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International Journal
on
New Trends in Education
and
Their Implications
(IJONTE)
October, 2014
Volume: 5
Issue: 4
ISSN 1309-6249
http://ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
October 2014 Volume: 5 Issue: 4 ISSN 1309-6249
Contact Addresses
Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi Üniversitesi, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Bölümü Tenik
Okullar Ankara/Türkiye
E. Mail: [email protected]
Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray, Anadolu Üniversitesi, İletişim Bilimleri Fakültesi, Yunusemre
Kampüsü, 26470 Eskişehir/Türkiye
E. Mail: [email protected] Phone: +905422322167
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Beyhan Zabun, Gazi Üniversitesi, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi, Tenik Okullar
Ankara/Türkiye
Assist. Prof. Dr. Ilknur Istifci, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Yabancı Diller Yüksek Okulu, İki Eylül
Kampusü, 26470 Eskişehir/Türkiye
E. Mail: [email protected] Phone: +902223350580
Indexed by
Sponsors
i
Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
Editors
Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray, Anadolu University, Turkey
Associate Editors
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Beyhan Zabun, Gazi University, Turkey
Assist. Prof. Dr. Ilknur Istifci, Anadolu University, Turkey
Assistant Editors
Ufuk Tanyeri, Gazi University, Turkey
Nazan Dogruer, Eastern Mediterranean University,TRNC
Ramadan Eyyam, Eastern Mediterranean University , TRNC
Ipek Menevis, Eastern Mediterranean University, TRNC
Editorial Board
Prof. Dr. Abdul Hakim Juri, University of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Prof. Dr. Ahmet Mahiroglu, Gazi University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Ahmet Pehlivan, Cyprus International University,TRNC
Prof. Dr. Ali H. Raddaoui, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Prof. Dr. Ali Murat Sunbul, Selcuk University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Ali Simsek, Anadolu University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Antoinette J. Muntjewerff, Amsterdam University, Netherlands
Prof. Dr. Augustyn Bańka, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Poland
Prof. Dr. Boriss Misnevs, Transport and Telecommunication Institute, Latvia
Prof. Dr. Charlotte Nirmalani (Lani) Gunawardena, University of New Mexico, USA
Prof. Dr. Christine Howe, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
Prof. Dr. Cevat Celep, Kocaeli University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Cleborne D. Maddux, University of Nevada, USA
Prof. Dr. Coskun Bayrak, Anadolu University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Danièle Moore, Simon Fraser University, Canada
Prof. Dr. Emine Demiray, Anadolu University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Erol Yildiz, Alpen-Adria University, Austria
Prof. Dr. Esmahan Agaoglu, Anadolu University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Francis Glasgow, Guyana University, South America
Prof. Dr. Gonca Telli Yamamoto, Okan University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Gul Nurgalieva, Joint-stock company,"National Center of Information", Kazakhstan
Prof. Dr. Harold Bekkering, University of Nijmegen, Netherlands
Prof. Hayriye Koc Basara, Sakarya University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. H. Ferhan Odabasi, Anadolu University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Heli Ruokamo, University of Lapland, Finland
Prof. Dr. I. Hakki Mirici, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Jim Flood, Open University, United Kingdom
Prof. Dr. Jozef Gašparík, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Slovakia
Prof. Dr. Kiyoshi Nakabayashi, Kumamoto University, Japan
Prof. Dr. K. M. Gupta, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, India
Prof. Dr. Leyla Kucukahmet, Gazi University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Liliana Ezechil, University of Piteşti, Romania
Prof. Dr. Manuel Alberto M. Ferreira, Lisbon University Institute, Portugal
Prof. Dr. Marie J. Myers, Queen's University, Canada
ii
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Ali Kısakurek, Ankara University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Durdu Karsli, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Kesim, Anadolu University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Şişman, Osman Gazi University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Meral Aksu, Middle East Technical University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Min Jou, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
Prof. Dr. Modafar Ati, Abu Dhabi University, United Arab Emirates
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Abolgasem Artemimi, Zawia Engineering College, Libya
Prof. Dr. Mufit Komleksiz, Cyprus International University,TRNC
Prof. Dr. Nedim Gurses, Anadolu University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Paul Kawachi, Bejing Normal University, China
Prof. Dr. Piet Kommers, University of Twente, Netherlands
Prof. Dr. Ramesh C. Sharma, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India
Prof. Dr. Richard C. Hunter, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA
Prof. Dr. Rozhan M. Idrus, School of Distance Education, University Sains, Malaysia
Prof. Dr. Santosh Panda, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India
Prof. Dr. Selahattin Gelbal, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Sharif H. Guseynov, Transport and Telecommunication Institute, Latvia
Prof. Dr. Tamar Lominadze, Georgian Technical University, Georgia
Prof. Dr. Tanja Betz, Goethe University, Germany
Prof. Dr. Tayyip Duman, Gazi University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Tony Townsend, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom
Prof. Dr. Valentina Dagiene, Institute of Mathematics and Informatics, Lithuania
Prof. Dr. Xibin Han, Tsinghua University, China
Prof. Dr. Yavuz Akpinar, Bogaziçi University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Yoav Yair,The Open University of Israel, Israel
Prof. Dr. Yuksel Kavak, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ahmet Ok, Middle East Technical University, Turkey
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Antonis Lionarakis, Hellenic Open University, Greece
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Carlos Machado, Vrije University, Belgium
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Danny Bernard Martin, University of Ilinois at Chicago, USA
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Demetrios G. Sampson, University of Piraeus, Greece
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Natalija Lepkova, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Lithuania
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nigel Bagnall, The University of Sydney, Australia
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Roberta E. (Bobby) Harreveld, Queensland University, Australia
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rositsa Doneva, Paisii Hilendarski University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Shivakumar Deene, Karnataka State Open University, India
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Steve Wheeler, University of Plymouth, United Kingdom
Assist. Prof. Dr. Irfan Yurdabakan, Dokuz Eykul University, Turkey
Assist. Prof. Dr. Katherine Sinitsa, International Research and Training Center, Ukrania
Assist. Prof. Dr. Roxana Criu, Cuza University, Romania
Assist. Prof. Dr. Zdena Lustigova, Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr. Carmencita L. Castolo, Polytechnic University, Philippines
Dr. Hisham Mobaideen, Mu'tah University, Jordan
Dr. Simon Stobart, University of Teesside, United Kingdom
iii
October 2014 Volume: 5 Issue: 4 Contents ISSN 1309-6249
CONTENTS……………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………….…….iv
From The Editors…………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………vi
ARTICLES
01. THE DEVELOPMENT STUDY OF NATIONAL IDENTITY PERCEPTION SCALE
Prof. Dr. Yücel GELIŞLI- TURKEY……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..1
02. MODELS OF THINKING EDUCATION AND QUADRUPLE THINKING
Assist. Prof. Dr. M. Ali DOMBAYCI- TURKEY…………………………………………………………………………………………………12
03. FL READING STRATEGY USE, READING PROFICIENCY AND ACHIEVEMENT:
IS THERE ANY RELATIONSHIP?
Assist. Prof. Dr. İpek KURU GÖNEN- TURKEY……………………………………………………………………………………………….29
04. PRIMARY EDUCATION IN ANCIENT ATHENS AND TODAY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Evren ŞAR İŞBİLEN, Assist. Prof. Dr. Gülşah BATDAL KARADUMAN- TURKEY……………………….42
05. LEARNER AUTONOMY IN PRACTICE
Robab AHMADZADEH, Shalaleh ZABARDAST- IRAN…………………………………………………………………………………….49
06. JOB STRESSORS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC STAFF: A CASE STUDY
Assoc. Prof. Dr. İlhan GÜNBAYI – TURKEY…………………………………………………………………………………………………….58
07. FOREIGN LANGUAGE USE ANXIETY IN TEACHERS’ AND STUDENTS’ ATTITUDE
Shalaleh ZABARDAST – IRAN……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….74
08. THE APPLICATION OF COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY (CBT) FOR DEPRESSION:
A CASE STUDY OF IRANIAN FEMALE
Leili SHAHLAEI, Shahizan HASAN, S. KIUMARSI – MALAYSIA………………………………………………………………………..85
09. DEVELOPMENT OF A SELF-ASSESSMENT SCALE FOR EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION SKILLS
AND THE VALIDITY- RELIABILITY STUDY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Selim GUNUÇ, Assist. Prof. Dr. Serap CAVKAYTAR, Belgin SÖNMEZ,
Fidan ÖZBEY, Zeynep KILIÇ- TURKEY…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….93
10. CHALLENGES OF TEACHING AVIATION VOCABULARY AND RADIO PHRASEOLOGY
AT HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL
Şule Y. E. SEÇER, Assist. Prof. Dr. Mehmet ŞAHİN………………………………………………………………………………………110
11. THE EFFECT OF THE SPATIAL SKILLS EDUCATION PROGRAM ON THE SPATIAL SKILLS OF PRESCHOOL
CHILDREN
Assist. Prof. Atiye ADAK ÖZDEMIR, Prof. Yıldız GÜVEN – TURKEY………………………………………………………………121
12. ANALYZING SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING ATTITUDES
IN TERMS OF CERTAIN VARIABLES
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dilek ÇAĞIRGAN GÜLTEN- TURKEY……………………………………………………………………………………138
iv
October 2014 Volume: 5 Issue: 4 Contents ISSN 1309-6249
13. INNOVATION AND CHANGE IN EDUCATION: THE CASE OF ENGLISH INSTRUCTORS
AT A PRIVATE UNIVERSITY IN TURKEY
Büşra TOMBAK, Assist. Prof. Dr. Mehmet ŞAHİN……………………………………………………………………………………….148
14. MUSIC TEACHERS’ VIEWS ABOUT THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ACTIVITIES IN LEARNING DOMAINS
IN THE PRESENT SECONDARY SCHOOL SIXTH GRADE CURRICULUM
Assist. Prof. Dr. Onur KÖKSAL- TURKEY………………………………………………………………………………………………………158
15. SECONDARY EDUCATION GEOMETRY PROGRAM FROM STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVE
Prof. Dr Adnan BAKI, Resh. Assist. Elif AKŞAN – TURKEY…………………………………………………………………………….169
16. ANALYSIS OF PRE-SERVICE SCIENCE TEACHERS’ VIEWS ABOUT THE METHODS WHICH DEVELOP
REFLECTIVE THINKING
Ufuk TÖMAN, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sabiha ODABAŞI ÇİMER, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Atilla ÇİMER- TURKEY…………………179
17. STRUCTURED PROBLEM POSING CASES OF PROSPECTIVE MATHEMATICS TEACHERS:
EXPERIENCES AND SUGGESTIONS
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sare ŞENGÜL, Dr. Yasemin KATRANCI- TURKEY………………………………………………………………..190
ND
18. 2 YEAR STUDENTS’ AND THEIR TEACHER’S PERSPECTIVES
ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE PROGRAM APPLIED FOR THE FIRST TIME IN 2012-2013 ACADEMIC YEAR
Res. Assist. Fazilet Özge MAVİŞ, Assist. Prof. Dr. Gülay BEDİR- TURKEY…………………………………………………….205
19. THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN STUDENT ENGAGEMENT AND THEIR ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
Assist. Prof. Dr. Selim GUNUC- TURKEY……………………………………………………………………………………………………..216
20. THE CONTRIBUTION OF READING LESSONS ON STUDENTS’ GENERAL OR WORLD KNOWLEDGE
Assist. Prof. Dr. Hülya İPEK- TURKEY………………………………………………………………………………………………………….232
v
October 2014 Volume: 5 Issue: 4 From Editors ISSN 1309-6249
Dear IJONTE Readers,
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications- IJONTE appears on your screen now
as Volume 5, Number 4. In this issue it publishes 20 articles. And this time, 36 authors from 3 different
countries are placed. These are Iran, Malaysia, and Turkey.
Our journal has been published for over five years. It has been followed by many people and a lot of articles
have been sent to be published. 282 articles have been sent to referees for forthcoming issues. They will be
published according to the order and the results. Articles are sent to referees without names and addresses of
the authors. The articles who get positive responses will be published and the authors will be informed. The
articles who are not accepted to be published will be returned to their authors.
We wish you success and easiness in your studies.
Cordially,
st
1 October, 2014
Editors
Prof. Dr. Zeki KAYA, Gazi University, Ankara- TURKEY
Prof. Dr. Ugur DEMIRAY, Anadolu University, Eskisehir- TURKEY
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Beyhan ZABUN, Gazi University, Ankara- TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Ilknur ISTIFCI, Anadolu University, Eskisehir- TURKEY
vi
October 2014 Volume: 5 Issue: 4 Article: 01 ISSN 1309-6249
THE DEVELOPMENT STUDY OF NATIONAL IDENTITY PERCEPTION SCALE
Prof. Dr. Yücel GELIŞLI
Educational Sciences Department
Gazi Faculty of Education, Gazi University
Teknikokullar, Ankara- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
282 university students were chosen as the study group of this study that aims to develop a scale measuring
perceptions regarding national identity. In the development phase of draft scale, after the examination of
existing perception scales and literature on national identity, drafts items were written and sent to expert
judges. In the phase of scale development, 50 five point Likert items including positive and negative
perceptions were written and item total and item remainder correlation coefficients were calculated. On the
basis of those analyses, items that were not significant were deleted and factor analysis was carried out on the
remaining 40 items to investigate construct validity of the scale. Based on this analysis, a 21-item scale whose
two factors account for 52% of the total variance was obtained. Through exploratory factor analysis, the scale
took its final form and the Cronbach-alpha coefficient of the scale was found to be 0,93. Analysis showed that
the scale has three factors and items’ factor loadings range from 0.45 to 0.76. It was found that the National
Identity Perception Scale is for measuring the national identity perceptions of university students.
Key Words: National Identity, National Identity Perception Scale, Perception Scale.
INTRODUCTION
Nationalist movements that emerged after the French Revolution have turned the twentieth century into a
process of nationalization. Therefore, the concepts of "national identity" and "national state" have become the
most frequently discussed concepts of the process of globalization.
During the French Revolution, bourgeoisie grounded the existence of nation on state and defined it as society
who lived on land whose borders were determined beforehand and then joint in the historical process. With
the emergence of nation-state, national identity of citizens living within national borders began to be the most
important focus of identity while the religious and ethnic identities that had been important have lost their
previous function. State pursued policies to gather all citizens under a single identity. The tool used for
gathering people under a national identity was national language and culture (Şen, 2004).
The most important factor distinguishing societies is cultural differences. Cultural differences are composed of
different lifestyles and relationships. People differ by social characteristics while living in the communities they
feel they belong to. They find place for themselves in this homogenized society. In a narrow sense, an
individual who differ from others in the community in terms of a variety of physical, social, intellectual
properties and perceptions owns an individual identity in the community in which s/he lives and becomes a
personality.
Identity is, first of all, a concept unique to human being. There are two components that constitute identity.
The first one is recognition and identification while the second one is the sense of belonging. Recognition and
identification are related to how an individual is recognized by the society and how he defines himself. The tool
for this is language and culture. Belonging comes out when an individual feels included to any social group
(Suavi,1999). That is, identity or personality means how an individual or society is recognized and how much
value is appraised by others. One’s identity is the showcase that is personally and painstakingly built for others.
A variety of indicators including bodily characteristics, intellectual backgrounds and behaviors are the
determinants of individual identity (Tural, 1994).
1
Identity is basically one’s realization of the fact that he is a unique, original and free entity equipped with some
creative abilities. Human is a social being and while living in a community, he explores his identity in the
community and tries to build it (Onat, 2009). This viewpoint specifies the social perspective of identity.
Identity is a dynamic formation shaped by expectations ascribed to social roles in the process of socialization.
The sense of belonging is effective on this formation to a large extent. However, when the identity is only
shaped by the sense of belonging, it brings about individuals without identities. Identity and belonging that are
two closely related concepts are full of contradictions. While revealing his identity, one does not compromise
on creativity and originality, one who voice his extreme loyalty to the community that he belongs to may shift
away from his identity and personality in addition to losing his creativity and originality since people who have
extreme loyalty to a certain group adopt the conscious of feeling in the same way and assimilation. The
necessities of individual characteristics are of secondary importance for those people. In fact, the need for the
sense of belonging and individual necessities should be fulfilled equitably (Erkan, http://kozadergisi.com).
Meaning universe that is shaped by the authority in social area will enable individuals to have different
encodings and by this way, identity will not only be an ontological identity but exist in a formation with a social
and historical background. Yet, the construction of identities uses materials from "the history, geography,
biology, productive and production-directed institutions, collective memory, personal fantasies, power devices,
and religious revelation. However, individuals, social groups and communities process all these materials and
rearrange the meaning of all these material based on the social structure in which they live, social conditions
resulting from space / time frame and cultural projects’’ (as cited in Yanık, 2013: 228,229).
From a different angle, Herper states that identity is formed by a variety of environments, and some social
institutions, particularly by society and adaptation to them influences identity. For example, it is specified that
by adapting to communication tools and the effects of media, we create social worlds and identity is formed in
this context. Types of music people listen to, the fashion magazines they choose reflect the personality traits of
those people. Herper indicates that communication, fashion magazines, other means of communication, media
sources and the internet that we always encounter in the social world shape our identity in this manner. Social
identities are constructed in this process (http://www. sagepub.com).
Erkal who points out the important role of family, friends, school and work on identity formation states that
people acquire values and behaviors related to their own cultural environment via formal and informal
education. Erkal attaches special importance to today's media in addition to those because according to him,
while media that nowadays shrink the world may contribute to the development, recognition and enforcement
of cultural identity, it may also cause the identity get obscured and discussed unnecessarily (as cited in Gelekçi,
2011).
Nation is the name of a community of people who share history, territory, common myths and historical
memory, public culture of a mass, a common economy and common legal rights and duties. Nation, like
ethnicity, is a community with common myths and memories (Kıdıraliyev, 2007).
There are some properties distinguish all nations throughout history and enable identification of a nation
among others. All those properties unique to each nation constitutes the concept of ‘‘National Identity’’.
National identity is an expression of belonging to a national culture. Individuals own the identity of a culture
they belong to. National identity is, on the other hand, refers to all material and spiritual values that constitute
the whole nation life. As national culture constitutes national identity, all elements and values in culture
determines national identity. Language, religion, flag, history, homeland, government, lifestyle, architecture,
music, customs and traditions are the essential elements of national identity (Eker, 2009).
Nation-states must also give an identity to the territory on which they live. History enables those territories
turn into homeland and attribution of identities to them. On the condition that there is history on a piece of
land, it becomes homeland. It is history that gives identity to both the community living in a nation-state and
the territory on which people live (Şıvgın, 2009, 42).
2
National identity is closely associated with other ethnic, political, social, economic, geostrategic, etc. identities.
Therefore, when national identity is considered, it is naturally necessary to examine the ethnic and general
history, political and economic situation, social structure and geography of a nation or nation-state (Kıdıraliyev,
2007). Accordingly, identity is a reality undergoing constant change, reproduced and ‘‘always in the state of
formation’’ in the historical process (Gökalp, 2004: 64).
According to Tural, national identity is the sum of indicators that a group of people create in accordance to
their wish regarding how to be seen, accepted by other communities. National identity is based on the
common denominator called national culture. Each national identity is the highest level affinity indicator of a
society. Each national identity is the sum of nationality based values and behaviors that rooted in history and
religion based values and behaviors (Tural, 1994).
National identity and the nation are complex constructs that are composed of many interrelated ethnic,
cultural, territorial, economic and legal-political elements. They signify bonds of solidarity among members of
communalities united by shared memories, myths and traditions that may or may not find expression in states
of their own but are extremely different from the purely legal and bureaucratic ties of the state (Smith, 1991:
15).
In order for the society to internalize national symbols and values, it is aimed to deeply attribute events,
symbols and historical figures in the collective memory to masses. Particularly by reflecting on national
education and cultural policies via tools such as military and mobilizing and supporting intellectuals, it is aimed
to bring about citizens with an upper identity. In order to get society and identified cultural values in to the
same melting pot, educational and cultural institutions and policies of the state take action to this end.
Particularly a public and mass education system has been quiet effective in national identity formation. In fact,
this formation is based on the effort to educate. Via education and instruction studies, it has been attempted
consolidate the homogeneous identity that will be formed on the basis of otherization, religion in particular.
Another important point about identity formation is the constantly strong emphasis on integrity and eternity.
Formation of national identity is roughly seen as a phenomenon that can be achieved through creation of
another, a national language, a mass education system and a common history and nationalization of industry
(Yazar, 2013).
Perhaps the most significant function of national identity in terms of politics is legitimizing common legal rights
and duties of legal institutions that define personality and values unique to a nation and reflect the ancient
traditions and customs of a community. Today, national identity has become the basic reference point in terms
of the legitimacy of the social order and solidarity. National identities also perform more intimate, internal
functions for individuals in the community. The most obvious function is socialization of individuals as
‘‘nationality’’ and ‘‘citizens’’. Today, this is achieved through mandatory, standard public education systems By
creating a repertoire of shared values, symbols and traditions, nation is referred again for establishing a social
bond between individuals and classes of individuals. Via symbols such as flag, currency, starter, uniforms,
monuments; common heritage and cultural proximity are reminded to community members and sense of
common identity and belonging are strengthened. Nation becomes a ‘faith boat’ group that is able to
overcome obstacles and take on hardship. Finally, a sense of national identity provides a powerful means of
defining and locating individual selves in the world, through the prism of the collective personality and its
distinctive culture (Smith, 1991: 17)
It has become important to build national identity and highlight the unique properties of the community to
reinforce it and emphasize the exact and sharp differences between "us" and "others". In communities whose
priority in the modernization process is the acquisition of a national identity, particularly in European countries,
it has been observed that a new ‘us’ concept is constituted based on almost only the definition of ‘other’
(Şimşek, Alaslan; 2014). There are many theories and views regarding formation and development of national
identity. One of them belongs to Anthony Smith. According to Smith, ‘‘nations are long-term entities that is
constantly introduced and created and require ethnic origin, fatherland, heroes and golden ages.’’ Those
3
components that are quiet difficult to change but at the same time more flexible in terms of meaning, play
important role on creation of collective culture and national identity (Smith, 2004: 196). According to Benedict
Anderson who has important views about national identity formation, nations are ‘‘imagined communities’’. In
this formation, from politicians to intellectuals everyone has inconsiderable share and archaeological studies,
monuments, museums and maps, and more importantly, press and printing that is "a part of the pictorial count
of state heritage" have important role. In addition, Anderson states "readily forgotten tragedies" constantly
remembered and / reminded during the formation of national identity and kept alive have important role in
construction of "national extraction".
National identity involves both cultural and political identity and it is placed in cultural and political
communities as well. This is important because the formation of a national identity means redrawing the lines
of a map or a political movement that is the change of the composition of a state. According to the "modernist"
image of nation, what creates national identity is nationalism. Nationalism, which is a doctrine invented in the
th
19 century in Europe, is the movement of nation members to preserve their national identity and their
activities to have political freedom (Kıdıraliyeva, 2007).
Basic Elements of National Identity
Herskovits (1948) and Huntington (1996), who define four basic factors in national identity formation,
considers those factors as follows: belief structure, cultural similarity, national heritage and racial unity.
Fearonc (1999:8), who states that the idea of national identity is the result of a nation’s temporal and spatial
persistence, points out that the components of national identity are belief structure, beliefs over religion or
nation and cultural participation (Bruce D. Keillor, G. Tomas M. Hult;1998).
Smith regarded national identity elements as a common historical territory or understanding of homeland,
common myths and historical memories, a common mass public culture, a system of rights and duties for all
people and a common economy (Smith, 1994; 31-32). Some of those constitute the frame of basic identities.
It was attempted to keep those basic identities alive via origin based policies. Peel and heroic myths, the
core of culture, language, religion, traditions and institutions are glorified and a big emphasis on the unique
collective past is highlighted (Yazar, 2013).
There are three basic elements of nationality according to Hayes. One of them is language. The importance of
language stems from the fact that it shapes nationality. Language (uniformic) creates a similar mentality and a
set of common ideas like common words. Thus, people with similar mentalities develop group consciousness
for common profit. Group acquires a historical consciousness in time and this is the second element. Sacred
memories of the group’s common history in both individual and collective memory provide a historical
tradition. The third element is members’ faith in the encouragement of a different and cultural society. Hayes
added that nationality had always existed throughout history; however, a kind of nationality in which
patriotism is more dominant than everything is modern (Hayes, 1961:14).
Kösoğlu states that national culture constitutes national identity while national culture is the whole of national
life. That is, it is possible to consider countless cultural elements that constitute national identity and that are
the signs of it. Language is the most basic one of those national signs. Islam and our religious culture through
which this faith is realized in life are said to be the other important signs (www.yusufiye.net).
Aim
This study aims to develop a scale to determine university students’ perceptions regarding national identity.
METHOD
This study, which aims to develop a scale that can be used to determine university students’ perceptions
regarding national identity, was completed through survey model. In this section, study group of the
research and techniques used in scale development and data analysis are examined.
4
Study Group
The study group consists of students of Gazi University, Gazi Faculty of Education, Ankara University
Educational Sciences Faculty and METU Faculty of Education in the 2012-2013 academic year. The
distribution of participants is presented in Table 1.
Table1: Distribution of Students By Universities
Faculties
G.U.
Gazi Faculty of Education
Ankara University
Faculty of Educational Sciences
METU
Faculty of Education
TOTAL
Number
226
Percentage
80.1
23
8.2
32
11.3
282
100
Random sampling method was adopted and voluntary students studying in universities located in Ankara were
selected as the study group. Participants studying in Gazi Faculty of Education, METU Faculty of Education and
Ankara University Faculty of Educational Sciences respectively compose 80%, 11% and 8% of the total 282
participants.
Scale Development
The fact that perceptions cannot be directly observed lead researchers to develop scales to measure
perceptions. As a result of those studies, various perception scales were developed to measure perceptions.
For the aim of this study, it was necessary to formulate positive and negative sentences that are considered
for measuring students’ national identity perceptions. In this context, an item pool, which consists of
positive and negative items, was prepared and five point Likert type scale was used as a model. After experts
analyzed the items so as to provide content validity, a 50-item scale was drafted for piloting. In order to
provide validity of the scale based on the feedback, positive items were coded as follows: 5=totally agree
4=agree 3=partially agree 2=disagree 1=totally disagree while negative items were scored reversely
(Tezbaşaran, 1997). The piloting of the 50-item scale was performed on 282 voluntary students studying in
Gazi University, Gazi Faculty of Education, METU Faculty of Education and Ankara University Faculty of
Educational Sciences.
After scoring all perception items, item analysis was carried out. To this end, the correlation between group’s
score on each item and group’s total score on the whole scale was calculated. Those items that show high
correlation with total score were saved and others were omitted from the scale. After content analysis was
provided, three steps were followed for construct validity. Those steps were factor analysis, item total scores
and item discrimination index (Tavşancıl; 2006).
Factor analysis was done in order to make clear the dimensions of the ‘‘National Identity Perception Scale’’ that
was composed of 50 items. To this end, Principal Component Analysis, one of the factor analysis techniques,
was carried out on the data obtained and number of factors was kept free without any interference.
Through Principal Component Analysis, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) coefficient and Barlett Sphericity test were
checked. KMO value (Kaiser Meyer Olkin) was found to be 0.920 and items whose eigenvalue was greater
than 1.00 were kept in the scale. Varimax vertical rotation method was used to determine the independent
sub-dimensions of the scale.
Alpha internal consistency coefficient and item total correlations were calculated to check the reliability of
each sub-dimension of ‘‘National Identity Perception Scale’’. As the cut-off value for factor loadings was set at a
minimum of .45, 30 items with factor loadings lower than .45 were removed from the scale and the scale was
finally composed of 21 items.
Additionally, out of participants of the pilot study, the upper 27% and the lower 27% groups’ answers to each
item were compared based on interdependent t test.
5
FINDINGS AND COMMENTS
Data suitability for factor analysis was checked through Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) coefficient and Barlett
Sphericity test. Accordingly, KMO value (Kaiser Meyer Olkin) was found to be 0.920 and Barlett test result
was found to be (Bartlett’s test of Sphericity) 3123,334 (p<0.01). The data structure was considered to be
appropriate for factor analysis as the KMO value was much higher than the limit value of.600 that is
accepted as the minimum acceptable value (Büyüköztürk, 2005, Akgül, 1997:581). Both test results proved
that factor analysis processes were suitable for data structure. KMO and Bartlett's test results are presented
in Table 2.
Table 2: KMO and Bartlett's Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy.
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity
Approx. Chi-Square
df
Sig.
,920
3123,334
210
,000
At first, without interfering with factors, principal component analysis was utilized. While items with factor
loadings over 0.45 were taken to evaluation, those with loadings lower than .45 were removed from the
scale. Accordingly, scale was composed of 20 items and two dimensions. According to the principal
components analysis, before application of varimax vertical rotation method, the variance values explained
solely by the first factor was 37,19. Results of Principle Component Analysis are shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Results of Principle Component Analysis (National Identity Perception Scale Item Eigenvalues and
Explained Percentages)
Component
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Total
8,974
2,010
1,057
1,001
,863
,777
,693
,634
,586
,533
,507
,464
,450
,412
,404
,381
,317
,291
,229
,214
,202
Initial Eigenvalues
% of
Cumulative
Variance
%
42,733
42,733
9,573
52,306
5,034
57,340
4,767
62,107
4,107
66,214
3,698
69,912
3,302
73,214
3,017
76,231
2,790
79,021
2,539
81,560
2,412
83,972
2,208
86,180
2,144
88,323
1,962
90,285
1,926
92,211
1,815
94,026
1,512
95,538
1,388
96,926
1,092
98,018
1,019
99,036
,964
100,000
Extraction Sums of Squared
Loadings
% of
Cumulative
Total
Variance
%
8,974
42,733
42,733
2,010
9,573
52,306
Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
% of
Cumulative
Total
Variance
%
7,811
37,197
37,197
3,173
15,108
52,306
Total Variance Explained
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
While there were strong proofs showing that the scale consisted of a single factor, by analyzing the structure
of item, it was decided to use varimax vertical rotation method. Results showed that 20 items were
accumulated around two factors whose eigenvalue was over than 1. While the first factor explained 37.19%
of total variance, the second one explained 15.10% of it. It was revealed that two factors explained 52.30%
6
of the total variance. Common variances of those two factors ranged from .494 to .856. Results of factor
analysis after rotation are presented in Table 4.
Table 4: Results of Factor Analsis After Rotation( Rotated Component Matrix )
Items
Component
Factor I
Factor II
M14
,764
M3
,742
M33
,733
M29
,725
M15
,719
M5
,701
M9
,700
M17
,699
M36
,695
M20
,636
M18
,634
M23
,632
M22
,629
M12
,611
M28
,607
M34
,586
M24
,494
M30
,856
M31
,819
M16
,817
M10
,502
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
a Rotation converged in 3 iterations.
Results of reliability and validity analysis are presented in Table 5.
,96
,95
,76
,554
,582
,521
4,20
,95
,377
4,07
1,00
,599
4,05
,95
,517
,742
,701
,700
,611
,749
,764
,659
,719
,581
,720
,656
,521
,694
,592
t value*
,652
,763
,711
,582
Item Total Correlations
Varimax
Factor Loadings
4,18
4,19
4,18
Component Factor Loadings
I. Factor (National Identity and Values)
3. I would be happy to attend national holidays.
5. My country is my priority. /comes first.
9. National identity and solidarity are essential values.
12. Language is the most important element that unite
society.
14. National identity constitutes is composed of ideal and
sense of homeland.
15. National identity is formed by the relationship of
citizenship.
Communality
Mean
Items and Factors
Standard Deviation
Table 5: Reliability and Validity Analysis Results of National Identity Perception Scale
9,930
11,716
9,425
9,008
15,094
12,040
7
17. National identity is unity of sense.
,737
,699
,618
,634
,471
,686
,636
,636
10,629
,84
,412
,627
,629
,569
11,136
3,92
1,03
,430
,648
,632
4,21
,77
,320
,564
,494
,705
,607
,756
,725
,769
,733
,681
,586
4,07
,91
,548
18. The most important element of national identity is
independence.
20. National identity is formed by common history.
4,46
,83
,411
4,08
,93
22. Social belonging is important for me.
4,05
23. I would be happy to read books related to Turkish
history.
24. Cultural values influence my life.
28. Honor, dignity, reputation, independence, morality are
the basic elements of national identity.
29. Consciousness of national history is an important
determinant of national identity.
33. National values are the determinants of national
identity.
34. Customs and traditions are major determinants of
national identity.
II. Factor (National Identity-Religion Relationship)
10. I would be happy to attend religious holidays.
16. Religion is the most important one of national values.
30. Religious beliefs are the determinants of national
identity.
31. Culture is composed of the religious beliefs of a nation.
,691
,553
,593
,515
4,26
1,03
,504
,662
4,14
,88
,579
4,17
,82
,597
4,05
,93
,471
3,38
1,10
,745
,592
,502
,817
,407
,703
,718
,637
13,742
8,817
13,583
9,761
10,137
11,694
14,554
11,623
,445
1,52570
3,22
1,07
,678
,691
1,89148
4,38
,89
,431
,738
,856
,566
1,61309
3,49
1,16
,686
,712
,819
,454
1,54989
* All the "t" values are significant at the 0.001 level.
It was found that item-total correlations of all items ranged from .407 to .720. While item-total correlations
vary from .515 to .720 for Factor I, those correlations vary from 407 to .566 for Factor II. Considering that items
with item-total correlations that is .30 or above discriminated well (Büyüköztürk, 2005), it can be stated that
the reliability of items measures the same behavior at a fair or high level.
The Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient was found to be .93 for Factor I whereas it was .80 for Factor II.
Totally, the Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient was found to be .93 for the scale and it can be said that scale
has high reliability. Reliability analysis was provided through the examination of the difference between
average item scores of the upper 27% and the lower 27% groups, item total correlation and Cronbach alpha
internal consistency coefficient and t values were found to be significant (P< .OO1).
In the ‘National Identity Perception Scale’ development study, the item 3, 5, 7, 9, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 20, 22, 23,
24, 28, 29, 33 and 34 fell into the first factor (National Identity and Values) while item 10, 16, 30 and 31 fell into
the second factor (National Identity-Religion Relationship). Variance Rates Explained by the Sub dimensions of
National Identity Perception Scale and Alpha Coefficients are presented in Table 6.
Table 6:Variance Rates Explained by the Subdimensions of National Identity Perception Scale and Alpha
Coefficients
Factor
Explained Variance
Alpha
1.
2.
37.197
15.108
.93
.80
Total
52.306
.93
While the first factor explained 37.19% of total variance, the second one explained 15.10% of it. It was revealed
that two factors explained 52.30% of the total variance. The Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient was found to
be .93 for Factor I whereas it was .80 for Factor II. Totally, the Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient was found
to be .93 for the scale. The total alpha coefficient of the scale is found to be .93. The criteria to evaluate alpha
coeffient is as follows (Özdamar, 1999:522).
8
When correlation coefficients in the University National Identity Perception Scale were analyzed, it was
revealed that the correlation between the first and second factor was found to be .467. While the correlation
between the first factor and total scale items was .972, the correlation between the second factor and total
scale items was .661. It was observed that the correlation between factors was significant; however, it was at a
fair level. This finding could be a proof showing that perception items of the scale fall under two independent
factors. Correlations of National Identity Perception Scale are presented in Table 7.
Table 7: National Identity Perception Scale Correlations
Factors
N
X
Ss
Factor 1
282
70.723
10.76
Factor 2 Pearson
282
14.464
3.36
Correlation
Top Pearson
282
85,187
12.69
Correlation
p
.000
.000
Top
.972*
----
Fak1
--.467*
.000
----
----
Fak2
--.661*
RESULT
This research aims to develop a valid and reliable scale to determine university students’ perceptions regarding
national identity. Firstly, a pilot scale composed of 50 items was performed on 282 students and as a result of
analysis, 30 items were removed from the scale and the final form consisted of 20 items.
Those items were determined to measure two basic structures (National Identity and Values, National Identity
– Religion) of participant students’ national identity perceptions. Accordingly, ‘’National Identity Perception
Scale’’ was accepted as a reliable and valid measurement tool that measures university students perceptions
regarding national identity and have two sub-dimensions.
IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at VI. Sosyal Bilimler Eğitimi Kongresi, (Social Sciences Education
Congress) 03-05 Ekim (October)2013, KTÜ, Trabzon.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESS OF AUTHOR
Prof.Dr.Yücel GELİŞLİ is currently the director of the Department of Educational Sciences at
Gazi Education Faculty at Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey. He holds a Bachelor’s degree in
Division of Curriculum and Insructiom from the Gazi Education Faculty of Gazi University,
Ankara, Turkey, Master’s degree in Curriculum Development from the Social Sciences
Institute of Balıkesir University, Balıkesir, Turkey, and Ph D in Curriculum and Instruction
(Social and Historical Bases of Education) from the Social Sciences Institute of Ankara
University, Ankara Turkey. His main research interests are Curriculum Development, Teacher
Training System and History of Education. He has authored Teacher Training Applications in
Ankara Teacher Training Collage (2006), Development of Primary Education in Turkey (2005) and a chapter
titled as “Functions of Education”, Editor: ÖZDEMİR, Ç, Prof. Dr: Entry to the Education Sciences (2006), “The
Development and Problems of Training Teachers for Vocational and Technical Education in Turkey” in “Higher
Education in a State of Crisis (2011)”, “Cooperation with Family at Classroom Management”, Editor: ERÇETİN,
Ş., ÖZDEMİR, Ç: Classroom Management, (2004).
Prof. Dr. Yücel GELIŞLI
Department of Edocation Sciences
Teknikokullar/Ankara
TURKEY
9
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11
SECONDARY EDUCATION GEOMETRY PROGRAM FROM STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVE
Prof. Dr Adnan BAKI
Karadeniz Techinal University
Faculty of Fatih Education
Trabzon- TURKEY
Resh. Assist. Elif AKŞAN
Karadeniz Techinal University
Institute of Education Sciences
Trabzon- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The geometry program which was developed by the Board of Education and began to be used in 2009 brought
innovations in the geometry course. Its major innovations is the addition of vectors, transformation geometry,
rotation in space and drawings of perspectives. In addition, the order of subjects was modified. The goal of the
course is to improve the students’ ability to prove. It is recommended that teachers should employ the
synthetic, vectoral and analytical approaches in geometrical proofs. However, new design of the course has led
to many problems. The aim of the study is to reveal the reasons for such problems based on the views of the
students. To this end, semi-structured interviews were conducted with twenty senior high school students. The
findings indicate that the participants refer to the inconsistency between the current examination system and
the geometry program in regard to the problems experienced in the course.
Key Words: Geometry program, educational change, examination system.
INTRODUCTION
As a result of globalisation numerous changes have occurred in several domains and instutions, and these
changes have also affected educational institutions (Sahlberg, 2006; Doğan, 2012; Kösterelioğlu ve Özen,2014).
The latter effects are of great importance since educational institutions should produce individuals who know
how to update their knowledge base and how to use their knowledge in future working roles. Therefore, it is
very significant for educational institutions to keep up with the changes occurred (Şaşan, 2002; Wedell, 2009).
As it is known the major portions of the government budget are allocated for educational expenses (Kennedy,
1996).
Educational institutions can transfer these changes to individuals through educational programs. Given that
educational programs are structured based on new educational philosophies they have not a static but a
dynmaic pattern. Educational programs should be developed in a way that they allow to transform the
students’ knowledge and skills into behaviour. Therefore, the development of educational programs is of great
importance (Demirel, 2004; Yapıcı ve Demirdelen, 2007). In Turkey studies to revise educational programs has
been continuing at both basic education and secondary education levels (Kurt and Yıldırım, 2010). One of the
revised educational programs is that of the geometry course. In terms of education geometry is a domain of
mathematics of which basis should be established during the period of basic education. The inefficient teaching
of geometry during the basic education period leads to serious problems in teaching geometry at the
secondary education level and also, at the following levels. Given that the scope of geometry is very large and
comprehensive it has developed more than it was expected. For instance, the Euclidean geometry was the
mere type of it and it was taught. However, now it is a sub-field of the space-based comprehensive
mathematical theories. There are currently more than fifty types of geometry (MEB,2011).
169
History of educational programs used in geometry course
Since the school year of 1976–1977 modern mathematics programs have been used in Turkey. These programs
have included both geometry and analytical geometry.
The mathematics program for high schools used between 1987 and 1991 in Turkey was the same as that used
between 1976 and 1977.
Beginning by the school year of 1991-1992 the credit system and passing class system began to be used.
However, both were cancelled at the end of the school year of 1993-1994. During this period the most striking
characteristic of the educational programs used was that the topics of geometry and analytical geometry were
excluded from the math program and they became independent courses.
The educational programs for geometry and analytical geometry in 1998 were developed in parallel to those
used in 1992 and these programs were in use until the school year of 2005–2006.
In the school year of 2005–2006 high school duration became four years. With this change the course of
geometry 1 began to be delivered in the tenth grade, the course of geometry 2 began to be delivered in the
eleventh grade and the course of geometry and the course of analytical geometry began to be delivered in the
twelfth grade.
During the school year of 2009- 2010 the educational program for geometry was again significantly modified.
This new program significantly altered the teaching process of the geometry course. the significant differences
occurred include the enrichment of the content, the changes in the order of the topics and in the coverage of
various geometrical approaches. The new topics added are transformational geometry, decorations in space,
drawings of rotation and perspectives. In regard to the order of topics the topic of circles is delivered before
the topic of triangle. In relation to the process of teaching the new program covers the approaches towards the
geometrical proofs. The program requires teachers to employ the analytical, vectoral, synthetic approaches in
lecturing about the proofs in geometrical topics. It also encourages them to commonly use analytical and
vectoral approaches rather than conventional synthetic approach.
The efficiency and validity of an educational program can be established based on the findings of an evaluation
about its implementation. Therefore, the educational programs should be continously and systematically
evaluated (Ertürk,1972; Saylan, 2001). In such evaluations the views of the students should be identified. It is
certain that the findings are very significant in determining the weaker points to be improved for the future
educational program development work.
The first graduates of the high schools who were educated through the geometry program developed and first
used in the school year of 2009- 2010. This study aims at revealing the views of the twelfth grade students who
were educated through the geometry program developed and first used in the school year of 2009- 2010. In
parallel to this aim the study attempts to answer the following research questions:
• What the views of the twelfth grade students about the content of the geometry program?
