Challenges facing the new South Africa

Challenges facing the new South Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa
Geography – key points
Complex ecosystem – highly sensitive to climate change
Lack of arable land over many parts of Africa – Saharan,
Kalahari, Namib, Horn of Africa deserts.
Untamed rivers that flood and can’t be navigated (Nile,
Zaire (Congo), Zambezi, Orange).
Population explosion in 20th century. 100 million people
in Africa in 1900, now nearly 1 billion. Malnutrition is a
major problem in some areas.
Ethnic diversity – hundreds of ethnic groups with different
languages, beliefs, traditions.
Lots of countries that do not reflect ethnic boundaries and
lack a sense of national identity.
Christianity and Islam have replaced traditional belief
systems in many areas.
Ancient African Civilizations
East African, South African, West African Civilizations
Kingdom of Kush, Nubian Dessert 1500 BC-325AD
Great Pyramids at Merowe
Kingdom of Axum (Aksum)
400BC-10th Century AD
Axum Stele
Great Zimbabwe 1250-1629
Ruins of Great Zimbabwe
Spread of Bantu languages- Swahili
Kingdom of Mali
Mansa Kankan
Musa 1312-1337
Sundiata 1230-1255
Ancient Manuscripts
Mosque, walls Timbuktu
Kingdom of Songhai 1468-1591
Askia Muhammed 1493-1528
The Maghrib - The West
The Songhai Dynasty was eventually conquered
by the Sultinate of Morocco in 1591
Arrival of Europeans
In 1500 AD, the continent of Africa housed a wide variety of
languages, cultures, and political and economic arrangements.
Important new developments during the 15th century were the
presence of ships along the Atlantic and Indian coasts carrying
European traders and missionaries from Portugal, Holland, Spain,
and England.
Initially, the Europeans established trading and supply centers
along the coast, making little or no effort to move inland.
Their presence constituted the first step toward involving Africa in
a new and expanding global trading system that would be created
and dominated by Europeans.
Its estimated that over 12
million Africans were taken to
the New World and beyond as
part of the slave trade. Many
did not survive arduous
middle passage to get there.
Although Britain abolished
slavery in 1833, along with
other European states, the
subjugation of Africa
continued.
Colonial powers moved inland
claiming territory, extracting
resources in an effort to fuel
their industrial revolutions.
The African Slave Trade
The process of colonization moved rapidly.
The discovery of diamonds in South Africa in the 1860s initiated
what became known as the “scramble for Africa”.
In 1870, only about 10% of Africa was colonized
In 1910, only about 10% was not colonized.
(only Liberia and Ethiopia escaped colonization – although Italy
conquered Ethiopia in 1935 it never had the chance to set up a
colonial system).
Many of the political boundaries of modern African nations were
decided somewhat arbitrarily at the famed Berlin Conference of
1884, where Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal and Spain
divided up Africa according to their military strength and
effective occupation.
Hence, these boundaries did not correspond to any geographic,
national, or ethnic logic.
Colonial Africa
British practiced indirect rule – relying on agreements with
traditional rules, but backed with superior military force, to keep
traditional rulers in line.
Hence, in the former British colonies, there were powerful
political families and dominant ethnic groups in politics to
assume control.
The French engaged in direct rule.
By centralizing power under French control, they eroded
traditional power structures. France also emphasized cultural
assimilation.
They viewed their colonies as extensions of France and the
people as evolues - “people evolving” into French citizens.
France and Britain are responsible for the major division of
Africa into the Anglophone and Francophone worlds.
In many African nations, English or French remain official state
languages and are continually taught and spoken as a mother
tongue.
Former British and French colonies also still have important ties
to one another.
Most former British colonies remain a part of the British
commonwealth and French West African countries share a
common currency.
Portuguese (Angola, Mozambique), German (Namibia, Tanzania,
Cameroon –lost after WWI to Britain and France), and Belgian
(Congo, Rwanda, Burundi) colonies were most oppressive.
The Portuguese however, were unique among colonists in that
they encouraged mixed marriages (as in Brazil) producing a new
important social group called assimilados (similar to mestizos).
In all cases, European settlers gained control over Africa’s
natural wealth and resources, including large areas of land for
plantations, ultimately displacing many indigenous peoples, or
forcing them into servitude.
