track coach - Elite Runners TC

Transcription

TRACK COACH
CONTENTS
Top-Speed Practice Drills For Sprinters: Benefits And Insights — 6185
Teaching The Hammer Throw: How To Get A Beginner To Throw In Just Days — 6191
The 4x100 Relay — 6194
Thi- offioinl u-chninil
publication of
USA Tr.ick & Field
u
USA
TRACK&FIELD
Predictors Of Personal Best Performance In The Hammer Throw
For U.S. Collegiate Throwers — 6196
Children And Sport — 6204
WlNTERjDll
1
TRACK
COACH
From the Editor
Russ Ebbets
Formerly Track Technique
194
WINTER 2011
y
USA
The official technical
publication of
USA Track & Field
TRACK* FIELD
DSPS # 745-030
ED FOX
RUSS EBBETS
TERESA JAM
FRED WILT
Publisher
Editor
Production & Design
Founding Editor
PUBLICATION
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CHANGE, CHANGE,
CHANGE
There is a story out there, probably apocryphal, about Nikita
Khruschev's last days in office as head of the Soviet Union. The
day he left office his successor Leonid Brezhnev found two letters on his desk. On the outside of the first letter was a note to
"use this the first time you get in a jam." The second letter was
for the second jam.
Time wore on and Brezhnev got in a jam. He opened the
first letter from Khruschev which counseled him to, "Blame
everything on me (Khruschev)." He did and it worked.
Time wore on again and a second jam developed. Brezhnev
found and opened the second letter. It simply stated, "Sit down,
write two letters."
Politics, whether in Russia, the U.S. or General Motors—we
do like change. The November elections are over and we can all
celebrate the end to political attack ads. Think about it. When Jefferson, Madison, Adams, et al., sat down to write the Constitution
and the Amendments do you think they could have envisioned
the tone and tenor of this form of "freedom of speech?"
Maybe they were that smart. USATF is getting a new chief.
Coaching Ed has had a big split and yet somehow I think we
will survive. The more things change. . .
There is something to be said for consistency. It is predictable but there comes a time when it is difficult to tell the difference between that and stagnation. Improvement necessitates
change.
But the troubling thing is that we seem to be in the Age of
Swing from one extreme to another. The common ground is all
but a blur on the sweep to polar extremes.
This presents us with a continual dilemma. When is change
good and when is it too much? It's an easy question to ask and
a difficult one to answer.
If you think about training theory for a moment—improvement is change. But improvement doesn't come day to day or
even week to week. Improvement comes with the turn of a
calendar page.
(Continued on page 6210)
On the cover: Shalonda Soloman and Allyson Felix in a high school race.
Photo by Kirby Lee/The Sporting Image.
TRACK COACH — 6184
Top-Speed Practice
Drills For Sprinters:
Benefits And Insights
A potentially valuable study testing sprinters' variability over 10-meter intervals.
As a sprint coach, how do you
motivate your athletes to run "really
fast" in any given practice drill that
is supposed to be performed at full
speed? Does telling a novice athlete
to "run fast!" or "go all out on this
one" work well? Do you ever ask
runners to do the first few trials at,
say, 80% of their max speed and
wonder if their speeds are really
anywhere near 80%? How many
consecutive trials can sprinters
perform running a short distance at
maximum effort, before they start to
significantly drop in the top speed
achieved, hence signaling the end
of a productive workout?
Working at the high school
level, questions like these present
significant challenges to the track
coach in planning a good speed
workout for a large number of runners with a wide range of abilities.
Two high school seniors, as part of
their year-end senior project, were
enlisted to help try to answer some
of these questions through a nonrigorous experiment. Using middle
and high school volunteers, a series
of electronically timed ten-meter
sprints were performed, using a
spreadsheet analysis of the data at
a later date. Our informal results
are not to be considered in any
way the final word on this subject;
they do, however, indicate that this
type of conditioning drill has some
unique training benefits and that
additional, more in-depth studies
are warranted.
EQUIPMENT
To accurately measure a time
interval, we utilized some equipment from the physics lab: a Science Workshop Series 500 Interface
from PASCO Scientific Educational
Supply company with two laser
switches and accompanying software, and extension cables long
enough to set up a 10-meter window
along the track. The laser switches
signal the start and stop of a very
precise (sub-millisecond) clock
when the beam from either of two
lasers, pointing at their respective
switch, is broken (the lasers are a bit
more powerful than a laser pointer).
The combination of laser + switch
acts as a photogate.
In our tests, the photogates were
placed at about 55 cm above the
ground, based on the height of available laboratory stands. The vertical
placement of the beam turned out
to be an important choice as will be
explained below. Data was recorded
on a laptop using the Data Studio
software program and analyzed
post-workout. Figure la displays
By David Headly, Jared Baum, and Peter Megson,
Collegiate School, Richmond, VA
Figure 1a:The ten-meter setup with two photogates. associated cables and laptop for
data acquisition. The lasers are on the outside of lane 1, pointing at their respective
switches on the inside of the lane.
Fig. 1b: Close-up of one of the photogates, with runner's leg approaching the beam
from left to right.
the overall setup, where the lasers
can be seen at the outside edge of
lane one, pointing to their respective
switches on the right. In Fig. Ib we
show a close-up view of a runner
PROCEDURE
students participated on a given day,
depending on their availability. The
runners were asked to warm up on
their own, and then when ready, to
back up from the first photogate as
far as they thought they needed in
order to reach top speed by the first
photogate. In practice, this meant
about 20 to 25 meters. For higher
level sprinters this relatively short
distance would of course not be
enough. But without a clear picture
of just how far a consistent acceleration phase should last for all levels
of abilities, and wanting to have
the students run multiple trials on
some days which were in the 90's
with high humidity, we chose to err
on the short side of distances.
When more than one student
was available, we had each successive runner start when the person
ahead of him passed through the
second photogate. This would mean
about one test per ten seconds. After
each student would pass through
both photogates, data recording was
stopped and restarted for the next
runner so that each student's trial
was able to be stored separately on
the computer. For a subset of the
total volunteers, we were able to get
them to attempt their first two trials
at what they thought was 80% of
their top speed. Those first two trials
then also served as more warm-up
for the remaining top-speed efforts.
The testing was stopped when the
runners got too tired, had to leave
for various reasons, or ideally when
their measured times were increasing significantly.
DATA AND
CALCULATIONS
The data were taken on con-
Below are raw data for two rep-
28 individuals, ages 13 to 18, were
tested. Anywhere from one to nine
in each table ("Elapsed Time") is the
important information. In Run #19
fircf
two beams on his way through the
10-meter segment.
Table 1
Table 2
X Time Between Any Gates
A Time Between Any Gates
Run #19
Time (s)
2.2442
Run #20
Elapsed Time (s)
1.1303
Time (s)
1 .3624
1 .3998
1 .9752
2.5560
2.5933
Elapsed Time (s)
0.0482
0.0266
1.1242
0.0375
0.0371
Table 3: Comparison of 80% of top-speed attempt with reality.
athlete by age
top speed
(mis)
actual speed at 80%
effort (mis)
Difference
(actual - theoretical), %
13
6.99
5.58
-0.17%
6.01
5.98%
5.50
-5.58%
5.60
-4.22%
6.02
4.91%
6.46
11.10%
5.27
-6.60%
13
7.39
13
7.09
13
7.18
13
7.04
13
6.68
13
13
7.05
7.02
5.47
-3.82%
6.52
12.61%
6.45
11.62%
6.02
10.12%
5.61
3.98%
6.23
8.37%
5.95
4.40%
6.38
10.88%
6.17
7.89%
8.38
12.67%
16
9.04
8.13
9.96%
16
8.62
7.93
12.00%
7.41
5.96%
17
7.63
6.70
7.81%
6.25
1.91%
17
8.96
7.89
8.06%
18
8.34
7.41
8.85%
7.02
4.17%
(the meaning of the run number is
not important here) the elapsed time
represents the time interval between
the initial moment of one part of
the runner's body blocking the first
laser beam, and the initial moment
of one part of the runner's body
DreaKmg tne second laser. Hence
their speed for that trial was
10.0 m / 1.1303 s = 8.85 m/s
However, most trials did not
produce such easy-to-analyze results. A more common example is
from Run #20, in which you see five
total time intervals in the right column, all for just one athlete running
through two photogates. The first
two times togetner represent only
about 75 milliseconds, and indicate
that the first photogate was blocked
by one part of the leg, then another
part of the athlete's legs blocked
the same photogate before passing
totally through. This could be the
front and then rear legs passing
through, or perhaps the thigh and
then ankle area of the same leg.
The next time interval, 1.1242
seconds, represents the time to reach
the second photogate with one part
of the body, and the last two rows
again show that multiple portions
of the legs are sequentially breaking through the same (second) laser
beam. The correct time then for this
trial would be the sum of the first
three rows of elapsed time, or 1.199
seconds.
Due to the varying heights of
the runners, the need to keep the
laser beam significantly lower than
head level to protect runners' eyes,
and the arm and leg motion at full
speed, it was decided at the onset
of testing that there was probably
no place along the height of the
runner where a photogate would
consistently only be triggered once.
We have no proof of this but the decision simply meant a more careful
analysis of the data was necessary
in order to extract the correct time
intervals.
Table 3 represents a comparison between the athletes' attempts
(usually two per student, at beginning of drill) to run at 80% of their
perceived maximum speed, and
what 80% of their maximum speed
on that particular day actually was.
For each runner we chose the top
speed obtained looking at every
trial performed at maximum effort,
took 80% of that value, and then
compared that 80% "theoretical"
speed with their "actual" speeds
when running at what they thought
was 80%. So for example the first
siuaeiit (tup row), a 13-yr-oiu girl,
reached a top speed on that day of
6.99 m/s. Her correct (theoretical)
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Fig. 2a: Top speed
over 10-m interval for
all high school male
athletes tested in this
study.
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trial
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girls (7th - llth grade)
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Fig. 2b: Top speed
for a subset of all
female athletes
tested.
trial
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high school boys (curve containing
second highest top speed at trial #3)
had to quit at trial 11 due to back
spasms even though his speed was
actually increasing at that point. Another boy (only senior tested), a soccer player and spring track sprinter,
was able to perform an impressive
30 trials at top speed on a hot day
before he decided to pack it in. The
slowest initial trial's speed (7.5 m/s)
belonged to a thrower who had not
been running for several weeks
prior to this testing. As mentioned
earlier, the fact that many runners'
curves stop at much earlier trials
was not due to fatigue but rather
other unavoidable factors relating
to the students' schedules.