• What the views of the twelfth grade students about the applicability of the geometry program?
• What the suggestions of the twelfth grade students to improve the efficiency and applicability of the
geometry program?
METHOD
The study was designed as a case study which is part of the qaulitative research methods. Case study is a
research method that deals with a current fact within its real situation and analyses the fact concerned in a
multidimensional, systematical and detailed manner (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2005). Cases studies are particiularly
proper for individual studies. Because these studies provide the researcher with the opportunity to analyse all
170
aspects of the problem in depth and in a short period of time. The most significant advantage of this method is
that it provides the researcher with the opportunity to focus on the problem or case (Çepni, 2007).
Information about participants, data collection tools, data collection process and data analyze is given as
follows.
Participants
The participants of the study were twenty students attending at the twelfth grade in an Anatolian High School
in Trabzon province during the school year of 2012-2013.
Data Collection Tools and Procedure
The data of the study were collected through semi-structured interviews with the participants. The items asked
during the interviews were prepared based on the views of the field specialists who had experience in the
study subject. The interviews with the students lasted nearly for twenty minutes and were recorded after
getting permission of them.
Data Analysis
The data obtained during the interviews were transcribed. Then these transcribed data were reviewed and
coded by the authors. Related notes were added to the codes regarding why these codes would be used. These
codes then were categorized under the themes. The themes were developed based on the consistency among
the codes covered. The draft forms of the themes and codes included were discussed by the authors. Then,
these codes and themes were finalized.
FINDINGS
The positive and negative views of the students about the content of the geometry program are given in the
following Table.
Table 1: Student views about the content of the geometry program
Positive views
Topics in the ninth grade are very understandable
The order of the topics in the tenth grade is very effective
Both the content and order of the topics in the eleventh grade are the most reasonable
Negative views
Topics in the ninth grade are exclusively based on formulas
The number of the topics in the ninth grade are very many
Topics in the twelfth grade are very abstract
Topics are so much repeated
Vectors are so much covered in the course
Space geometry is so much covered in the course
Transformation geometry is so much covered in the course
Proofs are so much covered in the course
f
10
3
15
8
12
18
5
15
11
7
9
As can be seen in Table 1 the students reported both positive and negative views about the content of the
geometry program. More specifically, fifteen students out of twenty participants indicated a positive aspect of
the program stating that the order and content of the eleventh grade topics were the most reasonable ones in
contrast to others at different grade levels. ten students reported that the topics in the ninth grade are very
understandable. Three students stated that the order of the topics in the tenth grade is very effective.
Exemplary reports by the students are given as follows:
‘’The most reasonable geometry course in high school level is that of eleventh grade. Its content and the order
of the topics are both fun and informative …’’
“The topics in the ninth grade are much clearer and understanable since we studied these topics before. We
were alsready familiar with these topics since we were taught them in secondary school…’’
171
‘’ The order of the topics in the tenth grade is very effective and topics include vectors and triangles. Following
the ninth grade the order of the topics in the tenth grade was very good.…’’
As can be seen in Table 1 the students also reported negative views about the content of the geometry
program. Eighteen students out of twenty participants remarked a negative point about the program stating
that the topics in twelfth grade were very abstract. Fifteen students argued that the program mostly covers the
topic of vectors. Twelf students stated that the number of topics covered in the ninth grade is very much.
Eleven students reported that space geometry is very much studied in the geometry program. Nine students
remarked the similar point for the proofs and seven students for transformational geometry. Eight students
stated that geometry topics in the ninth grade are exclusively focused on formulas. Five students stated that
the topics are frequently and unnecessarily repeated. The examples for these views of the participants are
given below:
‘’…There is a topic of space in the twelfth grade. We have problems in understanding the plane. It becomes
more difficult when the topic of space is covered since it is an abstract subject. We cannot easily imagine these
topics in our mind. Learning occurs very difficult. …’’
‘’… In the geometry program the topic of vectors is very much emphasized. Is it necessary? For me the answer is
“no”. This is an extra concept for the geometry course and it is not needed …’’
‘’…In the ninth grade we got confused since there are many topics covered in the geometry course. For in
instance, angles, rectangulars, prism among the others. These are very detailed but are given at a surface level.
When there is no detail about them we could not learn them at all. Without comprehending a topic we begin to
deal with a new one…’’
‘’We need to know vectors in plane before vectors in space. Space geometry is given in a detailed manner. But
we have difficulty in understanding the plane geometry. So when we are introduced space geometry it becomes
much harder to undertsand.… In addition space geometry is not frequent part of the examination…’’
‘’…We are asked to provide proofs for everything. I do not think so much proofs are necessary. In addition these
proofs are not those that we are familiar with. We are asked to make proofs using vectors and coordinate
system. It makes things much harder. We could not do and understand proofs making it much more difficult. It
also diminish the understandability of geometry …’’
‘’… In the ninth grade there are many formulas to be memorized. I got bored due to the higher number of
formulas. These were heavy for me. …’’
‘’In the program the concepts of shift, reflection and symmetry are frequently repeated. For me covering so
much the transformational geometry is not good for other topics in the course …’’
‘’ … In the ninth grade we studied rectangulars and we again studied them in the eleventh grade. For me topics
should be completed in a single grade. In the ninth grade it was at the surface level, so it was unnecessary, but
in the eleventh grade it was given in detail. So we should study rectangulars only at the eleventh grade. …’’
The positive and negative views about the applicability of the geometry program repoted by the students are
given in Table 2:
Table 2: Student views about the applicability of the program
Positive views
Proofs make it easy to understand the topics
Transformational geometry improve our ability to geometrically think
Vectors make it easy to understand the topics
Perspective drawings and isometric drawings improve our ability to think in three dimensional way
Vectors improve our interest towards geometry
f
7
5
3
4
2
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Transformational geometry is closely related to daily life.
Negative views
The program is not closely parallel to the examination system
Vectors direct us to memorize the topics
Vectors diminish our interest towards geometry
Vectors make the topics more abstract
Proofs are not used in daily life
Drawings of perspectives and izometric drawings do not have any significant effect on our
achievement
Time allocated for the topics is not sufficient
The topic of coni not is not used in daily life
2
18
15
10
11
5
5
17
2
Table 2 shows that students reported both positive and negative views about the applicability of the geometry
program. Seven out of twenty students stated positive views about the applicability of the program in terms of
the proofs stating that proofs make it easier to understand the subject. Five students stated that
transformational geometry improve their ability to geometrically think. Four students argued that perspective
drawings and isometric drawings improve their ability to think in three dimensional way. Three students
reported that vectors faciliate understanding of the topics and two that vectors improves their interest in
geometry. Another two students stated that transformational geometry is closely related to daily life. The
examples for these views of the participants are given below:
‘‘ …In fact, proofs make it easier for us to understand the topics. Instead of solving ten problems about a topic
dealing with its proof is enough for me. Although making proofs is time-consuming it makes it for us to have indepth understanding of the topic …’’
‘’… For instance, in transformational geometry we are asked about a new shape of an object that is rotated at
90-degree angle. We should think and reason about it. So it improves my ability to think in geometric terms …’’
‘’… For me drawings are very enjoyable. They help us in imaging things in our mind and abstractly think about
them. Such topics should be studied since nearly all of us have problems in thinking about an object in a threedimensional way…’’
‘’… For me the inclusion of vectors in the course of geometry is very useful. It helps me in helping some topics
fast and I could understand these topics better. Through vectors we can do many things in a short time.…
Through vectors we can directly reach the conclusions…’’
‘’…Since vectors are new for us they are interesting. It makes some topics more intersting and extraordinary. It
has made geometry diversified. So it should certainly be part of geometry. When we study familiar topics using
vectors we can much more easily understand them and these topics become more interesting…’’
‘’…Transformational geometry is an useful topic since we come across those situations in daily life which are
closely related to tranformational geometry… It has many domains in daily life where transformational
geometry can be….’’
Table 2 shows that the participants also reported some negative views about the applicability of the geometry
program. Eighteen students out of twenty participants stated that the program is not consistent with the
current examination system. Seventeen of them reported that time is not enough to cover all topics in the
program. Fifteen students argued that vectors direct them to memorize the topics. Another negative view
about the vectors was stated by eleven students who claimed that vectors make the topics more abstract. Ten
students also stated that vectors decrease their interest in geometry. Five students reported that proofs are
not related to daily life. Another five students argued that prespective drawing and isometric drawing do not
have positive contributions to their achievement in the geometry course. Two students reported that conis are
not related to daily life. The examples for these views of the participants are given below:
‘’…Everbody knows how the current examination system is. So while developing the program it should also be
taken into consideration. Examinations are very important for us. The content of the geometry course was
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enriched but these new topics are not part of the examination. So why do we try to learn these new stuff?…. In
addition, we need more practical knowledge since we try to do our best in a limited time in examinations. For
me new topics are very time sonsuming and have no place in the current system…’’
‘’…For me the most significant problem in regard to this educational program has to do with time. Time is not
enough to cover all topics and topics are not completely studied. When our learning was not complete next year
would be much more difficult for us. Time should be balanced and topics should be divided based on each grade
level. It should be taken into consideration that there is a possibility not to cover the last topics in the course…’’
‘’…. When vectors are covered there should be formulas and in turn, formulas require the memorization.
Therefore, vectors means memorization.…’’
‘’… Vector itself is an abstract concept. So when the topics are given through vectors the topics become difficult
to learn. Geometry is already a difficult course. It becomes more abstract and hard to understand when an
abstract concept is used to teach the course …’’
‘’…I think vectors should be omitted from the geometry course. Because they are both useless and boring and
make students indifferent towards the course of geometry …’’
‘’… I think geometry is related to daily life. So why we are learning about proofs and how I can relate proofs with
daily life. So that we do not need to learn about them ….’’
‘’… There is no place for perspective drawing and isometric drawing in the geometry course. they do not have
any positive effect for our achievement in the course. If I attend any architecture department future I learn them
at that time. Now I could not figure out why we need them at this level …’’
‘’…The topic of conis is not related to daily life. Studying them makes no sense for me. I do not know why we
study them …’’
The suggestions reported by the participants to make the current geometry program more effective and
applicable are given in Table 3:
Table 3: Suggestions by students about the program
The topic of conis should not be covered only in the eleventh grade
Analytical geometry should be covered more than the current situation
All analytical topics should be given in the same course.
A single topic should be delivered only at a single grade and should not be studied at other grades
Vectors should be covered in the course of physics.
Instead of larger proofs only shorter ones should be offered
Decorations should be omitted from the geometry course
Textbooks should be more carefully written.
5
3
2
7
9
4
6
8
Table 3 indicates that the students provided certain suggestions to improve the current geometry program.
Nine students out of twenty participants reported that vectors should be covered in the physics course. Eight
students stated that textbooks should be developed in a more detailed manner. Seven students suggested that
any single topic should be covered at a single grade and it should be separated into subcategories to be studied
at different grades. Six students remarked that the topic of decorations should be excleded from the geometry
courses. Five students argued that the topic of conis should be covered only at the eleventh grade. Four
students suggested that shorter proofs but not longer ones should be given to them. Three students stated
that the topics in regard to the analytical geometry should be more included in the course. Two students
suggested that all analytical topics should be covered in a single grade level. The example statements of the
students in regard to the suggestions to improve the current geometry program are as follows:
174
‘’…For me the topic of vectors belongs to the physics course and it is much more related to physics. So we must
study vectors in the physics course. It distracts out attention to the geometry course. …’’
‘’… Why do we have textbooks? Because we could not use them. Because its content is totally different from
what teachers deliver and it contains less exercises. I think that textbooks should provide us with everything
what we need and so we do not need any other sources …’’
’’…For me each topic should be studied at a single grade level. We should not study it again in other grades.
Because in this case topics are given without any detail. After studying the topic it should be completed. For
instance if triangles are covered in the ninth grade we would not be again given this topic at the following
grades …’’
‘’…Decorations are simpler for the geometry course and I think it is unnecessary. However, the program has
more references to it. I think high school program should not include this topic. If it is so necessary we must
study it in basic education school, but not in high school. In high school we need to study more basic topics …’’
‘’Time allocated for the topics in the eleventh grade is not enough. The last topic is about conis and time to
study is very very short. In the ninth grade we studied similar topics that we studied in the eleventh grade. Then
we study the topic of conis in the ninth grade. Maybe we can understand it better like this. Or the topic of conis
can be covered in the twelfth grade …’’
‘’…Yes, proof is useful for me. It is also necessary in geometry course. But we should not study longer proofs. For
instance, there is proof for the carnot theorem in the textbook. This theorem is easy to memorize and its proof is
longer. For me it is not needed to cover this proof. Shorter proofs should be given. Longer ones make us
indifferent towards geometry …’’
‘’ …Sometimes it is very useful to study at the level of coordinates. However, I think that the place of analytical
geometry in the program is less and that it should be covered more than now. Analytical geometry makes things
much easier…’’
‘’…Topics of the analytical geometry are distributed at different grade levels. at each grade we studied them.
For me there should be a separate course called analytical geometry like that was in the old system. Because
topics of the analytical geometry are difficult to recognize among other topics. For instance, there should be
only analytical geometry and it should contain only topics of analytical geometry…’’
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
As can be seen in Table 1 students frequently reported as a positive point about the content of the geometry
program that the program for the eleventh grade is the most reasonable one in terms of both the order of the
topics and the content. Moreover, they also stated that the program for the ninth grade is very
understandable. In terms of negative points about the geometry program they mostly indicated that the
program for the twelfth grade covers very abstract topics. In addition, they reported that the program covers
much of the topics such as vectors, space geometry, proofs, and transformational geometry and that the
program for the ninth grade includes too many topics which are mostly depended on formulas and which are
frequently repeated. As indicated by Cansız Aktaş and Aktaş (2011), Cansız Aktaş (2013) and Öztürk (2013)
teachers also have similar negative views about the geometry program arguing that the program is very
intensive and that the topics covered are unnnecessarily divided into subtopics. In addition, Dağdeviren Çay
(2012) also found that teachers regarded the geometry program for the ninth grade as very intensive.
Table 2 shows that concerning the positive characteristics of the geometry program in terms of the applicability
the students interviewed mostly reported that the proofs involved in the program faciliate their understanding
of the topics studied. They also stated that transformational geometry improves their ability to think in
geometrical terms and that perspective drawings and isometrical drawings improves their ability to 3D think.
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The other positive remarks of the participants included the vectors’ positive contribution in understanding of
the topics and in improving the interest in geometry and daily life reflections of the transformational geometry.
Regarding the negative characteristics of the geometry program in terms of the applicability the students
interviewed mostly reported that the geometry program is not consistent with the examination system. They
also stated that time allocated is not enough and that vectors require the memorization of the topics and make
the topics more abstract, leading to decrease in interest in geometry. The other negative reports included the
following: proofs are not used in daily life; perspective drawings and isometrical drawings do not have positive
effects on their achievement and conics are not used in daily life. Similarly, Cansız Aktaş and Aktaş (2011) and
Cansız Aktaş (2013) found that teachers regard time allocated to topics as insufficient which is one of the
negative dimensions of the geometry program. In a similar vein Dağdeviren Çay (2012) concluded that for
teachers time allocated to the ninth grade topics is not sufficient. Dağdeviren Çay (2012), Cansız Aktaş (2013)
and Öztürk (2013) found that according to teachers the program can be more applicable only if it is made
consistent with the current examination system. On the other hand, Öztürk (2013) concluded that teachers
argue that lack of full correspondence between the geometry program and the examination system seriously
affects the applicability of it.
Table 3 indicates that the most frequently reported suggestion of the students interviewed about the content
and applicability of the geometry program is to study vectors in the physics course. The other major
suggestions of the students in this regard are as follows: textbooks should be carefully written; each topic
should be studied in a single grade; the topic of conics should be delivered only in the eleventh grade and
small-size proofs instead of larger ones should be covered in the program. They also argued that analytical
geometry should be covered more than its current state and that all topics related to analytical geometry
should be delivered in the same grade. Cansız Aktaş and Aktaş (2011) and Cansız Aktaş (2013) also found that
for teachers the textbook used is a significant barrier in the implementation of the geometry program.
IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at World Conference on Educational and Instructional Studies WCEIS, 06- 08 November, 2014, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 5 Number 4 of
IJONTE 2014 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF THE AUTHORS
Prof. Dr. Adnan BAKİ is currently employed as a Professor at Karadeniz Technical University, Fatih Faculty of
Education, Department of Science and Mathematics
for Secondary Education. He is specially interested in mathematics education, teacher
education, philosophy of mathematics, computer assisted instruction.
Prof. Dr. Adnan BAKİ
Karadeniz Technical University
Fatih Faculty of Education
Department of Science and Mathematics for Secondary Education
Akçaabat, Trabzon- TURKEY
176
Res. Asst. Elif AKŞAN is currently a PhD student at Karadeniz Technical University, Institute
of Educational Sciences, Department of Science and Mathematics
for Secondary Education. She is specially interested in is educational change, curriculum
change, proof, mathematics education.
Res. Asst. Elif AKŞAN
Fatih Faculty of Education
Institute of Education Sciences
Akçaabat, Trabzon- TURKEY
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Değerlendirilmesi. Hacettepe Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 28(3), 69-82.
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Öğretmenlerinin Karşılaştığı Sorunlar ve Çözüm Önerileri. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Marmara
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Görüşlerine Göre Değerlendirilmesi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Karadeniz Teknİk Üniversitesi, Trabzon.
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Yayıncılık, Ankara.
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MODELS OF THINKING EDUCATION AND QUADRUPLE THINKING
Assist. Prof. Dr. M. Ali DOMBAYCI
Gazi University, Faculty of Gazi Education
Departmant of Philosophy and Related Sciences
Teknikokullar/Ankara- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
Many researches have been carried out into thinking education. In the basis of these studies lie two basic ideas.
One of them is to prepare a special program for thinking education and the other one is to embed thinking
education into a certain curriculum. Examples for such programs are CoRT (Cognitive Research and Trust),
H.O.T.S. (Higher-Order Thinking Skills), Feuerstein's Instrumental Enrichment (F.I.E.), Philosopy for the Children,
Tactics for Thinking, Structure of the Intellect (SOI), The Thinking/Learning (T/L) System and Odyssey of the
Mind etc. however, almost none of these models present a proposal for concerning general educational
system. In the current study, the similarities and differences between Quadruple Thinking and that other
thinking models are discussed.
Key Words: Quadruple thinking, teaching thinking, philosophy for children, thinking education.
THINKING EDUCATION
What thinking really means has been a point of discussion for centuries. Transformation of education into an
independent science, together with other sciences, made thinking the subject of education. Thinking, as the
subject of education, is in the core of the essential topics of pedagogy such as the approaches, theories and
philosophy of education, being in the first place, as well as teaching and learning, development, curriculum
development, and assessment and evaluation. One of the reasons why education is rather sensitive about
thhinking is implicitly related with what John Searle holds “If you cannot say a thought clearly, it means you do
not understand it yourself". Therefore, the aims of thinking education is both to say a thought precisely and to
understand the thoughts of others, starting with our own thoughts. To understand our own thoughts and the
thoughts of others requires the effective application of thinking automatically.
Finding out what thinking really means is a mental activity which could solely be grasped by the person himself.
For such a mental activity to take place, the person must be ready, and indeed this is also a special effort
(Heiddeger, 2004). This mental activity, a special effort, is not perceived by others, it is just special to the
person. Also the awareness of one's own mental state and mental processes belong to the person himself. The
person lives of two personal historical processes, the first of which is in his and is about what is happening to
his body, and the second is the mind and concerns what is going on in the mind. The first one is obvious, while
the second is rather private (Ryle, 1963). As can be understood from the statements of Heiddeger and Rylee,
thinking is an individual activity. Therefore, any education and training activity on thinking should not only be
general so as to teach the individual the act of thinking but also private to make personal awareness visible. It is
possible to adopt three different approaches to models of thinking education which have been designed to
meet these expectations; put forward thinking training models; specially designed ones, those associated with
curricula, and the ones that are linked to a specific topic (Wilson, 2000).
It is possible to evaluate the models associated with curricula together with the ones that are linked with a
specific topic. These models are discussed in the context of a course or a subject. The specially designed models
12
are those that are developed independent from curricula or a specific topic and aim to help students gain the
thinking skills as foreseen in the model. Therefore, it would not be wrong to address these approaches grouped
under three titles under two main headings; models that are independent from content and models that are
related to a specific content. Both approaches have advantages and disadvantages. The models that are
independent from content improve the thinking skills themselves, yet they are limited in terms of establishing a
link with the content. On the other hand, the models associated with content develop thinking skills to handle a
variety of content, but they are limited at the point of developing thinking skills which cannot be linked to
specific content.
Ways of thinking includes "perspective". All skills, styles, and instruments are arranged to develop this
perspective. Therefore, creative or caring thinking or visual thinking can be considered as a field in which the
perspective of thinking is placed at the centre. From another aspect, ways of thinking ar the most “general”
structures which lay out the theoretical and academic point of view as regards thinking.
Thinking skills include "competencies". Competencies necessary to perform the act of thinking are the
elements that ensure a common language and its definitions, professionalism, level and order. These elements
give the opportunity to compare the nature and quality of thinking. Whichever way of thinking is considered,
competencies need to be developed in line with the specific way of thinking and “thinking skills” that will help
develop these competencies should be defined.
Thinking styles, on the other hand, contain "habits". Style is the way a person prefers when using his skills. In
other words, styles is an indication of how thinking skills are activated and point out to the style of preference
rather than thinking skills, competencies, an deven abilities. Style can essentially be defined as an approach or
a trend. The more objective the kinds, skills or instruments of thinking are, the more subjective are thinking
styles.
Thinking "instruments" are systemmatic and facilitating factors that open our minds. They could rather be
regarded as the tools of strategies which will utilise perspectives and competence. Such instruments are
supportive structures that could be used to improve the way, content, habit and competence of thinking
altogether.
COMPETENCE
GENERAL
Thinking Skills
Focusing Skills
Information Gathering Skills
Remembrance Skills
Organisational Skills
Analytical Skills
Generalisation Skills
Integration Skills
Evaluation Skills
TEACHING
PERSPECTIVE
Table 1: Ways, Skills, Styles and Instruments of Thinking
Ways of Thinking
Reflective Thinking
Convergent Thinking
Hopeful Thinking
Divergent Thinking
Logical Thinking
Positive Thinking
Systematic Thinking
Creative Thinking
Lateral Thinking
Innovative Thinking
Visual Thinking
Historical Thinking
Geographical Thinking
Mathematical Thinking
Holistic Thinking
Caring Thinking
Critical Thinking
13
STRATEGY
Explanatory Concepts
Taxonomies
Action - Reaction
Concept Map
Result Table
Six Hats
Graphic Editor
Diamond Grading
Fishbone
Flowchart
K-W-L (Knowing-Willing-Learning)
Lotus Diagram
Mind Map
Multiple Intelligence
Plus-Minus-Interest
SWOT
T Square
Time Table
Venn Diagram
Y Square
METHOD
Analytical
Curious
Understanding
Open-minded
Systematical
Synthesist
Idealist
Pragmatist
Realist
Flexible
Organised
Sharing
Risk-taker
Introverted
Extraverted
Elaborator
Conservative
Staging
Judgemental
Innovative
Traditionalist
Thinking Styles
HABIT
PREFERENCE
Thinking Instruments
To address and implement the dimensions above, many training models for thinking have been developed and
each one has shown an effort to gained a systematic structure. The main differences and similarities of these
schemes become evident in the different use of elements such as the ways, styles, skills and instruments of
thinking.
In this study, rather than the models associated with curricula or a specific topic, the specially designed ones
are compared to the Quadruple Thinking Model. This comparison will be based on the main criteria of
education itself, its system and human understanding and the framework is set out in Table 1.
MODELS OF THINKING EDUCATION
Numerous specialised programmes have been developed for thinking education. In this study, the most
common ones will be addressed. It is therefore possible to list them as follows:
1. CoRT(Cognitive Research Trust) Lateral Thinking
CoRT is a thinking model which was initiated in 1969 by Edward DeBono and is one of the most widely used
thinking models. Edward DeBono’s model is among the educacation programmes for thinking which falls rather
in the sphere of creative thinking and focuses directly on teaching skills. Developing a systematic and consistent
approach in itself, this model considers, lateral and parallel thinking and their thinking instruments together.
DeBono pointed out to some differences between lateral thinking and vertical thinking: Vertical thinking is
selective, while lateral thinking is generative. Vertical thinking moves towards a single point of motion, whereas
lateral thinking generates different directions to move to. Vertical thinking is analytical; on the other hand,
lateral thinking is provocative, inciting. Vertical thinking is sequential, while lateral thinking can make jumps
from time to time. In vertical thinking, one has to validate himself in each step, but there is not such a necessity
in lateral thinking. In vertical thinking, one uses the negative in order to lock off certain pathways, yet in lateral
thinking there is no negative. Again, in vertical thinking one omits irrelevant concentrations, while lateral
thinking welcomes coincidental interventions. In vertical thinking, categories, classifications and labels are
mixed up, but in lateral thinking there is not such a case. Vertical thinking follows the most likely way, while
14
lateral thinking is more inclined to exploring the least likely. Finally, vertical thinking is a finite process, whike
lateral thinking is a probabilistic one (DeBono, 1977).
DeBono suggests parallel thinking as an alternative to Socratic Thinking and it is a resistance to conventional
thinking approaches. In a traditional debate, both sides are conditioned to attack each other by taking
positions. Both sides claim the falsity of one another's ideas and prove it. Traditional debate lacks
configuration, creativity, and design. Therefore, it only strives to discover the truth rather than building
something. In parallel thinking, on the other hand, there is a systemmatic of thinking based on cooperation and
coordination developed in both directions (DeBono, 1995). The most typical example is the six hat thinking.
The system which is also called the instruments of thinking was named by DeBono as CoRT (Cognitive Research
Trust). The Model consists of 6 chapters, each comprising ten lessons (Aybek, 2006) (DeBono, 2013):
Cort 1- Breadth: Lessons in this chapter have been designed to broaden the thinking/minds of students. In this
way, the aim is to ensure that individual consider a situation or an incident from a wider perspective and see
various and different sides of it.
Cort 2- Organization: The lessions in this chapter are related to the overall organisation of thinking. Such an
intervention/initiative takes thinking out of its roaming and distracting course and regards in a whole frame of
an organisation.
Cort 3- Interaction: Lessons in this chapter are more associated with the situation, conditions, etc. Of to people
in general and aim to focus on the thinking of others rather than the topic that is being thought. One of its main
objectives is to evauate the evidence and justifications.
Cort 4- Creativy: Lessons in this chapter are more related to the more effective and creative thinking of an
individual and his/her producing more alternatives. The type of creativity developed in CoRT-4 is the “design”
type of creativity. Hence, the simple techniques, processes and objectives of creativity are more central.
Cort 5- Information and Feeling: In this chapter, there are lessons about the ways to reach and evaluate
information in a practical manner, and about feelings such as beliefs, expectations and attitudes. In addition,
the influence of feelings and values on knowledge is also addressed. The main aim here is not to change their
impact but to raise awareness about them.
Cort 6- Action: Lessons in this chapter comprise activities aiming to imptoving the mental and intellectual skills
of the individual. The main method is to simplify the process of thinking and eliminate complexities and
confusio. All these lessons culminate in a lesson whose name consists of the initials of all the other lessons
(TEC-PISCO which stands for Target-Expand- Contract- Purpose- Input- Solutions- Choice- Operations).
CoRT is a program which is rather related to creative thinking. The way of thinking, which was named by
DeBono as Lateral Thinking can actually be considered as a new perspective to creative thinking. Therefore,
rather than taking lateral thinking and paralel thinking as separate ways of thinking but rather the
derivatives/forms of creative thinking. From this perspective, CoRT is almost a programme about a single way
of thinking and it does not deal with multiple ways of thinking. The fact that DeBono does not place any
emphasis on critical thinking, which is normally used widely, makes us wonder whether he considers it as
vertical thinking or not.
In most of the studies on thinking, the Socratic Method is discussed as a recommended instrument of thinking
which is considered to be effective. DeBono does not reject the Socratic Method; however, he maintains that it
would be deficient in structuring thinking, and that it would remain just to take a side and attack each other,
expressing that the only benefit is to reveal the truth.
15
DeBono’s system is almost entirely based on the instruments of thinking discussed in the courses he called
CoRT. With this aspect, it is by far the richest and most detailed programme among educational programmes in
terms of instruments of thinking. 60 instruments of thinking comprising a total of 6 sections with 10 lessons in
each section constitutes the roof of the programme.
There is insufficient emphasis in DeBono’ system on the ‘human’, who perform the act of thinking. Human
needs to be described as a being, his/her philosophical, psychological, sociological and historical dimensions
should be emphasised. It is not very clear how thinking takes place in some basic philosophical subjects such as
morality, art, science, assets, etc.. and how the psychological infrastructure is established in the contect of
cognitive and emotional balance. From this perspective, the system is the lack of these aspects. As the program
is devoid of such explanations, it becomes extremely mechanical. The main focus is on the instruments of
thinking which are considered in the scope of critical thinking rather than thinking skills or styles. This focus
improves divergent thinking, while it fails to provide any explanation on convergent thinking.
2. H.O.T.S. Higher-Order Thinking Skills
H.O.T.S. programme was developed by Stanley Pogrow in 1982. It is designed to develop 4-8 grade,
educationally disadvantaged student’s thinking skills. The aim of the program is to increase the higher-level
thinking strategies and relevant knowledge of the students. This program, aimed at promoting the process of
thinking by using computers, drama and Socratic inquiry, is applied for 2 years (Pogrov, 2008).
HOTS aims to bridging the gap between the passive visual learning provided by computers and televisions and
active verbal learning which is targeted in a regular classroom. For this purpose, it provides an interactive tool
in order to test students' skills in oral expression. Although initially most students can not express their ideas,
they have been observed to develop this skill over time. The program, in which drama is used, stimulates
interest and curiosity in students sometimes due to the teacher's acting and sometimes because of his attire.
The importance of Socratic inquiry in HOTS is the fact that it establishes creative and logical conversations
between teachers and students. While mand teachers ask simple questions mostly with one-word answers to
disadvantaged students, teachers trained for HOTS ask these questions in a way that enables student to give
more elaborate answers and provide explanations. According to one survey (Darmer, 1995). HOTS ensured
improvement in students in six categories: basic skills, writing skills, metacognitive skills, grade average, IQ
components and new problem solving skills.
The basic concepts of HOTS can be listed as; context, meta-cognition, procedural knowledge, understanding,
creativity, insight, intelligence, problem solving and critical thinking (King et al. 2013). Views of scientists such
as Piaget, Bruner, Bloom, Gagne, Marzano, Glaser, Vygotsky Haladyna, and Gardner lay the foundations of
HOTS (King et al. 2013). Besides, Guilford’s ideas regarding the structure of intelligence and Stenberg’s triple
intelligence theory also constitute the academic foundation of HOTS.
The Programme is realised on three levels (King et al. 2013). These are;
1. Prerequisites,
2. Bridge (connection of networks and operations/transmissions,
3. High-level thinking skills (situations-outputs-skills).
On these three levels, some special methods such as educative communication, structural scaffold, direct
teaching, question-answer, feedback, teamwork, computer-aided communication (King et al. 2013).
The program considers critical thinking as a basic concept in itself and it does not address it as a way of thinking
which reflects on the whole system. Although there is no emphasis on creative thinking, the views on the
structure of intelligence have been adopted as the academic basis. At some points in the programme which
mostly emphasizes cognitive structures – which are in the framework of instruments of thinking like the
Socratic Method, drama, etc. – there is also some content about creative thinking. This program can be
considered as one which utilizes some intruments of thinking rather than ways, styles or skills of thinking.
16
There is no main and fundamental field on which the program is based philosophically, psychologically,
sociologically and historically.
3. Feuersteın’s Instumental Enrıchment (FIE)
It was first developed by the Israeli cognitive psychologist Reuven Feurestein and his colleagues during 1950s
and 60s when they were working for Youth Aliyah, which could be defined as a placement agency and a project
for migrant jewish children and then it became systemmatic in 1980s (Maxcy, 1991). The focus of the
programme is to raise autonomous teachers. The central concept of the programme is the necessity of
cognitive learning experience and it was designed to develop cognitive functions required for academic
learning and success.
FIE is one of the triple implementation systems of Structural Cognitive Modifiability and Mediated Learning
theory. The other two are The Learning Potential Assessment Device, a dynamic evaluation tool and Modifying
Environments, which provides a general frame.
The programme consists of 14 instruments. Each of these instruments are based on one or two mental
functions such as comparison, spatial orientation, analysis, categorisation, deductive thinking, comprehension
etc. The person does not have to have preliminary knowledge in order to be successful in these. It is a
programme whose instruments are transferrable to curricula or other fields that do not fall into its context, and
they could be used in problem solving situations. It helps students to develop strategies and studying habits
where rules and principles can be generalised. In addition, it has some specific objectives such as eliminating
cognitive deficiencies, acquiring information about FIE concepts and terms, improving introspective thinking
skills, ensuring real motivation, transforming the student from a passive learner to an active generator of
knowledge, etc. (Maxcy, 1991).
The main aim of instrumental enriching is to increase individual’s social adaptation ability, as well as
changebility of comprehension. There are six specific aims that help realise this main aim (Sasson, 2011);
correction of deficient cognitive functions, improving vocabulary, generation of self motivation through habits,
generation of insight and contemplation, creating task-related motivation, transformation form the role of a
passive receiver to an active producer generating new knowledge from data.
The 14 FIE instruments developed to realise the above mentioned objectives can be listed as follows (IRI, 2014):
Table 2: Standart Levels and Instruments of Feuerstein's Instrumental Enrichment
Standart Level 1
Standart Level 2
Standart Level 3
Organitation of Dots
Numerical Progressions
Instructions
Orientation in Space I
Illustrations
Transitive Relations
Comparisons
Temporal Relations
Syllogisms
Representational Stencil Design
Analytical Preception
Family Relations
Categories
Orientation in Space II
Stencil Set (5 stencils)
This programme developed by the cognitive psychologist Feurestein and his friends can be considered as a
thinking programme centred on cognitive sturctures and learnimg. In that respect it is limited to cognitive
structures and it does not refer to any specific way of thinking. There is no specific way of thinking it aims to
develop either. It places emphasis on the instruments of thinking rather than ways, styles, or skills of thinking.
Absence of ways, styles and skills of thinking bring about some challenges in determining the philosophy, logic,
configuration and main objective of these instruments of thinking. Besides, the programme is not based on any
understanding of human.
4. Philosophy for Children
Philosophy For Children (P4C) programme is an educational proposal. It aims at developing multi-dimensional
thinking which involves critical, crative and caring thinking among children and young people and it is a
17
systemmatic and progressive programme that could be applied to the range between 4 year-old children and
18 year-old young people. The programme appeals to children’s interests in general; its topics are provocative,
the content is handled in a methodological way. High level thinking skills are developed a community of inquiry
and doubt activates curiosity.
P4C, which was developed by American philosopher Matthew Lipman in 1969, is implemented in more than 50
countries. The programme does not aim to help students become professional philosphers, it aimed to
maintain and at the same time improve their critical, creative and caring thinking skills. Its roots lie in John
Dewey, Justus Buchler, Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Gilbert Ryle, George Herbert Mead, and Ludwig Wittgenstein
(Naji, 201).
The main characteristics of the programme can be listed as follows (Accorinti, 2013):
• A series of philosophical texts written by philosophy specialists who bring together theory and practice and
who are experts on P4C. These reading passages are mainly essentially based on well-known philosophical
discussions.
• Teacher’s guides written seperately for each text not only plan for a number of discussions, but they also
facilitate the achievement of programme objectives.
• It adopts a pedagogic method aiming at transforming the class into a community of inquiry.
P4C Programme is based on three modes of thinking. These are critical, creative and caring thinking. Lipman
(2003) explains his views on this issue as follows.
Critical Thinking: According to Lipman, the outcomes of critical thinking present a judgement. Hence, it has the
quality of “judgement”. In this respect, critical thinking is not merely a process, but a way of thinking with
applications. Rather than reaching an understanding, it is to do, to say, to produce something. The process of
critical thinking and and its main characteristics establish its relationship with judgement. At this point, critical
thinking is a way of thinking which (1) facilitates (2) is based on some criteria (3) self-corrective and (4) sensitive
to the context. At the same time, critical thinking can be defined as a self correcting and context sensitive way
of thinking. It aims to eliminating the non-formative and implied fallacies. Another aspect of critical thinking is
that it is based on criteria. A criterion can be defined as a rule or princciple on which judgements are based.
When we are selecting which criteria to use, meta and mega criteria help us.
Creative Thinking: Lipman uses the following concepts to define different characteristics of traditional thinking
and creative thinking: originality, efficiency, imagination, independence, experiment, holisticism, expression,
auto-transfer, productivity, maieutik. Creative thinking is an amplification way of thinking. It represents mental
processes which are first illustrated by deduction amplify our thinking space and then which are illustrated by
induction and is utilised through analogy and metaphor. The amplificative thought aims at going beyond data.
In this respect, generalisations are indeed amplifications. And assuptions bear the representation of
empowered and amplifying thinking. Anological mind and metaphorical thinking are the other dimensions of
amplification. Sometimes creative thinking becomes a type of thinking which defy rules and criteria. Another
characteristic is that it gives birth. This quality makes creative thinking the midwife of intellectual thinking.
Hence, creativity is bringing together the hidden pieces of knowledge in the mind and producing a different and
original output, or thought.
Caring Thinking: We may not always realise to what extent our emotions shape and direct our thoughts and we
may not be aware of the fact that our emotions actually provide a frame, a meaning, a perspective or a
different outlook. Without emotions, thinking becomes plain and boring; thus, there is a crucial relationship
between thinking and emotions. The subject is who establishes this link. Caring can be depicted as focusing on
the object that we respect in order to appreciate its value. Caring thinking bears two meanings; one is to think
curiously what the focal object of our thought is; the other one is to focus on someone’s stye of thinking.
Lipman lists different aspects of caring thinking as follows: appreciative, sensible, active, normative and
empathetic thinking.
18
Lipman defines the atmosphere in which these ways of thinking can be realised as “community of inquiry”.
Community of inquiry makes it possible to address concepts like “speaking” and “dialogue”, which could be the
expression of thought, in a more refined manner. In speech, the element of attention is strong, while the
logical link is weak. In dialogue, however, it is the other way around. The greatest contribtion of community of
inquiry to the individual is the opportunity to learn from the experience of others and at the same time
compare thoughts with other ideas and build on them.
Lack of sufficient association of Lipman’s model with pedagogy caused the philosophical aspect of the model
become more dominant and visible (Dombaycı et al., 2011). In the frame of pedagogy and curriculum based
education each piece of knowledge, skill, attitude and value to be associated with/linked with attainments.
Manuals of curricula do not always state which pieces of knowledge, skills, aattitudes and values are engaged,
which constitutes another problem. In addition, it is almost impossible to use any materials other than the
story boks prepared for each level.
The fact that the programme predominantly involves philosophical inquiry requires philosophical formation
and this makes it difficult for all subject teachers to handle the programme effectively. The tasks and
operations related to measurement and evaluation are not specified precisely. These shortcomings cause the
philosophical side of the programme to be more in the forefront. Nevertheless, despite all this criticism, it is
one of the programmes that consider the act of thinking in an effective and holistic manner.
While ways of thinking are clear, elaborate and original, thinking skills, styles and instruments are complex. If
the programme defines the ways of thinking clearly, it will be possible to develop skills, styles and instruments.
5. Tactics for Thinkink
Tactics for Thinking is a thinking skills programme which was initiated by a group of academicians under the
leadership of Robert Marzano in 1985. It presents some tactics to strengthen and improve certaim cognitive
operations (Marzano, 1989). Students’ lack of self confidence in thinking is one of the central perspectives of
the programme. The programme’s focus is “learning to learn”.
Tactics for Thinking programme aims to teach and promote the use of thinking skill in classrooms. Dimensions
of Learning form the basis of the programme. The 22 thinking skills of the programme are classified into three
categories (King & King, 2014): Learning to learn, considering the content, and reasoning.
Table 3: Tactics of Thinking Programme Skill Categories
Skills for learning/to learn
Skills for considering the
content
Attention control
Concept attaintment
Deep procession
Concept development
Memory frameworks
Pattern recognation
Power thinking
Macro-pattern recognation
Goal settings
Synthesising
The responsibility frame
Proceduralizing
Skills for reasoning
Analogical reasoning
Extrapolation
Evaluation of evidence
Examination of value
Decision making
Non-linguistic patterns
Elaboration
Solving every-day problems
Solving academic problems
Invention
The programme is entirely based on thinking skills. 22 thinking skills are grouped under three main headings.
Rather than the reflecyion of a single way of thinking, it focuses on the improvement of thinking skills. Focusing
on a single way of thinking could be considered as a shortcoming; hence, Marzano defines the focus of the
programme as “learning to learn” instead of teaching a single way of thinking. It is a cognitive programme and
it does not deal with affective structures such as values and emotions. There is no gradation in the programme.
19
6.Structure of the Intellect (SOI)
Structure of the Intellect program was developed based on Guilford’s cubic “structure of the intellect in 1969
by MAry Meeker. It is desgned for all primary school students and adults and is based on four principles
(Meeker & Meeker, 2013): to know the principles of learning; to test formal, symbolic, and semantic
competences; to improve low competencies; compare performance levels within the classroom.
Figure 1: Guildford’s Theory of Intelligence
In Guilford's (1967) Structure of Intelligence (SOI) there are three main axis: operations, products and contents.
As each one of these dimensions are independent, theoretically intelligence has 150 different components.
Guilford developed psychometric tests to measure some special abilities that are estimated to be compatible
with. These tests provide an operational definition of many abilities established by theory. In this frame,
reasoning and problem solving skills can be categorized into 30 different abilities (6 products x 5 content).
Memory studies can also be divided into 30 different skills and sub-sections (6 products x 5 content). Decision
making skills (evaluation studies) can also be divided into 30 different skills and sub-sections (6 products x 5
content). Linguistic skills can also be divided into 30 different skills and sub-sections (6 products x 5 content).
20
Dr. Mary Meeker, saw the potential in Guilford's studies and developed a model to be used in education. This
model is successfully implemented in schools and it is quite effective in detecting learning deficiencies among
students.
