tele- and data communications;
Network PCs;
Internet.
51
Finally, based on the port managers’ point of view, MET systems should support the
implementation of the ISM Code either by including it in the MET syllabuses or by including
it in mandatory updating courses.
4 Summary and conclusions
It is quite clear that the technological development onboard does not enable maritime
personnel to be educated and trained “by themselves” without having suitable education and
training path implemented through MET institutions. Indeed, it is well known that about 85%
of the maritime accidents are due to human errors.
On the contrary, a suitable general framework of E & T must be developed and it must be
implemented through MET institutions.
4.1 The scope of the new technologies
In the first part of the questionnaires we try to identify the extent to which the new
technologies onboard are applied or produced. We can distinguish two main areas:
• On-board technologies, i.e. technologies that are used for the navigation;
• On-shore technologies, i.e. technologies that are used in ports.
In addition to that, we have also new technologies used in MET institutions, mainly in the
form of simulators. These types of technologies and facilities are not the subject of our work
and an extensive analysis is found in WP 1.4.
The evolution of advanced navigation systems and the development of new technologies have
changed the engine room and the bridge environment.
The main on-board technologies are extensively described in point 2 of the questionnaires and
here we can summarize them with the concept of Integrated Ship Control, which means
technologies related to the Ship Operation Centre and Systems such as those concerned with
voyage planning, control (track planning, etc.) and monitoring (PMS, navigation tools and
position fixing, engine control systems, damage and emergency control, diagnosis and alarm
handling, cargo handling and documentation).
All these technologies are applied in the field of navigation, although pilots pay specific
attention to the group of technologies related to navigation tools and position fixing, i.e
ARPA/Radar, ECDIS, GPS, DGPS, transponders, gyrocompass, echo sounder, doppler sonar
log, VTS.
The main on-shore technologies are:
•
•
•
•
VTIMS;
GPS;
ECDIS;
GMDSS.
These technologies have the major effect of getting navigation more “linked” to shore, in so
far as navigation can be run, helped and controlled from shore.
52
This means a decreasing independence of onboard personnel from shore influence: for
example, in the case of VTS, the master’s independence is weakened as the ship movement is
monitored from the shore station. This could be seen as a “support” or an “intrusion” as far as
the ship masters’point of view is concerned.
4.2 The impact on MET
The analysis of the responses to the questionnaires has enabled us to list a certain number of
“impact indexes” (words in bold type in the text), which express the relevant characteristics of
MET, and to measure, in a “qualitative” way (i.e through interviews and not through an
econometric model), the impact of the new technologies onboard on MET.
The relevant characteristics of MET (i.e the “impact indexes”) which come out of the
questionnaires can be divided in two main groups:
•
•
Organizational aspects;
Operational aspects.
The first group is concerned with the aspects and requirements of MET which are mainly
related to its structure and organization.
The second group is basically concerned with how MET really works, i.e with the methods of
teaching. Specifically, this second group is in turn related to two main issues:
•
•
What to teach;
How to teach.
As far as the organizational aspects are concerned, they are described by analyzing the
appropriate responses to the questionnaires. These responses express the point of view of all
the types of operators we contacted (marine equipment manufacturers, ship owners, pilots,
port managers); specifically we have tried to integrate the different perspectives while
highlighting the differences.
4.2.1 The organizational aspects of MET
The development of new technologies will stress the need for quality standards to be applied
in MET institutions and almost all operators agree about the great importance of the “quality
system”, with the exception of the marine equipment manufacturers who indicate the
“systematic monitoring” and the “external audit” as the most important standards.
Strangely enough, the entry level in MET institutions should not be necessarily high, i.e the
university level, but specific and vocational, i.e. related to training and service experience on
deck and engine. Only port operators say that a university entry level should also be
necessary.
There is no clear agreement among operators about the optimal students/professor ratio:
there emerges an upperbound of 20 students and a lowerbound of 10-15. It is worth noting
that, by contrast, the majority of the marine equipment manufacturers indicate an optimal
ratio of 5-6 students for each professor/lecturer.
53
The main opinion for the most suitable qualification requirements of professors/ lecturers
seem to be an academic background (Ph.D or master’s degree) with a skill-based experience,
such as an unlimited certificate of competency with service as ship master or chief engineer.
Among the new technologies used in MET institutions, those that could be very useful in
order to manage new technologies onboard are the following:
•
•
•
Simulation facilities: all the operators give much weightage to Radar/ARPA and
navigation while marine equipment manufacturers pay attention also to GMDSS and
engine room and shipowners to shiphandling;
Computing facilities: all the operators think that network PCs, Internet and PCs are very
important; pilots give particular weightage also to audio-visual aids and, together with the
marine equipment manufacturers, highlight the importance of CD ROM;
Workshop and laboratories: it emerges that the most important facilities are those related
to cargo handling, language and firefighting; shipowners give importance also to diesel
engine and pilots to training vessels.
4.2.2 The operational aspects of MET
From a broader point of view, the educational issues that should receive much attention are
the psychological ones, i.e those related to attitudes and motivation, leadership, mental
workload, etc., and skills and training ones, i.e. those related to physical and mental abilities.
In contrast, however, a number of marine equipment manufacturers think that the most
important educational issues are those related to knowledge (“awareness of facts”).
The subjects that should be reformed are mainly the following:
•
•
•
•
•
Automation;
Computer;
Electronics;
Physics;
English.
As for new subjects to be set up in order to cope with new technologies onboard, the most
important ones are:
•
with more emphasis to navigation:
- Management of emergency procedures (planning, training, reviewing);
- Shipboard safety;
- Modules about CD ROM;
- Firefighting;
- Damage control system;
54
•
with more emphasis to port operations:
- VTIMS;
- Pilotage;
- Port organizational structure;
- Port economy and management;
- Port technology;
- Intermodal transport logistics;
- Tele and data communication;
- Cargo handling.
Generally speaking, automation, tele- and data communication, cargo handling, computing,
safety are considered very important subjects.
The operational sectors that will produce the greatest impact on training needs in the future
are mainly safety and environment problem, all the tools concerned with computing are also
indicated. More specifically, shipowners indicate also human aspects of life and work
onboard and the port managers indicate sectors like handling of dangerous cargoes, VTIMS,
tele- and data communication.
The certificates of competency of deck officers and masters because of changes in
professional profile, skills and duties will be more affected by the development of new
technologies on board than those of dual-purpose officer and engine officer. Indeed, marine
equipment manufacturers attribute almost no impact to engine officer’s education and
training.
The mandatory updating courses for seafarers and maritime lecturers should be set up, even
if there is no clear agreement among operators on shore-based personnel undergoing through
such courses. Moreover, some say that pilots also should be re-trained. These courses should
be offered mostly by MET institutions or by mixed agencies, but not by shipowners’s
agencies only. There are different views about the structure of these courses: marine
equipment manufacturers, shipowners and some port managers tend to give more importance
to on-shore seminars on specific topics (70-80% of the total time of the courses), while pilots
and some port managers think that that the major part of the time should be devoted to
onboard training (about 60-75%). About the timing of these courses, operators agree about a
“cyclic retraining”, i.e. courses arranged in regular intervals, while the marine equipment
manufacturers tend to prefer courses arranged before voyages.
All operators agree on the need for a final examination.
A judgment on the efficiency of training onboard can be expressed by saying that the
development of the new technologies will result in a comparatively more effective rather than
a more costly training, although many port mangers have a different opinion.
4.2.2.1 General framework of the operational aspects
As far as the operational issues are concerned, we propose the following general scheme for
evaluating the impact on MET due to the development of new technologies onboard and the
future training needs.
55
Parts of MET
K
N
O
W
L
E
D
G
E
HOW TO TEACH
WHAT TO TEACH
Subjects (sample)
• Basic (1)
Theoretical
instructions
in classroom
• Attitudes and human
relationships (2)
• Technical and vocational (3)
Sample:
• safety
• emergency operations
• electronic navigation
systems
• ECDIS
Multimedia approach
(computing facilities
and audio-visual aids)
S
K
I
L
L
S
Use of simulators
Practical training
Sample:
• navigation
• engine room
• shiphandling
• GMDSS
• Radar/ARPA simulators
• cargo handling simulators
• oil spill
Sample:
• navigation (training vessel)
• Radar/ARPA
• electronic navigation systems
• safety
• emergency operations
(firefighting, survival pool)
56
(1) English, mathematics, physics and mechanics, electronics, chemistry, computing
(2) Psychology, logic, sociology, deontology
(3) Bridge operations; systems monitoring and control; navigation processes and control;
automation; integrated bridges systems and equipment; management of emergency
procedures; safety (firefighting, first aid); damage control systems; GMDSS, satellite
communication; pilotage; port organization ; port economy and management; port
technology; intermodal transport logistics; tele and data communication; cargo handling.
As a general comment of the scheme, first of all let us sort out two main parts of MET:
knowledge, which means “awareness of facts”, and skills, which means “physical and mental
abilities”. MET can be considered a sort of “path” that, starting from the awareness of the
basic, vocational and psychological aspects of navigation, gradually comes to a more and
more realistic simulation of the reality onboard. In this context, the multimedia approach and
the use of simulators play a very important role in order to simulate the reality getting closer
and closer to it. In other words, these steps permit to “see” and “experience” reality in a
simulated way, even for those aspects which are very hard to experience.
We must think that the current officer and master and certainly the future ones will look more
as a busy manager of technology. In this modern maritime world radical differences with
respect to the past arise among duties and responsibilities of ship’s officers and they make the
traditional on-the-job training out of control and actually impossible. In this context, more and
more we must pay attention to motivation, moral and leadership qualities of crew members.
As a consequence, an issue that deserves to be strongly outlined is the psychological one. In
fact, the physical and mental loads have not necessarily been decreased by the introduction of
sophisticated nautical instruments. The reduced manning increases the degree of
responsibility and the stress, particularly of the officers.
Furthermore, the reduction of shipboard personnel creates more mental isolation than in the
past and it can not be offset by shore leaves in ports which are too short or do not exist. In
fact, new technologies have certainly contributed to reduce laytimes in ports.
All these aspects (long absence from the family, long seatime with short shore leaves, reduced
number of crew members, more mental isolation, sophisticated instruments and equipment,
automation, monotony during long voyages) can increase human failure and accidents.
Having said that, it is quite clear that the psychological condition of crew members is of a
vital importance. Any reduction in the number of crew members creates more mental isolation
and increases the responsibility of ship officers and their mental load: these problems can only
be solved by an adequate and suitable education based upon specific knowledge and training
requirements for on board duties.
57
4.3 Conclusions
As the final result of WP 4.2 and 4.3 we present the following scheme which summarizes and
serves to evaluate the general impact on MET due to the development and use of new
technologies.
Furthermore, let us ask the question: what should be the relationship between MET and
mandatory updating courses? In other words: how should MET keep up with the development
of new technologies, if necessary?
Even if mandatory updating courses are necessary, we think that a major objective for MET is
to create a more scientific and flexible cultural background so as to enable MET graduates to
rapidly and efficiently adapt themselves to the development of new technologies over the
time. In this sense, more attention should be paid to a scientific background rather than to a
“strictly technical” one.
Finally, let us stress how new technologies will produce an increased integration,
interoperability and inter-mobility among:
• Onboard and on-shore positions (see WP. 1.7);
• Onboard positions themselves.
This perfectly reflects the tendency of today’s transport to be conceived as an integrated chain
of operations from sender to receiver. In this context, navigation is no longer a “stand-alone”
world but it is just a segment of the intermodal logistic chain of transport.
58
NEW TECHNOLOGIES
MET
Identification and scope of application
Impact indexes
ORGANIZATIONAL IMPACT
• quality standards
• entry level
• opt. student/professors ratio
• new technologies in MET
•
•
•
•
•
OPERATIONAL IMPACT
relevant educational issues
subject to be reformed
new subjects to be offered
operational sectors impact
efficiency of training
HOW TO TEACH
CERTIFICATES OF COMPETENCY
MANDATORY UPDATINGCOURSES
59
WHAT TO TEACH
METHAR
WP 4.2 Assessment of the impact of an increased use of technology in the maritime
WP 4.3 Consultation and collaboration with the “operating” maritime industry
(shipowners, port managers, etc.) on the identification of future training needs,
including possible MET support for the implementation of the ISM Code
QUESTIONNAIRES
I.S.T.I.E.E. - Università di Trieste, Italy
(Prepared by Marco Mazzarino and Elena Maggi)
August 1998
METHAR, WP 4.2/4.3, Questionnaires
60
Numbers of replies to questionnaires from the various groups of addressees:
Shipowners, Marine Equipment Manufacturers, Port Managers, Pilot Associations
Category
Shipowners
Sent
125
Received
19
Rate of return
15%
Marine Equipment Manufacturers
24
5
20%
Port Managers
23
8
34%
Pilot Associations
45
3
0.7%
Total
217
35
16%
Category
Shipowners
Nationality
Finnish
Norwegian
Italian
Belgian
Danish
Spanish
British
German
Dutch
French
Swedish
Marine Equipment Manufacturers
Port Managers
European
Italian
Pilot Associations
61
Sent
12
13
9
16
18
40
6
2
4
3
2
Received
6
4
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
24
5
15
8
45
6
2
3
QUESTIONNAIRE 4.2 AND 4.3 METHAR PROJECT
(for shipowners)
1. Which of the following new technologies are used?
Simulators
Integrated Ship Control (UMS)
Integrated bridge systems and design (Navigation Control Console NCC)
System
Monitoring
Sensors
Arpa/Radar
Loran
Decca Navigator
ECDIS
GPS
DGPS
Transit
Glonass
Inmarsat
Geostar
Locstar
Skyfix
Transponders
Sat-nav receivers
Gyrocompass
Echo-sounder
Weather forecasts system
Barometer
Doppler sonar log
Jetty-mounted sonar systems
Steering systems
Dead reckoning
VTS systems
Twin rudder
62
watertank level
fuel gauges
critical engine component monitoring
rudder indicator
fuel temperature sensor
oil pressure
GMDSS
Stock control
2. On which type of ships do you apply new technologies? (please indicate the type and the
number of ships of your fleet on which new technologies are applied)
Type
Quantity
tanker
......
OBO carrier
......
bulk carrier
......
general cargo ship
......
containership
......
reefer
.....
gas carrier
......
ferry
......
others (please specify)
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
63
3. Which are the main objectives in applying such new technologies?
safety increases
cost decreases (crew number)
operational and economic efficiency enhancement
4. How much are user (seafarers) needs and the human factor taken into account in applying
new technologies?
technical aspects and problems are given higher priority
technical and human factors are given the same priority
human factors are given higher priority
5.With reference to 1.., which technologies will have the most significant impact on MET?
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
6. Accordingly with the previous point, which technologies will not have a great impact on
MET?
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
Impact on MET and future training needs due to the development of new technologies
7. Which of the following certificate of competency will be more affected by new
technologies on board?
deck officer/master
engine officer/master
dual purpose officer
8. Could new technologies stress the needs for quality standards to be applied in MET
institutions?
Yes
No
If yes, based on STCW Code, which of the following quality standards could be more
affected?
quality system, i.e. organizational structure, responsibilities, compliance with procedures,
processes of documentation, resources, self assessment of operations, etc.
systematic monitoring arrangement
periodic independent quality evaluation (external audit)
64
9. What should be the entry level in MET institutions?
university level
other seafaring and educational requirements (please specify)
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
10. Should a change in entry examination be required? If yes, of what type?
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
11. How could the number of lecturers/professors with respect to the number of students be
affected? Please indicate:
1 professor/lecturer : ...........students
12. Which could be the most suitable qualification requirements for lecturers and professors?
unlimited master mariner or chief engineer certificate and service as ship master or chief
engineer
unlimited master mariner or chief engineer certificate without service as ship master or
chief engineer
unlimited certificate of competency and academic degree (master or Ph.D)
academic degree
13. Which are the subjects that should be reformed because of the development of new
technologies?
English
mathematics
physics
chemistry
electronics
automation
computers
14. Which of the following advanced technologies used in MET institutions could be of great
help for managing new technologies onboard? (please indicate aside: ** very important;
* important)
A) Simulation facilities
Radar/ARPA
Ship handling
Navigation
Cargo handling
GMDSS
Engine room
Oil spill
65
B) Computing facilities
PC
Network PC’s
Internet
CD-Rom
Audio-visual aids
C) Workshop and laboratories
Diesel engine
Training vessel
Cargo handling
Language
Fire fighting
Survival pool
15. What new subjects should be set up? (please give details)
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
16. Referring to points 13-15, which of the subjects is the most important with reference to
new technologies?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
17. Do you think that mandatory updating courses for seafarers and maritime lecturers should
be set up in order to cope with the future training needs for seafarers arising from the
development of new technologies?
Yes
No
Do you think that also shore-based personnel should be involved?
Yes
No
18. Such courses should be offered by:
MET institutions
shipowners’s agencies
mixed-agencies set up by shipowners, maritime builder, maritime colleges/academies,
classification societies, etc. representatives
19. Such courses should be arranged through (please give a percentage of total time spent in
courses):
on-shore seminars on specific topics
…..%
onboard training (computer modules, etc.)
…..%
66
20.When such courses should be organized?
before voyages
during non-navigation periods
in regular intervals (cyclic retraining)
21. Should there be an examination at the end of the courses?
Yes
No
22. Because of new technologies, you think that training could be:
more costly
more effective
23. Which are the educational issues that should receive more attention due to the
psychological issues (related to attitudes and motivation, leadership, mental workload, etc.)
knowledge issues (awareness of facts), of type:
specialization issues (“professional”)
multidisciplinary issues (“manager”)
skills and training aspects (physical and mental abilities)
24. Which are the operational sectors that will produce the main impact on training needs in
the future? (please indicate: ** great impact; * less impact)
computer
safety
environment (pollution, etc.)
automation
on-shore activity (ports, etc.)
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
25. How should MET support the implementation of ISM Code?
by including it in MET syllabuses
by organizing ad-hoc professional courses
by including it in mandatory updating courses
67
(for marine equipment manufacturers)
Simulators
System
Monitoring
Sensors
Arpa/Radar
Loran
Decca Navigator
ECDIS
GPS
DGPS
Transit
Glonass
Inmarsat
Geostar
Locstar
Skyfix
Transponders
Sat-nav receivers
Gyrocompass
Echo-sounder
Barometer
Doppler sonar log
Steering systems
Dead reckoning
VTS systems
Twin rudder
68
watertank level
fuel gauges
rudder indicator
oil pressure
GMDSS
Stock control
2. What other advanced technologies are you currently developing? (please give details)
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
3. For which type of ships are mainly new technologies required?
Type
tanker
OBO carrier
bulk carrier
general cargo ship
containership
reefer
gas carrier
ferry
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
69
4. Which are the main objectives in building such new technologies?
safety increases
5. How much are user (seafarers) needs and the human factor taken into account in
developing new technologies?
technical aspects and problems are given higher priority
technical and human factors are given the same priority
human factors are given higher priority
6. With reference to 1., which technologies will have the most significant impact on MET?
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
7. With reference to 6., which technologies will not have a great impact on MET?
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
deck officer/master
institutions?
Yes
No
affected?
university level
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
70
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
engineer
chief engineer
academic degree
technologies?
English
mathematics
physics
chemistry
electronics
automation
computers
* important)
Radar/Arpa
Ship handling
Navigation
Cargo handling
GMDSS
Engine room
Oil spill
PC
Network PC’s
Internet
CD-Rom
Audio-visual aids
71
Diesel engine
Training vessel
Cargo handling
Language
Fire fighting
Survival pool
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
new technologies?
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
Yes
No
Yes
No
MET institutions
courses):
.......%
.......%
72
before voyages
Yes
No
more costly
more effective
computer
safety
automation
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
73
(for port managers)
Simulators
System
Monitoring
Sensors
ARPA/Radar
Loran
Decca Navigator
ECDIS
GPS
DGPS
Transit
Glonass
Inmarsat
Geostar
Locstar
Skyfix
Transponders
Sat-Nav receivers
Gyrocompass
Echo-sounder
Barometer
Doppler sonar log
Steering systems
Dead reckoning
VTS systems
Twin rudder
74
watertank level
fuel gauges
rudder indicator
oil pressure
GMDSS
Stock control
2. Given the technologies onboard indicated above, what do you think are the main objectives
in building such new technologies?
safety increases
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
deck officer/master
75
institutions?
Yes
No
affected?
university level
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
engineer
chief engineer
academic degree
technologies?
English
mathematics
physics
chemistry
electronics
automation
computers
76
* important)
Radar/ARPA
Ship handling
Navigation
Cargo handling
GMDSS
Engine room
Oil spill
PC
Network PC’s
Internet
CD-Rom
Audio-visual aids
Diesel engine
Training vessel
Cargo handling
Language
Fire fighting
Survival pool
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
new technologies?
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
Yes
No
Yes
No
77
MET institutions
courses):
.......%
.......%
before voyages
Yes
No
more costly
more effective
computer
safety
automation
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
78
(for pilots’ associations)
1. New technologies
Simulators
System
Monitoring
Sensors
ARPA/Radar
Loran
Decca Navigator
ECDIS
GPS
DGPS
Transit
Glonass
Inmarsat
Geostar
Locstar
Skyfix
Transponders
Sat-nav receivers
Gyrocompass
Echo-sounder
Barometer
Doppler sonar log
Steering systems
Dead reckoning
VTS systems
Twin rudder
79
watertank level
fuel gauges
rudder indicator
oil pressure
GMDSS
Stock control
2. Given the technologies onboard indicated above, what do you think are the main
objectives in building such new technologies?
safety increases
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
deck officer/master
80
institutions?
Yes
No
affected?
university level
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
engineer
chief engineer
unlimited certificate of competency and academic degree (masters or Ph.D)
academic degree
technologies?
English
mathematics
physics
chemistry
electronics
automation
computers
81
* important)
Radar/ARPA
Ship handling
Navigation
Cargo handling
GMDSS
Engine room
Oil spill
PC
Network PC’s
Internet
CD-Rom
Audio-visual aids
Diesel engine
Training vessel
Cargo handling
Language
Fire fighting
Survival pool
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
new technologies?
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
Yes
No
Yes
No
82
MET institutions
shipowners’ agencies
courses):
.......%
.......%
before voyages
Yes
No
more costly
more effective
computer
safety
automation
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
83
QUESTIONNAIRE ON ISM CODE
1. Do you think that MET could give good support to the implementation of the ISM Code?
Yes.
Yes, but together with some practical training.
No, we think that training on board and/or ashore could be more effective.
2. Have you already developed and implemented a Safety Management System (S.M.S.)?
Yes
No
We are doing it now.
3. Who is the person(s) designated to implement the SMS?
the master
the chief mate
a person ashore of the Company top management
a person with a particular preparation; please specify:
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
other; please specify:
..............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
This person must have some experience?
Yes
No
If yes, please specify the amount (in years):....................................................................
4. Have you designated a person for a periodical verification of the SMS efficiency?
Yes
No
If yes, who is that person?
the master
the chief mate
a person ashore of the Company top management
a person with a particular preparation; please specify:
.............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
84
other; please specify:
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
This person must have some experience?
Yes
No
If yes, please specify the amount (in years):.........................................................................
5. Do you think that a revision of the international certificates to completely achieve the
objectives of the ISM Code is necessary?
Yes
No
If yes, in which way?
by a revision of some teaching subjects; please specify:
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
with the addition of specific courses; please specify:
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
by increasing of the mandatory practical period
other.................................................................................................................................
..........……….........................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
6. Which qualification and requirements must the personnel ashore have in order to achieve
the objectives of the ISM Code?
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
7. Do you think that the development of the new technologies could contribute to achieving
the objectives of safety and environmental prevention?
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
Which in particular?
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
85
METHAR
WP 4.4 Assessment of the potential in the use of new teaching and training
technologies and methodologies in MET;
REPORT
August 1998
86
Work Package 4.4
Assessment of the potential in the use of new teaching and training
technologies and methodologies in MET;
Table of contents
Page
1
Introduction
89
2
Methodology
89
3
Computing technology and education and training
90
3.1 General computer developments
3.2 Network links and information technology (IT)
3.3 Computer based training (CBT)
3.4 Educational networks and IT developments
3.5 The cyberspace educational concept
3.6 European MET institutions and technology
3.7 Summary
90
92
95
97
99
100
101
Satellite communications systems and education and training
102
4.1 Developments in satellite communications systems
4.2 Satellite communications, E-mail and data transfer
4.3 Technology and the individual seafarer
4.4 Technology and the shipowner
4.5 Summary
102
103
104
104
105
Distance education and the maritime environment
106
5.1 Background to growth and development
5.2 The nature of distance education
5.3 Maritime distance learning
5.4 Satellite, IT and multimedia links for D.E. delivery
5.5 Summary
106
107
108
109
111
Onboard training, CBT and new technology
112
6.1 The impact of STCW 95 and ISM Code on onboard training
6.2 Ship operations and new technology
6.3 The office at sea concept
6.4 IT software for operational needs
6.5 Applied operational research for onboard CBT
6.6 Summary
112
113
114
116
117
119
4
5
6
87
Page
7
Summary conclusions
7.1
Key developments
7.2
Potential problems
120
120
120
8
Research sources and references
8.1
Related research and development programs
8.2
General references
121
121
121
References mentioned in the report
1
2
3
4
5
6
Distance teaching over the internet (Telia) http://www.swedtel.telia.se/
Communications and shipboard management software ( source: compuship August
1997, March 1998, October 1997 and December 1997)
Guide to developers of marine multimedia products (IMLA’s 3rd International
Conference on Engine Room Simulators, ICERS 3, Svendborg, Denmark, 26-30
May 1997)
Competence evaluation of seafarers – CES2000 (Seagull)
http://www.sgull.com/obl_ces2000.htm
CBT onboard library (Seagull) http://www.sgull.com/obl_onboard%20library.htm
Seafarers’ evaluation and training system- SETS and training onboard
(Videotel) http://www.videotel.co.uk/catalog/s9cbt.html#Anchor-SETS-29677
88
1
Introduction
The objective of this work package is to examine developments and trends in global maritime
communications and research being undertaken into new technology based learning methods,
and to consider how such developments could be applied through distance learning techniques
to onboard training. The new ISM Code and the revised STCW 1978 Convention (STCW 95)
are having a marked impact upon the responsibilities of shipowners and ship operators in
regard to the provision of onboard training to meet the new statutory requirements. As well,
the rapid development of satellite communications, the use of the Internet and e-mail services
linked with the growth in the onboard use of computers and interactive multimedia based
educational and training software is opening up new opportunities in the maritime field to
improve the safety standards and skill levels of seafarers. The report focuses on changes
taking place by focusing on four main areas namely:
Satellite communications and education and training
Distance education and the maritime environment
New technology and onboard training
Several parallel research projects are also under way which may have some direct or indirect
influence upon the outcomes of this work package and should be consulted when considering
final drafts of the METHAR project. These include the Waterborne Transport research project
(SAFETY-NET) and the European Port State Control Officers Training programme
(EPSCOT), reports on which are not yet available, and the Training for Assessors project by
Videotel, due for completion at the end of 1998.
2
Methodology
The author conducted an extensive literature search of the topic with the focus on the four
areas identified above. This included examination of press and Internet sources, conference
proceedings and technical journals. The general references selected as contributing current
data and information are listed at the end of this report. Information on progress in a number
of associated projects was sought but in some cases reports were not available at the time of
writing. Developments in multimedia learning directed towards the maritime industry were
identified, noting that the Norwegian shipping industry is very much to the fore in advancing
the use of new computer based training (CBT) techniques onboard the ship. Summaries have
been drawn in each of the four targeted areas as to their potential to contribute to adapting
training courses to the requirements of new advanced technology. Summary conclusions are
drawn as to the feasibility of using distance learning methods in a more comprehensive way to
enhance the onboard training regime. The report has examined the wider issue of the use of
the Internet and email by shipping companies for the management of ship operations and
other social needs only in the context of its impact upon the use onboard of CBT and distance
learning methods.
89
3
3.1
General Computer Developments
Power and speed linked to a computer distribution network has allowed communication
interaction of an undreamed of nature. Consider the attached figure 3.1 showing the growth
in the power of the micro-chip. Today's Pentium II 300 MHz chip has 7 times the number of
transistors than the 486 chip of 1989. More importantly the speed of calculation of the microchip has expanded 5,000 times. The attached graph in figure 3.2 shows starkly where we are
heading with the computer’s ability to handle millions of instructions per second (mips) into
the 21st Century.
The pace of computing technology developments today continues to grow at an alarming rate for
many people, alarming in the sense that today’s choice of PC equipment, workstation, network
or software is out of date tomorrow. Today, for around US$2500, one can buy a Pentium II 260
MHz PC with 32mb RAM, 4.3 Gb hard disc drive, 32x CD-ROM drive and a 15” SVGA colour
monitor with fax/modem and Internet connection thrown in. Coupled to the potential use of
world wide audio video and data communication links, maritime related software development is
similarly growing at a fast pace. Increasingly many programs are being developed for use with
networks. This has many advantages for a training institution, such as control over copyright, the
benefits of scale from group learning, monitoring and polling of activity and enhanced learning
rates in many areas. For the ship operator the advantages of instant communications with the
master and direct access to ship data are reflected in the growing trend to design new ships with
built –in computer networks. Today computers are likely to be configured in one of several
ways.
Desktop or workstation
The most suitable use of the stand alone PCs is in the mediation of information flows (e.g. library
databases), and the use of software programs requiring individual interaction or self-tuition. The
use of interactive software, related closely to workplace operations, allows the instructor
(whether ashore or onboard) to check and evaluate the ability of the officer or trainee to perform
to the designed training objectives. An increasing number of PC based maritime related
simulation training programs are coming onto the market which lend themselves to be used in
this way.
Part of a Local Area Network (LAN)
The linking of a number of PC’s to a file-server within a network system (e.g. Novell) provides
flexibility by enhancing the learning process for the student and providing lecturers with new
ways to achieve learning and assessment objectives. Planned carefully, the programmed use of
networked computers can lead to considerable economies of scale in the use of computer
resources. Students can access a range of programs for use within the curriculum without
lecturer involvement and student performance can be monitored from the instructor’s own
PC. E-mail provides communication links. Information and databases can be accessed directly
from a library, CD-ROM stack or via Internet for education and training purposes. The shore
communication links. Information and databases can be accessed directly from a library, CDROM stack or via Internet for education and training purposes. The shore LAN can be linked
directly to the ship LAN with the obvious potential for more effective use in ship operations.
90
In the future, such conduits will be used for crew recreational and leisure purposes as well as
on board training.
Figure 3.1 Micro-chip growth
Chip
8008
Year
1972
Mhz
0.5-0.8
No Transistors
3000
Memory
16k
Datatype
8
8085
1976
3-8
6500
64k
8
8088
1979
5-10
29,000
1Mb
8/16
80286
1982
10-16
130,000
16Mb
8/16
80386
1985
16-33
275,000
4 Gb
8/16/32
80486
1989
25-33
1.2 million
4 Gb
8/16/32
Pentium
1992
60,66
3.1 million
4 Gb
8/16/32
Pentium
1994
100
4.1 million
4 Gb
8/16/32
Pentium Pro
1995
200
7.5 million
6 Gb
16/32
Pentium II
1997
233-400
8+ million
8.1 Gb
16/32
Merced IA64
2000
1000+
10+
18 Gb +
32/64
Figure 3.
91
Computer based presentations
The ability to deliver teaching programs directly from the computer via colour projectors to large
audiences is becoming more common place for the lecturer. The design and projection of slides
using for example PowerPoint or Lotus Notes however must take into account room and
audience size (detail and contrast) and the mode and purpose of the presentation. A darkened
room used for lengthy periods may reduce the effectiveness of the presentation compared to
traditional classroom methods. Much of the material can be modified for access by external
students.
High speed data and video links
The use of Computer Based Training (CBT) methods ashore or on board must include an
awareness of the enormous potential to MET of technology links between CBT, high speed data
and video satellite transmissions, the use of the Internet, E-mail and distance learning methods.
This aspect is dealt with later.
The impact of working and living in an ‘information processing’ age has many social, economic
and political aspects impinging upon traditional ways of conducting education and training or of
operating a ship. These factors also need to be taken into account in planning for the future use of
computer technology in the maritime community.
3.2
Network links and information technology (IT)
Today the world lives in an ‘age of progress’ surrounded by a world of technical terms computers, internet, satellite communications, world wide web, high speed data transfer, laser
discs, CD-ROM, DVD, interactive video, distance learning, remote polling, work stations,
Local Area Networks (LANs), and the information superhighway to name but a few.
The main catalyst for change in the past two decades has been the growing power of the
computer and the spread of a global information highway called the Internet. The Internet,
which had its origins in US Defence circles in the 1960's, can be described as a network of
computer networks (e.g. NFSNET, SUNET, JANET, AARNET, etc.) which really started to
develop in the mid 1980's. However it is only since 1993 onwards that the 'NET' has started
to spread in the exponential way it is today. Spectrum Strategy Consultants (1996) reported
that according to Internet research company Network Wizards, the Internet linked 100,000
networks with 60 million e-mail users in August 1996, predicted to rise to some 200 million
e-mail users by the year 2000 (see figure 3.3). Davies (1997) reports on other surveys
showing projected growth into the hundreds of millions by 2000. Similarly it is estimated that
there were 90 million people around the world with Internet access at the beginning of 1998
growing to 200 million by the year 2000 (Internet magazine). These figures are expanding
rapidly and clearly indicate that the Internet is one of the fastest growing IT developments.
Having access to Internet implies use of basic services such as electronic mail, access to
information resources, transferring data, interactive conferencing, and network news.
There are some concerns that the Internet is going to suffer overload and perhaps there are
already signs of this. In establishing the Internet the designers chose a 32 bit address which
theoretically gives it a limit of just over 4 million addresses. The worry is that Internet will
soon run out of addresses. A new protocol called Internet Protocol New Generation (IPNG)
92
plans to expand the address from 32 to 128 bits. Theoretically this will create a reservoir of
1038 addresses which should last a few years!
Of more concern to the maritime industry from a cost point of view is the highly time
sensitive services such as those that exploit audio and video. (figure 3.4 refers). The invention
of the World Wide Web (WWW) by Tim Lee at CERN in Geneva opened the way up for the
transmission of graphics, pictures, sound and video. The arrival of Internet phones and the
use of video streams will greatly increase traffic.
One answer is to speed up the data flow. Consider the typical modem that has a transfer rate
of 33.6 or 56 kilobits. Few companies have links that run at more than 2.5 megabits per
second. The Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) offers 64/128 kilobits/second.
Twisted pair cabling run by telephone companies using unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
category 5 cabling can handle 100 BASE-T Fast Ethernet at 100 Mbps whilst cable
companies using fibre-optics can offer up to 1 megabit/second. Some Internet Service
Providers (ISP) are installing capacities of 100 megabits per second or more. Many
telecommunications companies are getting in the act, keen to sell capacity to ISP's. Often
overlooked is the fact that many calls go through undersea cables. Today there is
approximately 368,000 km of fibre-optic cable on the floors of the world’s seas, with a
further 280,000 km due to be laid by the end of 1999. In addition 30 international
telecommunications providers have established ‘project oxygen’, a super Internet that will
link up 175 countries through 320,000 km of fibre-optic cable to handle the demands of
Internet and video transmissions (Source: Int.Herald Tribune 0/3/98).
The flexibility of the Internet is assisted by early design considerations which allowsvarying
types of networks to be linked together through the common TCP/IP protocol without
complex planning or approval procedures. Internet Protocol (IP) routes information across the
networks and is, in effect, the language of the Internet. Indeed there are no limits to the
number, size or type of networks that can be added, provided they conform to the basic
Internet protocol standards. Thus capacity should always be able to match demand. However
if data pipes can keep up, the routers, who forward data at a few gigabits per second, are
struggling. New machines will handle up to 50 gigabits of data per second.
The increasing installation of Local Area Networks (LANs) on ships reflects a slow
but growing realisation by some ship managers that the linking of the total ship to
the company LAN ashore can increase interaction between both and lead to
improved efficiency, safety and cost effectiveness. However, in planning such links,
it should be borne in mind that there are no nice fibre-optic lines out to the ship and
the use of the Internet, e-mail and data transfer services are going to be very
dependent upon the satellite segment of the network architecture. This of course
means higher costs initially until the growing volume of traffic brings down the unit
price of audio, video and data transmission. This colours thinking in the industry as
to the potential use of computing technology in the future.
93
Figure 3.3 World Wide Web Users (millions)
90
80
70
60
USA
50
Asia
40
W.Europe
30
Rest World
20
10
0
1995
2000
F ig u r e 3 .4 T e le c o m m u n ic a tio n s C o n n e c tio n S p e e d s :
S a m p le F ile T r a n s m is s io n R a te s
S e r v ic e
S peed
(p e r s e c .)
1 5 0 -p a g e
BOOK
300 kb
P IC T U R E
475 kb
A U D IO
2 .4 m b
V ID E O
1 4 .4 M o d e m
1 4 .4 k b
4 .4 4 m in
2 .7 8 m in
4 .4 4 m in
2 2 .2 m in
2 8 .8 M o d e m
2 8 .8 k b
2 .2 2 m in
1 .3 9 m in
2 .2 2 m in
1 1 .1 m in
56k M odem
56 kb
1 .1 4 m in
4 2 .6 s e c
1 .1 4 m in
5 .7 m in
I S D N -6 4
64 kb
1 .0 0 m in
3 7 .5 s e c
1 .0 0 m in
5 .0 m in
I S D N -1 2 8
128 kb
30 sec
1 8 .8 s e c
3 0 se c
2 .5 m in
T1
1 .5 4 M b
2 .4 8 s e c
1 .5 5 s e c
2 .4 8 se c
1 2 .4 s e c
C a b le -M o d e m
1 0 -3 0 M b
T3
45 M b
0 .3 8 -0 .1 3 se c
0 .0 8 s e c
0 .2 4 -0 .0 8 s e c
0 .0 5 se c
0 .3 8 -0 .1 3 s e c
0 .0 8 se c
1 .9 -0 .6 4 se c
0 .4 2 se c
S o u rc e : R e fe re n c e : D y rli O , & K in n a m a n D (1 9 9 6 ) , T e c h n o lo g y & L e a rn in g C o n fe re n c e . In te l ( 1 9 9 7 ), N e tw o rk B a s ic s
94
Software applications
The advent of the very powerful and fast desk top micro computer, colour graphics,
interactive work stations, Internet, LANs, WANs and Hubs has led to a considerable output of
software for use in maritime operations, education and training. The problems facing the ship
owner and maritime instructor however are considerable, and careful thought and evaluation
is necessary to ensure that such software applications can meet the selected objectives of the
workplace and benefit the seafarer or individual trainee. This is dealt with in more detail later
in section 6.4.
Storage of information
Since 1995 there has been an explosion in the use of CD-ROMs when the 650 Mb capacity
disc came onto the market, enabling large quantities of data to be written on. Maritime
reference material is now increasing rapidly with recent maritime related CDs including
Lloyds Classification Society Rulefinder which contains its own and IMO regulations,
Fairplay World Shipping Encyclopaedia, IMO Dangerous Goods Code and the IMO Vega
database as some examples. One disc can contain 600,000 pages or more or around 2000
books - no longer need the seafarer be isolated from library resources. The Digital Versatile
Disc (DVD) has so much more memory it can play moving images at a much higher audiovisual quality on TV or PC screens.
The advent of the information highway provides scope for a greater interactive role between
maritime training managers, ship personnel, training institutions and approving authorities. If
institutions for example do not upgrade their computer hardware and software resources and
methods of training so they can provide the industry with the skilled personnel required,
companies are likely to contract with other readily available service providers in the
computing field to provide such services.
3.3
Computer based training (CBT)
Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) and Computer Based Training (CBT) centres around the
ability of the fast powerful computer of today to mediate in the flows of information in the
learning and training process. The speed of data processing linked with high resolution graphics
gives the PC the ability to adapt and respond to a learner's needs, difficulties and progress by
comparing student responses to a set of prescribed rules (the software program).
Programmed learning can be described as the control of trainee cognitive (and psychomotor)
responses to acquiring knowledge, skills and routines using structured teaching algorithms.