Figures 3a-c compare each runner's performance over the course
of their workout with their first
top-speed effort. Figure 3a is for
all high school boys tested (ages
15-18); Figure 3b is for all girls
tested (ages 13-17), and Figure 3c is
for all 8th grade boys tested (ages
13-15). The results are plotted as a
(decimal) ratio of the speed on any
given attempt divided by the speed
on the first attempt. For example,
a data point at 0.95 means that the
runner, on that trial, reached 95%
of his/her first top-speed attempt.
' fe
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high school athletes
Fig. 2c: Top speed
for subset of 8th
grade male athletes
tested.
1
'3
2C
3D
trial
80% speed would then be 5.59 m/s.
When she attempted an 80% effort
her speed was basically right on the
mark, at 5.58 m/s or 79.8% of her
top potential speed based on that
day's work.
RESULTS
Figures 2a-c show some representative results of students'
sprinting speeds versus number of
attempts. The results are broken up
into high school boys (Fig. 2a, 9th12th grades), girls (Fig. 2b, 7th-llth
giddy), and sin grade Doys (Fig. zc),
in order to reduce the number of
data points per graph. One of the
TRACKCOACH-6188
DISCUSSION
Analysis of the data leads to
the following five key points:
Point #1: The results in Figures
3a-c (the main purpose of this testing) beg the question "What would
we expect to see?" How much variation between trials is "much"? The
most obvious result we can see from
testing is that almost everyone—25
of 28 total participant (89%), ranging in age from 13 to 18 and with
widely varying top speeds and fit-
ness levels—was able to maintain
at least 90% of his/her first effort
up through the last trial (counting
the 30+ trial participant in the over90% group). For those who were
able to perform at least ten trials
at top speed, the percentage was
just about the same—15 out of 17
runners, or 88%. Five of the seven
varsity sprinters were able to maintain at least 95% of their first trial's
result after 12 trials (since they did
the first two trials at 80%, this is a
total output per runner of 14 trials
at that point in the workout).
More surprising is the fact that
many of the runners commented
that they were feeling tired at some
point during the workout, yet they
were still able to maintain or even
improve on their first trial's result
in subsequent trials. Hence, the
limitation of a drill like this for a
large group of conditioned runners
is not the fatigue of the fast twitch
muscles or the stamina of the athletes, but rather the time available
to the coach in a given practice. At
ten seconds per student per trial
(very efficient), if you try to push 20
sprinters through such a drill it will
take no less than about 35 minutes
—longer of course if more trials are
attempted. This does not include the
setup and takedown time involved
with the equipment.
Point #2: In contrast to the previous finding, there is in fact quite a
bit of variation between successive
trials for many of the runners. It
is not uncommon to notice a 5%
increase or decrease in speed and
sometimes even more than 10% between one trial and the next. Some
coaches say they don't like to tell
their athletes to "give it 110% on this
one" because of the impossibility of
such an effort, but our results say
that, yes, in fact they can in reality
do just this (!), because of all of the
o
g
1
Fig. 3a: Ratio of
[top speed, trial n
/ top speed, trial 1]
where n>1, for all
tested.
Fig. 3b: Same as 3.a,
for all middle school
girls (age 13) tested.
girls, age 13
trial
4
8th grade boys
Fig. 3c: Same as 3.a,
for all 8th grade boys
tested (age range from
13 to 15 years old).
factors that seem to be playing out
in a typical practice session.
The runners were not given unlimited time to prepare for each new
trial. Their minds were wandering
as they talked with each other while
and started to slow down just a bit
before reaching it (yes, even at 10
meters they can't finish the race!).
These and certainly other factors unknown to the authors mean
that in a real-world workout with
waiting in line. TKeir acceleration
yrilinp-
was not exactly the same for each
trial up to the first photogate. Sometimes they saw the second photogate
same maximal effort over the course
of multiple trials is itself a worthy
goal of practice.
TRACK COACH —6189
atlll£if£acr
m a i n f ^ i t-> i r\ cr
f.V\o
As an additional note on this
subject, when the data was plotted
with all boys on one graph and all
girls on a second graph (not shown
in this article), the girls' data clearly
shows more variation between successive trials, in terms of oscillating
up and down in top speed. We will
leave it to our more knowledgeable
readers to properly interpret this
phenomenon.
Point #3: A number of the athletes tested did decrease their top
speed immediately from the second
attempt and onward. This is a good
sign of lack of conditioning for
the untrained runners, and so the
relative slope of their data, done
over the course of a season, should
show improvement in maintaining
a higher top speed over time.
Point #4: The benefits of timed
drills like these is three-fold. Telling an athlete to run fast is one
thing, but when they know they
will be timed, and their speed
will be calculated and therefore
compared with their peers, there
is an element of competition that
enters the practice and the athletes
push harder. Second, once their top
speed is known, this quantitative
measurement can be used to track
any improvement over the course
of the season that sprinters are
making. A third benefit of the timed
drill is that it eliminates any effect
on the result due to knowledge (or
lack thereof) of how to use starting
blocks, how to accelerate properly,
how to lean properly at the end basically anything other than raw
speed. So this test gives the coach a
clear indication of just who on their
team has the best potential to be a
«.r,;~4,>-, u^™ ^y
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place.
Point #5: From Table 3, the
mean effort for this set of runners
was 5.7 +/- 5.7% above their theoretical speed. All but two middle
schoolers ran faster than they should
have with each attempt, and with
a rather wide range of guesses. All
of the high school students listed in
this table (ages 16 and above) were
sprinters or hurdlers on our track
team in either the winter or spring
seasons. The mean effort for that
subset of runners was 7.9 +/- 3.3%
above theoretical speed.
Hence even though these
runners were more familiar with
sprinting and training at various
effort levels, they fared worse than
the younger, untrained athletes,
consistently running significantly
faster than they should have been.
The second thing we can see from
Table 3 is that all but one student
were closer to their theoretical 80%
speed on their second attempt, either speeding up if they were too
slow the first time, or (more commonly) slowing down on the second
attempt. Why this is so is unclear,
since they had no more information to make a better "judgment"
on the second trial compared with
the first.
The 80% data suggest that
coaches can approach such a paced
effort by students with the thought
that, if you want them to run at a
given percent of their top speed,
tell them to run a little slower than
your goal, at least at this percent of
top speed.
CONCLUSION
Our analysis has shown that,
in a short sprint, the top speed that
can be achieved in a given practice
session can be maintained over a
surprisingly large number ol trials,
even after perceived fatigue on the
part of the athlete sets in. The study
TRACK COACH - 6190
was done without a guided warmup period, which could explain why
some of the runners continued to
improve their speeds over the first
few trials; however just as many
runners started to slow down immediately after the first attempt.
Our acceleration phase was
shorter than it realistically should
be, especially for the faster athletes,
which implies that our data is
conservative in its estimate of the
top-end speeds. There was great
variability between successive trials, but overall a fairly consistent
top speed by the tenth or higher
effort (compared with the first
trial) for the majority of students
tested, both trained and untrained
as sprinters.
An important question as a
result of this study is the following:
How would these results compare
on the day of a track meet? If a
runner consistently shows in timed
practice sessions to be able to increase his/her top speed achieved
over the first few trials (or even
more), should that sprinter warm up
for the official race by doing several
all-out sprints just prior to (as close
as possible to) the race? Consider
a sprinter who can maintain a top
speed of about 10.0 m/s for 20
meters during a 100m race. A five
percent change in that speed over
just the 20-meter stretch produces a
0.10-second change in race time—no
small effect!
After the testing was done many
students kept asking about their
results—the curiosity generated by
this method can make a practice session a lot more fun for the kids, and
provide very practical knowledge
for the coach. You can take the top
speed overall for a student from a
focf Hire. tViic, Hixririo it infr> 100m
(distance divided by running speed
(Continued on page 6210)
Teaching The Hammer
Throw: How To Get
A Beginner To Throw In
Just Days
Just what the title of this piece indicates, a brief guide to getting youngsters started in
hammer throwing invoking the KISS method, "Keep it simple, stupid."
A few years ago the hammer
throw wasn't even on the radar of
most high school coaches. During
the past decade, however, the event
has grown at an unprecedented
rate at high schools across the
country. While the hammer throw
is only regularly contested at high
schools in one state (Rhode Island),
it has grown all over the country
thanks to its inclusion in the Junior
Olympics and other competitions.
Statistician Bob Gourley compiles
a yearly performance list of every
high school boy who throws over
150 feet and every high school girl
who surpasses 120 feet. During the
last decade, the number of throwers
on that list has doubled from 51
boys from eight states to 105 boys
from 19 states and 33 girls in eight
states to 65 girls in 17 states.
The event offers a unique opportunity for youth athletes to get
a leg up on the competition and
earn a college scholarship or just the
chance to continue their career at
the collegiate level. While the event
looks complex, it is a fun event that
can be learned quickly.
divots when it lands. However,
beginning throwers will not be
throwing far enough to do much
damage and can use almost any
field with a discus cage.
3. A hammer. High school boys
throw a 12-pound hammer whilethe
girls throw a 4-kilogram (8.8-pound)
hammer. Hammers can be ordered
through all track and field suppliers.
WHAT YOU NEED
1. A ring and cage. The hammer is
thrown from a seven-foot ring. This
is slightly smaller than a discus ring,
but for training purposes a discus
ring will work just fine. A discus
cage should also be sufficient to
protect spectators from potentially
errant throws.
2. Afield. The hammer can cause
The proper grip for a right-handed
thrower
By G. Martin Bingisser and Ryan E. Jensen, Canada
If possible, it is best to learn with
a lighter than competition weight
hammer. Shorter hammers are also
easier to learn with.
4. A glove. A glove is not necessary for beginners, but more advanced throwers will want a glove to
protect their hand. Hammer throw
gloves are available, but a leather
gardening glove will also work just
fine. The hammer glove is worn
on the left hand for right-handed
throwers.
Step 1: Pick up the hammer
Aright-handed thrower should
pick up the hammer with his/her
left hand, gripping it between the
first and second joint of the fingers.
The right hand should be placed on
top of the left hand with the thumbs
pointing up.
Step 2: Winding and releasing the
hammer
The hammer throw can be hard
for kids to learn when coaches make
it more complex than it needs to be.