SOI is an intelligence-centered programme based on Guilford’s studies In this respect, it is possible to say that
psychology is more active in this programme when compared with other fields. Apart from the intelligence and
psychology context, another determining factor is the cognitive nature of the programme. It is not based on a
specific way of thinking. In terms of intelligence and skills, approximately 150 skils are dealt with. The
programme also addresses convergent and divergent thinking and there is no grade limitation. No specific
instrument of thinking is mentioned.
7. The Thinking/Learnıng (T/L) System
Thinking/learning system is a thinking skills programme developed by Peter Edwards and Ervin Sparapani. It is
designed for primary school students and adults. It is based on four high-level thinking skills: processing
information, creative thinking, critical thinking and decision making.
Thinking/Learning (T/L) Sytsem is a programme which combines high-level thinking strategies and brain-based
learning principles and aims to realising high-level thinking education. T/L System, as a teaching model, was
developed by matching the levels in HOTS and Bloom's taxonomies. The system emphasizes brain based
learning and strives to teach high-level thinking through activities.
The system allows the teacher to assign tasks to students according to their individual needs by urging them to
use the right, left or all processes of the brain either separately or together when using specific thinking skills.
When the programme is effectively implemented, the lesson comprises 12 separte activities selected by the
teacher and students.
Figure 2: The Thinking/Learning (T/L) System Model (Sprapani & Calahan, 2013)
21
The T/L system was developed for any content, material or educational level. As illustrated in Figure 2. it has
four loop: knowledge, analysis, aplication, evaluation. The letters in small circles, “C”, “O” and “P” stand for
“content”, “outcomes” and “prosedures” respectively. It draws attention to the content of thought and
processes utilised, as well as to how learning will be assessed (Sprapani & Calahan, 2013).
Figure 3: Conceptual Framework of The Thinking/Learning (T/L) System (Sprapani & Calahan, 2013).
Figure 3. on the other hand, demonstrate the linear and hierarchical structure of the programme. In the
knowledge/information gathering loop students develop skills to select the information that will serve for the
purposes of the activities in the lesson, to categorise them and to associate them with the subject. In addition,
they get an idea about the details, terminology, categories and methodology. In the analysis/critical thinking
loop, they focus on the importance of and reasons for relationships. Wİth the help of this focus, they learn how
to study the separate elements of an issue or topic through organisational principles. Students also learn how
these principles are regenerated in an entirely new and unique way. The application/creative thinking loop
underlines rhat there is a need to use original ideas and evaluate the sufficiency of the products in order to
come up with innovative products. Evaluation/decision making loop, on the other hand, emphasizes the
evidence and criteria to select alternatives and to develop standards of judgement.
Critical and creative thinking are considered as skills in the programme. On one hand, the programme is skillbased, on the other hand it is mentioned that high-level thinking skills are linked with the principles of
brain/mind based thinking. There is no grading for the programme and it can be used for all primary school
students and adults.
The programme aims to develop decision making mechanisms taking critical thinking and creative thinking as a
starting point. It is possible to say that innovative thinking is considered in the scope of creative thinking. As in
each thinking programme, this one also redefines critical and creative thinking in its own frame.
8. Odyssey of the Mind
It is a programme initiated by Sam Micklus and Ted Gourley in 1978 at Glassboro State College (now Rowan
University). In their initial work it was referred to as “Olympics of the Mind”. It aims to develop the creative
thinking skills of the partcipants by means of problem solving and brainstorming (Wikipedia, 2013).
Odyssey of Mind is an educational programme which could also be defined as a creative problem solving
competition for students of all grades. In general it has two categories: The first one is long-term problem
solving, and the other one is spontaneous problem solving. In long-term problem solving, each team is given a
specific problem and the individualas are then asked to solve this problem within a given time-frame. In
spontaneous problem solving, the teams are supposed to find a solution during the competition in an
impromptu way. In this way, students develop two different skills in two different categories. In developing
22
these skills, team work is utilised. There are four levels of age groups for team work: K-5 (U.S.) - K 6-8 (U.S.) - K
9-12 (U.S.) and higher education (Micklus & Micklus, 2013).
In long-term problem solving, each team Works on 5 long-term problems. Teams compete by working on the
same level. They prepare forthe solutions of long-term problems prior to the competition. Each long term
problem has one or more objectives, limitations, needs, as well as a series of conditions and grading categories.
The stages of a long-term problem can be listed as follows (Micklus & Micklus, 2013):
Problem 1: Vehicle: Teams are expected to design one or more vehicle. These vehicles should be designed with
sufficient space sometimes to get on, and sometimes to carry stuff.
Problem 2: Technique: Teams are scored for various technical work. They are usually expected to develop a
device which is capable of accomplishing some specific tasks related to the given problem.
Problem 3: Classics: This one is about a problem-based performance about classics. It can be about any classic
including mythology, art, music, archeology or something natural and classical.
Problem 4: Structure: Teams are expected to design and construct a structure by using only wood from balsa
tree and glue. Then they test whether this structure can be broken by olympic units of weight.
Problem 5: Performance: It is about problems in which performance-based scoring is active and which deals
with some special characters, sometimes with humour and sometimes an original story.
In solving spontaneous problems, on the other hand, the teams have no idea about the problems until they
enter the competition room; hence, the problems can be cinsidered “highly confidential”. Solving such
problems gratly contribute to students self-sufficiency. Each spontaneous problem has its own rules. Teams
solve a spontaneous problem in each competition. These kind of provlems are addressed on three different
levels (Micklus & Micklus, 2013): verbal, applied and verbal/applied. Verbal problems involve dramatisation
and improvisation; for applied problems tangible solutions are employed; and for verbal/applied problems
both are utilised.
Students work in groups of seven under the guidance of a grown-up education coach. Solution phase may take
weeks or even months. Each team has eight minutes in total to present its solution. Teams are scored
considering to what extent the requirements of the solutions are met and the use of different categories of
creativity. The results are published on the internet. Ranking of the teams are determined based on their
scores in problem solving, score in style and score in spontaneous solutions. Teams have to follow the rules,
problem limitations and the announcements made throughout the year (Micklus & Micklus, 2013).
The program takes creative thinking as a skill, so it would not not be wrong to say that it is a program centered
on thinking skills. In fact, this training program is reminiscent of an olympic race rather than a programme. It
realizes creative thinking skills through problem-solving and brainstorming. In the program, creative thinking
emerges as a result and is far more similar to problem solving based learning model. Creativity occurs during
the spontaneous problem solving process and it is not a development which affects the whole programme.
Stages have been defined for the problems to be solved in the scope of the program, yet these are more
related to the stages and types of problems rather than instruments of thinking. The program, in this state,
does not systemmatically put forward a certain way of thinking, style or thinking instruments. The programme,
with its various levels, is limited to primary and secondary education, and higher education.
23
COMPARISON OF THINKING EDUCATION MODELS AND QUADRUPLE THINKING MODEL
Comparison of thinking education models according to a number of criteria will shed light on the work done in
the field of thinking education so far. Upon comparison of these structures, the distinctive quality of Quadruple
Thinking Model, which is an original work, in relation to these comparison criteria will become more apparent.
Comparison of Thinking Education Models
When considdered together with thinking models, it is clear that ways of thinking, thinking styles, thinking skills
and instruments of thinking can be understood in different ways by different programs. The following table
demonstrate the center point of programmes in terms of a set of criteria. When it is analysed, it can be
unterstood that except the P4C program, the others lack a general holistic framework and a perspective. This
holistic general framework and perspective should essentially be the determining factor of thinking styles,
skills, and instruments. Without describing this structure, the function of others will not be fully understood.
Instumental Enrıchment (I.E.) and The Thinking/Learning (T/L) System programmes address thinking styles;
however, this involvement is only partial.
Most of the programmes consider thinking as a skill-centered concept. Tactics for Thinking, Structure of the
Intellect (SOI), The Thinking/Learning (T/L) System and Odyssey of the Mind place thinking skills entirely in the
centre, just as Cort-Lateral Thinking and P4C do the same thing, but partially.
Cort - Lateral Thinking and Instumental Enrichment (I.E.) give the central role to instruments of thinking in their
programmes. Similarly, H.O.T.S. and Odyssey of the Mind do the same thing, but parially.
Table 4: Comparison of Thinking Education Programmes
General
Individual
Structure
Preferences
Thinking Education Programme/Model
Thinking
Way of
Thinking
Styles


CoRT- Lateral Thinking


H.O.T.S.( Hıgher-Order Thınkıng Skılls)

Instumental Enrıchment (I.E.)

Philosophy For Children


Tactıcs For Thınkıng


Structure of The Intellect (SoI)

The Thinking/Learning (T/L) System


Odyssey of The Mind
Present
Partly Present
 Absent / Not Available
Teaching
Content
Thinking
Skills


Teaching
Strategies
Instruments
of Thinking




Apart from the points stated above, Cort - Lateral Thinking considers creative thinking, H.O.T.S. considers
critical and creative thinking, P4C consider creative and caring thinking, and Structure Of The Intellect (SOI)
consider convergant and divergant thinking as a way of thinking.
The Thinking/Learning (T/L) System considers critical and creative thinking, and Odyssey of the Mind consider
creative thinking as a thinking skill.
Except for P4C, all the other programmes are cognitive. P4C comprises both cognitive and affective structures.
The factor leading to this difference is “caring thinking”.
Quadruple Thinking Model
In the scope of the curriculum review process which was launched in 2005 by the Ministry of National
Education in Turkey, an elective course on "Thinking Education" (MEB, 2007) was included in the curricula for
6-8 grades in 2006. When this course which was developed by a commission of researchers, is considered in
24
today’s circumstances, it is possible to say that it functions effectively. A signature campaign was also initiated
by many civil society organizations working in the field of education in order for this course to be compulsory
and a "Teacher's Guide Book" (Dombaycı et al. 2008) has been prepared. Both the curriculum and it relevant
manuals are based on Lipman’s (2003) tripartite model of thinking (critical-creative-carin). The basic difference
between this course and the model is that both prior to an activity or an attainment and at the end of it the
expected piece of knowledge, skills, values and attitudes are clearly mentioned.
Considering the criticism, it becomes clear that a model for thinking education should be sensitive to pedagogy,
and at the same times it has to attach importance to historical, social and cultural factors. Developed for this
purpose, Quadruple Thinking (QT) Model presents an understanding of “human” for the education system. For
QT Model, man is the subject of the act of thinking. Man is distinguished from other creatures with his “act of
thinking”. This distinctive feature also determines his conditions of existence: Human is a being who knows,
does, hears the voice of others, adopts attitudes, foresees, pre-determines, wants, has free actions, idaetises,
commits himself to something, loves, works, educates, is educated, founds states, creates arts and technique,
believes, talks, and has a bio-psychic structure (Mengüşoğlu, 1988).
QT Model, which also takes into account the conditions of existence, comprises four ways of thinking. These
are critical, creative, caring, and hopeful thinking. Critical thinking is a way of thinking in which evaluation is
based on criteria and decisions are made. Creative thinking, on the other hand is the "aesthetic problemsolving" ability. Caring thinking is a third and high-level of thinking which brings critical and creative thinking
together. Caring thinking also consists of forms that make it possible for emotions to transform into selections,
decisions and judgments. These forms contain the importance and value of the person himself, of others, of his
surroundings and principles. Hopeful thinking is a person’s emotional belief that the consequences of the
events and situations in his life will be positive.
Critical and creative thinking is usually associated with the content and is about what is being thought. Caring
and hopeful thinking, on the other hand, is rather more related to the perspective of the first two types of
thinking about the object of their thought and is more about how we think about this object of thought. Caring
thinking is the philosophical verification of critical thinking, and philosophical justification of creative thinking.
Hopeful thinking increases the capacity of acting. Hopeful thinking enables individuals to be critical without
being destructive, to be creative enough to keep a balance between imagination and real world, to be caring
enough to think about him and others equally, and to be happy enough to perform all of these.
Guilford defines convergent thinking as the ability to narrow down the number of possible solutions by
applying logic and knowledge to a problem, and divergent thinking as the ability to foresee multiple and
original solutions to a problem. Accordingly, critical and caring thinking are kinds of convergent thinking, while
creative and hopeful thinking are types of divergent thinking.
Critical and creative thinking is more associated with cognitive thinking. Because knowing, thinking, making
associations, analyzing, and inferring are all about cognition and they are realised through cognitive processes.
Caring and hopeful thinking, on the other hand, are more about emotional thinking. Senses, preferences,
attentions, identifications, acceptances or rejections, values, and beliefs are the basic structures of affective
processes.
"Human" should be the human seeking truth, pursuing the good, and believes in him and his actions. This is the
basic concept of QT Model that regulates each way of thinking. They all feed on something different: critical
thinking, on truth; creative thinking, on beauty; caring thinking, on good and hopeful thinking: on faith. Any
way of thinking which does not value one or more of these and any education system that does not aim for one
or more of these make the act of thinking insufficient.
Man's development in therms of his mind, emotions, individuality, and sociality makes it possible for him to
think accurately and to be a healthy individual. When considered from this perspective, critical thinking is both
cognitive and convergent, whereas creative thinking is also cognitive, but divergent. Caring thinking is both
25
affective and convergent, while hopeful thinking ensures affective and divergent thinking of the individual's
(Bacanlı, 2012). In QT Model these four ways of thinking are taken into account in combination with four
different human features.
RESULT
Discussions on whether education programs for thinking should be developed regardless of the content or by
associating it with the content have created a dilemma. This is a dilemma that must be addressed. One of the
ways to solve this dilemma is to design the model of thinking education as an education system model or
human model. Thinking skills should not be regarded as an independent field, but rather consider the whole
education system and the human model that it aims to train as a context. In this sense, thinking skills should be
considered as the skills of a particular way of thinking. It is not possible to establish a general perspective which
is focused on these ways of thinking and to develop a holistic model of thinking education.
The QT Model, which was developed based on these grounds, is a model of thinking education which is not
about a curriculum, a subject or a course, but about the education system and the human model it aims to
raise. This human model does not separate human as a being and considers it as a whole without
mechanisising. In this sense, it serves as a model which takes into accoung both ontological and metaphysical
aspects of human, emphasizes both his affective and cognitive side and considers both convergent and
divergent aspects. Its most distinctive quality is this holistic approach and overall structure. Such a holistic
approach and overall structure is not present in any of the programs analysed.
QT Model stipulates that thinking ways, skills, styles and strategies at all levels should be made clearly evident
by adopting a programmed teaching. It also stipulates that each attainment should have a certainity about
what is expected to be realised before and after the lesson. For this reason, QT Model is proposed for the
education system itself. The thinking models examined are structures used outside of the education system in
general.
QT Model also takes into account the epistemological, ontological, ethical and aesthetic dimensions of
philosophy. Therefore, in the definition of human there is an emphasis on good, beautiful, true and believer.
Based on the ways of thinking, a reflection of this emphasis is also visible in all thinking styles, strategies and
instruments. When the analysed programmes are considered, such an approach cannot be detected. Inspired
by the thinking system of Lipman, QT Model redefines critical thinking, creative thinking and caring thinking in
the context of “human” perception. Due to the insufficiency of these three, he also added “hopeful thinking”
which is an original way of thinking, into his model. Based on the above and other aspects of thinking, QT is
different from other education models as a unique model and it is stil being improved.
QTM is a model of thinking which does not consider any difference between grades. What determines the
difference in levels would be the selevtion of the content of Thinking Model in accordance with the level of
development.
With all the aspects listed above, QTM is an original model, different from the other models of thinking
education, and it continues to be further improved.
This article was presented at International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their Implications –
ICONTE 24-26 April, 2012, Antalya-Turkey.
26
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADRESS OF AUTHOR
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mehmet Ali DOMBAYCI currently employs at Gazi University, Gazi Faculty
of Education, Department of Philosophy and Related Science Education. He got master
degree and Phd degree from Gazi University. She is specifically interested in teaching
philosophy, critical thinking, creative thinking, philosophy for children (P4C), education of
thinking skills, elementary and secondary school philosophy curriculum, researches on
philosophy education, human rights and democratic citizenship.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mehmet Ali DOMBAYCI
Gazi University
Department of Philosophy and Related Science Education
Teknikokullar, Ankara- TURKEY
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28
FL READING STRATEGY USE, READING PROFICIENCY AND ACHIEVEMENT:
IS THERE ANY RELATIONSHIP?
Assist. Prof. Dr. İpek KURU GÖNEN
Anadolu University
Department of English Language Teaching
Eskisehir- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
FL reading strategies are crucial for ESP learners as these learners have to deal with various academic reading
materials for their academic studies. It is assumed that one’s engagement with awareness and regulation of
reading strategies while reading academic materials may also be closely related to proficiency and reading
performance in the target language. Although performance on a reading task or test may be an indicator of
using effective and appropriate strategies, learners who do well on general reading performance tests may lack
using reading strategies effectively when they are reading academic materials. Hence, this study aims at
investigating the relationship between FL reading strategy use and performance on different FL reading tests in
academic reading settings. For this purpose, 65 ESP students in a Turkish university context participated in the
study. Correlation analyses and regression analyses were carried out between the participants’ scores on a
reading strategy survey and their scores on reading proficiency and achievement tests. The results have yielded
that ESP students in this study used various FL reading strategies while reading academic materials. However,
there were weak correlations between FL reading strategy use and performance on both reading proficiency
and achievement tests. These findings suggests that ESP students need to employ more and effective FL
reading strategies both to handle academic texts and to be successful on various measures related to reading.
The findings were discussed in the light of the relevant literature and pedagogical implicatrions were drawn to
illuminate futher studies.
Key Words: FL reading strategy, ESP learners, FL reading strategy use and test performance.
INTRODUCTION
There has been a growing attention in the identification and characterization of individual characteristics that
lead to variation in performance on language tests. It is assumed that test takers’ performance has been
influenced by many factors. Bachman & Palmer (1996) assert that there are four types of influence on the test
takers’ scores. These are classified as communicative language ability, test method facets, random factors and
personal characteristics. Among these factors, personal characteristics of the test takers are individual
attributes that are not part of test takers’ language ability. However, they still influence their performance on
language tests (Bachman, 1990; Brown, 1994; Cohen, 1994; Bachman &Palmar, 1996; Kunnan, 1996; In’nami,
2006; Dodeen, 2008). As an important aspect of test taker characteristics, strategy use is an attribute that
differentiate successful language learners from the unsuccessful ones; hence understanding their role and
importance in relation to language test performance is crucial.
One area of language learning which requires the mastery of strategies is reading in the target language as the
strategies used during reading are assumed to have a positive relationship to the reading test performance
(Phakiti, 2003). This brings us to the concept of foreign language reading strategies which are important for
successful reading experience and reading test performance in the target language. Foreign language (FL)
29
reading strategies are defined as the mental actions readers employ when they approach a text written in the
target language effectively to make sense of it (Singhal, 2001; Aarnoutse & Schellings, 2003; Pani, 2004; Yang,
2006; Bolanos, 2012). They involve metacognitive control such as planning and monitoring one’s own
understanding and conscious execution of certain actions to achieve a particular goal while reading in a
foreign/second language (Auerbach and Paxton, 1997). Successful FL readers are assumed to employ more
effective and appropriate reading strategies compared to less successful ones (Phakiti, 2003). Likewise, & Chan
(2003) put forward that poor FL readers are deficient in multiple reading processes as they have difficulty in
drawing inferences, and lack metacognitive ability related to monitoring and planning for their reading process.
In ESP/EAP context, readers are assumed to face with more challenges as they have to deal with academic texts
from a variety of sources (Davis, 1995; Kavaliauskiene, 2003; O’Reilly & McNamara, 2007). Hence, conscious
awareness and actual use of FL reading strategies are required in order to deal with academic reading materials
written in the target language. One’s engagement with awareness and regulation of reading strategies while
reading academic materials may also be closely related to proficiency and reading performance in the target
language (Kleitzen, 1991; Song, 1998; Singhal, 2001; Ikeda & Takeuchi, 2006; Ghavamnia, Ketabi & Tavakoli,
2013). Performance on a reading task or test may be an indicator of using effective and appropriate strategies
(Phakiti, 2003). However, learners who do well on general reading performance tests may fail to use effective
reading strategies when they are reading academic materials (Mokhtari and Sheorey, 2002). Thus, this study
aims at investigating the relationship between FL reading strategy use and performance on different FL reading
tests in academic reading settings.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Results on reading comprehension tests are used to characterize readers, but these results do not provide any
insight into the processes readers have used (Phakiti, 2003). Hence, understanding of readers’ metacognitive
knowledge about reading and reading strategies may help to shed a considerable amount of light into the
variation in test performance. Based on the shift in attention from a focus on the product of reading such as a
score on a reading comprehension test to an emphasis on determining the strategies that FL readers use,
various studies have been conducted.
In one of the earlier attempts, Anderson (1991) aimed at examining the individual differences of second
language readers while taking reading comprehension tests, and evaluating the extent to which reading
comprehension processes during a test reflect the reading comprehension processes during academic reading.
Results of think aloud protocols and simple regression analyses have indicated that there was no statistically
significant relation between the number of strategies reported and overall performance on the reading
measures. Anderson’s (1991) study emphasized the role of strategic application while reading in the target
language and put forward that strategic reading is not only a matter of knowing what strategy to use but how
to use it. This study also highlighted the need for the investigation of FL/SL reading strategies in relation to
performance on differen tests.
Based on the need for such investigation and concerns about the identification and characterization of
individual characteristics to understand variation in reading test scores, Phakiti’s (2003) study focused on
exploring the nature of cognitive and metacognitive strategies used in EFL reading comprehension test and
their relationship to EFL reading comprehension test performance in a Thai university context. Correlation
analysis has indicated that there is positive but weak relationship of cognitive strategies and metacognitive
strategies to the reading test performance. Post hoc tests revealed that highly successful test takers were more
metacognitive, and strategies were found to come into play when test takers are faced with difficulties or
problems. Phakiti’s (2003) study concluded that cognitive and metacognitive strategy use may explain variation
on language test performance.
FL reading strategies ESL/EFL learners use while reading academic materials has also received growing
attention in recent years. Mokhtari & Reichard (2004) conducted a study to understand differences in
metacognitive awareness and perceived strategy use by proficient native speakers of English, and Moroccan
native speakers of Arabic and French who speak English as a FL. Although the two student groups have been
30
schooled in significantly different socio-cultural environments, they exhibited similar patterns of strategy
awareness and reported usage while reading academic materials in English. The findings of this study helped to
dispel the common misunderstanding that SL/FL learners are often at risk of failure when studying language as
proficient L2 readers do not differ significantly from the native speakers in terms of reading strategy use.
Investigation of FL reading strategy use has been expanded to various educational contexts. In a Chinese
context, Lau & Chan (2003) focused on exploring differences in strategy use between Chinese good and poor
readers. Good readers were found to use more strategies while reading with significant differences in prereading strategies, main idea identification and reading monitoring strategies. They frequently used strategies
like paraphrasing, identifying key words and topic sentences, activating prior knowledge, elaborating,
comparing and drawing inferences. As for poor readers, they simply read the texts word by word without any
strategy use, and had difficulty in lexical level, no processing at deep level. Both good and poor readers did not
have confidence in reading ability with good readers having more intrinsic goals while reading. Lau & Chan’s
(2003) study emphasized the importance of cognitive, metacognitive processes and positive beliefs, and
awareness of using reading strategies.
Based on a need to investigate FL reading strategy use of Spanish university students, Martinez (2008)
conducted a study to assess the metacognitive awareness and perceived strategy use of ESP students who are
native speakers of Spanish and read academic texts written in English. Furthermore, this study aimed to
increase understanding of readers’ metacognitive knowledge about reading and reading strategies in ESP
Spanish context. Results have put forward that students showed a preference for Problem-Solving strategies
followed by Global reading strategies and Support reading strategies. As a result, this study highlighted
awareness of reading strategies for non-native readers and development of constructively responsive reading.
As can be seen from the review of literature on FL reading strategies and their influence on reading
performance, the need for conducting more studies on FL reading strategies and kearners’ performance on
different tests in different educational contexts is emphasized. Mokhtari & Reichard (2004) and & Chan (2003)
assert that further studies are required on the awareness of reading strategy use and other variables like
achievement and reading ability levels. Likewise, Martinez (2008) pinpoints the importance of investigating the
relationship between FL reading strategy use and performance on reading tests and tasks. Especially in ESP
context, conducting such studies is crucial in order to shed light on FL reading strategy use of students who
have to read large amounts of academic materials and to understand how their performance on tests are
influenced by their employment of FL reading strategies. What is more, studies focusing on the FL reading
strategy use and its relation to performance on different tests are scarce in Turkish ESP context. Hence, there
is a gap in the recent literature for such studies that would provide valuable insight in understanding Turkish
ESP students’ awareness of using FL reading strategies and variation in their performance. Based on such a
need, this study seeks to find out the ansers of the following reserach questions:
1.
2.
3.
What are the reported FL reading strategies of the ESP students who have to deal with various academic
reading materials?
Is there a relationship between FL reading strategy use and performance on a reading proficiency test of
ESP students?
Is there a relationship between FL reading strategy use and performance on an achievement test of ESP
students?
METHODOLOGY
Participants
The participants of this study were 65 ESP students enrolled in the Department of Materials Science
Engineering. They were all monolingual speakers of Turkish and learn English as a foreign language. A nonprobabilistic sampling was preferred as the participants were available and volunteer. These students were
required to comprehend and interpret various academic materials in their field such as journal articles,
assignments, and course books related their academic studies. Hence, employment of effective reading
strategies is crucial for their success. At the time of the study, the participants were taking an additional ESP
31
course that would help them in their content courses. As a requirement of this study, they have to take
achievement tests and according to the results of these tests they fail or pass the course.
Instruments
In order to find out the reported FL reading strategies of the participants while reading academic materials,
Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS) developed by Mokhtari & Sheorey (2002) was used. This instrument
aimed to measure adolescent or adult students’ metacognitive awareness and perceived use of FL reading
strategies while reading academic materials.
SORS has three subscales, namely Global Reading Strategies, Problem Solving Reading Strategies and Support
Strategies. Global Reading Strategies are techniques learners use to monitor or manage their reading such as
having purpose in mind and previewing the text as to its length. Problem Solving Strategies are the actions and
procedures that readers use while working directly with the text such as adjusting one’s speed of reading when
the material becomes difficult or easy. The final subscale Support Reading Strategies are basic support
mechanisms aimed to aid the reader in comprehending the text such as using dictionary and taking notes.
The instrument includes 30 items designed on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (I never or almost never do
this) to 5 (I always or almost always do this) to assess the perceived use of learners’ FL reading strategy use.
The instrument was found to have internal consistency (Cronbach Alpha 0.92), but in order to use the
instrument in the Turkish ESP context, Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient was computed and was found
0.80. English version of the instrument was administered to the subjects and when students had difficulty in
understanding any of the items, further explanations were provided.
In order to investigate the relationship between FL reading strategy use and performance on a reading
proficiency test of ESP students, reading section of a pen and paper TOEFL test was administered. This test
includes 50 multiple choice questions focusing on the comprehension of reading texts on various subjects
generally on topics college/university level students may deal with. To investigate the relationship between FL
reading strategy use of the students
and their performance on an achievement test, an achievement test prepared by the ESP course instructor was
used. This test was based on the syllabus covered throughout the term and aimed at measuring students’
mastery of the course content. Course content included grammatical topics embedded in academic reading
texts, listening and speaking topics on academic topics, and readings from a variety of academic sources
related to the students’ academic majors in engineering. The achievement test included three parts. The first
part included questions on various grammatical items covered in the course, each presented with appropriate
academic context related to engineering. The second part included a cloze test aimed assessing technical
vocabulary learned in the class. Finally, the third part included reading passages on academic topics familiar to
the students and open ended questions based on these passages.
Data Analysis Procedures
SORS scores for each subscale (Global reading strategies, Support reading strategies and Problem-Solving
reading strategies) were calculated by using the scoring guidelines provided by Mokhtari & Sheorey (2002).
Participants’ scores on the reading proficiency test were calculated by following the directions provided by the
official TOEFL centre. Achievement test was scored by the course instructor over 100 points. In order to find
out whether there is a relation between FL reading strategy use of the participants and their performance on
the proficiency and achievement tests, Pearson product moment correlation coefficient between participants’
scores on the SORS and their scores on the reading proficiency and achievement tests was computed. Further
linear regression analyses were carried out between the same variables in order to investigate the extent of the
relationship and whether FL reading strategy use is an important factor in predicting performance on reading
proficiency and achievement tests.
32
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results
The first research question focused on identifying the FL reading strategy use of the participants while reading
academic materials. In order to answer this, participants’ responses to SORS were analyzed descriptively by
calculating the means for each of the sub-categories, and overall FL reading strategy use. According to SORS
scoring guideline provided by Mokhtari & Sheorey (2002), mean strategy use of 3.50 and above indicate high FL
reading strategy use, whereas mean use between 3.49 and 2.50 indicate medium FL reading strategy use and
mean strategy use of 2.49 and below indicate low FL reading strategy use. Figure 1 shows the distribution of
the means according to three sub-categories and overall strategy use for all students in the study.
Mean Strategy Use
3,7
3,6
3,5
3,4
3,3
3,2
Strategy Categories
Figure 1: Distribution of the Mean Strategy Use according to FL Reading Strategy Categories.
As displayed in Figure 1 above, the overall FL reading strategy use is medium (3.44) among all the participants
(n=65) in the study. The mostly used FL reading strategy category is Problem-Solving Reading Strategies (3.61)
and is followed by Global Reading Strategies (3.41) and Support Reading Strategies (3.3) respectively.
To show the distribution of FL reading strategies in detail, means and standard deviations for each item on the
instrument (SORS) were calculated. Table 1 below shows means and standard deviations for FL reading strategy
use in each of the subscales.
Table 1: Distribution of Reading Strategies according to SORS Categories
Categories
Strategy
GLOB 1
Having a purpose for reading
GLOB 2
Using prior knowledge
GLOB 3
Previewing the text before reading
GLOB 4
Checking how text content fits purpose
GLOB 5
Skimming to note text characteristics
GLOB 6
Determining what to read
GLOB 7
Using text features (e.g., tables, figures)
GLOB 8
Using context clues
GLOB 9
Using typographical aids (e.g., italics)
GLOB 10
Critically evaluating what is read
GLOB 11
Resolving conflicting information
GLOB 12
Predicting or guessing text meaning
Mean
3.69
3.55
3.40
3.41
3.21
3.43
3.69
3.24
3.27
3.35
3.58
3.38
SD
0.70
0.88
0.98
0.86
1.15
1.04
1.24
0.88
1.19
0.87
0.98
1.08
33
GLOB 13
PROB 1
PROB 2
PROB 3
PROB 4
PROB 5
PROB 6
PROB 7
PROB 8
SUP 1
SUP 2
SUP 3
SUP 4
SUP 5
SUP 6
SUP 7
SUP 8
SUP 9
Confirming predictions
Reading slowly and carefully
Trying to stay focused on reading
Adjusting reading speed
Paying close attention to reading
Pausing and thinking about reading
Visualizing information read
Re-reading for better understanding
Guessing meaning of unknown words
Taking notes while reading
Reading aloud when text becomes difficult
Underlining or circling information in the text
Using reference materials (e.g., dictionary)
Paraphrasing for better understanding
Going back and forth in text
Asking oneself questions
Translating from English into L1
Thinking about information both in English and L1
3.16
3.49
3.86
3.69
3.75
3.49
3.47
3.64
3.49
3.30
2.33
4.07
3.16
3.26
3.70
2.40
3.07
3.53
1.09
0.95
0.88
0.96
1.00
0.98
0.90
1.19
1.03
1.01
1.19
1.14
1.30
1.04
0.94
1.18
1.14
1.13
A closer examination of Table 1 shows that of the 13 strategies related to Global FL reading strategies, four of
them fell in the high usage category (mean of 3.5 and higher) whereas 11 of them fell in medium usage
category (means between 2.5 and 3.49). As for eight strategies related to Problem-solving FL reading
strategies, four of them were in the high usage category (mean of 3.5 and higher). The remaining four
strategies fell in the medium usage category (means between 2.5 and 3.49). For the final sub-category of FL
reading strategies, the Support reading strategies, only three of the strategies were in the high usage category
(mean of 3.5 and higher). Four strategies related to Support reading strategies fell into the medium usage
category (means between 2.5 and 3.49), and two strategies reported to be used in the low usage category
(mean of 2.49 and below). Of the three sub-categories of FL reading strategies, only Support reading strategies
included low usage strategies. Global and Problem-Solving strategies did not include low usage, and generally
the participants’ FL reading strategy use was at a medium level. In Table 2 below the five top most used and
the bottom least used strategies were highlighted to show the most and the least preferred strategies by the
participants.
Table 2: Distribution of the Most and the Least used FL Reading Strategies
Category
Strategy
SUP 3
Underlining or circling information in the text
PROB 2
Trying to stayed focused on reading
PROB 4
Paying cloze attention to reading
SUP 6
Going back and forth in text
PROB 3
Adjusting reading speed
GLOB 1
Having a purposes for reading
GLOB 7
Using text features (e.g., tables, figures)
PROB 7
Re-reading for better understanding
GLOB 11
Resolving conflicting information
34
GLOB 2
Using prior knowledge
SUP 9
Thinking about information both in English and L1
PROB 5
Pausing and thinking about reading
PROB 8
Guessing meaning of unknown words
PROB 1
Reading slowly and carefully
PROB 6
Visualizing information read
GLOB 6
Determining what to read
GLOB 4
Checking how text content fits purpose
GLOB 3
Previewing the text before reading
GLOB 12
Predicting or guessing text meaning
GLOB 10
Critically evaluating what is read
SUP 1
Taking notes while reading
GLOB 9
Using typographical aids (e.g., italics)
SUP 5
Paraphrasing for better understanding
GLOB 8
Using context clues
GLOB 5
Skimming to note text characteristics
GLOB 13
Confirming predictions
SUP 4
Using reference materials (e.g., dictionary)
SUP 8
Translating from English into L1
SUP 7
Asking oneself questions
SUP 2
Reading aloud when text becomes difficult
Table 2 shows that both the most used five and the least used five categories included a mixture of ProblemSolving and Support strategies. The participants generally preferred underlining or circling information in the
text as a support mechanism, trying to stay focused on reading when faced with difficulties, paying close
attention to reading to overcome difficulties, going back and forth in the text to support their reading, and
adjusting their reading speed to handle the difficulties they encounter. On the other hand, confirming
predictions was not a common strategy preferred by the students, and using reference materials such as
dictionary was not reported to be used much. Similarly, support strategies like translating from English into L1
and asking oneself questions were not used mostly by the students. The least used strategy was one of the
support mechanisms of reading aloud when the text becomes difficult.
FL Reading Strategy Use and Performance on a Reading Proficiency Test
The second research question aimed to find out whether there is a relationship between ESP students’ FL
reading strategy use and their performance on a reading proficiency test. In order to answer this question,
along with SORS, the reading section of a pen and paper TOEFL test was administered. The participants’ reading
proficiency scores ranged from 310 to 560.
The participants’ scores on the reading proficiency test and their scores on SORS were correlated by computing
Pearson Product moment correlation coefficient (r = 0.298). The correlation coefficient of 0.298 indicates a
35
slight but positive correlation between the reading proficiency scores and the FL reading strategy use scores of
the participants.
Since the correlation between FL reading strategy use and reading proficiency performance did not indicate a
strong relation, it is also important to know the extent of the relationship between these variables. For this
purpose, linear regression analysis was carried out. This analysis is helpful to quantify the relationship between
two or more variables in order to predict future behavior or results. That is, it is useful to investigate whether
FL reading strategy use is an important factor in predicting FL reading proficiency and vice versa. Table 3 below
shows the results of the linear regression analysis.
Table 3: Linear Regression Analysis between FL Reading Proficiency Test Scores and FL Reading Strategy Use
2
Predictor Variable
N*
R
R
F
p
FL Reading Strategy Use
65
0.298
0.089
6.131
0.016
N*: Number of the participants
Table 3 above displays that FL reading strategy use of the participants is positively correlated with their FL
reading proficiency scores (R= 0.298). That is, an increase in FL reading strategy scores indicates an increase in
the FL reading strategy scores and vice versa. ANOVA results also confirms this finding (F=6.131; 1; 63; p=
0.016). Although there is a correlation between FL reading strategy use scores and reading proficiency test
2
scores, when variance between FL reading strategy use scores and TOEFL scores (R ) is taken into account, the
FL reading strategy use can only explain 8.9 % of the total variance. This is not a high percentage and it
indicates that FL reading strategy use can only be used to predict reading proficiency scores of the same
students to a limited extent. Hence, FL reading strategy use is not a strong predictor of reading proficiency and
vice versa. In order to cross check the results, when we look at the scotter plot of the regression analysis, it is
clear that regression does not follow a straight linear pattern and the data is rather scattered. Such scattered
data show that FL reading strategy use does not have a strong predictive value on the reading proficiency test
scores. As a result, FL reading strategy use is not a strong predictor of FL reading proficiency and similarly FL
reading proficiency is not a strong predictor of FL reading strategy use.
Reading Strategy Use and Performance on an Achievement Test
The third research question aimed at investigating whether there is a relationship between FL reading strategy
use of ESP students in the study and their performance on an achievement test. Achievement test given for this
purpose was graded by the course instructor out of 100. Participants’ achievement scores ranged from 33 to
97.
FL reading strategy use scores and achievement scores of the participants were correlated by using Pearson
product moment correlation coefficient (r = 0.277). Similar to the correlation between FL reading strategy use
and reading proficiency, the correlation coefficient found for the relationship between FL reading strategy use
and achievement was statistically significant at the 0.05 significance level. However, this correlation is not high
to indicate a predictive value for the variables. Thus, although there is a positive significant correlation
between FL reading strategy use and achievement, there is a need to investigate the extent of relation
between these variables to comment on the nature of relationship. For this purpose, a linear regression
analysis was carried out. Table 4 below shows the results of the linear regression analysis between FL reading
strategy use and achievement.
Table 4: Linear Regression Analysis between Achievement Test Scores and FL Reading Strategy Use
2
Predictor Variable
N*
R
R
F
p
FL Reading Strategy Use
65
0.277
0.077
5.219
0.026
N*: Number of the participants
As can be clearly seen from the regression table, there is positive correlation between FL reading strategy use
and achievement test scores ( R=0.277). A closer examination of Table 4 shows that FL reading strategy use can
only explain 7.7% of the total variance. That is, although there is a statistically correlation between FL reading
36
strategy use and achievement, this correlation does not indicate that FL reading strategy use is a strong
predictor of achievement and likewise, achievement is not a strong predictor of FL reading strategy use. The
scatterplot of the data shows that regression does not follow a straight linear pattern. This finding is similar to
the findings on the relationship between FL reading strategy use and reading proficiency. As a result, FL reading
strategy use is not a strong predictor of achievement and similarly achievement is not a strong predictor of FL
reading strategy use in this study.
DISCUSSION
The results of the study have indicated that ESP learners in the study used various FL reading strategies while
reading academic materials. Since they are ESP learners, it is revealed that these learners employ FL reading
strategies to deal with academic materials they have to read. In general, results have put forward that ESP
students used FL reading strategies at a medium level.
This finding of ESP students’ using FL reading strategies at a medium level does not correspond to the findings
of Sheorey & Mokhtari (2001) and Mokhtari & Reichard (2004). In these studies, both native and non-native
university level students were found to show a high preference for using FL reading strategies while reading
academic materials. All the students in these studies were proficient ESL students. However, students in ESP
context in this study had a medium level of preference for FL reading strategies while reading academic
materials. This finding may be attributed to participants’ levels of proficiency in the target language. When the
reading proficiency test scores were taken into account, it becomes clear that these students were not
proficient learners as the learners in Sheorey & Mokhtari’ (2001) and Mokhtari & Reichard’s (2004) studies.
Thus, they may not have a high awareness of using FL reading strategies while reading academic materials in an
ESP context. What is more, findings of the study yielded that students mostly used Problem-Solving strategies
such as trying to stay focused on reading, adjusting reading speed and visualizing information read. It was
followed by Global reading strategies such as having a purpose for reading and previewing the text before
reading, and Support reading strategies such as taking notes while reading and paraphrasing for better
understanding. Among the three sub-categories of FL reading strategies, only Problem-Solving strategists were
used at a high level. This finding is not congruent with the findings of Mokhtari & Reichard (2004) who found
that both native and non-native ESL students had a preference for Support reading strategies. Unlike to the
findings of Sheorey & Mokhtari (2001) and Mokhtari & Reichard (2004), in a rather recent study by Martinez
(2008) Spanish university level ESP students were found to show higher reported use for Problem-Solving and
Global reading strategies. The findings of the present study are in corroboration with that of Martinez (2008) as
the students in a Turkish university ESP contexts showed a high preference for Problem-Solving and Global FL
reading strategies rather than the Support reading strategies.
A possible explanation of this finding may be that ESP students face with certain difficulties while reading
academic materials. As their level of reading proficiency is not high, they may have difficulty in handling their
reading problems. Thus, they may show a preference for Problem-Solving strategies while reading academic
materials. Moreover, the academic materials they have to read include various articles and texts about
engineering; thus, they contain terminological vocabulary and expressions. If the ESP students do not have
much vocabulary knowledge related to the academic engineering texts, they most of the time they have to
employ Problem-Solving strategies such as guessing unknown vocabulary. Furthermore, the texts they have to
read are authentic materials which contain academic language. Then, these students may also have difficulty in
understanding the academic language and the complex structures these texts include. A similar concer was
reported by Dhieb-Henia (2003) who found that students often have problems in dealing with academic texts
in their fields of study due to the high range of vocabulary and relative importance of these texts to the
students. She further claims that using appropriate reading strategies are crucial for these students to
overcome the problems they experience. Likewise, O’Reilly & McNamara (2007) claims that students in
ESP/EAP contexts may face with more challenges as they have to deal with academic texts from a variety of
sources Hence, ESP students in the study may have a preference for the employment of Problem-Solving
strategies similar to the ESP students in Martinez’s (2008) and Dhieb-Henia’s (2003) studies.