Legacies of Colonialism
Politically, there’s the problem of the territorial boundaries.
Economically, most African economies are still based on resource
extraction of a single or small group of commodities.
Much of the population is still rural and survive on subsistence
agriculture.
Most economies are way behind in the development of industrial
production.
Culturally, Africa has been effected in a number of ways. Most
states are multi-ethnic and multi-lingual.
Colonialism has made the concept of national identity very
complex and difficult to maintain.
National Independence Movements
National independence movements begin to strengthen after
WWII.
Following the signing of the 1948 Universal Declaration of
Human Rights by the United Nations, African nationalists began
to demand decolonization in the name of universal selfdetermination.
African nationalism drew its strength from an emerging but
small African middle class, who resented the social structure of
colonialism where the highest positions of power and privilege
went to European settlers.
They also would become inspired by the success of the US civil
rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s.
Independence
In 1960, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution
1514, demanding an end to colonization.
In that year alone 26 African colonies gained independence.
In 1963 newly independent states created the Organization for
African Unity (OAU) to push for greater freedom and
cooperation on the African continent.
The OAU was united by a spirit of pan-Africanism, the belief that
Africans must unite against colonialism and reinvigorate
traditional life and custom.
The pan-African movement was led such revolutionary
leadership as Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Julius Nyerere of
Tanzania.
By 1969 a total of 42 colonies were now independent states.
Pan-African, Independence leaders
Kwame Nkrumah
Julius Nyerere
Ghana
Tanzania
Pan-African, Independence leaders
Jomo Kenyatta
Leopold Senghor
Kenneth Kaunda
Kenya
Senegal
Zambia
Organization of African Unity (OAU) 1963-2002
Portuguese colonies
of Angola and
Mozambique met
with the most
resistance to
independence and
fought for years
before achieving it.
Failures of Democratization
Following independence, many African nations took the first step
toward democratization by establishing constitutions and holding
open elections.
However, most quickly reverted to authoritarian rule.
Some argue that African nationalists abandoned the democratic
process because they wanted to reestablish some sense of
traditional African values.
The movement had anti-western beliefs and in some cases
rejected liberal capitalism for that reason.
Another explanation preferred by the nationalists is that African
countries after independence were deeply divided socially.
What these countries needed, they argued, was a unifying factor.
Rise of Strong-man Authoritarian rule
In most cases the unifying factor became strong man patrimonial
leadership under one-party rule.
The alternative of multi-party competition was seen as divisive
and dangerous in a new state.
In many cases, however, the dominant party/strong man provided
benefits only to the country’s main (majority) ethnic/religious
groups at the expense of others.
In the 1990s, democracy began making a comeback in Africa, but
many nations were still under authoritarian control or embroiled
in ongoing civil wars.
Conflict in the 1990s
Authoritarianism in Africa
Languages of South Africa
South Africa’s historical trajectory is rich and complicated.
Originally colonized by the Dutch East India Company with
the founding of the Cape Colony in 1648.
Dutch East India Company
By the 19th Century, the British were
the dominant European power in
South Africa.
The abolition of slavery in South
Africa by the British brought them
into conflict with the Dutch settlers
(the Boers or Afrikaners) in 1838.
The Afrikaners also fought off a
major indigenous uprising in 1838 by
the Zulu nation under King Shaka.
King Shaka of the
Zulu nation
By the mid 19th century,
British control of South
Africa expanded, but the
Afrikaners set up their
own independent
republics known as
Transvaal and the
Orange Free State.
With the discovery of
diamonds in South Africa in
1867, thousands of new
settlers arrived from Europe
seeking their fortunes.
This led to increasing
conflicts between English
and Dutch as many of the
diamond mines were located
in Boer territory.
Dutch “Boer” settlers
The Boer Wars 1898-1902
The last major Dutch resistance was stamped out in the Boer war
1899-1902, in which British soldiers under governor Cecil Rhodes
committed numerous atrocities.
South Africa would be come
independent in 1910 but
within the British Empire.
Afrikaner resentment of
British rule persisted, and
much of the anger was
transferred over onto South
Africa’s black population.
Afrikaner’s formed the
National Party in 1914 to
advocate on their behalf.