The use of internal and external feedback is an instinctive feature of such programmed
learning. The key to effective software programme development centres around the sequence
of presentation which should lead to an ever increasing level of difficulty and motivate the
learner to build up increased knowledge and skill. Yakushenko (1993) noted that a feature of
well designed software is the balance of learning frames and concepts that will allow for
effective transfer of knowledge, understanding and skill to the long-term memory. He also
noted another important factor relating to the type of programmed learning developed by the
software creator. This can be identified through three fundamental types of programmed
learning which differ according to how progression is permitted through to the next sequential
step.
95
Type 1. Linear: A pre-determined sequence of frames dictates progress by the student, his/her
actions during learning not affecting the sequence of frame movement. Student answers are not
taken into account.
Type 2. Intrinsically controlled: Student progression to the next step is resolved by noting the
answer given to the verifying question in the previous frame. The answer determines
advancement or repetition.
Type 3. Extrinsically controlled: In this case the overall pre-history of a student's answers is
subject to an extrinsic control facility before a decision is made on progression of the student
through each step. The best learning type as the pedagogical routines best correlate to teaching
practices.
The concept of a computer simply moving data and information from place to place, and
comparing it according to a set of prescribed rules or algorithms, leans on the computer’s
major strength of being able to process information very quickly and accurately. This gives
the computer the ability to adapt and respond to the learner's needs, difficulties and progress.
As a result of technology today, it is possible to place on board ship workstations capable of
handling the most complex of simulated situations and to transfer many aspects of training
onboard using CBT methodologies.
Programmed learning by itself is of limited value in developing mental and creative abilities. It is
probably at its best as a tool for repetition, consolidation and review of information and thus
knowledge and understanding. The creation of a dialogue or interactivity between man and
machine through simulation programs can however extend the ability of CBT beyond the mere
acquisition of knowledge and understanding produced by linear type programming. Many
aspects of on board training lend themselves to such an approach and is reflected in current
operational research activity (section 6 refers).
Good instructional skills in the classroom or onboard may not necessarily get transferred to the
computer medium without careful thought and evaluation of the software program objectives and
the methods to be employed to achieve them. The advantages and disadvantages of CBT over
traditional classroom group teaching need to be considered in determining the potential use of
computing in maritime education and training.
Advantages
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Learning can be focused to individual needs, levels and capabilities
Programs can be directed to specific learning objectives
CBT lends itself to enhanced acquisition of knowledge and understanding
Student response and progress can be better recorded, monitored and evaluated
Learning materials are more uniform and consistent under group learning situations
Interactive software programs enhance learning and skill acquisition possibilities
Subjectivity is reduced in computer based assessment processes
Simulation of applied operational tasks is possible
Access to computer facilities extends the time window of learning
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Disadvantages
•
•
•
•
•
•
CBT involves teaching students to follow fixed rules and procedures rather than to think for
themselves
The computer lacks cognitive thinking power of classroom groups
Students tend to become isolated from the peer group, by working in a vacuum
There is little software in the maritime area suited for CBT
Computing facilities are costly to buy and maintain
The technology is constantly changing requiring costly re-investment and re-training
Ship managers and maritime lecturers need to understand these aspects and be able to
recognise particular structures in software packages when considering both the purchase of
programs and the extent to which they can be used effectively as operational, teaching,
learning, training or assessment tools. Consideration must also be given to individual trainee
capabilities, motivation, familiarisation levels, the learning or training objectives, time
constraints and availability of hardware facilities. The most common modes are drill and
practice, browsing, calculation, tutorial, and simulation.
STCW 95 and CBT
Training is the systematic development of the skill behaviour pattern required by an individual in
order to perform adequately a given task or job (Stammers, 1975) By exposing the individual to
relevant experience through the performance of tasks selected to meet specific training
objectives, meaningful outcomes can be achieved in an enhanced, intensive manner. In this way
it can substitute for a range of on-the-job training. Through careful monitoring procedures,
performance standards can be measured against established training criteria to an acceptable
level.
STCW 95 now places greater emphasis through Part A of the Code on assessing the ability to
perform tasks or functions for competency purposes. To what extent however can such concepts
be applied using CBT as a platform? A number of limitations may exist such as:
(a) Variable student characteristics
(b) The element of luck?
(c) The unknown reasoning activity of the student
(d) The structure of computer based questions re the learning/assessment objectives
Using CBT software
In using CBT in the classroom or on board ship some basic questions also need to be
considered if the student or trainee is to gain full benefit from CBT software.
How will the student or trainee become familiar with the program?
Are there clear instructions of what to do with the program?
Is it based on self-tuition or group learning activity?
Does it require instructor input and monitoring?
How will the outcomes be evaluated and used?
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Consideration may need to be given as to whether the software has potential to be used to
meet competency requirements laid down in the tables of Part A of the STCW Code.
Is it to be used for assessment purposes?
Are the objectives clear?
Can skills be acquired?
If so, how can individual performance be measured and evaluated?
3.4
Educational networks and IT developments
Flisi (1995) notes that as a rule of thumb it is often said that we learn 20% of what we see,
40% of what we see and hear, and 70% of what we see, hear and do. If that is the case, the
combination of computers, networks and multi-media capabilities is clearly a formidable
educational tool. But distance learning is more than just sitting at a computer terminal
accessing Internet's World Wide Web. The characteristics of distance learning can be
described as enhanced access to resources, program delivery, outreach, and student
interactivity (either with the material or with a tutor). Outreach means that learning can take
place anywhere at anytime. Interactivity means you do not learn in a vacuum.
Britain's Open University (OU), the foremost distance learning institution in the world, has
established the Knowledge Media Institute (KMI) to foster lifelong learning. Knowledge
media is about the capturing, storing imparting, sharing, accessing and creating of
knowledge. The KMI stadium offers up to 100,000 cyberspace seats to presentations by
leading figures in culture, technology and the arts. Currently (1997) the OU has over 5,000
students registered with E-mail. A global BA degree is planned by the university using online services for lectures and seminars. Should mariners be able to access such services from
on board in the future?
Time Warner's subsidiary Oceanic Cable and Convergence Systems is constructing the
largest high speed educational data network link ever created over cable TV. The project
links Hawaii's public schools to the Internet. Applications include access to libraries, Email,
video-conferencing, data warehousing, curriculum resources, shared software and CD-ROMs.
Such facilities are typical of those found in the majority of US academic institutions and
increasingly in Universities around the world.
A number of institutions including De Montfort University in the UK are building so called
cybercafe-cum-tutorial complexes which will offer services to both students and local
residents. It would serve as a gateway for a very large off-campus student population.
The National Technical University (NTU) in Colorado, USA transmits advanced technical
and managerial telecourses via satellite to high profile companies. The interactive programs
enable participants to communicate with instructors by phone, fax, Email. The number of
downlink sites is over 1000 and short course enrolments exceed 100,000. In addition the
number of participating universities who provide content has reached 46. Of course the
corporate sector is much better placed to carry such costs. Penetration of such technology in
academic institutions is quite small due to the current costs involved. The internet offers
many attractions to the educational world, not least the cost element.
Monash University in Australia is in the process of completing an Asynchronous Transfer
Mode (ATM) communications network across 5 campuses to give students and teaching staff
access to broadband applications. This provides each major site with 2 Gbps ATM switch
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with an uplink of 155 Gbps into the core. The number of “virtual” students enrolled in
distance education or open learning programs is projected to rise from 4416 (1997) to more
than 10,000 in 2002. Many institutions around the world are upgrading their broadband
computing capabilities in anticipation of growing demands for video based learning services.
Asynchronous learning networks (ALNs) allow students to learn at their leisure through
instructional CD-ROMs, electronic conferencing software, and Internet e-mail
communication, the latter providing the important interaction with the institution and tutors.
Web Education (Telia, 1998) is already being used successfully by Luleå University to
manage the external study services. The challenge of communications and computing
technology and its impact on access to and the delivery of educational services has led many
institutions to recognise that traditional methods will not be the only answer into the 21st
century. Perhaps it is worth while considering the cyberspace educational concept.
3.5
The cyberspace educational concept
A typical maritime education institution of today consists of buildings with classrooms,
libraries, workshops and laboratories. To operate it requires power and energy, transportation
systems, students and academic staff. Technology is altering all the traditional ground rules.
Cyberspace education operates without frontiers, walls or barriers. It is an interactive learning
environment, globalized by technology links. It is a concept that can find a ready home at sea
in the future.
Many educational institutions are aware of the need to change. Stanford University has
embraced tele-education and is offering its courses via satellite across the USA. Many
institutions are trying out multi-media based programs both on and off campus. Digitized
versions of conventional courses are being prepared. Students solve problems in a smaller
and more-intimate learning environment instead of sitting in an impersonal passive learning
environment in a large lecture hall. In Australia, students can already enrol on postgraduate
distance learning programs in port and shipping management utilising instructional material,
internet and tele-conferencing, without having to step inside the institution. Video links are
now common in the large remote areas of Australia and Northern Sweden for example.
Consider the possible impact upon institutions in the future. Special lectures or training
sessions by maritime technical experts could be made available to ship crews or training
institutions around the world, taken either live or recorded for later viewing transmitted via
the Internet. A type of maritime BBC ‘Learning Zone’ could be created through pooled use
of resources. A next century solution could be the establishment of a Maritime Media
Institute run by a maritime industry foundation for outreach to seafarers on board anywhere
in the world.
At sea technology will allow much refresher and upgrading training to be carried out onboard
that currently requires seafarers to attend a course ashore. For the mariner, the opportunity for
private study at sea, a service long denied him or her, will become reality as Internet links
become common on board ship. Why should the mariner not be able to take a degree at sea
via the Open University in future or develop his hobby interests in photography via
interaction multimedia programmes?
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In the meantime teachers and instructors around the world are grappling with fundamental
issues arising from such technological changes.
How can knowledge be captured in digital form and be conveyed effectively?
What does it mean to learn through the medium of the computer and IT links?
Can the classroom experience be replicated digitally through multimedia?
Education is an interactive process; how can we achieve this away from the seat of learning?
Judging from information obtained from both METHAR survey WP 1.4 (European
Institutions) and the CIIPMET project (China, India, Indonesia and Philippines) there is both
a clear lack of training in the use of CBT being made available to instructors, as well as a
shortage of basic equipment and resources in order to fully utilise the new technology.
3.6
European MET institutions and technology
It is clear that many shipowners and operators are planning for a future increasingly centred
around the operation of the ‘IT office at sea’. By implication, employers will be seeking to
retrain or employ new officers and crew who have capabilities to use such equipment,
programs and services. Are instructors in training institutions equipped and prepared to
provide the necessary communications and computing skills needed onboard in the future? Do
companies themselves have plans for upgrading the computing and management skills of
existing staff at sea and ashore so as to use IT communications and software applications to
full effect?
A survey of European Union Maritime Training Institutions undertaken in 1997 (METHAR
Task 4.1) examined the extent to which modern technology and instructional media is in place
and being used within European maritime education and training institutions. Some results
pertaining to this topic are of relevance.
The use of Personal Computers (PCs) for computer assisted learning (CAL) and computer
based training (CBT) within networked systems, supported by Internet and e-mail services is
quite widespread in Europe. Two thirds of the 36 institutions (from 14 European countries)
responding to the survey are well supported with computing equipment and resources. The
use of such facilities for training however shows a distinct lack of confidence on the part of
instructors. While Internet and e-mail penetration levels are at 55%, the usage of these
facilities lags at 41% only. However increasing access to IT services is changing more
traditional attitudes and approaches to teaching and learning
In many cases a lack of good training software in many practical areas of ship operations is
currently inhibiting further use of the medium. This is aggravated by the fact that training
institutions are generally hampered by a lack of funds to purchase commercial onboard
application packages. This disadvantage could be overcome through institutions and
shipowners working closer together to ensure that IT skills provided in training programs
match operational needs onboard. This may need to be company specific.
New research developments such as the Norwegian based Information Technology in Ship
Operation Programme (ITSOP) (Marintek, 1997) aim to utilise the latest IT and satellite
communications to improve ship operations and maintenance. This topic is dealt with in more
detail in section 6. Personnel in the shipping industry both at sea and ashore will however
need to have a fundamental grounding in computing skills. Whilst STCW 95 does not
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specifically lay down computing as a required topic, the requirements of the functions for the
various levels of certification demand familiarity with computers today. Europe is well
equipped to provide such basics, however many institutions need to re-focus their program
objectives, and provide special training for instructors in the use of computer assisted learning
methodologies.
3.7
Summary
For the ship operator the major source of officers and crews today has swung to the AsiaPacific basin. Current surveys (CIIPMET, 1998) show that many institutions in the region
lack modern computing resources and well qualified and experienced instructors, in a world
where traditional teaching methods hold sway. While serious attempts are being made to
upgrade equipment and qualifications of instructors in many institutions, the process will take
many years before the global standards reach a satisfactory level.
In meeting the new requirements for standards of training, competence and quality assurance
imposed upon them by the ISM Code and STCW 95, shipowners are increasingly looking for
new means to assure themselves that the officers and ratings that they hire across the globe do
indeed meet standards. More ships are being constructed around an onboard computer based
network and this, allied to communication links back to the office through email and the
Internet will radically change operational methods and procedures on the ship. The trend
toward using CBT assessment packages as part of the recruitment process, and for use to
establish continuing proficiency onboard is becoming more common. If owners of highly
sophisticated ships are to operate these vessels effectively through increased use of IT and
satellite communications technology, the skills of their existing and future crews will
increasingly be a key element.
The evidence is clear. World wide computer networks and communication links are
expanding and growing at an extremely fast pace. The ability of the system to handle data and
communications quickly, cheaply and securely is not in doubt. It is just a matter of timing.
If MET institutions are to meet such demands, their computer based resources and instructors’
skills must be upgraded if they to are to continue to turn out trainees acceptable to industry.
The maritime industry itself can expect growing pressure from technological developments to
continue to change the manner in which they operate and manage vessels in the future.
Strategic planning for new training requirements is clearly a major key to the future success of
the shipping industry and the enhancing of global standards, and should be developed in
association with the training institutions and equipment and software suppliers.
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4
Satellite communications systems and education and training
4.1
Developments in satellite communications systems
As previously noted, communications links to and from ships at sea are dependent upon
satellite systems for coverage of the sea to shore leg of the communications chain. No
connections to fibre-optic cables on land or under sea here for high speed data and video
transmissions. Most satellite communications today were established to handle voice, telex
and fax and a little data traffic, generally for a low speed and volume market, as evidenced by
the development of the Inmarsat A, B, C & M systems over the years. Inmarsat A provides for
data transmission rates up to 9,600 bps as well as supporting HSD data rates of 56-64 kbps,
with Inmarsat B providing maximum HSD throughput with compression at 80 kbit (Vermeer,
1998). Smith (1998) reports that International Radio Traffic Services Ltd have taken the more
limited Inmarsat C system (store and forward messaging at 0.6 kbps with a limit of 32 kbytes
of ASCII data) to create a more powerful e-mail system using a compression factor of 8 to
reduce costs which are based on volume. It is still a limited service however when looking at
moving data in any sort of volume.
De Goeij (1998) has noted that tomorrow’s needs are driven by the demands for Information
Exchange with growing requirements for E-mail and Internet databases using bi-directional
high speed data services. The growing demand for satellite TV and video at sea has been
highlighted by Gruol (1998) whose company Sea Tel Inc is one of the leading providers of
such services. He notes the growing competition by LEOs, MEOs and GEOs to meet market
demands for voice, data or TV, the latter being increasingly possible at sea due to improved
stabilization and tracking technology in the antenna on the ship.
The emergence of global satellite telephone systems by Inmarsat and Orbcomm, and the
introduction of hand-held satphones (‘big LEOs’) by Iridium (starting this September),
Globalstar, Odyssey and ICO over the next 2 years will find a ready use on board ship as a
result of their complete coverage of all the world’s ocean areas. Competition is likely to force
user charges down to levels that will encourage owners to consider using IT for a wider range
of activities. These links already provide ready access for training in the workplace as
demonstrated by Marintek (Berg, 1996). The potential use of IT for onboard training using
distance learning methods has been discussed before (Muirhead, 1995). Shipping companies
are looking to provide training programs dealing with safety management practices (ISM
Code), new equipment, and familiarisation training (STCW95) for new crew members. In the
workplace. Onboard training activity can be monitored from ashore either by company
training officers or by arrangement with an MET institution. In the latter case this would be
more desirable where on board training forms part of the MET program being recognised by
an authority for competency purposes.
A further development called the Teledesic system (‘Internet in the Sky’) will use 288
satellites that will allow seafarers to roam the Internet. The potential to provide access to
distance education programs and leisure pursuits from any position in the world will change
the face of onboard life.
The near future also sees the arrival of other Low Earth Orbiting satellites (‘little LEOs’)
providing data communication services only (no voice). By limiting traffic to data-only, the
hand-held terminals need only minimum bandwidth (2 MHz uplink and 1 MHz downlink)
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providing shipowners and others with a potentially cheap means of data transfer and
messaging via the Internet. Companies include Orbcomm, Echostar, Vita and Leo One.
4.2
Satellite communications, e-mail and data transfer
Shore-ship education and training
Distance education delivery methodologies are discussed in section 6. In addition to the
important need for voice communication links for interaction with supervising tutors or
teleconferencing sessions, the transmission of data is a key factor in the success or otherwise
of ‘learning at a distance’ programmes. In choosing a mode for the transmission of data,
consideration must be given to the nature of the material to be sent (text, figures, graphs etc),
the volume and frequency of exchange and how critical speed of transmission is to the
training process, which will influence the cost. In addition, the type of satellite terminal
facility (e.g. Inmarsat A,B,C or M) will have a bearing on the form of transmission. It is an
easy process to send and exchange drawings, graphs, sketches and photographs to ships fitted
with Inmarsat A or B equipment and a fax facility. This is not possible with ships fitted only
with Inmarsat-C equipment. However cost considerations at present inhibit any meaningful
growth in the use of distance learning programmes on board via satellite systems.
At present the most viable approach to developing an economical data transmission system is
to make use of data compression techniques utilising computer based software, a computer
terminal, modem and the Inmarsat system. Participating ships would need a PC with
appropriate file transfer software and a data modem of at least 9,600 bits per second (bps)
using protocol V.32. At this rate the average A4 page of 500 words of text (2,500 characters =
20,000 bits) will take about 2 seconds to transmit. V.34 protocol at 28800 bps will reduce this
to less than 1 second. If the Inmarsat high speed data (HSD) service at 56 and 64 Kilobits is
used, the rate can be speeded up 6 or 7 times. This latter is particularly suitable for high speed
file transfer, store and forward video, high quality audio transmission, multiplexed voice
channels and video conferencing but may not be appropriate for the level of use envisaged for
training and assessment (Muirhead, 1995). The full cost of adding an HSD unit to Inmarsat A
terminal for example is in the region of 10-15,000 USD but if using Inmarsat B as a basic data
link tool the HSD link can transfer 3 Mb of uncompressed data at around $10 a minute
(Wilding-White, 1998c, 20). Large data users can lease their own Vsats 64 kbps HSD circuits
for around $10,000 a month. Clearly this is not an option for education and training purposes.
Riis (1998) of Nera Satcom, Norway sees future systems developing around ISDN signalling
and multiple 64kbps channels, ATM systems in the Ka band which require high tracking
accuracy, and multi-carrier services using the best system (price & availability) from GSM,
Iridium, Inmarsat and ATM satellite System for example.
However, as noted above, the growing use of e-mail and the demand for Internet access is
leading to initiatives to provide low cost links to ships via Inmarsat C by providers such as
IRTS, Station 12, IMC Mari-Comms and others. This will provide an improved avenue for
communication on board once ship operators make such services accessible to crew for
education and training use (Davies, 1997). The potential for monitoring training programs and
individual performances onboard from ashore (ship owner or institution) is considerable.
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4.3
Technology and the individual seafarer
As Davies and Parfett (1997) have shown in their report ‘The Internet-A feasibility study in
improving the welfare and education of seafarers’ that many seafarers would welcome the
opportunity to be able to access the Internet and e-mail to study privately at sea either for
formal qualifications or just to pursue particular or hobby interests. Many distance education
programs available today would need modifying for onboard use, particularly in the areas of
tutor contact, access to resource material and design of assignment and assessment material.
However, satellite technology can provide answers to many of the problems by taking a
different approach. Links can be established to institutions for access to material by the
student at sea. Supported by CD-ROM and CD-I technology, the possibilities are wide open.
Technology is at a stage where a single compact disc is capable of holding 600,000 pages or
2,000 books! The opportunities for providing resource material in CD library form onboard
for use in training or self education are boundless. Access to the World Wide Web via the
Internet provides a further large source of information and learning material. IMC offers a
daily ‘INSTANT’ newspaper in 17 different editions accessible via computer hub and satellite
communications.
4.4
Technology and the shipowner
In work package 4.3 an earlier element in the METHAR project, surveys were carried out to
determine the views of shipowners in regard to the impact of new technology on future
training needs. The most important subjects referring to new technologies were identified as
electronics, radar/arpa and communications with the operational aspects of computing having
the main impact on training needs. They draw attention to the importance of computing
facilities such as PCs, networks and the Internet being available in MET institutions for
training seafarers. As will be seen in section 6 a number of forward thinking owners are
already taking delivery of ships with a built in LAN for management of operations and
communications. This ‘office at sea’ concept will require a more extensive understanding by
officers and crew of the effective use of satellite communications and the information
highway as well as being skilled in the use of computers and specific operational software
applications. This represents a clear challenge to both the training institutions and ship
operators to see that training needs are identified and resources are provided to meet future
demands driven by new technology.
The increasing emphasis in STCW 95 on the demonstration of skill acquisition,
encouragement in the use of simulation based training and the need to monitor performance
and standards achieved on board (as well as in shore based training establishments), opens
the way for use to be made of both existing and future technology.
Despite the concerns of many officers that they are already overloaded as a result of reduced
manning and increasing technology, a major advantage of computer software training
programmes today is the ability to structure interactive operational scenarios that not only
allow for individual training, but can also offer the trainer or assessor a built-in recording and
evaluation system that can be used to help gauge the trainee’s performance. This does not
need continuous oversighting by the ship’s officer.
The full potential of world-wide satellite communications systems to undertake the
monitoring function envisaged in the revised Convention has yet to be realised. The remote
scanning of records and data on the ship from ashore using E-mail links and flash memory
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however offers the shipowner much potential to meet many of the new obligations under the
STCW Convention and the ISM Code.
4.5
Summary
Satellite technology continues to evolve with much research and development activity being
directed to producing speedier and cheaper avenues for data transmission. In addition, many
new services will provide improved global access to the Internet, e-mail and the World Wide
Web. Voice communications and video and TV transmissions will greatly improve both in
availability and in quality in coming years. Many new opportunities await the enterprising
shipowner.
It is evident from the foregoing that new technology is opening up many opportunities for
new approaches. New educational methods and technology can best be targeted towards
meeting on the one hand specific safety and environmental shortcomings identified by IMO
and industry, and on the other hand catering for a growing individual demand for educational
services at sea. As unit costs come down through market competition the technology will
provide a window of opportunity in many areas of MET training. The provision of improved
voice communications, data transfer, and video and TV services in the future extends the
potential of satellite technology and IT to influence new training approaches, shipboard
operational management practices, and on board welfare, education and leisure services for
seafarers. The following aspects are potential targets for future development and action.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Integrated ship–shore operational management
Onboard training for refreshing and updating of seafarers’ skills
New equipment: in situ development of operational skills and procedures
English and other language communication skills for crews
Use of E-mail and Internet to purchase stores and spares direct
Ship-shore video links for shore based technical advice re repairs and breakdowns
onboard
Instructional skills for onboard trainers and assessors
E-mail monitoring of onboard training programs
Providing crew access through e-mail to welfare services
Providing IT links for distance education and leisure time needs
Information resource access (newspapers, libraries etc)
Whilst costs of data transmission are quite high at present, the economies of scale resulting
from the future availablity of satellite handphones together with the use of e-mail and high
speed data transmission techniques, will be such that even an individual may be able to afford
the cost of using the medium to access distance learning courses to undertake personal studies
at sea.
The most attractive use of this technology is in upgrading and refreshing the knowledge and
skills of personnel onboard, particularly where new equipment or operational procedures have
been introduced or where knowledge of training and assessment techniques is required. This
aspect is dealt with in more detail in section 6.
With the increased emphasis on skill acquisition, satellite and computing technology is well
placed to provide an important link for on board education and training as well as
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contributing to improved standards of safety in the workplace in the face of a growing
demand for well trained crews at an affordable cost.
5
Distance education
5.1
Background to growth and development
The mariner has accepted for many years that taking up a career at sea is going to divorce
him/her from many resources that the general public take for granted ashore. Use of a local
library, enrolment in further education programs to gain higher qualifications, or the pursuit of
topics for personal interest have long been denied to most seafarers. Satellite communications,
Information Technology and Distance Education methods can and will change all that in the
future.
Before looking at the availability and use of distance education in general and for the
maritime community in particular, it is helpful to understand what is meant by the terms
‘distance education’, ‘distance learning’ or ‘open learning’. The term distance education
(learning is contiguous) was coined within the context of a continuing communications
revolution largely replacing a mixed bag of nomenclature such as correspondence course,
home study, guided study and external study. ‘Open learning’ lays the emphasis more on the
learner than on the provider. Many of the task and guided study programmes (TAGS) used on
board ships by cadets can be classed as forms of open learning. ‘Correspondence courses’,
popular forms of self study and self improvement in the pre-1970s should not be confused
with distance education programs for two reasons, one they lacked structured learning
material and secondly and most importantly means of communication were extremely limited
and slow.
The Open University (OU) in the UK pioneered open learning on a national scale in the early
1970s. Few higher education institutes had the expertise to develop and manage open and
distance learning materials. In fact as Cooper (1986) noted ‘many Universities and Colleges
produced material of such unspeakable tedium and poor quality that they proved to be a
disincentive to learn’. By the late 1980s Strathclyde, Warwick and Aston Universities and
Henley Management College in the UK had modelled themselves on the pioneering work of
the OU providing a range of courses and programs for delivery to students living outside of
their local boundaries using structured distance education methods. Distance education has
also been provided to the general public for many years by many institutions, the PBS
educational satellite network and the National Technical University (NTU) in the USA for
example; in India (since 1985 the Indira Gandhi Open University), Netherlands, Thailand,
Korea, Canada (The Commonwealth of Learning) and by a number of Australian University
distance education providers. More recently national Open Learning Centres in Singapore,
Australia and Spain have been introduced. Based on a virtual campus, the Open University of
Catalonia (OUC) has moved from a start up level of 200 students in 1995 to 4,000 today and
has exported its successful model to Peru and Argentina. Assignments are set and handed in
via e-mail. Luleå University in Sweden currently offers a number of courses to external
students through the Internet via a programme called Web Education (Telia, 1998). This will
be discussed later.
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5.2
The nature of distance education
In broad conceptual terms the nature of distance education can be described in a simple way:
teaching and learning, with few exceptions, involve two elements. The first is pre-prepared
course materials which have embedded within them the act of teaching, while the second is
non contiguous communication between teachers and students. Thus distance education
programmes consist of professionally developed and instructionally designed learning units
with built-in teaching and learning mechanisms for student interaction, feedback and
evaluation, and provision for tutor contact. A typical distance education unit will consist of a
unit guide, a study guide supplemented by a reading books. A text book, computer software,
or other media such as audio or video tapes, CD-ROM or laser discs and Internet sources may
further support it. Units may also be accompanied by related television programmes offered at
specific times through a national broadcaster (e.g. the BBC learning Zone) or through a public
broadcast network (PBS in the USA). The use of teleconferencing and video conferencing
mediums and attendance at summer schools may be a feature of the programme. E-mail links
for tutor interaction are an increasing feature of modern approaches. The unit is formally
assessed through 2 written assignments and a written examination. The units are structured so
as to provide the student with the sense of communicating and interacting with the delivering
institution and the designated tutor. Table 5.1 provides an example of the style of a typical
instructionally designed distance learning unit.
Table 5.1: An extract from Study Guide Part 2 of unit ‘Managing the Technical
Functions’*
Data Communications
In a previous unit, you were introduced to the concept of electronic data
exchange (EDI). In this section, we will look briefly at how this is done.
Turn now to the next reading, the chapter from Long.
Long, Larry, E (1983). Chapter 10 'Data Communications'. In
Management Information Systems Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice Hall pages 210-228.
In this reading, Long describes the various teleprocessing applications such
as electronic mail (E-mail). e-mail is becoming increasingly important in
our communications systems; rapid transfers of data and the ability to
respond very quickly to a message are features of this system. There is
even a facility to inform the sender that the message has been received, at
last putting paid to the old ' it's lost in the mail' excuse!
Long also describes different computer networking configurations and the
hardware required to make such systems work. There are problems
however with this form of communication if the data being transmitted are
sensitive in a business sense and they are being sent down a phone line and
a modem. Is it necessary to have a secure system?
Consider how you could protect the data in your computer system from
unauthorised access by 'hackers' using a phone line and a modem. Is it
necessary to have a secure system?
Reading 3.5
Study Guide
Activity
*Source : Australian Maritime College, Graduate Diploma Scheme (1993)
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The convergence of increased demand for access to educational facilities and innovative
communications technology is increasingly being exploited, despite criticism that it is an
inadequate medium for learning alongside others in an institution. The advantages of studying
at home and the cost savings to both student and institution have also been powerful catalysts.
However distance learning programs must be planned carefully and be instructionally
designed and edited by professionals so that they are suitable for the market. This means
producing relevant and qualitative units with effective and speedy feedback mechanisms.
Computer aided learning and computer based resources can provide interactive support to the
learning process. However it should not be thought that technology can totally replace the
teacher. As Dr Andy Grove, chief executive of Intel stated recently ‘IT cannot replace
completely the tactile language of human contact’.
Drawing on 12 years’ experience at the AMC, Lewarn (1998) noted that a number of critical
issues stand out in developing and delivering distance education courses.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Material must be of good quality and easily updated
Good communications with students are essential
Responses to inquiries and requests for help must be speedy
Turn around time for assignments/exams must be rapid (for example the AMC works on a
2 week limit)
Administration must be effective (tracking material, exams etc)
Use technology to improve delivery and interaction, not because it is trendy
Despite the disadvantages arising from the 'tyranny of distance' and lack of direct supervision,
distance learning when used in conjunction with communications technology for personal
education purposes or for onboard training, has the potential to open up new avenues of
knowledge and skill relevant to changing workplace needs.
However MET institutions have generally been extremely reticent at embracing this very
flexible form of education and training delivery. The need for closer links with the shipping
industry in regard to on board training required by STCW 95 emphasises the important role
distance education methods and technology can offer in the next century.
5.3
Maritime distance learning
For many years a number of shipping companies provided their deck and engineer
watchkeeper trainees with a form of self study or correspondence based training program
whilst on board ship. This was later supplemented by various forms of Task And Guided
Study (TAGS) programmes which the ship’s officers supervised and commented upon.
Unfortunately the practice was not uniform across the globe and poor standards of
supervision, lack of motivation by individuals and lack of opportunity often hampered the
effective completion of the range of practical tasks and projects. As mentioned above, STCW
95 now requires a Training Record Book to be kept by all prospective watchkeepers during
their on board training periods. This form of distance study is now being developed in a more
structured way through the development of standard programmes such as the ISF booklets,
The IMO model Training Record Books. Some countries such as Australia (NMTIC) and the
UK (MNTB) have had a standard TRB in use for many years. For others, new models need to
be developed unless the IMO or ISF models are used. The aforementioned problems still
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remain, but there is scope for new technology to assist with this very important element of
practical experience undertaken in the workplace.
In the broader maritime training area the Centre for Advanced Maritime Studies in Edinburgh
in association with Strathclyde University offers programmes by distance learning in the
management of ship operations and the transportation of dangerous goods by sea.
The Institute of Chartered Shipbrokers in London had been teaching by correspondence for
many years, but realised that a more sophisticated approach was needed. In 1983 it set up
TutorShip with courses written by specialists and structured so as to allow the student to start
the course at any time and study at his or her own pace.
Since 1986, the Australian Maritime College has, in association with the University of South
Australia distance education centre (DEC), pioneered the development of postgraduate
courses covering port, terminal and shipping management, maritime business, pilotage,
stevedoring management, career upgrade modules for ratings and marine surveyors. New
areas under development include certificate of competency courses for deck watchkeeper and
shipmaster. Other programs can be developed and be instructionally designed for shipboard
use using a range of instructional media tools. Development costs can be recovered through
charges on the ship manager in the case of training programs, or by a fee charged to the
individual seafarer in the case of private studies.
Ashore, access to a tutor is normally provided by fax, telephone, tele-conferencing and
attendance at summer schools. At sea, access to a tutor can be difficult. Feedback to the
student can be haphazard and take months. Satellite communications provide a unique link
between the trainee or student at sea and the training officer or tutor ashore. The outcome of
onboard training or assignments can be transmitted, assessed, recorded and returned within a
very short period of time. Queries can be responded to in a matter of hours by either fax, telex
or telephone. The trainee or student benefits from the early response and feedback and the
links developed with the training officer or tutor as the case may be. Support by CD-ROM
and CD-I systems ensures that library information and other data bases are readily available.
If necessary examinations can be taken on board and scripts returned via satellite. Since 1996,
the AMC has provided e-mail, satphone and mobile phone links for teleconferencing with
students. Access to Internet is further extending the range of possibilities.
5.4
Satellite, IT and multimedia links for D.E. delivery
The advent of on board computers for operational needs opens new avenues for learning and
skill acquisition. The ability to handle practical tasks and problems can be demonstrated on
board. Many practical training programmes previously carried out ashore can be transferred to
the workplace. Companies and operators can assure themselves that their crews are receiving
training with equipment, facilities and procedures on the ship through the introduction of
interactive processes for monitoring safety standards via satellite. An example is the on board
computer based Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) interactive training program jointly developed
by the ship operator and the teaching institution for the crews of LNG ships operating from
the North West Gas Shelf in Australia. Levels of knowledge and understanding of operational
procedures can be recorded. It is but a short step away to monitor skill levels. Programs
dealing with operational practices can be downloaded to the ship via satellite to allow for
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changes in technology and procedures. Trained instructors on board can be kept up to date
with the latest techniques for passing onto others.
The availability of the Inmarsat A and B duplex high speed data (HSD) service allows for
multimedia transmissions (video, voice, data) to be used where the terminals at LES and SES
have been upgraded. The potential for using video technology in delivering training programs
onboard from ashore is considerable as current EU research shows (Wärsilä, 1993). The
National Technical University (NTU) in the USA for example transmits advanced technical
and managerial telecourses via satellite to participating companies and their staff, supported
by phone, fax and e-mail links to the instructors. In the past decade the number of downlink
sites has grown from 16 to in excess of 1000, such spectacular growth being achieved in a
cost effective way by digitally compressing its signals at ratios of as high as 12:1 using the
Telstar 401 satellite to deliver across the USA.
A pilot program to monitor onboard deck cadet training programs on selected Australian
owned ships commenced late in 1992 with financial support of both Inmarsat and Telstra
Australia. Inmarsat/Telstra links and the Enhanced Group Calling (EGC) Fleetnet system
were used to monitor the progress of trainees in their onboard task and guided study programs
forming part of the watchkeeping officer training through direct links to the Australian
Maritime College communications centre. The use of Inmarsat-C SES systems on the
Australian ships (Inmarsat-A is generally not fitted) meant that messages had to be
transmitted either by telex or by data compression techniques. This was quite expensive. In
addition there was resistance of senior officers on the ships to cadets using the Inmarsat
system to transmit compressed ASCII files back to the college for marking. However it did
provide speedy feedback to cadets on their assignments and projects in their guided study
programme. The trials showed that with the greater flexibility of e-mail and the Internet, such
techniques have the potential to be used successfully. A problem is lack of access to this
technology on board ships other than the Master (and perhaps senior officers). There is a large
market for on board training to be tapped using such approaches if ship owners and others
invest in the technology.
Mention was made earlier of ‘Web education’. This Windows based programme was designed
specially for distance teaching over the Internet, providing universities, training institutions,
companies and other organisations with all the resources needed for distance teaching (or
education). The system can be used on all computers connected to the Internet by a modem or
a LAN. Using a foundation of Microsoft Access database and NetMeeting, the system allows
communication with audiovisual with a number of file sharing users. It supports interactive
course materials which can be accessed by the student and allows students to submit work,
communicate with teachers via email, notice boards, chatting and desktop conferences.
Supervisors can follow student progress and adapt teaching materials to current needs and
status. A password system gives access to relevant levels (see reference 2)
Current developments in the PC based simulation field have clearly shown that effective
training and assessment of mariners is not confined to just the ‘big brother’ simulators
ashore. Computer technology is capable of high levels of fidelity and effectiveness at the PC
simulation level. Programmes such as 'Officer of the Watch' (PC Maritime) and ‘Navitrainer’
(Transas) for example provide a highly effective means for individuals to gain knowledge
and operational skill at watchkeeper level, the integrated objective evaluation programmes
allowing the instructor to assess student progress. These can be used at sea quite effectively.
The potential of other PC based simulators such as 'Portsim'(SSPA) and ‘Desksim’ (DMI) to
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develop an understanding of fundamental shiphandling knowledge and skills is very high and
would complement real world manoeuvres by others onboard. Many PC based cargo and
damage stability programs for ship specific operations are now available and examples such
as 'Mariner' (Baron & Dunworth) and Loadmaster (Kockumation) are easy to use, fast,
colourful, and drive home the lessons to be learned in a way not possible previously in the
classroom or on board ship. This is dealt with in more detail in section 6.
Holder (1995) has described the important role video and computers, as produced by
Videotel, can play in contributing to on board training. This extended training material, while
specifically directed at providing solutions to industries’ main problems of meeting safety
and familiarisation training needs, can also serve as valuable supportive instructional material
for many aspects of guided study at sea. In particular they can play a strong role in bridging
the gap between theory and practice.
The interactive compact disc (CD-I) allows the development of training packages that
combine a high degree of reality of the mariner’s operational world with a hands-on
interactive involvement by the user. It lends itself to use for skill acquisition in many ways
particularly in relation to emergency response training.
5.5
Summary
Overall there is no reason why many aspects of training on a ship cannot be carried out
through the supportive medium of distance education. With clearly structured self-study
guides supported by a range of multimedia instructional materials the only real constraints are
developmental costs, access to computing and communications technology, availability of
time and self motivation. Although the argument of communication costs will invariably
raise its head, the signs are that economies of scale resulting from the introduction of new
communications and information technology will soon negate such arguments. The need by
ship owners to meet new training requirements in the ISM Code and STCW 95 needs
innovative thinking. The immediate benefit to the maritime community of using technology is
the greatly reduced cost of such programs and training, and the ability to transfer many
training aspects back to the shipboard environment. The motivational aspect of persuading
crew members to use CBT methods to enhance their knowledge and skills in off watch time
needs careful attention however. How individuals can be monitored for competency
standards presents a further problem, but distance education methods combined with IT
resources have the potential to extend the regime of learning and training to the shipboard
environment and help raise safety standards as well as crew morale.
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6
Onboard training, CBT and new technology
6.1
The impact of STCW 95 and ISM Code on onboard training
The revised STCW 1978 Convention (STCW95) introduced several new requirements that are
having or will have an impact upon training requirements for personnel at sea. In particular,
the new regulation I/14 requires companies to ensure that seafarers, on being assigned to any
of their ships, are familiarised with their specific duties and with all ship arrangements,
installations, equipment, procedures and ship characteristics that are relevant to their routine
and emergency duties. The requirement that the ship’s complement can co-ordinate their
activities effectively to deal with emergency situations brings with it a need to ensure that
crew can communicate with each other in a shared language. Sections A-II/1 and A-III/1 of
the STCW Code also require deck and engineer watchkeeping trainees, whose sea service
forms part of an approved training programme, to have the on board training recorded and
documented in an approved training record book. Such on board training must be supervised
and monitored by qualified officers. Chapter V has also introduced mandatory training for
certain personnel on RoRo and non-RoRo passenger vessels covering crowd management
control, special familiarisation, additional safety and hull integrity, crisis management and
human behaviour training. Refresher training will also be required at set intervals. The
familiarisation training requirements of Chapter VI is elementary but ship specific and whilst
preparatory work can be carried out ashore, final training must be carried out on the ship. The
impact of the ISM Code has also placed a responsibility upon companies to ensure that ships’
staff understand their responsibilities under the ISM code and the procedures to be followed
in meeting any requirements of international Port/State control activities.
The need for much of the foregoing training to be conducted in the workplace, whilst ideal,
places great stress on the resources and time of ships’ personnel as well as having the
potential to seriously disrupt commercial efficiency. New approaches to training need to be
considered by the ship owner.