37
Another aim of the study was to investigate the relationship of FL reading strategy use with performance on
reading proficiency and achievement tests. The findings have put forward that students’ using more FL reading
strategies does not mean that these students are successful reading proficiency and achievement tests. This
finding is in parallel with that of Anderson (1991) who found no statistically significant relation between the
number of strategies reported and overall performance on different reading measures. The positive and weak
relationship between FL reading strategy use and performance on reading proficiency and achievement tests in
this study is also in corroboration with the findings of Phakiti (2003) who found that there was positive but
weak relationship of cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies to the reading test performance.
However, the finding on the weak correlation between FL reading strategy use and achievement does not
correspond to O’Reilly and McNamara’s (2007) study as strategy use showed a high correlation with
achievement in their study.
In general, literature suggest that when students’ proficiency level increases, their frequency of using FL/SL
reading strategies increase similarly (Kleitzen, 1991; Song, 1998; Singhal, 2001). However, the results of the
study showed that there was a weak correlation between FL reading strategy use and reading proficiency. That
is, when students’ reading proficiency increased, their scores on reading proficiency did not increase to indicate
a strong relationship. Although students generally reported that they used FL reading strategies at a medium
level, this strategy usage did not predict performance on the reading proficiency test.
Taillefer (2005) highlights that especially ESP students need to employ more FL reading strategies for success in
their own academic fields. The results of the study suggests that ESP students need to employ more and
effective FL reading strategies both to handle academic texts and to be successful on various measures related
to reading.
CONCLUSION
Researchers have long been aware that readers who use effective and appropriate FL reading strategies
experience less difficulty and handle texts with more ease (Auerbach & Paxton, 1997; Pani, 2004; Yang, 2006).
When it comes to ESP context, the importance of FL reading strategies are crucial for success as these learners
have to deal with various academic reading materials for their academic studies. Moreover, use of FL reading
strategies is an important aspect of strategic competence learners should possess in order to be successful on
language tests (Bachman & Palmer, 1996). Although ESP students in this study used various FL reading
strategies while reading academic materials, there were weak correlations between FL reading strategy use
and performance on both reading proficiency and achievement tests. This finding has certain pedagogical
implications for ESP students.
First of all, since the ESP students reported a medium level of FL reading strategy use and awareness in this
study, the need for strategy training is highlighted. ESP students have to deal with authentic academic
materials especially for their own academic studies and in order to handle these texts more successfully,
strategy training is required. If these students use more FL reading strategies effectively and appropriately,
they may show more success both on reading proficiency and achievement tests. Many researchers highlighted
the implementation of strategy training to gear the use of reading strategies for different purposes (Song,
1998; Singhal, 2001; Ikeda & Takeuchi, 2006; Ghavamnia et al., 2013). Thus, implemention of strategy training
into ESP courses may help ESP students deal with academic texts with more ease. In this respect, teachers have
an indispensable role in the teaching and application of appropriate FL reading strategies. They may guide ESP
learners become aware of FL reading strategies.
One of the problems ESP learners face may be highly related to the unknown terminology in academic texts
and lack of necessary background knowledge (Pritchard & Nasr, 2004; O’Reilly & McNamara, 2007). To
overcome such difficulty, students may be given training in how to deal with the unknown words in academic
texts and how to use necessary background knowledge to understand these texts. Teachers may also design
activities and tasks to teach how to implement effective and appropriate FL reading strategies. What is more,
38
teachers’ selection of academic texts and their guidance for learners to select the appropriate academic
materials would be very useful for the use of appropriate FL reading strategies.
Although no strong correlation was found between FL reading strategy use and performance on different
measures, it is possible that employment of FL reading strategies may lead ESP learners to be more successful
on language tests. As Bachman & Palmer (1996) states language learners need to have strategic competence to
be more successful on language tests; hence, awareness on the role and importance of using effective reading
strategies is required. Another implication of this study is to help learners become aware of their existing FL
reading strategies and the other strategies that would bring them success in their academic studies. To foster
such awareness, instruments like the one used in this study (SORS) may be administered to the students.
Furthermore, tasks and strategy tips can be provided to learners for the employment of effective and
appropriate FL reading strategies. Martinez (2008) pinpoints that if students are not aware of their own FL
reading strategies, they cannot adopt effective strategies to deal with academic texts in ESP contexts. Thus, the
first step in strategy instruction may be to help learners realize the importance of FL reading strategies.
As a consequence, this study revealed the FL reading strategies of ESP students in a Turkish context and tried to
shed light on the relationship between these students’ FL reading strategy use and their performance on
reading proficiency and achievement tests. In order to help these learners become more successful and get the
pleasure of reading while reading academic materials, the importance of FL reading strategies is highlighted.
Further studies can be designed by using qualitative data collection instruments such as learner diaries or think
aloud protocols to investigate the same phenomena.
Dr. İpek KURU GÖNEN is an assistant profesor in the Faculty of Education, Department of
English Language Teaching at Anadolu University, Turkey. She graduated from the
Department of English Language and Literature at Hacettepe University, Turkey. Dr. Kuru
Gönen received her M.A and Ph.D degrees in English Language Teaching from Anadolu
University. Her reserach interests center around foreign language teacher education, preservice teacher education, reflection and reflective teaching, FL reading and individual
differences in FL reading.
Assist. Prof. Dr. İpek KURU GÖNEN
Anadolu University
Eskisehir- TURKEY
E. Mail: [email protected].
REFERENCES
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Educational Studies, 29, 387-409.
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Modern Language Journal, 75, (4), 460-472.
Auerbach, E. R. & Paxton, D. (1997). “It’s not the English thing: Bringing reading research into theESL
classroom.” TESOL Quarterly, 31(2), 237-261.
Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Bachman, L. F & Palmer, A. S. (1996). Language testing in practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Cohen, A. D. (1994). Assessing language ability in the classroom. New York: Heinle & Heinle.
Davis, C. (1995). “ Extensive reading: An expensive extravagance? English Language Teaching Journal, 49, (4),
323-329.
Dhieb-Henia, N. (2003). “Evaluating the effectiveness of metacognitive strategy training for reading research
articles in an ESP context”. English for Specific Purposes, 22, (4), 387-417.
Dodeen, H. (2008). “Assessing test-taking strategies of university students: Developing a scale and estimating
its psychometric indices”.Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 1-12.
Ghavamnia, M., Ketabi, S. & r Tavakoli, M. (2013). L2 reading strategies used by Iranian EFL learners: A thinkaloud study. Reading Psychology, 34(4), 355-378.
Ikeda, M. and Takeuchi, O. (2006). “Clarifying the differences in learning EFL reading strategies: An analysis of
portfolios”. System, 34, 384-398.
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modeling approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
Lau, K. & Chan, D. W. (2003). “Reading strategy use and motivation among Chinese good and poor readers in
Hong Kong”. Journal of Research in Reading, 26, (2), 177-190.
Martinez, A. C. L. (2008). “Analysis of ESP university students’ reading strategy awareness”. IBÉRICA, 15, 165176.
Mokhtari, K. & Reichard, C. (2004). “Investigating the strategic reading processes of first and second language
readers in two different cultural contexts”. System, 32, 379-394.
Mokhtari, K., & Sheorey, R., (2002). “Measuring ESL students’ awareness of reading strategies”. Journal of
Developmental Education, 25, (3), 2-8.
O’Reilly, T & McNamara, S.S. (2007). “The impact of science knowledge, reading skill, and reading strategy
knowledge on more traditional ‘high-stakes’ measures of high school students’ science achievement”.
American Educational Research Journal, 44, (1), 161-196.
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Pani, S. (2004). “Reading strategy instruction through mental modeling”. ELT Journal, 58, (4), 353-363.
Phakiti, A. (2003). “A closer look at the relationship of cognitive and metacognitive strategy use to EFL reading
comprehension test performance”. Language Testing, 20, (1), 26-56.
Pritchard, R. M. O & Nasr, A. (2004). “ Improving reading performance among Egyptian engineering students:
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Sheorey, R. & K. Mokhtari (2001). “Coping with academic materials: differences in the reading strategies of
native and non-native readers.” System, 29, 431-499.
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41
PRIMARY EDUCATION IN ANCIENT ATHENS AND TODAY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Evren ŞAR İŞBİLEN
Istanbul University, Hasan Ali Yucel Educational Faculty
Department of Elementary Education, Istanbul- TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Gülşah BATDAL KARADUMAN
Istanbul University, Hasan Ali Yucel Educational Faculty
ABSTRACT
The main purpose of the study is to draw a picture of the education system in terms of the curriculum, the
physical condition of schools, the attitudes of the teachers and the perspective of the society towards
education in ancient Athens and today. Education was an important issue for free Athenian citizens. Athenian
children were taught at home, sometimes under the guidance of a master or a paidagogos, until they began
elementary education at approximately seven years of age. At school, the children were taught how to read
and write, to count and draw. In this study also the importance of the paidagogos and the family structure in
the education of the primary school students is investigated. In doing so, the body of the study is based on a
literature review, where available the modern sources has been supported by the ancient sources. In this study
is compared the ancient times and today's education system. Many similarities and differences were observed.
Key Words: Education, History of education, Ancient Age, Athens, Ancient Greece, Primary School.
INTRODUCTION
Greek children had learned primarily by watching the world around them and imitating respected elders. Few
people in antiquity knew how to read, and most formal education involved listening and reciting from memory.
But the circumstances of life were different for boys and girls. Boys were seen as being the means of continuing
the family, while girls could build connections between families through arranged marriage and they were
expected to be good wives and mothers (Joyal, McDougall, Yardley, 2011), . Actually it is unclear if they
attended the same schools or received education in the seclusion of their homes. Most girls were denied any
sort of education other than the running of a household. Therefore, often childhood was very short for girls;
they could be married as young as 13. In this context mostly, a girl’s education would end at the point her
brother starts school (Lacey, 1968: 163). Girls tended to be taught domestic skills such as the arts of spinning
and weaving cloth at home by their mothers and they would learn finer points of manners and the skills
required to run a household from the slave girls. And in addition to that, it is known that parents sometimes
had daughters instructed in basic reading and writing skills in case they needed this knowledge to supervise
household accounts or to manage temple properties if they became priestesses. (Pomeroy, 2004: 189; Powell,
2001:252-256)
For the sons of wealthier citizens, the options are far more appealing. The little children both girls and boys
were getting education at home before start to school. When he is about seven, the boy is removed from his
nurse and given to the care of a paedogogos, a selected household slave (Plato, Lysis, 208cl-d2,223al5) who
accompanies him everywhere as well as the school (he stays with him at school to ensure he pays attention to
his lessons and works hard) and is permitted to punish the boy if he behaves badly (Adkins, 197: 275). Each
family had one paedagogos no matter how many children there were. For example in Euripides’ Medea there is
one for Medea’s two children and Themistocles’ two children. (Herodotos, Historiai, VIII, 75) So the
“Paedagogos” had a big importance in pupil’s life. Although the slave position (Friedell, 2004:187) paedogogos
and nanny had an important and respectable place in the house and except to watch over the children they
instruct them at a basic level. Also there are plenty of hints in the theatre plays that Paedogogos and nannies
42
would have given advices or scold the children. But at the same time they are full of love and when the children
grown up, they would show respect and love them. (Bonnard, 2004: 155)
Greek parents, like those of our own day, often sent their children to school at an early age to keep them out of
mischief at home so six or seven appears to have been a common age for attending and fifteen or sixteen for
leaving school (Hobhouse, 1910: 9).
School hours began early in the morning (Thuc. vi. 29; Hobhouse, 1910: 9) but it is uncertain how long they
continued; the child was not forced to go out from the home too early. Also schools were not allowed to be
open before dawn and after sunset. So classes takes place from about half an hour after sunrise until half an
hour before sunset. This makes for a particularly long day in the summer, but a mercifully short one in winter.
The reason of that was to prevent sexual abuse of adolescenes. In this context it was forbidden for a teacher to
stand alone with a student and also it was forbidden for a foreigner to get inside the school building unless
being the teacher of the school or a private teacher (Deighton, 2005: 44).
In this respect, Aiskhines states these; “In the first place, consider the case of the teachers. Although the very
livelihood of these men, to whom we necessarily entrust our own children, depends on their good character,
while the opposite conduct on their part would mean poverty, yet it is plain that the lawgiver distrusts them;
for he expressly prescribes, first, at what time of day the free-born boy is to go to the school-room; next, how
many other boys may go there with him, and when he is to go home. He forbids the teacher to open the
school-room, or the gymnastic trainer the wrestling school, before sunrise, and he commands them to close
the doors before sunset; for he is exceeding suspicious of their being alone with a boy, or in the dark with him.
He prescribes what children are to be admitted as, pupils, and their age at admission. He provides for a public
official who shall superintend them, and for the oversight of slave-attendants of school-boys. He regulates the
festivals of the Muses in the school-rooms, and of Hermes in the wrestling-schools. Finally, he regulates the
companionships that the boys may form at school, and their cyclic dances. Dances by specially trained groups
of boys, often completive between tribes, were popular features of many of the Greek festivals. Those dances
which were arranged for a circular dancing-ground were called “cyclic” (Aiskhines, Timarkhos’a karşı, 1. 10).
The schools were as small as the houses and approximately ten-twelve students were given training. The
archaeological evidence is scanty, especially since a teacher did not necessarily occupy a special building.
Classes are held in teachers’ private homes. Letters, arithmetic, and geometry could be taught in any room
large enough to contain benches for the students (Griffith, 2001: 66). At this point we have to emphasize that;
in elementary education the children would sit on a stool or a bank, but if they are reading a text by heart, or
attending a flute lessons, they would spend large part of the time by standing.
In Athens the three main branches of education were writing, music and gymnastics (Freeman, 1996: 221),
although it is uncertain if they were taught in one or more buildings. Reading, writing, arithmetic and literature
were taught by a grammatistes (teacher of letters); literature involved reciting and memorizing passages from
poets, especially Homer (Marrou, 1956: 42)- any child who wished to take place one day at the banquets as an
educated person had to certain amount of Homer’s poetry-, for moral training (Beck, 1964:117-22). Music and
lyric poetry were taught by a kitharistes (lyre player), and physical education by a paidotribes (trainer).)
Aristoteles also counts the drawing as a traditional education subject. Since music is such an important part of
life in Greece, boys are also taught to sing and play the lyre and flute. Parents of the upper classes, however,
paid for their sons to be instructed in what was called mousike, a subject that included the memorization of
poetry. Since ancient poems were sung, mousike also involved learning to play the lyre.
Writing was done on tablets covered with wax with a pointed stylus (a pencil which has two edges-one to write
and one to erase), and was taught by means of copies; great quickness in writing does not seem to have been
generally aimed at, as copying work was performed by slaves. A skilled student would use papyrus as a writing
material but it was really expensive material. In Greek world as a scratch paper students often used broken
vessels, which could be picked up anywhere outside where people threw them away (Cribiore, 2001: 27).
43
At the beginning, children were taught letters and then syllables, followed by words and sentences (Athenaeus,
X. 453; Plat. Protag. 326). When the pupil had attained a very moderate proficiency in reading and writing he
was introduced to the works of the great poets of his country, and was taught the “praises of famous men”,
and especially of th Homeric heroes. Homer was read aloud both by the teacher and the pupil, and great stress
was laid upon good reading; large portions of the poems committed to memory, and we hear of instance of
men knowing them by heart all through (Ksen. Sympos. iii.5).
The books were in the form of long scrolls so, while reading, it must be done to wrap and open at the same
time. This feature makes it difficult to control to backwards but however, Greek people’ memory was trained.
The children were memorizing the works of Homer regularly (27.000 string).
Turning from the literary to the scientific side we do not find much to record. Counting was taught either by the
fingers or on the abacus, by means of pebbles. (Hobhouse, 1910: 11) Ruler, compass and miter also were used
to calculate in geometry.
As we mentioned boys had a luckier position than girls in education, but it does not mean all the boys were
sent to school in Greek world. The problem was not simply that poverty usually compelled children to stay
home and work on the farm or ateliers (Deighton, 2005: 48). The main fact was, with the exception of Sparta,
Greek states did not provide public schooling. Accordingly, the age for beginning school life and its duration,
depended largely on the incomes of the parents (Pseudo Plato, Axiochus 366).
Mostly the person who has the responsibility to equip young minds with valuable information were worthless
in the eyes of society and were poorly paid. Fees were paid every month by the parents of their students
(Griffith, 2001: 67). Their amount is unknown, but evidently small in the case of the ordinary school;
nevertheless, payment not unfrequently fell into arrears or was vaded (Hobhouse, 1910: 9; Demosth. in aphob.
i. 828; theophr. char. 22). Most teachers were slaves, but were sometimes freedmen, with the head teacher
usually.(Adkins, 1997: 275).
Furthermore, there were some special holidays in Athens daily life. For instance Holiday of Muses was a special
event that pupils were carrying some gifts to school. (Theoph., Charac., XXII-XXVI) And during the other
religious festivals schools were closed. In this context an economizing parent did not send his children to school
at all during the month of Anthesterion, as it contained so many holidays that he did not think it worth while
pay the fees of teachers (Theoph, Charac., XXX.14). But in the same paragraph, we learn these payments
should be made on time, even though the child couldnt go to school due to illness.
In the 5th century BC no organized system of higher education existed. Sons of wealthier parents usually
continued their children’s education to the age of 18 with specialist teachers in medicine, law, rhetoric or the
increasingly popular courses given by the sophists. But the sophistes were far luckier in salary than the teachers
who has to teach to younger pupils. And there were some traditions as to give some money to Sophistes in
some holiays such as holiday of wine (Athenaios, VII. 437).
In the literature we witness that some teachers are quite cruel in their fines. For instance in a poem of Phanios,
we see the tools of beating; such as sticks, slippers, whips. But we don’t find any objections raised to it by
Greek writers. What we know of Athenian schools in the fifth century B.C.E. suggests that a stress on discipline
and punishment tended to outweigh the teaching of skills. This bias was certainly due in part to the need for
soldiers, but it may also reflect Athenian understanding that, for their democracy to survive, young men had to
learn to temper their competitive drives. (Nortwick, 2008: 47).
The main purpose of the study is to draw a picture of the education system in terms of the curriculum, the
physical condition of schools, the attitudes of the teachers and the perspective of the society towards
education in ancient Athens and today. In this study is compared the ancient times and today's education
44
METHOD
In this study, literature review method has been used.
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
Education in general was considered a leisure pursuit only available to the privileged few but on the other hand
played a significant role in ancient Greek. In their early years, Athenian children were taught at home,
sometimes under the guidance of a master or pedagogue. They were taught basic morals, until they began
elementary education at approximately seven years of age. In literacy instructions commenced with the
alphabet (which is developed from Phoenicians) (Powell, 1991) and learning to read, children being first taught
to recognize separate letters, and then proceeding to their combinations in syllables. When children were
ready to begin reading whole works, they would often be given poetry to memorize. An elementary education
was the only education available to most people, especially the poor and the rest of education in general was
considered a leisure pursuit only available to the privileged few. Children belonging to the upper social classes
would receive formal elementary education since their parents would be able to afford to hire a tutor or to
send them to a public school. For most free, non-elite Greeks, the main occupation for which they had to be
trained was that of their parent. In addition to not having the money to pay for a formal education, members
of the lower class most likely would have required their children’s services at home just to be able to afford
food and other basic necessities.
The national focus on basic skills and testing is diverting attention from the broad liberal education that
students need to live and function effectively in a multicultural nation and World. It is essential that all students
acquire basic literacy and numeracy skills. However, students also need the knowledge, skills, and values that
will enable them to live, interact, and make decisions with fellow citizens from different racial, ethnic, cultural,
language, and religious groups. The schools need to teach about social justice issues in addition to basic skills.
An education that is narrowly defined as academic achievement and testing will not prepare students to
become effective citizens who are committed to social justice. We should educate students to be reflective,
moral, caring, and active citizens in a troubled World (Banks, McGee Banks, 2010).
System-wide excellence in student learning is attainable at reasonable cost, using education policies differing
from conventional market-oriented reform strategies prevalent in many other countries. In this respect,
Finland is an example of a nation that has developed from a remote agrarian/industrial state in the 1950s to a
model knowledge economy, using education as the key to economic and social development. Relying on data
from international student assessments and earlier policy analysis, this article describes how steady
improvement in student learning has been attained through Finnish education policies based on equity,
flexibility, creativity, teacher professionalism and trust. Unlike many other education systems, consequential
accountability accompanied by high-stakes testing and externally determined learning standards has not been
part of Finnish education policies. The insight is that Finnish education policies intended to raise student
achievement have been built upon ideas of sustainable leadership that place strong emphasis on teaching and
learning, intelligent accountability, encouraging schools to craft optimal learning environments and implement
educational content that best helps their students reach the general goals of schooling (Sahlberg, 2007).
Technological and information literacy is essential for living and working in contemporary society (Morrison,
2007). Technology continues to advance at breakneck speed, taking with it transformation of thinking about
how we learn, and forcing revision of thinking about how we teach. These changes in turn offer opportunity to
forward-thinking educational administrators, and they compel others to reconsider how their institutions are
organized and their budgets allocated. In other words, the revolution represented by distance education
continues apace. It is because so much has changed in the Technologies used for teaching at distance, in the
ways distance education is organized, in who is learning and how they are taught, and in state and institutional
policy that it has been decided to prepare a fresh edition of Distance Education (Moore, Kearsley, 2012).
Educational technologies can solve several educational problems of the developing countries. The learning
45
issues are: 1. Shortage of qualified and skilled teachers. 2. Low level of learning achievements. 3. High drop-out
rates at all levels of education. 4. Lack of opportunities for remote areas. 5. Lack of study materials and
resources (Nawaz, 2013). In the context of education, “open(ness)” has become the watermark for a fast
growing number of learning materials and associated platforms and practices from a variety of institutions and
individuals. Open Educational Resources (OER), Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC), and more recently,
initiatives such as Coursera are just some of the forms this movement has embraced under the “open” banner.
Yet, ongoing calls to discuss and elucidate the “meaning” and particularities of openness in education point to a
lack of clarity around the concept. “Open” in education is currently mostly debated in the context of the
technological developments that allowed it to emerge in its current forms (Peter, Deimann, 2013).
Education was important to simulate and community orientation. Education was based on rote learning, but
today the understanding of education is based on learning by doing and experiencing. At that time, rather than
education of the girls were expected to be housewives. Now, however, with equal rights for girls and boys.
Some families give children basic math and reading courses have. 'Paedagogos called' training coaches were
working in a similar way today. Although schools were found to have a certain sense of class. Writing, music
and gymnastics were the most important subject matter, but now a lot of issues other than writing are not
acknowledged. Now it has become obligatory education is not compulsory. These days the school was closed
off as religious holidays. Training offered to wealthy families seem like something like today was an important
issue. As mentioned above, technology and globalization have changed the education system too.
IJONTE’s Note: This article presented at 5th International Academic Conference: Prosperity and Stability in the
Present World, Buenos Aires –Brazil.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS
Assist. Prof. Dr. Evren ŞAR İŞBİLEN currently employed as an Assistant Professor at Istanbul
University, Hasan Ali Yücel Faculty of Education, Department of Elementary History
Education. She is specifically interested in social studies, history education, museums, and
historical films.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Evren ŞAR İŞBİLEN
Istanbul University,
Istanbul University, Hasan Ali Yücel Faculty of Education
Assist. Prof. Dr. Gülşah BATDAL KARADUMAN currently employed as an Assistant Professor
at Istanbul University, Hasan Ali Yücel Faculty of Education, Department of Elementary
Mathematics Education. She is specifically interested in gifted education, creativity,
creativity in mathematics, approaches and techniques of teaching, curriculum evaluation,
individual differences in learning, the teaching of mathematics, learning of mathematics,
creative drama, and spatial intelligence.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Gülşah BATDAL KARADUMAN
46
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Banks, J. A., McGee Banks, C. A. (2010). Multicaltural Education-Issues and Perspectives. USA: John Wiley and
Sons, Inc.
Beck, F.A.G. (1964). Greek Education, 450-350 B.C., London.
Bonnard, A. (2004). Antik Yunan Uygarlığı I, (Çev. K. Kurtgözü), İstanbul: Evrensel Basım Yayın.
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38-46.
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Peter, S., Deimann, M. (2013). On the role of openness in education: A historical reconstruction. Open Praxis.
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Plato.(2010). The Works of Plato: Charmides, Lysis, Other Dialogues and the Laws. trs.B. Jowett. New York.
Plato. (2008). Protagoras. Trsl. B. Jowett, Echo Library, Teddington.
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Powell, A. (2001). Athens and Sparta: Constructing Greek Political and Social History from 478 BC, London:
Routledge.
Powell, B. P. (1991). Homer and the Origin of the Greek Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Redman, P. (2006). Good essay writing: a social sciences guide. 3rd ed. London: Open University in assoc. with
Sage.
Sahlberg, P. (2007). Education policies for raising student learning: the Finnish approach. Journal of Education
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Theophrastus. (2004). Characters. Trsl. J. Diggle, Cambridge: Cambridge Unversity Press.
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Xenophon. (1881). Symposium. University of Michigan Library, U.S.A.
48
LEARNER AUTONOMY IN PRACTICE
Robab AHMADZADEH
Goldis Star Foreign Language Institute
Jolfa- IRAN
Shalaleh ZABARDAST
Jolfa- IRAN
ABSTRACT
To assess the effectiveness of autonomous learning, today language teaching has witnessed a promotion of
autonomous approaches in language learning and teaching. In order to find out similarities and differences
between students’ preferences, this paper drew on an empirical study among 152 third-years students of
Hacettepe and Selcuk universities. To study students’ preferences in self-autonomy for language learning, this
study investigated students’ preferences in autonomous learning with Likert scale. Results of this paper are
expected to provoke a depth research on how to heighten students’ self-autonomy in foreign language
learning.
Key Words: learner autonomy, teachers’ roles, students’ roles, students’ preferences in learning.
INTRODUCTION
The concept of individual autonomy has been central to European liberal-democratic and liberal-humanist
thought since the 18th century, and was identified by Kant as the foundation of human dignity. Growth of
interest in autonomous learning as an educational goal can be identified in changes that occurred in the
twentieth century in social sciences, psychology, philosophy, and political science. The concept of autonomy in
language learning is connected with the communicative approach both historically and theoretically. Gremmo
& Riley (1995: 152-3) have argued that “the rise of autonomy in language learning in the 1970s and 1980s was
connected to a rejection of behaviorist assumptions about the nature of second language acquisition”.
It was developed with the works of Little (1991), and was influenced by researches from beyond the field of
language education. In 1991 Little claimed that the capacity for autonomous learning presupposes that “the
learner will develop a particular kind of psychological relation to the process and content of his learning”
(1991:40).
Little (1995) referred to changes in educational philosophy and technology, language-learning theory, political
beliefs, communications and employment. He also pointed out that the recognition in learning is now more
important than knowledge (cited in Finch, 2000). In language learning this humanistic trend produced a widerange of series of investigations, and the new researches in learning proved that teacher is only responsible for
presenting new information in a variety of ways and he/she should refer to learning styles as possible. It is up
to the learner to take this information and process it. Once the new lesson is introduced, the student takes
control of information and processes it; so that he/she “learns” it. So in language teaching, the “magic” is not in
teaching techniques. The solution to the problem lies in student responsibility.
Language is essentially pragmatic and social; and it is as “a tool for communication”, where individuals with
personal needs and intentions, learn to express themselves whilst, at the same time, as competent members of
their group, they share and maintain social reality. This approach to language provided the rationale for the
“Communicative Approach” to language learning and teaching with its emphasis on communicative functions,
individual needs, social norms and “autonomy” (Nunan, 2000).
49
Perhaps theoretically communicative theory and autonomy are connected with researches on learner’s
agendas and the effectiveness of instruction (Nunan, 1995). Nunan also has verified that in the classroom
there is often a mismatch between what teachers and learners believe is being learned. He argued that “while
the teacher is busily teaching one thing, the learner is very often focusing on something else” (1995: 135). Later
other researchers have doubted in the effectiveness of direct instruction in language learning. Most of them
have adopted the effectiveness of communicative approach in second language learning and its dependence
upon the learner’s self-directed efforts to process linguistic input. Nunan (1995) believed that second language
learning will proceed most effectively if learners are allowed to develop and exercise their autonomy.
Moreover, Finch (2000) claimed teachers should prepare a non-threatening learning environment and allow
the learners to follow their own learning path. Consequently discovering the new way of learning and acquiring
learning skills are up to learners. This is the path of the autonomous learner, and provides a blueprint for the
autonomous learning.
Learner Autonomy
The concept of learner autonomy was first introduced into the ongoing debate about L2 learning and teaching
by Henri Holec in a report published by the Council of Europe in 1979 (Holec, 1981). According to Holec
autonomous learners are capable of setting their own learning objectives, defining the “contents and
progressions” of learning, “selecting methods and techniques to be used”, monitoring the learning process, and
evaluating learning outcomes (1981: 3). The ability to take charge of one’s learning in this way it is “not inborn
but must be acquired either by “natural” means or (as most often happens) by formal learning, i.e. in a
systematic, deliberate way” (ibid.). Also in 1995 Learner autonomy has been defined as a “capacity for active,
independent learning and learners accepting responsibility for their learning and sharing in the decisions and
initiatives that give shape and direction to the learning process” (Little, 1995:4).
Furthermore, Little (1995) suggested that learners who take responsibility for their learning are more likely to
achieve their learning targets and hence likely to maintain their motivation. This acceptance of responsibility
has both socio-affective and cognitive implications: it involves at once a positive attitude to learning and the
development of a capacity to reflect on the content and process of learning under conscious control. Learners
who are encouraged to take responsibility for their own work, by being given some control over what, how and
when they learn, are more likely to be able to set realistic goals, plan programs of work, develop strategies for
coping with new and unforeseen situations, and evaluate and assess their own work. They are able to learn
how to learn from their own successes and failures.
The effectiveness of self-instruction in language learning is unknown for most of the teachers and “very few of
instructions are solidly based on research results or the results are inconclusive” (Little, 2000:23). Likewise,
Little (1995), Tort-Moloney (1997), McGrath (2000), Smith (2000), Aoki and Hamakava (2003), Huang (2005),
Sert (2006), Viera (2007), Smith and Erdoğan (2007) and Burkert and Schwienhorst (2008) provide evidence
that teachers who themselves are not autonomous language learners may have a negative influence on the
development of autonomy in their students.
Nunan (2000) stated that the importance of learner autonomy understood as the capability_ not an inborn
ability _to govern and regulate one’s own thoughts, feelings, and actions freely and responsibly. It helps
learners to find their individual learning styles, and start to believe in their own abilities and, finally, be
autonomous learners. Generally “it highlights an important continuing role for teachers in promoting the
psychological attributes and practical abilities involved in learner autonomy and in engaging students’ existing
autonomy within classroom practice (Smith, 2008:2).
In order to highlight the importance of learner autonomy and promote autonomous learning, this study aims to
discuss the concept of learner autonomy in large scale and deals with a) what differences do learner display in
terms of autonomous learning? b) What should be done to promote learner autonomy in ELL and ELT settings?
c) What is the importance of learner’s preferences in autonomous learning?
50
RESEARCH METHOD
Participants
A total of 152 Turkish ELT and ELL students participated in the study. The participants were from two different
fields of study, 76 participants were third-year English literature students of Selcuk University, and 78 of them
were third year English language teaching students of Hacettepe University, in other words they are future
English language teachers.
Instruments
In order to investigate the learner autonomy of the subjects, the questionnaire designed by Zhang and Li in
2004 was used. It consists 20 items to explore students’ preferences. The questionnaire has two parts. Apart
from addressing and reference conventions, parts do not differ significantly. The questionnaires was based on
Likert scale (1), strongly disagree, (2), disagree, (3), neutral, (4), Agree, (5), strongly agree), and it had high
content validity and high reliability.
Procedures
The data are grouped into 20 different items based on third year university students’ preferences. The purpose
of this study is to identify similarities and differences between Hacettepe and Selcuk universities’ students’
preferences and subsequently the causes of the variation will be explored. In order to address the research
questions, this case study compiled information from questionnaire. In analyzing the 20 items, a statistical
technique (SPSS 16.0) is used to identify whether the mean and standards error of mean and standard
deviation of two groups on a variable differed or not. The data collected from questionnaire were categorized
into 8 tables, each tables look for students’ tendencies in English language learning.
RESULTS
The below sections provide descriptions of students’ preferences in English classes. These descriptions highlight
different instructional approaches between university students, and how the students have adapted new
approaches. Both universities students gave almost same answers to 11 items of the table; therefore the
combination of two universities answers are showed in the below table. For the convenience of comparison,
the five-point scale responses were merged into a Never (1) Rarely (2) Sometimes (3) Often (4) Always (5).
Table 1: self perception in language learning
ITEMS
Number=152
Mean
Std
EM
SD
1
1.9
2
1.3
3
14.9
4
41.6
5
40.3
4.17
.07
.87
4.5
16.2
29.9
42.9
6.5
3.3
.08
.97
11.7
32.5
39.6
13.6
2.63
.077
.95
4. I find I can finish my task in time
2.6
7.8
27.3
35.7
2
.
6
26.6
3.76
.082
1.01
5. I keep a record of my study, such
as keeping a diary, writing review,
taking note, etc
6. I make self-exam with the exam
papers chosen by myself
7. I reward myself such as going
shopping, playing etc. when I make
9.1
8.4
37.7
26.6
18.2
3.37
.092
1.15
27.9
32.5
23.4
15.6
.6
2.29
.086
1.06
3.9
16.9
37.7
31.2
10.4
3.28
.08
.99
1. I think I have the ability to learn
English well
2. I make good use of my free time
in English study
3. I preview before the class
51
progress
8. I attend out-class activities to
practice and learn the language
9. During the class, I try to take
chances to take part in activities
such as pair/group discussion, roleplay, etc
10. I know my strengths and
weaknesses in my English study
11. I choose books, exercises which
suit me.
9.1
29.9
31.2
18.8
11.0
2.92
.091
1.14
7.8
16.9
26.6
37.7
11.0
3.28
.09
1.2
1.3
7.8
11.0
40.9
39.0
4.09
.08
.97
.6
9.7
14.9
45.5
29.2
3.93
.076
.95
As the table reveals, students evaluate their abilities to behave autonomously positively. As it is seen in the
table, the main percentage for most items is “4 / 5” columns. In responses to the first item the vast majority of
respondents replied that they have ability to learn English well (81.9%), Only 3.2% aren’t satisfied of their
ability.
In response to item 2, most of the students (50.4%) asserted they make good use of their free time in English
study. In third item unfortunately 44.2% didn’t show tendency to utilize their time to reviewing the day’s work
and finish a task in time. In response to item 4, by 62.3%, students give priority to option 4 and 5, they believe
they can finish their task in time.
Keeping diary, writing review or taking note and analyzing their records help students to become sort of
researchers who deliberately examine their own language learning, 44.8% concerned with these issues. The
findings in items 6 and 7 implied that clear number of students (60 %) didn’t make self-exam with the exam
papers chosen by them. In this subject they prefer their teacher’s directions. In the 8 section of the
questionnaire participants were asked how often they had engaged in outside class learning activities which
were considered to be possible signs of autonomous language learning behavior, 29.8% of students expressed
their views in favor of more outside-classroom activities that would help them gain proficiency in English but
39% refuse.
In response to item 8 more than half of students didn’t prefer to attend out-class activities. A close look at the
questionnaire showed that their unwillingness in engaging in these activities might be related to conditions
they are in. For example, they may not have the opportunity of “reading newspapers in English”, “watching
English TV programs” or “talking to foreigners in English”. In response item 9, 48.7 % of students responded
they try to take chances to take part in activities such as pair/group discussion and role-play. In responses to
items 10 and 11 of the questionnaire majority of respondents 79.9%, (Item 11) 74.7 % claimed that they know
their strengths and weaknesses while studying English and know what books are proper for their progress in
language learning.
Students’ Preferences in Autonomous Learning
Part II of questionnaire looks for students’ and teachers’ relationship, students’ preferences in error
correction, their learning methods and so on.
Table 2: I think the learner-teacher relationship is that of:
1)Receiver 2) Raw
3)Customer
N
and Giver
Material
and
and
Shopkeeper
maker
H.U
76
13.15%
1.31%
2.63%
S.U
76
18.42%
14.47%
7.89%
4)Partners
5)Explorer and
Director
Mean
SD
31.57%
26.31%
51.31%
32.89%
4.06
3.41
1.34
1.53
52
In autonomous learning, the teacher plays central role as the presenter of new material and as the guide in
helping the student learn the strategies to successfully acquire the foreign language. The finding of table 2
indicates most of the students of two universities did not rate teacher authority very highly. This finding is
supported by the results of H.U students (51.31%) and S.U students (32.89%) that regarded their relationship
with teacher like explorer and director. Furthermore, 31.57% of H.U and 26.31% of S .U students considered
their relationship with teachers as partners. In general, the results of both universities show students didn’t
want to adopt a totally passive role in the learning process.
Table 3: I think my success or failure in English study is mainly due to:
N
1)money 2)English
3) studying
4)teachers
studying
facilities(aids)
environment
H.U
76 3.94%
22.36%
15.78%
5.26%
S.U
76
3.94%
18.42%
21.05%
31.57%
5)myself
Mean
SD
52.63%
3.78
1.38
25%
3.55
1.17
The data indicated that 31.57% of Selcuk students agreed with teachers’ responsibility for their success or
failure, while Hacettepe university students (52.63%) reported their responsibility for their learning. It clearly
shows the main differences between Selcuk and Hacettepe universities students’ preferences. 31.57% of the
S.U respondents believed teachers as main factor in learning on the other hand; majority of H.U students gave
the most responsibility to themselves and the least responsibility to teachers (5.26%) and money (3.94%).
Table 4: When the teacher asks questions for us to answer, I would mostly like to:
1)wait for 2)think
3)Look
up 4)clarify
5)join
a
others’
and ready books,
questions
pair/group
answers
to answer dictionaries
with
discussion
teachers
H.U
15.78%
59.21%
3.94%
2.63%
18.42%
S.U
14.47%
31.57%
13.15%
15.78%
25%
Mean
SD
2.49
3.06
1.33
1.45
Responses to table 4 reveals about 15.78% of H.U students and 14.47% of S.U students are concerned about
group harmony in class and tended to avoid ‘showing off’. Hacettepe university students showed nearly
negative attitude towards clarifying questions with the help of teachers in class. Maybe they like to be self
directed (59.21%) rather than teacher directed.
The 3.94% of students believe that asking questions for clarification in class may indicate that the student has
not grasped a good understanding of what the teacher said. The way the questions raised by the teacher might
be the cause of their silence (15.78% H.U and 14.47% S.U). The results show that S.U (25%) students have more
self-confidence and their anxiety is lower than H.U (18.42%) students.
Table 5: When I make mistakes in study, I'd usually like the following ones to correct them:
N
don’t
do teachers
classmates
others
books
or Mean
anything
dictionaries
H.U
76 6.57%
15.78%
26.31%
1.31%
50%
3.76
S.U
76 3.94%
31.57%
40.78%
5.26%
18.42%
2.21
SD
1.39
1.12
Being corrected by either the teacher or other students does not seem to bother H.U students. The Frequency
Table shows that 15.78% of H.U and 31.57%of S.U students preferred correction in the presence of the
instructors instead of working independently. As can be observed a significant number of S.U students did not
mind having their mistakes corrected by other students (40.78%).
53
Table 6: I think the following way is most useful in my English study:
1)taking 2)mechanic
3) Doing
4)classifying or
grouping or
notes
memory
exercises of
grammar,
comparing
translation,
words etc.
H.U
S.U
7.89%
13.15
2.63%
9.21%
40.78%
25%
25 %
36.84%
5)group
discussion
Mean
SD
23.68%
15.78%
3.56
3.33
1.13
1.24
The results of table show that there are significant differences between S.U and H.U preferences. H.U students
preferred doing exercises of grammar, translation, words (40.78%) more than other factors, while S.U students
show tendency for classifying or grouping or comparing (36.84%).
DISCUSSION
Nunan believed (2000) Critical events outside the classroom play a central role in shaping learners views of
learning English. Students who see their limitation weakness in foreign language try to develop their
weaknesses with reading, listening to songs, watching movies outside of the classroom. So, the understanding
of learner autonomy as a capacity or attitude rather than as overt action is important; students’ responses to
table 1 indicate that students knew their capacity in language learning. Autonomy then is something which is
internal to the learner and which is not necessarily tied to particular learning circumstances.
The results of table 2 reveals that most students wanted to be active rather than passive learners in the process
of acquiring knowledge and they were reluctant to challenge teacher’s authority in class and regarded teacher
as a useful but not interfering resource. In other part students’ comments illustrated that; some of S.U student
accepted the power and authority of teachers. This preference certainly has an impact on their English
language learning and classroom behaviors. However, it is worth noting that the results of this part is backed
up by the findings in the follow-up item which some of H.U and S.U students regarded teachers as responsible
for their failure or success.
Ho and Crookall (1995) suggested learner autonomy should be exercised within the context of specific cultures
and teachers should take that into consideration when preparing classes. For instance, they may design a
simulation to change the learning environment. The percentages of Hacettepe University students in table 2
shows they are more responsible for their learning, they can construct their own knowledge and are
reflectively engaged with their learning, it is likely to be more efficient and effective.
The responses in table 4 reveals students are less concerned about group harmony in class and tend to avoid
‘showing off’. Most of the H.U students prefer to work individually, while S.U students are much more
interested in group-work and searching for answer. These differences might be explained by the fact that S.U
students because of their field of study are more teachers directed and need to be more clarified by teachers.
Hacettepe university students like to be self- directed (59.21%) rather than teacher directed.
H.U students believe that asking questions for clarification in class would indicate that the student has not
grasped a good understanding of what the teacher said. The way the questions raised by the teacher might be
the cause of both group silence. Students are often concerned about their own linguistic accuracy or fearful of
losing “face”, consequently they speak very little in English class.
Both H.U and S.U students had a positive attitude towards correction with their classmates. The preferences in
third section indicate that students found it to be effective to be corrected by teachers, classmates, books. The
perceived effectiveness seemed to depend on different variables, such as the teacher’s competence, the
textbook, and the nature of the course taught. There is general agreement among researchers and
54
practitioners that having the teacher straightforwardly correct every error of students is not the most useful
way of providing corrective feedback and that involving students in their own correction is helpful (Lalande,
1982; Hedgcock&Lefkowitz, 1992; Aljaafreh&Lantolf, 1994, cited in Hadley, 2003), or combination of teacher-,
peer -, and self-evaluation might yield the most successful results.