Cecil Rhodes and the Rise
of Britain in Africa
White domination and black protest
By 1948, the Afrikaner-led National Party gained power in an
all-white election.
The National Party demanded Afrikaner control of southern
Africa as a matter of destiny.
Policies of apartheid began to be systemically implemented.
Everyone was registered according to race (70% African, 10%
mixed, 20% white in 1960).
Further race mixing and interracial marriage was forbidden.
Blacks were segregated from whites in many ways similar to
the American south.
Apartheid
Apartheid means
“separateness” in Afrikaans,
the language of the
descendants of Dutch and
French settlers of southern
Africa known as Afrikaners
More than just colonial
domination, apartheid
was a systematic
division of the country’s
peoples based on race
and ethnic origin
Henrik Verwoerd’s “Grand Apartheid”
Partition South Africa into distinct
homelands or reservations for
indigenous black ethnic groups.
These reservations would be legally
distinct entities, and the black
populations would not be entitled to
South African citizenry or voting rights
outside of their respective homelands.
Verwoerd was assassinated in 1966 by a
white man who had wanted to marry a
women of color but was forbidden under
South African law.
Afrikaner National
Party leader
Henrik Verwoerd
PM 1958-1966
At the same time, black
resistance to apartheid and
black nationalism were
growing in South Africa.
On March 21, 1960, in the
township of Sharpeville,
the first black protests
start, and were met with
brutal crackdowns by
South African military and
police.
Sharpeville Massacre 1960
The African National Congress
(ANC)—the organizational arm
of the anti-apartheid movement—
was banned, along with other
black organizations.
Its leader Nelson Mandela was
convicted of treason and
imprisoned in 1962.
Resistance to apartheid
continued, and riots in the 1970s
sparked international
condemnation of South Africa.
In 1977, United Nations imposed
an arms embargo.
Nelson Mandela
and the ANC
Reforms in the 1980s
P W Botha eliminated some of the
more overtly discriminatory laws
(like separate drinking fountains),
but maintained the principle and
spirit of apartheid (race based
citizenship rights).
In 1986, the U.S. Congress passed
the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid
Act, which included a ban on new
investment and promised new
sanctions if further reforms weren’t
enacted.
P.W. Botha
Pres. 1984-1989
In 1989, a series of unpredictable
events unleashed the process of
transition in South Africa.
P W Botha stepped down after a
heart attack.
Communism fell and with it the
threat that the Mandela and the
ANC would be controlled by
Moscow.
Botha’s successor, F W de Klerk, a
well-known hardliner, shocked the
world by releasing Nelson Mandela
from prison and beginning a
dialogue with the ANC on ending
apartheid.
F.W. de Klerk
Pres. 1989-1994
Nelson Mandela - the father
of post-apartheid South Africa
He led the independence
struggle from his jail cell on
Robben Island off Cape Town
for nearly three decades.
Emerged from prison to
negotiate a new constitution
that would guarantee voting
rights to the majority black
population.
1990 Nelson Mandela Freed
Black Nationalism vs. Integrationism
Mandela positioned himself not as a black nationalist in
1990 but as an integrationist.
This helped win over support from the white minority.
It also caused tensions between Black Nationalists and the
ANC.
Two prominent Black Nationalist groups:
The IFP and the Pan-Africanist Congress
The Zulu based Inkatha Freedom
Party (IFP) led by Mangosutho
Buthelezi felt cut out of
negotiations (the ANC was
primarily Xhosa).
The IFP began a series of violent
protests across the country.
In 1991 and 1992 there were mass
killings across the country between
ANC and IFP supporters and
government security forces,
threatening to pull the country into
civil war.
Mangosutho Buthelezi
Inkatha Freedom Party
To avoid further violence, Mandela and de Klerk reached a deal
wherein black south Africans would gain the right to vote, white
south Africans would have their property rights protected, and
amnesty would be given to security forces during the apartheid
years.
Furthermore the ANC and the National party would share power
in government.
Buthelezi and the IFP balked at the agreement.
The IFP as well as many Afrikaners wanted greater autonomy for
their ethnic groups in a post-apartheid South Africa.
Black nationalists in the leftist Pan-Africanist Congress,
opposed ANC concessions to the whites, wanting assurances
of black majority rule.