Telle (1996), in looking at the future challenges for the owners regarding recruitment and
training of officers, noted that for a country like Norway the change in the manning profile of
its fleet from all Norwegian (post second world war) to around 25% today had implications in
maintaining the traditional high standards of competence of its officers and ratings. The
challenge facing them and many other European operators is how to maintain such reputations
with officers that will be available on the market in the coming decade. The BIMCO (1995)
study into the worldwide demand for the supply of seafarers predicted a shortage of officers
of around 4% of demand (approximately 18,000 officers) in the future. The impact of the ISM
Code and STCW 95, particularly the requirement for onboard training, is seen as a positive
step forward in moving from a ‘compliant culture’ to a ‘safety culture’. The Norwegian
shipping industry has taken positive steps through a number of research projects (see section
6.5) to find an optimum combination of know how and skills between all parties (equipment
manufacturers, R & D institutes and shipowners) of how to exploit new technology in ship
operation in order to obtain maximum benefits.
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6.2
Ship operations and new technology
The impetus to reduce manning levels in ships in the past decade has been stimulated by
developments in new technology and through increased economic competition from new
players breaking into traditional trade routes. The multi-skilling of the traditionally trained
deck watchkeeper by means of a dual-trained (Deck/Engineer) programme in some countries
(e.g. Japan, Netherlands, Germany, France) and the development of the cockpit type bridge to
suit for one-man bridge control as a result of increased technology (e.g. GMDSS
communications, the integration of navigation systems such as GPS, Doppler log, gyro,
adaptive autopilot, track control computer, Radar, ARPA and ECDIS, monitoring and alarm
systems) has influenced new training needs. Condition monitoring of other operational
activities (e.g. fire detection systems, machinery space operations, cargo and ballast
operations etc) has further extended the demands upon ship personnel to be fully familiar with
equipment, much of it now computer based. Much of this training has to be done in situ.
As Dickens & Dove (1995) pointed out in their research into multimedia on the ship’s bridge,
the mariner today is very much in the man-machine loop and must not be considered in
isolation, but thought of as a part of the ship’s bridge system incorporating as it does the
bridge equipment and procedures and the working environment. Their research disclosed that
over 70% of the officers in the survey sample had used a computer on board ship. When
considering the impact of technology of modern bridge equipment on the mariner the results
varied. Thus for example 59% of mariners agreed that the introduction of GMDSS had
increased their workload, and while only 11% of the sample had experienced the use of
ECDIS on the ship, the overall response saw the technology as having the potential to reduce
the workload. In learning how to use new technology that had not been seen before on a
bridge, mariners indicated that the three main methods employed (whether via software, video
or leaflets) were through use of a manual, help of colleagues and trial and error.
The project found that different people learn to use new equipment in different ways and that
they differ in the amount that they wish to know about each piece of equipment. It noted
however that there was a correlation between people who had used computer based tutorials
and those who thought they were of use. An important outcome was the need to improve
equipment training aids. Consistent comment centred around the lack of relevant training and
of suitable bridge equipment learning and reference material. The conclusion was that there is
much scope for greater use of multimedia techniques.
Telle (1995) noted that onboard training will be a key area. He supports the view that
equipment handbooks and manuals should be supplied in electronic form so that their use can
be extended for training purposes. Further, any integrated ship control system (ISCS) should
have a ‘simulation mode’ for training both for normal ship operations and in dealing with
emergency situations.
Today communications and computer technology are affecting and altering traditional
shipping operations. The use of maritime communications, computers and the information
highway provides the potential to conduct the business of effective management of ships in an
entirely different way. Many companies today are increasingly using e-mail and Internet
resources for fleet management, crew management, maintenance and purchasing. The
implementation of the ISM Code, STCW 95 and safety reporting requirements of SOLAS are
being enhanced through increased use of Inmarsat and other satellite provider services. Ship
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designers today must consider these aspects when developing onboard communications and
computing services.
What are the objectives for such technology? On the one hand improved profitability,
efficiency and productivity together with enhanced safety and operating standards are major
goals. On the other hand will the shipowner allow utilisation of such services for improved
social services and self education for the crew members? As mentioned earlier many
companies are currently opposed to the use of Internet and e-mail by seafarers, mostly for
claimed reasons of security and costs (Davies & Parfett,1997). The new LEO hand held
satphone systems being introduced over the next 2 years, mentioned in section 4, which have
the potential to have a major impact on life on board ship as we know it, may provide crew
members with direct global links once the cost is at an acceptable level.
6.3
The office at sea concept
First let us examine a number of aspects. If the Master, officers and crew are expected to
increasingly use information technology (IT) in the daily management and operation of the
ship then it is necessary to know the extent to which communication and computing facilities
and services will be employed in such functions. Cost considerations may colour a company’s
planned use of the medium. Will satellite services be used for maintenance purposes? Are
high speed data and video links to be used, and if so for what purpose? What range of
software will the company employ to conduct business between ship and shore? What is the
relationship between the master and company managers now that the ship is ‘on call’ 24 hours
a day? Is this two-way flow of communication reflected in company training policy? Consider
what is happening in shipping.
The Internet today has become the significant harbinger of the information society, using a
common language for seamless communication across networks. For ships, access is made
easy via PC and modem. As a multi-functioning tool it allows access to company databases,
the transfer of data and pictures, video conferencing and Internet voice communication.
Access to email services means the ship never disappears over the horizon out of touch with
the office. Crews can maintain contact with families. Tele-medicine services mean greater
peace of mind aboard in the case of accidents. The opportunities for the company in the
provision of onboard interactive multi-media training programs are limitless. The main
constraints with the latter are crew motivation and availability of training time. Section 3.2
has clearly highlighted the tremendous growth taking place globally of Internet and e-mail
users. Will this translate into reality also on board ship?
As Adamson (1998, 24) has stated ‘Now things are different. Computerised ship
management has a firm hold, data communication is commonplace and ship operators have
become sophisticated customers…’. In considering IT strategies in shipping, Kristiansen
(1998) notes however that secure messaging and transactions is a key issue for further
development of Internet for business communication purposes, although the Internet
architecture and services are fine for shipping as a community. On board education and
training are little affected by security considerations, mostly by perceived cost constraints.
The influence of IT on communications for example is well illustrated by the experience of
Fearnleys (Kristiansen, 1998) where the ratio of telex to e-mail messaging has changed from
78/22 % (1996) to 34/66%(1997). At the same time average messaging costs per month of
using fax, telex and e-mail have decreased from around 70,000 USD (1995-no email) to
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around 33,000 USD (1997-email included). Clearly there are large savings to be made in
some operations.
Communications software companies such as GN Comtext, IMC, Marinet, Rydex, Stratos and
Sait provide ready made systems to handle the ship and shore connections. Other embryonic
services such as 3D video, voice, HSD and hub networks are developing quickly. For ship
operations and fleet management the revolution has only just begun! Can the shipowner
afford not to provide and use these links onboard and ashore? Favre (1996b, 17) puts it more
bluntly by remarking that ‘ocean going and coastal vessels as fully featured floating offices,
equipped with integrated onboard computer and communications networks, inter-connected
into corporate, regulatory and associated land based office systems are not and option, they
are destined to become a necessary fact of shipping life’. Favre believes the concept of the
office at sea will stand or fall on the quality of the ship/shore communications infrastructure.
There is a need for the shipowner to develop a clear IT policy, particularly in relation to links
between ship and shore and the type of management functionality to be employed. The danger
of a proliferation in the use of different equipment and applications must not be overlooked
where they are dealing with data collection, systems administration and communications.
Marine Management Systems of the USA is one company giving the development of such
standards some attention by creating an Integrated Shipboard Information Technology (ISIT)
platform.
Consider recent developments. Bergesen has fitted each of its 44 ships with a Novell Local
Area Network (LAN) and Stolt Tankers are installing fibre-optic LANs throughout its new
ships. Wallem Ship Management has set up its own Hub to optimise flexibility for owners of
its managed ships. British Telecom (BT) has launched Webtrack which will allow an office
ashore to communicate with and track its fleet of ships. Ships can use their existing GMDSS
terminals. The extent to which an owner can go in using computers on board is illustrated by
Wilding-White (1997a, 27) who quotes Robert Fraser of Glasgow based Northern Marine
Management as saying “ the only paper left on the ships is that required by law. Everything
else-inventory and stock control systems, planned ship maintenance, vessel performance
records and a host of company forms are all on the PC network”. The ISM, STCW and Port
State Control aspects will strongly influence the trend towards the installation of networked
systems on board ship. What will be the impact of this on training needs?
The key functionality of a ship/shore communications infrastructure is therefore of important
strategic consideration if optimal use is to be made of the system for cost effective ship
operational management, onboard training needs and other support services. Three areas have
been identified by Favre (1996b) namely:
•
•
•
Optimisation of the Communications Facilities
Inter-connectivity with Corporate Networks
Management of the Ship/Shore communications
The message is a Managed Ship/Shore Communications Infrastructure (MSSCI) is not only
an essential enabling technology for the ship today, but it has the means of addressing the
issue of compliance with the many new standards falling upon the shipowner and master as
evidenced by ISM Code and STCW 95 obligations.
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6.4
IT software for operational needs
The initial approach to ship-shore data transfer was to simply connect the onboard PC to the
Inmarsat terminal and thence via modem through telephone line to the shore based PC. The
distance education trials conducted by the Australian Maritime College in 1992-1993
described in section 5.4 utilised such links. Data compression techniques achieved certain cost
savings although the main advantage was in response time. Today the use of a public access
‘hub’ to store and distribute messages and data to subscribing addressees has led to the
development of a number of communication packages to handle the customer’s needs
(Adamson, 1998). Typical operators include Rydex (RMS), IMC (Super-hub), Marinet
(GMS-12), GN Comtext, C&W Bimcom, Station 12 and Sait (Hublink). For example, Station
12 in the Netherlands offers through its DataConnect an end-to-end electronic message
handling service for Inmarsat A, B, C, M and Altus. Further details can be found in reference
3.
An examination of the features of eight main suppliers of communications software
(Compuship, March 1998, 25) reveals costs lying in the range of 10-50,000 USD for 10 ships
and one office installation. From an education and training point of view all operate under
Windows environment and use Inmarsat A & B, or in some cases other satellites as well.
They all offer gateways to telex, fax and Internet, with some also offering ISDN links. All
provide automatic data compression. Many systems offer detailed billing analysis to track
costs of calls both for the ship, crew private business and the shore office. Reference 3
provides fuller details.
The most important growth area in the use of IT on board ship has been in integrated vessel
management software (see reference 3). Computer application packages are increasingly
being placed on ships as an integral part of the company’s overall management system. Ship
management packages from MMS (Fleetworks), GN (Context), Marinor and Spectec (AmosD) are some examples of recent installations. These applications deal with a variety of
operational aspects including crew management, finance and budgets, inventories, planned
maintenance and documentation control, the latter increasingly important in the light of the
shipowners’ responsibilities under the requirements of the ISM Code and STCW 95
Convention. The key factor here is ease of use.
In relation to more general areas of ship operations, the range of software is growing apace.
The 1998 issue of Fairplay Marine Computing Guide lists over 1000 software programmes
from some 300 companies. Not all are suitable for onboard use, but the potential for use in
onboard training is considerable. The advent of the ISM Code has led to the development of a
number of packages from suppliers to assist in onboard compliance including Amos for
Windows (Spectec), Navecs (Avecs Gmbh), Lloyds Register, and ICS/Intertanko. Through
reference 4 is possible to find a list of some software suppliers and programs suitable for
training purposes as well as having potential to be used as support material for distance
education programmes at sea.
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6.5
Applied operational research for on board CBT
A number of research and development initiatives have been undertaken over the past 5 years
within the European sphere to examine both the potential use of new technology and learning
methodologies to enhance maritime education and training standards, and also to study how
shipowners can optimise their investment in modern IT and communications technology. The
ultimate aim as Telle (1996) puts it is ‘efficient, safe and environmentally friendly ship
operations’. The European Commission through its waterborne transport research programme
has funded a number of projects, some of which are still in progress. The Norwegian
Shipowners Association is also a leading proponent of research in this field, with much of its
initiatives and other related research activity co-ordinated by The Norwegian Maritime
Technology Research Institute (Marintek). This Work Package has drawn on relevant data
where available, but projects such as Safety-Net, Masster and Epscot are still on-going. This
section will therefore highlight developments completed or in a well advanced state of
development.
Information Technology in Ship Operation (ITSOP)
This major project, conducted over the period 1994-1997 under the co-ordination of Marintek
and The Research Council of Norway, has focused on the challenge of harnessing changes in
communications and computer technology. The primary objective is to improve
competitiveness through the development of new operating concepts and information systems
in shipping companies in close co-operation with equipment suppliers, classification societies
and authorities (Rensvik, 1996). This is summarised as:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Information exchange and decision support
Qualification and training
New and flexible organisational structures
Extended suppliers services and support
Strengthening of flag state regime
Extended classification services
Of particular interest to this work package is the research aspect dealing with Organisation,
Recruitment and Training (ITSOP CD-ROM refers). The purpose was to develop tools for
competence assessment and implement an improved training system based on the results of
individual competence assessments. Based on a functional approach, it utilises CBT to enable
employees to comply with general and specific competence requirements. A number of
operational programs have been developed including for example safety familiarisation and
diesel engine operations. The programme provides both a performance profile and an ability
profile of the user. The intention is to focus on practical solutions and a number of
demonstrator projects have been developed on board ship and ashore for testing and
evaluation. For example selected suppliers have delivered CBT training systems for
equipment delivered to the vessels.
The major ITSOP activity now is the pilot project which commenced in 1997 with a floating
test bed programme onboard two new Hoegh vessels, one of which, the time chartered vessel
‘Saga Challenger’ is now in commercial operation (Compuship, December 1997). The aim is
to test out results from different projects in the ITSOP programme for several systems
onboard. The PC based administrative network and ship control systems are linked by a
Norcontrol ‘gateway’ to transfer data from the ship control system to the network
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(classification rules do not allow the two systems to be directly connected). Lying across the
gateway is an interactive documentation and training system from Seagull, which is described
later. The main benefit to be derived from the tests will be the establishment of uniform
standards for exchange, storage and presentation of information in different departments,
perhaps forming a model for international maritime standards. The Sage Challenger networks
are linked to a server in Hoegh’s head office. The challenge facing the operator is how such
links can be used for optimum benefit.
Berg (1996) has described further research work on the human factor implications in the
project ‘Training, recruitment and selection’ the prime objective of which was to develop and
implement better ship specific training systems and tools for competence assessment. It
focused on three work packages namely training system improvements, vessel specific
training systems, and assessment tools. The work has been a collaborative effort with several
Norwegian Shipowners. Key elements of the new system are CBT modules placed onboard
and in the shore office, crewing agencies and supporting training centres. The initial system,
on CD-ROM with six CBT programmes covering OPA 90, tanker operations, cooling water
system, fuel oil system, flu gas plant and inert gas generation, was placed aboard two tankers
in late 1994 operated by Red Band of Norway. The main lessons learnt from the 12 month
trials aboard were that success depends upon the enthusiasm and interest of senior officers.
The type of voyage also influences the time available for use of CBT programmes,
particularly during short sea voyages. CBT in this case is best done ashore prior to
embarkation. On-going development centred around the creation of a company specific
training system covering STCW 95 functions, cyclic retraining, onboard use of CBT modules
and onshore seminars for senior officers on the introduction of CBT based programs to
enhance on-the-job-training.
Today that group of Norwegian shipowners, known as CETS (Bergesen, Klaveness, L.Hoegh,
Barber, Bona and Red Band), use these objective assessment programmes (CES2000) to
screen the knowledge levels of seafarers from different cultural backgrounds and work
experiences before being hired by the company. The system uses a large database of over
2500 questions to generate an objective knowledge test based on rank, type of vessel and
subject areas. It can also be used to verify abilities of existing crew (see reference 5). The
CBT programmes (CBT2000) produced by Seagull AS are also being used by crews onboard
in off-watch time.
Seagull: multimedia interactive CBT
One of the more recent developments in CBT is the production by Seagull (in association
with Marintek, DnV, MMD and CETS) of a suite of CD-ROM based interactive training
programmes, the main thrust of which is to cover the functional areas of the SCTW 95 Code.
They are linked to the above projects and through the ‘Onboard Library’ concept the
collection will ultimately provide more than 80 programmes when completed in 2000. Other
supportive titles will also be available in reference 6. Each training module will provide a
report documenting the outcomes of each training session. Placed onboard by subscription,
more than 170 vessels are currently contracted for the service.
Lloyds List (16 June 1998) reported that Seagull plans to establish a chain of training centres
around the world through franchising using its comprehensive package of training course
frameworks and instructor manuals, training for the centre’s instructors, supported by quality
assurance procedures. The concept includes the use of simulators to achieve training
118
objectives. The first franchise has been established with Transmarine Carriers Training Centre
in the Philippines which has acquired cargo handling, propulsion plant and shiphandling
simulators. The CBT modules will no doubt be of great interest to other training institutions.
Videotel seafarers’ evaluation and training system (SETS)
Complementing the Norwegian developments, Videotel (UK) has developed the SETS
application to meet the growing demand by shipowners for programmes that will test and
evaluate the basic knowledge of seafarers as part of recruitment, promotion and continuing
proficiency assessment procedures. It is a CD-ROM based tool structured in 3 modes namely
test, tutorial and administrative modes. Questions can be drawn from the database either by
random or graded by rank, ship type or subject. The computer skills needed are minimal.
Attachment 7 provides further details. Videotel also offers a rental based ‘Safety Library’
scheme, giving access to over 300 safety and technical training videos for onboard use, which
is currently accessed by over 400 companies. Such material lends itself to supporting
structured distance learning programmes onboard. Videotel is currently developing a
‘Training for Assessors’ multimedia package for use onboard ships.
Stena Line and Strathclyde University
Interactive multimedia materials are under development in a joint research project into the
application of the ‘safety case’ concept by teams based at Stena Line and Strathclyde
University The purpose of the programmes is to identify potential hazards onboard ship,
critical factors affecting safety and ways of reducing risk levels. The CBT based scheme is
designed to be used by individual crew members on the company’s fleet of passenger vessels
and high speed craft to familiarise themselves with roles and duties onboard. This is
particularly important where many personnel are seasonally employed. However the success
of the packages has shown the potential of the approach to be extended to refresher and
revalidation training. (Telegraph, 1998, 14).
6.6
Summary
There is considerable developmental activity taking place in a selected part of the shipping
industry to look at ways in which CBT methods, supported by interactive multimedia
technology and satellite communications, can assist the shipowner to operate in a more cost
effective manner, and meet safety and environmental protection requirements imposed by the
increasing encroachment of international legislation upon the ship regime. Whilst representing
only a small sample of the world fleet, such research efforts are leading the way as to how
technology can be used on board ships in the future. The involvement of all participants in the
operational environment of the ship is an important and long overdue development. It is
particularly relevant for equipment and software suppliers who increasingly are being asked
to provide CBT based material to assist in the training and familiarisation of seafarers with
their products. This is becoming more critical as manning levels decrease and ship turn round
times speed up.
The concept of the ‘office at sea’ with direct links to, the shore office is rapidly becoming a
fact of life at sea. The availability of a messaging medium for the business of the ship will
surely expand into a broader messaging and communication medium for all on the ship with
implications for other informational services and personal education and leisure activities.
The provision of multimedia CBT libraries on board covering areas such as ISM Code and
119
STCW 95 certification has the potential to increase the motivation of seafarers regarding
personal knowledge and understanding of many technical aspects. In addition, the well
publicised problem of attracting young people to take up a career at sea in many Western
countries is going to be made even more difficult if access to services taken for granted ashore
are not made available.
7
Summary conclusion
The research has highlighted a number of key developments taking place in the march by the
shipping industry towards making increasing use of computers, satellite communications,
information technology, computer based training (CBT) methods, and distance learning
techniques. In addition, several problems are noted that have the potential to hinder the
successful use of this new technology in the maritime environment. All these are summarised
below.
7.1
Key developments
Increased provision of computers onboard ship as everyday operational tools
Installation of local area networks (LAN) in new tonnage
Linkage of ship networks to owner networks ashore through a Managed Ship/Shore
Communications Infrastructure (MSSCI)
Provision of software applications for ship management and operations
Replacement of Telex and Fax services by E-mail
Contracted E-mail messaging systems through ‘public address hubs’
Use of CBT programmes for recruitment, refresher and upgrading training
Provision of CD-ROM based training programmes via onboard libraries
Use of the Internet and World Wide Web for access to informational sources
Transfer of data by High Speed Data (HSD) links using data compression techniques
Increasing use of video services including video conferencing as bandwidth increases and
transmission costs come down
Monitoring of seafarer standards through onboard CBT and Internet and E-mail links
Provision of CBT based training modules by equipment and software suppliers
Growth in hand held satellite telephones
Distance learning programmes are becoming more accessible
Closer co-operation between shipowners, training institutions, equipment and software
suppliers, administrations and classification societies is becoming more important.
7.2
Potential problems
A lack of modern equipment and qualified instructors in some institutions
Changing training programmes to meet new technology training demands
Maintaining networks at sea
Selection of software appropriate to the training /operational objectives
Crew motivation
Training time v operational demands on individuals at sea
Opening up E-mail and Internet links for seafarers
Distance learning: unless material is of good quality and easily updated, and is supported by
good communications and effective management, it will be a failure
120
The potential of new technology to improve standards of training on board and enable the ship
owner to meet new international legislation is clear. It will need a co-operative and concerted
effort by all to ensure its success.
8
Research sources and references
8.1
Related research and development programs
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EC Waterborne Transport 4th Framework Program 6.4.3 Task 43: Harmonisation of European
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EC DGVII Research Project : Study on the Maritime Education and Training Systems of
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EC DGVII Waterborne Transport Research project 6.3.4/44, Assessment of the impact of’
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Marintek (1997), Information technology in Ship Operation, 1994-1997, on CD-ROM, The
Research Council of Norway & Marintek Sintef Group, Trondheim. Norway.
Videotel Productions (1998), Training for Seafarers-Training Video & Print package for
Assessors project. London:Videotel
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Edmund K, (1995), ‘Computers in shipping-sailing in cyberspace’, Fairplay 24 August 1995.
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122
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IMO, (1995), Final Act of the Conference of Parties to the International Convention on
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123
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126
Report
METHAR
Project
Coordinator:
Partners:
Work package 5:
Recommendations for improving present European MET and preparing it for
meeting future training needs in the context of MET harmonization for increased safety
and environment-friendliness as well as improved efficiency of European shipping
Date: May 1999
PROGRAMME
METHAR, WP 5
METHAR
Recommendations for improving present European MET and preparing it for
meeting future training needs in the context of MET harmonization for increased safety
and environment-friendliness as well as improved efficiency of European shipping
5.1 Recommendations for meeting the requirements of the European maritime industry
and
5.2 Recommendations for the enrichment of MET with a view on career perspectives
and mobility in the European maritime industry
REPORT
Hochschule Bremen, Fachbereich Nautik (HSHB-N), Bremen, Germany
(Prepared by Hermann Kaps)
May 1999
1
Work Package 5.1 and 5.2
Recommendations for meeting the requirements of the European maritime industry
and
Recommendations for the enrichment of MET with a view on career perspectives and
mobility in the European maritime industry
Table of contents
Page
1
1.1
1.2
Introduction and methodology
Objectives
Definitions
3
3
3
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Sources in previous work packages
Work package 1.7
Work package 2
Work package 3
Work package 4.1
Work package 4.2/3
Work package 4.4
4
4
5
5
7
8
9
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
General requirements of the maritime industry
Demand for qualified seafarers
Request for advanced MET
Appreciation of "sea time experience"
Need of a common working language
Demand for enrichment of MET
10
10
10
10
11
11
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
Recommendations
Number of MET graduates
Guidelines on a harmonized European MET
Classification of "sea time experience"
European maritime language
Enrichment of MET
11
11
11
14
14
15
Graph - Proposed MET in Europe
16
2
1
1.1
Objectives
The objectives of the METHAR project include, among others, the identification of needs for
the adaptation of MET programmes to the requirements of the maritime industry. The
maritime industry however, in particular in Europe, is not only suffering from inefficient and
ineffective use of human and financial resources in MET, due to the present variety of
objectives, systems, schemes and curricula, but also from a declining interest of young people
in a seafaring career. This will seriously hamper the future development and prosperity of
European shipping and the surrounding maritime industry.
Therefore the outcome of METHAR should contain as a core section a set of
recommendations, the scope of which has been drafted as term of reference for work
package 5:
Recommendations for improving present European MET and preparing it for meeting future
training needs in the context of MET harmonization for increased safety and environmentfriendliness as well as improved efficiency of European shipping.
The analysis of the aims of work package 5.1 (Recommendations for meeting the
requirements of the European maritime industry) and work package 5.2 (Recommendations
for the enrichment of MET with a view on career perspectives and mobility in the European
maritime industry) has revealed that WP 5.2 is an integral part of WP 5.1. Both work
packages are therefore considered together. The report however will address the enrichment
aspects independently. The advantage of this combined approach is the common
consideration and evaluation of enrichment aspects of MET in the sense of WP 5.2 and
possible extensions of MET beyond STCW minimum requirements which may fall under the
scope of WP 5.1.
The methodology employed for this work package consisted of a thorough study of the
reports on previous work packages, in particular WP 1.7, WP 2, WP 3, WP 4.1, WP 4.2/3 and
WP 4.4. The identifiable conclusions and recommendations drawn from these work packages
have been classified and re-arranged and complemented by conclusions found elsewhere in
METHAR documents. This material was used to compile a draft report which was presented
to CAMET 8 in Brussels, 17 December 1998, with the request for comments and proposals.
This procedure was repeated when the almost final report was presented at CAMET 9 in
Rotterdam on 29 March 1999.
For supporting a clear mutual understanding a number of definitions is proposed:
1.2
Definitions
• Maritime industry in the context of this project means any private company or
administrative body or institution which employs - among others - seafarers, in particular
master mariners and/or marine engineers. It is assumed in this context that the employment
of those ex-seafarers is generally considered as advantageous and profitable by the
utilization of the employees’ sea experience and typical attitude of mind.
3
• Primary field of occupation in the context of this project means appropriate shipboard
positions of seafarers, in particular of watch officer, chief officer, master, engineer, 1st
engineer or chief engineer.
• Secondary field of occupation in the context of this project means an occupation of
seafarers in the maritime industry other than in shipboard positions. The secondary field of
occupation may be divided into the private sector and the public sector. In both sectors
occupations are found where shipboard experience of the employee is a stringent
requirement (pilots, PSC officers, superintendents) and others where shipboard experience
is desirable (cargo brokers, shipping agents, surveyors).
• Extension to STCW requirements contains MET curriculum elements which serve the
primary field of occupation and which are intensifying or exceeding STCW requirements.
• Enrichment of MET contains MET curriculum elements which promote the qualification
of the seafarer for the secondary field of occupation. This does not exclude issues related to
shipboard operations. These elements may form additional courses of study and should
provide for an academic degree.
• European concept addresses an MET concept which fully reflects the ship owners' needs
with regard to practical training, familiarity with modern technology, on-board
management skills and extended STCW requirements, and which in addition contains
sufficient elements of enrichment for supporting a shore-based occupation at a later stage
of the career. The European concept should preferably be applied to separate MET for the
deck and the engine department.
• European seafarer means a certified seafarer having a qualification based on STCW
requirements and on agreed extensions to STCW requirements. This definition is not
meant to discriminate non-European seafarers but should indicate additional qualifications
as prerequisite for wages on European levels.
2
Sources in previous work packages
2.1
Work package 1.7
Work package 1.7 has been a "Country survey of the applicability of MET for shipboard
positions and for shore-based positions in the maritime industry" carried out by the Shipping
and Transport College, Rotterdam, Netherlands. Questionnaires had been sent to shore-based
bodies of the maritime industry in order to reveal and to evaluate any possible shortcomings
of present European MET. The results of this survey are well summarized in the report to WP
1.7 and can be condensed for the development of recommendations as follows:
for shipboard functions:
• There is a certain demand for improving practical skills and management proficiency of
deck officers.
• Marine engineers should have a slightly improved education in general management, crew
management and administrative subjects.
• Dual purpose officers obviously need more practical skills which may to some extent be
obtained by simulator training.
4
for shore-based functions:
• Deck officer MET programmes are less suitable for shore based functions than engineer
programmes (in their corresponding occupations). Practical sea experience of deck officers
is absolutely necessary for shore based functions.
• Again, marine engineers need improvement in management and administration proficiency
for shore-based functions.
• Dual purpose officers seem less qualified for shore-based functions than marine engineers.
Additionally they need improvement in the English language.
Although the researchers express that the result figures from the questionnaires do not
indicate significant demands into the one or the other direction, the general trend of the results
seems to reflect certain shortcomings of traditional MET and its need to comply with new
prospects. The desired higher qualification in management proficiency for the shipboard
service of deck officers and marine engineers, with the touch of more practical skills for the
deck officer, confirms quite well the trend towards the return of management functions to the
ship as a result of the "lean" office ashore. This is also indicated in the report to work
package 4.4.
The dual purpose officer, although successful in some countries under appropriately adapted
conditions, is obviously not the popular solution for Europe in general. The pronounced need
for practical skills and also English language reveals the environment of compromises that
had to be established to accommodate the dual function qualification within one personality
and within a reasonable duration of education and training.
Deck officers in shore-based functions have always been profiting from their mere sea
experience rather than from a pre-definable qualification, while marine engineers have been
engineers in the first place and will be taken as engineers when changing to an occupation
ashore. Improvement of management proficiency, probably including language capacity, is a
normal requirement today for medium to top positions in nearly any industry.
2.2
Work package 2
Work package 2 has been a "Country survey of MET philosophies of parties involved in
European MET: Concepts and objectives", carried out by Escola Náutica Infante D. Henrique,
Oeiras, Portugal. Questionnaires had been sent to the maritime industry, trade unions,
maritime administrations, national educational authorities, national MET institutes and to
seafarers/MET students, asking for opinions and views on current and future MET policies
and systems, formal qualifications including awards, MET organization, course contents and
postgraduate studies.
The result of the researcher’s thorough analysis of responses has been well summarized in the
report on work package 2. The following key findings are of importance for work package 5:
• Current MET systems in Europe seem to satisfy the needs of the different parties in general
although a revision of systems is taking place almost everywhere, presumably triggered by
STCW 95.
• The majority of the parties still prefers separate management of deck and engine
department and thus also separate MET.
5
• MET curricula should contain also subjects outside the requirements of STCW 95. This
goes along with the agreement of 85 % of responses that MET courses should be both sea
and shore oriented.
• The majority of ship owners however prefers courses which are sea oriented only. This
reflects the concern of ship owners or ship operators about the increasing shortage of
senior staff on board ships within the next years.
• Special emphasis should be given to subjects covering shipping management, ship
maintenance and international maritime law.
• Graduates should be awarded an educational award and an academic degree, besides the
certificate of competency.
• There is in some places a lack of practical training and an insufficient transfer of
theoretical knowledge into shipboard practice. This obviously applies to institutions with a
structural lack of funds because lack of simulators, new technology and specialized courses
were mentioned in the same context.
• Students admitted to MET studies should have university entry level of general education
but spend a pre-study time at sea of at least 2 to 3 months. (The first mentioned opinion is
opposed by findings in WP 4.2/3, saying that entry levels should be rather vocational and
related to sea experience.)
• On-board training is still considered the best way to acquire skills, provided this training is
supported by ship's staff. Simulator training can substantially support the acquisition of
skills.
• Quality assurance is an accepted tool for achieving standards required by STCW 95.
These findings seem to harmonize quite well with those from work package 1.7. They further
confirm that the importance of on-board management proficiency is growing again. The long
known fact that a seafaring career for the majority is just a transition stage, seems to become
more and more accepted as the rule rather than the exception. The value of the experienced
seafarer for various occupations in the maritime industry is recognized and appreciated.
However the concern of ship owners and ship operators about the possible weakening of the
continuous supply of qualified mariners and marine engineers should be seriously considered.
The employers within the primary field of occupation do not in fact pay very much for MET
which is generally funded by tax payers. However they carry the burden of continuously
bringing up and developing young officers to operate within their systems, only to observe
that large numbers of them leave the sea as soon as they have gained experience and
proficiency. The benefit falls to the rest of the maritime industry. Attempts to establish funds
or pools of interest within the maritime industry for the compensation of the ship owners'
efforts in developing the welcome workforce of experienced seafarers have not been effected
or have failed.
The only feasible solution of this problem seems to be the development and provision of an
MET in Europe which fully satisfies the ship owners' needs with regard to practical training,
familiarity with modern technology and on-board management skills. This demand would be,
by the way, in good harmony with the requirements of STCW 95 and of the ISM-Code. In
addition however there should be a well shaped enrichment of MET with the prospect of
assuming positions in the secondary field of occupation at a later stage of the career. This
"European concept" of MET is the proposed alternative to other possible options like:
•
"MET for shipboard service only", possibly without an educational award or academic
degree, or
6
•
"MET on university level", directed to MSc in shipping business with a possible seafaring
career only.
The mentioned alternative options will neither satisfy the ship owners, because seafarers will
leave the sea sooner or later anyway, nor the maritime industry, in the long term. The
European concept, although more demanding, promises the best reputation and may get
young people back to choose a seafaring career.
2.3
Work package 3
Work package 3 deals with a comparative analysis and evaluation of European MET
including identification of underlying concepts and objectives, i.e. work package 3 analyses
and evaluates the outcome of work packages 1 and 2. It can therefore not too much add to the
conclusions from these work packages although it is worth repeating some of the conclusions
from work package 5 with special relevance to work package 5 and mention a few
conclusions which relate to the environment close to MET.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
2.4
MET for professional mobility (ship-shore MET) should be more widely spread as well as
the possibility to obtain an academic degree in addition to a professional certificate.
In addition to ship-shore MET, shipboard-confined MET should be maintained also in
future for those who do not meet the general education entry requirements for ship-shore
MET. These students should be given opportunities to obtain, after some time at sea,
academic qualifications similar to their colleagues who graduated from ship-shore MET.
Both types of MET should preferably be offered at the same MET institutions.
New syllabuses should be developed for subjects of increasing importance, as e.g.
maritime English, and for subjects of decreasing importance, as e.g. celestial navigation.
Lecturers at MET institutions should be given opportunities to update themselves on the
use of modern technology on ships and in shipping in general and should be updated on
technology use in MET.
MET resources should be concentrated at a smaller number of MET institutions in
countries where a surplus of study places exist. A smaller number of institutes would
facilitate the offering of updating courses, the extension of activities to research and the
making of an income through consultancy.
MET should receive a better recognition by inclusion of its representatives in national
round tables of those concerned with, and involved in, MET. National MET should be
regarded as an equal partner in national efforts for its improvements.
Work package 4.1
Work package 4.1 presents the "Provision of a common understanding of the requirements of
the revised STCW Convention and how to meet them", prepared by the World Maritime
University, Malmö, Sweden. It includes in its chapter 9 important aspects on "Possible MET
support to the implementation of the ISM-Code", prepared by the World Maritime University
and by members of the Università di Trieste. The report on WP 4.1 reflects the responses to
questionnaires which were distributed to EU member states maritime administrations
(excluding Austria and Luxembourg and including Norway and Iceland) and to 56 MET
institutions. The general question aimed for revealing the present opinion on the degree of
feasibility of harmonizing certain key issues of STCW 95 in Europe, using the response scale
"fully, in part, not at all". The key issues addressed were:
7
Quality standards system
Instructor qualification and experience
Simulator training
Onboard training programs
Standard courses of education and training
Assessor qualification and experience
Simulator standards
Refresher/upgrading courses
Sea service requirements (minimum)
Other items
A separate inquiry asked for opinions on the possible support expected from MET concepts
for the implementation of the ISM-Code.
The responses were analysed and summarized appropriately and revealed that MET
institutions are obviously more optimistic with regard to harmonized approaches than national
administrations. However there is a broad consensus towards the development of:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
internal self-evaluation procedures and processes,
basic guidelines on external evaluation,
common training curricula, containing objectives, syllabi and assessment of competence,
basic pedagogical training courses for instructors,
guidelines for training in assessment techniques,
simulator standards checklist,
standard procedures for the approval of simulator courses, including training objectives
and instructor training.
The author of the report on WP 4.1 proposes however that some of the mentioned
developments should be advanced by the IMO STW Sub-Committee rather than on a
European basis only. Further recommendations are directed to the use of a common training
record book, preferably following the samples produced by IMO and ISF, and to common
procedures for the recognition of certificates of competency of seafarers among EU member
states.
The findings in chapter 9 of the report on WP 4.1, related to the potential role of MET in the
implementation of the ISM-Code, can be condensed into two main objectives:
• Revision of the MET curricula, in particular by providing teaching subjects covering
certain operational and administrative aspects of the ISM-Code and by introducing the ISM
philosophy into existing subjects.
• Development of special training courses for senior ship staff and for shore management
personnel in shipping and other companies.
2.5
Work package 4.2/3
Work package 4.2 on the "Assessment of the impact of an increased use of technology in the
maritime industry on MET. Consultation and co-operation with the European manufacturing
industry on advances in technology" and work package 4.3 on "Consultation and
collaboration with the 'operating' maritime industry (ship owners, port managers, etc.) on the
identification of future training needs", carried out by I.S.T.I.E.E. at the Università di Trieste,
Italy, have been combined in one report.
8
Based on one questionnaires the researchers have evaluated and reported the opinions of
manufacturers, ship owners, pilots and port managers on the impact of advanced technology
on future MET with the general conclusion: The European maritime industry expects from
future MET in Europe that STCW requirements are fully met, but in terms and in use of
advanced technology in shipping. Important additional aspects for work package 5 are:
• The present more or less satisfying standard of European MET should by no means be
given up. This general opinion reflects the previously doubtful scope of interpretation of
STCW 78 and some remaining concern regarding the future interpretation of STCW 95.
• MET in general should be, more than in the past, oriented towards advanced technology in
shipping. This implies also the use of advanced technology within MET.
• There should be, on a regular basis, a review of the training needs with regard to advanced
technology in shipping.
• Updating courses for special issues being identified within the scope of chapter 6 of the
ISM-Code and/or self study programmes, using advanced information technology (IT),
should be developed.
• The application of quality standards to MET institutions is welcome by the maritime
industry in Europe.
• The clear training objectives of STCW 95 and moreover, chapter 8 of the ISM Code
(emergency preparedness), will require the introduction of new teaching and training
subjects in MET, both in the nautical and the engineering sector.
An important aspect provided in the conclusions of the report on WP 4.2/3 is that future MET
in Europe should, as a general aim, "create a more scientific and flexible cultural background
so as to enable MET graduates to rapidly and efficiently adapt themselves to the development
of new technologies over the time". This aspect reflects the European educational tradition
and presents indeed the alternative position to the before-mentioned support of an MET which
is oriented to the ever latest technology and supplies tailor-made updating courses for
graduates to cope with technological progress. The optimum, as usual, will be the
compromise.
2.6
Work package 4.4
Work package 4.4 is an "Assessment of the potential in the use of new teaching and training
technologies and methodologies in MET; distance learning through onboard training", carried
out by the World Maritime University in Malmö, Sweden. The report is based on an extensive
study of relevant literature and other sources and covers the following features:
•
•
•
•
Computing technology and education and training.
Satellite communication systems and education and training.
Distance education and the maritime environment.
Onboard training, CBT and new technology.
Details in the report and summaries to the individual chapters indicate a progressive
development of information technology within the surveyed areas. The summary conclusions
of WP 4.4 provide key developments and point to potential problems. Recommendations in
the context of work package 5 can be identified as follows:
9
• MET-institutions (not only in Europe) should step into the world of information technology. This will require in many places the modernization of equipment and a review of
training programmes and teaching methods.
• Instructors in MET-institutions will need to be trained at the same time.
• MET-institutions should co-operate with ship owners in organizing the onboard training by
means of new technology. In doing this the institutions will have to compete or co-operate
with professional suppliers.
These recommendations are in harmony with recommendations drawn from the other reports,
but they also extend the demands on MET institutions considerably.
3
General requirements of the maritime industry
The following general requirements of the maritime industry have been deduced from work
packages commented in chapter 2 of this report and from conclusions drawn from the
available material. They are capable to accommodate all detailed findings and requests
elaborated in chapter 2 of this report. They may consequently provide the basis for a set of
operable recommendations which aim for meeting those requirements.