The results of table 6 show that there are significant differences between S.U and H.U preferences. H.U
students preferred doing exercises of grammar, translation, words while S.U students show tendency for
classifying or grouping or comparing. Researches on this subject suggest that training in grammar and
vocabulary alone does not result in linguistic competence (Rüschoff& Ritter 2000, cited in Finch 2001). It is
clear that here teacher-centeredness is commonly a dominant teaching method in the classroom.
To sum up the tables the most of the H.U students in this survey still stick to the traditional roles of students in
class or have unclear perceptions of different methods of learning. It seems that the pendulum of their favorite
teaching methods swings from teacher-centeredness to Student-centeredness; maybe they consider both
approaches to be useful in their own way. Perhaps they still want someone to give them “the push” or to “keep
track of” their progress. However, it would be inaccurate to deduce that “our students are mere passive
learners”. We need to know the real cause of their preference
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The results of this study call for a step forward towards a teacher-student cooperation in designing syllabuses,
doing course planning, and classroom activities. Mostly students were not inclined to reject the traditional way
of teaching English. The results of the study show students tendency to well-planned combination of
communicative and non-communicative activities that will enhance both effective teaching and learning at
different fields. It should be noted that the findings should feed into classroom practice, and provide guidance
for materials and syllabus revision and a pedagogical framework for developing learners’ autonomy.
So considering the results of current study, it is inappropriate for teachers to ignore learners’ needs in their
classroom instruction. Teachers should guide students and demonstrate techniques they can use to process the
foreign language learning. They should be aware of the student’s anxiety created by a tense classroom
environment. In short, teachers need to create a pleasant, relaxed atmosphere in the classroom and provide
more opportunities for learners to practice in interactive group activities in order to reinforce the positive
experience. Generally teachers should give them some ideas about how to be a good language learner by
taking risks and using every opportunity to learn. As Kumaravadivelu (2003) has pointed out, “teachers must
seek not alternative methods, but an alternative to methods”. Such an alternative would be based on their
experience and awareness of learner needs.
Robab AHMADZADEH studied English language and literature at Urmia University (B.A,
2007). She has been teaching for three years in different foreign language institutes. She
has always been interested in doing researches in language teaching and learning field in
order to be cognizant of learners’ psychology and their process of learning.
Robab AHMADZADEH
Jolfa- IRAN
55
Shalaleh ZABARDAST was born in 1983 in Hadishahr – East Azarbaijan Iran. After
graduating from Primary and High Schools in Tabriz, she graduated from Tabriz University
in 2004. She completed her MA degree at Hacettepe University of Turkey In 2010. She
has been teaching as English teacher at Goldis institute since 2011. Her research interest
are distance education, computer based language teaching and learner autonomy in
practice.
Shalaleh ZABARDAST
Jolfa- IRAN
REFERENCES
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Balçıkanlı, Cem 2010. Learner Autonomy In Language Learning: Student Teachers’ Beliefs
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Elaine K. Horwitz (2008). Teachers and Students, Students and Teachers: An Ever-Evolving
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The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 84, No. 4, Special Issue: A Century of Language Teaching and Research
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Finch, Andrew (2001) Autonomy: Where Are We? Where Are We Going?
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Finch, A.E. & Hyun, T. D. (2000). Tell Me More! Seoul: Hakmunsa Press. Lindley, R. (1986). Autonomy. London:
Macmillan.
Hadley, A. O. (2003). Teaching language in context. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning. Oxford: Pergamon. Web 2.0 / Language Learning.
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teaching. System, 23/ 2, 235-243.
Kumaravadivelu B. (2003). Beyond Methods: Macro-strategies for Language Teaching. Yale University Press.
Lane, N. R.(2008) Rationality, Self-Esteem and Autonomy through Collaborative Enquiry.
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Little, D. (1995). Learning as dialogue: The dependence of learner autonomy on teacher autonomy. System 23
/2, 175-181.
Little, D. (2000). Learner autonomy: Why foreign languages should occupy a central role in the curriculum. In
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Matters.
Little, D. (1991). Learner autonomy 1: Definitions, issues and problems. Dublin: Authentik.
Nunan, D. (1995). Closing the gap between learning and instruction, TESOL Quarterly,29, 1.
Nunan,
D.
(2000)
Autonomy
in
language
http://www.nunan.info/presentations/autonomy_lang_learn.pdf
learning
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online]
Nunan, D. (2000). Expressions. Boston Ma: ThomsonLearning/Heinle.
Gremmo, M-J. (1995). Autonomy, self-direction and self-access in language teaching and learning: the history
of an idea. System 23/2, 151-164.
Ramos, et al (2001). Developing Learner Autonomy Through A Virtual EAP Course At University [
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Available
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the
international conference AUTONOMY 2000: The Development of Learning Independence in Language Learning.
Bangkok. 151-168.
Smith, R.C., with A. Barfield (2001) Interconnections: Learner autonomy, teacher autonomy (in 2 parts).
Learning 7 & 8/1. 5-6. Available online:
http://www.miyazakimu.ac.jp/~hnicoll/learnerdev/
Wenden, A. (1998). Learner Strategies for Learner Autonomy. London: Prentice Hall.
http://www.ajde.com/Documents/learner_autonomy.pdf
Questionnaire taken from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/pta_Nov_07_dd.pdf
Smith, Richard Learner Autonomy http://eltj.oxfordjournals.org/content/62/4/395.full
57
JOB STRESSORS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON ACADEMIC STAFF: A CASE STUDY
Assoc. Prof. Dr. İlhan GÜNBAYI
Akdeniz University, Faculty of Education
Department of Educational Sciences
Antalya- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to understand the kinds of stressors originating from academic work setting, the
influences of those kinds of stressors on academic staff and to know how they overcame stress at work setting.
A non-probability sample was used. 12 academic staff -six in Diest Campus and six in Heverlee Campus in
KHLeuven University Teacher Education and Training College in Leuven in Belgium- were volunteers working in
pre-school, primary school and secondary school programs. A qualitative approach with a multiple case study
with embedded units was selected for this study. Semi-structured individual and focus group interviews,
participant observations and document analysis of staff’s weekly schedules were used to collect data. Findings
showed that there were intensive and various kinds of stress originating from stressors in academic setting and
the effects of stress might be either negative or positive. Thus, the outcome of the research addresses
important implications for the professional work life of academic staff in understanding how stress influences
academic staff’s performance negatively and positively, identifying where negative and positive stress exist in
academic setting and knowing how to overcome stressors originating from academic settings.
Key Words: Stressors, academic staff, teacher training college, case study.
INTRODUCTION
Stress is an inevitable part of our life. People face stressors every day. Events, people, circumstances, concerns,
and a certain amount of stress are part of daily live (Koopsen & Young, 2009). Stress occurs when demands and
stressors are made on us and our bodies respond with a series of changes leading to what is called the stress
response. Definitions of stress are often based on various disciplines of study such as psychology, sociology and
medicine: “the nonspecific response of the body to any demand placed upon it to adapt, whether that demand
produces pleasure or pain (Selye, 1976)”, “a state of anxiety produced when events and responsibilities exceed
one’s coping abilities (Lazarus, 1966)”; “the inability to cope with a perceived or real (or imagined) threat to
one’s mental, physical, emotional, and spiritual well-being, which results in a series of physiological responses
and adaptations (Allen, 1983)”. As it can be understood from the definitions, there are many different
definitions of stress as loss of emotional control, wear and tear on the body, an inability to cope, an absence of
inner peace.
Stress in workplace is also one of the big issues. According to 2007-2008 government statistics in UK, around
one in five workers say that they feel extremely stressed while at work, with about 14 percent saying that they
feel that their work stress is making them ill, causing an estimated of 13.5 million lost working days in Britain in
one year alone. The same trend can be seen in other countries, as well. Because even when people at work,
stress can seriously affect the work they do, it is inevitable that employee dissatisfaction, lowered emotional
and physical health of the employees, absenteeism and lost productivity occur (Middleton, 2009; Matterson &
Ivancevich, 1987; Sauter, Murphy, & Hurrell, 1990).
As for stress in universities, until mid-1980’s universities were not thought as places where much stress
occurred amidst academic staff. However since then, universities have become places where sources of stress
are indeed a cause for concern and stress have come from a wide variety of sources such as increasing
workload, poor government policies in education , lack of autonomy and decrease in the quality of academic
standards (Fisher, 1994).
58
Accordingly, during past two decades, many researches both quantitative and qualitative have been done on
sources of stress in academic life, stressors at academic setting, the effects of stress on academic staff and the
way they overcome stress (Abouserie, 1996; Gillespie, Walsh, Winefield,, Dua, & Stough, 2001; Winefield,
Gillespie, Stough, Dua, Hapuarachchi & Boyd 2003; Houston, Meyer & Paewai, 2006; Barkhuizen & Rothmann,
2008; Gunbayi, 2009; Catano, Francis, Haines, Kirpalani, Shannon, Stringer & Lozanzki, 2010; Adebiyi, 2013).
In academic setting, stress originating from work setting and the influences of those kinds of stressors on
academic staff can be of concern as it is likely to have significant personal implications through academic staff
dissatisfaction, lowered motivation and lowered emotional and physical health of academic staff (Gunbayi,
2009). Thus a study to be done to understand the kinds of stressors originating from academic work setting,
the influences of those kinds of stressors on academic staff and the ways to cope with stress at work in an
academic setting will contribute us to realize the influences of those kinds of stressors and how to create a
setting where academic staff can work effectively.
The purpose of this study was to understand what it was like to work amidst stressors originating from work
setting, to understand the influences of those kinds of stressors on academic staff and to know the way they
overcome stressors at work setting. Thus this study examined:
1. How do academic staff define stress?
2. What are academic staff’s perceptions on stressors originating from work setting?
3. How do stressors affect academic staff?
4. How do academic staff overcome stress as a result of stressors in academic setting?
5. What do academic staff think job stress or stressors are like? A thing, a living thing, a machine, etc..? Why?
METHODS
Sampling
This study was conducted both in Diest Campus and in Heverlee Campus in KHLeuven University Teacher
st
th
Education and Training College in Leuven in Belgium from 1 of February, 2012 through 30 of April, 2012.
KHLeuven University Teacher Education and Training College had two campuses one in Heverlee Campus with
three programs as pre-school with 231 students and 25 staff members, primary school with 395 students and
45 staff members and secondary with 898 students and 69 staff members and the other in Diest with two
programs as pre-school with 194 students and 17 staff members members and primary school with 221
students and 24 staff members. A non-probability sample technique based on purposive sampling method was
used because ‘the sample derives from the researcher targeting a particular group, in the full knowledge that it
does not represent the wider population, it simply represent itself. This is frequently the in small scale
research, for example, as with one or two schools, two or three groups of students, or a particular group of
teachers, where no attempt to generalize is desired; this is frequently the case for qualitative researches such
as action ethnographic or case (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007).
Table 1: Participants status and accompanying data collection
Audiotape Interviews
Code Position
Individual
Focus Group
PDA
Senior Lecturer
Yes (1)
Yes (1)
PDB
Senior Lecturer
Yes (1)
Yes (1)
PDC
Senior Lecturer
Yes (1)
Yes (1)
PDD
Lecturer
Yes (1)
Yes (1)
PDE
Senior Lecturer
Yes (1)
Manager of Campus
PDF
Senior Lecturer
Yes (1)
PLA
Senior Lecturer and
Yes (1)
Head of Department
PLB
Senior Lecturer and
Yes (1)
Erasmus Coordinator
Classroom
Observation
Yes (1)
Yes (1)
Document Analysis of
Weekly Agenda
Yes (1)
Yes (1)
Yes (1)
Yes (1)
Yes (1)
Yes (1)
Yes (1)
Yes (1)
59
PLC
PLD
PLE
PLF
Senior Lecturer
Lecturer
Lecturer
Lecturer
Yes (1)
Yes (1)
Yes (1)
Yes (1)
Yes (1)
Yes (1)
Yes (1)
Yes (1)
As seen in Table 1, the informants in this study were academic staff members. I had conduct with them via email and some face to face of 180 staff members to invite to participate in my study and 12 accepted to
participate in the study -six in Diest Campus and six in Heverlee Campus in KHLeuven University Teacher
Education and Training College in Leuven in Belgium. The participants were volunteers working in pre-school,
primary school and secondary school programs. There was no limitation to ages and seniority of academic staff
members.
Method
A qualitative approach was selected for this study because this research was more concerned with
understanding individuals’ perceptions of the world and seeking insights rather than statistical analysis
(Silverman, 2005). Because investigation of academic staff’s experiences related to stressors originating formal
academic setting, college campuses were viewed as an instrumental case study. In qualitative research design,
the case study method allows investigators to retain the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real-life
events–such as individual life cycles, small group behaviour, organizational and managerial processes, school
performance, and interpersonal relations in real contexts (Cohen et al, 2007; Yin, 2012). Thus, the focus of this
study was influences of job stressors on academic staff in college setting and their perceptions by informants.
As this study was carried out both in Diest Campus with pre-school and primary programs and in Heverlee
Campus with pre-school, primary and secondary programs in KHLeuven University Teacher Education and
Training College in Leuven in Belgium, a qualitative approach with a multiple case study with embedded units
was selected for this study. In a multiple case study with embedded units different sub-units may be involved in
each of the different cases, and a range of instruments used for each sub-unit, and each is kept separate to
each case (Yin, 2012).
Data Collection
In order to investigate academic staff’ perceptions on stressors originating from work setting, to understand
the influences of those kinds of stressors on academic staff and to know how they overcame stress at work
setting, semi-structured individual and focus group interviews were used because it would provide an in depth
exploration of the topic, it would allow me the flexibility, for example, to change the order of questions,
st
simplify the questions and to probe the interviews ( Cohen et al, 2007). Data were collected from 1 February,
th
2012 through 30 April, 2012. This included about 45 minute recorded individual interviews and about one and
half focus group interview with the informants with initial interview questions. I used face-to-face interviews. I
recorded informants' experiences, thoughts and feelings in a taped diary. Additionally participant observations
in classes and staff rooms and document analysis based on academic staff’s weekly agenda were used to collect
data.
Data Analysis
Data analysis began with repeated readings of interview transcripts from conversations with academic staff.
The purpose was to determine the essence of the phenomenon and structures of experiences of academic staff
amidst stressors originating from work setting, to understand the influences of those kinds of stressors on
academic staff and to know the way they overcame stressors at work setting. During data analysis, the data
were organized categorically and chronically, reviewed repeatedly and continually coded. Interview transcripts
were regularly reviewed. In addition, data analysis process was aided by the use of a qualitative data analysis
computer program called NVIVO 9.2. These kinds of computer programmes do not actually perform the
analysis but facilitate and assist it. That is NVIVO 9.2 does not perform the analysis but only supports the
researcher doing the analysis by organizing data and recodes and nodes etc. (Kelle, 1995; Cohen et al, 2007).
60
Ethical Considerations
Participants were briefed about the research aims, kept informed at all stages and be offered anonymity. A
consent form was signed between researcher and each participant about the use of the data in terms of how
its analysis would be reported and disseminated. It was also tried to be careful not to impose researcher’s
belief on others and researcher’s beliefs were secondary and the participants thinking be what was required.
Interview Process and Mapping
The purpose of this study was to understand what it was like to work amidst stressors originating from work
setting, to understand the influences of those kinds of stressors on academic staff and to know the way they
overcame stress at work setting. Thus the mapping of interview questions was carried out in five levels. Firstly,
academic staff were asked how they defined stress, secondly what their perceptions on stressors originating
from academic work setting were, thirdly what the effects of stressors on academic staff were, fourthly what
their views about how to overcome stress as a result of stressors in academic setting were and finally what and
why they thought job stress or stressors were like.
Validity and Reliability
In order to ensure reliability and validity of the study, some steps were followed: (i) data were collected from
various sources such as interviews (individual and focus group), participant observations and documents in
terms of triangulation (ii) data were used as direct quotations from the interviews without making any
comments on them, (iii) a purposive sampling method based on voluntarism was used in order to get opinions
and experiences of academic staff in Katholieke Hogeshool Leuven (iv) data were coded by two independent
researchers and Cohen's kappa coefficient were calculated to determine inter-rater reliability of themes coded
-0.814 perfect agreement- for inner reliability (Landis & Koach, 1977) and (v) records of interviews, documents
and participant observations were kept for outer reliability.
FINDINGS
The findings are discussed under four main topics according to how data are collected: individual interviews,
focus group interviews, observations and documents.
INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS
Definition of Stress
Lecturers were asked about what they understood with the word stress, what stress meant to them and how
they could define stress. PDA defined stress as “something in her mind and something in her body causing loss
of control”, PDB “something very unpleasant and causing her feel nerved”, PDC ”feeling of not being able to
organize his work due to expectations more than he can do”, PDD “the feeling of not being able to finish work
on time as indicated in deadlines due to lack of time he needs”, PDE “the feeling of not being able to oversee
something at work and not knowing what to do due to complexity”, PDF “the feeling of not having enough
control what he is supposed to do”, PLA “something rather negative and complaining when her work
overwhelming her due to workload”, PLB “ two kinds of stress : one is something good supplying adrenalin to
go with and the other is something bad causing her inefficient due to lack of support”, PLC “ the feeling of not
being able to control something due to work load and time pressure and thus causing her feeling nervous”, PLD
“the feeling of not being able to do things like in her head or according to standards in her head”, PLE “an
unpleasant feeling that makes her nervous and thus causing chaos and her less organized” and PLF “a feeling of
not having enough time to do what she wants to do or she is supposed to do”. As it can be understood from
the participants definitions of stress, stress is mostly accepted something bad causing loss of control, making
one feel nervous, restless , less organized and desperate. However as PLB stated, stress can sometimes be
something good which supplies adrenalin or energy for someone to go with.
61
Stressors at Work
Lecturers were asked about what their perceptions on stressors originating from academic work setting were.
The analyses of 12 academic staff’s perceptions on stress as a result of stressors originating from academic
work setting showed that 100% of academic staff complained about workload, 83% the intensity of e-mails to
answer and to write, 67% the problems with ICT, 58% working with large number of students, insufficient
physical conditions, 42% meetings without agenda and planning and changing profile of students and
generation, 33% lack of time to do things due to deadlines and having to work extra at home, 25% lack of
enough supporting personnel, lack of effective management and no job guarantee, 17 % combination of many
different tasks, difficulty of cooperation with others, meetings of strategic and importance, teacher centered
education, teaching students in their first year, impolite students, fewer staff for increasing volume of work ,
insufficient financial support for college, not knowing what to do for some duties and being observed by
managers at lectures, having no authority on responsibilities and 8% the effect of problems out of work, badly
arranged weekly schedule, the number of managers, no reward for extra work, language usage level of
students, insufficient evaluation of lecturers, noise at crowded working areas, unpredictability of work, unable
to keep up with changes in ICT, lack of teachers from different origins, low status of teachers, increase in the
number of women staff, being indifferent to one’s own ideas , being off work a long time due to disease,
bullying by colleagues, education policies decided by top managers, lack of team for projects and teaching,
being indifferent to one’s ideas, having to work in two campuses and travel, lack of one’s own desk, lots of
formal procedures. As it can be understood from the frequency analysis of participants’ perceptions on
stressors at work in Table 2, the main sources of stressors at academic work could be those related to working
conditions, salary and social facilities of college, work itself, management and supervision, formal and informal
relations with colleagues and students and education policies of government and college.
Table 2: Stressors at work
Stressors at work
PDA PDB PDC PDD PDE PDF PLA PLB PLC PLD PLE PLF f %
1 Workload
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 12 100
2 e-mails to answer and to write
√ √
√ √
√ √ √ √ √ √ 10 83
3 The problems with ICT
√ √ √
√ √ √ √
√
8 67
4 Working with large number of students
√
√ √ √ √
√ √
7 58
5 Insufficient physical conditions
√ √
√ √ √
√ √
7 58
6 Meetings without agenda and planning
√ √
√
√
√
5 42
7 Changing profile of students and generation
√ √
√ √ √
5 42
8 Lack of time to do things due to deadlines
√
√
√
√
4 33
9 Having to work extra at home
√
√ √ √ 4 33
10 Lack of enough supporting personnel
√ √ √
3 25
11 Lack of effective management
√
√ √
3 25
12 No job guarantee
√
√ √ 3 25
13 Combination of many different tasks
√ √
2 17
14 Difficulty of cooperation with others
√ √
2 17
15 Meetings of strategic and importance
√
√
2 17
16 Teacher centered education
√
√
2 17
17 Teaching students in their first year
√
√
2 17
18 Impolite students
√
√
2 17
19 Fewer staff for increasing volume of work
√
√
2 17
20 Insufficient financial support for college
√ √
2 17
21 Not knowing what to do for some duties
√ √ 2 17
22 Being observed by managers at lectures
√ √ 2 17
23 Having no authority on responsibilities
√
√
2 17
24 The effect of problems out of work
√
1 8
25 Badly arranged weekly schedule
√
1 8
26 The number of managers
√
1 8
62
27 No reward for extra work
28 Language usage level of students
29 Insufficient evaluation of lecturers
30 Noise at crowded working areas
31 Unpredictability of work
32 Unable to keep up with changes in ICT
33 Lack of teachers from different origins
34 Low status of teachers
35 Increase in the number of women staff
36 Being indifferent to one’s own ideas
37 Being off work a long time due to disease
38 Bullying by colleagues
39 Education policies decided by top managers
40 Lack of team for projects and teaching
41 Being indifferent to one’s ideas
42 Having to work in two campuses and travel
43 Lack of one’s own desk
44 Lots of formal procedures
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
√ 1
√ 1
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
The effects of Stressors
Lecturers were also asked about how the stressors originating from academic work setting affected them. As a
result of analyses of 12 academic staff’s statements related to how the stressors originating from academic
work setting, 25% of academic staff mentioned about having ache in a part of body and being calm or no
communication with others, 17% feeling need for more social relations, heart beating, not being able to sleep,
feeling restless due to less time for family, feeling restless due to less time for social relations and talks, being
angry and arguing with people, complaining and questioning and being indifferent to others and 8% being
productive, being bad-humored, feeling restless due to lack of time for academic studies, being addictive of
something, being mentally absent, experiencing Monday morning syndrome, being unable to decide where to
start, being burned out, using non-verbal communication, feeling need for going to toilet more, having crisps in
muscles, having a stomachache as if vomiting, being sad, having difficulty in respiration, crying, neglecting
doing sports and feeling haunted. As it can be understood from the frequency analysis of the effects of
stressors on academic staff in Table 3, it could be commented that the stressors mainly affected academic staff
psychologically, socially, mentally and physiologically mostly negatively but also positively.
Table 3: The effects of stressors
Effects of stressors
PDA PDB PDC PDD PDE PDF PLA PLB PLC PLD PLE PLF f
1 Having ache in a part of body
√
√
√ 3
2 Being calm or no communication with others
√
√ √
3
3 Feeling need for more social relations
√
√
2
4 Heart beating
√
√
2
5 Not being able to sleep
√
√
2
6 Feeling restless due to less time for family
√ √
2
7 Feeling restless due to less time for social
√
√
2
relations and talks
8 Being angry and arguing with people
√
√
2
9 Complaining and questioning
√ √
2
10 Being indifferent to others
√ √ 2
11 Being productive
√
1
12 Being bad-humored
√
1
13 Feeling restless due to lack of time for
√
1
academic studies
14 Being addictive of something
√
1
%
25
25
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
8
8
8
8
63
15 Being mentally absent
16 Experiencing Monday Morning syndrome
17 Being unable to decide where to start
18 Being burned out
19 Using non-verbal communication
20 Feeling need for going to toilet more
21 Having crisps in muscles
22 Having a stomachache as if vomiting
23 Being sad
24 Having difficulty in respiration
25 Crying
26 Neglecting doing sports
27 Feeling haunted
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
√ 1
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
The ways to cope with Stress
Additionally, lecturers were asked about how to overcome stress as a result of stressors in academic work
setting. When analyzed how academic staff overcame stress as a result of stressors in academic work setting, it
was understood that 50% of academic staff overcame stress as a result of stressors in academic work setting
via warm social relations, 42% arranging work according to priorities and agenda, 33% running, cycling or
walking in fresh air, 25% support by spouse or family and face to face communication with colleges, 17%
thinking positively and stopping working, 8% seeing managers as mentor, knowing what to focus on, balancing
payment in mind, using alternative teaching methods and material, not carrying work to home life, using smart
phone to check mails anywhere, distinction between a friend and a colleague, giving more importance to
family, managing meetings effectively, empathy with new generation, trusting in staff and giving responsibility
by college management, playing an instrument, going to a concert with friends, having good sense of humor,
confrontation and talking with colleagues, finding something interesting to work on, going to physiotherapist
for a massage, escaping from stressors, going to sauna, meetings with friends out of work, getting medical
treatment, resting at home, keeping on working and thinking about the times to work less after hardworking.
As it can be understood from the frequency analysis of academic staff’s way to overcome stress in Table 4, the
main ways to overcome stress could be those of having informal social interaction, doing hobbies such as
sports and music, getting medical support, being professional, realistic, reasonable or optimistic and avoiding
stress.
Table 4: The ways to cope with stress
The ways to cope with stress
1 Warm social relations
2 Arranging work according to priorities and
agenda
3 Running, cycling or walking in fresh air
4 Support by spouse or family
5 Face to face communication with colleges
6 Thinking positively
7 Stopping working
8 Seeing managers as mentor
9 Knowing what to focus on
10 Balancing payment in mind
11 Using alternative teaching methods and
material
12 Not carrying work to home life
13 Using smart phone to check mails anywhere
14 Distinction between a friend and a colleague
15 Giving more importance to family
PDA PDB PDC PDD PDE PDF PLA PLB PLC PLD PLE PLF F %
√
√
√ √
√ √ 6 50
√
√
√
√ √
5 42
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
1
1
33
25
25
17
17
8
8
8
8
1
1
1
1
8
8
8
8
64
16 Managing meetings effectively
17 Empathy with new generation
18 Trusting in staff and giving responsibility by
college management
19 Playing an instrument
20 Going to a concert with friends
21 Having good sense of humor
22 Confrontation and talking with colleagues
23 Finding something interesting to work on
24 Going to physiotherapist for a massage
25 Escaping from stressors
26 Going to sauna
27 Meetings with friends out of work
28 Getting medical treatment
29 Resting at home
30 Keeping on working
31 Thinking about the times to work less after
hardworking
√
√
√
1 8
1 8
1 8
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
√ 1
√ 1
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
The metaphors for Stress
Metaphors formulated by 12 participants can be categorized under six themes as in Table 5: animals, things,
vehicles, plants, nature and micro organisms. Four of the participants formulated thing metaphors in defining
stress. PDC described stress as a balloon: “It is a balloon because the thing with stress is that everything is
getting bigger and bigger…You stop getting bigger, because you can fly with it. If you aren’t careful, it takes you
to Mars…there is somebody blowing the balloon, hmmm and it is two things: the expectations people have of
you. So that’s organization and colleagues …a bit blowing the balloon and it is also yourself thinking what
others expect of you and what you expect of yourself. So I think you blow the balloon as well. And sometimes
you stop blowing and open the balloon and …gets a bit smaller…”. Similarly, PLE used balloon metaphor for
describing stress: “I think it is a sort of balloon. That’s it is on a way to collapse and you can be yourself find
away so you can open that you don’t collapse. Air can go back out…Yes a balloon. And lots of stress the balloon
inflates and explodes. If less stress it no more inflates. On the right with a good amount of air... If it is less you
have no balloon like that.” As for PDD, he defined stress as a sponge describing the effect of workload: “Sponge
because you only have stress when you function at big efficiency, sponge is like sometimes. When you put
sponge in water, it becomes heavy, when you don’t put it in water, it is very light. And the moments when you
have lots of stress in months like December and January, then this sponge being in water, it is very heavy. So
there is a stress. Months like July and August when you practically you don’t have to work, then it is very light.
Something like that. But sponge is still there because we are still working for school.” Additionally, PLD used the
term walls for defining stress: ” Walls coming and closing me… Like these rooms the walls are around me. Yeah,
no space. That is everything…typical for me. Something like….If people don’t give me space …It gives me stress…
Feeling you stuck in the corner. I feel stuck and breathless”
Table 5: Metaphors for stress
Metaphors
1 Things
2 Animals
3 Vehicles
4 Plants
5 Nature
6 Micro organisms
PDA PDB PDC PDD PDE PDF PLA PLB PLC PLD PLE PLF F %
1
1
1 1
4 33
1 1
1
3 25
1 1
2 7
1
1 8
1
1 8
1 1 8
Three of the participants formulated animal metaphors in defining stress. For instance, PDA defined stress as a
chicken without a head: “I have one. I feel then like a chicken, because chickens are very nervous animals. And
65
they can run all directions. We have an expression a chicken without a head. I am feeling like a chicken without
a head, a chicken without a head, she can`t see where she is going. When I have a stress, I have feeling that I
don’t know in which direction I move anymore and do this and this and this…” Besides, PDB defined stress a
legendary animal dragon: “Maybe like a red dragon. It is monster with fire and it is not pleasant. When a
dragon really gets bad, it is the fire that comes out… because it is unpleasant, as a monster dragon is
unpleasant. I think stress is something that is unpleasant all the time. Some moments it gets worse. There is
more stress when the dragon give out….its fire and it destroys maybe destroy something….in fire. Like stress for
me, stress destroy my relations or with myself...”. Additionally, PLA used the metaphor snake for defining
stress": “A snake…It is poisoning and sweeping around and it is …you are in the middle of it. You know big boas
that circle around you and you get no longer air. Snake…yes, yes. I think that you know what I mean, the boa.
But the poisoning the fact that it is in you before you are aware of it. That’s why I think of a snake.”
Two of the participants formulated vehicle metaphors in defining stress. PDE described stress as a submarine:
“Sometimes I wake in the middle of night. This is like a submarine blocked on the soil of the sea, it can`t go up
and go down. We don’t see anything. A submarine which had an engine default. Engine breaks down. So it lays
there on the bottom of the sea. You don’t hear anything. You don’t see anything. But you know that it is much
pressures all that water. It is pressing on your submarine. You don’t see anything. You can`t move. So submarine
in the deep sea lost its way and blocked and can`t move.” Besides, PDF described stress as a train or car coming
towards himself: “Maybe I can describe it like a train or a car I am standing and car or train is coming at you.
You know that it is coming so you have to make sure that it doesn’t hit you. And I think I am mostly good at
that. To do something else to go running or go or do this or that. I think some people …they are working so hard
that they can`t see train coming or the car coming. I think, one hits you and then it is too late. I think stress is
something that makes you damaged.”
Three other participants used different metaphors for stress. Participant PLB used a plant metaphor and she
thought stress was like a thistle : “…good things and bad things and you have to find a kind of, you know,
Scotland has a plant …thistle. A plant to its history …….so it is very hard with also hard leaves. And it has pins as
well. And it has purple flower. I think the flower is good thing of it. It is nice. It is decorative and gives you
energy. So that is eustress. On the other hand, stress is not so comfortable to handle. It is a little bit stingy,
aching and makes me angry, nervous. So those are not nice feelings about it. This plant is nice with flowers but
similar to cactus.” On the other hand, participant PLC formulated a nature metaphor and she defined stress as
volcano: “For me because I am extroverted person. More like a volcano…I am very extrovert person. All my
emotions are outside. All emotions my inside are also my outside. So when I am very stressed, I can erupt…
when you are volcano, you have lava all going and the lava is going to find ways the landscape and I think that’s
my way also I interrupt and I think OK. I am going I will handle with it. How am I going to search my way? To get
it altogether, I think that’s the lava who takes my way.” Finally, PLF defined stress as a micro organism and
defined it as a virus: “A virus like that and an impact on whole your system…how you can think, you feel and like
that. Yes, a virus is OK. it makes you ill. Sometimes physically although I don’t complain I think. In your head a
feel like everything is going to have it too much. Yes it is like that.” As it can be understood from the frequency
analysis of metaphors defined by academic staff in Table 4, stress was perceived not only as a phenomenon
which was negative but also positive.
FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS
With participants PDA, PDB, PDC and PDD in addition to individual interviews, a focus group interview was also
done at Demerstraatin in Diest Campus at 13:30-15:00 on 26 March 2012. The focus group interview was done
in PDC’s own classroom in Diest Campus with the same questions except metaphor question: definition of
stress, the stressors at work, the effect of stressors and the ways to cope with stress. All participants used
nearly the same definition for the word stress. They all agreed on the definition of stress as “feeling of not
being able to carry out her duties and responsibilities on time and sufficiently due to time pressure, deadline and
combinations of lots of work at the same time”. When asked the stressors at work, in addition to what they
stated in individual interviews, PDB complained that her colleagues’ wanting everything well arranged for the
organization of coaching students by colleagues and new staff were more dependent on her support as she
66
was the responsible staff for this organization of practical training of the students in Diest campus, PDA told
about the difficulty of putting all work in order according to their priorities as there were too many works with
nearly the same deadlines, all participants complained that they had to work more and harder due to the
increase in the number of students in recent years and PDC and PDD about difficulty of working in Diest and
Heverlee at the same time due to different organizational cultures, PDD complained about the lack of teaching
tools such as smart boards and added that they had to train teachers according to old fashioned instruments
but those students were to work with modern instruments at schools and additionally PDD stated that he felt
stress as he had to renew his contract with Khleuven Teacher Training Colleague every year as he was not
senior lecture and he would have no job guarantee the following year. When asked about how they overcame
stress, in addition to what they stated in individual interviews, PDC suggested that PDB should inform and
organize students instead of organizing colleagues for coaching students during practical training at schools,
PDD stated that sometimes whining relieved himself and mentioned about time management although it was
not a solution due to high amount of work, PDA stated that she overcame stress with warm social relations
with her colleagues and her family and by playing tennis, PDB stated that she overcame stress by looking for
holidays and making plans for going somewhere and doing aerobic, PDD stated that he overcame stress by
doing sports such as playing squash and PDB stated that he overcame stress by having dinner once a week with
his old friends and PDA also added that she thought of working less percent the following year in order to
decrease her workload. As for the effects of stressors in addition to what they stated in individual interviews,
PDA told that stress caused an increase in her blood pressure and she did not feel well physically and PDB told
that stress affected her social communication with colleagues and family members , she preferred keeping
calm and she functioned less at home when she felt stress. PDD said that he functioned better when there was
an optimum level of stress.
OBSERVATIONS
In the observation in International Week 2012 organized by Katholieke Hogeschool Leuven (Leuven University
th
College) Department of Health and Technology, at 09:00-10:00 on March 20 2012 just as the participants
stated the problem of ICT in the interviews, I witnessed the breakdown of the projection during slide show in a
big auditorium at international week. A staff was presenting a documentary film by power point called `Life in
Namibia`. But suddenly the projection broke down. Many young boys from ICT department came but could not
fix it. So he overcame this stressor originating from the breakdown of ICT by using an alternative material for
the seminar, he just came in front of audience and played the guitar and sang a folk song of Namibia. He went
on playing at least 30 minutes. In another observation in International Week 2012 organized by Katholieke
Hogeschool Leuven (Leuven University College) Department of Health and Technology at 17:30-18:30 on March
th
20 2012, just as participant PDF stated : “I also think that sometimes ICT is a bit of problem of my colleagues
as well. Because they don’t know how to use it or when there is a small problem, they don’t know how to fix
it”, I witnessed a staff complaining about there was no computer in the class where she was going to give a
lecture and called ICT officers to tell about and the officer came to help her, but it was funny that she did not
notice that there was a computer attached just behind the monitor.
In Khleuven Teacher Training Colleague academic staff did not have their own rooms if they were not in an
administrative position as stated by all participants. They all used the large staff rooms mutually. As the
participants stated in interviews, they usually used the staff room before and after their courses, coffee and
lunch breaks and social interaction. Staff rooms were observed four times in Heverlee at 09:00-10:00 and at
th
th
th
12:00-13:30 on 8 March 2012, at 10:00-10:45 on 14 March, 2012 and at 11:00-11:30 on 16 March, 2012.
There were two main staff rooms in Heverlee side by side: one was a well-organized staff room for usage of
basic canteen, resting facilities and preparing and getting ready for courses by academic staff and the other
was the room with computers where staff could check their mails, prepare for their courses. The most crowded
th
times of the room was at lunch time. For instance, at 12:00-13:30 on 8 March 2012 at lunch time forty-two
staff used the room. Staff also met for social interaction and meetings in the rooms. For instance, at 11:00th
11:30 on 16 March, 2014 thirty-two staff and I came together including principle and vice-principle for a
minute silence for mourning of the 22 children and 6 adults from Saint Lambertus School in Heverlee and the
Stekske School in Lommel who died in a devastating bus crash in Switzerland. In Diest I also observed the staff
67
rooms: the one in the new building at 12:00-13:30 on 23th February 2012 and the other one in the old building
Demerstraatin at 11.00-11.30 on 24 April 2012. The staff room in the new building was smaller than the one
both in Heverlee and in the old main building Demerstraatin in Diest but the rooms had the same facilities for
the staff. Staff rooms offered academic staff a setting where they could communicate with each other, which
was good to overcome stress due to workload as stated by participants in interviews. Besides, to compare the
facilities between the old building and the new building in Gebouw Flos Campi in Heverlee and to see in the
context what the participants PDB, PDC, PDE, PDF, PLA, PLD and PLE mentioned about physical conditions of
the buildings, I observed the classrooms, meeting room, auditorium and personnel room in the new building in
Gebouw Flos Campi in Heverlee at 10:30-11:30 on 17 April 2012 , in the classrooms the desks were movable
the staff and students could arrange or design as they liked and in the auditorium the seats were large and
comfortable and it was equipped with the new technology and the meeting room was large and bright with
movable and comfortable chairs as PLC stated whereas in the old building in Gebouw Flos Campi in Heverlee
st
where I stayed during my research from 1 February to 30April 2014 and where I observed the classrooms at
13:30-14:30 on 22 March 2012, at 11:00-12:00 on 19 April 2012, at 14:00-15:00 on 25 April 2012, meeting
room at 13:30-14:30 on 23 March 2014, auditorium at 17:00- 17:30 on 20 April 2012, auditorium and meeting
room were smaller in size, chairs in meeting room were not as comfortable as the ones in the new building,
desks were not movable in classrooms, not easy to rearrange or redesign and there were less places for
students to study in groups as PLE mentioned.
In the observation of PDC’s own classroom at 13:30 on 26 March 2012, just before the focus group interview,
just opposite the board there were desks for students designed in U style but in double U designs one front and
other was just back of it. In each U designs there were chairs for 22 students all together for 44 students. This
design clearly showed that spaces in the classrooms did not meet the increasing number of students, which
was a source of stress, as PDC stated in individual and focus group interviews. This design was also observed at
PDA’s lecture at 11.30-12.30 on 24 April 2012 at Demerstraatin in Diest Campus. PDA stated that “I use double
U designs to overcome the difficulty of lecturing in crowded classes."
DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
Weekly schedules of all participants were analyzed in terms of their workload and types of work in 2012 spring
semester. Except PDB, PDD, PLB, PLD and PDF, all participants worked full time during the academic semester.
PDA worked at Pre-School Education Program in Teacher Training College, PDB, PDC, PDD, PDE, PDF and PLA,
PLC and PLD at Primary Education program, PLE both Primary and Pre-School programs and PLF both Primary
and Secondary programs, PLB as a manager at international affairs department. PDA, PDB, PDE and PDF only
worked in Diest Campus but attended meetings in Heverlee Campus in Leuven, PLA, PLB, PLC, PLD and PLF only
worked in Heverlee Campus, PDC, PDD and PLE both in Diest Campus and in Heverlee Campus. PDA coached
eight students, PDB twelve, PDC nineteen, PDD and PLE twelve, and PDF fourteen, PLC five, PLD seventeen and
PLF thirty. PDA visited schools for observing practical teacher training of students two days a week, PDB ,PDC
and PLC one and half a day, PDD and PDF one, PLD and PLE half a day, PLF one and also PLA one but for
checking practice in schools and dealing with the problems. PDA and PLD taught courses for six hours a week,
PDB did not teach in autumn term, PDC eleven hours, PDD eight hours, PDF three, PLC four, PLE fourteen and
PLF ten. PDA attended meetings one and half a day a week, PLE one day, PDB, PDC, PLC and PLD half a day, PDE
and PLA four and half a day and PDF and PLB two days. Additionally, PLA managed educational sciences
department and organized a staff meeting every week, PDE managed Diest campus, PLB managed and
coordinated international exchanges for incoming and outgoing staff and students based on bilateral
agreement with universities of other countries PDB coordinated practical teaching training of sixty students in
Diest campus, PDF and PLC worked on a project one day a week both with staff and students, PLC worked as a
Coordinator of Education for Flexible Routes.
This study was done to understand how academic staff defined stress, what academic staff’s perceptions on
stress as a result of stressors originating from work setting were, how stressors affected academic staff, how
68
academic staff overcame stress as a result of stressors in academic setting and what and why academic staff
thought job stress or stressors were like. Accordingly, data were collected through semi-structured individual
and focus group interviews, participant observations and document analysis of staff’s weekly schedules.
Findings related to the definition of stress showed that stress was not only a negative phenomenon affecting
staff but also a positive phenomenon energizing people as stated by PDA. This finding is consistent with the
definition of Selye’s (1976) eustress which is called a positive, healthful and developmental stress response.
Just as tension causes muscles to strengthen, some level of stress may lead to better performance and a more
adjusted personality” (Tosi, Rizzo & Carroll, 1990).
As for analysis of participants’ perceptions on stressors at work, they complained about stressors related to
working conditions, salary and social facilities of college, work itself, management and supervision, formal and
informal relations with colleagues and students and education policies of government and college. In the
stressors participants complained about, workload was in the first rank, e-mails to answer second, working
with large number of students third, insufficient physical conditions fourth, meetings without agenda and
planning and changing profile of students and generation fifth. These findings are parallel with some studies
done on stress in education sector. For instance, Corcoran, Walker, and White’s (1988) found that overcrowded
classrooms and heavy teacher workloads created stressful working conditions for teachers and caused
absenteeism. Pithers and Soden (1998) also found that heavy workload, lack of resources and lack of time
were certainly common sources of occupational stress for both the Scottish and Australian vocational
teachers. Additionally, Gunbayi (2009) found that the things which were stressful for academic staff were
workload, lack of administrative support and unpredictability. A more surprising finding was related to national
education policy and the lack of teachers from different origins in Belgium which was another source of stress
as PDE stated:“And especially education for instance we see that lots of people of foreign origin they become
lawyers, they become politicians, they become economists but not teachers. Not teachers. That’s something to
do with language. Teacher training is very strict on the knowledge of Dutch Language because you have to
learn the language.” As PDE stated, that is not good when only Flemish origin boys and girls become teachers;
they will have difficulty to teach students from different origins.