They pledged to boycott and disrupt elections scheduled for
April 1994, the first election ever in which black South
Africans would be allowed to vote.
Mandela managed to broker a last minute deal bringing the
IFP and the Afrikaners back onto the election ballot.
Remarkably, the elections held on April 26 and 27, 1994,
brought South Africa some of the most peaceful days in the
troubled country’s history.
Voting line in Soweto 1994 Elections
The ANC won 60% of the
vote, the NP won 20% and the
IFP 10% in a new PR system.
All three parties would
comprise a national unity
government.
Mandela would serve as
president, de Klerk and another
ANC leader Thabo Mbeki
would serve as vice-presidents,
and Buthelezi accepted a
cabinet position.
The new South Africa
New hope for reconciliation, economic revival, and
newfound legitimacy in the world
Also tremendous economic, social, and political problems.
Among these are high levels of violent crime, economic
stagnation, problems with housing, health care, education,
employment, corruption, aids, affirmative action, and highly
unequal distributions of wealth and income.
Fortunately, the country enjoys a highly developed civil
society that helps mediate social tensions
Challenges facing the new South Africa
Reconciling justice and forgiveness for apartheid crimes.
The country established a Truth and Reconcilliation
Commission, chaired by Anglican Bishop Desmond Tutu
(leading apartheid opponent).
The commission has looked into abuses of power by the
white minority under apartheid, but also political violence
perpetrated by the ANC and other black social movements.
The commission enjoys a great deal of legitimacy among
South Africans and has aided in the transition process. The
commission has not, as in other cases, turned into a
political witch hunt.
Bishop Desmond Tutu
Unemployment and poverty
30% of the population is
unemployed. 50% of black
youth are unemployed. About
a third of the population live
on less than $2 per day.
The wealthiest 1/5 of South
Africans control about 60% of
the national wealth.
The poorest 40% of the
Country account for less than
10% of national wealth.
Slums of Johannesburg
HIV/AIDS and other infectious
diseases
In 2000 South Africa had the
highest number of HIV infected
people in the world (about 16%
of its population).
South Africa’s government had
been criticized heavily for its
response to the Aids crisis.
President Thabo Mbeki once
even publicly disputed whether
HIV caused Aids.
Thabo Mbeki
Pres. 1999-2008
HIV/Aids in
Africa
Violent Crime and Poverty
Crime – one of the worst in the
world – murder rate 10 times
higher than in the United
States.
Crisis in Zimbabwe
South Africa’s role in Africa and the world
South Africa is in a better position than any other state to
assume leadership in Africa both diplomatically though the
African Union and militarily through peacekeeping forces.
The question is whether South Africa can bear the costs of
regional leadership. It has liberalized its economy since
apartheid but results so far have been mixed for economic
growth.
South Africa’s government
The Parliament is bicameral,
consisting of the National
Assembly, its lower house, and a
National Council of Provinces
The President is the country’s
head of government and, as a
member of the National
Assembly.
President elected by the
National Assembly (not by the
people).
National Assembly and
National Council of
Provinces - Capetown
One of the top judicial
organs is the
Constitutional Court,
which hears cases on
constitutional matters
and has powers of
judicial review
Constitutional CourtJohannesburg
Will democracy last in South Africa?
This transformation has much to do with the high quality of
its leadership, particularly the exceptional efforts of former
President Nelson Mandela to keep nation building and
reconciliation a top priority.
In 1999 ANC leader Thabo Mbeki replaced Nelson
Mandela as South Africa’s president and retains a large
majority of parliamentary seats.
Mbeki has basically carried on traditions adopted by
Mandela which has helped stabilize the democratic
transition process.
2008 – Mbeki resigns
Kgalema Motlanthe
Jacob Zuma
ANC interim President
ANC President
2008-2009
2009
Conclusion
Once, a pariah state, South Africa has made important
strides toward democracy, avoiding the fate of most other
democratic transitions in Africa.
As long as South Africa’s culture of reconciliation and
consensus-seeking is maintained, democracy can succeed.
The evidence suggests that democracy is gaining a firm
foothold in South Africa
South Africa still needs to successfully carry out a
transition from ANC to opposition rule.