3.1
Demand for qualified seafarers
The European maritime industry, although recruiting a considerable number of seafarers for
onboard positions from non-European countries, still requires a certain high number of MET
graduates per year. The demand originates in fact to a great extent indirectly from the
secondary field of occupation which cannot easily or not at all be satisfied by non-European
seafarers. This requirement poses a serious problem because ship owners may in principle fill
their demand completely by non-European seafarers in the long term. There must be found a
positive solution to avoid serious detriment to the European maritime industry and the
European economy in general.
3.2
Request for advanced MET
The European maritime industry, including the ship owners, strongly demands a well
structured MET in Europe for the primary field of occupation which not only fulfils STCWrequirements but also extensions thereto. These extensions are mainly related to advanced
technology, onboard management capabilities and other shipboard-relevant subjects which
have not been given satisfactory attention in STCW. They may be supported by suitable post
graduate programmes and distant learning programmes.
3.3
Appreciation of "sea time experience"
Ship owners require a sufficient duration of occupation of certified seafarers in the primary
field of occupation while the rest of the maritime industry appreciates a sound sea-experience
of potential employees in the secondary field of occupation. These two requirements are
obviously in harmony with each other.
10
3.4
Need of a common working language
The European maritime industry has a strong interest in the establishment and improvement
of a common working language on board and in ports and in the maritime business in general.
Although this is already a requirement of STCW 95 and of chapter 6 of the ISM-Code, there
is, except with certain provisions in STCW 95, no clear decision regarding the selection
between the choices English, French or Spanish. There should however be an agreed solution
in the near future (see also 4.4).
3.5
Demand for enrichment of MET
The European maritime industry (except the ship owners) appreciates a suitable enrichment of
MET including management and administrative proficiency and an academic degree for
graduates. This enrichment should also be supported by postgraduate study programmes or
distant learning programmes.
4
Recommendations
4.1
Number of MET graduates
There should be a European initiative to identify and continuously monitor the actual and
the desirable number of MET graduates per year.
This initiative requires the definition of a suitable "yardstick" system, which allows to register
graduates from different MET systems (i.e. sandwich or “single pack”), or furthers just the
collection of yearly national counts of obtained certificates. It also includes the collection of
data which allow an estimation of yearly "change-overs" from the primary to the secondary
field of occupation as well as real "drop outs" (i.e. change of profession, emigration, death).
The desirable number of graduates per year should be identified as the result of a dynamic
model. This model should take into account the primary and the secondary field of occupation
and should be developed in a thorough research process using agreed criteria. This work may
require some effort which justifies its inclusion into a follow-up programme to the METHAR
project.
The expected result of this initiative is a data source which should be used as a tool for the
identification and justification of necessary investment into MET on a reasonable basis as
well as a yardstick for balancing or revising general objectives of MET in Europe.
4.2
Guidelines on a harmonized European MET
European guidelines, based on the outcome of the METHAR project, containing general
objectives and parameters for a future harmonized MET environment in Europe, should be
developed.
These guidelines should presume that current MET systems in Europe have recently been
revised as to meet STCW requirements in general. They should further presume that the
majority of parties still prefers separate MET for deck and engine service, but should also
11
accommodate the dual purpose option. They should in general presume that the European
maritime industry expects from MET institutes and from administrations an interpretation of
the STCW 95 standards of competence of seafarers on the traditional high level.
The core of the guidelines should address the "European concept" of MET (see definition in
chapter 1) and describe the reasons for and the advantages of this option. This concept will
not only fulfil the needs of ship owners and the rest of the maritime industry in Europe in an
optimal way, but will also raise the reputation of seafarers and is expected to attract more
young people to choosing a seafaring career. Other options should be identified and defined.
In this context the split opinion regarding the desirable entry level of MET students should be
reflected and guidance given with the aim to promote a high level in general but to
accommodate equivalents in the form of sea experience or vocational training combined with
entry tests.
The guidelines should contain agreed interpretations of certain STCW requirements of
competency with regard to the interaction of attained theoretical knowledge and practical
training, aiming at the desired skills. This should include guidance on the use of simulators,
new teaching and learning technology and the control of on-board training by MET
institutions. The important role of the Training Record Book should be considered with the
aim of promoting a common edition, probably following closely the proposals from IMO and
ISF.
The guidelines should contain proposals for the structuring of MET curricula to accommodate
certain key qualifications required by STCW 95 and the ISM Code. These issues will include
shipboard emergency preparedness, shipboard ISM administration, pollution prevention
management and others.
Due consideration should be given to the expectation of the European maritime industry to
interpret STCW 95 skill standards for seafarers with a strong reflection to the use of advanced
technology on board and ashore. This includes technology for:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
navigation and watchkeeping,
internal and external communication,
cargo handling and ship management,
propulsion and manoeuvring,
maintenance and logistics,
living and catering,
care for health and accident prevention,
waste management and pollution prevention,
control of emergencies,
onboard training and recreational activities.
Meeting this goal would require a regular review of the technological progress within the
maritime industry. This review should become a mandatory element within quality assurance
systems of MET institutions. It would also require a regular modernization of equipment of
MET institutions and includes the training of instructors with regard to new technologies,
including information technology. Care should be taken however not only to aim for the
training of skilled users of distinguished technological systems, but also to provide MET
graduates with a sufficient scientific background to enable them to keep pace with
technological progress throughout their professional life.
12
The guidelines should promote a common approach towards quality assurance in European
MET institutions according to STCW requirements, covering all issues addressed in the report
on work package 4.1. The maritime industry in Europe is obviously in favour of the
application of quality standards to MET systems. It should be borne in mind however that
MET institutions are generally embedded into their national educational systems which
already have an administrative control system in place and which, in improving this system,
will follow an adopted national concept. It might therefore be advisable to transfer this issue
to another European initiative.
The guidelines should explicitly identify a number of qualifications to be obtained in MET,
separately for mariners and marine engineers, which may be addressed to as "extensions to
STCW requirements". These qualifications should include for:
mariners:
• ship management proficiency (beyond the scope required by the ISM-Code),
• ship maintenance competence (beyond the scope required by STCW for safety equipment),
• international private maritime law and master's business (key words are: freight contracts,
charter parties, insurance, civil liability, maritime claims, general average, particular
average, settlement of damages, collecting evidence, salvage contracts),
• training competence (for cadets, apprentices or assistants).
marine engineers:
• general management proficiency including crew management,
• improvement of English language capabilities,
• training competence (for cadets, apprentices or assistants).
These extensions should preferably be elaborated in the form of part curricula within a
follow-up programme to the METHAR project. In addition to these agreed extensions there
should be other curriculum elements which fall under the scope of "enrichment of MET".
These are dealt with under the recommendation "4.5 Enrichment of MET" below.
The guidelines should, following the requirements of the European maritime industry,
propose a structured concept of post graduate study programmes for seafarers in Europe
covering mandatory courses required by STCW 95 and non-mandatory but desirable
programmes, which in particular support the implementation of the ISM-Code and the
application of new technologies. The concept should not be limited to stationary courses but
also include onboard training and distant learning programmes using advanced information
technology. The preparation of such a concept requires an inventory of existing programmes
in Europe and a certain evaluation and classification. It should be therefore included into a
follow-up programme of the METHAR project.
13
4.3
Classification of "sea time experience"
A commonly agreed classification of the presently vague meaning of the term "sea
experience" should be developed.
time
It is obvious from METHAR findings and from various comments and responses by CAMET
parties that sea time experience is considered valuable and an important prerequisite for
entering shore-based positions within the maritime industry. There is however, with very few
exceptions in pilot recruitment schemes, no commonly agreed classification of this
appreciated qualification property.
Sea time experience is, in fact, difficult to measure, but there are at least two parameters
which, in combination, could be used to provide a reasonable classification. These parameters
are the level of certificate held, e.g. watch keeping certificate, 1st officer certificate or master
certificate, and the sea time of work with the appropriate certificate(s). Further parameters
could be the actual position held on board and, for certain applications, the type of ship or
type of service.
The benefit of such classification could be found on various sides. The seafarer would be able
to better estimate his "value" before applying for a shore occupation. The maritime industry
ashore would have a better judgement of the applicant's background. And the ship owners
would find in the end that young officers stay longer at sea if sea time experience has become
an accepted dimension of proficiency.
4.4
European maritime language
The English language should be promoted as the agreed working language in the
European maritime industry on board and ashore.
Any attempt of harmonization within European MET is doubtful without addressing the
question of an agreed working language, although this issue has only scarcely been touched in
previous work packages. In principle there are no obvious difficulties with the acceptance of
this recommendation, although the ISM Code does not actually require the English language
as the working language on board. The formal objective to establish the English language
would however clarify this residual uncertainty, at least within the European maritime
industry.
As a logical consequence of the above proposal the recommendation is given to gradually use
the English language within MET in Europe not only in language lectures but also in other
subjects in the form of working material, text books and audio visual aids. The final goal
could be the opening of MET courses in Europe to students of any country based on the
common teaching language English. The benefit would be with all parties concerned, and the
safety at sea would be improved.
14
4.5
Enrichment of MET
MET programmes should be enriched by certain elements with a view on shore based
occupations in the maritime industry.
This recommendation, basically the issue of work package 5.2, is supported in a great number
of comments and responses in METHAR documents. It balances the shipboard orientation
within the "European concept" and provides for a better attraction of a seafaring career to
young people in the future. Enrichment of MET programmes as per definition should be
understood as teaching subjects or fields of study outside STCW requirements and mainly
also outside shipboard application. The improved professionalism gained by this enrichment
would however serve the shipboard proficiency as well.
In defining such extra teaching subjects or fields of study, advantage can be drawn from the
clear distinction between "extension to STCW requirements" and "enrichment of MET".
While extensions should be agreed and harmonized within European MET to justify the title
"European seafarer", there is no real need to agree on and harmonize elements of enrichment
in detail.
Each MET institution should develop its own profile or emphasis.
There should be, however, some common criteria for establishing, evaluating and awarding
the additional qualifications gained by the enrichment approach:
• Enrichment of MET should be oriented towards qualifications useful for career
perspectives and mobility within the maritime industry. The following areas are listed as a
guidance
- port management, operations and logistics,
- shipping management, operations and business,
- ship operation and technology,
- vessel traffic services and pilotage,
- maritime administration and surveying,
- insurance and damage regulation,
- technical supervision and development.
• Graduates should be awarded an academic degree. If certificates are obtained in a
sandwich system, the award should be associated with the last stage of studies. The
academic degree may be a diploma, a Bachelor degree or a Master degree.
• Academic degrees obtained in MET should be recognized in all European member
countries.
• The total net duration of studies (excluding any practical semesters) for accommodating
STCW requirements plus extensions to STCW plus enrichment of MET should be not less
than three years for mariners as well as marine engineers.
• Enrichment of MET, although by definition not included in the MET of the European
seafarer, should be made available to the 2-year graduate of MET in the form of upgrading studies in order to provide an upward career mobility.
Enrichment of MET should be supported by postgraduate study programmes and self study
programmes which should be oriented to the demand of users and possible requests from the
maritime industry. These programmes however should not be considered as a part of the
"European concept" at this stage.
15
Proposed MET in Europe
(This is not a time-run scheme, but shows the
packages of training and education only.)
basic sciences
European
seafarer
STCW
plus extensions
European
concept
enrichment
special
qualifications
special short
courses
primary field
of occupation
secondary field
of occupation
16
Report
METHAR
Project
Coordinator:
Partners:
Work package 6:
Recommendations for the harmonization of European MET
Date: December 1999
PROGRAMME
METHAR, WP 6
Task 43 Harmonization of European MET Schemes.
METHAR
WP 6.1 - General Assessment of necessity and feasibility of MET harmonization *
WP 6.2 - Proposal of general procedures and methodologies for a common European
“bottom up” approach to MET harmonization. Assessment of its possible relationship
to implementation of the requirements of the new
STCW Convention **
REPORT
(* Prepared by Peter Muirhead)
(** Prepared by Günther Zade)
December 1999
1
Work Package 6
Table of contents
Page
WP 6.1 - General Assessment of necessity and feasibility of
MET harmonization
03
WP 6.2 - Proposal of general procedures and methodologies for a
common European “bottom up” approach to MET harmonization.
Assessment of its possible relationship to implementation of the
requirements of the new STCW Convention
15
2
METHAR
WP 6.1 - General Assessment of necessity and feasibility of MET harmonization
REPORT
November 1998
3
Work package 6.1
General Assessment of necessity and feasibility of MET harmonization
Table of contents
Page
1
05
2
Structure of report
05
3
Survey outcomes relating to the necessity and feasibility of European
MET harmonization
05
4
Summary view on MET harmonization
4.1
General overview
4.2
Future directions in harmonization
12
12
13
4
1 Introduction and methodology
The objective of this work package is to examine the earlier METHAR surveys and work
package reports, and analyse and evaluate the evidence and conclusions arrived at within
them leading to a summary of European views on the two main objectives of work package
6.1 namely:
(a)
(b)
The need for European harmonisation
The feasibility of achieving MET harmonisation
The following reports and sources have contributed to this summary.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
WP 3 dated October 1998; drew together two work packages namely Report on WP 1 Survey of the State of European MET and WP 2-Country survey of MET philosophies of
parties involved in European MET: Concepts and objectives.
WP 4.1 Provision of a common understanding of the requirements of the revised STCW
Convention and how to meet them.
WP 4.2 Assessment of the impact of increased use of technology in the maritime industry
on MET. Consultation and co-operation with the European manufacturing industry on
advances in technology.
WP 4.3 Consultation and collaboration with the "operating" maritime industry
(shipowners, port managers, etc.) on the identification of future training needs, including
possible MET support for the implementation of the ISM code.
WP 4.4 Assessment of the potential in the use of new teaching and training
methodologies in MET; distance learning through on board training.
WP 5.1 Recommendations for meeting the requirements of the European maritime
industry.
WP 5.2 Recommendation for the enrichment of MET with a view on career perspectives
and mobility in the European maritime industry.
2 Structure of the report
Section 3 summarises the views, conclusions and/or recommendations arrived at within the
above sources that impact upon the two objectives concerning feasibility and needs.
Section 4 provides a summary view on harmonisation of MET in Europe that, on the weight
of supporting evidence and comment, can realistically be supported as recommendations for
future action on harmonisation.
3 Survey outcomes relating to the necessity and feasibility of European MET
harmonization
WP 1.1 (National MET systems, schemes and programs)
•
•
•
There is a great variety in national MET systems
Unlimited certificates are more uniform in structure than limited (restricted waters)
certificates
Bivalent MET training systems only exist in 3 countries (France, Netherlands, Germany)
5
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
In some countries certificate of competency requirements are part of a University level
education course leading to an award of degree or diploma, usually with sea service
experience afterwards (front-ended)
Other countries follow certificate of competency requirements built around sea service
before, during and/or after, without attracting an educational level award.
In limited trade operations there is a lack of uniformity in positions served
Between countries certificate requirements for specific onboard positions differ
There are differences in certificates in many countries regarding position, certificate and
class of holder. A strong argument exists for harmonizing certificates in accordance
with STCW95 requirements.
The criteria for manning scales vary from country to country
Government administration of MET involves a mixture of ministries or authorities
Admission requirements are generally similar
Length of school time varies (3-5 years)
The course hours for certificate courses to Master Mariner vary greatly from 1560 (GB)
up to 5760 (IT)
The course hours for watchkeeper vary greatly from 720 (GB) to 3000 (IS)
The course hours for chief engineer range from 1853 (SW) to 5760 (It)
The course hours for engineer watchkeeper vary from 1103 to 5760
There appears to be a strong case for harmonisation here
Assessment methods are a mixture of internal (8), external (2) and both (5)
Value for MET professional certificates is not uniformly rewarded through recognised
equivalent educational awards
MET systems are presently in a state of flux due to the impact of STCW95 and the ISM
Code
Improvements in staff qualifications and equipment are being delayed by a lack of funds.
Implementation of STCW95 requirements is not co-ordinated across EU. Quality
assurance is a good example
•
•
•
•
•
•
Significant differences in number of hours for whole MET programs occur in the EU both
between countries and within countries. Using a Higher Educational framework v
professional needs only accounts for some of these differences
Pre-requisite knowledge levels can distort the total hours
Self study hours within the totals may distort the overall picture
The availability and use of simulators and workshops affects the outcome
Significant differences occur in a number of professional subjects
The findings indicate the need to investigate the contents of MET programmes in more
detail
•
•
Academies are well equipped to meet STCW95 requirements for mandatory Radar/ARPA
training
Some gaps exist in meeting current and future demands for GMDSS training
6
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Additional simulator facilities in the areas of shiphandling, machinery space and cargo
handling operations are required if broader uniformity in standards is to be achieved
across the European MET
There is a lack of oil spill simulation training facilities
The use of simulators as an assessment medium is at a very low level and an
investigation into more effective use of simulators in this way should be undertaken
More investment in computing equipment is required
Maritime lecturers need to be trained in the use of computer based resources, multimedia and supporting instructional techniques
Access by instructors and students to the Internet, Email and the Web for educational
purposes needs to be increased
Funding for the purchase of effective training software should be provided
The level of dedicated fire-fighting and survival training facilities is somewhat low
More institutions need access to cargo handling simulators and laboratories
There is scope for increased availability of English Language laboratories
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The teaching load of maritime lecturers varies widely between institutions and countries
The length of the teaching year varies widely between 27 and 48 weeks
The average age of lecturers is 47, an ageing profession
The requirements for qualifications of lecturers are varied
Few countries have a formal training program in pedagogics for new lecturers
No countries have a formal upgrading program for existing lecturers
Employment conditions are varied, with different levels of grade, salaries and promotion
There is a strong case for implementation of a common policy to improve teaching
qualifications and experience and to update the professional skills of maritime lecturers
on a regular basis
Consideration should be given to the establishment of a standard pedagogical course
for European maritime lecturers
WP 1.6 Survey of national MET administration and links of MET with national education
and training systems
•
•
•
•
European central government ministries or authorities have varying degrees of
involvement and responsibility for funding of MET systems and control of the certificate
of competency process
This diverse approach is a main inhibitor to harmonisation of MET systems and structures
on a European wide basis
The harmonisation of MET at the ‘teaching’ end, i.e through the curriculum, is very
dependent upon good communication links between the relevant national authorities.
Changes to curriculum and training methods to meet STCW95 will be difficult to achieve
without clear policy directions and support from above
7
WP 1.7 Country survey of the applicability of MET for shipboard positions and shore based
positions in the maritime industry
•
•
•
In general, the education programs are considered satisfactory
Management, administrative and crew management subjects are identified as areas
needing more attention in MET courses
For shore-based employment it is considered that both management and administrative
subjects should be strengthened. Practical shipboard experience is however still
considered to be absolutely essential for the listed functions.
WP 1.8 Survey of national provisions for procedures and methods by which MET adapts to
new requirements
•
•
•
•
•
Each country appears to be well organised to implement new requirements
Maritime Administrations play the key role in identification and implementation
Only in a limited number of countries are ship owners, training institutions and unions
engaged in the process of implementation
Written procedures have been produced in most countries
Few administrations see problems arising that will prevent compliance
WP 1.9 Country survey of number and qualification of persons who choose MET for a
temporary or permanent seafaring career v the number of training places in national MET
institutions
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
There is a clear lack of centralised national statistics on MET performance in many
European countries
A seagoing career, which most beginners intend to be a permanent one, attracts holders of
both basic and advanced educational qualifications
Evidence clearly points to a lack of attractiveness in shipboard life and work in general
when compared to alternatives ashore
The high dropout rate before MET programs are completed can be partly attributed to
social and financial conditions at sea
Responses by training institutions to the situation often falls around reducing capacity or
closing down
Upgrading and expanding the education profile through the offer of academic awards and
other post-sea career programs is a positive alternative
A commitment is needed by the maritime industry as a whole to convey the positive effects
of the above to potential entrants to MET
There is a need for an agreed approach to monitoring manpower inputs and outputs in the
European MET system
WP 2 Country survey of MET philosophies of parties involved in European MET: Concepts
and objectives
•
•
•
In general, current MET systems seem to satisfy the needs of the different parties
Planned future changes to MET systems are considered to be appropriate
The majority of parties still prefer separate deck and engineer officer MET programs
8
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Dual trained officers remain the preferred pathway of France and The Netherlands.
ISSUS, Hamburg, Germany is phasing out its dual program. Denmark has recently
introduced dual training but this is limited to watchkeeper level
There is recognition by parties that seafarers do not spend their entire professional life at
sea. The need for increased emphasis on aspects such as shipping management, ship
maintenance and international maritime law reflects this view
Courses should thus be both sea and shore-orientated and lead to an educational award as
well as to professional qualifications
Shipboard experience is still considered by most to be a fundamental requirement
Quality assurance is seen as a way of achieving higher standards and compliance with
STCW 95 requirements
Most respondents believe MET training should be paid for by the government
MET in Western Europe is perceived as having a higher quality than MET outside of
Western Europe.
WP 4.1 Provision of a common understanding of the requirements of the revised STCW
Convention and how to meet them
The following elements within STCW95 were identified in the survey as having the most
potential to influence progress towards closer harmonisation of purpose in European MET.
The development of common guidelines through the auspices of IMO STCW sub-committee
could be a solution in some cases.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Quality Standards Systems
Development of internal self-evaluation procedures and processes
Development of basic guidelines external evaluation
Course of Education and Training
The development of common training objectives
The development of common syllabus content to meet the requirements of Code A as
appropriate
The development of guidelines for competency based assessment
Instructor Qualifications and Experience
Development of a basic pedagogical training course for instructors
Development of guidelines for training in assessment techniques
This should be achieved in conjunction with the previous item.
Simulator Standards
Part A-I/12 could be used to develop a checklist.
Simulator Training
Standard procedures for the approval of simulator courses
Development of common training objectives
Development of simulator instructor training course
Refresher and Upgrading Training
No recommendations
On board Training Programs
Training Record Books produced by IMO and ISF should be used
Sea Service Requirements
Administrations should develop harmonised guidelines on acceptable sea service for
the category of certificates issued under the Convention.
9
•
The establishment of a common procedure for the recognition of certificates held by a
seafarer that has been issued by another Member State.
WP 4.1 Possible MET support for the implementation of the ISM Code*
•
•
•
The awareness that national MET systems could help the operators in implementing the
ISM Code and in auditing its application is widespread
A general revision of syllabus and harmonization of MET systems and international
certificates is considered very important
The use of new technology in programs of education and training will give substantial
support in achieving the objectives of the ISM code
WP 4.2 Assessment of the impact of an increased use of technology in the maritime industry
on MET. Consultation and co-operation with the European manufacturing industry on
advances in technology
WP 4.3 Consultation and collaboration with the “operating” maritime industry (shipowners,
port managers etc.) on the identification of future training needs
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Manufacturers see the objectives of increased use of new technology onboard to improve
on safety standards, enhance operational and economic efficiency and cost savings
through reduced crew numbers
European shipowners apply the new technologies to improve safety standards and
operational and economic efficiency. Cost savings (through crew reductions) do not have
the same level of importance
The same priority is given to technical and human factors in applying new technologies
onboard
The main areas impacting upon MET programs are focused on integrated navigation and
bridge systems, Radar/ARPA, ECDIS, automation & control systems, damage and
emergency control, fault diagnosis etc.
The operational role of officers and crew is being affected by the impact of new
technology and training requirements may need to be re-evaluated
MET institutions must implement a strategy to keep track of such changes and upgrade
their organizational structure and curriculum in order to cope with new training demands
Simulation, computing and workshop/laboratory facilities are considered to be important
tools for institutions to help in managing new technology on board
New subjects for emphasis for shipboard operations are management of emergency
procedures and shipboard safety
New subjects suggested for port operations needs are VTIMS, pilotage, port structures and
operations, transport logistics, cargo and communications
Updating courses in areas of new technology can play an important role in supporting the
industry provided they are cost effective and practical in outcome
New technology stresses the importance of Quality standards in MET being applied
Student entry levels should be specific and vocational, not necessarily university level
(port operators prefer the latter)
New technology will produce an increase in integration, inter-operability and intermobility both onboard the ship and between ship and shore based positions
10
WP 4.4 Assessment of the potential in the use of new teaching and training technology and
methodologies in MET: distance learning through on board training
Key developments
• Increased provision of computers onboard ship as everyday operational tools
• Installation of local area networks (LAN) in new tonnage
• Linkage of ship networks to owner networks ashore through a Managed Ship/Shore
Communications Infrastructure (MSSCI)
• Provision of software applications for ship management and operations
• Replacement of Telex and Fax services by E-mail
• Contracted E-mail messaging systems through ‘public address hubs’
• Use of CBT programs for recruitment, refresher and upgrading training
• Provision of CD-ROM based training programs via onboard libraries
• Use of the Internet and World Wide Web for access to informational sources
• Transfer of data by High Speed Data (HSD) links using data compression techniques
• Increasing use of video services including video conferencing as bandwidth increases and
transmission costs come down
• Monitoring of seafarer standards through onboard CBT and Internet and E-mail links
• Provision of CBT based training modules by equipment and software suppliers
• Growth in hand held satellite telephones
• Distance learning programs are becoming more accessible
• Closer co-operation between shipowners, training institutions, equipment and software
suppliers, administrations and classification societies is becoming more important.
Potential Problems
• A lack of modern equipment and qualified instructors in some institutions
• Changing training programs to meet new technology training demands
• Maintaining networks at sea
• Selection of software appropriate to the training /operational objectives
• Crew motivation
• Training time v operational demands on individuals at sea
• Opening up E-mail and Internet links for seafarers
• Distance learning: unless material is of good quality and easily updated, and is supported
by good communications and effective management, it will be a failure
The potential of new technology to improve standards of training on board and enable the
ship owner to meet new international legislation is clear. It will need a co-operative and
concerted effort by all to ensure its success.
5.1 Recommendations for meeting the requirements of the European maritime industry
5.2 Recommendations for the enrichment of MET with a view on career perspectives and
mobility in the European maritime industry
•
•
•
The European maritime industry still requires a high number of MET graduates each year
The number is increasingly the result of demand from the secondary field of occupation
(shore-based) which cannot easily be satisfied by non-European seafarer resources.
The growing reliance on non-European seafarers by shipowners will aggravate this
situation in the long term.
11
•
•
•
•
Ship owners demand a well structured MET system in Europe for the primary field of
occupation that fulfils STCW 95 as well as extensions to cater for advanced technology
and onboard management.
The maritime industry in general values the sea time experience of certified seafarers.
A clear preferment for a common working language on board ships and in ports exists.
Enrichment of MET through degree schemes including management and administrative
proficiency is seen as desirable by many sectors of the secondary field of occupation.
Recommendations
•
There should be a European initiative to identify and monitor the actual and desirable of
number of MET graduates needed each year.
•
Guidelines covering general objectives and parameters should be developed to provide for
a future harmonised approach to MET under the defined ‘European concept’.
•
Certain key elements of the curriculum should be targeted by the guidelines for a common
approach
•
The impact of the use of advanced technology on board and ashore on training standards
needs to be kept under review within quality assurance provisions.
•
Extensions to STCW requirements should be clearly identified and recognised.
•
A commonly agreed classification of sea time service should be developed and applied
within the European sphere.
•
The English language should be promoted as the agreed working language in the
European maritime industry on board and ashore.
•
Enriched MET programs should be available within Europe with a view to serving shore
based occupations in the maritime industry. These awards should be recognised in all
European member countries.
•
Enrichment studies should be supported by developments in postgraduate and self study
programs.
4
Summary view on MET harmonization
4.1
General overview
There is no superior quality of MET in METHAR countries compared to MET in some of the
ship officer-supplying countries in East Europe and Asia (EU project CIIPMET).
There is added value from MET in many METHAR countries, although not for the ship
operator but for the shore-based maritime industry and the individual – through study
programs for increased professional mobility and the offer of academic degrees in addition to
12
MET in METHAR countries cannot regain competitiveness on its own by increasing its
standards as long as ship officers from METHAR countries are much more expensive for ship
operators than ship officers from other countries. Supportive measures of a financial nature
are required to regain competitiveness.
A further increase of MET standards in METHAR countries is hampered or even counteracted
by the tendency in some countries to decrease or restrict standards to the minimum
requirements of STCW 95. Only very few METHAR countries will have to increase their
MET standards to STCW 95 requirements. Since this tendency also exists in MET in other
parts of the world, although often with an emphasis on rather increase than decrease of
standards, there will be greater uniformity in MET outcomes in future and the differences
between ship officers will concentrate on costs; quality may further lose importance as
discriminating factor.
The "harmonisation" of standards world-wide will work against MET in METHAR countries,
although knowledge of national languages will remain a discriminating factor.
MET in METHAR countries is further hampered by the national inability to reduce the
number of study places and adapt their supply to a smaller demand. A concentration of
resources at a smaller number of MET institutions – with the exception of Belgium, Ireland
and Portugal where only one and Sweden, where only two MET institutions exist – and the
extension of activities of the remaining institutions to research and consultancy are necessary
prerequisites for improving standards of MET in METHAR countries, would make MET
studies more effective and more attractive and help keep them up-to-date.
The main negative effect from an insufficient demand for MET in METHAR countries and of
a consequently insufficient national supply of ship officers will hurt the quality of services in
the maritime industry ashore where the employment of people with shipboard experience in
managerial functions is necessary or, at least, desirable.
4.2
Future directions in harmonisation
It has been clear from the very beginning of METHAR that a top-down harmonisation would
be impossible because of the close linkage of national MET with national ET systems and the
great variety of the latter. Therefore, a bottom-up approach is best pursued that concentrates
on the development of common syllabus parts (which will then be promoted for use in all
countries) and the updating and upgrading of teaching staff to higher standards. This partial
harmonization and improvement of syllabus and staff quality needs to be complemented by
the harmonisation and upgrading of the quality of teaching equipment. This harmonisation
could be achieved by the concentration of expensive equipment, simulators e.g. at one or two
national MET institutions, a process that would be helped by the closing of MET institutions
in METHAR countries where a surplus of study places exists.
Progress with the competitiveness of European MET depends heavily on the readiness of
national authorities and MET institutions to make further changes towards higher standards
and reverting the tendency towards lower standards. Ship operators who tend to recruit
shipboard personnel from the international market cannot be counted on as allies in such
development although the maritime industry ashore can be expected to be in favour of it.
13
METHAR will provide a "blue print" on how MET should be changed to regain
competitiveness and to serve the national maritime industry ashore best. There needs to be
national support to have proposed changes implemented. The countries have to overcome
their reluctance to concentrate resources in one or two MET institutions and close others. The
European Commission should create legal provisions for the mobility of ship officers within
EU countries through the mutual recognition of national certificates or the introduction of EU
certificates of competency for ship officers.
In looking at the outcomes of the surveys to date, there are grounds for ensuring that CAMET
continues to maintain the perception and attitude of national members that there is not only a
national dimension to MET but also a European one and that one country's MET can learn
from another country's MET. It should be extended to the East European countries with MET
which are expected to join the EU next. Further efforts have to be made to activate CAMET
members as "change agents" who are today rather passive despite their recognition of the
common cause of European MET and a need for action. Research into possible measures to
make European MET more attractive by a higher quality and to create a more supportive
environment have to be continued as well as research into the required additional qualification
of ship officers in the maritime industry ashore.
14
METHAR
WP 6.2 - Proposal of general procedures and methodologies for a common European
“bottom up” approach to MET harmonization. Assessment of its possible relationship
to implementation of the requirements of the new
STCW Convention
REPORT
December 1999
15
Work Package 6.2
Proposal of general procedures and methodologies for a common European “bottom
up” approach to MET harmonization. Assessment of its possible relationship to
implementation of the requirements of the new
STCW Convention
Table of contents
Page
1
Introduction
17
2
Weaknesses of present MET
2.1
Unsatisfactory attraction
2.2
Unsatisfactory competitiveness
2.3
Unsatisfactory mobility
17
17
18
19
3
Strengths of present MET
19
4
Overcoming of weaknesses
4.1
Support to STCW 95 syllabi implementation
(competitiveness, mobility)
4.2
Additional courses for preparation of shore employment
in the maritime industry (attraction, competitiveness, mobility)
4.3
Updating of maritime lecturers (competitiveness)
4.4
Costs and financing of MET (competitiveness)
4.5
Mutual recognition of certificates and improvement of English
language proficiency (mobility)
4.6
Summary
20
20
25
5
Measures for overcoming weaknesses
5.1
Career enrichment
5.2
Resources concentration
5.3
Activities extension
5.4
MET integration
26
26
26
26
27
6
Implementation of measures for overcoming weaknesses
6.1
National aspects
6.2
EU aspects
6.3
“Top down” approach and “bottom up” approach
27
28
29
30
16
21
21
23
24
1
Introduction
Work package 6.1 on “General assessment of necessity and feasibility of MET
harmonization” describes MET in the 15 countries covered by METHAR (METHAR
countries ∗) as characterized by variety between (and occasionally even inside) countries and,
at the same time, in pursuance of common objectives as, for example, the meeting of the
(minimum) requirements of STCW 95. It is this mixture of variety and commonality in the
context of which improvements will have to be sought.
There is a need for improvement of MET in many of the 15 METHAR countries.
Representatives of national MET may be reluctant to admit that MET standards should be
higher, that MET should become more attractive and provide for increased competitiveness
and better mobility. Moreover, comparison of MET standards, attraction and competitiveness
within a country does not necessarily lead to the conclusion of an existing insufficiency. It
may rather lead to satisfaction and complacency and the only competitive element may be a
ranking of the national MET institutions (if there are more than one - as it is the case in 12 of
the 15 METHAR countries) by number of students and perhaps even by strengths and
weaknesses. Only a look over the border can provide for a real comparison of MET
standards, attraction, competitiveness and mobility. An observation point higher “above sea
level” is then required than it is needed for a national judgement on national MET. Such
point of observation will also help to appreciate the role and position of national MET vis-àvis globalized shipping.
It can be seen then how good national MET is compared to MET in other countries. The
elevated observation point will also help to identify what is done better in MET in other
countries, what problems with MET other countries have and whether and why they have
succeeded or have failed in solving them.
2
Weaknesses of present MET
In general, the perception of a need for improvement in national MET is sharpened by a
comparison with MET in other countries, particularly by a comparison between MET in the
15 METHAR countries and MET in the main supply countries (of ship officers for METHAR
countries) in East Europe and South/South East Asia. The main outcomes of such
comparison are:
2.1
Unsatisfactory attraction
Many of the 15 METHAR countries are unable to attract enough young nationals to MET and
a (temporary) seafaring career. The report on METHAR work package 3 (Comparative
analysis and evaluation of European MET including identification of underlying objectives
and concepts) has summarised the reasons for this unsatisfactory state and the remedies
suggested by various studies which also identified these reasons.
∗
METHAR countries: Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland,
Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom
17
The main consequences of this decline of interest in seafaring as a (temporary) career are a
surplus of study places at MET institutions and the shortage of personnel with shipboard
experience in positions in the maritime industry ashore where such experience is essential or,
at least, desirable for maintaining high service standards.
It could be asked: who cares about the origin of seafarers as long as they are sufficiently
qualified and available? Although this may be an appropriate question for the operation of
ships, it is certainly an inappropriate and even wrong question in relation to the need for the
employment of personnel with shipboard experience in the national maritime industry ashore.
Nationals are preferred and needed there.
2.2
Unsatisfactory competitiveness
The conclusion of unsatisfactory competitiveness of MET in METHAR countries is
corroborated by a comparison with MET in supply countries.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
a shortage of MET applicants in many of the 15 METHAR countries compared to external
supply countries where a surplus of MET applicants exists;
a shortage of officers for shipboard service and ex-ship officers for positions in the
national maritime industry ashore in many of the 15 METHAR countries (and the
difficulty to employ ex-seafarers from external supply countries in these positions)
compared to a surplus of ship officers and ex-ship officers in the supply countries;
an abundance of governmental MET institutions in many of the 15 METHAR countries altogether 147 at 134 locations - compared to the smaller number of governmental MET
institutions in the external supply countries and, consequently:
a surplus of study places at governmental MET institutions in the 15 METHAR countries
compared to a shortage of study places at governmental MET institutions in external
supply countries which has resulted in the establishment and proliferation of private MET
institutions in some of these countries;
the inability to provide all MET institutions in the 15 METHAR countries with modern
equipment as, for example, simulators, compared to the need for less funds for the
purchase of modern equipment for a smaller number of governmental MET institution in
external supply countries;
the higher and sometimes considerably higher average age of teaching staff at MET
institutions in many of the 15 METHAR countries compared to the average age of
lecturers of MET institutions in many external supply countries;
the higher costs of MET in the 15 METHAR countries compared to MET in external
supply countries; and
the higher costs of ship officers from the 15 METHAR countries compared to the costs of
ship officers from external supply countries.
An extreme conclusion from this comparison could be to call MET in West Europe a “sick
patient” and, when taking a global view on MET, suggest the transfer of MET technology
from the 15 METHAR countries to the supply countries (provided they are still lacking such
technology) where it could be of greater use for a greater number of MET students, above all,
in South East Asia (as it was suggested during the discussion at the 9th conference on MET
by the International Maritime Lecturers Association (IMLA) in Kobe, Japan, in 1996).
18
2.3
Unsatisfactory mobility
This suggested “think globally, act globally” approach is today the attitude of the shipping
industry whereas “think nationally, act nationally” is the attitude of MET and MET
administrations that can be expected to prevail also in future. This country-based attitude is
understandable. It is supported by the national history of MET, its national particularities,
which are strengthened by the relations of MET with national ET, a national language and
other national characteristics.
However, the facilitated and enhanced mobility and the progress towards a single EU labour
market for qualified people, their ability to speak foreign languages and appreciate foreign
cultures and the growing economic interdependence between EU countries has led to
mobility-supporting results as, for example, the mutual recognition of academic degrees as
well as to an increasing number of study programmes which require studies in the own and
another country and for which degrees from two countries are awarded.
MET is far from becoming a study programme that includes a semester or two in a foreign
country with another language. It is strictly national, although it educates and trains for a
profession which has the world as its field of operation.
The mobility of seafarers between countries is further restricted by the today still limited
mutual recognition of certificates of competency.
In summary, unsatisfactory attraction of MET, unsatisfactory competitiveness of MET and
unsatisfactory mobility provided by MET can mainly be attributed to quality and scope of
MET (attraction), costs of MET and MET graduates (competitiveness) and administrative and
foreign language proficiency hindrances (mobility).
3
Strengths of present MET
In opposition to these main weaknesses of MET in many of the 15 METHAR countries stand
the following strengths:
•
•
•
the salaries for teaching staff at MET institutions in most of the 15 METHAR countries,
which allow to attract well qualified staff, compared to low and often unattractive salaries
for teaching staff at many MET institutions in many external supply countries;
the experience and expertise of teaching staff at MET institutions in the 15 METHAR
countries because of their normally many years of service in the profession compared to a
frequent change of teaching staff at MET institutions in a number of external supply
countries;
the availability of the latest technology, including simulators, at many MET institutions in
the 15 METHAR countries and the normally available expertise to make good use of such
teaching aids for MET compared to a not so satisfactory situation at many MET
institutions in supply countries.
An appropriate approach to reduce or even overcome the unsatisfactory attraction,
competitiveness and mobility of present MET in most of the 15 METHAR countries should
capitalize on the strengths of MET. A difficulty with this approach is that teaching staff at
MET institutions is in many of the 15 METHAR countries an ageing profession that may be
more satisfied with the existing state and status of MET than they should be. Another
19
difficulty is that not all MET institutions have local access to high technology and modern
equipment including simulators. A third difficulty with this approach is that MET in the 15
METHAR countries is more expensive than MET in the external supply countries.
Moreover, there are differences between countries in the availability and use of, for example,
advanced shiphandling simulators as can be demonstrated by participation in the MASSTER
project of the 4th FP. In this project, simulator sites in Denmark, Finland, Germany,
Netherlands and UK were involved.
4
Overcoming of weaknesses
With these differences in MET standards in mind, which are not only existing in top-of-theline simulator availability (also in France, Norway, Sweden and forthcoming in Portugal) and
high quality of simulator instructors, and considering the existence of top class expertise in
various subjects in some although not all countries, it would be of benefit for everybody if
these facilities and this expertise would also be made available to staff at MET institutions in
those countries which are not as advanced and privileged as MET institutions and teaching
staff in other countries.