Although complained only by three junior academic staff PDD, PLE and PLF, one of the stressors worth
mentioning was those of no job guarantee and being observed by managers at lectures. Three of the
participants PDD, PLE and PLF were worried about their future at work due to agreement done every year
although they knew it was typical on the education in Flanders area in Belgium. This finding is consistent with
Catano et al.’s (2013) finding that that less secure employment status and work-life imbalance strongly
predicted job dissatisfaction; work-life imbalance strongly predicted increased psychological distress. This
finding is also consistent with Gillespie et al.’s (2001) finding in their research that two-thirds of academic staff
described feeling anxious and stressed about the security of their jobs as a consequence of redundancy cycles.
The management of the redundancy process was described as poor and often resulted in the ill-treatment of
redundant staff, which further contributed to a climate of stress within the workplace.
Participants PDD, PLD, PLE and PLF complained about having to work extra at home as in education sector it
was inevitable that one carry his or her work to home. This finding is consistent with Clark’s (2000) view that
“Work and family systems, though different, are interconnected. Current theories assert that emotions spill over
between the two systems or that the disappointment one may experience in one system may propel individuals
to pursue fulfilling activities in the other”(Clark, 2000, p. 748). It is also worth noting that five of the academic
staff 42% mentioned about changing profile of students and generation. For example PDA criticized the
students’ being indifferent to studying and reading “The profile of students….they are more internet users and
don’t read books. They are not interested in studying… Additionally, PDB mentioned about students’ being very
familiar with ICT “The new generation have different mentality. Yes it is new generations who have grown up
with computer and ICT. You don’t know if they are listening to you or just surfing and checking e-mails.”
Similarly, PLA criticized the profiles of students who wanted to be teachers “When you go to teacher education,
you should have kindness to and respect to other persons… you can ask at the beginning of course to turn off
mobile phones but again you repeat this you have to take off. This is not evident for a person of twenty years”.
69
On the other hand PLF stressed on the importance of classroom management of new generation: “For the
young people now they say perfectly normal that they can check their mobile phones any time in the day that
you want. So the students are really surprised that they couldn’t do that during the lesson… classroom
management, lecturers today I think they have to do it more and they have to be stricter about it.” These
findings are consistent with Glasser’s (1990) and Mendler and Curwin’s (1983) views on today’s students that a
great many of today’s students have “low self-image” and “little interest” in school.
The findings related to the effects of stressors showed that the stressors had psychological, social, mental and
physiological effect on academic staff. Among the effects of stressors participants mentioned about having
ache in a part of body and being calm or no communication with others were in the first rank, need for more
social relations, heart beating, not being able to sleep, less time for family, social relations and talks, being
angry and arguing with people, complaining and questioning and being indifferent to others second. Those
findings are supported by Barkhuizen & Rothmann (2008) with the findings in their study showing that
stressors were important contributing factors to ill health of academics in higher education institutions.
Besides, ill health could result in sickness, absenteeism and early retirements in higher education institutions.
Besides, a study by Allen, Herst, Bruck, and Sutton (2000) also showed that stress related to outcomes were
those negative symptoms such as poor appetite, nervous tension, blood pressure, depression, cigarette use,
heavy drinking and negative feelings at work.
When academic staff were asked how to overcome stress originating from academic work setting, they
reported that they overcame stress by having informal social interaction, doing hobbies such as sports and
music, getting medical support, being professional, realistic, reasonable or optimistic and avoiding stress. These
findings are consistent with Gillespie et al.’s (2001) results in their study that learning to recognize and
understand stress, managing expectations, planning and prioritizing, taking regular breaks from the work
station, regularly exercising, and seeking alternative therapies for stress relief (e.g. yoga, massage) , switching
off from work, and focusing on non-work-related interests (e.g. gardening and sport)were reported as stress
management techniques by three-quarters of all of the groups.
12 participants formulated metaphors related to animals, things, vehicles, plants, nature and micro organisms
and they explained why they formulated those metaphors. All of the metaphors showed the negative sides of
stress but only the metaphor thistle, formulated by PLB, showed both negative and positive sides of stress. One
of the participants, PDA formulated animal metaphor as a chicken without head. Her metaphor is parallel with
Middleton’s (2009) definition of presenteeism: “The term `presenteeism` describes those who are at work but
are not working effectively because of stress. We have all had likes that where you feel as if you have run
around all day like a headless chicken but accomplished next to nothing.”
The findings of focus group, participant observation and document analysis also supported the findings based
on individual interviews related to stressors as heavy workload, insufficient physical conditions, increasing
number of students, combination of many different tasks and the problems with ICT and related to the ways to
cope with stress as using staff room for resting and social interaction with colleagues and using alternative
designs- e.g. double u design- in order to overcome the difficulties of crowded classrooms.
To sum up, these findings have important implications for the professional work life of academic staff working
in universities. Findings showed that there were intensive and various kinds of stress originating from stressors
in academic setting and the effects of stress might be either negative or positive. Thus, both academic staff and
managers had better be aware of the stressors which are likely to affect academic work life negatively and
positively in universities in order to set up an academic setting where academic staffs work happily and
effectively.
Acknowledgement: This research project was supported by Katholieke University Katholieke Hogeshool Leuven
(Belgium), Akdeniz University the scientific research projects coordination unit and Turkish Higher Education
Council. I would like to thank to all principals, managers and academic and other staff who supported my post
doctorate study during my stay as visiting scholar in Katholieke Hogeshool Leuven. I would also like to dedicate
70
my research to 22 children and 6 adults from Saint Lambertus School in Heverlee and the Stekske School in
Lommel who died in a devastating bus crash in Switzerland on 14 March, 2012 and also to Griet Maes and
Tony’s son, Jef Craps, who died due to melanoma-cancer in August 2013.
He completed his BA studies on English Language Teaching, MA on Educational
Administration and Supervision, PhD. on Educational Administration, Supervision,
Planning and Economy in Hacettepe University in Turkey and Post Doctorate Study on
Qualitative Research Methods in Sheffield Hallam University in the UK. He has been
working as an Associate Professor at Akdeniz University, Faculty of Education,
Educational Sciences Department since 2003. He is scholarly interested in qualitative
research methods, organizational communication, organizational culture and climate,
motivation at work, job stressors and school leadership, vocational education and
training linked to employment issues and national development particularly in Turkey
but also in Central/Western Asia and Europe.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ilhan Gunbayi
Akdeniz University
Educational Sciences Department
Dumlupinar Bulvari
Kampus 07058 Antalya Turkey
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73
FOREIGN LANGUAGE USE ANXIETY IN TEACHERS’ AND STUDENTS’ ATTITUDE
Shalaleh ZABARDAST (M.A)
Goldis Star Foreign Languages Institute
Jolfa - IRAN
ABSTRACT
In order to find out students’ and teachers’ views about foreign language use in different contexts and the
relationship between FL (Foreign Language) use and foreign language use anxiety and students overall
motivation to learn FL, an empirical study had been done between 62 first-years English Language Teaching
students of Hacettepe and English Language and Literature students of Selcuk universities, as well as 21 English
Language instructors from both universities. The results of the study represented that in some cases students
didn’t like to use FL; also, students who had moderate motivation, showed more interest in university
requirements and FL culture. Analysis of the data revealed relatively positive relationship between FL use and
FL-use anxiety.
Key Words: Foreign language use, Foreign language use anxiety, Motivation in learning.
INTRODUCTION
Today, English language plays a vital role in the world. The need for this language also reflected in school and
university settings of the most of the countries that look for prominent position in the world. Since the advent
of the communicative approach, in the most of the curricular documents designed by schools or universities,
English language teachers have been encouraged to use FL in the classroom. Even though there is no
pedagogical evidence to show that more foreign language input results in more effective acquisition, only the
stress on teachers’ quantity of foreign language use remains.
So, it is needed English language teachers create an environment in which students achieve success in learning.
Unfortunately, nowadays, most of the instructors productively and professionally have not developed
distinctive approaches in foreign language (FL) use and first language (L1) use in the classroom setting. Their
preferred approaches based on training, knowledge of the first or second language acquisition (SLA), literature,
official policy, and classroom experiences (Hall, 2003). These approaches can’t help students to succeed in FL
learning; therefore, it makes questions on, how much FL must be used and in what contexts, as well as how
much the instructor expects students use FL in the classroom (Levine, 2003).
In answer to these questions natural approach point out that the language should be used in “communicative
situations without recourse to the use of the native language” (Krashen, 1983: 9). This view of the foreign
language use in the classroom language also suggested in most of the SLA researches, especially studies dealing
with input and interaction (e.g., Brooks, 1990; Ellis, 1999; Gass, 1997; Johnson, 1995 cited in Levine, 2003).
Moreover, in order to cope with pedagogical difficulties, most of the teachers put emphasis on the need for
learners to experience and use only the foreign language (FL) in classrooms. So, they increasingly have stressed
the importance of interaction and negotiation of meaning and form (Long 2000; Pica 2002, Lin 2000).
whereas these studies put emphasis on the extensive use of FL in the classroom, some of the other studies
(Long 2000) support that the use of L1 at the classroom enhance students’ comprehension, maybe as a result,
as Swain (2000) claimed, teachers should integrate L1 and FL to mediate students understanding of the task; to
74
mediate their FL learning; and to create the affective environment needed to get the task done. Generally they
have suggested diverse remedies including use of L1 along with FL has been proposed for various pedagogical
reasons (Medgyes, 1994 cited in Kang, 2008).
While some of researchers accepted as true the use of both L1 and FL, they emphasized L1 should not be overrelied on, but it should be of secondary importance, and should be used relevantly and selectively (Castellotti
and Moore, 1997; Nation, 1997cited in Levine, 2003). Consequently most of them accept first language use
because of various pedagogical reasons as: promotion of transition to L2 use (Shamash, 1990), improvements
in meaning negotiations (Swain, 2000), better L2 comprehension (Turnbull, 2001), and construction of
authentic learning environments (Cook, 2001).
In look for teachers’ or students' preferences of FL use in classroom setting, different researchers got different
results, Castellotti (1997) investigated L1 use by four secondary school teachers of FL Spanish and English, he
claimed that L1 contributed to the learners’ better comprehension of FL inputs (cited in Kang, 2008). Kim
(2002) asserted that students who didn’t use the first language had low level of proficiency and inadequate
motivation. With considering all of these underlying assumptions, achieving optimal levels of FL and L1 use is
important in foreign language programs.
With the aim of finding teachers’ and their students’ views of foreign language use in the classroom and
relationship between students language use and language use anxiety, current study represents the empirical
studies to present the results of questionnaires that are completed by FL students and FL instructors. The
purpose at this stage is to identify what are students and instructors beliefs about FL use in the classroom_
with a central focus on the students’ responses_ then aims to find the relationship between FL use and their
anxiety in using FL. The following questions will be answered in the study:
1 How does reported FL use differ for different interlocutors?
2 How does reported FL use differ in different communicative contexts?
3 How do instructors and students perceive FL-use anxiety, particularly in different communicative contexts?
4 What is the relationship between FL use and FL use anxiety?
RESEARCH METHOD
Participants
The questionnaire was administered to the students with the help of their teachers. It submitted to the 62 first
year ELT and ELL students of Selcuk and Hacettepe Universities and 21 language teachers of Selcuk and
Hacettepe Universities in Turkey. Below table clearly represents the number of participants in two categories.
Students N=62
Hacettepe ELT students
Selcuk ELT students
32
30
Teachers
N=21
Hacettepe ELT teachers
Hacettepe ELL teachers
Selcuk ELT teachers
Selcuk ELL teachers
5
6
5
5
Instruments
The questionnaire that is used in this study is designed by Levine (2003). It is aimed to understand students’
views on the desirability of using the foreign language. And estimation of FL use in classes, and the teachers’
attitudes to use the FL are also investigated.
The data are grouped into 5 categories based on first year university students’ and foreign language
instructors’ attitudes. The purpose is to identify similarities and differences between students and teachers
attitudes but the central point of study is on the students’ views; so, the causes of the variation will be
explored. In order to address the research questions, this case study compiled information from questionnaire.
In analyzing the 32 items, a statistical technique (SPSS 16.0) is used to identify whether the percentages and
75
graphs of two groups on a variable differed or not. The data collected from questionnaire were categorized into
2 tables (only look for students attitudes), and 3 graphs, each tables look for students’ and teachers’ tendencies
in English language learning settings.
Procedures
The article is divided into six sections; the first section is about the extent of students’ motivation to learn
foreign language and the second part looks for students’ primary reason to learn other language and third part
studies students and teachers' attitude about foreign language use between different interlocutors. Forth part
studies students’ and instructors’ estimation of foreign language use in different contexts. In these parts I carry
out factors analysis to see respondents’ consistency. Respondents also estimated the percentage of time they
actually use the foreign language on a five-points scale (less than 20%; 20%-40%; about 50%; 60%-80%; over
80%).
In other part I look for students’ and teachers’ attitude towards foreign language use anxiety. In the end I
examine students’ and teachers’ views about foreign language and first language uses in the classroom, in
these parts (third and forth parts) teachers and students express the level of agreement with answer to five
point Likert scale that is scale ranging from 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree. And the last part of the
article looks for the relationship between foreign language use and foreign language use anxiety.
RESULTS
The below sections provide descriptions of students’ and teachers’ attitudes about foreign language use in
English classes. These descriptions highlight different instructional attitudes between universities’ students and
teachers, and how much the students adapted foreign language learning.
Students' and Instructors' Foreign Language Use among Different Interlocutors
This part represents graphically estimation of FL used by different interlocutors (student with student and
student with instructor); in other words, Students and instructors report 1. Their views about the use of L1 and
FL by their teachers 2. The amount of FL use when they speak with their teachers, 3. The use of FL when they
communicate with their classmates. ( In graph the numbers that are besides instructor and student e.g.
student1 refers to first question , in other words in students 1 we get the answer for instructors’ attitudes
about the amount of FL use when communicate with their students in the classroom and students’ attitudes
about their instructors foreign language use when communicate with them”)
Figure 1: Comparison of Stude nt and Instructor
Estimate s of Fore ign Language Use among Diffe rent
Inte rlocutor
50
40
30
20
10
0
Students Teachers Students Teachers Students Teachers
1
1
2
2
3
3
25.8
19
41.9
19
20%_40%
16.1
14.3
29
33.3
35.5
33.3
40%_60%
22.6
14.3
35.5
19
17.7
28.6
0%_20%
4.8
60%_80%
33.9
47.6
6.5
19
3.2
19
80%_100%
22.6
23.8
3.2
9.5
1.6
0
76
1. Instructors’ views about the amount of FL use when communicate with their students in the classroom
and students views about their instructors foreign language use when communicate with them”
As graphically figure 1 reveals 33.9 percent of students believed “their instructor use the FL to communicate
with them about 60%_80% of the time in the classroom” and 22.6% of students claimed their instructors use FL
about 80%_100%, whereas instructors graph shows, nearly half of the instructors (47.6%) use foreign language
between 60%_80% of time. Results suggest that, most of the instructors comparatively experienced high
amount of communication with their students in the foreign language and relatively their students agreed with
their claims.
2. Students’ and Instructors’ views about “students foreign language use when communicate with their
instructors”
Second category of graph deals with students’ and instructors’ views about “FL use when communicate with
their instructors”. Results of this part indicates 35.5% of students claim “they use the FL to communicate with
the instructor about 40%-60% of the times in the classroom” while 33.3% of teachers estimated students use of
FL_ when they communicate with them_ between 20%-40% and only 19% of instructors confirmed students
response.
3. Students’ and Instructors’ Views about “students foreign language use when they communicate with their
classmates”
In the next item of graph_ asked instructors and students to estimate the amount of FL used by students when
speaking with each other_ two groups reported similarly. 41.9% of students claimed that they used the FL 0% _
20% of the time when communicate with their classmates; likewise, 33.3 % of the instructors reported that
their students used the FL 0% to 20% of the time when speak with each other. These data reveals that students
use less FL when they speak with their classmates,
To make summery, first graph reveals that, students used less FL when they communicated with their
classmates and used more FL when communicated with their instructors; and claimed the most FL use by their
teachers in FL classroom. Maybe FL use by students when they speak with their classmates causes to timidity
and shyness. These data perhaps reject by the works of Ingram and O’Neill’s who find (2002) that two-thirds of
the students in their study sought more active, real-life use of the FL with their teachers.
Students’ and Instructors’ Estimation of the Foreign Language Use in Different Contexts
This part represents the frequencies of estimated FL use in different contexts, at this point the table of
frequencies measure students’ and instructors’ views toward use of topic-based/thematic activities, 1. When
communicate in FL, 2. When communicate about tests quizzes and other assignments, 3. When speak about
grammar and its usages, 4. when communicate with each other out of the classroom. For the comparison, fivepoint scales are represented as 0%-20%; 20%-40%; about 50%; 60%-80%; over 80%
Figure2: Student' and Instructor' Estimations of Foreign
Language Use in Different Contexts
80
60
40
20
0
Students Teachers Students Teachers Students Teachers Students Teachers
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
21
0
9.7
21
20%_40%
16.1
9.5
32.3
17.7
40%_60%
22.6
19
24.2
52.4
33.9
33.3
60%_80%
37.1
47.6
27.4
28.6
19.4
47.6
1.6
0
3.2
23.8
6.5
19
8.1
9.5
1.6
0
0%_20%
80%_100%
9.5
71
47.6
21
28.6
4.8
23.8
77
1. Students’ and instructors’ Views about the Use of the FL to Communicate within Topic Based/Thematic
Activities
First category of figure 2 represents students’ and instructors’ attitudes about the use of FL to communicate
within topic-based /thematic activities. As table reveals in fact the most of instructors (47.6 %) reported using
English as the main medium of communication in topic based/thematic based activities about 60%_80% of the
time and 23.8% of them reported use FL about 80%-100% of the time on those activities. Also 37.1% of
students placed themselves as the proficient user of FL in thematic/topic-based activities. Perhaps these kind
activities create more enjoyment and cooperation in the classroom, consequently have an effect on both group
preferences.
2. Students’ and Instructors’ Views about the Use of FL When Discussing or Working on Grammar and its
Usage
The second part of the table represents 52.4% of instructors “use the FL to communicate about grammar and
usage” about 40%-60% of the time whereas only 24.2% of students accepted this time to spend on these
activities and 32.3% of them expressed they use FL to speak about this subjects between 20%_40% of time.
3. Students’ and Instructors’ Views about the Use of FL to Discuss about Tests, Quizzes and Other
Assignments
In the response to third item of table, as we see the FL use among first year students not differ as much as
might be expected. 33.9 % of students stated moderate attitude toward the use FL to communicate about
tests, quizzes, and other assignments. While the greatest difference was in their teachers’ responses, 47.6 % of
instructors reported dominant use of the FL about 60% to 80% of the time.
4. Students’ and Instructors’ Views about the Use of FL to Communicate with each other Outsides of the
Class Time
In this category most of the students expressed their rejection toward the use of FL outsides of the classroom,
in other words, respondents reported they prefer to have limited exposure to FL use out of the classroom, and
their teachers claimed students used the FL quite sparingly across a classroom learning cycle. 71% of students
reported they didn’t use the FL to communicate with their instructor outside of class time (e.g., office hours, in
the hall, before or after class) about 0%_20% of the time, therefore they see the classroom may be the only
opportunity to practice English communicatively, and 47.6% of teachers accepted this response that they didn’t
use FL to communicate with their students outside of class time.
Students’ and Instructor’ Agreement with Foreign Language Use Anxiety in General
Figure 3 represents the percentage of students and instructors agreement with the statements of given items.
Figure 3: Student and Instructor Agreement with
Statements about Target-Language-Use Anxiety in General
50
40
30
20
10
0
Students1
Teachers
Teachers
Teachers
Teachers
Students2
Students3
Students4
1
2
3
4
8.1
14.4
12.9
9.5
0
4.8
1.6
Disagree
32.3
19
29
28.6
32.3
23.8
21
19
3
43.5
33.3
30.6
47.6
16.1
33.3
38.7
33.3
Agree
11.3
23.8
21
18
29
28.6
19.4
23.8
4.8
9.5
6.5
9.5
22.6
9.5
19.4
14.3
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
9.5
78
1. Students’ and Instructors’ Views about “students find communication in foreign language frustrating”
The first part of the figure 3 shows 40.4 % of students disagreed with the statement that claims “they generally
find trying to communicate in FL frustrating” and 43.5 % stated neutral response, while 33.4 % of teachers
disagreed with this view that claims “students generally find trying to communicate in FL frustrating” and same
number of instructors (33.3%) claimed students find trying to communicate in FL frustrating.
2. Students’ and Instructors’ views about “students generally feel uncomfortable or anxious speaking the FL
during activities about FL topics (family, weather, FL culture, literature, sports, etc)
In response to second part of table of frequency in figure 3, students and instructors revealed quite different
perceptions, 31.9% of students claimed that they didn’t feel uncomfortable or anxious speaking the FL during
activities about FL topics (family, weather, FL culture, literature, study abroad, sports, hobbies, daily routines,
etc.) and 30.6% reported neutral response and 27.5% agreed with this item. Most of the instructors gave
neutral answer to this part, 38.1% of teachers rejected students uncomfortable or anxious feeling speaking the
FL during activities about FL topics and 47.6% reported neutral response and 27.5% accepted this view.
3. Students’ and instructors’ views about “students generally feel uncomfortable or anxious using the FL
when working on, discussing, or asking questions about grammar and usage
Turning to the responses of item about FL-use anxiety in discussing or asking question about grammar and its
usage 51.6% of students claimed agree or strongly agree that students feel anxious using the FL when working
on, discussing, or asking questions about grammar and usage and 38.1 % of teachers confirmed this view.
These results reveal that instructors knew their students inclinations in using less FL and more mother tongue
about these kind activities.
4. Students’ and instructors’ views about that “students generally feel uncomfortable or anxious using the FL
when working on, discussing, or asking questions about tests, quizzes or other assignments.
In forth item of figure 3, greater part of the students (38.8%) agreed with the statement that they feel anxious
in using the FL when working on, discussing, or asking questions about tests, quizzes, and other assignments,
maybe the use the FL discourage interventions/interruptions from students and 38.7% of students gave neutral
response, but as the data reveals 33.3% of instructors gave neutral response and 38.2% of them accepted this
view and claimed their students feel anxious when using FL in discussing about tests or quizzes, they added
that their students like to use more first language in these kind activities.
Students Overall Motivation to Learn Foreign Language
Above graphs examined students’ and instructors’ views towards language use, but for better understanding of
students need, this part of article examine their overall motivation to learn foreign language. Students
responded to one item of 48 items that dealt with their motivation. The below tables indicates students
responses.
Table 1: Students Overall Motivation to Learn Foreign Language
N=62
Students motivation to learn
foreign language
Extremely
High
High
Moderate
Weak
Extremely
Weak
12.9
29
58.1
0
0
As table 1 reveals students didn’t have weak motivation to learn FL, 12.9% of them claimed they have
extremely high motivation to learn FL and 29 % of them stated they had high motivation and 58.1% of them
reported that their overall motivation to learn FL is moderate. This percentage of having motivation in FL
learning support their FL learning and cause they encourage themselves to have essential amount of self
confidence and self-management to learn foreign language.
79
Students Best or Primary Reason to Learn Foreign Language
In this part respondents express their reason to learn FL with choice one of the five points in given
questionnaire. Below table (2) represents the results of students’ primary reason to learn foreign language.
Table 2: Students Best or Primary Reason to Learn Foreign Language
N=62
Students best
or primary reason to
learn FL
University
requirement
only
University
requirement
and personal
interest
in the language/
culture
Personal
Interest in
the language
It is
my
family
preference
I don’t
know
6.5
83.8
6.5
0
3.2
The results of table 2 shows majority of students (83.8%) agreed to university requirement and personal
interest in the language/culture. So, the students who supported University requirement and personal interest
in the language/culture as best reason to learn foreign language were significantly more likely to support their
learning and had more ideal to find career in their future life.
The Relationship between Foreign Language use and Language Use Anxiety
This part of study indicates the correlation between students’ view about foreign language use and their views
about foreign language use anxiety. The level of correlation represents in below table.
Table 3: correlation between Foreign Language use and Language Use Anxiety
Language Use
Language Use
Pearson Correlation
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Anxiety
Anxiety
.308
.022
62
62
Pearson Correlation
.308
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
.022
N
62
62
The finding represents that there isn’t high correlations between Language use and anxiety (r = .308 p<.01,
n=62), it may be that a different instrument would be needed to gauge these relationships. The research
results showed that anxiety was experienced by First year university students and had debilitating effects on
students’ foreign language use; also data reveals students who have language use anxiety have the fear of
possible miscommunication in FL at university. I think data have strong concern with students’ level and
varieties in their responses, but there is one possible claim that students negative attitudes that they can’t
speak in foreign language seemed to compound their images as unsuccessful learners.
DISCUSSION
This study looked for students’ and instructors’ attitudes about FL use in different contexts and with different
interlocutors. The factors analysis in each categories represented that in some cases teachers had different
ideas about the amount of foreign language use and they had negative attitudes about their students feeling.
To find the cause of these attitudes, this article tried to look for other factors which influenced students’
attitudes towards FL use. The first table that deal with students attitudes, looked for students overall
motivation to learn FL. The analysis of students’ attitudes towards FL use revealed majority of students lacked
high motivation and were undecided about language use. May be the cause of students lack of self confidence
80
in language learning is the lack of potential to promote engagement, and comprehensible input to involve them
in negotiation of meaning and classroom activities with their teachers and classmates.
The first figure of the study that examined students and instructor foreign language use among different
interlocutors, most of the students reported their teachers use FL most of the time, as most of the research
revealed this relatively high input in foreign language classrooms is crucial as it provides the learners’ principal,
even only, source of live, “scaffolded input” (Pica, 2000), namely, if teachers exposed their students to more FL
sources, more highly students developed language skills. In second part of the figure one, near to the half of
the students expressed they use the FL to communicate with the instructor about 40%-60% of the time in the
classroom while only minority of teachers accepted students view and claimed that their first year students use
foreign language rarely. I think in response to this item of figure 1 students weren’t realist in their response or
the teachers are looking for more language use in the classroom, and in the last part that referred to the
students FL use when communicate with their classmates, students claimed they rarely use FL to communicate
with their classmates, and teachers confirmed students views. In this part of the study we considered that
students used less foreign language in their classroom and had more inclination for using first language to
express their ideas and as we saw in first item of figure 1 teachers exposed and showed more input to their
students to be more open to the idea of speaking in the foreign language, but student themselves express their
inability to communicate in FL, maybe their weakness in using FL can be explained with their level at their
universities.
In response to the second figure of study which looked for students and instructors estimation of the foreign
language use in different contexts, student expressed that they disliked to use FL when they speak out of the
classroom and prefer to speak more about thematic or topic based activities, and teachers claimed that they
often use foreign language in thematic based activities and in the cases of quiz most of the times and in
teaching grammar, sometimes use FL. Here the main points are why near to half of the students prefer to use
foreign language only in communication about thematic based activities and less about grammar and its usage,
or speaking and discussing about test and quiz and asking question, maybe students moderate dislike about
grammar use or discussing about quiz and test rooted in their teachers regular use of foreign language or
dogmatic exclusion of L1 in these subjects which lead to resentment, frustration and the build-up of affective
factors which are well known to be the enemy of effective FL learning, but as we see teachers themselves
rejects extensive use of FL in teaching grammar or speaking about quiz. The other possible results that we can
get from this comparison can be, maybe teaching grammar in FL creates misunderstanding in some main
points, and other possibility about students’ negative attitudes about use of FL can be clarified with their level
or their lack of knowledge to get complete meaning of instruction. Namely use of FL in these kind subjects
decrease students understanding about the topic; so, students preferred their instructors use first language to
be more clear and deductive or use interlingual process in which student L 1 use contributes to effective
collaborative dialogues, and encourage students to cooperates in such activities. As Swain(2000) claimed
teachers should integrate L1 and L2 to mediate students understanding of the task; to mediate their L2
learning; and to create the affective environment needed to get the task done.
In third figure of the article that considered student anxiety in language use, the results indicate that near to
the half of the students disagreed with the statement that claims “they generally find trying to communicate in
FL frustrating, and their instructors indicated relatively same response about their students, but in response to
second part of same table of frequency in figure 3 the students and instructors revealed quite different
perceptions, a number of students claimed that they didn’t feel uncomfortable or anxious speaking the FL
during activities about FL topics (family, weather, FL culture, literature, study abroad, sports, hobbies, daily
routines, etc.) and for the most part of them reported neutral response and some of them accepted feeling , in
this part we see that teachers had an unclear view about students foreign language use about these topics.
Turning to the responses about FL-use anxiety in discussing or asking question about grammar and its usage
most of students claimed agree or strongly agree that students feel anxious using the FL when working on,
discussing, or asking questions about grammar and usage and near to the half of the teachers confirmed this
view. In other item of figure3, most of the students agreed with the statement that they feel anxious in using
81
the FL when working on, discussing, or asking questions about tests, quizzes, and other assignments and same
rd
number of the instructors gave the same response. In sum, as we see only in 3 category of figure 3 teachers
didn’t give the same ideas with their students about students view about speaking in FL topics. Generally in this
part we see that students felt anxious when he use language to discuss about grammar and quiz, it seems that
they fear of making mistakes (worrying about tenses and agreements) and perhaps less inclined to take risks
with the language while speak about grammar. Classroom language is that collection of phrases used for
communication among teacher and students. While emphasis is usually placed primarily on the foreign
language, classroom language, too, can be an invaluable way of promoting English as real communication,
student involvement in the lesson, and active language learning skills; here we see that teachers relatively,
knew students weakness and strength in these points; therefore, they can be more active to reduce their
anxieties.
The last part of the article looks for correlation between language use and language use anxiety in students
response to these items. The finding represents that there isn’t high correlations between Language use and
anxiety (r = .308 p<.01, n=62). The research results showed that anxiety was experienced by First year
university students and have debilitating effects on students’ foreign language speaking, this results indicate
students who had high anxiety use less foreign language in their classrooms, may be the relatively high anxiety
in FL use is the lack of first language in classroom or teachers extensive use of foreign language in the
classroom. Here we see that student liked use L1 when they encounter with complex linguistic form and openendedness of the tasks undertaken. Cook (2001) believed that teacher must create environment which
students use FL on the grounds that the goal of language programs is to produce “genuine L2 users” who “are
able to operate with two language systems”. He (2001) claimed that student - teacher FL talk did not lead to
higher quantities of student FL talk. Likewise infrequent, short bursts of L 1 use by the teachers did not seem to
increase learners’ use of their mother tongue. Therefore, the role of teachers for maximizing FL use and at the
same time granting to use of L1 during the instruction sound functions.
On the basis of the findings of the study, this paper ends with some pedagogical recommendations to reduce
anxiety and to encourage more use of foreign language in classroom. The implications for classroom practice
include ways of dealing with foreign language speaking anxiety and suggestions to make speaking the foreign
language less stressful for anxious students.
This article looked for instructors’ and students’ attitudes about FL use in different context and with different
interlocutors and the anxiety that students dealt with when they use FL and the correlation between language
use and foreign language use anxiety. Data analysis represents majority of students had moderate motivation
to learn language and their best reason to learn other language is personal interest in foreign language culture
and language, maybe, with this response they want to find good career in their future life.
In answering to the first question, first figure indicated teachers mostly use foreign language when speak with
their students and half of the students responded they sometimes use FL when they speak with their
instructors. In second and third figures of the study which considered students’ and instructors’ attitudes
towards the FL use in different contexts, most of the students expressed they mostly use FL when they speak
about thematic based activities, and less in discussing about grammar and quiz, while most of the instructors’
claimed they use foreign language whenever possible. Whereas, it is accepted that foreign language use is key
factor in language development, but in third figure we saw in students’ response to language use anxiety
questionnaire a good number of students expressed their anxious feeling, and most of their teachers stated
their awareness about their students’ feelings in these subjects, at this point the role of teachers in
encouraging the students to use foreign language are very crucial.
As the most of the studies represent most of the teachers are worried that if they try to use only the foreign
language, some students will fail to understand and to learn. However, it is very difficult for students to
become confident users of the language if the teacher is continually swapping from one language to the other,
82
or translating each utterance. Clearly, all these concerns or students negative feelings about language use
suggest that teachers need to be realistic and pragmatic. All of teachers have their own particular teaching
styles, but they need to work towards an appropriate, consistent and balanced use of the foreign language by
both teachers and students in the classroom.
The immediate practicality and frequency of language use in classroom help students regard English as real
communication and develop their confidence in both their English abilities and in themselves as active
individuals. It takes planning and self-discipline on the part of the teacher, but seeing the students get more
involved in the class let a student believe that he/she can successfully learn the foreign language. In other
words encouraging a really good communicative atmosphere in the classroom from the start at all levels may
go some way to proving to the students that making mistakes is part of the learning process and that language
can be communicatively meaningful even when not always totally grammatically correct.
Finally, the findings of this study underscore the need for concrete, theoretically motivated guidelines, the
need for more pedagogical tenets for FL classroom planning, and guidelines that indicate which behaviors
facilitate FL learning and which behaviors weaken it.
Shalaleh ZABARDAST was born in 1983 in Hadishahr – East Azarbaijan Iran. After
graduating from Primary and High Schools in Tabriz, she graduated from Tabriz University
in 2004. She completed her MA degree at Hacettepe University of Turkey In 2010. She
has been teaching as English teacher at Goldis institute since 2011. Her research interest
are distance education, computer based language teaching and learner autonomy in
practice.
Shalaleh ZABARDAST
Jolfa- IRAN
REFERENCES
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Krashen, S., & Terrell, T. D. (1983). The natural approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. Oxford, UK:
Pergamon.
Levine, S (2003) Student and Instructor Beliefs and Attitudes about Target Language Use, First Language Use,
and Anxiety: Report of a Questionnaire Study. The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 87, No. 3 (Autumn, 2003),
pp. 343-364 Published by: Blackwell: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1192959 Accessed: 23/10/2008 04:25.
Lin, A. (2000) Lively Children Trapped in an Island of Disadvantage: Verbal Play of Cantonese Working-class
School Boys in Hong Kong’, International Journal of the Sociology of Language. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/320688 Accessed: 10/03/2009 05:29
Long, M.H.& Pica, T.(2000) “Tradition and Transition in English Language Teaching Methodology”, System 28: 118.
Macaro, E. (2000) “Issues in Target Language Teaching”, in K. Field (ed.), Issues in Modern Foreign Languages
Teaching (London: RouFLedge/Falmer): 171-89.
Neil, P.S., J. Salter and A. McEwan (1999) “Teachers’ Use of Target Language in the German Classroom”,
Language Learning Journal 19: 12-18.
Pica, T.(2002) Subject-matter Content: How Does it Assist the Interactional and Linguistic, Needs of Classroom
Language Learners?’, The Modern Language Journal 86.1: 1-9.
Skehan, P., (1998): A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Stanley, K. (2002) Using the First Language in Second Language Instruction: If, When, Why and How Much?
TESL-EJ5.4: F1-19. Downloaded from http://rel.sagepub.com at Hacettepe University on May 4, 2009.
Swain, M., L. Brooks and A. Tocalli-Bella (2000) “Peer-peer Dialogue as a Means of Second Language
Learning?”, Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 22: 171-85.
Turnbull, M., & Arnett, A. (2002). Teachers’ uses of the target and first languages in second and target language
classrooms. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 22, 204-218.
84
THE APPLICATION OF COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY (CBT) FOR DEPRESSION:
A CASE STUDY OF IRANIAN FEMALE
Leili SHAHLAEI
School of Educational Studies
University Sains Malaysia
11800, Pulau Pinang,- MALAYSIA (USM)
Shahizan HASAN
11800, Pulau Pinang- MALAYSIA (USM)
S. KIUMARSI
Graduate School of Business (GSB)
ABSTRACT
The study aims to examine the application of Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) for Depression among Iranian
students. Depression is a factor leading to behavioural disorders that can happen to a person in an undesirable
incident. To reduce the effect of depression, this study adopted a Cognitive Behaviour Therapy approach to a
case of 32 year-old woman from Iran uses stress management and relaxation techniques. A clinical assessment
showed that the woman had the highest level of depression among other depressed students. Counselling
sessions, observations, and interviews provided qualitative data while Clinical Assessment of Depression
Inventory yielded quantitative data relevant to the case. The analysis of the data revealed that the techniques
of Cognitive Behaviour Therapy were effective in reducing the level of depression experienced by the client.
Key Words: Depression, Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT), Stress.
INTRODUCTION
Clinical depression affects mind, mood, body, and behaviour of an individual. A study in the United States
showed that more than 17 million people- one out of ten adults- experienced depression each year, while
almost two thirds of them apparently hardly receive help that they need. According to fall (2007) American
College Health Association-National College Health Assessment, a national study, more than 3,200 university
students were reported to be diagnosed as suffering from depression, with 39.2% of those students who were
diagnosed during the past 12 months, 24.2% presently are under therapy for depression, and 35.8% are taking
antidepressant medication in order to get cured. Among the students in a survey, 10.3% admitted "acutely
thinking of committing suicide" in the past 12 months and 1.9% really practiced the act of suicide through that
time. On the other hand, Abedini et al. (2007) studied the depression commonness amongst 190 nursing and
medical students in the Hormozgan Medical University in Iran. They came up with the fact that depression
commonness in nursing students was 60 percent, while in medical students was 49.5 percent. In a different
study, which was done by Khoshkonesh et al. (2008) the relation between hopefulness, happiness and mental
health amongst students was investigated. They discovered that there is a significant and negative relationship
between feeling happy and mental problems, physical disorders, anxiety and depression of both male and
female students. Prior to that study, Dadkhah et al. (2006) maintained that there was no significant difference
between male and female students when considering mental disorders. Accordingly, Hossaini and Mousavi
(2004) declared that 44.3 percent of the high school students in Iran experience depression. However, the aim
85
of this study is to investigate the level of depression among group members during the group counselling and
to identify the use of management skill technique on client’s stress in cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) that
can affect the level of depression during the individual therapy.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Depression is a main issue that needs to receive a great deal of attention in order to create grounds to be
prevented or cured. Students are the ones that make contributions to the development of society; therefore, it
is of a great importance to have students who will later be healthy in their occupations. For example, Jafari
(2011) examined the amount of happiness and its contributing factors amongst students in Isfahan University
of Medical Sciences. He then, declared that 78 percent of students were benefiting from the high amount of
happiness, and he claimed that the rests had a medium amount of happiness. It is interesting to note that in
this study, cognitive and behavioural factors as well as self-disclosure were considered as the most effective
factors in determining the students' level of happiness. In fact, according to Fall (2007) American College Health
Association-National College Health Assessment, a national study of roughly 20,500 college students in 39
campuses showed that 43.2% of the students were reported as "emotion so depressed, it was hard to
function" at least one time in their last 12 months. While being in Antarctica Ahmady et al. (2007), investigated
organizational role stress amongst faculty members of medical schools in Iran and discovered that role stress
being experienced relatively in higher degree by the faculty members. This assertion was in conformity with
Sarason (1984) who said that test anxiety reduces the performance of those who experience it. To date, the
CBT treatment of depression among students has been conducted by a number of researchers in different
countries (Weiner, 1970). However, in the case of Iran, these types of treatment (CBT) have received very little
attention and in-adequate care from the parts of the health personnel, hospital management and Iranian
government. This resulted in the in-efficiency and ineffectiveness of the treatment. Exploring this issue is
therefore very crucial in the life of depressed students of Iran.
In fact, Rhonda Woodcock (2006) stated that CBT has become an accepted and empirically validated
therapeutic approach in psychotherapy for a number of different presenting concerns. Moreover, Yousefy et
al. (2010)’s findings showed that CBT helps reduce hidden and manifest anxiety and improve the quality of life,
as well as emotional, physical, and social function in patients with a cardiovascular disease. They also suggested
that the methods of anxiety reduction and improvements of quality of life should be taught to coronary artery
disease patients via cognitive behavioural therapy programs. Rafiee, Sohrabi, Shams, and Forough (2012) have
claimed that a chronic pain is one of the most prevalent reasons of referral to health centres. CBT has therefore
been considered an effective treatment for a chronic pain, to evaluate the efficacy of CBT in patients with a
chronic musculoskeletal pain. These researchers also reported that psychological as well as medical treatment
can be helpful to the patients with a chronic pain. In fact, Arani And Kakia (2013) defined depression as one of
the most common psychological disorders. In recent years, cognitive-behavioural group therapy has also
received much attention for depression treatment. Hamid et al. (2013) also proposed that CBT become an
effective method employed to enhance coping strategies and symptoms among patients addicted to drugs.
Pour (2014) then concluded that CBT can be used as an effective intervention method in women with high
depression treatment.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Both quantitative and qualitative methods were used to collect data in this study. Pre-test and post-test
questionnaires were used for the purposive sampling for a prospective client. A sample selection was applied
on depressive patients who showed signs of depression from the results of the pre-test instruments, the CAD
depression inventory. This qualitative research was using a single client. Therefore, a transcription of what has
been discussed by the patient and the researcher, during the 10 sessions of counselling, was prepared to select
the cases and determine data gathering and analysis techniques. The CAD is a 50-item self-report list which is
to a high extent comprehensive, reliable, and sensitive to depressive symptomatology throughout the lifetime.
It is approximately in the middle of signs of depression in children, adolescents, and adults–depressed mood
86
and anhedonia–as well as the further seven criteria for major depressive episodes which are listed in the DSMIV-TR™.