But when a coach keeps it simple,
learning to throw will more fun
for the athlete and easier for the
coach.
To wind the hammer, the athlete
should face away from the landing
area and swing the hammer around
the head counterclockwise as shown
in the diagram below. There are
a few concepts the coach should
remind the athlete of: (1) keep the
arms and body relaxed and (2) bend
the arms while the hammer goes
behind the head, but always keep
them straight and long while in
front of the body. Have the athlete
take two winds and then release
the hammer over the shoulder into
the field behind him. When releasing, make sure the feet stay on the
ground while the athlete simply lets
go of the hammer at the appropriate
time.
HOW TO EXECUTE THE
WIND
An athlete should take multiple
throws without turning and the
coach can begin to tinker with his
technique on each attempt. The first
concept an athlete should learn is
when to "push" or "accelerate" the
hammer. During each wind, the
athlete should add a little speed to
the hammer before it gets in front
of the athlete. The athlete should
actively accelerate the hammer from
the end of the second wind until the
hammer is directly in front of the
athlete. Once the hammer is directly
in front of the athlete, it is too late
to accelerate. The athlete should
also make sure the hammer stays in
front of the body and the athlete is
not "dragging" the hammer behind
him.
The other elements of the throw
(a proper orbit, etc.) will begin to fall
into place with lots of repetitions;
the coach should not address these
elements at this time since it will
likely only overwhelm the athlete.
TRACKCOACH-6192
Step 3: Wind, turn and release
Soon the athlete will become
very comfortable with winding and
releasing. It may take less than one
practice session for some athletes, or
multiple sessions for other athletes.
The coach must determine when the
athlete is ready to move on to the
next step.
Before the athlete begins to turn,
he should take a few more winds
and releases where he dorsiflexes
the left ankle prior to the release.
The athlete should begin to turn on
the left heel as the hammer comes
around in front of him. However,
the athlete will release the hammer
without a turn as he has been doing.
The simple act of dorsiflexing the
foot will get him used to transferring his balance to the heel.
When an athlete begins to do a
real turn, the coach should focus on
the athlete's upper body. Focusing
on the footwork can easily confuse
most kids and promote poor technique. Have the athlete do his/
her winds as normal, with a focus
on accelerating the hammer at the
proper times. On the second wind,
the athlete will accelerate the hammer around to the left and let the
hammer turn the athlete. If the athlete
has flexed the foot properly, he
will turn around with the hammer.
Athletes must pick up their right
foot after a quarter turn. Midway
through the turn the athlete simply
puts his foot down to complete the
turn. These points will come almost
naturally if the athlete focuses more
on accelerating the hammer and
allowing the hammer to turn him
rather than turning the hammer.
The body will find these positions
on its own; the coach does not need
to address these while coaching.
The athlete's first throw should
just be with one turn so that he can
become comfortable with turning.
After the thrower becomes com-
fortable with one turn, he should
progress to three turns. Most elite
throwers use three or four turns,
so reaching this stage quickly will
help one's development.
As they progress, the coach
should continue to tinker with their
technique and work out any errors.
In the next part of this series, we will
discuss how coaches can address
some common technical errors in
beginners.
Dorsiflexing the left foot
Step 4: Have fun
The most important thing is for
the athlete to have fun. First impressions are important. If an athlete
is going to succeed in this event,
it needs to be fun for them. There
are many approaches out there that
teach the hammer throw through
more steps, but our approach allows
kids to throw almost immediately,
making it fun and leaving a lasting
impression that will encourage them
to try the event again.
COMMON ERRORS
• Lifting right leg too early—Focus
on not picking up the leg.
• Discus leg
• Die at 0°—Get more momentum.
Don't let it die in the winds.
Martin Bingisser is the President
of the non-profit Evergreen Athletic
Fund. Ryan Jensen is a former
All-American from Calvin College
and youth throwing coach for the
Kamloops Track and Field Club.
Both are currently training postcollegiately in Kamloops, British
Columbia.
IS COACHING AN ART OR SCIENCE?
The longer we stay in the coaching profession we realize that
coaching is becoming more and more a science. Some knowledge is needed of physical components. Training principles,
applying psychological principles, nutrition and an understanding of biomechanics are required to help the athlete reach
his/her potential. Knowledge of science alone, however, will
not get the job done. It still requires the communication skill
called The Art of Coaching in which the coach is able to plan
and communicate to the athlete what he or she has learned
from the exercise physiologist, sports nutritionists and sports
medicine. Coaching is becoming more complex, but the coach remains
the central figure in the development of the athlete. The coach is like an artist, with
eyes that watch the picture being developed and the skill to touch up the rough
spots to create the finished product.
Bob Fraley, former Fresno State roach
Adapted from The Pole Vault Standard, Vol. 15, Issue 4
The 4x100 Relay
Some sound observations on developing a competent high school sprint relay team.
Over the years, I've had reasonable success with our 4x100 relay
teams here at Shelby High School.
We are a small Class B high school
of 160 students and practice on a
cinder track. Because of our facility and numbers, we have had to
become fairly good technicians. We
have also had to become creative at
times. This article will focus on several aspects of coaching the sprint
relay which I feel are important to
having success in this event.
PERSONNEL
The first thing I look at is personnel. I use a democratic system where
anyone interested in running the
short relay must run the 100-meter
dash to qualify for the team. I keep
a precise depth chart with both the
boys' and girls' times. Two or three
times again during the season they
must qualify, especially if they are
not normally running the 100. What
I have found is that jumpers and
hurdlers oftentimes are just as fast
as the true sprinters. Don't overlook
those field event athletes. They may
become important contributors to
your relay.
WHO RUNS WHAT LEG?
I find that hurdlers and jumpers
do a great job on the first leg. They
get out of the blocks quickly, are
explosive, and run that first corner
well. I use a different approach than
most coaches for the second leg. Our
best relay teams over the years have
had the fastest runner on the back
stretch. Give that runner a long,
straight line and he/she can really
open it up. The other advantage is
that this usually gives your team
the lead and then you can simply
ask the last two legs to keep it. I've
always believed it is easier to run
when in front rather than from behind. It gives the third and fourth
legs a lot of confidence when they
see the lead their team has.
The most powerful runner
should be third, especially someone
who runs a good 200 meters. He
needs to control that gravitational
pull and stay on the inside of his
lane. A weaker runner will tend to
be pulled out and away from the
inside of the lane.
The last runner should be a
strong finisher, not one who tires
quickly or fades the last 20 meters
or so. Remind him to run through
the tape and not to the tape.
USE THE WHOLE ZONE
Unlike some other programs,
I coach my relays to use the entire
acceleration zone. I want that exchange to be at top speed with as
little time lost as possible. Speed
wins relays, yes, but smooth and efficient exchanges are vital to success.
A sprint relay team with average
runners and excellent exchanges can
be much better than average. One
thing that still puzzles me after 30
years of coaching is 400 meter relay
teams from schools with all-weather
tracks that struggle with exchanges.
If you are fortunate enough to have
an all-weather surface, you should
have the opportunity to really finetune those handoffs.
GIRLS' TEAMS
With girls' teams, I start with 14
shoe lengths back from the beginning of the acceleration zone. The
outgoing runner stands at the back
of the zone on the small triangle and
By Clayton Davis
Shelby High School Head Track Coach, Shelby, Montana
walks back 14 shoes. That's where
she puts her tape marker. Depending on her speed or experience, I
may adjust that somewhat, but not
a great deal.
We don't do full relays in
practice. We save that for meets. In
practice I have the incoming runner
start about 20-25 meters away and
then run into the zone. I emphasize
the exchange happening within the
first 10 meters of the zone. I don't
believe in two runners alongside
each other for 20 meters and then
a handoff. We get in and then get
out.
The other advantage of an exchange within the first 10 meters is
that you have room for some margin
of error if for some reason the runners aren't ready or in the proper
position. If a teams waits until the
last 10 meters of the exchange zone
and then has trouble, that team
won't make a legal exchange.
BOYS' TEAMS
I have our boys' team measure
back from the small triangle in the
acceleration zone 17 shoes. Once
again, a piece of tape goes there.
Some teams use more than one
We use one. If I have a runner who
doesn't accelerate as fast, I will
leave the tape at 17 and move him
up two shoes ahead of
the small triangle. This
takes time and you
have to have patience
working with them.
My teams learn this on
a cinder track and then
just have to make minor
adjustments warming
up at meets.
Once a good running order is established, don't change it.
A few years ago I had
a very fast boys' team
and decided to change the order. It
threw everything off and they didn't
respond well to it at all. A team is
only going to run so fast. You can't
take two seconds off by changing
order. Don't fix what isn't broken.
THE RELAY PASS
As far as exchanges are concerned, I coach right to left to right to
left. Our method is blind, overhand
exchanges with the thumb pointed
in. I prefer this because if the incoming runner is too high, he or she can
slide the baton down the lower arm
to the hand. The outgoing runner
is responsible for a quick, explosive
start and extending the arm on the
signal. We stay away from signals
like "stick" or "hand" because many
other teams use those cues. I make
the cue personal with short, onesyllable commands using either first
or last names in a shortened form. I
also instruct the outgoing runner not
to feel or grab for the baton. That
responsibility lies with the incoming runner. What typically happens
in a poor exchange is both runners
are reaching around to deliver or
receive the baton and they work
against each other. Once again, the
responsibility of delivering the baton
lies with the incoming runner.
TRACK COACH —6195
Another critical coaching point
for the outgoing runner is to focus
on his team's lane and his team's
lane only. Younger athletes get
caught up emotionally in the race
and see the other seven teams approaching. Their basic instinct is to
take off or their team will be behind.
The result is leaving early and the
exchange is either stretched out far
too long or the exchange doesn't
happen at all. Relay runners need
to understand they can only control
their team and there is nothing they
can do to influence the other relay
teams in their heat.
Practice exchanges every day.
Our exchanges are done every day
right after the team warms up.
Don't practice exchanges at the end
of practice or after a hard interval
night. Relay members need to be
fresh for exchange work. It doesn't
take a long time, but working on
it every day leads to good meet
performance.
PREPARATION AT
MEETS
We get to meets one hour early
with ample time for all our athletes
to have a proper warm-up. After
the team warms up, I take both the
boys' and girls' sprint relay teams
immediately to the first exchange
and practice. I want those teams
to work on exchanges before the
track gets busy with all the other
schools.