4.1
Support to STCW 95 syllabus implementation (competitiveness, mobility)
STCW 95 provides in the Code a first specification of the minimum requirements. This
specification is however given in qualities and not in quantities. It is also often not detailed
enough for application at a MET institution. It leaves room for interpretation. If STCW 95
syllabi should be implemented as effectively as possible then further work needs to be done.
This work should not lead to a rigid standardization of syllabi but rather support the
implementation of more comparable syllabi. Such effort would also allow to judge on how
much time should be spent on certain subjects and should integrate experience from subject
experts on what needs to be covered and what help for the delivery is available. It seems to
be particularly necessary to reduce hours for subjects the importance of which has declined
over the years as it is, for example, the case with celestial navigation. It is also necessary to
“throw other ballast” and give appropriate attention to subjects the importance of which has
increased or which may even be newly required. Further improvements have to be made with
the use of modern technology, especially IT, in teaching ship officer students and assessing
their performance. The present knowledge-based approach needs - according to STCW 95
requirements - to be changed to a competency-based approach. It matters more than before
what a ship officer can do than what he knows. This should not be seen as an either-or issue;
it is an extension of the present approach that requires more than imparting knowledge. This
extension is facilitated by the availability of modern technology. In general, syllabus
specification and implementation requires a continuous striving for improvements.
Obviously, these improvements could be facilitated by the pooling of expertise across
borders. The best experts from some countries can help their colleagues in other countries
(and in their own country) to improve the effectiveness of their teaching. For achieving such
pooling of resources, networking between experts and institutions is required.
The task of improving and quantifying STCW 95 syllabi should be approached bottom-up by
the proposal of syllabi contents slightly more specific than those contained in STCW 95 and
the proposal of hours for certain subjects. Feedback from a selected MET institution in each
country would then be used to further refine the proposal. If this process is repeated (iterated)
20
a few times for nautical and engineering subjects then it would come closer (approximate)
each time to a more effective syllabus. This “iterative approximation” would require an
effective coordination as well as a systematic involvement of experts and selected MET
institutions in all METHAR countries. It should be also subject- or module-oriented. The
result should be a document of guidance that provides for some flexibility in the national
implementation as may be required to take into account the general education level of
students and any emphasis which national MET may wish to make within the frame of
STCW 95.
4.2
Additional courses for preparation of shore employment in the maritime industry
(attraction, competition, mobility)
Ship officer students should be given the opportunity to obtain additional qualifications which
enhance their knowledge and understanding of how the maritime industry operates. Such
qualification in maritime operations and costs, which could be divided into more economicsbiased shipping operations and costs and more technology-biased port operations and costs,
would have two major benefits. It would create a better appreciation of the economic and
technological context in which the maritime industry operates, which would help to make ship
officers more cost-conscious and act accordingly and facilitate their appreciation of head
office decisions. On the other hand, it would help ship officers in the transfer from on-board
positions to shore-based positions in the maritime industry and would make ex-ship officers
even more valuable for shore-based positions in which shipboard experience is required.
These provisions for additional studies should be made available ideally as integral part of
MET programmes or at least separately after the completion of MET programmes and the
acquisition of certificates of competency and some sea time.
The enhanced mobility within the maritime industry for which these courses prepare ship
officer students or ship officers, provide for a professional career that is not limited to
shipboard work but extends to the shore-based maritime industry. Research has shown that
the offer of such career would increase the attraction of it for young qualified people,
particularly if it would allow them to obtain an academic degree in addition to a certificate of
competency. The advantage of such MET offer, besides the traditional offer in most
METHAR countries of certificate only studies, would increase the pool of nationals who
could be attracted to national MET and national ships. It can also be seen as an appreciation
of seafaring having become a part of a career and as a response of MET to this fact by the
provision of “enrichment” subjects beyond shipboard-confined syllabi (see also work package
5: Recommendations for improvement of present European MET and preparing it for meeting
future training needs in the context of MET harmonization for increased safety and
environmental friendliness as well as improved efficiency of European shipping).
4.3
Updating of maritime lecturers
One of the greatest assets of MET in most METHAR countries is the qualification of lecturers
with seafaring background in professional subjects. This qualification has to be maintained
through continuous updating. Systematic provisions for such updating do normally not exist
and it is up to the individual to find and seize opportunities. Although updating is understood
by most lecturers as going back to sea as officer or observer, there is an emerging tendency to
21
see returns to the maritime industry ashore also as an appropriate means for professional
updating. This tendency exists mostly in countries where MET offers also ship-shore syllabi.
The updating of lecturers, who do not have a maritime background, is most effectively done
by “marinizing” them through “internships” on board or in the maritime industry ashore. This
can best be achieved in co-operation with the lecturers who have a seafaring background.
“In return”, an “academizing” of ex-seafarer lecturers with the help of non-seafarer lecturers
with academic credentials is an appropriate provision for exploiting faculty potential in favour
of quality and coherence of MET programmes.
There is also a third type of lecturers that is becoming, although rather slowly, more
numerous, mostly at MET institutions which are departments of more comprehensive higher
education institutions. These lecturers do not hold only the highest certificate of competency
(which can in some countries also be combined with an academic degree) but also a
“separate” academic degree. New lecturers, if they would be recruited, should preferably
have both qualifications: a professional certificate and an academic degree.
Not enough new lecturers are recruited as the number of lecturers at MET (and other higher
education) institutions is mostly determined by the number of students. Since the latter
number has been declining for several years, the recruitment of new staff had to be suspended.
This has led to a rather high age of faculty at many MET institutions in METHAR countries.
Obviously, a concentration of resources would require a smaller number of lecturers. If MET
institutions would be integrated in a more comprehensive higher education institution as a
department then the need for lecturers may further decrease as science subjects and basics of
other subjects as, for example, economy or law in ship-shore syllabi could partly be taken
over by lecturers from other departments. Reducing the number of lecturers to the number
needed would require non-replacement of retired lecturers or early retirement provisions for
other lecturers, the more so since lecturers with a nautical background, who are often in the
majority at MET institutions may not be qualified to teach at other departments.
Nevertheless, this unsatisfactory and perhaps even unpleasant prospect should not be used to
advocate a wait-and-see attitude. MET institutions should be closed if they cannot attract
enough students anymore and have already a too small staff to deliver all programmes in
sufficient quality.
Present lecturers, disregarding their age, have to be encouraged to engage themselves in
updating in a preferably systematic approach, if they are not already taking care of this
themselves.
It would be of benefit for updating the qualification of lecturers if the updating that is
necessary for all of them would be developed by MET institutions which are particularly
advanced in these areas of expertise.
There are four areas in which most lecturers at MET institutions in all METHAR countries
could profit from attending an updating course.
22
The areas are:
1 the use of modern technology in teaching
2 the use of modern technology in assessment
3 the use of shiphandling/navigation simulators
4 the use of engine room simulators.
Course 1 should mainly comprise IT use including distance learning.
Course 2 is particularly important because of the competence-based requirements of
STCW 95.
Course 3 is required because new operators of shiphandling/navigation simulators need
considerable time before being able to exploit the potential of modern
shiphandling/navigation simulators. Even those who have learnt to operate such systems can
learn much from a pooling of expertise of the most experienced shiphandling/navigation
simulator instructors in a single course. The MASSTER project provides a compilation of
expertise from which all instructors using the same type of simulator can profit.
Course 4 on engine room simulator use is as much required as course 3, although not for the
instructors of deck officers but of engine officers.
Ideally, the 4 courses should be developed at a MET institution where considerable expertise
in the specific areas of the courses exists, in cooperation with equally qualified MET
institutions. Thereafter, MET lecturers from MET institutions in the 15 METHAR countries
should attend a course at the MET institution that developed it and should act as
multiplicators for the up-to-date knowledge and experience obtained for MET institutions in
their respective countries.
4.4
Costs and financing of MET (competitiveness)
MET in METHAR countries needs not to be as expensive as it is today if a concentration of
resources would take place. Such concentration of resources at a smaller number of MET
institutions in the 15 METHAR countries with more than only a few MET institutions would,
in addition to resulting in financial benefits,
•
•
•
•
eliminate differences in standards between MET institutions in the same country because
of variations in, for example, the availability of modern expensive simulators;
ensure the teaching of all subjects by experts which is today not always the case at small
MET institutions with a small number of staff where lecturers often teach too many
subjects without being experts in all of them;
make it possible for MET institutions to make an own income from short intensive
professional development courses, consultancy and research;
take a stronger role as advisor to the national government and become an equal partner in
solving MET problems of national concern in close cooperation with administration and
industry.
This general approach to provide for a better cost-benefit of MET by the concentration of
national MET resources which (can also be expected to lead to higher standards and) can be
strengthened by the integration of independent MET institutions as departments in larger
higher education establishments. Such integration will be particularly advantageous for shipMETHAR, WP 6.2, Report
23
shore MET at the end of which an academic degree will be awarded in addition to a certificate
of competency. It would facilitate access to expertise in science, English and other subjects
as, for example, economics and law from lecturers of other departments. The other benefit
from an integration lies in the mind-broadening effect for lecturers who have before taught at
a MET institution which was physically, organizationally and financially separated from other
institutions of higher education. Communication and cooperation with lecturers in other
departments normally lead to mutual recognition and appreciation and an opening of the
sometimes “solitary confinement” of MET teaching staff in their “maritime world”.
Whilst concentration and integration are cost-saving and quality-raising, it may be difficult to
calculate to which exact savings they will lead, although it can be taken for granted that there
will be savings in addition to gains in quality and potential.
It would therefore be of benefit to identify and specify the costs of MET up to an unlimited
certificate including the possible contribution that a student may have to make to them. If
these costs would be calculated and would be categorized regarding where, when and for what
they arise, and if the sources of finance and their contribution to the different cost categories
would be specified, then possibilities for savings could be identified and savings could be
made. With help of such analysis could also the savings from concentration and integration
be calculated and other possibilities for savings be explored.
The approaches concentrating and/or integrating have until now been used with success in
some countries, the approach analysing costs and identifying savings has until now rarely
been used in satisfactory detail.
4.5
Mutual recognition of certificates and improvement of English language proficiency
(mobility)
Bilateral agreements on the recognition of certificates between METHAR countries exist,
although only to a limited degree. There exists also a legal framework for the mutual
recognition of educational awards within EU countries which is mainly used for facilitating
student exchanges between universities and the national recognition of studies abroad.
Considering the existing legal provision, it is difficult to understand the reasons for the
reluctance to offering unlimited mobility to ship officers in EU countries. Even the common
minimum requirements of STCW 95, which also all EU member states have to meet, support
mobility of ship officers between EU countries.
An obstacle for the further extension of mobility for ship officers in the EU seem to be
differences in standards or at least the perception of differences in standards.
There may also be the concern that an unrestricted influx of foreign ship officers may have a
negative effect on the national labour-market. Moreover, ship operators may prefer to fill
ship officer positions with foreigners from non-EU countries who also more readily accept
lower wages than it may be the case with ship officers from other EU countries.
However, even if all nationally justifiable reservations against the employment of ship
officers from other EU countries would be overcome, a remaining prohibiting factor to more
mobility is a limited proficiency in foreign languages. On ships manned with nationals the
national language is spoken, on ships with multi-national crews English is more often used as
common language than any other language.
24
Moreover, there is hardly any country in the EU that can afford the “export” of national ship
officers as most countries do not have enough ship officers to man vessels under the national
flag. In other words: even if all national reservations against an increase of mobility between
EU countries would be dropped, unlimited mobility may hardly happen because of
shortcomings in foreign language proficiency and shortage of national supply.
It is not clear which influence personal preferences may have on an individual’s readiness to
make use of existing opportunities for mobility. It would probably not be wrong to assume
that better financial, leave and social conditions may play a role in wanting to “become
mobile” and may be also other “non-pecuniar” interests.
Nevertheless, the national recognition of certificates should be extended but at the preference
of the individual EU member states. This could be facilitated by better provisions for a
mutual recognition of MET standards, i.e. by the use of more comparable and more
harmonized syllabi, an intensified study and increased use of English at MET institutions and
as language on board of ships with multi-lingual crews. It will however be more difficult to
weaken and even overcome attitudes which are believed to protect national interest.
4.6
Summary
enriched attraction
4.1
STCW
implementation
4.2
ship-shore
MET
4.3
lecturer
updating
4.4
Costs and
finance
4.5
mutual
recognition
of certificates
through career
enrichment
increased
competitiveness
through implementation
of improved, more
effective competencefocussed syllabi
through additional
qualification
facilitated mobility
through harmonization
of syllabi
through enhanced
employability
through improved
quality and delivery of
syllabi and improved
assessment
through more costeffective MET
through intensified
teaching and increased
use of English at MET
institutions
and
improvement
of English
language
proficiency
through facilitated
mutual recognition of
certificates
through intensified
teaching and increased
use of English at MET
institutions and on ships
with multi-lingual crews.
25
5
Measures for overcoming weaknesses
There exist possibilities to overcome the weaknesses of present MET in METHAR countries.
They have been listed under 4.6 Summary of Chapter 4 Overcoming weaknesses. Before
these possibilities can be fully exploited, more basic changes in national MET in most
METHAR countries will have to take place. The two most important changes are a
development of career enrichment programmes and a concentration of national MET
resources. Both changes facilitate a third change, the extension of MET institutions’
activities, which could also be supported by a fourth change, the integration of MET
institutions as department in more comprehensive higher education institutions.
5.1
Career enrichment
The number of students at MET institutions can be or is already increased by offering, in
countries with MET demand and supply problems, courses which lead to professional
certificates of competency and academic degrees and prepare for a career in the maritime
industry as a whole. Dual-purpose MET which also provides for academic degrees can also
be seen as career enrichment and as taking into account the requirements of both the industry
and the individual. At the same time, the offer of courses which only lead to a monovalent
professional certificate has to be maintained and provisions have to be made also for these
students to facilitate their transfer from sea to employment in positions in the maritime
industry ashore where shipboard experience is required or desired.
A few countries have already introduced career enrichment, a few of them for some time
already, and have, at the same time, left open the access to MET for young people with lower
qualifications in general education than those required for academic degree courses.
Only a few of the countries which have made provisions for career enrichment in order to
exploit national sources for MET optimally and improve MET standards, have also
concentrated MET resources.
5.2
Resources concentration
A concentration of MET at a smaller number of institutions and a pooling of equipment and
expertise will have to take place in countries where too many of these institutions exist. In
other words: the number of study places has to be brought in line with the number of students.
5.3
Activities extension
MET institutions should extend their activities not only to the offer of short intensive
professional updating courses which will help to establish close contact and cooperation with
the industry. They should also take up research and consultancy and make an own income on
them. A concentration of resources will be a prerequisite for this extension of activities.
MET integration (5.4) will help to achieve it. It will also have an impact on staff profile
towards the employment of former seafarers with unlimited certificates of competency who
have also obtained academic degrees.
26
5.4
MET integration
It would be of benefit for MET institutions to be integrated as departments in polytechnics or
universities. The physical, financial and administrative separation of MET institutions from
other institutions of higher learning helps breed “solitary confinement” and strengthen the
often existing self-perception of those in the system that MET is something very special and
lacks comparison.
The general situation in MET in METHAR countries in respect of the four parameters is as
follows:
BE
DK
FI
FR
DE
1
career enrichment
yes
partly
partly
yes
yes
2
resources concentration
yes
no
partly
partly
no
3
activities extension
no
no
no
no
partly
4
MET integration
no
no
yes *
no
mostly
* except MET institution in Mariehamn, Åland Islands
GR
IS
IE
IT
NL
NO
PT
ES
SE
GB
1
no
no
no
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
partly
2
partly
yes
yes
no
no
partly
yes
no
yes
mostly
3
no
no
no
no
no
no
partly
partly
partly
partly
4
no
no
no
no
partly
partly
no
yes
yes
partly
Not all of the countries which offer ship and ship-shore MET have been and are able to attract
a sufficient number of students, although most of the countries which have concentrated their
MET resources have been and are able to attract a sufficient number of students (also because
of the reduced number of study places). Activities extension which should preferably go hand
in hand with career enrichment (programmes) and resources concentration is clearly
underdeveloped. When it exists then it is facilitated by MET integration.
6
Implementation of measures for overcoming weaknesses
Most of the measures for improving the attraction, competitiveness and mobility of MET have
to be implemented nationally. Nevertheless, principle measures (as explained under 5) should
be the same in most of the 15 METHAR countries. It will therefore be of benefit to learn
from each other how the national improvement of MET is approached. The Commission can
take a supporting role in improving national MET. It can facilitate the implementation of
improvements by providing support to all countries, mainly in the form of harmonized syllabi
and teacher updating and for networking.
27
The introduction of changes to national MET appears to be difficult in a number of countries.
MET systems have been developed over centuries, they are rather conservative and the people
in them tend to be reluctant to change.
Moreover, MET institutions are often closely interwoven with local communities and
parochial preferences for maintaining the status quo are not conducive to change. However,
if no adaptation or re-orientation of perceptions and objectives of MET will take place soon
then the question “Is the EU seafarer an endangered species?” will have to be answered
affirmatively and the trend towards a further weakening of MET’s attraction and
competitiveness will continue and the present limited mobility will not be extended.
6.1
National aspects
The concentration of national MET resources, the offer of programmes providing for career
enrichment, the extension of activities at MET institution and the possible integration of MET
institutions as departments into higher education institutions have all to be decided and to be
implemented nationally.
The most difficult task of the four is the concentration of national MET resources at a smaller
number of MET institutions in METHAR countries which have too many MET institutions.
It seems to be and it is probably rather difficult to “deprive” a county, an island, or another
part of a country from an MET institution that has existed there for many years and perhaps
even centuries, and to make jobs redundant. Nevertheless, something needs to be done to
concentrate national MET resources and to provide for the offer of more attractive and better
MET programmes which are of benefit for both the industry and the individual.
The provision of all MET institutions in a country with modern and expensive equipment as
shiphandling and engine room simulators is no alternative to concentrating these facilities at a
small number of institutions. Also travel provisions for students at “disadvantaged” MET
institutions to “advantaged”, i.e. fully equipped MET institutions, are no solution for at least
maintaining and preferably reducing the costs for MET. An increase of costs for national
MET stands in contrast to the general tendency to cut public expenditure.
What, then, could be done to overcome the obstacles in the way for a concentration of
national MET resources? Concentration is a major prerequisite for making national MET fit
for the new century and help attract an increased number of nationals to MET.
The key to the adaptation of national MET to a changed global environment and changed
individual expectations are “joint national efforts”. Only if all parties concerned with MET or
MET graduates agree to tackle the existing problems as a national issue, can improvements be
expected. These parties are shipowners, unions, educational and maritime authorities, MET
institutions, national professional associations and maritime research institutions. Such joint
national efforts have produced positive results in France (since 1967), and more recently in
the Netherlands and Norway which have both been able to “turn the tide” and attract more
young people to seafaring. In both the Dutch and the Norwegian case, a concentration of
MET resources was not a priority but rather the promotion of a seafaring career and the
increase of its attraction. A financial support to shipowners for the employment of nationals
has also played a role in shaping a national consensus. Nevertheless, the time will come
when concentration of MET resources will appear on the agenda of joint national efforts to
save national MET.
28
It is obvious that the national concentration of MET resources cannot be achieved in a single
step, a many-steps approach is required. A first step into the right direction can be a
concentration of MET programmes which also lead to academic degrees at a smaller number
of institutions than those at which MET programmes for certificates only are offered. The
prerequisite for this approach is however the introduction of the option of an academic degree
for MET students, a necessary development, which can hardly be neglected.
6.2
EU aspects
The improvement of national MET is normally a national affair. However, MET in other
countries may be more advanced than MET in the own country and learning lessons from
another national MET system is an easy way of improving the own country’s MET. There is
also the possibility that a country could actively help another country with improving its
MET. It is therefore desirable to bring together representatives of national MET at a
roundtable and exchange information, experiences and views on MET. The Concerted
Action on MET (CAMET) has served this purpose but, because of its size and the relatively
low frequency of its meetings as well as its focus on the discussion of METHAR work
packages, has not been able to discuss details of national MET in sufficient depth and how
problems have been solved.
It has also to be noted that the Concerted Action on MET has members from both MET
institutions and educational and maritime administration dealing with MET. This
composition has provided for a greater scope of interest than it would be the case in a forum
consisting only of MET institution representatives. The CAMET composition was most
appropriate for dealing with the implementation of requirements of STCW 95. EU MET
does, however, now operate in the post-STCW 95 period and can fully concentrate again on
responding to industry and individual MET needs.
The most effective approach to assisting national MET efforts for further improvement would
be identifying best standards existing in one or more countries or at one or more MET
institutions and making programmes and methods leading to these standards available to all
countries participating in the efforts to make MET in West Europe more attractive, more
competitive and provide for enhanced mobility. Since there are differences in quality at MET
institutions in the same country and since not all MET institutions are able to offer high
standards, it would seem an appropriate approach if one of the best MET institutions in all
countries would become a member of a network of leading MET institutions. It would then
be the task of the network members, to identify and spread best standards, programmes and
methods to all other national MET institutions.
These selected MET institutions could also help with the improvement of existing and the
development of new programmes and their implementation. These programmes could be
developed by a small group of experts in a follow-up programme to METHAR. The five
METHAR case studies of work package 7.3 (Provision of case studies in a few subjects that
are important for safety and pollution prevention and the efficiency of maritime transport)
have given an indication where the difficulties with such approach may lie, but they should
also have given hope that good ready-made programmes can be expected to positively
influence existing programmes in these subjects in the 15 METHAR countries or even replace
them.
29
The network of leading MET institutions should not see itself as an elitist club but as a tool
for making MET more attractive and competitive, providing more professional mobility to
MET graduates and serving all MET institutions. It should - through a network secretariat also establish relations to government administrations of MET and the maritime industry that
employs MET graduates.
The network should make proposals on the contents and delivery of MET programmes. It
should not try to impose new programmes or other changes but draw attention to possible
improvements of MET with a view on increased attraction, competitiveness and mobility and
provide support for the implementation of these improvements in the form of selected MET
syllabi/courses.
It will not be the role of the network to involve itself in national implementation, this will be
the role of the national network member in cooperation with all national MET institutions,
national maritime and educational administration and industry. Nevertheless, the network
should provide for workshops in which lecturers from all participating institutions should be
prepared for national implementation of new developments.
Moreover, it should be the role of the network to offer suggestions on
•
•
how the attraction of MET can be enhanced in order to generate a sufficient supply of
national seafarers and of ex-seafarers for the national maritime industry ashore;
how mobility of MET graduates can be enhanced by an increased commonality of MET
programmes even beyond STCW 95 requirements.
Such organized compiling and sharing of expertise could become an effective way of
improving standards of METHAR country MET and support and complement national efforts
in this direction.
6.3
“Bottom-up” approach and “top-down” approach
The explanations under 6.1 National aspects and 6.2 EU aspects should have made it clear
that both “bottom up” approach and “top down” approach have to be used to bring about
change in MET and that a EU contribution can rather be made through a “bottom up”
approach than a “top down” approach and a national contribution rather through a “top down”
approach than a “bottom up” approach. A successful EU “bottom up” approach requires a
more harmonized MET, more harmonized qualifications of lecturers and about equally
equipped MET institutions. A successful “top down” national approach requires
concentration of MET resources, the introduction of ship-shore syllabi for career enrichment,
extension of MET institutions’ activities and preferably also MET institutions’ integration in
more comprehensive higher ET institutions as departments.
The best prerequisite for managing and implementing changes nationally is a joint national
approach of all parties concerned with MET and the appreciation of MET as an equal partner
at national “round tables”.
The EU contribution to improving the attraction and competitiveness of MET and the
competitiveness and mobility of MET graduates is mainly an easing and facilitating, catalytic
and stimulating contribution, the national contributions are mainly determining and resolving,
implementing and realizing contributions.
30
Report
METHAR
Project
Coordinator:
Partners:
Work package 7:
Case studies for the harmonization of European MET
Date: December 1999
PROGRAMME
METHAR, WP 7
METHAR
WP 7.1 Framework for harmonized MET curricula *
WP 7.2 Evaluation of the suitability of existing materials for case studies **
WP 7.3 Provision of case studies in a few subjects that are important for safety
and pollution prevention and the efficiency of maritime transport ***
REPORT
(* Prepared by Rajendra Prasad)
(*** Prepared by Peter Muirhead)
Hochschule Bremen, Fachbereich Nautik, Bremen, Germany
(** Prepared by Hermann Kaps)
and Rajendra Prasad)
December 1999
1
Work Package 7
Table of contents
Page
WP 7.1 Framework for harmonized MET curricula
03
WP 7.2 Evaluation of the suitability of existing materials for case
studies
09
WP 7.3 Provision of case studies in a few subjects that are important
for safety and pollution prevention and the efficiency of maritime
transport
27
2
METHAR
WP 7.1 Framework for harmonized MET curricula
REPORT
(Prepared by Rajendra Prasad)
December 1999
3
Work Package 7.1
Framework for harmonized MET curricula
Table of contents
Page
1
2
Introduction
05
1.1
05
Hamonization of MET
Objectives
06
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
06
06
06
07
07
International standards
Professional mobility and competitiveness
Attraction for seafaring profession
Modern technology
Flexibility
3
Major components of framework
08
4
Conclusions
08
4
1
Introduction
Historically Maritime Education and Training (MET) in most of the countries has been driven
by industry requirements of competence for safe and efficient shipboard operations with the
supervision of standards under the authority of the ministry controlling sea transportation. In
some of the countries there exists an integration of the MET with the national education
system. However the issuance and control of the certificates of competencies remains with
the Ministry/Department regulating the sea transportation.
The study of the MET systems in the METHAR countries indicates that in some of the
countries the contents of the syllabuses have already been modified and in others they are
under revision to meet the requirements of STCW 95. However even after all the countries
are in compliance with the STCW 95 there would still exist wide variance in the MET
curricula from country to country and institution to institution. This variance is either due to
the integration of MET with the national education system or due to the national MET
policies based on the industry requirements or due to individual developments caused by
relative isolation of MET institutions or combination of some of these factors.
METHAR outcomes indicate that the alarming decline of the European seafarers will on the
long run also affect shore management of shipping industry and its ancillary industry secondary field of occupation for seafarers (WP 5.1). It aims at identifying measures for
promoting professional mobility of seafarers, their competitiveness on international basis and
attraction towards the maritime profession. These factors will have a strong positive
influence in restricting the decline of the European seafarers, the ‘endangered species’.
1.1
Harmonization of MET
Professional mobility is having two main desirable dimensions. Mobility of seafarers
amongst the METHAR countries, which can contribute to more effective distribution of
qualified seafarers and second, mobility of experienced seafarers towards the secondary field
of occupation. International competitiveness of the European seafarers will make them more
sought after by the European shipping industry because of long term economical and social
gains, even at marginally higher costs as compared to the seafarers form non-METHAR
countries. Attraction towards the profession will of course have a direct impact on the present
supply and demand of seafarers.
Standards of MET, competence and certification form the common linkage between
professional mobility, international competitiveness and attraction. The participants of the
CAMET group, right from the first meeting have indicated desirability of a harmonized
curriculum. There is a majority acceptance amongst the METHAR countries that barely
complying with the STCW 95 minimum standards will not suffice. MET should not only
serve the shipboard service requirements but also those of the maritime industry’s secondary
field of occupation with necessary flexibility for adaptation to the national needs (WP 2).
5
2
Objectives
The objective of WP 7.1 is to present a framework that will provide a common approach to
development of MET curricula for certification at the operational and management levels for
nautical, marine engineering and dual-purpose officers. The framework has to take into
consideration:
2.1
International standards
STCW 95 lays emphasis on competency based MET. Competencies have been identified and
arranged in seven different functions at the operational and management levels. Minimum
requirements of knowledge, understanding and proficiency in all the competencies have been
specified along with the assessment criteria. Certain topics, over and above the STCW 95
requirements, are considered essential for safety and efficiency of operations and have been
referred to as ‘extension of the MET’ in the METHAR terminology (WP 5.1). These may be
in the form of additions to the basic course syllabuses as well as in the form of specialised
short courses.
The ISM Code lays down requirements of qualifications and training specially that of
familiarisation of seafarers with the shipboard systems and duties. While the qualification
criteria are covered by the STCW 95, knowledge of these requirements is essential to the
shipboard officers.
2.2
Professional mobility and competitiveness
Mobility of seafarers for shipboard services requires mutual recognition of certificates of
competency. Mutual recognition is more easily achieved with common standards or
harmonized curricula. However for mobility from the primary field to the secondary field of
occupation a need for adequate shipboard experience as well as coverage of management and
administrative aspects of professional subjects, through MET, has been established (WP 1.7).
These additional topics and higher coverage on basic topics have been termed as ‘enrichment
of the MET’ in METHAR terminology (WP 5.1).
The higher standards in the basic subjects help seafarers develop their perception, they can
easily adapt themselves to different situations, they have higher analytical skills and thus can
contribute to higher operational efficiency. They are better equipped for higher level of
safety and efficiency of operations. Higher standards of MET will enhance competitiveness
of the European seafarers.
2.3
Attraction for seafaring profession
Enrichment of MET, while contributing to the professional mobility of the seafarers toward
secondary field of occupation will, to start with, also promote attraction of young persons
towards maritime profession. The enrichment could not only lead to academic awards, a
motivating factor in itself, it will also motivate them to pursue this profession as they could
see future in secondary field of occupation (WP 3). Thus by enrichment of MET seafaring
profession can be made more attractive, competitiveness enhanced and professional mobility
of seafarers improved in the METHAR countries.
6
2.4
Modern technology
There are two aspects of adoption of modern technology in MET.
First, is the inclusion in the teaching syllabus, topics covering theoretical and practical aspects
of advanced equipment and systems found on board modern ships. Inclusion of such topics in
the syllabuses would need sound scientific background not only to understand the basic
principles and to develop required skills but also to be able to adapt to the future
developments.
Second, is the adoption of advanced technology to improve pedagogic effectiveness of
teaching/learning process. STCW 95 emphasises on development of skills along with
knowledge and understanding. The right methodology for development of particular skills is
to be adopted from the variety of and or combination of different methods and systems. The
development of skills involves practical on job training, exercises, laboratory work,
demonstrations, use of simulators, computer based teaching and learning systems.
STCW 95 emphasizes on objective assessment of knowledge and skills. The Code A of the
Convention enumerates suitable methods for demonstration of competence. One of these
methods or a combination of these can be selected for objective assessment suitable to
specified criteria for evaluating competence.
2.5
Flexibility
Complete harmonization of MET i.e. identical syllabuses and extent of coverage of topics is
neither feasible nor desirable. Only a bottom-up approach for harmonization of MET to the
extent desirable, acceptable and feasible will be suitable. There is a wide variety in the MET
systems in the METHAR countries (WP 1.2). This variety exists not only in the contents of
syllabuses but also on the extent of coverage, which depends upon the entry levels and
whether the system is part of a national education system associated with educational awards.
To obtain harmonization in such a scenario would not be possible without a great deal of
flexibility. This flexibility can be provided by systematically restructuring the contents of
similar and related subjects or topics into modules and developing a modular pattern of MET.
A modular pattern of courses can be developed for desirable flexibility between different
schemes (e.g. front ended, sandwiched etc.); entry levels (pre-secondary, pre-university);
disciplines (nautical, marine engineering and dual purpose); and integration with the national
education system. Short specialised courses can be integrated in the main MET system.
Modular pattern can also provide students with flexibility to pursue their studies at different
institutions and timings (mobility of students, if so desired).
Every institution need not have extensive facilities for each and every course module. The
flexibility built in the modular pattern will facilitate efficient use of the resources by their
possible exchange and concentration. The most suitable methodology to enhance cost
effectiveness of the MET will need to be identified and feasibility of its use will have to be
explored so that for each module resources can be specified.
7
3
Major components of the framework
In order that the framework of MET curricula fulfils the purposes enumerated above,
following major components will have to be identified and specified:
3.1 Objectives and scope - the global objectives of the curricula, level of
certification and applicable discipline.
3.2 Type of MET scheme – front ended, sandwiched, direct practical experience
only, monovalent, bivalent, semi-bivalent, shipboard experience duration and timings.
3.3 Entry standards – academic and medical eligibility criteria for admission and
different grades of certificates.
3.4 Academic awards – degree, diploma or certificate in combination with the
certificate of competency.
3.5 Duration – total duration as well as the time allocation to different modules,
theoretical and practical training and shipboard experience.
3.6 Syllabus – contents to be covered based on the minimum requirements
emanating from the STCW 95, extensions and enrichment topics based on industry
requirements.
3.7 Structure – modules covering basic science subjects, humanities, specified
professional subjects, enrichment subjects, practical exercises and specialized courses.
3.8 Resources – allocation of time, material, teaching and learning aids,
laboratories, simulators etc., study material, essential and reference books, lifications and
number of lecturers and trainers.
3.9 Assessment methods - written or oral examinations, written assignments,
practical assignments and tests, simulated exercises etc.
4
Conclusions
Study of MET systems in the METHAR countries indicates marked variance in the syllabuses
contents and coverage of different subjects. General acceptance exists in majority of the
METHAR countries for desirability of harmonized curricula to facilitate mobility.
Harmonization can however be achieved only to the extent feasible and desirable. It should
be attempted with a “bottom up” approach keeping in view the international standards for
easy recognition of certificates, with sufficient flexibility to facilitate easy adaptation into
national educational schemes and should include the extension and enrichment topics to
satisfy the needs of the industry.
8
METHAR
WP 7.2 Evaluation of the suitability of existing materials for case studies
REPORT
Hochschule Bremen, Fachbereich Nautik (HSHB-N), Bremen, Germany
(Prepared by Hermann Kaps)
(Prepared by Rajendra Prasad)
November 1999
9
Work Package 7.2
Evaluation of the suitability of existing material for case studies.
This task shall examine current curriculum materials and identify selected areas for the
development of case studies under work package 7.3. Results presented are based on work
package reports 1-6, on questionnaires sent to and returned from MET institutions and on the
consideration of presently available IMO model courses.
Table of contents
Page
1
Analysis of previous work packages of METHAR
11
2
Evaluation of opinions from MET institutions
11
2.1
2.2
12
13
2.3
2.4
2.5
Nautical questionnaire
Analysis of responses and conclusions from the
nautical questionnaire
Marine engineering questionnaire
Analysis of responses and conclusions from the
marine engineering questionnaire
Cross-check with previous METHAR findings
14
15
16
3
IMO-model courses
16
4
Conclusions
18
Appendix 1:
Questionnaire on nautical syllabi
20
Appendix 2:
Questionnaire on marine engineering syllabi
23
10
1
Analysis of previous work packages of METHAR
Work packages 1 to 6 have, in summary, given a clear picture of the essentials of future
European MET with respect to:
• STCW requirements,
• needs of the maritime industry,
• desired career prospects of graduates.
The most challenging feature of the competency tables in the STCW-Code part A is the
emphasis on professional skills going beyond knowledge based proficiency. This requires a
fundamental re-consideration of MET curricula in many countries.
The advance of modern technology in many areas of operations on board as well as ashore
has also questioned a number of traditional sectors of MET curricula which should not only
lead to extensions of the syllabi but also to cuts in traditional areas of declining importance.
The re-consideration of MET concepts in Europe evoked by CAMET activities has increased
the consensus to develop ship-shore syllabuses with the predominate feature of promoting
management proficiency and skills.
These principal lines of further development of MET programmes should be used as guiding
terms for the preparation of case studies.
2
Evaluation of opinions from MET institutions
Most European MET institutions are presently in the progress of adapting their curricula to
STCW requirements and to additional objectives as stipulated in the progress of METHAR
development regarding extensions to STCW and enrichment of MET. In order to get a
present-day contact to these activities two questionnaires, one each for nautical and marine
engineering disciplines, were prepared for the purpose of obtaining opinions from the MET
institutions on the present curriculum subjects with regards to the adequacy and suitability of
concepts and materials available, as well as on desired improvements.
The questionnaire consisted of a structured list of teaching areas, which were organised along
the same structure as those of the competence tables in STCW 95 Code-A. A copy of the
questionnaire is attached. For each of the teaching areas the MET institutions were requested
to respond with respect to:
•
•
•
suitability of the concept forming the basis of the teaching area,
applicability of the material used for the teaching area,
desirable improvements in the form of various proposed teaching aids
Respondents were requested to express their opinion by allocating marks ranging from 1 to 3
in respect of concept and material. For suitability of concepts forming the basis of the
teaching area, mark 1 corresponds to concepts being clear, unambiguous and up to date.
Mark 2 corresponds the concepts being sufficiently developed and being updated while mark
3 indicating the concepts being not clear, outdated and requiring re-assessment.
11
As regards applicability of the materials used for teaching the marks range 1to 3 respectively
correspond to 1- excellently prepared and available, 2- sufficient supply of resources, and 3poor resources, material quality being doubtful regarding scope and suitability.
Similarly for desirable improvements in the same areas of subjects/topics as listed for
concepts and materials, the respondents were requested to give their opinion by choosing
suitable letter/ letters from amongst six letters which had been pre-defined to correspond to
different teaching learning resources. These letters correspond to the facilities and resources
such as model courses, text books, computer software including PC simulation, visual/audio
visual material, large scale simulation equipment and assessment material. (Ref. Definitions
provided on the cover note of the questionnaire).
2.1 Nautical questionnaire
The nautical questionnaire has been distributed to CAMET-members on 29. March 1999
during CAMET 9-meeting in Rotterdam. The limited back flow of 13 completely filled and
two partly filled (limited scope of MET-programme) questionnaires from 8 countries per end
of June 1999 is not too satisfying but can still be used to draw a number of conclusions. The
layout of the questionnaire is presented in the Appendix 1 to this report.
Response No 1 marks concepts and material mainly with 2 (sufficient). No marks were given
however for bridge communication, telecommunication, medical care and a few subject under
emergency preparedness. Desirably improvements were seen mainly by computer software,
visual aids and textbooks for the subject cargo handling.
Response No 2 marks concept and material for bridge procedures mainly with 1 (excellent)
with no remarks for improvement while cargo operations and ship resource management is
marked mainly with 2. Computer software and visual aids are deemed desirable for gaining
improvements.
Response No 3 marks concept and material in all subjects with 1 except for simulator training
where 2 was given. There are no marks for desirable improvements.
Response No 4 marks concept and material for the majority of subjects with 1. The
exceptions are bridge resource management, VTS/SAR-operations and crew/cadet training
where 2 or 3 are given. There are a few proposals for improvements by computer software,
visual aids and simulators.
Response No 5 marks concepts mainly with 1 while for the material the mark 2 is
dominating. Proposals for improvements are textbooks for personnel resource management
and some computer software and visual aid for other subjects.
Response No 6 marks concept and material for bridge procedures generally with 1 but gives 3
(poor) for practical navigation / integrated navigation systems, for ship handling /
manoeuvring and for general maritime English. For these subjects also model courses are
proposed as improvements. The subjects cargo operations and ship resource management are
mainly considered excellently supported regarding concept and material. There are however
some proposals for improvements asking for model courses (subject emergency preparedness
and procedures) and for textbooks, computer software and visual aids.
12
Response No 7 marks concepts between 1 and 2 but material closer to 2. There are a large
number of proposals for improvements, mainly as computer software, visual aids and a few as
textbooks.
Response No 8 marks all concepts and materials close to 2 but gives a 3 for ship handling in
heavy weather. Under the proposals for improvements model courses are dominating above
textbooks and computer programmes. Assessment material is required for the subjects watch
keeping and simulator training.
Response No 9 is more optimistic with regard to concepts and materials by marking
preferably with 1 but mainly with 2 in the subjects ship administration, personnel resource
management and emergency preparedness and procedures. There are however no proposals
for improvements.
Response No 10 shows scarcely a mark 1 (radar simulator concept only) but 2 and often even
3. There are also proposals for improvements for all subjects with a large number of model
courses and all the other choices mentioned. This response clearly indicates a responder who
is extremely unsatisfied with the present situation.
Response No 11 shows a well mixed marking for concept and material between marks 1, 2
and 3 with bridge resource management, telecommunication, handling of dangerous goods,
tanker familiarization, medical care and parts of emergency preparedness and procedures
showing 3. Proposals for improvements are given throughout with a mixed composition. Also
this response casts a critical eye over the situation.
Response No 12 does not reflect all subjects but uses mark 1 for all concepts and materials
commented. There are only a few proposals for improvements, mainly computer programmes
and simulators.