Table 1: Study Design
Number
1 (Female)
Note: O1= pre-test
Pre-Test
O1
x= Treatment
O2= post-test
Treatment
X
Post-Test
O2
FINDINGS
With regards to the research questions of the present study, the collected data were processed and analysed
using both quantitative and qualitative analyses. In quantitative methodology the researcher applied pre-test
and post-test. And in the qualitative study interview and observation were used. The first research question
was answered based on the quantitative analysis on the clinical assessment of depression (CAD), whereas the
second research question was answered through the qualitative analysis of the process and techniques of
cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). Furthermore the qualitative analysis of the counselling transcripts was
used to answer the second research question.
1. Question :Is there any depression among group members during the group counselling?
Table 2: Level of Depression among Group Members
No Gender
Name
Raw Score
T Score
1
F
.........
119
69.25
2
F
.........
110
62
3
F
Sara
139
77
4
F
........
135
75
5
M
.......
93
54
6
M
..........
108
61.5
%II
91.5
90
99
99
65
85.25
%90CI
60-69
60-69
72-78
72-78
60-69
60-69
Qualitative Classification
Mild clinical risk (MCR)
Significant clinical risk (SCR)
Significant clinical risk (SCR)
Table 2: It shows that according to the clinical assessment of depression (CAD) the highest level of depression
amongst members is demonstrated in student with the T score of 77%. And the lowest level of depression
amongst the members is found in one of the males with the T score of 54%.
The counsellor formed a counselling group including 6 members to evaluate the members of the group and to
identify the level of depression amongst them. In order to carry on the study, the counsellor used clinical
assessment of depression (CAD) inventory. Applying clinical assessment of depression (CAD) test, the result
showed that 4 members of the group were at the level of mild clinical risk of depression (MCR) and 2 members
of the group were at the level of significant clinical risk (SCR) of depression, but Sara with the T score of 77
suggested the highest level of depression amongst the members.
Question 2: Does the stress management technique successfully help the client’s stress during the
counselling sessions in cognitive behaviour therapy?
During the third session, it was found out that Sara worried a lot about herself and this is one of the causes of
her depression. She talked about her experience of losing properties at airport when she first came; she lost
her suitcase which consisted of her important belongings and properties, such as her money, her documents
and other things. The client saddened about the loss of her job and her friends and it was expressed by her for
many times during the counselling sessions. Another cause of her depression was the sadness she carried on. In
addition to feeling so sad, she complained about her night dreams. She expressed that in her dreams, she was
upset and alone amongst lots of people. She also mentioned that she had many nightmares and she is not
relaxed during her sleeping times. She said “I always think a lot before sleeping”. The client expressed that she
worried about herself. To conclude, it can be noticed that her depression is caused by her sadness and the fact
that she was a sad person led her to this situation. She mentioned that she lost her job and her friends and so
many other possible things. As a result, it can be said that she worries about her future and some experiences
87
of these kinds. She, in fact, was feeling sad about herself because of many lacks; she lacked her job, friends and
her boyfriend.
The first technique of cognitive behavioural therapy was applied by the counsellor to help the client to reduce
her depression level. Stress management technique was amongst the techniques used by the counsellor. The
counsellor showed some slide to the client to let her know that how stress can disturb her body and her
emotions. The counsellor gave explanations about her homework related to the applied technique. In
conclusion, it has been clarified that one of the causes of depression of the client was her worries about her
future. Therefore, the given technique can help the client in the process of reducing her depression. During the
fifth session, the client talked about her emotions. She expressed that she could not show her emotions to her
friends. She, then, explained she missed many of possible, good situations just because she was not able to
demonstrate her feelings. She lost her boyfriend and many of her other friends and she complained about her
relationships with others. The client also expressed that she could not establish a balance within her
relationships with her friends. She said that she was so serious because of some disciplines that she considers
for herself. She mentioned that she did not like any relationships with others as she talked about such things
for a long time.
The Effectiveness of Counselling Techniques of CBT
How effective is the counselling techniques of cognitive behavioural therapy in reducing depression in the
patient with depression?
Table 3: Results of Pre-Test taken by Sara
Scale
Raw
score
Depressed Mood (DM)
65
T
score
81
%II
90% CI
Qualitative classification
99
≥80
Anxiety /Worry(AW)
Diminished Interest(DI)
31
19
70
80
97
99
70-79
≥80
Cognitive and Physical
Fatigue(CPF)
Cad Total Scale (CAD)TS)
24
62
90
60-69
Very Significant Clinical Risk
(VSCR)
Significant Clinical Risk (SCR)
Very Significant Clinical Risk
(VSCR)
Mild Clinical Risk (MCR)
139
77
99
70-79
Table 3: The level of depression of Sara according to the clinical assessment of depression (CAD), as it can be
observed, the highest T score is the depressed mood (DM) with 81 and the lowest T score is devoted to the
cognitive physical fatigue (CPF) with 62.
Table 4: The detailed Results of Post- Test taken by Sara
Scale
Raw Score T Score
Depressed Mood(DM)
Anxiety /Worry(AW)
Diminished Interest(DI)
Cognitive and Physical Fatigue(CPF)
Cad Total Scale (CAD)
30
18
12
18
78
45
44
56
49
47
%II
90%CI
Qualitative Classification
39
27
73
45
41
<59
<59
53-56
≤59
≤59
Normal Range(NR)
Normal Range(NR)
Normal Range(NR)
Normal Range(NR)
Normal Range(NR)
Table 4: The level of depression of Sara according to the clinical assessment of depression (CAD) derived from
the post test. Based on what is evident in table 3, and according to the scores of depressed mood (DM),
anxiety/worry, diminished interest and cognitive physical fatigue (CPF), the level of depression is reduced to a
favourable range “normal range”.
88
Table 5: Result of Pre-Test & Post –Test
Total Scale (CAD)
Raw score
T-Score
Pre-test
139
77
Post-test
78
47
%II
99
41
90% CI
70-79
≤59
Qualitative classification
Normal Range(NR)
Table 5: demonstrates a significant difference between total score of the clinical assessment of depression
(CAD) in pre-test and posttest. The scores are definitely calculated through clinical assessment of depression
(CAD).
Finally, during the tenth session of counselling period, the counsellor applied the post -test for evaluating the
level of depression of the client. The clinical assessment of depression (CAD) was used to determine the results
which were previously given in table 3. It was evident that after ten sessions of counselling, the client showed
that her emotions were all back to normal status. She explained that she had regained her interests to establish
and keep relationships with her friends. The client expressed that she started to add vegetables and fruit into
and remove sugar from her diet. One more interesting change in the activities of the client was she started to
exercise and she made new friends. Furthermore, she said that she did not have nightmares anymore and this
caused her to be relaxed while sleeping. At last but not least, she declared that she could stop her negative
thinking which was a considerable positive change to help her to feel happy. It can be said that the three
techniques of cognitive therapy; stress management technique, and relaxation technique affected the level of
depression in this case study according to the given scores of the post -test in the session10 (Table 5).
DISCUSSION
Level of depression among group members during the group counselling the findings of this study show that
there is the highest level of depression among group members during the group counselling where the
difference was demonstrated in students with the T score of 77% as highest and the level of depression of the
other students within the group was a T score of 54% as low. Additionally, Abedini et al. (2007) studied the
depression commonness amongst 190 nursing and medical students of the Hormozgan Medical University.
They came up with the fact that depression commonness in nursing students was 60 percent while in medical
students was 49.5 percent. Another study in which Beck’s depression questionnaire was applied, it was
mentioned that 34% of the respondents suffered from depression amongst 4020 high school students in Rasht,
north of Iran (Modabber-Niaet al., 2006).
Qestion3: How does stress management technique successfully help the client’s stress during the counselling
sessions in cognitive behaviour therapy?
Level of Depression before and after the Sessions
The client’s level of depression was measured by the pre-test and post- tests for the clinical assessment of
depression (CAD). The collected data showed that there was a reduction in the scores from the significant
clinical risk of depression to a normal range. The detailed reductions in the scores are; the level of depressed
mood (DM) from 81% to 45%, the level of anxiety/worry (AW) from 70% to 44%, the level of diminished
interest (DI) from 80% to 56% and the level of cognitive and physical fatigue (CPF) from 62% to 49%. Overall,
the total score of depression according to the clinical assessment of depression (CAD) suggests a reduction
from 77% to 47%. It can be observed that the total level of depression after and before the counselling sessions
is significantly different. In other words, the level of depression which had been experienced by the client of
the present study did levelled down from the status of significant clinical risk (SCR) of depression to the normal
range after the counselling sessions were successfully completed.
The Causes of Depression of the Client
The findings of this study demonstrated that many reasons could cause the client to be affected by depression.
During the background sessions 2, 3, 4, 5, the client was given the opportunity to express herself in terms of
thoughts, her emotions and her behaviours. In session 3, the cause of depression was detected to be the fact
that she was worried about loss of her job, loss of her friends and loss of her boyfriend and a more recent loss
89
of her important belongings and properties such as; losing of a lot of money, her important documents and so
many other things. She has also explained that she was sad and lonely. Later on, in session 4 she expressed that
she worried about her negative thinking and that was a big problem for her. She described she was used to
thinking a lot, she was used to thinking about something bad which might happen for her. In addition, she did
not trust her abilities and capabilities in her life. The conversations between the counsellor and the patient
during session 5 revealed that she worried about her relationships with her friends as she described she could
not establish a balance between her emotions and her behaviours which might be the reason why she could
not keep the relationships with her friends. All in all, she deeply felt sad about her relationships and her
negative thinking.
The Effects of the Process and CBT Techniques
The techniques of the cognitive behavioural therapy were used in a flexible way in the process of helping the
client to reduce the experienced depression. The counsellor had utilised the basic cognitive behavioural
techniques to help the client to develop an insight to the causes of her depression. At first, the counsellor only
applied fundamental counselling skills, such as active listening, minimal encouragement and paraphrasing.
Active listening is the responsibility of the counsellor to take the content of the client’s responses into account
as well as taking notes of the implied meaning. The counsellor is supposed to pay attention to the
accompanying gestures, emotions, hesitations and silences during the sessions of therapy. Consequently,
applying the fundamental counselling skills aimed to build a reliable therapeutic relationship between the
counsellor and the client so that the client felt valued and that she could express her feelings or whatever
problem she was in the counselling session for. These fundamental skills prepared the grounds for the patient
to feel secure and relaxed while talking about her problems. When the needed trust was established, the
counsellor started to play more effective roles, letting the client recognize her unhelpful thoughts which had
disturbed her life. A problem list was prepared in this step for the reason of creating the agenda to be used for
future counselling sessions. The counsellor cooperated with the client to try to replace these dysfunctional and
unhelpful thoughts with appropriate and logical ones, by demonstrating to the client how these thoughts had
affected her life, and by teaching the client how to think again and differently.
The effectiveness of Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) in Reducing Depression of the Depressed Client
In general, this research had sufficiently verified that the CBT approach had helped to decrease depression
level of the client of the present study. For the purpose of this study, the counsellor applied three techniques of
cognitive behaviour therapy CBT; stress management and relaxation techniques. The techniques helped the
counsellor to gain satisfactory outcomes. The client had also mentioned that she was satisfied with the
counselling sessions. It should be mentioned that the client was given the time to talk about her thoughts and
her behaviours. She participated all the sessions and was willing to do her homework and given practices
between sessions. To sum up, the researcher discovered that the CBT approach was successful but the
counsellor needed to develop her skills for the purpose of cognitive behaviour therapy.
Thought
Activity
Mood
Relationship
Figure 1: Basic Module of CBT
90
Figure 1 Connection between thoughts, feelings, physical symptoms and behaviour, Therefore by making a
positive change in one of these areas, a positive change will be obtained in the total behaviour which will lead
to well –being.
CONCLUSIONS
In the current study, the pre-test of the clinical assessment of depression (CAD) was conducted to determine
the level of depression of a group. It aims to select the subject of the study. A female client with the T score of
77 was recognized to be at the significant clinical risk of depression. The treatment for the clients over a 10session period was then carried out to gain deep insights into the causes of depletion. One technique of CBT
was therefore suggested. That is stress management applied to reduce the depression level of clients. The
findings of this study demonstrated that CBT is an effective as the post test of CAD taken by the clients
suggested a T score of 47 which is considered to be in a normal range. Therefore, it showed that CBT is an
effective approach to reduce the depression level of the clients.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF THE AUTHORS
Ph.D Candidate, School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Pulau
Pinang, Malaysia (USM), her research interests include counseling psychology, Clinical
Psychology, Counseling Group (CBT, IPT)
Leili SHAHLAEI
University Sains Malaysia, 11800, Pulau Pinang- MALAYSIA (USM)
(B.E.d. UPM, MA Western Michigan, USA, Phd Leeds UK) Senior lecturer. Certified
polygraph Examiner (Malaysia/USA). Member of the British polygraph Association.
Member of British &European polygraph Association. Association of psychological and
Educational Counsellors of Asia pacific (APECA)/life Member. Principal Consultant-Training
& Development USAINS Holding sdn, Bhd USM. School of Educational studies. 11800
universiti Sains Malasia (USM).
Shahizan HASAN
School of Educational Studies, University Sains Malaysia
S. KIUMARSI is a PhD candidate at the Graduate School of Business (GSB), Universiti Sains
Malaysia, USM, Penang. His research interests include innovation business IT, service
innovation and marketing.
S. KIUMARSI
Graduate School of Business (GSB), University Sains Malaysia
91
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92
DEVELOPMENT OF A SELF-ASSESSMENT SCALE FOR EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION SKILLS AND
THE VALIDITY-RELIABILITY STUDY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Selim GÜNÜÇ
Yuzuncu Yil University
Computer Education and Instructional Technologies
Van- TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Serap CAVKAYTAR
Anadolu University
Open Education Faculty
Department of Turkish Language and Literacy
Eskisehir- TURKEY
Belgin SÖNMEZ
Anadolu University
Eskisehir- TURKEY
Fidan ÖZBEY
Sakarya University
Department of Special Education
TURKEY
Zeynep KILIÇ
Osmangazi University
Department of Primary Education
Eskisehir- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to develop a “self-assessment scale for effective presentation skills”. The scale
was developed via two different research processes. As the intention was to develop the scale via a two-factor
construct determined by the researchers in line with the suggestions in related literature, the CFA was carried
out on 50 items in the first study for item analysis and item selection. In the second study, the CFA was applied
again for the appropriateness of the two-factor 41-item scale obtained in the first study. The sample of the
Study-1 was made up of 409 teacher candidates and the sample of the Study-2 included 423 teacher
2
candidates. Finally, the two-factor 41-item scale was tested, and such good values of fit indices as χ /sd: 2.84,
RMSEA: 0.067, NFI: 0.90, NNFI: 0.92 and CFI: 0.93 were obtained. The Cronbach Alpha of the scale was found
to be α= 0.90.
Key Words: Effective presentation skills; presentation skills; self-assessment; scale development.
INTRODUCTION
Effective presentation skills are considered to be an important skill for the educational field. The purpose of
making effective presentations should not only be the introduction of new profitable products or services into
the business life but also be the presentation of new or synthesized cumulative information in education.
93
Today, effective presentation skills are important for informing, guiding and influencing the audience with
careful use of verbal/written statements and meaningful body language with the aid of modern day audiovisual tools (Marancı, 2011). Effective presentation is also important for the achievement of our goals and the
approval of our ideas. Presentations using technological presentation tools such as PowerPoint not only help
learners understand the subject better and develop their competences regarding the process but also provides
teachers as well as learners with the benefits of storing and retrieving the information (Pugsley, 2010).
These presentation skills are taught in the criculum of the second year course of “Instructional Technologies
and Material Design” given in Faculty of Education in Turkey to teacher candidates who are most likely to
make presentations as part of their future professions. Since the purpose of this course is to integrate
technology into the teaching-learning process and help students transfer their knowledge effectively, it is an
important course expected to be taught in the teacher training process (Gündüz & Odabaşı, 2004). The fact
that most higher education graduates lack the ability to speak in front of large groups of people and to express
their thoughts effectively and consistently, demonstrates that these skills have not been taught effectively. The
process of having students acquire effective communication skills is a time-consuming and difficult process that
requires teachers to work in co-operation in a careful and planned manner. Graduate teacher candidates from
schoosl of education are expected to acquire effective presentation skills. Therefore, it is one of the
responsibilities of higher education institutions to teach and measure these skills (Aldağ & Gürpınar, 2007).
In this regard, a measurement tool in the higher education process is necessary to assess students’ effective
presentation skills. This measurement tool should not only allow faculty members to evaluate both the process
and the students but also enable students to have an idea about their own level of presentation skills.
In related literature, it is emphasized that the presentation skills acquired by students should be assessed and
that in general, more than one assessment method should be used for appropriate assessment of their skills.
Besides assessment by the instructor, self-assessment has been suggested to increase the level of learning and
to decrease the dependence on the instructor during assessment. Research results indicated that selfassessment contributes positively to learning (Aldağ & Gürpınar, 2007).
Mandel (2000) developed a self-assessment tool that could be used for the assessment of effective
presentation skills. The 20 items found in this measurement scale included the elements necessary for an
effective presentation. In addition, the score ranges regarding the students’ responses to the scale items were
given to help them assess themselves. Thus, depending on these score ranges, the students were allowed to
determine how effective their presentations were.
When the related literature is examined, it can be seen that there are studies which provide basic information
about effective presentation skills (Adams, 2004; Aldağ & Gürpınar, 2007; Andrew & Griffith, 2006; Brody,
2007; Edwards; 2007; Leblebicioğlu, 1998; Marancı, 2011; McDonalds & McDonalds 1993; Namhata, 2011) but
that there is no measurement tool developed to measure effective presentation skills. Therefore, there is a
need for a measurement have acquired the effective presentation skills during their process of undergraduate
education.
The purpose of this study was to develop a “self-assessment scale for effective presentation skills”. The validity
and reliability studies were conducted for the purpose of allowing the teacher candidates to assess their own
effective presentation skills and the faculty members to assess their students. In the study, effective
presentation skills were determined by the use of PowerPoint and similar technologies.
STUDY-1: CREATING THE ITEM POOL AND SELECTING THE ITEMS
1.
Material and methods
1.1.
Sample
It is reported in related literature that it would be better to study with different sample groups for separate
analyses which require testing the appropriateness of the factor structure and the items selection. Henson and
94
Roberts (2006) reports that it is important to study with separate sample groups for factor analysis and for the
analysis of the appropriateness of the factor construct. For this purpose, in the study, the research data were
collected in two phases and with two different sample groups. The purpose of the Study-1 was to select the
items according to the factor structure established on a theoretical basis using the confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA) with the help of the data collected. The sample in the Study-1 included a total of 409 teacher candidates,
244 of whom were female and 163 of whom were male. They were all teacher candidates attending the Faculty
of Education of Anadolu University in the academic year of 2011-2012. Within the scope of the sample, the
research data were collected from 6 different undergraduate departments at the Faculty of Education; English
Language Teaching, Guidance and Psychological Counseling, Computer Education and Instructional
Technologies, Pre-school Education, Primary School Education and Social Studies Education (Table 1). The
sample included only third year (n=163) and senior (n=244) teacher candidates. The reason for this was that
the teacher candidates attending the undergraduate programs at Faculty of Education took the course of
“Instructional Technologies and Material Design”, which helped them acquire the effective presentation skills
in the Spring Term of their second academic year at the university. In this respect, teacher candidates are
expected to have acquired the presentation skills by the end of their second academic year at university. Since
the scale was targeted at measuring the effective presentation skills, the research data were collected only
from the third year and senior teacher candidates.
Table 1: Distribution of the Participants with Respect to Their Departments
Departments at the Faculty of Education
Frequency
%
English Language Teaching
103
25.2
Guidance and Psychological Counseling
27
6.6
106
25.9
Pre-school Education
19
4.6
Primary School Education
86
21.0
Social Studies Education
68
16.6
Total
409
100.0
1.2. Data collection tool
In order to develop the self-assessment scale for effective presentation skills, the first step was to prepare the
item pool. Self-assessment measurement tools are important for students in terms of becoming aware of the
extent to which they have such skills, making comments on their skills, determining their weak and strong
points and recognizing their development. According to Cram (1995), self-assessment requires involving the
students into the process of discovering what they know, how they feel and what they can do. Lewkowicz &
Moon (1985) defines self-assessment as a process that allows learners to decide on their own success and
failure in line with the goals they set forth or with those goals set forth by others.
There are certain sub-skills mentioned in related literature about acquiring effective presentation skills. In this
study, the sub-skills were assessed, and the effective presentation skills were taken into consideration in two
phases: (1) the phase of planning and preparing the presentation and (2) the phase of presenting the
presentation. Therefore, the item pool was established according to two sub-factors based on theory. In the
phase of creating the item pool, the views of the students and of the experts were asked about the skills that
will be acquired in the process of preparing and making the presentation. Also, the following literature was
reviewed to examine the related studies (Adams, 2004; Andrew & Griffith, 2006; Brody, 2007; Edwards, 2007;
Emden & Becker; 2004; Gelula, 1997; Magin & Helmore, 2001; Mandel, 2000; Marancı, 2011; McDonalds &
McDonalds 1993; Namhata, 2011; Pugsley, 2010; Shepherd, 2006; Shetciliffe, 2001; Sloboda, 2003; Ulrich,
2007).
After the researchers who were taking part in the study finalized the items, the item pool created was
presented to a group of 20 language and field experts from two different universities. After the field experts
made their corrections, the scale was piloted by a group of 10 students. The purpose of this preliminary
95
application was to find out whether the items in the scale were understood by the students or not, to correct
any spelling mistakes and any ambiguous statements and to determine how long it would take to respond to
the scale. As a result of the feedback obtained, a total of 50 items, 12 of which were negative, were applied to
the sample group for data analysis. Of all the 50 items, 30 of them belonged to the first factor, and 20 of them
belonged to the second factor of the scale. The scale included a 5-point Likert-type grading and was marked
with the scores ranging from 1 to 5 as “Never”, “Rarely”, “Sometimes”, “Often” and “Always”, respectively.
Besides the piloted scale, data related to the gender, departments and class-year of the sample group were also
collected within the scope of the study.
1.3. Data Analysis
For the analysis of the data, CFA was conducted to select the items in the scale. CFA is one of analysis
techniques suggested to develop a theory-based measurement scale or to test a present theory (Henson &
Roberts, 2006; Worthington & Whittaker, 2006). For the CFA, the computer software of Lisrel 8.80 was used
(Jöreskog & Sörbom, 2001). After the data were entered into these programs, the missing data, outliers,
normality, linearity and multicollinearity, which are all assumptions of multivariate statistics, were examined to
conduct a healthier application of the analyses and to obtain more accurate results. In this way, the data were
made appropriate to analysis before carrying out the analyses (Mertler & Vannatta, 2005).
After conducting descriptive statistics for the sample, the validity analysis was carried out for the scale. The
validity analysis, content validity, face validity and construct validity were examined. The CFA was run for the
construct validity,. For the CFA, the items appropriate and inappropriate to the construct were established on
theoretical bases. In this respect, the items were selected by considering the error variances, item loads, itemtotal and item-item correlation values and t-test values for each item.
In addition, the convergent validity and discriminant validity were also examined. The convergent validity was
measured with the factor loads, and the discriminant validity was measured with the value of the relationship
between the factors (Kline, 2011).
1.4. Results
1.5. Preliminary Analyses
Before conducting the CFA, the data were checked and made ready for these analyses. In order to do this, the
missing data, multicollinearity, outliers, normality and linearity, which are all assumptions of multivariate
statistics, were examined (Hutcheson & Sofroniou, 1999; Kline, 2011; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007).
While determining the missing data, the responses of each individual in the sample to the 50 items in the scale
were examined. As CFA was influenced to a great extent by the missing data, the data collected from the 60
teacher candidates were excluded from the sample. As a result, the data set covered 349 teacher candidates.
The multicollinearity problem could occur when certain items correlate with each other at a high level. One
way of testing whether there is a multicollinearity problem or not is to examine the item-itemcorrelation
matrix to determine the items with a value of 0.90 or over (Field, 2005; Kline, 2011; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007).
The item-item correlations of the 50 items found in the scale were examined and it was revealed that the
correlation values of all the items were lower than 0.90. In order to examine the outliers in the sample, the zscores were calculated. It is suggested that z-scores be in the range of ±3 (Hutcheson & Sofroniou, 1999; Kline,
2011). Thus, 3 teacher candidates (z = -3.23, z = -3.02, z = -4.79) in the sample who were not found in this
range were excluded from the data set. The assumption that outliers result from the multivariate normal
construct was examined with Barlett’s Test of Sphericity. The data were made ready for analysis and the
validity and reliability analyses were conducted with 346 teacher candidates remaining in the sample.
The distribution of the sample was determined with the help of the Kolmogorov Smirnov test, the skewnesskurtosis values and histogram. The Kolmogorov Smirnov test with values of (p = 0.068; p > 0.05), kurtosis (0.017; ±1) and skewness (-0.320; ±1) along with the histogram were examined and the distribution was found
to be normal. The linearity between the variable pairs in the data set was examined with the scatter plot, and it
was found that all the variables demonstrated oval-shape scattering.
96
1.6. First Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)
The results of CFA conducted for the 50 items were examined, and the t-values were evaluated. In literature,
the t-value for each indicator in the scale is suggested to be out of the range of ±2.56 (at the level of 0.01)
(Kline, 2011; Raykov & Marcoulides, 2006; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Thus, the items in the first factor with a
t-value in the range of ± 2.56 and those with an error variance of 0.90 or over, I4 (t: -1.56; error: 0.99), I6 (t:
1.57; error: 0.99), I9 (t: 1.03; error: 1.00) and I13 (t: 0.78; error: 1.00) were excluded from the pilot scale. As for
the second factor, it was found that the t-values for all items were out of the range of ± 2.56 since they were in
the range of 3.24-11.22. After these four items were excluded from the scale, CFA was conducted again. It was
found that the t-values in the first factor were in the range of 2.72-12.68. As the scale had a stronger construct,
among the remaining 46 items, those with low values of item-total correlation coefficients, error variance and
factor load were excluded. Therefore, the items with a very low level of item-total correlation and item load
and those with an error variance over 0.90 were examined and excluded from the scale. As a result, such items
in the first factor as I20 (factor load: 0.15; error: 0.98; r: 0.14), I28 (factor load: 0.24; error: 94; r: 0.256) and I24
(factor load: 0.25; Error:0.94; r: 0.239) and those in the second factor such as I48 (factor load: 0.19; error: 0.97;
r: 0.222) and I50 (factor load: 0.22; error: 0.95; r: 0.226) were excluded from the scale. As a result, a total of 9
items were excluded from the factor structure established according to the literature. As a result of the first
phase in which the item pool was created and the validity analysis that was conducted, 23 items in the first
factor and 18 items in the second factor were obtained. Table 2 presents the results of CFA regarding the 41
items remaining in the pilot scale.
Table 2: The First CFA Findings
Item
t-value
I1
I2
I3
I5
I7
I8
I10
I11
I12
I14
I15
I16
I17
I18
I19
I21
I22
I23
I25
I26
I27
I29
I30
I31
I32
I33
I34
I35
I36
0.56
0.41
0.33
0.53
0.47
0.58
0.62
0.59
0.49
0.48
0.39
0.56
0.33
0.55
0.53
0.64
0.60
0.56
0.52
0.35
0.51
0.61
0.58
0.35
0.58
0.53
0.57
0.33
0.58
Factor load
Error variance
0.69
0.83
0.89
0.71
0.78
0.67
0.62
0.65
0.76
0.77
0.85
0.69
0.89
0.70
0.72
0.59
0.64
0.69
0.73
0.88
0.74
0.62
0.66
0.88
0.67
0.72
0.68
0.89
0.66
.479
.374
.296
.430
.428
.546
.491
.492
.383
.419
.354
.471
.251
.474
.456
.511
.501
.431
.461
.303
.393
.492
.493
.323
.467
.483
.456
.277
.389
Item-total
correlation (r)
4.29769
4.06936
3.63873
4.49711
3.69075
4.04624
4.50867
4.50867
4.02312
3.62428
3.51445
4.32370
4.01734
4.29191
4.24566
4.21676
4.14740
4.20809
4.02890
3.79191
3.82370
4.47399
4.18786
3.22543
4.00578
3.97688
3.84104
3.18497
3.73699
Mean
.827670
.894970
1.040960
.777393
1.105861
.873540
.642626
.628949
1.054755
1.125664
.996265
.805319
1.015668
.764270
.791474
.743557
.822655
.793118
.860925
.915277
1.049839
.685810
.845772
1.002050
.765163
.772376
1.182306
1.111419
.934161
97
I37
I38
I39
I40
I41
I42
I43
I44
I45
I46
I47
I49
0.72
0.33
0.36
0.41
0.39
0.35
0.60
0.51
0.34
0.52
0.45
0.40
0.48
0.89
0.87
0.83
0.85
0.88
0.64
0.74
0.88
0.73
0.80
0.84
.576
.249
.377
.317
.343
.286
.448
.468
.263
.437
.431
.287
4.08382
3.14740
4.07803
3.40462
3.54624
3.32948
3.68208
4.15896
3.42775
3.95954
4.29191
3.39017
.770036
1.118336
.882836
1.086615
.983575
1.080042
.849602
.834504
1.142960
.793878
.873967
1.152598
As can be seen in Table 2, the factor load values ranged between 0.33 - 0.72; the error variances were between
0.59 - 0.89 and the item-total correlations were in the range of 0.251 - 0.576. In addition, a correlation of r =
0.64 was found between the two factors.
STUDY-2. TESTING THE APPROPRIATENESS OF THE SCALE WITH CFA
2. Material and methods
2.1. Sample
Study-2 was conducted for the confirmation of the construct obtained as a result of the item analysis in Study1. The sample in Study-2 included a total of 423 teacher candidates, 322 of whom were female and 101 of
whom were male. They all attended the Faculty of Education of Osmangazi University in the city of Eskisehir in
the academic year of 2011-2012. The data were collected from the sample attending the departments is
demonstrated in Table 3. As in Study-1, the sample included only the third year (n=306) and senior (n=117)
teacher candidates.
Table 3: Distribution of the Participants According to Their Departments
Departments at the Faculty of Education
Frequency
Science Education
100
23.6
Guidance and Psychological Counseling
39
9.2
38
9.0
Primary School Education
111
26.2
Education of Religion and Ethics
31
7.3
Total
423
100
%
2.2. Data Collection Tool
The appropriateness of the 41-item and two-factor scale obtained in the first study was tested with CFA in the
second study. For the CFA, the computer software of Lisrel 8.80 was used (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 2001). Mertler
and Vannatta (2005) reports that after the data were entered into these programs, the missing data, outliers,
normality, linearity and multicollinearity, which are all assumptions of multivariate statistics, were examined to
conduct a better analyses and to obtain more accurate results. In this way, the data were made more
appropriate before carrying out the final analyses.
The scale to be used in the second study had a two-factor structure made up of 23 items in the first factor and
18 items in the second factor. The scale included 5-point Likert-type grading and was marked with the scores
ranging from 1 to 5 as “Never”, “Rarely”, “Sometimes”, “Often” and “Always”. In addition, as it was in the first
study, data related to the gender, departments and class year of the sample group were also collected beside
the scale.
98
2.3. Data Analysis
After the items were selected via the CFA, the appropriateness of the two-factor model (which was formed by
2
re-conducting the CFA was determined by the indices: χ (Chi-Square Goodness of Fit), GFI (Goodness of Fit
Index), AGFI (Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index), CFI (Comparative Fit Index), NFI (Normed Fit Index), NNFI (NotNormed Fit Index), RMR (Root Mean Square Residuals), SRMR (Standardized Root Mean Square Residuals) and
RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation). To determine the reliability of the items obtained as a
result of these analyses, the internal coefficient of Cronbach Alpha (α) value was calculated.
2.4. Results
2.5. Preliminary Analyses
Before conducting the CFA, the data were checked and made ready for these analyses. In order to determine,
the missing data, multicollinearity, outliers, normality and linearity, which are all assumptions of multivariate
statistics, were examined (Hutcheson & Sofroniou, 1999; Kline, 2011; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007).
While determining the missing data, the responses of each teacher candidate were examined after the data
collected from the 423 teacher candidates were entered into the SPSS program, the missing data were
examined. As a result, 8 teacher candidates were excluded. In order to determine whether there was a
multicollinearity problem or not, the item-item correlations of the 41 items found in the scale were examined,
and it was determined that the correlation values of all the items were lower than 0.90. In order to examine
the outliers in the sample, the z-scores were calculated. In literature, z-scores are required to be in the range of
±3 (Hutcheson & Sofroniou, 1999; Kline, 2011). In the sample, 3 teacher candidates who were not in this range
were excluded from the data set. The assumption that outliers result from a multivariate normal construct was
examined with Barlett’s Test of Sphericity. When the final data were made ready the validity and reliability
analyses were conducted with 412 teacher candidates.
The distribution of the sample was determined with the help of the Kolmogorov Smirnov test, the skewnesskurtosis values and a histogram. The Kolmogorov Smirnov test values (p = 0.126; p > 0.05), kurtosis (-0.157; ±1)
and skewness (-.108; ±1) and the histogram were examined and the distribution was found to be normal. The
linearity between the variable pairs in the data set was examined with the scatter plot and it was determined
that all the variables demonstrated oval-shape scattering.
2.6. The Second Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)
As a result of the CFA conducted, as can be seen in Table 5, the t-values regarding the explanation of the
observed values by latent variables ranged between 6.17 and 15.33 for the first factor and between 4.23 and
12.97 for the second factor. When the fit indices of the measurement model were examined, it was found that
χ2 = 2206.10 and that the degree of freedom was sd= 778. While evaluating this fit index for the CFA, the rate
2
2
of χ /sd (2206.10/778) was 2.84, which implies good fitness. Since the value of χ is influenced by the size of
the sample, it is not considered to be sufficient alone for the evaluation of the model. Therefore, the other fit
indices were examined as well (Table 4).
Table 4: Evaluation of the CFA
Index
Good Fit
Sample Statistic
Rationale
χ /df
χ /df ≤ 3
2.84
(Kline, 2011)
RMSEA
RMSEA ≤ 0.08
0.067
Hooper, Coughlan & Mullen (2008)
Sümer (2000)
RMR
RMR ≤ 0.08
0.061
Brown (2006)
Hu & Bentler (1999)
SRMR
SRMR ≤ 0.08
0.068
Brown (2006)
2
2
99
Hu & Bentler (1999)
NFI
0.90 ≤ NFI
0.90
Sümer (2000)
Tabachnick & Fidell (2007)
Thompson (2008)
NNFI
0.90 ≤ NNFI
0.92
Sümer (2000)
Thompson (2008)
CFI
0.90 ≤ CFI
0.93
Hu & Bentler (1999)
Sümer (2000)
GFI
0.90 ≤ GFI
0.79
Hu & Bentler (1999)
AGFI
0.90 ≤ AGFI
0.77
Hu & Bentler (1999)
Ki Kare:2206.10; df:778
When the index of RMSEA in the path diagram was examined, a fit index with a value of 0.067 was obtained.
The value of RMSEA less than 0.06 refers to good fitness. It was also seen that GFI was 0.79 and that AGFI was
0.77. It is required that the GFI and AGFI values of 0.90 or over refer to good fitness. As the GFI and AGFI values
obtained were less than 0.90, it was thought that the model had weak fitness. In addition, it was seen that the
RMR and SRMR fit indices were found to be 0.061 and 0.068, respectively. The RMR and SRMR values lower
than 0.05 refer to excellent fitness. The values regarding the other fit indices were found to be as follows: NFI
0.90, NNFI 0.92 and CFI 0.93. These values over 0.95 refer to excellent fitness. The path diagram regarding the
model is presented in Appendix 1. Also, Table 5 presents the statistics regarding the items after the construct
made up of 2 factors and 41 items was confirmed.
Table 5: Item Statistics Related to the Second CFA Findings
*
Item
t-value
Factor
load
Error
var.
Item-total
correlation
(r)
Planning and Preparing the presentation (α=0,88)
I1
13.3
.62
.62
.575
I practice before I present
10.03
.49
.76
.437
I3
9.62
.47
.78
.449
I4
12
.57
.68
.524
I5
10.99
.53
.72
.499
I
design
the
presentation 11.21
.53
.71
.479
systematically
I7
13.19
.61
.63
.543
I8
15.33
.69
.53
.621
I9
7.97
.40
.84
.368
I10
8.48
.42
.82
.395
I11
6.56
.33
.89
.303
I consider color match among 10.81
.52
.73
.467
slides
I13
6.17
.31
.90
.302
I use visual elements (picture, 10.19
.49
.76
.436
video…)
Mean
Standard
deviation
(sd)
4.1869
4.0922
3.7549
4.3131
3.6748
3.8786
.78708
.96973
1.02551
.79629
1.02335
.89052
4.3617
4.3471
3.9345
3.5000
3.5073
4.1505
.76275
.72724
1.02432
1.13236
.95772
.88054
4.0097
4.1214
.93585
.79526
100
I emphasize important information
in a slide
I16
10.21
.49
.76
.435
4.0655
.87855
15.08
.68
.54
.605
4.1869
.75874
I17
14.78
.67
.55
.603
4.1117
.84125
I18
11.44
.54
.70
.520
3.9951
.86002
I19
7.77
.39
.85
.369
3.8495
.92106
I use maximum 5-7 rows in a slide
8.54
.42
.82
.417
3.8058
.89397
I21
9.4
.46
.79
.448
3.7136
1.03727
I22
12.88
.60
.64
.550
4.5073
.68522
I23
10.2
.49
.76
.438
4.0170
.86691
Presenting the presentation (α=0,83)
I24
6.21
.32
.90
.345
3.1359
.99192
I25
12.95
.61
.62
.520
3.7087
.77843
I use time effectively
11.52
.56
.69
.480
3.7791
.77192
I27
10.21
.50
.75
.516
3.7961
1.04039
I28
5.39
.28
.92
.334
3.1335
1.01768
I use body language effectively
12.97
.61
.62
.553
3.4636
.93128
I30
12.67
.60
.64
.486
3.8204
.82052
I31
4.23
.22
.95
.277
3.1214
1.08734
I consider suggestions/critics in the
end of presentation
10.5
.52
.73
.399
3.8617
.92164
I33
10.05
.50
.75
.417
3.0971
.99892
I34
7.71
.39
.85
.289
2.9684
1.00193
I35
4.83
.25
.94
.271
3.3447
1.02411
I36
12.82
.61
.63
.524
3.4417
.90900
I37
11.1
.54
.71
.431
4.0607
.81870
I38
6.97
.36
.87
.372
3.3519
1.07388
I39
10.68
.52
.73
.412
3.8083
.78280
I40
10.69
.52
.73
.417
4.2961
.84559
I41
9.57
.48
.77
.500
3.2039
1.12143
*
This scale was developed in Turkish language and some items were translated from Turkish version only for
this article.
101
Although the error variance for certain items was over 0.90, they were not excluded from the scale as the t
values and the factor loads were at acceptable levels. Among the 41 items obtained as a result of the analyses,
item numbers of 24, 27, 28, 31, 35, 38 and 41 included negative statements. Therefore, while calculating the
total score of the scale, it was necessary to transpose and then code these items.
Results Regarding Reliability
The Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient for the first factor of the two-factor scale was calculated as α = 0.88,
and The Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient for the second factor was found to be α = 0.83. As for the
Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient for whole 41 item scale, it was calculated as α = 0.90 (Table 5).
DISCUSSION
Effective presentation skills are among important skills that not only allow transferring information effectively
to the audience in scientific meetings but also help increase quality in educational settings. In this respect, it is
suggested that just like teachers, students should also have effective presentation skills to share their studies
and knowledge in front of an audience in educational settings.
Although effective presentation skills are expected to be acquired by all higher education students, these skills
are more important for teacher candidates attending faculties of education to integrate technology into their
teaching setting when they start their profession. Therefore, effective presentation skills are among the
professional skills that teacher candidates attending faculties of education are supposed to acquire. However,
even though the teacher candidates participating in the study knew how to use presentation programs such as
PowerPoint, they reported that they did not know how to use the program with the required skill (Mendez,
2011). Murphy (1996) stated that most university students lack the skills to speak effectively in front of a large
group of individuals and to transfer their thoughts effectively to the target population. There is either not
enough importance given to the acquisition of these skills or the related training is insufficient.
In literature, although effective presentation skills are taught in different phases, they are all basically the
same. Namhata (2011) considers effective presentation skills to include preparation, presentation and packing
up, while Edwards (2007) suggests planning, preparation and practice. Mandel (2000) emphasizes the phases of
planning, preparation and presentation. In this study, effective presentation skills included planning,
preparation of the presentation and presentation. In this study, effective presentation skills were gathered
conceptually under two headings. The first heading was “The Presentation Preparation Phase”, which focused
on the basic skills needed prior to making any presentation. The other phase was the “Presentation Phase”,
which covered the skills needed to make the presentation. In this study, the findings regarding the related
literature mentioned below were taken into consideration while creating the scale items and the scale
construct.
In the Presentation Preparation Phase, the presenter is primarily supposed to know for what purposes he or
she will make the presentation. The presenter must list in detail what the audience should learn and plan the
content of the presentation accordingly (Brody, 2007; Namhata, 2011). For the effectiveness of the
presentation it is important that the background of the audience be taken into consideration and that the
examples, statements and salutations in the presentation be prepared for the target audience (Adams, 2004;
Aldağ & Gürpınar, 2007; Andrew & Griffith, 2006; Brody, 2007; Edwards; 2007; Leblebicioğlu, 1998; Marancı,
2011; McDonalds & McDonalds 1993; Namhata, 2011). A dry run should be performed before the presentation
(Andrew & Griffith, 2006; Brody, 2007; Mandel, 2000) and if it lasts more than the planned time, adjustments
should be made to the presentation (Adams, 2004; Shetciliffe, 2001). The use of visual elements such as
graphics, figures, pictures and tables increase the effectiveness of the presentation (Andrew & Griffith, 2006;
Brody, 2007; Emden & Becker; 2004; Gelula, 1997; Leblebicioğlu, 1998; Magin & Helmore, 2001; McDonalds &
McDonalds 1993; Mandel, 2000; Saçar, İnan & Saçar, 2007; Sloboda, 2003; Ulrich, 2007). Additionally, it is
emphasized that in order to make the presentation more effective, it is important to use audio and visual
102
elements (Andrew & Griffith, 2006; Gelula, 1997). The resolution of the visuals chosen should be of high quality
and be directly related to the content of the subject as well (Aldağ & Gürpınar, 2007; Brody, 2007; Edwards,
2007; Gelula, 1997; Mandel, 2000; Pugsley, 2010). The line spacing on the slides should be 1.5 (Pugsley, 2010;
Saçar, İnan & Saçar, 2007), 5 to 7 lines in each slide (Saçar, İnan & Saçar, 2007; Shepherd, 2006; Sloboda, 2003)
and 5 to 7 words in each line (Leblebicioğlu,1998; Shepherd, 2006; Sloboda, 2003). On the other hand, it is
recommended that there should be at most 10 words in each line (Edwards, 2007). It is also pointed out that
each slide should present a single concept or judgment (Andrew & Griffith, 2006; Shepherd, 2006; Pugsley,
2010) and that spell-check should be made (Brody, 2007). In addition, color matching is stated to be another
important point that should be taken into consideration while preparing a slide, and it is emphasized that use
of too many colors in a single slide should be avoided (Aldağ & Gürpınar, 2007; Leblebicioğlu, 1998; Marancı,
2011; Pugsley, 2010; Shepherd, 2006; Sloboda, 2003). Moreover, it is also important to avoid the use of
red/green combinations due to the possibility that there could be color-blind individuals in the audience
(Pugsley, 2010; Shepherd, 2006). It is suggested that the background color of the slide should be be of light
colors and that combinations of contrast colors is generally be preferred (Aldağ & Gürpınar, 2007; Edwards,
2007; Leblebicioğlu, 1998; Pugsley, 2010; Sloboda, 2003).