Relays develop a sense of camaraderie and excitement within a
group of young athletes. They also
give athletes a chance to go on to
divisional and state meets when
tVujyr jtvever liivil sun opportunity to
qualify in individual events. Relays
are the truest form of teamwork in
the sport of track & field.
Predictors Of Personal
Best Performance In The
Hammer Throw For U.S.
Collegiate Throwers
This article first appeared in the International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 10(1),
54-65, 2010. Larry Judge has coached throwers at Indiana State, Wyoming, Florida, and South Carolina
and is now at the School of Education, Sport and Exercise Science at Ball State (IN); David Bellar is
iMiin lilt UKUl. UT f^lYLKKlllinvM HT Inuisinnn I ntmiatto- I_-'-»««« A/l-^f,,,, ;„ H.- *-'••----• -;--"----'- '"„' ' „,„ '
women s jieia event
coach at Clemson; and Mike Judge is affiliated with Throw 1 Deep Sports in Marietta, GA.
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was
to investigate the variables that
contributed most to maximum
throwing distance in the hammer
throw event in track and field. A
41-item survey instrument was
developed to collect data regarding
national level collegiate hammer
throwers throughout the United
States. Multiple regression analysis
for hammer throw personal record
(PR) yielded a significant model
(r=0.811, psO.OOl) with the following predictors: number of throws
per year, number of years throwing
the hammer, NCAA division, back
squat, and type of hammer tech-
nique. The model explained in excess
of 65% of the variance in hammer
technique among the respondents
(r2=0.658). These results provide
quantitative information for coaches
and athletes involved in the hammer
throw event about the importance
of years of experience, volume of
training and strength levels. Furthermore, the results may provide
some insight into the obstacles and
barriers limiting the development
of U.S. hammer throwers.
INTRODUCTION
The hammer throw is an athletic
track and field throwing event; the
objective is to throw a heavy steel
ball attached to a wire and handle
(with a maximum length of four feet)
as far as possible. The hammer throw
requires a vast amount of technical
expertise (8). Combining strength,
balance, timing, and the necessity of
near-perfect technique, the hammer
is definitely one of the most exciting
and artistic of the field events.
The weight of outdoor competition hammers used today in the
Olympics and nationally accredited
(IAAF) track and field events are 4 kg
for women and 7.26 kg for men.
Like other throwing events in
track and field such as discus and
shot put, competition in the hammer is decided by who can throw
the implement the farthest. Athletes
gain maximum distance by winding
the hammer around the front of the
By Lawrence W. Judge, David Bellar, Glenn McAtee and Mike Judge
body to set up the circular motion.
Athletes then apply force to the ball
and pick up speed by completing
one to four (heel left foot) (ball right
foot) turns in a seven-foot concrete
circle (7). Most throwers turn three
(three heel turns) or four (one toe
and three heels) times, depending
on the kind of technique used.
The ball moves in an elliptical
path prior to release, gradually
increasing in velocity on each turn,
with the high point of the ball orbit
toward the sector, or marked landing
area; the low point of the hammer is
at the back of the circle away from
the sector. The thrower then releases
the ball at the front of the circle.
The three most important biomechanical factors for a long throw
are the velocity (speed of the ball),
angle of release and height of release
(7). In recent years, competition in
the hammer throw has developed to
such a high level that no coach can
afford to neglect the application of
scientific principles when constructing a training plan for athletes in the
event (16).
The hammer throw has changed
considerably since its origin; equipment changes (such as more precisely-manufactured hammers and
smooth-soled shoes that permitted
faster spinning), training methods
and throwing distances (now in
excess of 280 feet for the best men
and 250 feet for the best women in
the world). By utilizing this critical
scientific approach to the hammer
throw event, the throws coach will
be able to determine more accurate
adjustments and devise training
stimuli to better accommodate the
athlete while ensuring improved and
successful performances. Objective
data on the hammer throw can and
should be quantified and studied
The definitive goal of training
hammer throwers is the functional
reconstruction of the athlete, resulting in enduring adaptation and
preservation of the training effect
(15). When considering the variables
that make up the training program
(i.e., training load, training volume,
exercise selection, and training
frequency) the distribution of each
in the plan could depend upon the
athlete's training age, his or her
strengths and weaknesses, the phase
of the training year, as well as many
other factors (15).
For a hammer thrower there
must be a balancing of the training
loads with restorative and prophylactic measures (16). In the United
States, there is an almost complete
reliance on the collegiate system to
develop international level competitors in the hammer throw, since
high school athletes have limited
exposure to the event. This makes
it extremely important for coaches
to make informed decisions of what
training factors deserve the most
emphasis in the training program.
When learning a highly technical skill like the hammer, repetition
and more repetition is the key to
success (8). Gaining proficiency in
motor skills at an early age can put
an athlete at an advantage above
others who are not practicing their
skills as often. If one wishes to truly
excel at any given task or skill, he/
she must put extensive time, effort,
and training into practices that will
develop that task or skill. The earlier
one chooses to put this effort into a
particular area, the more proficient
he/she will become (1).
Ericsson et al., 1993, reviewed
several decades of research studying
the effects of practice and training on
learning, and suggested that early
ep<?(?ialination in any given AT&A \\TAG
of
as part of the scientific approach
(16).
critical to the development of expert
status. Collegiate hammer throwers
ers (2,14,16,28). Olympic-style lifts
(Clean, Jerk, and Snatch) and their
in the United States may not have
the opportunity to reach this level
of skill development because of their
limited opportunities and may have
to emphasize strength in order to
produce points at a conference or
NCAA championship, further limiting skill development.
Aside from the teaching and
training of necessary technical
throwing skills, strength training is
the building block of success in the
throwing events (15). "Strength" can
be defined as a person's capacity to
use muscular activity (enhanced by
the use of weights) to exert resistance on external forces in order to
overcome these outside forces (27).
Strength is necessary to accelerate
a mass and to achieve the desired
velocity, impulse, and momentum
for success in throwing.
Strength has been described by
Stone et al., 2003b, as the basis of
high level performance in track and
field. Why is strength so important
in the throws? Stronger athletes are
able to hold the positions necessary
to master technique. Optimal technique is a set of muscle contractions
and relaxations coordinated and
synchronized to produce maximum acceleration of the implement
(21,22). The percentage of strength
and power movements in the
resistance-training program may
vary based on the stage of training,
but strength training should always
remain a major element of the training program (2,4,5).
Power is the mechanical quantity that expresses the rate of doing
work (9) and is largely dependent on
the ability to exert the highest possible force (i.e., maximum strength)
(23,27,28). Numerous studies and review articles have reported evidence
and logical arguements for the use
ovt^l oeivti
e*-\cerrc'i coc
fr*r*
fV> rrvtjvr-
Erin Gilreath, American record holder in the hammer throw
derivatives (Pulls and Shrugs) are
the core of the resistance training
program.
In addition to the weight lifting exercises, throws, sprint drills,
and jumps, the workout contains
sport-specific release movements
that force core stabilization of high
velocity activities (15). Thus, how
maximum strength and power are
effectively developed are important
issues for athletes and hammer
throw coaches.
Having discussed numerous
considerations for improvement in
the hammer throw, it is important
that coaches prioritize training
stimuli. In order for coaches to properly emphasize the key components
to training a hammer thrower, it is
also imperative that the coaches
understand which variables are most
essential to hammer throwing success. The purpose of this study was
to investigate the training variables
that contributed most to maximum
throwing distance in the hammer
throw event in track and field.
METHODS
Instrument
A 41-item survey instrument
was developed to collect data regarding national-level collegiate
hammer throwers throughout the
United States. Once completed the
questionnaire was sent to a panel
of five USA Track & Field Level II
certified coaches to assess content
and face validity. These professionals
after a review of the instrument did
not report that any changes were
necessary. The questionnaire was
subsequently sent to a high school
thrower's club coach who emphasizes the hammer throw for pilot testing. A cover letter/ the qucoliomiairc
with a specific area for comments,
and a self-addressed stamped enve-
lope for returning the questionnaire
were sent to 24 current high school
throwers in Marietta, GA. In a period
of one month after the mailing date,
the returned questionnaires were
reviewed. After analysis for validity
and reliability, this review resulted
in no major changes being made to
the instrument.
The first half of the questionnaire (10 questions) focused on the
participant's personal and athletic
information including performance,
whereas the second half dealt with
technical questions including the
type of technique used by the athlete,
injuries, and coaching certification of
the throws coach at their institution.
The questionnaires were distributed
via email to the NCAA track and
field programs in the United States
and the recipients were asked to
return the questionnaire within
seven days of receiving them. Nonresponders were mailed a follow-up
paper copy of the questionnaire to
Table 1: Participant Characteristics (%, x+SD)
Variable
Male (n=37)
Female (n=37)
3.79+1.69
4.00±1.85
13.5%(n=5)
21.6% (n=8)
16.3%(n=6)
48.6% (n=18)
10.8%(n=4)
24.3% (n=9)
27.1% (n=10)
37.8% (n=14)
78.4% (n=29)
13.5%(n=5)
8.1% (n=3)
81.1% (n=30)
10.8%(n=4)
8.1%(n=3)
59.6713.61 m
26.30% (n=20)
3022.31 ±1769.42
58.13±4.87m
73.70% (n=56)
2963.46+2234.62
Yrs Experience Throwing Hammer
Yrs in College
Freshman
Sophomore
Junior
Senior
0.619
0.749
NCAA Div
0.938
1
2
3
Hammer PR
Throw Hammer in High School
Number of Throws Per Year
0.126
0.273
0.540
Participant Characteristics given as percentages, or means + standard deviations. (*)
indicates significant difference from male gender. Listed p-values are the result of chisquare analysis for variable by gender. Personal Record (PR) is presented is the best
competition effort with the indicated implement.
Table 2: Results of Multiple Linear Regression for Hammer PR
Predictor
Throws Per Year
Back Squat
Hammer Technique
Years Throwing Hammer
NCAA Division
Beta
0.345
0.325
0.263
0.218
-0.185
P
0.002"
0.001**
0.012*
0.025*
0.072
Results of Multiple Linear Regression for Hammer PR. Results are given in Standardized
beta values, (*) indicates significant at p<0.05, (**) indicates p<0.01 .
Figure 1. Hammer Throw by techniques.
increase response rate. Of the 212
questionnaires distributed 74 were
returned (34.9% return rate); those
surveys represent the subject pool
for this study. Upon receiving the
completed questionnaires the individual data was coded and entered
into an SPSS spreadsheet.