Response No 13 marks concepts and materials for bridge procedures and cargo handling
mainly with 1 and sometimes with 2 while under ship resource management mark 2 is
dominating with even 3 in supply technology and waste management and in social
management and handling of conflicts. There are some proposals for improvements
mentioning textbooks, visual aids and model courses.
2.2 Analysis of responses and conclusions from the nautical questionnaire
The conclusions from these responses are:
1.
The structure and layout of teaching areas and subjects was obviously clear to at least
those who filled in the questionnaire. Although there were sufficient free lines where
additional subjects could have been entered if missing in the view of the questioned
person none of these lines was used. Instead, nearly all of the presented subjects have
been considered except in those questionnaires filled in at institutions with a limited
scope of curriculum. This can be taken as an indication that the structure and description
of teaching areas was in principle understood and considered as suitable.
2.
The quite extreme differences in the shown opinions can in principle be explained by
either different qualities of curricula judged by the responders on a common scale or
common qualities of curricula judged by responders using individual scales. The truth
13
will probably vary between these conditions. This indicates – any way – the need for the
development and consideration of a common model syllabus.
3.
With some exceptions all three columns have been filled in. The exceptions were that
the column for desirable improvements was left free in one case claiming that a
continuous improvement program is under way and limited by the budget only. The
marks in general show that nautical lecturers or professors in those institutions are far
from being fully satisfied by the conditions of their curricula with respect to the
concept, the material and the tools. There are however two responses which show a high
degree of contentedness with their situation.
4.
A thorough analysis of the responses with statistical methods is not feasible due to the
low number of responses. It may however be of interest to identify clusters of opinions
regarding concepts and materials and list the tools which are desired for certain subjects.
The following subjects were considered as less suitably covered by concept and
material:
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
crew training and cadet training; visual/audio visual material required,
VTS-operation, SAR-operation; computer software and simulators required,
general maritime English,
practical navigation, integrated navigation system; model course required,
ship handling / manoeuvring; model course required,
social management and handling of conflicts; textbook and visual aid required,
ship handling in heavy weather; textbook and computer software required,
(technical) redundancies, safety and alarm systems; simulator and computer
software required,
supply technology and waste management; textbook required.
2.3 Marine engineering questionnaire
The questionnaire pertaining to the marine engineering subjects were sent to the co-ordinators
in all the METHAR countries on 14 April 1999. The layout of this questionnaire is shown in
Appendix 2 to this report.
Responses towards the marine engineering questionnaire have been received so far from only
8 institutions in 6 countries. All the respondents have fully responded to the concept and
material columns of the questionnaire, except that three respondents have left the columns for
Tanker Familiarisation courses blank, perhaps indicating this course is not provided by them.
Some of the rows in ‘desirable improvements’ have been left blank which can be considered
to indicate that the respondents are satisfied with the available material.
The questionnaires have been evaluated in the same manner as was done with the nautical
questionnaire. Although the number of responses is not very satisfactory for the purpose of an
accurate evaluation, they can still be used to draw conclusions on suitability and sufficiency
of concepts and materials as well as opinions on the desirable improvements. Highlights of
the individual responses are as follows:
Response No. 1: Out of a total of 60 subjects/topics, 40 nos. corresponding to 66 % have
been marked as 1 (clear, unambiguous and updated) under concepts and 45 % have been
marked as 1 for the teaching material. Maximum desirable improvements have been identified
by way of assessment material, text books and audio-visual material.
14
Response No. 2: For the concepts, 35 % of items have been marked with 1 and 63 % with 2
with blank for the topic ‘safety of labour’. An amount of 26 % of the items in the material
column have been marked with 1 and remaining 37 % with 2. Maximum desirable
improvements are indicated by way of text books and simulated systems.
Response No. 3: Has marked all the items with 1 except for combustion control simulator
which has been left blank. The material column has been marked with 1 for 75 % of the items.
The only desirable improvement has been indicated by way of textbooks only.
Response No. 4: 90 % of items under concepts have received mark 2 with none of the items
left blank, while 96 % of the items in the material column are marked with 2 indicating
sufficiency in most of the subjects/topics. The response indicates availability of main engine
and auxiliary engine simulators with monitoring systems. Maximum desirable improvements
have been indicated by way of textbooks and computer software. The response also indicates
desirable improvement in laboratories in 11 different areas that are available in the institution.
Response No. 5: 85 % of the items in the concept column have been marked with 1 while 71
% in the materials column have received mark 2. Maximum desirable improvements are
indicated as computer software and visual/audio visual aids.
Response No. 6: For concepts 40 % are with mark 1 and 48 % with 2. Remaining 12 % are
marked with 3 indicating that these concepts are not clear and outdated. Material has been
indicated as satisfactory and sufficient with 70 % marked with 2. Respondent has also
indicated that engine room and combustion control simulators are expected this year.
Availability of Ro-Ro passenger ship familiarisation course has been indicated. Maximum
desirable improvements have been indicated by way textbooks, visual/audio visual material
and computer software.
Response No. 7: 95 % of items have been marked with 1 for concepts while 95 % items in
the materials column have been marked with 2. Three items, tanker familiarisation, engine
room and combustion control simulator concept and materials have been left blank indicating
non-availability of these courses. Desirable improvements have been indicated only by way of
two requirements, namely computer software and visual/audio visual materials. Surprisingly
simulators have not been indicated as desirable improvements.
Response No. 8: 85 % of the items for concepts and 98 % for material have been marked with
2 with one item, tanker familiarisation, left blank indicating non-availability of this course.
Desirable improvement has been indicated only by way of simulators/simulated systems.
2.4 Analysis of responses and conclusions from the marine engineering questionnaire
1.
Extra lines were provided in each of the subject areas for the respondents to add topics
considered necessary. However as these lines are not utilised, it can be considered that
those responded are generally satisfied with the subjects/topics.
2.
More than 60 % of items for the concepts pertaining to the subjects/topics of material
science, thermodynamics, applied mechanics, principles of engineering watch, main and
auxiliary machinery, knowledge of international law, use of written and verbal English,
ship administration, emergency preparedness and procedures, are given 1 mark (highest)
15
with the remaining 40 % being with mark 2. This indicates that either the concepts are
clear, unambiguous and up to date or are under the process of being updated.
3.
In the areas of workshop practice, engineering drawing, electronics and computers,
management of maintenance, personnel resources management, control of operations
and care of persons on board, the concepts with mark 1 are clustering around 50 %. One
response each for steam generation and steam engineering, safe practices on machines
and tools, social management and handling of conflicts, regulation and private law and
simulators have provided mark 3 for each of these items. These responses in indicate
that the topics need updating.
4.
As regards materials, 70 % of the items have been marked with 2 and 25 % with mark
1. However there are 4 % of items with mark 3 indicating poor quality and doubtful
scope and suitability. However this inadequacy has been indicated by 2 of the 8
respondents in the ‘personnel resource management’ area, and by one respondent in
‘workshop practice, area.
5.
Desirable improvements in the questionnaire pertain to teaching/learning materials,
except one item, that is model courses including concept and material. Of the total
responses for desirable improvements, maximum are for text books (28.5 %) followed
by visual/audio visual material (27 %), computer software (20 %), simulators (10.6 %),
assessment material (8.6 %) and for the model courses (4.5 %). One respondent has also
indicated desirable improvement by way of improvements in laboratories in ten
different areas.
2.5
Cross-check with previous METHAR findings
The findings and conclusions from the limited scope of responses are in harmony with
previous METHAR findings as summarised under Chapter 1 above. This applies in particular
to the
• preference of skills to pure knowledge based proficiency,
• increasing demands from modern technology,
• need to provide improved management skills for ship and shore occupation.
3
IMO-model courses
The IMO model courses have been developed out of suggestions from a number of IMO
Member Governments with the assistance of the Governments of Norway and Finland after
the adoption of STCW 1978. New courses, relating to the 1995 STCW Convention, are in the
process of preparation. The model courses are intended to provide guidance to maritime
institutions and their teaching staff in organising and introducing new courses or in
enhancing, updating or supplementing existing training programmes.
The following presently available courses are listed and shortly commented, as applicable,
with regard to their suitability for the above identified needs, bearing also in mind challenges
to training needs by the ISM-Code.
16
1.
Oil Tanker Familiarization Course; Chemical Tanker Familiarization Course;
Liquefied Gas Tanker Familiarization Course. These three courses have been
combined into one course already before the implementation of STCW 1995. An update
of the model course seems urgently necessary.
2.
Advanced Training Programme on Oil Tanker Operations. This model course needs
an urgent revision due to the introduction of the double hull tanker type. Also the
implementation of the ISM-Code should be reflected within the presentation of
operational procedures on tankers.
3.
Advanced Training Programme on Chemical Tanker Operations. This model
course should also be revised with due regard to the ISM-Code and certain amendments
to MARPOL Annex II.
4.
Advanced Training Programme on Liquefied Gas Tanker Operations. This model
course seems to present still the state of the art although a revision with regard to safety
management structures introduced by the ISM-Code would be useful.
5.
The operational Use of Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA). This course seems
to be in line with current expectations.
6.
Radar Simulator. – no comments.
7.
MARPOL73/78 – Annex I. This model course is partly integrated into the advanced oil
tanker course and therefore to a certain degree redundant, but otherwise useful for
masters and officers on any vessel with regard to oil residues from machinery spaces. It
may need a revision due to amendments to the Annex I.
8.
MARPOL73/78 – Annex II. This course is redundant since necessarily integrated into
the advanced chemical tanker training. It may be useful for shore operators but will
need revision due to amendments to the Annex II.
9.
Medical Emergency – Basic Training. – no comments.
10.
Medical Emergency – First Aid. – no comments.
11.
Medical Care. This course seems still suitable.
12.
Basic Stability. – no comments.
13.
Basic Handling and Care of Cargo. – no comments.
14.
Personal Survival. – no comments.
15.
Basic Fire Fighting. – no comments.
16.
Human Relationship. This model course is still useful.
17.
Ship Simulator and Bridge Teamwork. – no comments.
17
18.
Proficiency in Survival Craft. – no comments.
19.
General Operator's Certificate for the GMDSS. – Useful.
20.
Maintenance Planning and Maintenance Execution. This course is very useful.
21.
Maritime Search and Rescue Co-ordinator Surface Search. – no comments.
22.
Advanced Training in Fire Fighting. – no comments.
23.
Maritime Law for Ships' Officers. – no comments.
24.
On-board Ship Administration. – no comments.
25.
Cargo and Ballast Handling Simulator. – no comments.
26.
Engine Room Simulator. – no comments.
27.
Fuel Combustion Efficiency. – no comments.
28.
Electronics for Marine Engineers. – no comments.
Another 21 model courses cover subjects within the scope of survey of hull, machinery and
equipment, maritime administration and shipping logistics. This material may well be suitable
for the preparation of MET programmes within the scope of enrichment.
18
4
Conclusions
The analysis of findings in METHAR work packages 1 – 6, the responses to questionnaires on
the suitability of existing curriculum concepts and material, as well as the review of current
IMO model courses have revealed that a number of subject areas within nautical and marine
engineering MET need revision. In addition, new topics should be introduced in order to fulfil
requirements by the industry and to raise the reputation of maritime professions in general.
Since revision or new developments are found to be necessary in the "core" section of MET,
which is described by merely fulfilling STCW-95 minimum requirements, as well as in the
extensions proposed for the prominence of the "European seafarer" and also within the scope
of enrichments, which shall qualify the seafarer for occupations in the maritime industry
(secondary field), the final proposal of this work package is to prepare under the following
work package 7.3 a number of case studies from each of those three areas. For the purpose
further discussion and decision the following subject proposals are given:
STCW-core section of MET:
1.
"Consolidation of the celestial navigation" in the light of the expanding use of advanced
navigation technology.
2.
"Safe stowage and securing of cargo" with regard to modern transport technologies and
to the recent implementation of relevant legal instruments.
3.
"Management of ship's stability" with respect to increasing ship-shore decision sharing
in cargo operations.
4.
"Planned maintenance" in the light of the ISM-Code.
Extensions to STCW:
1.
"Oil pollution and protection of the marine environment" with regard to new legislation
an the use of advanced technology.
2.
"Onboard training of seafarers" aiming at the satisfaction of various training needs
articulated by STCW 1995 and the ISM-Code, bearing in mind the increasing relative
workload of seafarers.
Enrichment of MET:
1.
"Human resource management" as a tool for the effective and efficient implementation
of the ISM-Code in general and the reduction of maritime accidents.
2.
"Economics" for onboard use as well as for a more efficient entry into the maritime
industry ashore.
3.
"Advanced maritime law" for raising the proficiency of mariners and marine engineers.
19
Appendix 1: Questionnaire on nautical syllabi
For properly responding to this questionnaire the following definitions and codes of marking
should be noted and applied:
Definitions:
• Curriculum concept in the context of this investigation means the overall objective, the
desired qualifications, the scope of subject details, the teaching and learning methods and
the assessment procedures of the distinguished subject matter with regard to STCW
requirements and agreed extensions thereto if applicable.
• Curriculum material in the context of this investigations includes text books, official
publications (like conventions, codes, resolutions and guidelines from IMO or appropriate
national regulations), publications on industry standards and operating instructions,
computer software for PC-application, audio visual material, workshop equipment,
simulator equipment, lecturer's handouts for reading or exercising and others.
Codes of marking:
The questionnaire presents subject matters which are structured along the line of tables A-II/1
and A-II/2 of the STCW Code A. The addressed level however is the management level. On
each subject matter an opinion is requested regarding the curriculum concept, the curriculum
material and desirable improvements of the situation. For these three question areas the
following marking codes should be observed:
• Curriculum concept:
1 = clear, unambiguous and up to date
2 = sufficiently developed and being updated
3 = not clear, outdated, re-assessment required
• Curriculum material:
1 = excellently prepared and available
2 = sufficient supply of resources, e.g. by lecturer's handouts
3 = poor resources, material doubtful regarding scope and suitability
• Desirable improvements:
M = model course including concept and material
T = text book (in English language or national language)
C = computer software for teaching and learning including PC-simulation
V = visual / audio visual material (video, others)
S = large scale simulation equipment
A = assessment material for student examination
20
Page 1 of the questionnaire on nautical syllabi
Ref.
No.
1.
1.1
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4
1.1.5
1.2
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.4
1.3
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.4
1.4.1
1.4.2
1.4.3
1.5
1.5.1
1.5.2
1.5.3
1.6
1.6.1
1.6.2
1.6.3
1.7
1.7.1
1.7.2
1.7.3
1.7.4
1.8
1.8.1
1.8.2
1.8.3
Concept Material Improve-
Subject
ment
Bridge procedures
Control of course and position
Navigation technology and logistics
Coastal and radar range navigation
Deep sea navigation
Practical navigation, integrated navigation systems
Watch keeping
Collision avoidance regulations and procedures
ARPA-operation
Bridge resource management
Ship handling / manoeuvring
Manoeuvring principles and technology
Ship handling in confined waters
Ship handling in heavy weather
Meteorological navigation
Marine meteorology and information systems
Route planning and avoidance of dangerous situations
Bridge communication
General maritime English
VTS-operations, SAR-operations
Control of technical systems
Propulsion and energy logistics
Redundancies, safety and alarm systems
Simulator training
Ship handling simulator
Radar simulator
Technical systems control simulator
Telecommunication
General Operator's Certificate (GMDSS)
Ship-shore information technology [Extension]
21
Page 2 of the questionnaire on nautical syllabi
Ref.
No.
2.
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
2.2.6
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
3.
3.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.2.5
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.3.4
3.3.5
3.4
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
3.4.4
3.4.5
3.4.6
Concept Material Improve-
Subject
ment
Cargo operations
Ship construction and stability
Ship theory and principles of construction
Principles of stability, trim and longitudinal strength
Management of stability and structural integrity
Cargo handling
Principles of cargo operations planning
Stowage and securing of cargoes
Handling of distinguished cargoes presenting risks
Handling of Dangerous Goods
Tanker familiarization (STCW Code A-V/1)
Master's business / commercial laws [Extension]
Freight contract, charter party
Average, salvage
Ship resource management
Medical care
Hygiene, medical logistics and treatment
Medical emergencies
Ship administration
Legal responsibilities
Safety management system (ISM-Code)
Supply technology and waste management
Ship maintenance technology and management
Personnel resource management
Regulations and private labour contract law
Crew training and cadet training
Social management and handling of conflicts
Safety of labour
Emergency preparedness and procedures
Accident prevention management and technology
Fire fighting technology and strategies
Life saving technology and strategies
Damage control principles and strategies
Planning and conducting drills and paper exercises
End of the questionnaire
22
Appendix 2: Questionnaire on marine engineering syllabi
Ref.
No.
1.
1.1
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4
1.2
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.4
1.2.5
1.2.6
1.3
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.3.5
1.4
1.4.1
1.4.2
1.4.3
1.4.4
1.4.5
1.5
1.5.1
1.5.2
1.5.3
1.6
1.6.1
1.6.2
1.6.3
1.6.4
1.6.5
1.7
1.7.1
1.7.2
Concept
Subject
Marine engineering
Material science
Characteristics and limitation of materials
Fabrication/repair processes and their limitations
Thermodynamics
Principles of heat transfer
Steam generation and steam engineering
Internal combustion engines & gas turbines
Refrigeration and air conditioning
Applied mechanics
Theory of machines
Mechanical power transmission
Fluid mechanics
Workshop practice
Use of hand and power tools
Safe practices on mechanical tools and machines
Design, construction and operation of ship’s
equipment
Engineering drawing
Interpretation of machine and structural drawings
Principles of engineering watch
Duties associated with handing/taking over watch
Duties and routines to be maintained during watch
Safety and emergency procedures during watch
Use of written and verbal English
23
Material
Improvement
Page 2 of the questionnaire on marine engineering syllabi
Ref.
No.
1.8
1.8.1
1.8.2
1.8.3
1.8.4
1.8.5
1.8.6
1.8.7
2.
2.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
2.1.5
2.1.6
2.1.7
2.1.8
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
2.2.6
3.
3.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.1.4
3.1.5
3.1.6
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
Concept
Subject
Main and auxiliary machinery
Preparation of machinery for operation and shut
down
Operation of boilers, feed and combustion control
Operation and control of main engine parameters
Fuel and lubricants’ purification and conditioning
Pumping systems including bilge and ballast
systems
Electrical, electronic and control engineering
Electro-technology
Electrical AC & DC power generation and
distribution
Electrical AC & DC machines
Electrical test and measuring instruments
Starting and coupling of generators and alternators
Safe practices for working on electrical machines
Electronics and computers
Electronic components and circuits
Controls and automation
Communication systems
Computer science and application
Maintenance and repairs
Maintenance of main and auxiliary machinery
Main diesel engine, steam and gas turbines
Auxiliaries including pumping and piping systems
Cargo handling and deck machinery
Testing and control systems
Management of maintenance
Organising safe maintenance procedures
Diagnosis and detection of faults to avoid
damages
3.2.3
3.2.4
24
Material
Improvement
Ref.
No.
4.
4.1
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.2.
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.3
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.3.5
4.4
4.4.1
4.4.2
4.4.3
4.4.4
4.4.5
4.4.6
4.5
4.5.1
4.5.2
4.5.3
4.5.4
4.5.5
4.5.6
4.6
4.6.1
4.6.2
4.6.3
4.6.4
4.6.5
4.6.6
4.6.7
4.6.8
Concept
Subject
Control of operations and care of persons on
board
Ship construction and stability
Ship theory and principles of construction
Principles and regulations for stability, trim &
strength
Anti-pollution procedures and precautions
Knowledge of international maritime law
Relevant safety and pollution prevention
conventions
Obligations and responsibilities
Relevant certificates and documentation required
Ship administration
Legal responsibilities
Safety management system (ISM-Code)
Supply technology and waste management
Ship maintenance and management
Personnel resource management
Regulations and private labour law
Crew training and cadet training
Social management and handling of conflicts
Safety of labour
Emergency preparedness and procedures
Accident prevention technology and management
Medical first aid knowledge and skills
Fire fighting technologies and strategies
Life saving technologies and strategies
Damage control principles and strategies
Planning and conducting drills and paper exercises
25
Material
Improvement
Ref.
No.
4.7
4.7.1
4.7.2
4.7.3
4.7.4
4.8
Concept
Subject
Simulators
Engine room simulator
Combustion control simulator
Tanker familiarisation (STCW Code A-V/1)
End of the questionnaire
26
Material
Improvement
METHAR
WP 7.3 - Provision of case studies in subjects important for safety
and pollution prevention and the efficiency of maritime transport
REPORT
with contribution by: Armando Costa and Rideiro Carmo, ENIDH;
Hermann Kaps, HSHB-N; Fernando Pardo, WMU; Sjoerd Groenhuis, STC R’DAM;
Marco Mazzarino and Elena Maggi (ISTIEE)
December 1999
27
Work Package 7.3
Provision of case studies in subjects important for safety and pollution
prevention and the efficiency of maritime transport
Table of contents
Page
1
Introduction
29
2
Methodology
29
3
Summary
30
Attachment 1: Case study framework
32
Attachment 2: Celestial navigation (ENIDH)
34
Attachment 3: Safe stowage and securing of cargo (HSHB-N)
40
Attachment 4: Protection of marine environment (WMU)
45
Attachment 5: Human resources management (STC R’DAM)
52
Attachment 6: Maritime economic (ISTIEE)
55
28
1
Introduction
A number of subject areas of the general MET curriculum have been identified in the earlier
surveys as needing revision. As well the surveys indicated that several new and expanded
topics should be introduced. This is to take account of varying needs of industry, changing
onboard operational practices, the introduction of new technology and the need to meet
mobility requirements of seafarers to allow them to gain employment in shore based maritime
industries later in their careers.
Work Package 5 provided proposals to update and expand the knowledge and skills of the
seafarer to meet the above demands through three approaches:
1.
2.
3.
Revision and upgrading the levels of knowledge in the core curriculum
Extending present STCW knowledge and skills
Enrichment of basic levels for both primary and secondary fields of occupation
through add-on procedures
A number of elements within MET have been identified in the METHAR project as being
worthy of further development using the above stages. Some examples are maritime English,
environmental protection, safety management administration, emergency response training,
human resource management, basic economics, cost effectiveness of MET, navigation
technology, and cargo securing.
Work package 7.3 called for the provision of case studies in subjects important for safety and
pollution prevention and the efficiency of maritime transport. For the purposes of this work
package CAMET agreed to focus on five sample case studies centred on one of the above
examples for development at either Core, Extension or Enrichment levels. Each partner
developed a framework proposal.
2
Methodology
The partners were asked to use the framework specified in attachment 1. The five topic areas
selected for case study development were:
•
•
•
•
•
Celestial navigation
Safe cargo securing
Oil pollution and protection of the marine environment
Human resource management
Economics
The topics were allocated and prepared by selected partners as under.
Attachment 2
Celestial Navigation (in the light of the impact of new technology) (CORE) Prepared by
(ENIDH) Portugal.
Attachment 3
Safe Cargo Securing (CORE) Prepared by (HSHB-N) Germany.
29
Attachment 4
Oil Pollution and protection of the marine environment (EXTENSION) Prepared by (WMU)
Sweden.
Attachment 5
Human Resource management (ENRICHMENT) Prepared by (STC-Rotterdam) Netherlands.
Attachment 6
Economics (ENRICHMENT) Prepared by (ISTIEE) Italy.
The framework focused on the relationship of the selected topic to both STCW 95 functions
and levels (if appropriate) and changes occurring as a result of new legislation or industry
requirements. Partners were also asked to provide evidence of supporting references and
sources that further justified the targeting of the five selected areas.
Specific aims, learning objectives and accompanying syllabus outline were required together
with an estimate of the teaching hours for such review, enhancement or enrichment. Sources
to support the subject were to be identified. Recommendations on the most appropriate form
of assessment were made.
3
Summary
Celestial Navigation
The case study has taken into account the increasing use of satellite position fixing systems
and the reduced reliance upon traditional celestial position fixing methods. In reviewing the
topic ENIDH have proposed that the teaching time be reduced from 150 to 90 hours. This is
in line with trends across Europe and elsewhere to reduce both the theory and practice within
the curriculum. However considerable variations in attitude and approach still prevail. The
case study will usefully provide a framework for further discussion and consolidation within
MET deck officer schemes.
Safe Cargo Securing
While the topic is identified in STCW Code A at both operational and management level, the
approach to teaching this subject needs to be redirected in the light of the increased emphasis
by SOLAS on safe cargo stowage and securing through the carriage requirement for a Cargo
Securing Manual. The proposed module length, at 12 hours, lends itself to easy incorporation
into the existing core syllabus. It is recommended that all maritime institutes adopt the
framework as a standard approach.
Protection of the Marine Environment
Many changes in international pollution legislation and in the application of such legislation
to the operational maritime field have occurred in recent years. The need for a broader global
understanding of this topic together with a better appreciation of how to deal with shipboard
emergency response to accidental marine pollution is recognised. This framework extends
existing basic approaches to the subject into a fuller treatment of the subject focused around
seven specific learning objectives. The suggested subject length of 40 hours lends itself to
incorporation within the curriculum of deck and engineer officer courses or for delivery on a
block short course basis.
30
Human Resource Management
The increasing recognition by the international maritime community of the importance of
human resource management as a factor in reducing maritime accidents is reflected in the
selection of this topic as a case study. Although not directly referred to in Code A of STCW
95, the emphasis on watchkeeping standards and procedures and associated guidelines on
bridge resource management in Code B is justification enough for ensuring that ships’
personnel are trained in human resource management. The framework, centred about a
mixture of lectures and practical role playing scenarios using marine simulators, provides an
operational environment for evaluating group interactivity and performance. Most European
training centres have the facilities to adopt such a model. It was considered by the group that
this should be core + extension in the future.
Economics
Reports from work package 4, 5 and 6 drew attention to the need for added value from MET
to increase professional mobility and meet future demands by the shore based maritime
industry for well trained personnel. This topic was selected as being typical of the additional
knowledge that ships’ officers should acquire if they were to be more mobile and attractive to
both sea and shore based employers. It also focuses on the need to attract young people to a
sea-going career. The aim of the case study is to enrich the knowledge of ships’ officers in
economic concepts, both from a theoretical and applied aspect. The framework of 40 hours in
length, is structured into four segments of 10 hours each, providing considerable flexibility
for offering within any current MET course curriculum. It is recommended that institutions
consider ways in which the subject can be introduced into current programmes of study.
31
Attachment 1
METHAR PROJECT
WP 7.3 Provision of Case Studies in subjects important for safety and pollution
Case Study Framework
1.
SUBJECT TITLE:
2.
TYPE OF DEVELOPMENT: CORE / EXTENSION / ENRICHMENT
Mark as appropriate
3.
RELATIONSHIP TO STCW 95 FUNCTIONS AND LEVELS (if any)
Note any direct references to the subject area in STCW Chapters and Code A
4.
JUSTIFICATION
Indicate here the sources and references that provide arguments and justification for
the review, introduction or enrichment of these subjects.
Some examples could be:
Current METHAR surveys
Introduction of STCW 95
Introduction of ISM Code
Changes to International Legislation re environmental protection
IMO MSC Resolutions
Introduction of new technology and operational methods
Obsolete technology and operational methods
Industry requirements
Career mobility
Explain briefly the benefits to be gained by European MET from such changes and any
difficulties that might be experienced in achieving a co-ordinated approach to the
introduction of the subject in its new or modified form.
1. AIM(S) OF THE SUBJECT
Describe in broad terms the main purpose of the subject
2. SPECIFIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe in objective learning format what the student can be expected to achieve on
completion of the subject.
3. SUBJECT LENGTH :
Specify the number of teaching hours.
4. SYLLABUS CONTENT
Syllabus coverage should be a reflection of the aims and objectives of the subject
32
5. RECOMMENDED REFERENCES AND READING RESOURCES
List the necessary legislation, texts, conference papers and journals etc that are
necessary to support the subject
6. TEACHING MATERIALS
Describe the minimum facilities and teaching resources that are needed to support the
subject. Examples could be:
Instructional media support
Library services
Computer resources
Equipment laboratories
Teaching specialists
7. SUGGESTED FORM OF ASSESSMENT:
Comment on the most appropriate form of assessment for the subject. This may be a
mixture of approaches:
Written examination
Written assignments
Laboratory practicals and demonstrations
Classroom exercises
Oral assessment
Other
Prepared by:
Name:
………………………………………………………
Partner institution:
………………………………………………………
Date:
…………………………..
33
Attachment 2
METHAR PROJECT
WP 7.3 Provision of case studies in subjects important for safety and pollution
1.
SUBJECT TITLE: Celestial Navigation
2.
TYPE OF DEVELOPMENT:
3.
RELATIONSHIP TO STCW 95 FUNCTIONS AND LEVELS:
Core
- Table A II/1
Col. 2 - “ Knowledge, Understanding and Ability “
In the item “Celestial Navigation”, the ability to use Celestial bodies
to determine the ship’s position, is mentioned.
Col. 3 - Methods of proving competence.
Therein, the use of the sextant is referred to.
- Table A II/2
Col. 2 - “Knowledge, Understanding and Ability”
In the paragraph “The determining of the ship’s position in all
situations”, celestial observation is refered to.
Col. 3 - “ Methods of proving competence”
Therein, the use of the Almanac, plotting sheets, chronometer, sextant
and calculator are mentioned.
Col. 4 - “Criteria for assessment of competence”
Therein, importance is given to assessing that positioning by means
of celestial observation, is within the limits of acceptable accuracy.
4.
JUSTIFICATION:
- Systems of Deep-Sea Navigation
Celestial Navigation - CN
Global Position System - GPS
Electronic Integrated Navigation - EIN
Others (Loran, Omega, ... )
- Possible hierarchy of use of systems considering their efficacy and the convenience
of the operator.
GPS - Updated digital information (in true time)
EIN - Digital information after an observation of a celestial body/data acquisition
CN - Digital information (or not) after an observation of a celestial body/data
acquisition.
34
- Systems hierarchy considering their independence :
CN - Sextant and chronometer not satellite dependent.
EIN - Sextant, Radar, Satellites, Est. Loran, ...
GPS - Satellites, “Codified receiver”
Due to the type of equipment used by each one of the systems and, having to select a
safer system to determine the ship’s position, the selected one should be CN, as it was
already recognized by the NAV Sub-Committee of IMO.
In view of the technological advances in this field, we have seen the simplification of
operational methods of calculation (scientific pocket calculators, computed
methods) and, the change of data base support (digital CN).
The simplification of calculation methods will have advantages over the old ones,
mainly for the professional user.
At MET, the old method (manual method), with its specific particularities, will have
to be compulsory for automatic calculation, because CN will always have to be
considered as a safety system. Similarly, at MET’s level, the familiarization with CN,
either with written or digital support, will always be required.
Conclusion:
Considering the above mentioned remarks, it is recommended for CN to be considered
and clearly acknowledged by IMO as a safety system, when calculating the ship’s
position from an observation of a celestial body and, that its regular on board pratice is
required.
With respect to CN’s approach at teaching level, it is our opinion that every effort
should be made to teach all the essential materials, for its complete understanding and
practical use, regardless of the methods used.
5.
AIM(S) OF THE SUBJECT
To develop abilities for using celestial bodies to determine the ship’s position within
acceptable limits of accuracy, using proper methods and applying operational manual
systems/scientific pocket calculator / automatic calculation.
6.
SPECIFIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of his course, the student must be able to:
- Use the Nautical Almanac;
- Calculate the time of upper meridian passage of the Sun and of the Moon;
- Calculate the time of Sunrise, Sunset, Moonrise and Moonset;
- Know the Marine Sextant, its adjustments and its use for measuring the altitude of
celestial bodies;
- Use of the chronometer, its maintenance and its “rate book”;
- Identify celestial bodies by measuring their altitudes and azimuths;
- Determine Celestial Lines of Position (CLP) and to plot them on navigation charts;
- Prepare a plan with the computation of the time of the beginning of civil twilights
and, a list of stars and planets in favourable positions for observation at that time,
with the approximate altitude and azimuth of each celestial body;
35
-
Determine the fix acquired by successive or simultaneous CLP, with or without
runs.
The student must be able to work out these items manually (NA + work sheet) or,
when required, to use a pocket calculator with or without data base, or proper
software.
7.
SUBJECT LENGTH:
In order of a responsible teaching, aiming at a better understanding of the subjects and
the development of the students’ proficiency, and in accordance with STCW 95, the
following 90 hours syllabus of Maritime Astronomy and Celestial Navigation is
proposed.
8.
SYLLABUS CONTENT:
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
Maritime Astronomy
Systems of Terrestrial and Celestial Lines of Position:
The Celestial Fix;
10 hours
The Earth’s movements : Daily rotation , procession and nutation;
9 hours
True and apparent lines of position;
3 hours
The solar system; Kepler’s laws; Celestial bodies; Laws of gravitation;
5 hours
The time and methods of measuring it.
8 hours
Navigational Astronomy
The Nautical Almanac: Celestial ephemeris;
5 hours
The Marine sextant including its optical principles, adjustments and corrections.
Sextant: practical use and altitude corrections.
10 hours
Celestial Lines of Position:
Circles, segments of a circle and lines of position.
Isolated lines of position
Associated errors.
10 hours
Celestial Fix
Simultaneous celestial altitudes. Fix acquired by 2, 3 or 4 lines of position.
Successive celestial altitudes. Fix at local noon
Accuracy of the fix.
20 hours
Adopted methods for using pocket calculators and computers to acquire the fix.
10 hours
36
9.
−
−
−
−
10.
−
−
−
−
−
11.
−
−
−
12.
RECOMMENDED REFERENCES AND READING RESOURCES:
Night Observation in Automated Astronomical Navigation
Navigation Institute of Italy
An Optimal Estimated Method For Celestial Navigation
Navigation Institute of Popular Republic of China
Mathematical Model for Computing the Fix
B. Touzain
Mathematical Model for Computing the Fix
X. Michel, Professor of Naval Institute of France
TEACHING MATERIALS:
Sextant with or without night vision fittings
Chronometers not dependent on satellites
Nautical Almanac
Scientific pocket calculator with / without specific data base
Hardware and Celestial Navigation-specific software.
SUGGESTED FORM OF ASSESSMENT:
Written examinations theoretical / practical;
Practical demonstrations with sextant and computer;
Written assignments: Nautical exercise book, wherein the planning and
simulation, for a period of 24 hours of Celestial Navigation,
is described. (see annex).
FINAL COMMENT:
We are well aware of how important the CN, as an autonomous system of positioning,
has been for many years. In the future, this will still be the essential characteristic, as
the sole safety system, for determining the ship’s position in deep-sea navigation. For
this reason, its regular practice should be imposed on the professionals on board ships,
in order to ensure the efficacy of determining the ship’s position, in the absence of any
other system.
With the CN becoming the sole safety system and, its regular use being compulsory
on board ships, continued research in this area, with focus on a wider simplification
of the operational methods of calculation and, of acquiring the utmost accuracy of the
ship’s fix, will still make sense. There are already various examples of this, e.g.,
Douwes’s method, or the attempt to use the Nautical Almanac as part of integrated
systems of maritime navigation, using the techniques of Kalman’s filter.
At the same time, the effective contribution of the technological evolution is evident in
such equipment as the sextant, making observations at night possible and so widening
the capacity of CN.
(FOR COMPLEMENTARY DETAILS PLEASE SEE ANNEX ATTACHED)
Prepared by:
Armando Costa and Rideiro Carmo, METHAR partner (ENIDH)
37
ANNEX (to Attachment 2)
Deck Officer’s navigational exercise book
of Nautical Calculations
(24 hours of CN planning and simulation adopting a noncardinal course and a given mean speed)
1.
This work will be based on the operational manual method and, the calculations will
be done on pre-defined pattern sheets. Each of these exercises must be accompanied
by memorandum explaining the sequence of the calculation.
2.
To support his work, the student has to make his own presentation, using other
methods. For instance, using a scientific pocket calculator, with or without data base
for available software.
3.
The exercise will have two distinctive parts which specifications are given in item 5.
In the first part , Planning, the students will make the observations, planning for 24
hours of navigation (0000 / 2400). In the second part, Simulation, is based on the
results of the planning carried out in the first part. The assumed positions are based on
simulated values, used for the observations of celestial bodies, i.e., time of the
chronometer and, altitude from the sextant.
he remaining values, i.e., the chronometer error, the sextant index error, height
of the observer’s eye, air and sea water temperatures (sea-air temperature
difference corrections), will be given in an adequate format.
4.
An estimated position at 0000 hours will be given. The navigation being simulated at a
non-cardeal course and at a given mean speed.
5.
Planning/Simulation
Planning
−
Determination of the favourable period of time for observations at morning and
evening twilights.
−
Plotting the chart of azimuths of the Sun and planning to determine a fix by double
sights − Sun-run-Sun, Sun-run-Sun’s meridian altitude, Sun’s meridian altitude- runSun.
−
Planning for observation of circunmeridians
−
Planning for determination of Latitude Lps, Longitude Lps, Speed and heading Lps.
Simulation
−
Simulation of the fix at morning twilight by 4 simultaneous sights.
−
Simulation of the fix at noon by double sights − Sun-run-Sun’s meridian altitude.
−
Simulation of the fix by double sights − Sun-run-Sun, Sun’s meridian altitude-runSun −, at the time of the last sight.
−
Simulation of the fix at evening twilight by 3 simultaneous sights
38
−
−
To check the estimated position, as far as possible with Latitude LPs, speed Lps,
course LPs and Longitude LPs
Determination of the error of the gyro and the deviation of the standard magnetic
compass at Sunrise and at Sunset.
−
−
Altering the Latitude as much as necessary, prepare the planning and to simulate :
The determination of the fix by 3 simultaneous high-altitude sun sights.
The determination of the fix by double sights − Sun-run-high altitude Sun sight, high
altitude Sun sight-run-Sun.
39
Attachment 3
METHAR PROJECT
WP 7.3 Provision of case studies in subjects important for safety and
pollution prevention and the efficiency of maritime transport
1.
SUBJECT TITLE: Safe Stowage and Securing of Cargo
2.
TYPE OF DEVELOPMENT: Core
3.
RELATIONSHIP TO STCW 95 FUNCTIONS AND LEVELS:
Cargo handling and stowage at the operational level and at the management level
according to STCW Code A, tables A-II/1 and A-II/2
4.
JUSTIFICATION:
Safe stowage and securing of cargo has been of fundamental importance for the safety
of ships at sea, particularly in heavy weather, throughout all centuries of coastal and
open sea shipping. The art of proper stowage had been developed and cultivated by
generations of stevedores and seafarers in their daily performance of work and
supervision. There was, until about 25 years ago, no explicit need to include a subject
on safe stowage and securing into a nautical syllabus except regarding the
transportation of grain in bulk and timber on deck.
The advent of the container in shipping, the development of ro-ro transportation and
the consequential changes in the remaining dry cargo configurations caused a rapid
change in stowage and securing technologies and, additionally, created increased risks
of cargo shifting due to technical and human related reasons, the latter often revealing
a lack of traditional skills and weaknesses in shipboard supervision.
Increasing numbers of accidents and losses from improper stowage and securing of
cargo gave the incentive for the development of an IMO Code of Safe Practice for
Cargo Stowage and Securing (CSS-Code), being adopted by Resolution A.714(17) in
1991. This Code is under periodical revision by the Maritime Safety Committee since
then. Although not being mandatory in general, the CSS-Code has received power
through a later amendment to the SOLAS Convention which requires each cargo
vessel, except those intended solely for liquid or solid bulk cargoes, to carry a Cargo
Securing Manual (CSM) since the 1st January 1998.
The planning for and the supervision of safe stowage and securing of cargo is without
doubt a key shipboard operation in the light of the International Safety Management
Code (ISM-Code). Such operations shall be carried out by persons properly trained
and qualified for their particular duties. This training and qualification should be
obtained within shipboard practice of rating trainees and officer trainees. For the latter
however a solid theoretical background and familiarization with the provisions of the
CSS-Code and the CSM during shore based MET seems strongly advisable. This is
the basis of the presented case study subject.
40
5.
AIMS OF THE SUBJECT:
The subject shall provide the nautical student with:
• background physics regarding safe stowage and securing,
• awareness and understanding of the provisions and requirements of the CSS-Code,
• skills within planning and verifying proper stowage and securing of cargoes,
• awareness and skills on the formal requirements of the CSM.
6.
The student shall, after having completed this subject, be able to:
1. express familiarity with Newton's Law, Hook's Law, friction phenomenon,
accelerations within harmonic oscillations and the analysis of force vector
components, using simple practical examples within the scope of stowage and
securing,
2. describe relevant parameters for estimating the magnitude of forces which may act
on cargo units during a sea passage and determine such forces using the Annex 13
to the CSS-Code,
3. explain properties, use and maintenance of cargo securing equipment and
parameters of good stevedoring and securing practice,
4. identify distinguished principles of safe stowage and securing of cargoes with
regard to typical cargo properties and cargo behaviour under severe sea conditions,
5. evaluate distinguished securing arrangements by using accepted rules of thumb and
accepted calculation methods, or by referring to approved stowage and securing
patterns as shown in the annexes to the CSS-Code and in a typical cargo securing
manual,
6. interpret distinguished provisions as set down in the CSS-Code and in its annexes
and re-phrase them into practical operational instructions as appropriate,
7. describe the overall responsibility of the master with regard to safe stowage and
securing of cargo and exercise his consequential duties in the light if the ISM-Code.
7.
SUBJECT LENGTH:
Nr.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Σ
Objective (short title)
applied physics
external forces
Stowage and securing equipment
Stowage and securing principles
Evaluation of securing arrangements
Interpretation of the CSS-Code
Responsibilities and duties of the master
41
Lecture hours Exercise hours
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
7
5
8
SYLLABUS CONTENT:
1. Applied physics:
This lecture is intended as a condensed repetition of previous basic physics. Newton's
Law using forces in general and gravity force; inertia forces within an accelerated
system; correct use of dimensions and units; relative acceleration in units of g.
Hook's Law converted into a general relation of forces, tensions or moments to
elongation or deformation; modulus of elasticity; typical elongation behaviour of wire
rope, fibre rope, steel band, chain and rods; racking behaviour of typical cargo units
like wooden boxes and ISO-containers; elasticity of timber.
Principle of harmonic oscillations (relation to Hook's Law); functions of angle,
angular velocity and angular acceleration over the time; maximum tangential
acceleration and inertia; influence of period and amplitude; combination with gravity
component.
Static and dynamic friction; friction coefficients with various materials.
Resolving of forces into longitudinal, transverse and vertical components within the
ship's co-ordinate system.
2. External forces:
Review of ship's motions in six degrees of freedom; identification of roll, pitch and
heave as most relevant for cargo safety; short presentation of LR-Rules for securing of
containers; presentation of IACS model; presentation of model in Annex 13 to the
CSS-Code; discussion of parameters and limitations of use; forces by wind and sea
sloshing.
Practical calculation exercises with about 10 cases of varying parameters.
3. Stowage and securing material:
Types of securing equipment and its properties with regard to strength, elasticity,
durability, weight, ease of application, flexibility of use, maintenance, cost, regarding
the following items:
• natural and synthetic fibre rope,
• wire ropes (single use and re-useable),
• compound ropes (wire-fibre),
• steel band,
• chains,
• fibre straps,
• shackles, turnbuckles and deck rings,
• welded chocks,
• timber shores and wedges,
• air cushions,
• bedding material of increased friction,
• lashing bars, stacking devices, twist locks.
42
Homogeneity of securing devices, homogeneity of securing arrangements; parameters
of good stevedoring and securing practice; safety factors and definition of maximum
securing load.
Industry standards on the use of securing systems (e.g. steel bands, chains with lever
tensioner, fibre straps with tensioners).
4. Stowage and securing principles:
Basic stowage patterns (cross-stowage, side-stowage, single stowage) and their
demands for securing; securing principles (direct securing, friction based securing,
compacting of cargo); basic behaviour of cargo units (sliding, tipping, racking,
collapsing, floating up); correct use of dunnage and/or timber for increasing friction
and spreading of loads.
Stowage and securing principles of the following cargoes or cargo units:
• ISO-containers in standardized stowage (reference to relevant rules by
classification societies, e.g. LR, DNV or GL),
• heavy lift unit (e.g. transformer) on flatracks,
• loaded road trailer and loaded roll trailer,
• steel bars in side stowage,
• steel coils in cross-stowage,
• timber on deck (reference to IMO Timber Deck Cargoes Code),
• dangerous goods in parcels and drums on deck.
Practical exercises of planning of standardized container stowage and semistandardized trailer stowage using a sample CSM.
5. Evaluation of securing arrangements:
Principle of load distribution among securing devices within a complex securing
arrangement, taking into account the elasticity of devices and the geometry of
application.
Balance of forces and moments according to Annex 13 of the CSS-Code for various
examples of heavy lift units and heavy ro-ro units; evaluation of timber or steel beam
bedding; evaluation of securing arrangements with timber cargo on deck, steel coils in
holds and break bulk cargoes in side-stowage.
About 10 practical calculation exercises on the above situations.
6. Interpretation of the CSS-Code:
Reading and interpreting distinguished paragraphs of the CSS-Code and its Annexes
as well as the Guidelines for Securing Arrangements for the Transport of Road
Vehicles on Ro-Ro Ships (Resolution A.581(14); conversion of advised provisions
into practical operational procedures.
7. Responsibilities and duties of the master:
Reading and interpreting relevant regulations of SOLAS Chapters VI and VII and the
management related provisions of the Cargo Securing Manual (sample booklet);
conversion of advised provisions into practical management structures.
43
9
There is presently (1999) no comprehensive textbook available reflecting the
background and application of the CSS-Code. The following references and resources
are recommended:
• SOLAS, Chapters VI and VII,
• Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing (CSS-Code); IMO
publication 292E, 1994/1995-Amandments to the CSS-Code; IMO publication
295E, (these publications may be replaced by a later consolidated edition),
• a suitable edition of a cargo securing manual to be obtained from a co-operative
shipping company together with the permission of unlimited reproduction for
training purposes,
• rules for the stowage and securing of containers from a classification society.
10
TEACHING MATERIALS:
The following minimum facilities and teaching resources are considered necessary:
• Handout for each student containing working extracts of the above references, basic
facts and constants on securing equipment and suitable information on proper
stowage and securing principles,
• suitable transparencies for the support of lectures,
• slides or posters showing typical stowage and securing arrangements,
• list of about 100 questions and small scale assignments for self control of students
(may be attached to the above handout),
• case studies and comprehensive assignments for classroom exercises and additional
homework exercises.
11
The following form of assessment is recommended:
Written examination of 1 hour containing a comprehensive evaluation of a securing
arrangement, covering the objectives 2, 3, 4 and 5, and three questions out of the scope
of the objectives 6 and 7. The latter three questions should be chosen from the list of
self-control questions mentioned above.
Prepared by: Hermann Kaps, METHAR Partner HSHB-N
Hochschule Bremen, Fachbereich Nautik und Internationale Wirtschaft,
Bremen, Germany
Date:
06. March 1999, revision 21. December 1999
44
Attachment 4
METHAR PROJECT
Case study: Proposal for syllabus on the protection of the maritime environment
1.
SUBJECT TITLE: Protection of the marine environment
(Common for Deck and Engine Officers)
2.
TYPE OF DEVELOPMENT: Extension
3.
RELATIONSHIP TO STCW 95 FUNCTIONS AND LEVELS
The proposal is in line with the following requirements of the STCW Code.
• Controlling the operation of the ship and care for persons on board at the
operational level to ensure compliance with pollution-prevention requirements and to
monitor compliance with legislative requirements on protection of the marine
environment (Tables A-II/1 and A-II/3 for Deck, Table A-III/1 for Engine).
• Controlling the operation of the ship and care for persons on board at the
management level. Monitor and control compliance with legislation requirements and
measures to ensure the protection of the marine environment. Preparation of
emergency plans and handle emergency situations (Table A-11/2 for Deck, Table
A-III/2 for Engine)
4.
JUSTIFICATION:
Before the adoption of the International Convention for the prevention of pollution of
the sea by oil (OILPOL) in 1954, marine pollution was not a matter of much concern,
as it is today, because the quantities of oil transported by sea were not great and
maritime accidents involving pollutant cargoes had still not caused massive cases of
sea pollution. In addition to these facts it is important to mention that public opinion
was still not sensitive enough to promote actions aimed at the establishing more
stringent regulations in the protection of marine environment.
The experience gained with the application of the OILPOL convention, the continuous
increase of oil and chemical tanker traffic and the occurrence of accidents producing
major oil spills motivated the promotion of new initiatives in the protection of the
marine environment, namely the adoption of a new Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78). At the same time, in 1978, the International
Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers
(STCW 78 Convention) was adopted taking, inter alia, the protection of marine
environment into account.
The evolution of maritime transport and the introduction of new technologies
motivated frequent amendments to MARPOL convention. This convention has been
amended almost every year during the last decade, for instance the important concept
45
of tankers with "double hull" was introduced in 1992 and a new annex on "air
pollution from ships" was adopted in 1997. At present IMO is preparing regulations on
the "harmful aquatic organisms in ballast water" which will be presented for adoption
as a new annex of MARPOL convention in the year 2000. Training of seafarers should
be adapted to cover the new technical aspects of marine pollution.
Until 1978, the Maritime Education and Training (MET) in the area of sea pollution
was not relevant. In general terms, until the second half of this century, no specific
subject on this matter was included in the syllabus of maritime training institutions.
The adoption of the STCW 78 convention required these Institutions to introduce
some basic topics on maritime pollution in their programmes of studies and nowadays
more attention is paid to this question world-wide.
The STCW 78 convention was substantially amended in 1995, in fact the old
convention was almost completely replaced by the 1995 amendments which are
usually referred as STCW 95. Part A of STCW Code contains specifications on the
knowledge, understanding and proficiency of the topics, including marine pollution, to
be learn to obtain the certificates of competence.
Nevertheless, fast technical developments in the field of marine pollution and the
growing interest of the public and the media in environmental matters have produced a
trend towards better trained seafarers with respect to preventing and fighting marine
pollution. This evolution has prompted the organization of training activities in the
field of prevention and control of marine pollution by institutions other than maritime
academies. We can mention the following two important initiatives:
The Civil Protection Unit of the European Commission has assisted from 1985 in the
organization of training courses on accidental marine pollution response. Through this
initiative, have been delivered in different EU Members States two or three courses
per year with the participation of two representatives from each country. It is
considered that this training activities have produced a harmonization of the
knowledge about the topic at EU level.
The International Maritime Organization (IMO), as part if the work of its Marine
Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), have prepared model courses on marine
pollution preparedness and response. IMO, with the co-operation of other institutions
and the private industry, has delivered these courses in many developing countries.
The impact of these training activities is another positive step ahead in the preparation
of personnel to respond to accidental pollution at sea. The entering into force on the V'
July 1998 of the International Management Code for the Safe Operation of Ships and
for Pollution Prevention (ISM Code), , is other important aspect that should be
considered for the design of MET schemes. The ISM code establish that every
shipping company should develop, implement and maintain a Safety Management
System (SMS) which includes, inter alia, a safety and environmental protection policy
in compliance with relevant international and flag State legislation. The Code also
establishes that the shipping company should clearly define and document the master's
responsibility with regard, inter alia, to implementing the safety and environmental
protection policy of the company.
46
Following the evolution and amendments of marine pollution related conventions and
considering the above mentioned initiatives, MET Institutions should be ready to
introduce updated material into their syllabuses and to improve training systems in
order to bring up to date the knowledge of seafarers with respect to the new
developments in the field of marine pollution.
The recent amendment of STCW convention which requires specific knowledge on
marine pollution prevention should be consider by the MET institutions in order to
develop a satisfactory training programme aimed at having Masters and ship Officers
well trained for the protection of the marine environment.
5.
AIMS OF THE SUBJECT:
•
6.
•
To promote understanding on the application of national and international
regulations for the protection of the marine environment.
•
To provide planning capabilities and strategies to organize shipboard emergency
response to accidental marine pollution.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
7.
To provide general knowledge on the pollution of the marine environment.
To identify the main marine pollutants related to maritime transport and to
describe their impact in the marine environment.
To describe the different sources of marine pollution with emphasis on maritime
transport activities.
To understand national and international regulations concerning the prevention of
pollution from ships.
To acquire basic knowledge on the procedures, arrangements and use of
equipment for the prevention of pollution from ships.
To acquire knowledge on the preparation of contingency plans for response to on
board pollution emergencies.
To become familiar with the organization of shipboard pollution response to
accidental spills.
To acquire basic knowledge on the international compensation schemes to cover
pollution damage.
SUBJECT LENGTH:
Total hours: 40
TOPIC
THEORY
Marine pollution.
2
Fate and impact of marine pollutants.
2
Sources of marine pollution
2
Prevention of pollution from ships
8
Organization and structure for pollution preparedness
2
and response
Implementation of pollution emergency response
2
Pollution response operations
4
47
PRACTICE
2
4
2
3
Storage, treatment and disposal of recovered products
2
and wastes
International conventions on the protection of the marine 2
environment and co-operation in emergency response
Compensation schemes for pollution damage
2
8.
1
SYLLABUS CONTENT:
MARINE POLLUTION.
Definitions. Physical, chemical and biological characteristics of sea water. Description
and characteristics of the main marine ecosystems. Physical and chemical
characteristics of main marine pollutants. Harmful aquatic organisms in ballast water.
Antifouling paints. Cathodic protection, sacrificial anodes.
FATE AND IMPACT OF MARINE POLLUTANTS.
Fate and movement of hydrocarbons spilled into the sea.
Fate and movement of other noxious liquid substances spilled into the sea.
Impact of oil spills on the following ecosystems: Open sea waters, coastal waters,
ports and bays, rocky coasts, sandy beaches, sheltered waters
and mud flats, marshes, mangrove and coral reefs.
Impact of other noxious liquid substances in the same ecosystems.
Impact of oil and other noxious liquid substances on fish, crustaceans,
mollusc, birds and mammals.
Impact of sewage and garbage in marine flora and fauna.
Impact of radioactive substances in the marine environment.
SOURCES OF MARINE POLLUTION
Maritime transport, operational and accidental pollution.
Oil tankers.
Chemical tankers.
Transport of dangerous cargoes.
Off-shore installations for oil exploration and extraction.
Other ships, fishing vessels, yachts, small boats, etc.
Land-based sources of pollution.
Natural pollution.
Air pollution from ships.
PREVENTION OF POLLUTION FROM SHIPS
MARPOL Convention.
General description.
Certificates.
Inspections.
Violations.
Evidence to court.
Reports on incidents.
ANNEX I OF MARPOL CONVENTION
Application.
Control of discharge of oil.
Special areas.
48
-
Shipboard waste management. Reception facilities in port.
General description of oil tankers. Segregated ballast tanks. Double hull
tankers and other alternative.
Retention of oil on board.
Crude oil washing. Inert gas system.
Monitoring and control systems for oily-water separating equipment
Oil record book
ANNEX II OF MARPOL CONVENTION
Application.
General description of chemical tankers.
Categorization and listing of noxious liquid substances.
Regulations on discharge of Noxious liquid substances.
Control of discharges.
Cargo record book.
Standards for procedures and arrangements for discharge of noxious liquid
substances.
ANNEXES III, IV AND V OF MARPOL CONVENTION
Application.
Regulations on discharge and disposal.
Documentation.
ANNEX VI OF MARPOL CONVENTION
Air pollution from ships.
Requirements for control of sulphur oxides emissions.
Requirements for control of nitrogen oxides emissions. Technical Code on the
control of emission for nitrogen oxides from marine diesel engines.
Regulations on ozone depleting substances.
ORGANIZATION AND STRUCTURE FOR POLLUTION PREPAREDNESS
AND RESPONSE
National and international contingency plans for pollution emergencies.
- Basic principles.
Command structure.
Combating equipment and other resources.
Shipboard oil pollution emergency plans, IMO guidelines.
Local, National and International organization regarding marine pollution
emergencies
Specialized equipment, personnel and support logistics
IMPLEMENTATION OF POLLUTION EMERGENCY RESPONSE
Activation of contingency plan
Organization of combating operations
Logistics
Communication media and public relations
49
Collection and recording information. Reporting
POLLUTION RESPONSE OPERATIONS
Evaluation of pollution. Aerial surveillance and other monitoring of spill
Planning of combating operations
Containment of spill and protection of sensitive areas. Use of booms and
other means.
Recovery of spilled substances. Use of skimmers and other means.
Use of dispersants, sorbents and other products. Oil burning.
Bioremediation techniques
STORAGE, TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL OF RECOVERED PRODUCTS
AND WASTES
Temporary storage of recovered substances and wastes.
Transport of recovered substances and wastes.
Organization of wastes storage on board vessels or barges and land
installations: refineries, reception facilities, industry.
Treatment of recovered oily wastes: Incineration, land farming, landfilling
and burial.
Treatment of recovered chemicals and its wastes.
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS ON THE PROTECTION OF THE
MARINE ENVIRONMENT AND COOPERATION IN EMERGENCY
RESPONSE
International convention on oil pollution preparedness, response and
cooperation, 1990. Convention on the prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of
Wastes and other Matter (London Convention). General knowledge on Regional
Conventions and Agreements on co-operation for the protection of marine
environment with especial emphasis on conventions applied to the region where the
Maritime Institution is located.
COMPENSATION SCHEMES FOR POLLUTION DAMAGE
International convention on civil liability for oil pollution damage (CLC, 1969)
International convention on the establishment of an International Fund for
compensation for oil pollution damage (FUND, 1971) International convention on
liability and compensation for damage in connection with the carriage of hazardous and
noxious substances by sea (HNS, 1996)
RECOMMENDED REFERENCES AND READING RESOURCES
MARPOL 73/78, consolidated edition, 1991. London: IMO MARPOL amendments,
1996 edition. London: IMO MARPOL - How to do it, 1993 edition. London: IMO
Pollution prevention equipment required under MARPOL 73/78, 1996 edition. London:
IMO. Manual on oil pollution. London: IMO, following sections: Section 1, Prevention
Section II, Contingency planning Section Ill, Salvage Section IV, Combating oil spills
Section V, Administrative aspects of oil pollution response. IM01UNEP Guidelines on
oil spill dispersant application including environmental considerations. London: IMO
Guidelines for the development of shipboard oil pollution emergency plans. London:
IMO Comprehensive manual on port reception facilities. London: IMO Crude oil
washing systems. London: IMO Manual on chemical pollution. London: IMO.
50
International safety management code, ISM code. London: IMO Civil liability for oil
pollution damage. 1996 edition. London: IMO. International Convention on Liability
and Compensation for Damage in Connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and
Noxious Substances by Sea, 1996 (IINS Convention). London: IMO. International code
for the construction and equipment of ships carrying dangerous chemicals in bulk (IBC
code), 1994 edition. London: IMO Inert gas systems. 1990 edition. London: IMO. The
London dumping convention, 1991 edition. London: IMO. Annex VI of MARPOL
73/78 and the nitrogen oxides technical code, edition 1998. London: IM0. STCSW 95.
STCW Convention, resolutions of the 1995 conference and STCW Code Response to
marine oil spills. London: The international tanker owners pollution federation
(ITOPF). Reports and studies: The evaluation of the hazards of harmful substances
carried by ships. GESAMP. London: IMO. 011 in the sea. Inputs, fates and effects.
National Research Council, National Academy Press. Washington 011 pollution and
marine ecology. Nelson-Smith. Paul Elek (Scientific Books) Ltd. London. Fate and
effects of oil in the sea. Exxon background series. Exxon, New York.
Prepared by:
Fernando Pardo, METHAR partner WMU
51
Attachment 5
METHAR PROJECT
1.
SUBJECT TITLE: Human resource management
2.
TYPE OF DEVELOPMENT: Enrichment
3.
RELATIONSHIP TO STCW 95 FUNCTIONS AND LEVELS (if any)
No direct relation to the articles, regulations or part A of the Code. However to
perform the tasks as prescribed in chapter VIII /2 of part A (watchkeeping
arrangements) of the Code, knowledge of the human resource management is
essential. A guideline regarding bridge recourse management can be found under the
Code B-VIII / 2 part 3-1 item 4 and 5 with reference to the ICS bridge procedure
guide.
4.
JUSTIFICATION:
Although not specified as a STCW 95 requirement but only as a non- compulsory
training item to improve bridge watchkeeping arrangements, it is already recognised
by the Maritime Industry as an essential chain for safe navigation and engine room
procedures. Instruments for safe navigation are improving and more and more highly
reliable. Investigation of accidents point out that approximate 80 % are caused by
human errors such as:
•
•
•
•
insufficient observation of the environment
misinterpretation of information
too much attention to minor malfunctions
incapability to delegate tasks to work as a team, to assign responsibilities and to
state priorities
There is strong believe that a better understanding of human resource management and a
change in attitude of ship personnel towards the underlying techniques, will
significantly reduce the number of accidents and incidents.
Although not mentioned in the STCW 95, the Maritime Industry also recognised the
need for the engine room procedures to pay more attention to the human resource
management.
The most efficient training of the relevant items can be achieved by role playing and the
evaluation of the performance of the course participants. For a realistic practical
situation ship handling and engine room simulators are essential, but not available in all
EU countries.
52
5.
AIM(S) OF THE SUBJECT:
Due to the history of a strong hierarchic structure on board of ships for a long and still
remaining period, the knowledge and attitude of ship personnel is limited or almost not
available.
By lecturing, discussing, exercising and by giving examples, the participants increase
their realisation of the importance that human resource aspects in relation to safe and
efficient procedures on board of ships. Studying and practising details of the situation
awareness, communication, stress management and team work enable the course
participants to improve the various procedures, to maintain procedures during more
critical situations and to act properly in suddenly changing or unexpected new
situations.
6.
After the completion of the course the trainee is:
• Aware of the importance of correct teamwork, task delegation and responsibility,
mutual control of tasks.
• Able to show a good situation awareness by following the appropriate techniques
• Able to stipulate the necessary preparations before the execution of a bridge or engine
room procedure
• Able to ascertain a complete and accurate picture of the situation by information
retrieve, information exchange and mutual control of team members.
• Able to control normal and critical situations with more than normal work pressure,
by correct actions based on appropriate decision making techniques.
• Aware of the importance of the practical use of operational procedures and safety
regulations.
7.
SUBJECT LENGTH:
For the bridge and the engine room resource management courses the following applies:
No of persons:
Classroom lectures and exercises:
Simulator exercises:
Assessment:
8
10
16 hours.
12 hours.
2 hours.
SYLLABUS CONTENT:
Introduction to human resource management (background and purpose)
Situation awareness (relevant items, how to recognise, conditions for a good situation
awareness)
Error chains (The possible process of error chains, details of instrument and human
errors, control techniques to stop the error chain in due time)
53
Communication (The importance of a good communication, details of correct
communication procedures)
Stress management (Causes of stress, symptoms and the different phases, how to handle
stress.)
Decision making (The process of decision making, recognition of disturbances and
barriers in the process, effects of taken decisions, use of tools, practical guidelines for
bridge / engine room processes)
Teamwork (how to set-up teamwork, different team work styles, the role of the team
leader, teamwork on the bridge / engine room, co-operation bridge team and pilot.)
9.
ICS - Bridge Procedures Guide
Books on human behaviour and optimal team work
Course syllabus SAS-BRM / ERM
10.
TEACHING MATERIALS:
For the theoretical part of the course, lecturers are involved with extensive experience in
the profession (navigation and marine engineering) as well as a good knowledge of the
human resource science and techniques. The lecturers also act as a facilitator during the
simulator exercises. For the exercises and the assessment a full mission ship handling
and a full mission engine room simulator with "on-line" control of the process by an
operator is required.
11.
A full assessment can only be achieved by observing the performance of the trainee in a
practical situation. Simulators can be used to create a navigation or engine room
situation. The situation is prepared and described in full details including the starting
condition, tasks to perform by the trainee, possible development of the situation and
incorporated actions and malfunctions. A description of the expected measurable
performance is prepared for each case. An evaluation list is prepared for the assessor to
fill in immediately after the exercise with an indicated scale of possible score for each
item. The total score is combined with a general impression score, each having its own
weight factor. The total score should at least meet the minimum figure ascertained by
performance of target groups consisting of students without experience and seafarers
with experience in watchkeeping.
Prepared by:
Date:
Sjoerd Groenhuis, METHAR partner, STC R’DAM
Shipping and Transport College Rotterdam, Netherlands
20-01-1999 (amended 15-11-99)
54
Attachment 6
METHAR PROJECT
WP 7.3 Provision of Case Studies in subjects important for safety and
1.
SUBJECT TITLE: Maritime Economics
2.
TYPE OF DEVELOPMENT: Enrichment
3.
RELATIONSHIP TO STCW 95 FUNCTIONS AND LEVELS: None
4.
JUSTIFICATION:
The usefulness and necessity of a Maritime Economics course is due to the
fact that ship officers should have a broader view of the sector in which they
work in order to facilitate and improve their mobility among different
positions in the maritime environment (ship-to-shore in particular).
There is also the need to attract young people for a seafaring career. This
objective could be reached if a broader perspectives is given to young people
enabling them to have the possibility of changing positions over time not
only onboard but also in the whole maritime sector. This is clear supported
but many responses and comments in the METHAR Project.
The main gain for the European MET systems will be that of having perhaps
more motivated young people choosing maritime schools. Moreover, MET
schools themselves could improve their spectrum of activities by having
more diversified links with the maritime sector. There should not be any
problem of coordination among MET institutions simply because each MET
school should be given enough freedom to develop the subject.
5.
AIM OF THE SUBJECT:
The Maritime Economics course aims at enriching the ship officer
knowledge of the maritime sector from an economic point of view. It applies
the concepts of economics both from a theoretical and applied point of view
to ships and ports, giving the students an integrated perspectives of the
logistical chain shipping is part of.
6.
The student will be able to:
1. Understand and reflect upon the up-to-date juridical, theoretical and
applied approaches which distinguish the infrastructure management issues
55
from the issues related to the traffic services provided, which covers both the
freight and passenger sectors.
2. Use the thorough knowledge of the main issues in the maritime sector to
enlarge the number of their employment opportunities both at sea and on
shore.
7.
SUBJECT LENGTH:
40 HOURS
The course should be split in two parts: one related to the “infrastructure” management
issues and the other one related to the “traffic” service management issues. Each part
should be structured in two modules each of 10 hours. In total, the course will have 40
hours of teaching.
8.
SYLLABUS CONTENT:
A) Maritime economics: infrastructure management issues (20 hrs/semester)
Recent approaches to transport sector analysis have raised the issue of
infrastructure management (who manages the infrastructure) as separated
from the provision of the transport service (who manages the transport
service). These two issues show indeed quite different theoretical and
operational aspects as far as the economic analysis is concerned. Many UE
juridical acts have taken such an approach, not only for the maritime sector
(see the Green Paper on ports for example) but also for other transport
sectors (Dir. 440/91, etc.).
The course classifies the types of infrastructures in the linear ones (sea routes) and the
nodal ones, e.g. ports and maritime terminals. Special emphasis is given to the
regulation aspects (pricing, etc.) associated with the different market regimes in the
maritime environment (natural monopolies, oligopoly, etc.)
Finally, in each of the modules some principles of management are also
taught (e.g.: company profitability, concepts of efficiency and efficacy,
balance sheet and budget) in connection with part B) of the course.
Modules:
• LINEAR MARITIME INFRASTRUCTURES: THE SEA ROUTES (10 hrs)
• NODAL MARITIME INFRASTRUCTURES: PORTS AND TERMINALS (10 hrs)
B) Maritime economics: traffic service management issues (20 hrs/semester)
The activities related to the transport service provision in the maritime environment are
mainly seen as provided on commercial basis. Both the passenger and freight sector are
analyzed. Port services provided by maritime terminal operators and shipping services
provided by maritime carriers are fully examined. In particular, the latter are sorted out
on the basis of long-range (international shipping) and short-range services (cabotage).
56
This part of the course is divided in the following sub-sections:
B1) Theoretical approach
General principles of the theory of the firm are highlighted (cost curves, revenues
curves, profit maximization principle, etc) from a micro-economic point of view.
Through this section students will have a thorough knowledge of what theory tells us
about the firm.
B2) Management and operational approach
This section focuses on the different types of operators in each sector of the maritime
logistics chain. The concept of transport logistics chain is introduced, underlying that
the organisation and management of the port services strictly depend upon the
government of the global logistics chain since the objectives of the port management
must respect the objectives of the integral chain. The current tendency of the ports to
transform themselves into logistics nodes is examined.
The major types of operators in the maritime logistics chain (forwarders, shipping
companies, terminal operators, etc.) are examined according to the following criteria:
• sector organization (from an economics and juridical perspective);
• supply side (e.g.: costs and tariffs, technologies, types of services
offered, co-operation and competition among operators),
• demand side (e.g.: factors driving the maritime transport demand,
market analysis, role of the sector in the national and international
economies, customer service, evolution of logistics needs of clients).
B3)
This section integrates the former ones and it can be seen as an application of the first
one to the second one. By having a general knowledge of the theoretical principles
concerning the company and of the main operational characteristics of the different
types of operators in the maritime and logistics environment, students could be required
to develop some sort of case studies in order to apply the theory to a specific types of
company in the maritime environment.
Modules:
• SHIPPING SERVICES: SHORT-SEA AND INTERNATIONAL (10 hrs)
• MARITIME TERMINALS TRAFFIC SERVICES (10 hrs)
9.
Gwilliam, K.M. Current issues in maritime economics, Norwell, Mass. and Dordrecht:
Kluwer Academic, 1993
Stopford, M. Maritime Economics, Winchester, Mass., London, Sydney and
Wellington, New Zealand, Unwin Hyman, 1988
Ma Shuo. Maritime Economics, World Maritime University, 1999
Goss, R. Advances in Maritime Economics, UWIST, 1982
Evans, J., Marlow P. Quantitative methods in Maritime Economics, Fairplay
Publications, 1990
Chrzanowski, I. An introduction to shipping economics, , Fairplay Publications, 1985
Alderton, P. Sea Transport, Thomas Reed, 1984
57
Transport Research APAS Maritime Transport, DG VII - 38 Structure and
organization of maritime transport, 1996
Transport Research APAS Maritime Transport, DG VII - 40 Impact of changing
logistics on maritime transport, 1996
Maritime Policy and Management
International Journal of Maritime Economics
Containerisation International
Journal of Business Logistics
10.
TEACHING MATERIALS:
Overheads, slides and video projectors
Library services
Meetings with managers in the maritime environment and “live”
analysis of their business
Seminars on specific topics
Videos
11.
Written examination
Oral assessment
Final course paper (thesis) (non mandatory)
Prepared by:
Marco Mazzarino and Elena Maggi, METHAR partner ISTIEE
Università degli Studi di Trieste (ISTIEE), Trieste, Italy
58
Report
METHAR
Project
Coordinator:
Partners:
Work package 8:
Date: February 2000
PROGRAMME
METHAR, WP 8
METHAR
REPORT
February 2000
1
Work Package 8
Table of contents
Page
1
Introduction
06
1.1
METHAR
06
1.1.1 Background to METHAR
1.1.2 Objectives of METHAR
1.1.3 Work for METHAR
06
07
07
Extension of work for METHAR
08
1.2.1 Extension of METHAR scope
1.2.2 Extension of METHAR methods
08
09
1.2
1.2.2.1 Harmonization method
1.2.2.2 Other methods
1.3
2
Structure of the main part of the report (chapters 2, 3 and 4)
09
10
10
MET environment - 5 key aspects and 5 key issues
13
2.1
Economy - the competitiveness issue
14
2.1.1 Globalized shipping vs national MET
2.1.2 Employment markets for ship officers
2.1.3 Competitiveness of MET
2.1.4 Recommendations
15
15
17
19
Regulations - the mobility issue
20
2.2.1
21
2.2
Aspects of mobility
2.2.1.1 Regulatory and administrative aspects of mobility 22
2.2.1.2 Communication aspects of mobility
23
2.2.1.3 Individual and other aspects of mobility
25
2.2.2
Recommendations
2
27
Page
2.3
2.4
2.5
3
Society - the employment issue
28
2.3.1 Creating jobs
2.3.2 Image of seafaring
29
29
30
Technology - the progress issue
31
2.4.1 Impact of technology use on shipping
2.4.2 Impact of technology use on MET
32
33
36
Politics - the feasibility issue
37
2.5.1 Concentration of MET resources
2.5.2 National support to national shipping
38
40
42
MET core - 5 key elements and 5 key issues
43
3.1
Students - the attraction issue (recruitment)
44
3.1.2 Attracting more students to MET
44
45
47
Programmes - the harmonization issue
48
3.2.1 STCW 95
3.2.2 Beyond STCW 95
3.2.3 Possibilities for harmonization
48
50
51
53
Facilities - the effectiveness issue
54
3.3.1 Availability of modern technology
3.3.2 Costs of MET
55
56
58
3.2
3.3
3
Page
3.4
3.5
4
59
3.4.1 Staff qualifications
3.4.2 Staff updating
3.4.3 Extension of staff activities
59
62
64
65
Graduates - the career issue
66
3.5.1 Stay on board (retention)
3.5.2 Transfer to shore
67
67
68
Implementation of recommendations - the change issue
69
4.1
Adaptation of MET on the macro or political level
70
4.1.3 Selected South/South East Asian countries
70
71
72
Adaptation of MET on the central or administrative level
72
4.2.3 Selected South/South East Asian countries
73
74
75
Adaptation of MET on the micro or institutional level
Recommendations
76
78
4.2
4.3
4.4
5
Staff - the quality issue
Summary of principle recommendations
78
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
78
78
79
79
79
79
79
Economy/competitiveness
Regulations/mobility
Society/employment
Technology/progress
Politics/feasibility
Students/attraction (recruitment)
Programmes/harmonization
4
Page
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
6
Facilities/effectiveness
Staff/quality
Graduates/employability
Implementation/change
Executive summary
80
80
80
80
81
Annex I - CAMET Members
85
Annex II - METHAR work packages
94
5
1
Introduction
Main reference: Project proposal, WPs 3, 4, 5, 6.
The project Harmonization of European Maritime Education and Training Schemes (METHAR)
was defined as research study and concerted action. The METHAR research was carried out by a
consortium of 5 partners (2 universities and 3 MET institutions) with one of the universities as
coordinator. In the Concerted Action on Maritime Education and Training (CAMET), MET
institutions and, in a smaller number, governmental MET administrations of the 15 participating
“METHAR countries”∗ were represented. The nationally appointed members in CAMET served
as information providers to the METHAR partners, the 11 meetings of CAMET served as
discussion fora for METHAR findings and draft reports on METHAR work packages.
See Annex I for METHAR partners and CAMET members.
The METHAR project began on 27 April 1996, it ended on 26 December 1999.
1.1
METHAR
Background to, objectives of, and work for, METHAR were explained in the project proposal.
1.1.1 Background to METHAR
METHAR “addresses the considerable variety in EU countries´ national MET objectives,
systems and schemes, curricula and teaching methods. This variety, resulting from mainly
historical reasons, has often led to an inefficient and ineffective use of human and financial
resources and to a lack of integration of MET in national ET systems that, in turn, has
contributed to the declining interest of young people in a seafaring career. This development has
not only affected the availability of a sufficient number of qualified seafarers for ships under
flags of EU countries but it has also had a negative impact on the provision of managerial
personnel with shipboard experience for shore-based positions in the maritime industry.
Furthermore, the considerable variety in European MET hampers the mobility of seafarers
within the countries of the EU.
The new International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for
Seafarers (STCW 1995) will set new minimum requirements for ship officers´ qualifications.
There will be a change from the knowledge-based requirements of STCW 1978 to the
competence-based requirements of STCW 1995. European (as well as) MET colleges
(worldwide) will have to adapt their programmes to the new system that can be expected to leave
some room for interpretation. Isolated national efforts may therefore lead to a further increase
of differences in European MET if not a transnational cooperative approach to meeting future
requirements would be developed, including those of the 1995 STCW. The introduction of quality
assurance in MET would support such efforts.
∗
METHAR countries: Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland,
Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, UK
6
The STCW 1995 will specify new minimum requirements for ship officers by applying new
(competence-based) quality standards. The increased use of advanced technology on European
vessels makes it necessary to adapt qualifications of maritime personnel to such environment too
and to identify approaches which provide for meeting future requirements and contribute as
much as possible to a sustainable competitiveness of European shipping.”
1.1.2 Objectives of METHAR
“They [the objectives]
are in line with efforts for the better use of human resources in the
maritime sector, for making European shipping more competitive through a more appropriate
qualification of seafarers and through a better provision of shipboard-experienced personnel in
the maritime industry.
It is the ultimate objective of the project to increase the competitiveness of the European
maritime industry by helping to improve the qualification of seafarers and other maritime
personnel so that higher safety, environment protection and efficiency standards can be achieved.
The project is expected to enhance the employability and facilitate the professional mobility of
MET graduates within the maritime industry and within European countries.
The project aims at exploiting the not yet fully used potential of MET institutions by facilitating
and encouraging communication and cooperation among them and by providing guidelines, a
framework as well as examples for a bottom-up approach to harmonization.
The project will elaborate and recommend approaches for the development of harmonized
syllabuses and how these could be implemented, and will, in this context, also take into account
the use of modern teaching technology; the project will also identify needs for the adaptation of
MET programmes to the requirements of the maritime industry which are also influenced by the
growing use of advanced technology.
The project will specify the necessary provisions for an understanding of the new STCW
Convention and suggest a harmonized approach to the meeting of the Convention requirements.”
1.1.3 Work for METHAR
was “divided into the three main parts
•
•
•
description and evaluation of existing European MET systems and provisions;
identification of present and expected future shortcomings in European MET;
recommendation of measures, above all harmonization measures, for overcoming present and
pre-empting expected future shortcomings and for improving the overall quality of European
MET.”
Of the altogether 8 work packages, “Work packages 1, 2 and 3 will describe the state of the art in
European MET. Work package 1 will present information on European MET systems; work
package 2 will contain information on national and interest-group MET philosophies. The
information will be analyzed and evaluated in work package 3.
7
Work package 4 is to identify present and future MET needs by taking into account the new
STCW Convention, the availability of new teaching and training technology, the personnel
requirements of the European maritime industry and the latter´s increased use of modern
technology.
Work package 5 will provide recommendations for the improvement of European MET and work
package 6 for its harmonization. Work package 7 will present case studies for the harmonization
of European MET.
Work package 8 will be a summary of conclusions and recommendations.”
The breakdown of work packages is given in Annex II.
1.2
Extension of work for METHAR
METHAR was begun with the purpose to find out how MET could best meet what was required
by the administration and what was needed by the industry. The principle assumption was that
this could be achieved mainly by improving and harmonizing existing MET programmes.
1.2.1 Extension of METHAR scope
Already in the early stages of the work, it became obvious that improved attraction, standards and
competitiveness of, and increased employability and mobility through, MET could not be
achieved by improvements of MET programmes alone and through harmonization. There had to
be a broader approach to meeting the objectives of METHAR, and the environment of MET had
to be given much more attention than initially planned. In addition, other methods than
harmonization had to be employed. It became also clear that not as much attention as predicted
had to be given to the implementation of STCW 95 requirements as national governments had, in
general, made effective implementation provisions, although the implementation of the
prescribed quality standards systems appeared to progress at a rather slow pace in a few
countries.
The required increased attention to the environment of MET because of the impact of globalized
shipping on MET and the differences between industry and individual in what to expect from
MET were additional aspects which had to be considered. The supply of ship officers from
countries in East Europe and South/South East Asia had to be taken into account too. Thus, the
initial limitation of the METHAR project to regulations and technology as factors influencing
MET had to be extended to economy and society and eventually also to politics.
This broader context of MET is mainly covered in the reports on work packages (WPs) 3, 5 and
6.
8
1.2.2 Extension of METHAR methods
The extension of the METHAR scope required the use of more basic methods than the initially
favoured harmonization method.
1.2.2.1 The harmonization method
In the original project description by the Commission, harmonization was given as the key
method for achieving the objectives. Harmonization was not only used in the title of the project
“Harmonization of European Maritime Education and Training Schemes” but was also referred
to in the sub-title “Development of common methodologies and solutions for harmonized
curricula and qualifications. Adaptation of training courses to the requirements of new
advanced technologies”.
The use of the term harmonization was in the very beginning viewed with scepticism and by a
majority seen as an attempt to introduce EU-wide standardization of MET. This led to a
discussion and an agreement on the interpretation of the term harmonization in the first meeting
of CAMET.