Subjects
The Institutional Review Board
of the principal investigator's university approved this study for the
use of human subjects. Each potential participant received an informed
consent form that explained the
potential risks and benefit of their
involvement. They were encouraged
to contact the principal investigator
of this study to answer any questions
or provide clarification prior to giving informed consent. The surveys
were mailed to participants who
met the initial inclusion criteria of a
being a regional qualifier for NCAA
Division I, or a provisional national
qualifier for NCAA Division II or
Division III in the hammer throw
event.
Statistical Analysis
so.oo-
a
20.00
2 heels
three heels
four heels
orse toe-t-two heels onetoe^three
HammerTechnique
Error bars: 95* Cl
Based upon the prior knowledge
of the principal and co-investigators
a model to explain the variance in
hammer throw performance was
created. The five predictors included
were: number of throws per year,
number of years throwing the hammer, division within the NCAA, back
squat 1 repetition maximum, and the
technique used to throw the hammer. Subsequently multiple linear
regression was run in order to explain the variance in hammer throw
personal record (PR) distance. Predictors were evaluated for problems
of multicollinearity. Some predictors
(NCAA Division) were entered
into the model for the purposes
of controlling known confounding
influences; these predictors may not
have been individually significant,
but remained a vital component
of a significant predictive model.
Statistical significance was set a
priori at alpha<0.05. All statistical
analyses were completed with the
use of a modern statistics package
(SPSS 17.0 for Macintosh).
NCAA division (|3=-0.185, p=0.072),
which was included as a control
measure. The remaining significant
predictors can be seen in Table
2. All significant predictors were
positively associated with hammer
personal record (HPR), and the
breakdown of the technique can be
seen in Figure 1.
DISCUSSION
RESULTS
The variables from the questionnaire were analyzed for construct
validity and internal reliability and
demonstrated within group (technical questions, injuries and coaching
certification) Cronback's Alpha
>0.80 and KMO statistics >0.60,
suggesting that the instrument was
reliable. Participant characteristics
are presented in Table 1. Multiple
regression analysis for Hammer
Throw PR yielded a significant
model (r=0.811, p<0.001) with the following predictors: number of throws
the hammer, NCAA division, back
squat, and hammer technique. The
model explained in excess of 65% of
the variance in hammer technique
among the respondents (r2=0.658).
The individual predictors in the
model were significant except for
In order to construct the optimal
performance model for the hammer
thrower, a training program must
be developed that systematically
and progressively builds the proper
physiological abilities and necessary
fundamental skills that lead to the
achievement of peak performance.
It is important for coaches to be
able indentify and sequence the
training effects that contribute to
form. Number of throws per year
and number of years throwing the
hammer, back squat and hammer
throwing technique were significant
predictors of hammer throw distance
in the present study.
Given that the NCAA reinstated
the men's hammer throw as a championship event in 1959, and added
the women's hammer throw in 1996,
the hammer is a relatively new event
at the collegiate level, especially for
women (19). The statistics show that
Table 3: Perceptions of the Hammer Throw by Participants
Yes
No
Competed in the NCAA National Championships
47.40%
(n=36)
52.60%
(n=40)
Think You Have Good Technique
80.30%
(n=57)
19.70%
(n=14)
Need to be Strong to Throw Hammer
43.10%
(n=31)
56.90%
(n=41)
Are You Strong Enough
66.20%
(n=4fl)
33.80%
(n=9R)
Core Strong Enough to Throw Hammer
68.40%
(n=52)
31 .60%
(n=24)
Variable
most of the throwers in the present
study did not have the opportunity
to develop their skills at an early
age as evidence of their years of
experience throwing the hammer;
73.70% had no experience throwing
prior to college. In this study, the
males averaged 3.79 + 1.69 years of
experience and the females averaged
4.00 + 1.85. Despite the statistics
reflecting inexperience, remarkably
a majority (80.30%) of the throwers
in the present study felt they had
good technique (Table 3).
The number of throws per year
was a significant predictor of throwing distance in the hammer. When
athletes lack youth experience, U.S.
collegiate coaches often institute
high volume throwing workouts to
help athletes gain technical mastery
faster. Once acquired, the newly
learned hammer throwing skills
must be quickly stabilized to prepare for the upcoming competitive
season. Stabilization is accomplished
with a high volume of throws with
varied weight implements. Achieving success in the throws is similar
to the pursuit of success in the
weight room: a consistent training
regime that incorporates a system of
overload, progressive resistance, and
recovery. According to Bondarchuk,
1994, it is import to change the
emphasis of the training program
as the athlete advances. There is a
high correlation related to repetitive
throws with overweight implements
(5).
The number of years throwing
the hammer was another significant predictor of hammer throwing distance in the present study.
An athlete with experience in the
hammer throw as a youth athlete
would have a definite advantage. It
is for this reason that many colleges
and universities recruit more experienced foreign athletes to throw
the hammer (K. McGill, personal
communication, June 22, 2009).
Gaining proficiency in motor
skills at an early age can put an
athlete at an advantage above others
who are not practicing their skills as
often. If one wishes to truly excel at
any given task or skill, he/she must
put extensive time, effort, and training into practices that will develop
that task or skill. The greater the
number of years throwing the hammer the more skilled the thrower
becomes at mastering the technique.
The earlier one chooses to put this
effort into a particular area, the more
proficient he/she will become (1).
Ericsson, et al., 1993, reviewed
several decades of research studying
the effects of practice and training
on learning, and suggested that
early specialization in any given
area was critical to the development
of expert status, and recommended
that future expert performers engage
in intensive training activities over
a period of ten or more years in the
cultivation of superior performance.
Success, they find, is a function
of intensive, deliberative practice
conducted while in a state of heightened attention and concentration.
Collegiate hammer throwers in the
United States may not have the
opportunity to reach this level of
skill development because of their
limited opportunities to master the
technique and an overemphasis on
strength in order to produce points
at a conference or NCAA championship.
Strength in the squat exercise
was a significant predictor of the
personal best in the hammer throw
for U.S. collegiate hammer throwers.
Rotational balance is essential in the
hammer throw, along with postural
core strength, or spine and trunk
preparation.
According to Stone et al., 2003a,
improvement of maximum strength
as a result of strength training could
improve power and explosiveness
and therefore performance in a variety of movements associated with
both light and heavy resistances.
Building foundational strength
with exercises like the squat is a
key component to early success in
performing hammer drills (14). It
is interesting that a large number
(43.10%) of the throwers in the present study stated that strength was
important to throw the hammer and
an even greater number (66.10%)
felt they were strong enough to
throw the hammer. Further, an even
higher number of hammer throwers
(68.40%) felt their core was strong
enough to throw the hammer.
Stone et al. (2003b) described
strength as the basis of high level
performance in track and field.
Strength is a necessary component in
the throws because it will enable the
athletes to hold the technical positions while moving at high velocities
(15). In a recent investigation by
Nuzzo et al., 2008, it was determined
utilizing integrated electromyography (EMG) that muscle activity of
the trunk muscles during the back
squat exercise is greater or equal to
that which is produced during what
are considered core training exercises (eg. the stability ball). Therefore,
structural multi-joint exercises like
the squat lift are recommended for
increasing strength and hypertrophy
of the core and back extensors (20).
The Nuzzo et al., 2008, findings from
the squat exercise helps explain the
high correlation between the 1RM
squat and personal best in the hammer throw.
from the hammer at low point are
great enough that the athlete must
counter the implement by firming
up and sitting back against the ball.
Both technical skills require the same
type of core strength as in the squat
(3,8). The related core strength perceived by the throwers in the present study likely could have resulted
from performing the squat exercise.
The hammer throwers may not be
completely aware of the benefits of
the squat on improving strength
and ultimately performance in the
hammer event.
Although strength has been
described by Stone et al., 2006, as
the basis of high level performance
in track and field, strength may not
be as crucial in a technical event
like the hammer throw. According
to 1956 gold medalist Harold Connolly, "the positive influence on
improved hammer throwing performance from training concentration
primarily on acquiring increased
strength and power is negligible
when contrasted with emphasizing
expending greater energy on drills
and throwing to acquire high-speed,
rhythmical hammer turns" (7).
It is interesting to note, a recent
review by Young demonstrated little
transfer between pure strength gains
and athletic performance (32). In a
recent study by Kyriazis et al., 2009,
performance in a related rotational
throwing event (rotational shot put)
was found to be better correlated
with muscular power of the lower
extremities than with absolute muscular strength at the competition
period. Essentially, the association
between 1RM squat strength and
shot put performance was low and
non-significant at any time (18).
However, Kyriazis et al., 2009, con-
wHK
The £4v?iUd«ir/Hip separation
tcndo, tKc importance of muscular
insufficient core strength will bend
forward during the throw, which
decreases the speed built up in the
in the catch phase that creates the
torque that accelerates the hammer
and the resulting centripetal forces
strength for the development of
rotational shot put performance
cannot be neglected. "It may be
ctcilr>;Ua-i>tlc.n
(7)
_Ajr\
atKl«to
TRACK COACH - 6201
that a certain (yet unknown) level
of muscular strength is required as
a base for the muscular power to be
developed upon (p. 1778)"(18).
Physiological adaptations and
skill acquisition occur in multiple
areas and are, for the most part,
unrelated as demonstrated by Jensen
et al. (2005). With little time to fully
develop and stabilize their hammer
technique, athletes desiring to throw
far and farther could be potentially
learning bad technical habits by relying on strength which could hinder
future technical development and
lead to injuries.
Considering both the inexperience and bad technical habit
development in collegiate hammer
throwers, success and mastery of
the hammer event within the United
States system is very difficult. A
potential overemphasis on strength
is reflected by the fact that almost
half (48.7%) of the 74 athletes in the
present study reported weight lifting
injuries. This is alarming considering
Watson and DiMartino (1987) found
82% of the injuries that occurred
during participation in a track or
field activity were in running events
and 18% in field events. An understanding of injuries and recovery
processes must be part of the coach's
approach to the development and
implementation of an athlete's
training program (17). According
to Young, combination training or a
more balanced approach is necessary
to fully develop performance (32).
It is interesting that the squat,
not the power clean or snatch exercise, was a significant predictor of
distance in the hammer throw for
U.S. collegiate throwers. Various
studies and review articles have
reported data and logical arguments
(Pulls and Shrugs) are the core of
the resistance training program of
strength/power athletes (15,27).
Garhammer (1980) reported that
snatch and clean and jerk exhibit
much greater power outputs compared with squat and dead lift.
Numerous investigations
(11,12,25) have examined the effects
of training with weightlifting exercises on the performance of speed
and power events. Stone et al., 1980,
reported that 14 weeks training with
weightlifting exercises enhanced
jump performance significantly.
Hoffman et al., 2004, compared the
effects of 15 weeks of weightlifting exercises versus power lifting
(strength) exercises (i.e., squat, bench
press, and dead lift) on jumping and
sprinting performance, and reported
the effectiveness of weightlifting
exercises on jumping performance.
Tricoli et al., 2005, reported that the
improvement in jumping and sprinting performance was superior for a
weightlifting group compared with
a vertical jump training group after
an eight-week training intervention
completed three times a week. Hori
et al., 2009, reported the training
of the weightlifting exercises such
as the hang power clean may be
effective to improve the athlete's capability of power, and subsequently
athletic performance which requires
high power for skills such as jumping and sprinting.
The results of these studies
support the importance of including explosive lifts in the training
program of athletes in speed and
power events like the hammer
throw. Research has shown maximum strength and peak power have
moderate to high correlations (24).
But, Hori et al., 2008, recommends
for tKe use of explosive exercises for
coacKcs take a Holistic approach to
throwers (2,15,16,18,28).
training which includes skill practice in addition to development of
maximum strength and power.
Olympic-style lifts (Clean, Jerk,
and Snatch) and their derivatives
TRACK COACH - 6202
The type of technique (number
of turns) was the final predictor of
personal best in the hammer throw.
There are two styles being used
by hammer throwers today; the
three-turn (three heel turns) and the
four-turn (one toe-turn and three
heel turns). The toe turn is a type of
turn where the athlete rotates solely
on the ball of the left foot in order
to use less space in the ring. The
four-turn (one toe-turn and three
heels) had the highest correlation to
the longest distance in the hammer
throw. Although the men's world
record was accomplished in 1986
with three heel turns, the four-turn
technique is the dominant technique
employed by advanced male and
female throwers worldwide (7).
There is a huge reliance on
the collegiate system in the United
States to develop competitors in
the hammer throw (7). The first
step in learning or becoming a
hammer thrower is learning how
to rotate, counter and maintain balance. These skills must be learned
in a four-month preparation period
prior to the beginning of the U.S.
collegiate indoor season. Throwers
are first taught to complete one- and
two-turn throws before moving to
a three- and four-turn technique.
Because of the relatively late start
in learning the hammer event, U.S.
collegiate throwers (18-24 years of
age) may be forced to use a two- or
three-turn technique during their
first two years of competition.
U.S. collegiate coaches are at a
disadvantage because of a lack of
a feeder system to develop youth
athletes in the hammer throw and
are forced to introduce two- and
three-turn competitive techniques
that may ultimately be disruptive to
a four-turn rhythm arid future technical advancement. Teaching a fourturn rhythm to athletes is important
to keep the body working as a single
unit; the head, shoulders, hips,
and feet all synchronized moving
together with the ball during each
successive turn. Teaching a one- or
two-turn rhythm that is utilized in
competition may teach and reinforce
bad habits like the "drag" that may
difficult to break in the future. Unless high schools nationwide accept
the hammer throw in track and field
meets, hammer throwing success
will remain questionable within the
United States.
CONCLUSION
The present results suggest
that hammer throw performance
depends more on absolute squat
strength than muscular power and
factors like the number of throws
and the type of technique used are
important to future success. Thus,
besides working to improve absolute
squat strength in the weight room,
training for maximum hammer
throw performance might focus on
mastering a four-turn technique
and accumulating a high volume
of throws over a number of years.
Coaches need to take a holistic approach to training which emphasizes
the above factors but integrates other
important training components like
building muscular power, special
strength and speed.
Results of this study raise some
interesting conclusions and suggestions for future research. This paper
represents only a modest beginning
point for a further more expansive
study of the training factors important to success in the hammer throw,
but also on discerning quantitative evidence of the critical, most
effective science-based coaching
strategies to guide American male
and female hammer throwers from
adolescence to the Olympic victory
stand to achieve their maximum
potential.
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CORRESPONDENCE
Lawrence W. Judge, PhD, CSCS
School of Physical Education, Sport,
and Exercise Science, Ball State
University, Muncie, Indiana 47304
USA,
Tel: 765-285-4211
Email: [email protected]
Children And Sport
An overview which identifies the necessary considerations facing any coach of youngsters
and entry-level athletes. This piece, by Track Coach editor Russ Ebbets, first appeared in
the Journal of Clinical Chiropractic Pediatrics, Volume 11, No. 1, 2010.
ABSTRACT
Introduction: With the growing concern over the health status
of children in the United States, a
solution offered by popular media
and educational theorists alike is to
promote the participation of youth
in some form of regular exercise.
Objective: It is the objective of
this paper to discuss the opportunities and challenges that arise when
athletic opportunities for children
shift from youth-led recreation to
highly structured activities.
Discussion: Some generally
accepted components of athletic
participation will be explored.
Points to be discussed include:
biomotor skill development, the
age of specialization, volume and
intensity, psychological factors, the
role of winning and injuries and
illnesses.
Conclusion: It is important for
the coach or consulting physician to
strive to be continuously aware of
the demands of athletic participation, particularly at the entry levels.
As with any activity there is the
potential for benefit or abuse. Pursuit of post graduate education or
a variety of sports certifications will
serve to deepen the understanding
of a sport's demands and allow for
a fuller more factually based discussion regarding the best path for the
proper preparation and training for
the young athlete.
INTRODUCTION
Rarely a week passes without
a national media outlet bemoaning
the current health status of children
in the United States. The Center for
Disease Control reports that currently 16% of American children
are obese and that the obesity rate
has tripled since 1980. (1) With these
numbers slowly spiraling upwards
and the looming complications of
diabetes and heart disease, the focus
seems well justified.
The Simple Solution
One of the solutions to the
problem offered by popular media
and educational theorists alike is to
promote the participation of youth
By Russ Ebbets, DC
in some form of regular exercise.
Numerous national sports governing bodies (NFL, NBA, US Soccer,
USA Track & Field, NHL, etc.) have
joined the chorus promoting various
activities to separate the child from
the computer and introduce him or
her to fresh air.
But the solutions come with
their own set of challenges. In
American society the athletic opportunities for children have morphed
over the last few decades into highly
structured activities. Gone are the
days of the neighborhood sandlot
games. It seems, as often as not,
the only athletic experiences available to today's youth are through
structured, adult-supervised activities, with the possible exception of
skateboarding.
The reasons for this change are
outside the scope of this article but
this author will posit several issues
that play a significant role in the
transition of youth activities from
self-directed to adult-supervised,
including but not limited to the
liability issues surrounding the
"attractive nuisance" of a vacant
lot, the highly visible yet equally
tragic reality of child abduction and
the magnetic attraction of the visual
media within our culture.
The Science of Sport
In spite of the current more
structured reality of athletic opportunities, the potential of tracking
positive outcome data increases
when youth programs are developed with care and foresight.
Certainly the Eastern Bloc satellites and the former Soviet Union
ran successful sports schools and
feeder programs that allowed a
small country like East Germany
to compete on par with the US and
Soviet Union, countries that had
15-20 times the population base to
draw from. First competing in the
Winter Games of 1968 (placing fifth
in the national point count), East
Germany progressed to place third,
with the Soviet Union in first place
and the United States second in the
1972 Summer Olympics. By the 1976
Olympic Games, East Germany won
40 Gold, 25 Silver and 25 Bronze
medals passing third place United
States (34/35/25) and second only to
the Soviet Union (49/41/35). (2)
How did the East Germans do
this? The foundation of their sports
system was talent identification, talent development and talent management. One of the great advantages
the East Germans enjoyed was the
small size of the country, roughly
the size of Ohio. With their sports
schools strategically located in the
metropolitan centers they were able
to centralize talented groups of individuals early in their careers, provide coaching and administrative
support and mold the individual
or team into a dynamic force. (3)
An important point to note was
the physical testing the athletes
underwent. Athletes were selected
for certain sports or teams based on
their performance on these physical
tests. The tests were used to identify
skills and abilities. The basis of this
testing was the expression of the
five biomotor skills (speed, strength,
endurance, flexibility and the ABC's
of agility, balance and coordination).
Additionally, important consideration was given to anthropometric
measurements of the athlete. These
baselines were derived from years
and years and thousands and thousands of athletes who had "come
before" whose testing scores, height,
weight, reaction times, jumping
ability and other measures of speed
and strength were used to create
standard values. (4)
The "American" System
The East German method of talent identification runs counter to the
American system of "free choice"
that allows the young athlete to
make his or her own decision as to
what sport will be pursued. While
free choice is part of the American
ethos, as often as not it has lead
to misguided decisions. Everyday
examples would be the blossoming
5'6" 12 year-old female with designs
on becoming an Olympic gymnast
or the 5'6" 16 year-old male who
has designs on a college basketball
scholarship and a career in the NBA.
While American opportunities may
have separated the child from an
obsession with sedentary computer
or video games, one has to ask if
the best choice has been made for
future development or success.
What about this development
and success? There is an old coaching adage that elite performances
are the result of 10,000 hours work
over a 10-year period. Malcolm
Gladwell in his book Outliers detailed the lengthy process necessary
for one to acquire expertise in any
discipline. Three to four hours training a day, 300 days a year becomes a
TRACK COACH - 6205
difficult pill to swallow for a society
with an "aspirin" mentality and a
short attention span. (5)
The foregoing paragraphs raise
another critical issue surrounding
youth athletics. Is the goal of childhood sports long-term success or
should the focus be on participation? There is no simple answer.
While one could argue strongly
either side of the issue this author
thinks that both sides would agree
that regardless of the long-term goal
the budding athlete needs to start
somewhere.
Exactly where the young athlete
should start will be the focus of
the remainder of this article. Some
generally accepted components
of athletic participation will be
explored. Points to be discussed include: biomotor skill development,
the age of specialization, volume
and intensity, psychological factors,
the role of winning and injuries and
illnesses.