WP 3: “At CAMET 1, it was agreed that harmonization beyond that which has already been
created by international regulations and common societal phenomena, should be treated as the
effort to improve national MET systems by learning from each other how MET is dealt with in
each of the 15 countries and by providing for opportunities to take a detached view and reflect on
the own national MET, see how it compares to other national MET and how specific problems in
other countries’ MET are solved.
The consensus that was found on the basis of this learning-from-each-other approach to
improving national MET – with the objectives of increasing the competitiveness of MET in
METHAR countries with MET in other regions and countries and the mobility of ship officers
within METHAR countries – and calling it harmonization justifies the following statements:
•
•
•
•
harmonization has potential but also limits
harmonization is a process, not a state
harmonization should be bottom-up, not top-down
harmonization requires active involvement
The last statement was made because the participants in CAMET are expected to take home to
their countries’ MET what they learnt at CAMET from the findings of the METHAR research,
from discussions, and from each other. They should disseminate this information and become
multiplicators of the CAMET and METHAR efforts and, preferably, take their role so seriously
that they would become “change agents” by bringing back from CAMET to their national MET
new knowledge and insights which or part of which they would propose and help to integrate in
their national MET.”
9
1.2.2.2 Other methods
The limited applicability of harmonization as basic method for meeting the objectives of
METHAR led to the employment of other basic methods. Concentration and adaptation are the
most important ones of them but also extension, enrichment and integration are possible basic
methods for achieving progress and, ultimately, meeting objectives. The context in which these
conceptual approaches should be applied is - as mentioned before - a more comprehensive one
than initially intended. It takes the influence of the environment on MET into account.
All of these methods are necessary or, at least, suitable for a top-down approach and most of
them also for a bottom-up approach (adaptation, extension, enrichment).
1.3
Structure of the main part of the report (chapters 2, 3 and 4)
The main part of the report is divided into three chapters. The first chapter deals with the
environment of MET, the second chapter concentrates on the core of MET. The first chapter
(chapter 2) describes the influence of changes in economy, regulations, society, technology and
the possible influence of politics on MET and issues which these influences create. The second
chapter (chapter 3) identifies shortcomings and issues with the five basic elements of MET,
namely students, programmes, facilities, staff and graduates. In the end of each sub-chapter in
chapters 2 and 3, recommendations for changes will be made. The potential to implement
required changes is examined in a separate chapter (chapter 4) to which recommendations have
also been added.
Quotations from METHAR work packages (WPs) have been extensively used, rather from the
forward-looking WPs 3 to 7 than from the status quo describing WPs 1 and 2. It should be kept
in mind that this report is to sum up insights, findings and recommendations from previous
reports and not to carry the METHAR research further. Nevertheless, the report will identify
research and development needs for improving the attraction, standards and competitiveness of
MET and the employability and mobility of MET graduates.
Key aspects or key elements of the five sub-chapters in each of the two chapters “MET
environment” and “MET core” have been connected with the issues which are closest to them.
This is not suggesting that an aspect (chapter 2) or an element (chapter 3) is only connected with
one issue. All aspects and elements can be related to more than one issue. The following
overviews identify the interrelationship between aspects/elements and issues.
10
The interrelationships are classified in:
primary
secondary
tertiary
interrelationships.
Interrelationship between key aspects and issues in chapter “MET environment”
feasibility
progress
employment
mobility
aspects
competitiveness
issues
economy
regulations
society
technology
politics
Interrelationships between key elements and issues in chapter “MET core”
students
programmes
facilities
staff
graduates
11
career
quality
effectiveness
attraction
elements
harmonization
issues
The topics in chapters 2 and 3, which are numbered by three digits (2.1.1 - 3.5.2, excluding
Recommendations) have been categorized into METHAR objectives (competitiveness, mobility,
employment, attraction, harmonization), METHAR subjects and METHAR -related subjects.
Chapter 4 focuses on the METHAR objective adaptability.
Interrelationships between key aspects /key elements and issues of the two chapters “MET
environment” and “MET core”
economy
regulations
society
technology
politics
students
programmes
facilities
staff
graduates
12
career
quality
effectiveness
harmonization
attraction
feasibility
progress
employment
mobility
aspects/elements
competitiveness
issues
2
MET environment - 5 key aspects and 5 key issues
Main references: WPs 3, 4, 6; CAMET 11 minutes.
International developments in economy, regulations, society and technology impact on MET.
They can hardly be influenced by national measures. Shipping economics and (maritime)
technology develop globally, regulations for minimum requirements in maritime safety and
marine pollution prevention are specified by member states at IMO and societal attitudes to
shipping and seafaring do not evolve in national isolation but are also subject to external
influences. Even politics which is a sovereign matter of states is not totally independent from
external influences, although it is best placed to influence national MET and facilitate the
implementation of major changes.
Economy is most closely connected with the competitiveness issue in both shipping and MET.
Regulations are believed to be most closely linked to the mobility issue although a more detailed
investigation brings to light the at least equal importance of communication ability and individual
interest in mobility. Society is closest to the employment issue and the creation of jobs and the
general attitude to seafaring. Technology use has become almost a synonym for progress in both
shipping and MET. Politics has the role of providing feasibility, on the one hand, by introducing
major changes in national MET through, above all, the concentration of resources and, on the
other hand, by providing subsidies to the industry for maintaining the onboard training of
national MET students and the employment of national MET graduates.
13
2.1
Economy - the competitiveness issue
Main references: WPs 3, 4, 5, 6
career
quality
effectiveness
harmonization
attraction
feasibility
progress
employment
mobility
aspects/
elements
economy
regulations
society
technology
politics
students
programmes
facilities
staff
graduates
competitiveness
issues
The availability of cheap labour from outside METHAR countries has reduced the need for the
supply of more expensive ship officers from METHAR countries. The belief in a quality
advantage of ship officers from METHAR countries over ship officers from the main supply
regions East Europe and South/South East Asia is only partly justified as ship officers from these
regions are often equally well qualified as ship officers from METHAR countries. Although it
can be assumed that national ship operators are interested in employing national ship officers and
may even be inclined to pay a bit more for them, there are limits to which such preference is
financially possible. To give METHAR countries ship officers an advantage over their cheaper
“competitors” is a difficult undertaking as long as basic provisions for a better MET are not
made, i.e. as long as MET resources are not concentrated and made better use of.
Another serious problem created by the employment of ship officers from other countries on
ships of METHAR countries is, besides the loss of jobs, a lack of provision of nationals with
shipboard experience for positions in the national maritime industry in which such experience is
essential or at least desirable. It should therefore be in the national interest to maintain working
places for nationals on board national ships to ensure quality of services also in the shore-based
shipping industry.
However, not only ship officers from METHAR countries are expensive compared to ship
officers from the two main supply regions East Europe and South/South East Asia but also MET
in METHAR countries is expensive compared to MET in the countries in the two supply regions.
Although no direct financial correlation between the costs of ship officers and the costs of MET
14
seems to exist, MET in METHAR countries could become more competitive in quality if existing
resources would be concentrated and better used.
2.1.1 Globalized shipping vs national MET
METHAR-related subject
This issue between world and country, between international industry and national MET,
between user of ship officers and producer of ship officers can also be looked at as a demand vs
supply issue.
WP 3: “Demand for MET and supply of MET world-wide have both a quantitative and a
qualitative dimension. There are shortcomings in both dimensions. Quantitative shortcomings
do normally not exist in East Europe and Asia where a number of countries produce more ship
officers than are required to man ships flying the national flag. However, quantitative
shortcomings exist in most METHAR countries and they will continue to exist if the present
shortage of applicants can not be overcome. Qualitative shortcomings are addressed by the
minimum requirements of STCW 95. This has led (and will lead) to improvements of standards
in those countries where these requirements are not met yet but may also lead to reduced
standards in countries where STCW 95 requirements are already exceeded.”
2.1.2 Employment markets for ship officers
WP 3: “Ship officers are employed in two markets, in the international and the national market,
and in two sectors, in the on-board and the on-shore sector.
In the following, the situation in the two markets and two sectors is reviewed. Both the
quantitative and the qualitative dimension are considered.
The international market for ship officers for on-board employment
There exists a global shortage of ship officers and a surplus of ratings. The greatest shortage
exists in most METHAR countries while there is a surplus of ship officers produced in some East
European and Asian countries. The shortage is reflected in a surplus of study places at MET
institutions in most METHAR countries, the surplus of ship officers is e.g. indicated by the 47
commercially operated private MET institutions in Indonesia and the about 120 such institutions
in the Philippines.
There are not only quantitative differences in the demand for, and supply of, ship officers on the
international market, but also qualitative ones. MET in almost all METHAR countries, in the
selected East European countries and in China and India meets STCW 95 requirements and often
exceeds them. MET offered by private institutions in Indonesia and in the Philippines is not
always meeting the minimum requirements of STCW 95. These two countries will not be able to
produce more ship offices "for export" if they do not substantially increase their standards,
because it is now, with STCW 95 in force, much more difficult, if not impossible, to "export" ship
officers of insufficient quality.
15
The national markets for ship officers for on-board employment
Despite a reduced demand, there exists a shortage of ship officer supply in many METHAR
countries. It is mainly a result of a decline of interest in seafaring as a career.
Whilst missing national ship officers in METHAR countries can be replaced by ship officers
recruited on the international market, this approach can hardly be applied to shore-based
positions for ex-ship officers. The national maritime industry prefers to recruit ship officers who
speak the national language and are familiar with national manners and customs. They are
employed as pilots, ship and cargo surveyors, Port State Control officers, managers in ship
operation and manning agencies, in marine insurance and other maritime enterprises, maritime
administrations and at MET institutions. In many of these positions shipboard experience is
essential, in some of them it is desirable.
There is already a shortage of nationals with shipboard experience in some METHAR countries
and there is a forthcoming shortage in some other METHAR countries.
There is no shortage of former ship officers in shore positions in the maritime industry in the
selected East European and Asian countries as long as attractive salaries are offered. An
"attractive salary", according to individual interviews, seems already to be half the salary of a
chief mate or first engineer. One may wonder about the loss of income ship officers are willing
to accept for staying ashore. There are, however, occasionally additional benefits offered in onshore employment, as e.g. free housing. Such benefits are rather offered in teaching positions
than in better paid positions in commercial operations where no dependence from governmental
subsidies exists and profit has to be made….
The international market for ship officers for on-shore employment
The restrictions for employment of non-nationals in the shore-based shipping industry of a
METHAR country do normally not apply to senior management positions in an international
maritime enterprise, where knowledge of the national language and familiarity with national
“particularities” are not always seen as necessary prerequisites. English is the lingua franca
then and the business practices and culture are international.
In summary, it can be said that the market for ship officers for on-board employment has become
an international market (as exemplified through the meeting of the demand in METHAR
countries by a supply from East Europe and Asia). The market for ship officers for on-shore
employment has remained a national market. A shortage of personnel with unlimited certificates
of competency and shipboard experience in a national market requires an increase in the number
of nationals who are able and willing to pursue, at least, a temporary career at sea…”.
16
2.1.3 Competitiveness of MET
METHAR objective competitiveness
WP 6.2: “The conclusion of unsatisfactory competitiveness of MET in METHAR countries is
corroborated by a comparison with MET in supply countries.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
a shortage of MET applicants in many of the 15 METHAR countries compared to external
supply countries where a surplus of MET applicants exists;
a shortage of officers for shipboard service and ex-ship officers for positions in the national
maritime industry ashore in many of the 15 METHAR countries (and the difficulty to employ
ex-seafarers from external supply countries in these positions) compared to a surplus of ship
officers and ex-ship officers in the supply countries;
an abundance of governmental MET institutions in many of the 15 METHAR countries altogether 147 at 134 locations - compared to the smaller number of governmental MET
institutions in the external supply countries and, consequently:
a surplus of study places at governmental MET institutions in the 15 METHAR countries
compared to a shortage of study places at governmental MET institutions in external supply
countries which has resulted in the establishment and proliferation of private MET
institutions in some of these countries;
the inability to provide all MET institutions in the 15 METHAR countries with modern
equipment as, for example, simulators, compared to the need for less funds for the purchase
of modern equipment for a smaller number of governmental MET institution in external
supply countries;
the higher and sometimes considerably higher average age of teaching staff at MET
institutions in many of the 15 METHAR countries compared to the average age of lecturers of
MET institutions in many external supply countries;
the higher costs of MET in the 15 METHAR countries compared to MET in external supply
countries; and
the higher costs of ship officers from the 15 METHAR countries compared to the costs of ship
officers from external supply countries.
An extreme conclusion from this comparison could be to call MET in West Europe a “sick
patient” and, when taking a global view on MET, suggest the transfer of MET technology from
the 15 METHAR countries to the supply countries (provided they are still lacking such
technology) where it could be of greater use for a greater number of MET students, above all, in
South East Asia (as it was suggested during the discussion at the 9th conference on MET of the
International Maritime Lecturers Association (IMLA) in Kobe, Japan, in 1996)…”
There are some measures by which the competitiveness of MET in METHAR countries could be
improved qualitatively, as for example:
•
•
•
the concentration of resources, which would also result in the improvement and
harmonization of MET facilities
the improvement and extension of syllabi
a quicker adaptation to changing industry requirements
17
•
the updating of maritime lecturers, including the training in a more effective use of modern
technology.
The higher costs of MET in METHAR countries have until now not been satisfactorily
scrutinized with a view on saving expenditure:
WP 6.2: “MET in METHAR countries needs not to be as expensive as it is today if a
concentration of resources would take place. Such concentration of resources at a smaller
number of MET institutions in the 15 METHAR countries with more than only a few MET
institutions would, in addition to resulting in financial benefits,
•
•
•
•
eliminate differences in standards between MET institutions in the same country because of
variations in, for example, the availability of modern expensive simulators;
ensure the teaching of all subjects by experts which is today not always the case at small
MET institutions with a small number of staff where lecturers often teach too many subjects
without being experts in all of them;
make it possible for MET institutions to make an own income from short intensive
professional development courses, consultancy and research;
provide for a stronger role of MET as advisor to the national government and as equal
partner in solving MET problems of national concern in close cooperation with
administration and industry.
This general approach to provide for a better cost-benefit of MET by the concentration of
national MET resources which (can also be expected to lead to higher standards and) can be
strengthened by the integration of independent MET institutions as departments in larger higher
education establishments. Such integration will be particularly advantageous for ship-shore
MET at the end of which an academic degree will be awarded in addition to a certificate of
competency. It would facilitate access to expertise in science, English and other subjects as, for
example, economics and law from lecturers of other departments. The other benefit from an
integration lies in the mind-broadening effect for lecturers who have before taught at a MET
institution which was physically, organizationally and financially separated from other
institutions of higher education. Communication and cooperation with lecturers in other
departments normally lead to mutual recognition and appreciation and an opening of the
sometimes “solitary confinement” of MET teaching staff in their “maritime world”.
Whilst concentration and integration are cost-saving and quality-raising, it may be difficult to
calculate to which exact savings they will lead, although it can be taken for granted that there
will be savings in addition to gains in quality and potential.
It would therefore be of benefit to identify and specify the costs of MET up to an unlimited
certificate including the possible contribution that a student may have to make to them. If these
costs would be calculated and would be categorized regarding where, when and for what they
arise, and if the sources of finance and their contribution to the different cost categories would
be specified, then possibilities for savings could be identified and savings could be made. With
help of such analysis could also the savings from concentration and integration be calculated
and other possibilities for savings be explored.
18
The approaches concentrating and/or integrating have until now been used with success in some
countries, the approach analysing costs and identifying possible savings has until now rarely
been used in satisfactory detail…”.
Staff at MET institutions should be made aware of the conflict between national MET and
globalized shipping and that an improvement of MET competitiveness will have a positive
influence on the continued existence of their institutions.
Staff at MET institutions should be encouraged to familiarize themselves with the international
economic context in which national MET operates and with the national ET context in which
national MET is embedded.
Staff at MET institutions need to take own initiative to increase the competitiveness of MET.
The most effective way to increase the international competitiveness of national MET in
METHAR countries is the concentration of resources and their cost-effective and optimum use
for national MET.
The concentration of resources at a smaller number of MET institutions in countries with too
many of these institutions should be combined with an extension of activities to short intensive
updating courses (which are already offered at many MET institutions), consultancy and research
(which are only done by a small number of MET institutions today).
The possibility of offering MET for the merchant marine and fishery at the same institution
should be explored and whether the national navy can at least partly be included in “civil” MET.
The concentration and integration of MET in departments of larger ET institutions should be
considered in countries where the overall number of MET students is too small to justify
concentration at an independent national MET institution.
A full concentration of resources may not be achieved in “one go”, it might be useful to approach
it in steps by, as for example,
•
•
•
reduce the number of MET institutions at which certificate + degree courses are offered
before reducing the number of MET institutions where certificate only courses are offered - in
countries where both systems exist;
separate - in “sandwiched” MET systems - the institutions which offer MET for officer-ofthe-watch (OOW) certificates from MET institutions which offer MET for unlimited
certificates and reduce the number of the latter before reducing the number of the former;
Concentrate costly simulator systems at only one or two MET institutions and channel
funding for the acquisition of this equipment accordingly.
Governments should consider to close MET institutions at which the number of students has
dropped below 10% or even 15% of all national MET students and/or at which the remaining
19
small number of lecturers has become unable to offer a full MET programme. It should be made
part of governmental QA to monitor these two factors which should be used to decide on the
continued existence of an MET institution together with other factors which national authorities
may want to develop and apply.
2.2
Regulations - the mobility issue
Main references: WP 6.2, CAMET 11 minutes.
See also 3.2.2 this report.
career
quality
effectiveness
harmonization
attraction
feasibility
progress
employment
mobility
aspects/
elements
economy
regulations
society
technology
politics
students
programmes
facilities
staff
graduates
competitiveness
issues
There are four kinds of mobility for ship officers:
• the mobility from ship to ship
• the mobility on a ship (deck-engine mobility)
• the mobility within the maritime industry (ship-shore mobility)
• the mobility between METHAR countries
The first three kinds of mobility are addressed in 3.2.2.
The mobility of ship officers between ships of METHAR countries and of ex-ship officers
between the national maritime industries in METHAR countries is the most advanced form of
mobility. It is of crucial importance for the growing together of West, Central and North Europe
to facilitate this mobility. A few pre-requisites will have to be met before this mobility can really
work. Regulatory, administrative and linguistic provisions have to be made, the use of
opportunities for mobility has to be encouraged. Maritime Europe has to become the place of
work instead of the own country and its shipping industry.
20
2.2.1 Aspects of mobility
METHAR objective mobility
WP 6.2: “A “think globally, act globally” approach is today the attitude of the shipping industry
whereas “think nationally, act nationally” is the attitude of MET and MET administrations that
can be expected to prevail also in future. This country-based attitude is understandable. It is
supported by the national history of MET, its national particularities, which are strengthened by
the relations of MET with national ET, a national language and other national characteristics.
However, the facilitated and enhanced mobility and the progress towards a single EU labour
market for qualified people, their ability to speak foreign languages and appreciate foreign
cultures and the growing economic interdependence between EU countries has led to mobilitysupporting results as, for example, the mutual recognition of academic degrees as well as to an
increasing number of study programmes which require studies in the own and another country
and for which degrees from two countries are awarded.
MET is far from becoming a study programme that includes a semester or two in a foreign
country with another language. It is strictly national, although it educates and trains for a
profession which has the world as its field of operation.
The mobility of seafarers between countries is further restricted by the today still limited mutual
recognition of certificates of competency.
Bilateral agreements on the recognition of certificates between METHAR countries exist,
although only to a limited degree. There exists also a legal framework for the mutual recognition
of educational awards within EU countries which is mainly used for facilitating student
exchanges between universities and the national recognition of studies abroad. Considering the
existing legal provision, it is difficult to understand the reasons for the reluctance to offering
unlimited mobility to ship officers in EU countries. Even the common minimum requirements of
STCW 95, which also all EU member states have to meet, support mobility of ship officers
between EU countries.
An obstacle for the further extension of mobility for ship officers in the EU seem to be differences
in standards or at least the perception of differences in standards.
There may also be the concern that an unrestricted influx of foreign ship officers may have a
negative effect on the national labour-market. Moreover, ship operators may prefer to fill ship
officer positions with foreigners from non-EU countries who also more readily accept lower
wages than it may be the case with ship officers from other EU countries.
However, even if all nationally justifiable reservations against the employment of ship officers
from other EU countries would be overcome, a remaining prohibiting factor to more mobility is a
limited proficiency in foreign languages. On ships manned with nationals the national language
is spoken, on ships with multi-national crews English is more often used as common language
than any other language.
21
Moreover, there is hardly any country in the EU that can afford the “export” of national ship
officers as most countries do not have enough ship officers to man vessels under the national
flag. In other words: even if all national reservations against an increase of mobility between
EU countries would be dropped, unlimited mobility may hardly happen because of shortcomings
in foreign language proficiency and shortage of national supply.
It is not clear which influence personal preferences may have on an individual’s readiness to
make use of existing opportunities for mobility. It would probably not be wrong to assume that
better financial, leave and social conditions may play a role in wanting to “become mobile” and
may be also other “non-pecuniar” interests.
Nevertheless, the national recognition of certificates should be extended but at the preference of
the individual EU member states. This could be facilitated by better provisions for a mutual
recognition of MET standards, i.e. by the use of more comparable and more harmonized syllabi,
an intensified study and increased use of English at MET institutions and as language on board
of ships with multi-lingual crews. It will however be more difficult to weaken and even overcome
attitudes which are believed to protect national interest.”
2.2.1.1 Regulatory and administrative aspects of mobility
At CAMET 11, Agisilaos Anastasakos of the Seafarers Training Division of the Hellenic
Republic’s Ministry of Mercantile Marine, Piraeus, Greece, elaborated on these aspects of
mobility:
“1
The existing legal regime within the EU favours the mobility of EU seafarers. In this
respect the following existing legal regime can be mentioned:
•
•
•
•
•
STCW 78/95
Council Directive 94/58/EC implementing STCW 78
Council Directive 98/35/EC implementing STCW 78/95
Directive on the General System of the recognition of diplomas and certificates in the EC
Port State Control Directive 95/21/EC
2
Within the framework of the EU shipping policy the Commission has presented in 1996
the strategic document “Towards a new maritime strategy”, aiming among other things to:
•
•
•
Preserve the maritime know-how in the community which is also needed in the ancillary
industry.
Enable the mobility and continuing education for young seafarers.
Enforce the safety policy of the Community, through proper maritime education and training.
22
3
•
•
•
•
•
The main reasons disabling the mobility of EU seafarers are the following:
Different shipping policy strategic objectives within METHAR countries.
Demand for increased professional specialization (there are only limited mobility
opportunities between different shipping industry sectors (e.g. bulk sector and ro/ro
passenger sector) due to the required high degree of specialization).
High financial support for the national MET (the maintenance of high skilled labour
represents a competitive advantage for the national fleet).
Operators seek to reduce costs on EC flagged vessels by employing non-EU nationals.
Different social security systems requirements disable the mobility.”
2.2.1.2 Communication aspects of mobility
At CAMET 11, Boris Pritchard, linguist at the Maritime College of the University of Rijeka,
Croatia, observer at CAMET, elaborated on these aspects of mobility:
“Communicative competence is viewed upon as the basic prerequisite enabling and facilitating
mobility in the maritime sphere. This also calls for mobility of both students and teachers in
maritime education and training institutions on all levels: secondary, post secondary and in
higher education….
……… there are also some communication-related factors ………… hampering the mobility of
seafarers:
-
unsatisfactory proficiency in a common language (English)
What kind of English and to what extent?
What kind of Maritime English (survival, safety, Radio-Telephony communications,
business, law …)
minimum standards of Maritime English (STCW 95) – national vs. global syllabi
applicability and range of use of SMCP [Standard Marine Communication Phrases]
in
the real maritime environment
socio-linguistic and cultural aspects of restricting successful communication (the
multi-national and multi-cultural crews)
Communication issues are much wider in scope and relevance to the maritime industry than it is
usually appreciated since they are normally regarded as a sine qua non and self-evident. The
particular language as a medium seafarers and shore-based personnel work in is English, though
on account of political correctness this fact is not always expressed openly and explicitly. This is
why often a linguistic detour is made. Thus Maritime English is frequently referred to as one of
the working languages (UN, EU) rather than the official language of the international maritime
community.
Harmonization is one of the highest points on the agenda not only in such issues as language use
but also in deciding as to the nature of Maritime English we recommend for international
maritime communication and therefore teach at MET institutions. Standardization of Maritime
English has also been a major issue for two decades now. Though reasonable unanimity has been
23
achieved as to what Standard Maritime English should be based on and what elements it should
include, there is still much work to do in this very important field. This refers, firstly, to the levels
of linguistic description (should we only standardize such constituents of Maritime English as the
vocabulary or should the description also encompass the phrases, sentences or pieces of
maritime discourse, format of messages etc?.) and, second, to the user-friendliness of Maritime
English standards, i.e. appropriateness of the standard to the particular segments of the maritime
community (multi-national and multi-cultural ship-board community; officers, ratings,
passengers) and to the particular purpose (distress, emergency, survival, business operations,
legal communications, etc.). Therefore it is still appropriate to raise questions such as:
-
What proficiency in maritime English is required?
What kind of general English do we need? (cf. Fred Weeks and his taxonomy of the
different use to which English and, in particular, maritime English, is put (1).
What kind of English do we need: survival, safety, Radio Telephony communications,
business, law, safety;… ?
The notion of Maritime English is still a somewhat vague topic and although there is a lot of talk
about standardization, the nature of maritime English and its standardisation should be studied
further.
An important aspect of language communication in the mobility issue is whether only a relatively
low minimum of linguistic competence or limited command of English to communicate
successfully and to facilitate communication on board EU or any other ships. Certainly, safety is
not all that is needed. It is absolutely necessary and desirable that the conclusions of the
MARCOM project be introduced in setting up further standards of Maritime English and in
framing the syllabus and instruction of Maritime English. The socio-linguistic implications of the
use of Maritime English, especially cultural issues, need to be given more emphasis in the future.
Another issue is the appropriate ratio (quantity and quality) between general English and ESP
[English for Special Purposes]
, which should be given adequate attention in future
considerations.
Therefore, the main MET English language prerequisites for mobility are:
•
•
setting up maritime English language standards
maritime English syllabus: common core syllabus or/and national syllabi
There is a need for further study and research. We need to have a follow-up on the results of the
MARCOM project. Therefore the following steps and actions are suggested:
•
•
establish model courses to further harmonize Maritime English syllabi
set up a socio-linguistic study of maritime discourse
__________________
(1) Fred Weeks: Whither Maritime English? IMLA’s Ninth Workshop on Maritime English,
Malmö, Sweden, 1997.
24
•
this can be studied in the course and after compiling a representative maritime English data
base (textual corpus of both spoken and written maritime English obtained by officially
permitted recording), in order to see how English works in the maritime context of situation,
i.e. in a prevailing multilingual and multi-cultural environment. The availability (on the
INTERNET) of such a database can have its practical consequences in providing:
- Teaching material for new textbooks
- Material for drills and testing
- Audio-lingual and visual support for maritime English instruction
- Maritime lexicography: dictionary and glossaries
- On-line textual and lexical database
- CD-ROMs for interactive learning and testing (general and) of maritime English
For the implementation of the above objectives and proposed further study and research
extensive international co-operation will be required. This will also depend on the readiness to
co-operate and support by international organisations / associations (IMO and its agencies,
IMLA Conferences and Workshops, EU concerted actions, etc).”
2.2.1.3 Individual and other aspects of mobility
At CAMET 11, Donal Burke, Department of Nautical Studies, Cork Institute of Technology,
Cork, Ireland, elaborated on these aspects of mobility:
“Advantages of mobility:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
wider range of job opportunity
bringing and receiving of new outlook and ethos in work practices
opportunity to learn or to increase use of language of the flag State
better integration of the European dimension of our lives
foreign earnings to be repatriated to home country
willingness to integrate into the on-board society of managing and operating
a ship with multinational crew
common sense: the most valuable asset in mobility
Hindrances to mobility:
•
personal attitudes: arrogance, insular attitude, afraid of challenges, age (too old to change),
not confident, family circumstances (needs to be near home)
Disadvantages in mobility:
1
Loneliness and isolation:
You may be the only one of your country on board or one of very few. The age gap between
junior officers and the rest of the crew can sometimes be so great that there is little in common,
so that younger people are unable to feel at home, and they feel alienated at the lack of
inclusiveness on board. The language spoken on board may in general be different with no effort
to integrate the newcomer. Most people like being with one of their own kind. It can be very
25
tiring deciphering what someone else is saying in two half languages. We all have our own way
of saying things that are understood by our own nationals. An example may well be simply the
nod or shake of the head has the opposite meaning for some people.
2
Ethnic issues in mobility: [see 5]
3
Religion:
This can be a most divisive element in relationships between people. Religion should be a very
personal affair between the believer and his God in whatever forms it takes and not a cause of
friction and hatred between people. Religion should teach tolerance not bigotry.
4
Nationalistic tendencies:
Not just regionalism as we have seen in Eastern Europe recently, countries may have an attitude
towards a more self promoting and less conciliatory attitude of co-operation between countries.
It appears that the long memory of history is raising its extremely ugly head with selfrighteousness as the predominant theme. This is particularly prevalent at election times within a
State.
5
Racism:
Unfortunately racism is alive and thrives in situations where devious individuals for whatever
warped reason try to upset fellow crew members by making disparaging remarks about that
country or its customs, the individual, etc. Sometimes alcohol is the reason that leads to a
loosening of the mouth.
6
Food:
Food can be very difficult on some ships, and whilst it ought to be a relaxing pastime it can
unfortunately be a trigger for discontent. Food containing garlic, spicy or oily food is not for
everyone. Can you really imagine a ship with English and French crew members and getting
agreement on whose beef we will have for lunch?
7
Language proficiency in mobility:
Why cannot they speak the English language? If the STCW 95 Code identifies the English
Language as being the language of communication then why not have this as the only language
in use on board. Whilst normal conversations will generally be understood the problems arise
when emergencies occur. People tend to panic in their native language and with a multinational
crew a recipe for disaster is simply waiting to happen. Some crews need a bosun type of person
to translate orders for them which builds an added delay into an emergency. It may well be that
English should be the only language permitted on multinational crewed ships whilst ships crews
with a single nationality could obviously converse in their native language. Alternately specific
ships could be crewed completely by a single nationality provided the quality of crew was
available. These crews should be European in total. Certain members of the crew should be
fluent in the English language.
8
Standards affecting mobility:
Perceptions prevail that nationals from certain countries are less able than others. It can take a
long time to rid a nation of an image of not being for example safety-conscious, or indeed of
cutting corners, operating rust bucket ships etc. Various types of assessment systems on board
26
are applied in different flag states depending on who owns the actual ship. If the owners are
known to you then it is easier to become loyal whereas if not known then it is purely a position
for the time being and not a career option. If it concerns European flag then you know roughly
what is expected. In addition you are aware of what type of flexibility is allowed or if it is
welcomed. If Eastern flag, then that flexibility may not be there.
9
What makes an individual willing to be mobile?
Where individuals are blessed with common sense, they will generally be far more capable. They
tend to be far more self-confident as well. They will have the ability to adapt easier and have
fewer reservations about doing things, going places, and taking on new challenges. An open
mind means more tolerance and less bigoted. The job generally comes first for such a person
and everyone benefits, the individual by the experience gained and the owner by the work or
repair carried out. People who are capable and have an interest in the job are invaluable as
distinct from the highly self-opinionated type of people who are only interested in themselves,
their qualifications, and position in life”.
A survey of already existing mutual recognition of certificates should be undertaken and still
lacking mutual recognition identified.
The national criteria for certification should be surveyed and a comparative analysis conducted.
National systems of assessment and procedures for certification of ship officers should be made
part of such survey and comparative analysis.
It would be useful to explore the reasons for lacking mutual recognition in order to identify the
changes which may be required to facilitate mutual recognition.
Not only the legal and administrative provisions should be reviewed with a view on proposing
measures for increasing mutual recognition but also the factual preparations for mobility should
be intensified.
The use of English in teaching at MET institutions in non-English speaking countries should be
encouraged and extended.
Exchanges of MET students and MET lecturers should be intensified and facilitated through
networking of MET institutions in the various countries which are best prepared to enter such
exchange.
Special courses for MET institutions in all countries should be developed centrally and in English
with participation by expert staff from a number of countries.
There should be research into identifying possible cultural and individual hindrances to mobility.
The readiness for mobility should be prepared at an early stage through the exchange of staff and
students between MET institutions in different countries.
27
It would also facilitate the exchange of MET students and MET lecturers if further progress in
the harmonization of basic MET syllabi would be made.
2.3
Society - the employment issue
Main references: WPs 3, 5, 6.
See also 3.1, 3.5 this report.
career
quality
effectiveness
harmonization
attraction
feasibility
progress
employment
mobility
aspects/
elements
economy
regulations
society
technology
politics
students
programmes
facilities
staff
graduates
competitiveness
issues
National societies, in METHAR countries and elsewhere, are interested in creating employment
opportunities for their citizens. A widely existing two-digit (percentage) rate of unemployment
in METHAR countries has, for several years already, been a strong stimulant to try to keep
existing jobs and create new ones. The development in shipping, where jobs were and are lost,
stands therefore in direct contradiction to government policy. There is the additional threat of a
loss in quality of shore-based shipping services if the number of national ship officers will further
decrease so that the already insufficient supply of nationals with shipboard experience for the
maritime industry on shore is further reduced.
In contrast to the desire to increase the number of jobs for nationals on ships under national flags
and the national ship operators’ interest in employing nationals stand the high costs of ship
officers from METHAR countries (compared to costs of ship officers form cheap labour
countries). Even if on-board employment opportunities would be improved for nationals from
METHAR countries, it would be difficult to find enough young people who are interested in
going to sea because of the poor image of the industry. Shipping can be blamed for having a bad
and consequently also unattractive image, although the perception of the beholder, the potential
seafarer, is also influenced by shore-based job and career opportunities. It is normally not
appreciated that shipping offers attractive job opportunities and that not all of it deserves a poor
28
image. It is the publicity given to maritime accidents and the living and working conditions on
poorly equipped and managed “rogue” ships which seem to encourage the pars pro toto
conclusion that seafaring is a profession from which one better stays away.
2.3.1 Creating jobs
METHAR objective employment
Jobs on national ships in METHAR countries have been lost to ship officers from non-METHAR
countries, the supply of national ship officers for the national maritime industry has become
insufficient, the quality of national shipping services can be expected to suffer which may entail
the loss of additional jobs.
It is an objective in all METHAR countries to provide employment for its own citizens. Shipping
provides for more jobs for nationals than are occupied by them today. Regaining lost jobs and
keeping them is therefore an objective to the meeting of which MET can contribute.
An increase of competitiveness through MET means both an increase in the quality of MET and
the provision of an increased employability by MET.
A better and more widely applicable MET will help save and create jobs for METHAR country
nationals on ships flying the flag of such a country and will help maintain the necessary supply of
ex-ship officers to the national shore-based maritime industries in METHAR countries.
Better MET programmes will not only give a competitive advantage to ship officers from
METHAR countries but will also help attract more qualified young people to seafaring so that
newly created jobs can be filled with nationals. The industry should not only rely on national
indirect or direct subsidies for the employment of national cadets and ship officers but should
make an own contribution to it as it will eventually be the national maritime industry ashore that
will profit from the employment of nationals on national ships.
2.3.2 Image of seafaring
WP 3: “It seems to add to the staying away from seafaring that the image of the industry is not
good, partly because publicity is mainly given to negative events, including the hardships
seafarers may have to endure and the sometimes difficult and bad working conditions.”
“There exist too often “employment conditions which seem to suggest that seafarers are treated
as nothing more than a commodity”. (see e.g. Lane 1998 (1) and Couper 1999 (2)).
____________________
(1) Lane, T, 1998: Global seafarers: citizens or displaced persons? SEAWAYS, June 1998.
(2) Couper, A D et. al., 1999: Voyages of abuse, ISBN 0 7453 1545 3 hbk.
29
There are sayings in, for example, Germany, that the attraction of seafaring increases with the
square of the distance to the shore, apparently suggesting that those who know least about
seafaring are most attracted by it. This saying has lost in validity today because of images of
ships causing oil spoils, ships burning and ships sinking can be seen on TV even in a remote
valley in the Alps. Unfortunately, safety of life at sea is rather perceived as lacking than as being
provided by the implementation of the SOLAS (Safety of Life At Sea) Convention.
The image of seafaring is not always reflected in the public appreciation of ship masters. There
are countries where both the image of seafaring and its chief representative are on the same level,
but there are also countries where the image of seafaring is lower than that of its chief
representative. There could be hope that young people base their choice of a seafaring career on
the master, monsieur le commandant or the “sole master after God”, if they do not learn too early
that this master has not the range of freedom as in old sea stories but is held on a short leash by
the head office.
There are only a few countries where the social prestige of the ship master is so good that it
makes qualified young people interested in seafaring, even if they have the alternative of studying
at a university.
It has not improved the image of seafaring that lay times in ports have become shorter and shorter
and are no more counted in days but in hours.
Taken together, seafaring has a number of features that, after having a closer look at them, do not
raise the interest in it but diminish it.
The image of seafaring needs to be improved if the choice of ship officer as profession should
become more attractive than it is today.
The public opinion on seafaring has to be improved in respect of safety and environment
protection. As an international legal framework and provisions are already existing in the form
of IMO Conventions, Codes and Protocols, it is the enforcement of these legal instruments that
has to be given special attention. Port State Control is probably the best way to identify
shortcomings in Flag State Implementation.
The public opinion on seafaring has also to be improved in respect of working and social
conditions of seafarers. As the international legal framework and provisions are already existing
in the form of ILO Conventions, it is the enforcement of these legal instruments that has to be
given special attention. Internationally agreed ways and means should be developed that will
make the improvement of work and social conditions “provable”. Cooperation between unions
and ship operators is required.
30
The increase of employment opportunities for ship officers should be pursued through providing
for
•
•
enhanced competence standards and
a wider application of MET.
It should be facilitated through appropriate national measures that national MET students and
national MET graduates are employed by national ship operators.
2.4
Technology - the progress issue
Main references: WPs 1.4, 3, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, CAMET 11 minutes.
See also 3.3 this report.
career
quality
effectiveness
harmonization
attraction
feasibility
progress
employment
mobility
aspects/
elements
economy
regulations
society
technology
politics
students
programmes
facilities
staff
graduates
competitiveness
issues
The increased use of technology, above all information technology (IT), has been and is the main
impetus and catalyst for change in shipping and the main reason for the integration of shipping in
the transport chain from sender to receiver. This connection between increased use of modern
technology and enhanced progress and competitiveness exists to a considerable extent, although
not ad infinitum.
There are limits to which technology can be used as substitute for human labour. The relation
technology progress + competitiveness is not only applicable to shipping but also to MET.
Institutions with advanced simulator and modern IT equipment can offer their students a more
effective training, closer to shipboard reality than MET institutions which lack access to this
technology.
31
2.4.1 Impact of technology use on shipping
Technology in shipping is today used in - WP 3 - “the surveillance of traffic on waterways, in
ports, by ship operators and other enterprises in the maritime and other sectors of transport. The
increased use of advanced IT has made it possible to integrate the transport of goods by sea into
the transport chain from producer to user, from sender to recipient. It has also supported the
merging of companies operating in different sectors of transport or, more specifically, the
merging of ship operation companies with companies in land and air transport. This extension
and diversification of transport companies across the sectors sea, land and air and the simplified
transfer of goods from one sector to another, which is facilitated by a continuous monitoring of
goods movements and an increased standardization of computerized documentation, has
“deprived” sea transport of its previous status as relatively independent transport sector. This
development has coincided with the design and construction of specialized ships for the carriage
of various types of cargo, with container ships and specialized tankers emerging as the most
important new types of ships, and the minimizing of lay times in ports, the maximizing of sailing
times and distances covered through the use of more effective loading/unloading technology in
ports as well as on ships.
This development, pursued through the increased use of modern technology for economic
competitiveness, has influenced the work conditions and the work content of ship officers. The
role of ship officers has developed into that of “caretakers” of ships, people and cargo between
ports. They need not involve themselves as much as before in the planning of the loading and
stowing of cargo and the paper work connected with this. Cargo securing has remained the ship
officers’ responsibility, although probably to a lesser degree than before because of an increased
delegation of shipboard work to port labour.

Report METHAR Contract No. WA-96

Transcription

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