Biomotor Skill Development
All sporting activities are an
expression of a combination of
the five biomotor skills of speed,
strength, endurance, flexibility
and the ABC's of agility, balance
and coordination. Any entry-level
program, for it to truly service the
needs of the athlete, must address
and develop these skills. (6)
Sound training principles dictate that during the course of a
workout each biomotor skill should
be addressed. Regardless of the
major focus of a sport or activity
(speed, strength, power, etc.) overall
development dictates that each skill
must be frequently trained, ideally
on a daily basis. (6)
The mastery of applied skills
such as running, jumping, kicking
or throwing need to be the focus of
any entry-level program be it soccer,
basketball or an individual sport
like track & field, cross country or
tennis. The goal is to prepare the
athlete, in a general sense, with a
broad-based athletic skill inventory
that can be drawn upon come the
age of specialization.
Age of Specialization
Another issue that is often
hotly debated or unfortunately,
often simply ignored, is the age of
specialization. There comes a time
in an athlete's life when participation in multiple sports becomes
counterproductive. Participation as
a two or three-sport athlete blurs
the focus necessary for success at
the higher levels.
Time is the limiting factor in
athletic development. In theory
that means that with enough time
and daily improvement one could
take any 12 year-old and make him
or her an Olympic contender. The
reality is that physical improvement
stagnates by age 25 rendering this
"theory" invalid. (4) Those athletically gifted who begin life with
skills and abilities tested at the 95
or 98th percentile have a chance at
achieving greatness.
The age of specialization differs
greatly for different sports or events
(Table 1). Because of this it becomes
necessary for a nine or ten year-old
female gymnast to dedicate herself
at that age. Conversely the budding
football star maybe better served
with continuing to participate in
multiple sports throughout high
school (and possibly college) that
continue to challenge and develop
an inventory of athletic skills necessary for success in football.
It should be noted though that
one can specialize too early. In this
author's opinion this can have a
detrimental effect on the young
athlete as it will deprive them of
activities and physical challenges
that would broaden their athletic
skill inventory, problem solving
skills and potentially stifle other
developmental opportunities that
would be denied with early specialization.
Volume and Intensity
Volume and intensity are two
training variables that represent
"how much" work is done and
"how hard" the workout was and
what level of effort was required. In
the adult these variables become a
large component of work capacity.
Work capacity can be quantified
as pounds lifted, miles run, technical elements performed, pitches
thrown, etc. Each sport discipline
has benchmark standards, which
are numbers that represent a degree
of accomplishment that most elite
performers could reproduce. (4)
The problem arises when the
child is measured against the adult
standard and they are trained as
"little adults." Many of the adult
principles regarding strength development, speed development,
recovery rates, physiologic endurance goals or psychological coping
skills do not appropriately apply
when dealing with children. In
fact when a coach does apply the
adult workloads long-term results
are often disappointing if not disastrous, however well intentioned the
coaching may be.
Children are not "little adults."
A case in point is that of Richard
Sandrak, born in the Ukraine on
April 15,1992. Also known as Little
Hercules, Sandrak is a bodybuilder,
martial artist and actor, renowned
for his muscular physique at an extremely young age. Early specialization and celebrity status, however,
compromised any future promise
and potential that Little Hercules
might have had. (7)
This poses a dilemma. What
should the focus of childhood training be? Is it towards training and
competition or growth and development? Tudor Bompa, regarded
worldwide as the leading specialist
in the area of theory of training,
coaching and fitness, states when
training the young, "what is really
important is managing the strain,
the stress coming either as endurance training, lactic acid tolerance
training and strength training,"
(8). Here this author emphasizes,
"don't fatigue the system." Workout
Table 1: Age of Specialization Recommendations (4)
Sport
Suggested Start Age
(years)
Age of Specialization
(years)
10-12
15-16
6-8
9-10
Baseball
Gymnastics
Girls
Boys
8-9
14-15
12-14
16-18
Soccer
10-12
14-16
Distance Running
14-16
17-20
Girls
7-8
11-13
Boys
Swimming
7-8
12-14
Football
Tennis
Girls
7-9
11-13
Boys
7-8
13-15
design should not be so physically
challenging that energies used to
complete a workout are of such
magnitude that they steal from
those energies needed for growth
and development.
What constitutes fatigue? It occurs when lactic acid accumulates,
ATP/CP and glycogen stores are
depleted and/or local physical
(neuromuscular) weakness arises.
Bompa recommended avoiding
maximum loads opting for efforts
under eighty percent. (8) Eighty
percent effort may be difficult to
quantify but a hands-on-the-knees
position or lack of desire to participate are significant clues that fatigue
is present.
Ideally entry-level programs
should promote skill development
without fatiguing the system. (9) It
should be obvious that as the athlete
matures there is a gradual transition
towards increasing work capacity
and competitive opportunities. How
does one know? Therein lies the art
of coaching, a subject for another
paper.
In part this depends on the individual athlete which only further
complicates the issue, especially
with regards to a team sport. Added
to the mix is the looming age of
specialization and the ticking clock
registering the 10 year, 10,000 hours
of training window to elite status.
This is another example of the challenges and art of coaching.
Psychological Development
At an elite level the psychological component is often credited with
being the difference between success
and failure. Yogi Berra said, "90%
of this game is half mental." (10)
While such psychological concepts
as visualization, guided imagery
or scripting may be beyond the
intellectual capacity of the average
youth there are any number of
psychological concepts that can be
introduced and engrained as they
are the concomitant "life lessons"
that can result from sports participation. An excellent example would
be UCLA Coach, John Wooden's
"pyramid of success." (11)
Sports participation offers
countless opportunities for socialization activities such as teamwork,
fair play, respect for others, interpersonal communication, self-esteem
building, goal setting, personal discipline. There are even opportunities
for developing coping mechanisms
for anxiety, stress and all the other
factors that makeup an adolescent's
life. (Figure 1) (18)
Every effort should be made to
promote these qualities as they will
solidify into the core values that will
help set one's moral compass later
in life. The superstar and celebrity
scandals that are the fodder for
the television newsmagazines are
evidence of this. In times of crisis
or moments of doubt it is these
deeply engrained core values that
will prove to be the rudder of the
ship and ultimately prove to be the
best coping mechanism whether the
outcome be victory or defeat.
The Role of Winning
"Winning isn't everything, it's
the only thing."—Vince Lombardi
(12)
This quote, in many ways,
summarizes all that is right and
wrong with American sport. The
unfortunate reality of our soundbyte
culture is that this is the last line of a
paragraph where Lombardi equated
personal excellence and, doing the
best you can, with winning. When
viewed in this light, the striving for
excellence is the only thing.
Most national governing bodies (NGB's) for sport discount the
importance of winning in their
entry-level programs instead opting
for "success." Success is variously
defined as self-mastery or personal
improvement in such areas as teamwork, communication skills, etc. In
this author's opinion as one masters
the composite skills required to be
on a team and if everyone on the
team is on the same page, winning
will take care of itself.
Dr. S. Danish, a registered
sports psychologist of the Sports
Many agencies influence the athlete's attitude to athletics,
cultural patterns
family
1
I
press/media
t
A
politics
t
school/college A
university/services
;ather
weather
peers
coast
coach
t
A
facilities
club
A
geographic location
(18)
Figure 1: Stresses of youth (18)
TRACK COACH - 6207
Medicine Division of the United
States Olympic Committee, conducted a comprehensive survey in
the 90's regarding early adolescent
sports participation and concluded
there needs to be a balance struck
between sporting challenge and
skill mastery. He found that if the
challenge continually outweighs
the current skill level anxiety will
be the result. Conversely, boredom
will result if the challenge is minimal. In either case the result will
be an early departure from sport.
(13) Yet another example of the art
of coaching.
Because of this I have long felt
that winning is a learned skill. Success is often not the result of doing
one thing right but rather hundreds
of little things right. Whether the
"little things" are codified into rituals or the result of personal decisions
based on core values they can be
detailed as part of a competition
plan. The sophistication of the plan
is age dependent and it will evolve
in complexity with maturity and
specialization.
Coincidentally Danish found
that to the young athlete winning is
of significantly lesser import than a
number of other variables, ranking
10th on the list. (Table 2) (13)
Table 2: Why I Play Sports (13)
1. Fun
2. Improve skills
3. Stay in shape
4. Do something good at
5. Excitement of competition
6. Get exercise
7. Play as part of team
8. Challenge of competition
9. Learn new skill
10. To win
Injuries and Illnesses
Pediatric sports-related illnesses
and injuries are a book in itself.
Strains, sprains, head trauma, joint
instabilities or growth plate problems could be discussed ad infini-
adaptation
rest
Figure 2:
Yakolev's
model (4)
turn. While many of these maladies
can be prevented or significantly
reduced by attention to developing
a strong foot or improving one's balance and proprioception the damage
incurred by incidental contact cannot. My interpretation of the work
of training theorist Vern Gambetta
leads me to conclude that most
non-contact sport related injuries are
the result of poor program design.
(14)
For many, athletic injury is
part and parcel with the chosen
sport. In fact the National Football
League reports a 68% injury rate
for its players during the course
of a season. (15) Some believe it is
closer to 100%. (16) But these are
adults. Pediatric sporting injuries
are more problematic because they
not only preclude current sports
participation they may also stunt
future growth and development.
The body adapts to many of the
stresses placed upon it, to a point.
However, significant macrotrauma
or recurrent microtraumas may limit
normal growth in children. Fortunately, the incidence of injury can
be reduced with careful program
design and implementation. It is
necessary to delve into training
theory for a moment to illustrate
this fact.
Modern training theory is an
outgrowth of Hans Selye's work
TRACK COACH - 6208
on stress from the 1950's. Russian
sport scientists took Selye's stress
curve and modified it to explain the
stresses of daily training. Yakolev is
credited with promoting the model
that bears his name. (17) Graphically
Yakolev's Model is a sequence of
stress-rest-adaptation (Figure 2). (4)
Repeated application of this model
becomes problematic when applied
to an entry-level sports population
(generally children) as its application may violate the principle, "do
not fatigue the system."
Athletic training needs to be
a series of physical challenges followed by rest and recovery time that
ideally develops the five biomotor
skills. If too much work is done
in too short a time period (a day,
a week or a month) there is the
potential for breakdown. Athletic
improvement is a slow progressive
process that generally requires over
10 years or 10,000 hours of training
for one to attain elite status.
Cumulative microtraumas over
time without allowing enough time
for recovery cause the athlete to
descend progressively down the
"y" axis from fatigue (1-2 days) to
overreaching (3-5 days), over training (weeks to months) and finally
illness and injury (weeks to months)
(Figure 3). What exactly constitutes
"illness and injury" is ultimately the
weak link in an athlete's constitu-
Ebbets
Y - axis
I
II
III
IV
Fatigue
Overreaching
Overtraining
Illness and injury
IV
Figure 3: Fatigue syndromes.
tion. The problem may present itself
as a stress fracture, growth plate
injury, soft tissue injury or a physiologic imbalance that compromises
immunity allowing for a cold or flu
that precludes participation. Poor
planning design may lead to psychological disturbances of anxiety
or boredom which are at the heart
of Danish's findings. (13)
Poor program design would
include a lack of individualization
in the training program, a rigid
adherence to some preconceived
plan or inappropriate training loads
for an athlete at his/her particular
stage of development. Individually
or collectively these factors combine
to surpass the recovery ability of
an individual at his current state,
fatiguing the system (and then
some) and producing the negative
sequelae.
This issue is at the crux of the
debate regarding youth athletic
participation—should it be training
and competition or allow for growth
and development?
The Uneven Playing Field, an
expose of a high school girls' soccei program puDllslied uy Mlcnael
Sokolove in the New York Times,
notes the physical and emotional
dilemma many athletes face following serious injury. Who should
be responsible for preventing the
long-term effects that can evolve
when the athlete returns to play
in spite of pain and professional
advice to the contrary? At present
there appears to be an absence of
any clear guidelines. (16)
Knowledge and experience
lie at the heart of good coaching.
Academic study may offer direction
but there is no replacement for the
skill that comes with the repeated
application, the trial and error of
field practice. While successful
coaches can be glorified, idolized,
even deified, at the core of their
success is the ability to blend the
fundamentals of the sport with
exceptional common sense, also
known as the art of coaching.
CONCLUSION
At first blush the goals of elite
sport science and performancebased sport are diametrically opposed to the developmental goals
of most entry-level youth athletic
programs. But it can be counterargued that if the child is not
properly "developed" he will never
reach his potential.
What cannot be argued is that
all things only grow once. It becomes imperative for the coach or
consulting physician to strive to be
continuously aware of the demands
of athletic participation, particularly
at the entry levels.
To that end answers to the following questions may offer some
direction:
• Is the activity appropriate for
the child's development?
• Is there a potential for growth
plate injury?
• What stresses are placed on the
body?
• Will the activity cause undue,
long-term fatigue?
• Are the activities fun?
As with any activity there is the
potential for benefit or abuse. This
is not lost on the national governing bodies. It would behoove the
sports-minded physician to become
familiar with the programs currently
offered through the USOC or the
NGB's. The physician may be well
advised to pursue certification. This
pursuit will serve to broaden one's
horizons, deepen the understanding
of a sport's demands and allow for
a fuller more factually based discussion regarding the best path for the
proper preparation and training for
the young athlete.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
6.
CDC. Obesity, Halting the Epidemic by Making Healthier: At a Glance, 2009. www.cdc.
gov/chronicdisease/resounces/publications/
AAG/obesity.htm
Olympic.org. http://www.olympic.org/en/
Witt, K. Only with Passion. New York: Public
Affairs, 2005.
Bompa,T.O. Periodization: Theory and Methodology ofTraining. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
1999;16:35-6.
GidUweii,M. ouiiteii,. r\mw IOTK: Little, Druwn
and Co, 2008.
Ebbets, R. First trimester chiropractic students'
reactions to a multistation teaching format for
learning psychomotor skills. / Chiropr Educ
2002;16(2):107-113.
"The World's Strongest Boy - Young Bodybuilder Tells of Isolated Childhood". ABC News.
03-14-2005. http: / /abcnews.go.com/2020/
Health/story ?id=570290.
8. Ebbets, R. Track Coach talks to Tudor Bompa.
Track Coach. Track & Field News: Mountain
View, CA, 2001;164:5243-5247.
9. Ebbets, R. Skills and drills. Track Coach. Track &
Field News: Mountain View, CA,2009;189:60346039.
10. Grouser, D. It's Unlucky to be Behind at the End
7.
of the Game. New York: Quill, 1983.
11. Johnson, N. The John Wooden Pyramid of Success.
Los Angeles: Cool Titles, 2003:470.
12. Maraniss, D. When Pride Still Mattered: A Life Of
Vince Lombardi. New York: Simon & Schuster,
2000.
13. Danish, S. American Youth Sports Participation
Survey. Virginia Commonwealth University,
1990. unpublished document.
14. Gambetta, V. Athletic Development. Champaign,
IL: Human Kinetics, 2007:215.
15. Prince, C. "Bloody Sundays." Pittsburgh Tri-
FROM THE EDITOR
Continued from page 6184
I've read that patience is the
most difficult virtue to master, the
human struggle against Time. Manage what you can and forget the
rest. Like the directions to a novice
miler—it's all about pace.
I would be remiss if I did not
mention the passing of Olympian
Harold Connolly this past August.
Reluctantly he consented to a
TC interview last year. In truth, I
pleaded with him. After Al Oerter
passed away I resolved not to let
"another one" go before I got a few
questions answered.
Harold was a tireless promoter
bune Review. January 9,2005. Retrieved from:
www.pittsburghlive.eom/x/pittsburghtrib/
print
16. Sokolove,M. "Uneven playing field. "NY Times
Magazine, May 11,2008. Retrieved from www.
nytimes.com/2008/05/ll/ll/magazine.
17. Viru, A. Early contributions of Russian stress
and exercise physiologists. / Applied Physiol
2002;92:1378-1382.
18. Dick, F. Training Theory. Birmingham, Engl:
British Amateur Athletic Board, 1991:15, 39.
of the sport in general and the
hammer in particular. He stated
one of his remaining goals was to
"stay vertical" until 2016 when his
recent efforts at American hammer
resurgence would most likely bear
fruit. He'll miss that day on this
plane but I'm sure he'll be vying for
the remote with Oerter, Thor, Zeus
and all the rest as they sit around
the Rings and pull up the Games
on the flat screen.
TOP-SPEED PRACTICE DRILLS FOR SPRINTERS:
BENEFITS AND INSIGHTS
Continued from page 6190
= time), and provide a theoretical
"fastest possible time in the 100
meters" for a particular runner (as
a split in a 4 x 100 relay) and watch
their surprised reaction. The fact
that such a top speed may only be
maintained for as little as 10 to 15
meters is beside the point—giving
the students an idea of what they
can approach as their "personal best
ever" can for some young athletes
really provide a strong motivator
to develop further.
A timed 10-meter sprint workout can work well as an addition to
a sprint coach's repertoire. The test
motivates the athletes to perform
at their best during practice, and
it has the ability to quantitatively
isolate progress in raw speed for a
runner over the course of a season,
as opposed to monitoring race times
from each meet which are affected
also by starting block efficiency, acceleration strategies, and the ability
to maintain top speed as long as
possible during a race.
NOTE: Pasco Scientific of Roseville,
CA was the supplier of most of the
equipment used.
Questions? E-mail David Headly at
[email protected].
WEB SITE LAUNCH
www.trackandfieldcoach.ca
Canadian Level 4 NCCP coach Ron Parker has created a new web
site for coaching track & field with a lot of free content. He'll carry
all four levels of the NCCP Athletics certification program, but
presented in a more easily read and understood format, plus a lot
of video analysis and photosequences of top athletes, and more.
Parker is the author of Getting Started in Track & Field, available from
Track & Field News for $18.50 plus shipping. The web site is www.
trackandfieldcoach-ca.
TRACK COACH-6210
the Mailbox
I have been reading what I can
find [online] on the vault. It seems
like everything I can find is based
on the Bubka/Petrov model (it assumes this model is the last word
on vault technique). From my point
of view this thinking is faulty for
two reasons: 1) it bases the correct
development of technique on one
particular style of pole vaulting,
and 2) I find it highly debatable
that Bubka was the greatest technical vaulter ever. To my mind he
was unsurpassed athletically and
had good but not great technique.
I find Hooker, for instance, to be a
superior technician.
Another problem I have found
for decades now is that nearly all
coaches and vaulters treat rigid and
fiberglass vaulting as technically
separate events. What I try to do
is uncover underlying fundamental
principles that are universal to all
styles and types of vaulting. For
instance, in all cases, the primary
goal of the takeoff is initiating a
gradual change in direction of movement. How this is achieved can vary
with vaulters or types of poles used.
Developing knowledge of technique
based on universal fundamentals
should lead to more accurate and
superior understanding of technique (which results ultimately
in the development of superior
performance).
David Bussabarger
St. Louis, MO
Statement of Ownership, Management, and Circulation (All Periodicals Publications Except Requester Publications).
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Publisher: same. 9. Full Names and Complete Mailing Addresses of Publisher, Editor, & Managing Editor: Publisher, Edwin S. Fox; Editor, Russ
Ibbsts; Managing Editor, Edwin S. Fox; all of 2570 El Camino Real, Ste. 480, Mountain View, California 94040.
10. Owner (If the publication is owned by a corporation, give the name and address of the corporation immediately followed by the names and
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Classes Through the USPS (e.g. First-Class Mail): 0/0.4. Free or Nominal Rate Distribution Outside the Mail (Carriers or other means): 0/0; E. Total
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16. Publication of Statement of Ownership: Publication required. Will be printed in the #194 Winter 2011 issue of this publication.
1esrtlfy that the statements made by me above are correct and complete (signed):Ed Fox, Publisher. October 1,2010.
•I aPwonmm>pet' the
most out' off your athletes
H"
The rrac/r & Field News Technique and Drills Series
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TRACK & FIELD NEWS PRESENTS TECHNIQUE AND DRILLS
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FOR THE POLE VAULT. With Rick Suhr, Suhr Sports, Suhr has
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FORTHELONGANDTRIPLEJUMP.WM Gary Derks, Head Coach,
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SPRINTING THE JAMAICAN WAY: Drills for Speed and
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TEACHING AND COACHING THE SHOT PUT, with Iowa
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WORLD CLASS HIGH JUMP, with Gary Pepin, head t&f coach
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WORLD CLASS JAVELIN THROW, featuring two-time Olympian
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Order your DVD today. $39.95 each from Track & Field News, 2570 W El Camino Real, Suite 480,
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TRACK & FIELD NEWS
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ELITE RUNNERS TC
RICK HERNANDEZ
POBQX11G9
WOODBRIDGE NJ 07095-7109
TCI 94
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