In the presentation phase, it is important to plan the duration of the presentation that will match the attention
span of the audience and to use this duration of time effectively (Adams, 2004; Aldağ & Gürpınar, 2007;
Andrew & Griffith, 2006; Brody, 2007; Leblebicioğlu, 1998; Namhata, 2011; Shetciliffe, 2001). It is stated that
the beginning and ending phases of a presentation are among the most remembered phases. Therefore, these
phases should be used well. It will increase the interest in the presentation if a short story, some statistical
information, an example or a question is inserted either at the beginning or at the end of the presentation. It is
also suggested that the closing part should include a good intention or will for the future. The final thank you
should be as short as possible (Andrew & Griffith, 2006; Gelula, 1997; Leblebicioğlu, 1998; Namhata, 2011;
Shetciliffe, 2001). During the presentation, the presenter should make eye-contact with the audience rather
than turning his or her back to the audience or reading aloud from the slide or from the hand-outs (Adams,
2004; Aldağ & Gürpınar, 2007; Brody, 2007; Edwards, 2007; Emden & Becker, 2004; Gelula, 1997; Magin &
Helmore, 2001; Mandel, 2000; McDonalds & McDonalds 1993). The presenter should use warm and friendly
facial expression towards the audience and interact with them via one-on-one talks (Adams, 2004; Edwards,
2007; Gelula, 1997; Namhata, 2011). During the presentation, body language should be used effectively
(Adams, 2004; Aldağ & Gürpınar, 2007; Edwards, 2007; Emden & Becker, 2004; Leblebicioğlu, 1998; McDonalds
& McDonalds, 1993). Also, the presenter should not stand in a fixed place but walk among the audience
(Adams, 2004; Aldağ & Gürpınar, 2007; Andrew & Griffith, 2006; Edwards, 2007; Emden & Becker, 2004;
Gelula, 1997). In addition, during the presentation, wearing appropriate, casual clothes (Leblebicioğlu, 1998;
Mandel, 2000), overcoming one’s excitement/nervousness (Mandel, 2000; Namhata, 2011) and allocating time
to the question-answer part at the end of the presentation (Adams, 2004; Andrew & Griffith, 2006; Brody,
2007; Leblebicioğlu, 1998; Magin & Helmore, 2001; Mandel; 2000; Namhata, 2011; Shetciliffe, 2001) are among
the most important factors that contribute to an effective presentation. Adjusting the tone of voice during the
presentation will not only increase interest in the presentation but also draw the attention to the important
points. The tone of voice should not remain the same during the presentation, and the presenter should be
sure the whole audience can hear his or her voice (Adams, 2004; Aldağ & Gürpınar, 2007; Andrew & Griffith,
Brody, 2007; 2006; Magin & Helmore, 2001; Edwards, 2007; Emden & Becker, 2004; Gelula, 1997; Mandel,
2000; Namhata, 2011). The presenter should draw the attention of the audience to the important points in the
content of the presentation (Gelula,1997; Pugsley, 2010) and try to avoid going off subject during the
presentation.
These suggestions and findings in related literature were shaped via experts’ views, and nine items were
excluded from the 50-item pilot scale as a result of the analyses conducted. Among these nine items were such
statements as “I include more than one judgment in a single slide”, “thinking about the presentation makes me
anxious” and “I use audial elements in my presentation”. Although especially the statement of “I use audial
elements in my presentation” is suggested in related literature (Andrew & Griffith, 2006; Gelula, 1997), it was
excluded from the scale due to low values obtained as a result of the analyses. Depending on this, it could be
103
stated that the teacher candidates did not consider this item to be important at all or that this item did not
work as the teacher candidates perceived this item in different ways.
In literature, it is emphasized that students’ presentation skills should be assessed and that for an appropriate
assessment, more than one assessment methods should be used. In order to increase the level of learning and
to decrease dependence on the instructor during the assessment, self-assessment and other similar
assessment types are suggested besides the assessment conducted by the instructor. Certain research results
reported in related literature demonstrated that self-assessment contributes positively to learning (Aldağ &
Gürpınar, 2007). Therefore, the measurement tool developed in the present study not only helps students
assess themselves but also allows teachers to assess their students’ effective presentation skills via their
responses to the measurement tool. In addition, it is possible to use the observation technique with the
measurement tool developed in the present study and also to use this tool as a checklist to score students’
presentations.
In literature, it is seen that there are different studies in which such techniques as observation, interview and
peer assessment are used to measure individuals’ effective presentation skills in every year of education and in
a number of professional fields (Kayacan, Öztürk & Demir, 2011; Saban, Koçbeker & Saban, 2010; Aldağ &
Gürpınar, 2007; Langan et al., 2008). In one study, Mandel (2000) developed a self-assessment scale to assess
effective presentation skills which is quite similar to the Presentation Skills Self-Assessment Scale. The 20 items
found in that measurement tool includes elements which are important for an effective presentation.
However, this tool was not intended for measurement but prepared as a checklist that allows individuals to
assess their own presentations.
CONCLUSION
In this study, the validity and reliability analyses of the “Effective Presentation Skills Self-Assessment Scale”
developed in line with the related literature and with the views of experts and students were conducted, and
as a result, quite good values were obtained. The scale was developed via two different research processes. As
the intention was to develop the scale via a two-factor construct determined by the researchers in line with the
suggestions in related literature, the CFA was carried out on 50 items in the first study for item analysis and
item selection. In the second study, the CFA was applied again for the appropriateness of the two-factor 41item scale obtained in the first study. The sample of the Study-1 was made up of 409 teacher candidates
attending the Faculty of Education of Anadolu University in the academic year of 2011-2012, and the sample of
the Study-2 included 423 teacher candidates from the Faculty of Education of Osmangazi University in the
same academic year.
As a result of Study-1, nine items were excluded from the scale. In Study-2, the appropriateness of the two2
factor 41-item scale was tested, and such good values of fit indices as χ /sd: 2.84, RMSEA: 0.067, GFI: 0.79,
AGFI: 0.77, RMR: 0.061, SRMR: 0.068, NFI: 0.90, NNFI: 0.92 and CFI: 0.93 were obtained.
The Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient for the first factor of the two-factor scale was found to be α= 0.88,
the Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient for the second factor was calculated as α= 0.83. The Cronbach Alpha
reliability coefficient for the whole 41-item scale was found to be α= 0.90.
The scale was limited to the effective presentation skills of students from the faculty of education. Effective
presentation skills are important as they are needed in all years of education as well as in scientific meetings.
Regarding the effective presentation skills self-assessment scale developed, adaptation studies are suggested in
a way to include postgraduate students or to cover scientific meetings.
104
Selim GÜNÜÇ graduated from Computer Education and Instructional Technologies
Department in 2004. He graduated Educational Sciences Master Program in 2009. He
received him Ph. D. in Anadolu University, Department of Computer Education and
Instructional Technologies in 2013. He is an assistant professor in Department of
Computer Education and Instructional Technologies at Yuzuncu Yil University. His research
interes ciber psychology (technology/internet/game addictions so on), technology
integration and student engagement.
Van- TURKEY
Serap CAVKAYTAR received her Ph. D. in Anadolu University, Primary Education in 2009.
She has been working as an assistant coordinator in Anadolu University, Open Education
Faculty, at Turkish Language and Literacy Program. She is also a language advisor for the
office of Instructional Design for books at the Open Education Faculty. She managed a
national project and participated some projects and conferences on teaching Turkish
language and education.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Serap CAVKAYTAR
Anadolu University
Open Education Faculty
Department of Turkish Language and Literacy
Eskisehir- TURKEY
E. Mail: [email protected]/ [email protected]
Belgin SÖNMEZ is a Ph. D. Student in Curriculum and Instruction, at Education Faculty
Anadolu University. She is working as an elementary teacher in a public school.
Elemantry Teacher.
Belgin SÖNMEZ
Anadolu University
Eskisehir- TURKEY
Fidan ÖZBEY, is a instructor in the Department of Special Education, at Education Faculty,
Sakarya University. She is PH. D. student at Special Education Program in Ankara
University.
Lecturer
105
Fidan ÖZBEY
Sakarya University
Sakarya- TURKEY
E. Mail:[email protected]
Zeynep KILIÇ, graduated from Department of Primary Education in 2007. She graduated
Department of Primary Education Master Program in 2010.She is PH.D student at Primary
Education Program . She has been working as a research assistant in Department of Primary
Education, at Education Faculty, Osmangazi University.
Research Assistant Zeynep KILIÇ
Osmangazi University
Eskisehir- TURKEY
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Appendix 1: Standardized Path Diagram
109
CHALLENGES OF TEACHING AVIATION VOCABULARY
AND RADIO PHRASEOLOGY AT HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL
Şule Y. E. SEÇER
Graduate School of Social Sciences
Yıldız Technical University- TURKEY
Dr. Mehmet ŞAHİN
Yıldız Technical University- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
This paper aims a) to analyze the challenges in teaching aviation vocabulary and radio phraseology at high
school level in English language instructors’ perspective and b) to present some recommendations that can
help to reduce encountered problems if taken into consideration in the design and implementation of the
related syllabus and course program. This study is based on a qualitative research model in which focus group
interview is used as the data collection procedure. It is a fact that the challenges encountered in teaching
technical vocabulary initiate from the very nature of teaching English for specific purposes to the learners of
English as a foreign language. According to the results of this study, the problems occurring in learning
environment are classified and analyzed in two main categories: The first group of problems arises from the
students’ language competence and motivation. The second originates from instructors who are mostly
experienced, therefore more motivated in English language teaching but not in aviation as a technical field.
Key Words: Teaching vocabulary, Aviation Terminology, Radio Phraseologyy.
INTRODUCTION
Teaching English for Specific Purposes
Learning a foreign language has been considered to be a vital requirement for the formation of today’s
knowledge society. Communication in foreign languages is also stated as one of the eight key competences,
determined and regarded as a must that all citizens should have for a successful life in a knowledge society (EU
com:2004). Since English is accepted to be the international language as an inevitable key to international
currencies of science, technology and commerce, English language teaching (ELT) has been at great importance
in all educational systems in our unified world of relentless progress. For the same reason, English for specific
purposes (ESP) has been a rapidly developing branch of English as a foreign language (EFL) and has become a
major force in English language teaching and related researches.
In a metaphor, formed to identify the place and the role of English for specific purposes (ESP) in English
language teaching, ELT is likened to “an old and historic city inhabited by the gentle noblemen of English
language, literature and grammar” whereas ESP is a newly founded city by the noble adventurers who can no
longer be satisfied in their homeland of ELT but go and seek for new fertile lands beyond the mountains,
inhabited by “illiterate and savage tribes of Scientists, Businessmen, and Engineers” (Hutchinson & Waters,
1987). As narrated in this metaphor, the emergence of ESP in the late 1960s was not a planned and coherent
movement but rather a phenomenon that grew from the natural need for learning English of the businessmen
who wanted to sale their products, the mechanics who wanted to read their instruction manuals, written in
English, the doctors and the engineers who wanted to keep up with the recent technological advances in their
fields, designed in English, the pilots who wanted to comprehend radiotelephony communications in English
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and the learners of all these fields who are supposed to follow their textbooks, only available in English. The
idea can be clearly conveyed from the emergence of ESP that the needs and the purposes of the learners in
learning English forms the very basis of ESP that determines what to be taught and how it is taught. In other
words, “Tell me what you need English for, I’ll tell you the English you need” is the guiding principle of ESP that
determines the content material and the methodology via which English is taught (Hutchinson & Waters,
1987). ESP is accepted to have “legitimized English teaching” so it is in a way a more systematized and
purposeful form of English teaching (Brumfit, 1986). ESP also refers to research and instruction that focuses on
specific communicative needs and practices of particular professional and occupational groups (Hyland, 2007)).
The Significance of Teaching Technical Vocabulary in ESP
Learning language is not just about learning its grammar but rather about learning vocabulary and using it
properly for communicative purposes. “Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary
nothing can be conveyed.” (Wilkins, 1972). For this reason, English language teachers should give vocabulary a
high profile in the syllabus and in classroom activities so that students can understand its importance (O’Del,
1997). According to lexical approach, in which the words have a primary role, “to know a word means how to
use it in the real life to be able to communicate” (Lewis, 1993). This means that proper vocabulary learning
demands the productive use of vocabulary. The acquisition of vocabulary is also the most critical component of
successful language learning in ESP. “A certain degree of stress involved in productive practice of vocabulary”
refers to the idea that vocabulary practice should be challenging but not too much stressful and frustrating for
the learners (Gairns & Redman, 1986). Technical vocabulary is the specific terms of a field that are taught to
the learners that can use them confidently without misunderstanding. These terms are also called as “jargon”
and are essential for operation in a particular field. Field-specific vocabulary is important to maintain
communication in that field and it is obviously important to teach the technical vocabulary for specific fields
(Benson & Greaves, 1981). Each field has a set of technical words restricted with people familiar with that field
and there are also nontechnical words, usable in many fields (Gregory, 1967).
Teaching technical vocabulary is essential for learners’ comprehension of the content since they won’t be able
to understand and learn from the textbook chapter or reading selection well enough if the important technical
terms have not been explained beforehand (Cheek & Cheek, 1983; Thomas & Robinson, 1982). But it has been
always difficult to determine the most important words and phrases needed to build a proper vocabulary for
conducting effective conversations in a particular profession or an occupational field (McCarten, 2007). “It is a
virtual truism that understanding the terminology of a field is a major part of understanding the field itself.”
(Memory, 1990). If the objective vocabulary isn’t presented beforehand, the content can become increasingly
difficult for the students to comprehend. No matter how long time teachers use for vocabulary instruction,
teaching the meaning and the usage of the technical vocabulary contributes a lot to the learning of the content
area.
The Significance of Teaching and Learning Aviation Vocabulary and Radio Phraseology
“The language of international air-traffic control could be regarded as special, in the sense that the repertoire
required by the controller is strictly limited and can be accurately determined situationally, as might be the
linguistic needs of a dining-room waiter or air hostess” (Mackay & Mountford, 1978, p. 4–5). Thus, aviation
English can be a subdivision of ESP, while Radiotelephony English (RTFE) which is the core of Aviation English
may be considered a kind of special language for occupational purposes (EOP) or a restricted language.
Aviation technology, like all the other branches of science does not belong to any particular nation or culture
but refers to a universal concept. Likewise, the radiotelephony language is based on English language, as a
common lingua franca, a part from cultural and lingual variations. When the worldwide spread of modern
science and the relentless advances in aviation technologies are taken into consideration, the essence of
teaching aviation English vocabulary as a collection of technological developments in aviation industry can be
clearly understood. The global aspect of aviation technology resulting in varied cultural and lingual practices in
aeronautical industry poses great difficulties for students of aeronautical English, including different lexical
forms, semantic features and pronounceability of technical English words. In other words, this multiplicity and
variety of aviation communities affects aviation vocabulary learning with regard to the meaning, form, spelling
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and pronunciation of technical terms. This problematic nature of aviation vocabulary learning makes the
teaching of it more important as a subdivision of ESP.
Before exploring the significance and the challenges of teaching aviation English in Aviation as a broad technical
field, it would be useful to clarify some technical terms: To begin with, aviation English can be defined as “a
comprehensive but specialized subset of English related broadly to aviation, including the plain language used
for radiotelephony communications when other phraseologies do not suffice” (Wang, 2007). Radio telephony
conversation can be defined as the communication between pilots and air traffic controllers that takes place
through a radio medium with one air traffic controller in the control tower talking to many pilots on the same
frequency. The term phraseology refers to a group of standardized words and phrases commonly agreed on to
use in radiotelephony communication. Phraseology comprehensively covers all routine situations, and can be
considered as an example of a language for specific purposes (LSP). Plain language is the language used in
radiotelephony communication between pilots and controllers when phraseology does not suffice, especially in
abnormal conversations and emergency situations (Kim & Elder, 2009). When a routine use of phraseology
does not suffice, plain English is favorably used by pilots and controllers in order to maintain a correctly
conveyed and clearly understood radiotelephony conversation (Howard, 2008). In parallel to this, according to
the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) manual, plain language should be specific, explicit, and
direct (ICAO, 2004). English is the default language for such communication in international aviation. For
aviation personnel, proficiency in English language is required (ICAO, 2003). English language, plain or
phraseological, is generally the language used by aviation personnel consisted of native and nonnative
speakers, as well. Aviation English is not only a restricted specific purpose code but also a lingua franca
(Jenkins, 2007). The use of English as a lingua franca has a number of characteristics that “distinguish it from
the native-speaker standard including a disregard for grammatical niceties” (Seidlhofer, 2004). Successful
English as a lingua franca communication is, “overtly consensus-oriented, cooperative and mutually
supportive” (2004, p. 218). However, there are natural limitations of non-native English users in the use of
English in radiotelephony communication. In addition, their limited control of English may pose some crucial
threats for aviation safety (Atsushi, 2004). Hence the recent International Civil Aviation Organization policy
emphasizes the importance of bringing non-native users’ English to an appropriate standard.
Since students’ knowledge of words influences their achievement in all technical areas as words are significant
for communicating the content in general, aviation English vocabulary can be accepted to be a major difficulty
that impedes students’ progress in English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP). According to a survey made
in Civil Aviation University of China, 83% students admit that vocabulary is an important factor in learning the
English language. The research (see appendix I) indicates that vocabulary is the number one obstacle in reading
comprehension, followed by grammar and background knowledge; greatest barrier in listening comprehension,
followed by speaking speed and accent, greatest impediment to oral and written expression, followed by
organizing viewpoint and grammar (Wang, 2011).
Appendix I. Survey Result (Frustrations in Acquiring Language Skills, Wang, 2011)
Skills/Items
Vocabulary
Grammar/Structure
Accent/Speed
Culture
Listening %
50
12
30
8
Speaking %
44
18
18
20
Reading %
79
8
6
7
Writing %
48
32
8
12
The students’ development of communicative skills and familiarization with the aviation concepts and
terminology are very important in preventing and resolving misunderstandings. For this reason, aviation English
instructors should realize the significance of aviation vocabulary teaching and have it influenced over their
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teaching activities. With this increased awareness among aviation English instructors of the impact of teaching
and learning aviation vocabulary on safety, trainees will develop a “more professional, safety-oriented
approach to their tasks, as non-native speakers, of English language development and maintenance, and to
their daily work-related uses of language“(Mell). According to Fiona A Robertson, the ex-president of ICAO, the
main question here is how much experience the teachers of English have with the world of aviation. Generally
speaking, the teachers’ field is the language not aviation technically. So it is very natural for teachers with little
aviation experience to have a fear of not being credible in particular especially when they are with trainees new
to the job. An aviation English instructor cannot be expected to expertise in all aviation vocabulary. His job is
only “to apply English lexicology into aeronautical vocabulary sorting and teaching in the context of
aeronautical English and to explain certain terminologies or phraseologies in a specifically chosen context that
he has comprehended” (Wang, 2011).
According to another study, exploring the nature of miscommunication in radiotelephony conversation
between a native speaking pilot and nonnative speaking air traffic controller at air traffic control center of the
main international airport in Korea, the Native speaker is observed to have little difficulty in meeting the ICAO
requirement because he is already proficient in English. When it comes to the Korean controller, although
English language proficiency of him is never specifically mentioned, there is a clear reference to his non-native
pronunciation, concluded to be the reason for a number of misunderstandings in their radiotelephony
conversation. It can be concluded from the findings of this study that the teaching of pronunciation to nonnative English speaking aviation personnel is vitally important as the lack or incompetence in pronunciation can
cause some misunderstandings in radiotelephony conversations which can even jeopardize the flight safety
(Kim & Elder, 2009). The ex-president of ICAEA (International Civil Aviation English Association) Fiona A
Robertson also emphasized the importance of pronunciation practice as an inseparable part of every aviation
lesson because most aviation English practice is oral. She pointed out that pronunciation and oral
comprehension are very closely related as someone who pronounces badly will have problems understanding.
For her, the correct accentuation of longer words is essential for comprehensibility of aviation texts, and for
understanding spoken English in radiotelephony conversations. There are also core features of pronunciation,
which need to “be mastered for mutual intelligibility between English users from different L1 backgrounds”.
There should be an emphasis on teaching pronunciation which should also be taken into consideration in
syllabus design in the training of non-native English speaking flight-personnel (Jenkins, 2005). Aviation
phonetics should be the core component of the curriculum in the training of air traffic controllers (ATC) and
pilots because having learned international phonetics systematically, learners will be able to be deal with the
articulation and pronunciation difficulties, caused by phonetic contrast between their native language and
English (Wang, 2007).
In the study of Kim and Elder, exploring the nature of miscommunication in radiotelephony conversation at
Korean air traffic control center (2009), despite his proficiency in English, the native speaking pilot is also
blamed to lead some misunderstandings just because of his overuse of plain English instead of common flight
phraseology. Therefore, the training of all pilots and controllers, whether native or non-native, should
absolutely involve training in the use of commonly shared flight phraseology and of current aviation
phraseology repertoire in order to maintain a successful and efficient radiotelephony communication with
speakers from diverse language backgrounds (Kim & Elder, 2009). In addition to teaching common flight
terminology, teaching of some conversational strategies, including simplification of speech, proper
paraphrasing of some problematic utterances causing problems of comprehension has a great importance for
the training of both native and non native English speaking aviation personnel. In parallel to that idea, Sullivan
and Girginer, writing about the Turkish context of aviation training, have claimed that teachers of aviation
English should be “engaged in collecting and analyzing discourse samples so that they better understand the
communicative setting and develop enhanced course materials” (2002). “..the more words are analyzed either
phonologically, semantically or comprehensively, the more they are enriched by associations rendered by
learners, the longer they will be stored in memory” (Wang, 2011). According to Wang, with a proper usage of
teaching materials, classroom activities and correct teaching methods, different groups of students can enjoy
learning aviation vocabulary. In addition to it, encouraging students to make their own lexical associations
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when learning new vocabulary can “to some extent, can transform the lexicology learning task from uninspired
drudgery into newfound delight” (Hulstijn, 2001).
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The Aim of the Study
This study aims to determine the challenges of teaching aviation vocabulary and radio phraseology at high
school level in the point of view of the instructors of English who teaches Aviation English. As the state high
school is a technical school specialized on the field, and Aviation English is an inseparable part of the
curriculum, the scope of the study is well chosen. Focus group interview is the proper and direct technique to
collect and analyze the related data in the viewpoint of the instructors who are the experts of the subject.
Limitations of the Study
The state school where this study is carried out is a special technical school having private rules and regulations
about data privacy. Working as an instructor of English at this state high school, the researcher and the
facilitator of the study has to obey these limitations on data privacy. That’s why the name of the school and of
the instructors are not stated openly but coded as T1, T2, and T3. This can be considered as the mere limitation
of the study.
Data Collection
This study is based on a qualitative research technique: focus group discussion. The meeting room was quiet,
physically comfortable, and free from any outsider distraction not to avoid the respondents from focusing on
the discussion. All of the instructors were willing to participate in the interview. All the participants are
instructors of aviation course can be considered as the experts in teaching Aviation English. The first
participant, coded as T1 is the course book writer. Two of the instructors, coded as T1 and T2 defined
themselves “inexperienced” in teaching aviation vocabulary but had their MAs in Education whereas the other
instructor, T3 indicated that he had been giving aviation course for years. All the instructors were males. The
researcher was the facilitator of the three participant focus group discussion done in a state high school in
Turkey. The facilitator aimed to create a relaxed, informal atmosphere where the participants felt free to
express their personal opinions openly and sincerely. In order not to take any sides and direct the discussion
objectively, the facilitator did not express any personal comments or make any judgments on the opinions of
the participants. All participants were led to participate equally so that one participant should not be allowed
to dominate the discussion. The facilitator arranged the open-ended questions from general to specific and
presented them in such a way to encourage the participants to express their opinions about the challenges
they face in the classroom and the syllabus and course book they use freely. Within the discussion, the
participants are also asked about their expectations from the students in aviation lessons and their suggestions
about the issue. The sessions were tape recorded and transcribed after the meeting. All the participants
checked the texts in turns after the discussion. The irrelevant data gathered from the participants was ignored
in this study.
Data Analysis
The focus group interview, recorded on tape was carefully listened and transcribed by the researcher. The
names of the participants on the tape recording were omitted and coded as T1, T2, and T3 in the transcript.
Then the researcher scanned the transcript to locate the reoccurrences of the key words and concepts. These
key concepts were grouped and interpreted in some main categories from which the following findings were
generated and the central themes of discussion were derived.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
With the analysis of the data collected through the focus group interview, the findings can be categorized and
discussed under the subtitles, stated as follows.
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Instructors’ Lack of Experience in Teaching Aviation English
Two of the instructors participated in the research presented their not being experienced in teaching aviation
course as the most significant challenge, they encounter since it takes a lot of time to get prepared for the
course to become familiar with the terms and phrases related to the subject matter of each lesson. “Although I
am experienced enough and self-confident in English courses, I lack confidence and motivation in Aviation
lessons”, “I don’t think I am entirely acquainted with the content” and “Teaching English is my field, but
Aviation is technically distant.” are commonly expressed thoughts. Furthermore, all the instructors except for
the one who is the course book writer, stated that they do not feel themselves safe and confident teaching
with a newly written course book no matter how much they studied beforehand. They noted “I study on radio
phraseology more than the students do, but it cannot still make me feel safe with a new book.”
With the increasing importance of aviation vocabulary teaching and the application of the ICAO standards and
requirements, the demand for aviation English teachers and the need for qualified language teachers in the
specialism of aviation will increase. In addition to this, the vital impact of aviation vocabulary teaching even in
flight safety loads aviation English instructors with a huge responsibility of teaching their students the right
group of vocabulary with the most appropriate methods. We cannot expect a teacher new to aviation to know
every single term in aviation field or immediately start producing teaching materials but present the group of
phrases in a particular subject matter (Wang, 2011). It takes time for a teacher of English to get experienced, to
build self confidence, and to feel completely safe in teaching aviation English especially to more challenging
students who would be the experts in aviation in near future.
Students’ Unconcern in Aviation English Lessons
All the instructors/participants are of the idea that the students may sometimes not be enough concerned
about the content and the requirements of aviation lesson as it is not a separate course but merely a one hour
part of the six hour English course. Because of the same reason, as the course does not include a seperate
exam, the students’ anxiety level is not enough to feel responsibly oriented and motivated to the lessons. The
participants stated that the students “are not always concerned about the lesson” because they know their
performance “won’t affect their English lesson grades very much.”
A certain amount of stress can be good for vocabulary learning. In other words anxiety, to a certain extent can
create a more responsible and motivated attitude towards vocabulary learning (Gairns & Redman, 1986). On
the contrary, lack of adequate anxiety causes some motivational problems such as unconcern and
irresponsibility of students in aviation English lessons.
Students’ Incompetence in English Language
All the instructors/participants agreed that some of the students especially in 11th graders are not competent
enough in English language to comprehend the newly introduced technical vocabulary easily and thoroughly. In
their opinion, that can sometimes spoil the entire learning atmosphere and prevent the rest of the students’
from being concentrated on the subject matter and participating in classroom activity. One of the participants
said “For me, technical vocabulary learning requires a minimum intermediate level of English” and they agreed,
sometimes it is likely that “there are some false students in every class” who are probable to “slow down the
others’ comprehension.”
It is a well known fact that language incompetence of nonnative pilots and air traffic controllers can cause vital
misunderstandings in radiotelephony conversations in real flight experiences. Language incompetence that
directly affects the comprehensibility of radio conversations can even result in fatal flight accidents. Nonnative
students’ not having proper language background not only makes the comprehensibility of aviation texts
harder but also leads to some further problems in teaching technical vocabulary in target language such as
disorientation of the other students who are competent enough to learn more. It can also cause teachers
consume their limited time to make up for the gap in between different English competence levels of their
students in the class.
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Students’ Incompetence in Pronunciation Technical Words
All the instructors/participants stated that most of their students in both grades are not good at pronouncing
some aviation English terms “especially the long and problematic ones”. They particularly said that their
students generally “have a hard time producing -th sound” which does not exist in their mother tongue. They
share the idea that the problem arouses from the phonetic differences in between Turkish and English
languages. They admitted that they cannot give enough time and effort for proper pronunciation practice
during their vocabulary teaching in aviation English lessons.
Teaching and learning pronunciation plays a crucial role in aviation English since the pronunciational
incompetence of nonnative speaking personnel can cause some misunderstandings in radiotelephony
conversations and even endanger the flight safety (Kim & Elder, 2009). Competence in pronunciation is an
important part of oral comprehension in radiotelephony conversations and of the comprehensibility of aviation
texts. It is natural that nonnative speaking students have some problems in accurate pronunciation of some
aviation terms especially because of the phonetic differences and difficulties in English. That’s why nonnative
students needs more time and effort for pronunciation practice. The only way to deal with the phonetic
contrast in between the aviation students’ native language and aviation English Aviation is to spare adequate
time and effort for teaching pronunciation (Wang, 2007).
Lack of Supplementary Material
All the instructors/participants shared the opinion that the course needs and should be supplemented with
extra four skill based material in order to reinforce student’s vocabulary intake and comprehension. They think,
although there is a huge number of “attainable authentic videos on aviation”, they face a great difficulty in
finding “graded supplementary material, that includes target vocabulary and objected radio phraseology” and
“is appropriate for students’ level of English” as well.
There are lots of available live traffic recordings on internet which are very interesting and demanding for
aviation students. However, as they are authentic so cannot always address the same range of target
vocabulary that the teacher needs to teach, they cannot always be instructive enough. As it is not always
possible to make simulations in a recording studio, the instructors of aviation should comprehend the authentic
traffic recordings and videos beforehand to turn them into more comprehensible input for their students by
preparing related comprehension questions and vocabulary study for the lessons.
Lack of Application Field
All the instructors/participants think that the aviation course, given in the class lacks a proper application field.
They agreed that the students “cannot practice the target vocabulary properly.” and they all proposed the idea
that the students should be given the chance of practicing the Aviation terms and phrases “in a real flight
experience or at least in a simulation.”
Vocabulary plays an important role in learning the subject matter. Learning and knowing a new word does not
only and simply mean to understand its meaning but also means to be able to use it properly for
communicational aims in real life situations (Lewis, 1993). For this reason, meaningful vocabulary learning
requires a productive and communicative use of vocabulary when needed. Practicing the target vocabulary is
an essential part of teaching and learning technical vocabulary. For this reason, every aviation English course
should provide a large amount of speaking practice of the technical vocabulary for which role-playing as a
simulation of a live traffic dialogue can be useful. This kind of elaborate role-playing situations in language
classroom can be very closely related to the original work situation but cannot replace a real flight experience
or a flight simulator practice on a real flight base.
With the analysis of the data collected through the focus group interview, it can be clearly concluded that the
challenges of teaching aviation vocabulary can be classified in three main categories: the problems arising from
the students’ language competence and motivation, the problems originating from instructors’ not being
116
experienced enough in teaching aviation, and the problems coming from aviation course program design which
is lack of graded supplementary material and a separate and proper testing system.
In accordance with this grouping, the following recommendations below can be given to minimize the
challenges encountered in teaching aviation vocabulary.
• It can be clearly concluded from the findings that the instructors need to be more competent in teaching
technical vocabulary and radio phraseology. The question should be how they can improve their knowledge
and competence in aviation vocabulary which is technically a distant field to ELT. The following
recommendations are given to guide instructors in improving their competence in technical vocabulary and
boosting their self esteem in teaching aviation vocabulary:
• Instructors can undertake a two or three day visit to a flight base, including a short technical course
program of aviation phraseology that will give them the chance of getting familiar with the aviation terms
and contact with the pilots who are the real experts on the field. It will not only improve their technical
knowledge and competence but also supplement their confidence and motivation in teaching technical
vocabulary, as well.
• Pilots can be organized to give some sample aviation lessons. It will not only provide a good example for
the instructors in teaching aviation vocabulary but also reinforce both the instructors’ and the learners’
motivation in aviation lessons.
• The instructors can wok in coordination with the pilots while designing the aviation course syllabus and
planning the course program. In this way the content can be selected more professionally that it can be
more applying to students’ personal interests and needs as candidate pilots.
• Some of the 11th grade students’ English language competence should be fostered to improve their
comprehension in aviation vocabulary. It may be managed in two ways, indicated as follows:
• The instructors may plan additional English lessons to support this disadvantaged group of students with
basic grammar and vocabulary practices.
• The instructors may give introductory aviation lessons to 10th graders in order to provide a proper
technical background for them, make them acquainted with the aviation content in an earlier stage, and
foster their competence in picking up aviation vocabulary.
• Visits to flight bases once or twice in a term can be very useful to create students’ awareness, interest and
motivation in aviation. It will also help students practice the objective aviation vocabulary on the field with
the real actors, the pilots, in simulated radio conversations or real flight experiences.
• The instructors, in collaboration with pilots, should work on new supplementary materials through which the
students revise aviation vocabulary by four skill practices. They can also search for and adopt new audio
visual materials and aviation videos from different course books into their program. This will also make the
aviation lessons more attractive and the course book content more comprehensible for the students.
• Aviation lessons can be designed as a separate course in order to make students more concerned about the
lesson and its requirements. If it is designed as a course, separate from the English lessons, it will have a
separate exam that can create enough amount of anxiety among students. In that way, not only the
students’ self interest, willingness and motivation towards aviation English lesson but also their success in
aviation English exam would increase, as well.
117
th
IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at 5 International Conference on New Trends in Education and
Their Implications - ICONTE, 24-26 April, 2014, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 5
Number 3 of IJONTE 2014 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.
Şule Yüksel ERTUĞRUL SEÇER is PhD student in Curriculum Design and Instruction, at
Departmant of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Education, Yıldız Technical University,
İstanbul, Turkey. She has completed her MA in English Language Learning, at Hasan Ali
Yücel Faculty of Education, İstanbul University, İstanbul, Turkey.
Her research interests are Language Teaching, Adult-Adolescent Training, English for Specific
Purposes-Teaching Technical English, Curriculum Design and Educational Theories.
Şule Yüksel ERTUĞRUL SEÇER
Yıldız Technical University
34210, Istanbul- TURKEY
Mehmet ŞAHİN is Assist. Prof. Dr. at Department of Educational Sciences, Faculty of
Education, Yıldız Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey. He has been teaching; teaching and
learning strategies, curriculum design and instruction, assessment and evaluation,
instructional design. He has been involved in EU projects as researcher and coordinator.
His research interests are teacher training, teaching and learning theories, values and
Education, curriculum design for vocational and technical education and lifelong learning.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mehmet ŞAHİN
34210, Istanbul, Turkey
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THE EFFECT OF THE SPATIAL SKILLS EDUCATION PROGRAM
ON THE SPATIAL SKILLS OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
Asst. Prof. Atiye ADAK ÖZDEMIR
Pamukkale University
Department of Preschool Education
Denizli- TURKEY
Prof. Yıldız GÜVEN
Marmara University
Department of Preschool Education
İstanbul- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
Spatial skills have a central place in humans’ process of adaptation to their environment. Gaining of spatial
experiences in the early childhood constitutes the basis for children’s learning experiences in the following
periods. Preschool learning environments provide important opportunities to children (games and
communication with friends and teachers) with regards to the discovery of space and learning of spatial skills.
This study will therefore focus on the impact of the “Spatial Skills Education Program” on the spatial skills of
preschool children. Pretest-posttest control group experimental design will be used for measuring the impact
of Spatial Skills Education Program on preschool children. The sample group of the study is construed of 31
children (of ages 60-67 months) attending a kindergarten located in the Üsküdar district of Istanbul. The data
for the research has been collected by using the Spatial Perception Scale, Bracken Basic Concept Test, and
Spatial Ability Form.
The experimental group is construed of the goals and gains defined in the 2006 Preschool Education Program
of the Ministry of National Education, the goals and gains defined by the researcher so as to fulfill those of the
Ministry of National Education, as well as the 12-week-long Spatial Skills Education Program that consists of
activities designed to reach these aims and gains. The Spatial Skills Education Program has been conducted for
12 weeks, two days of the week by the researcher (Tuesdays and Thursdays), and two days (Wednesdays and
Fridays) by the classroom teacher. Whereas the Preschool Education Program of the Ministry of National
Education has been applied on the control group.
For all independent variables, the posttest results show meaningful differences in favor of the children in the
experimental group. The research results show that the Spatial Skills Education Program has positive impact on
the spatial skills of the preschool children.
Key Words: Spatial skills, preschool children, educational program.
INTRODUCTION
Space is where a human executes all his actions and lives all his experiences (Tümertekin and Özgüç, 2009); and
is therefore effective in helping people structure their ideas (Plumert & Spencer, 2007). Spatial skills, on the
other hand, have a central role in the process of human’s adaptation to his environment (Newcombe &
Huttenlocher, 2000). This central role has caused the concept to be considered and discussed as part of
different disciplines.
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Different features of spatial skills have been the subject of numerous studies (Lehnung, Leplow, Friege, Herzog,
Ferstl and Mehdorn, 1998). In the literature, spatial skills have changing decriptions in different disciplines, and
the researchers who conduct research on this subject focus on different aspects (Bayrak, 2008). Different
aspects researched on this subject include spatial ability (Linn & Petersen, 1985), spatial skill (Tartre, 1990),
spatial intelligence (Gardner, 2000), spatial visualization (Olkun and Altun, 2003), and spatial thinking
(Newcombe, 2010).
Spatial-thinking is functional in the brain even at early ages (Gersmehl & Gersmehl, 2007). Children develop
spatial concepts as the result of their interaction with their environment (Blades, Sowden, Spencer, 1995).
Spatial learning begins at infancy, and the child’s control over space increases as the child begins to walk. As
children’s ability to move increases, they begin to play games that include spatial experiences either by using
their own body (hiding, stepping on objects, crawling) or by using particular objects (Legos, or different objects)
(Güven, 2004). Gaining of spatial skills at early ages constitutes the basis for learning experiences in the later
years (Gersmehl & Gersmehl, 2007). Preschool learning environments provide children significant opportunities
(games, communication with friends and teachers) to children with regards to space and spatial discovery
(Thorpe, 2011).
Tzuriel and Egozi (2010) state the significance of teaching spatial skills as part of school curriculum. Beginning
from the preschool ages, children’s spatial abilities (Turgut, Günhan and Yılmaz, 2009; Ertekin and İrioğlu, 2011)
and spatial awareness (Abravel, 1973) can be improved via proper educational practices. According to Levine,
Vasilyeva, Lourenco, Newcombe and Huttenlocher (2005), a proper educational program can allow both the
development of spatial skills, and the decreasing of spatial-skill differences among children. Mohler (2006) also
emphasizes preschool education, and state that children can gain such skills easier at early ages.
In the literature, spatial thinking is defined as a basis for subjects such as science and mathematics (Pollman,
2010). Spatial skills are related to the mathematical skills of early ages, such as geometry, measurements and
graphics (Kersh, Casey & Young, 2008; Markey, 2009). Moreover, spatial skills have a significant role in solving
problems in mathematics and geometry (Casey, Erkut, Ceder & Young, 2008). According to Williamson (2008),
various spatial skills in children are related to their performance in mathematics.
The literature includes varying studies that focus on the relationship between spatial skills and other
disciplines, including spatial skills and sex, as well as spatial skills and age. Nevertheless, the suggestions as to
how spatial skills can be improved by education seem to be limited (Lajoie, 2003). In light of the data provided
above, this study has aimed to develop a Spatial Skills Education Program, and to determine its impact on the
spatial skills of preschool children.
Spatial Ability
In order to survive and produce, all living things have to organize their actions in a spatial world (Newcombe
and Huttenlocher, 2000). People carry out evaluations regarding these relations between space and
themselves. Estimating the distance between two objects, or guessing whether an object would fit into a
particular space, or defining a pattern are all actions realized in space, and include evaluations on objects’
relations between themselves or space (Melendez, Beck & Fletcher, 2000).
Spatial information carries different levels of significance with regards to all actions, may them be simple or
complex. We use spatial skills in our daily conversations; we map the given space, and invent tools to find our
way in that given space (Plumert & Spencer, 2007). Finding directions to a particular place, placing objects,
packing luggages, catching a ball are all actions that require the representation and processing of these
information (Hegarty & Waller, 2005).
Despite some pioneering works, studies that place spatial ability at its focus do not appear in the literature up
until the 1920s (Mohler, 2008). The period 1920-1960 includes studies in psychometrics with varying focuses,
such as whether spatial ability is different than intelligence, as well as factor structure. In 1921, Thorndike has
defined space as the basic factor of human intelligence. The results of researches conducted in this period have
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shown the multiple factors of spatial ability. Accordingly, tests have been developed to measure this ability.
While studies in psychometrics on spatial ability have continued between 1960-1980, developmental and other
studies have also been conducted in this period. The point of focus in developmental studies have been the
development of spatial ability in children and adults. The first studies in this field have been conducted by
Piaget and Inhelder (Mohler, 2008).
While spatial ability is a subject that is discussed in a variety of fields including education, psychology and
neurology, what spatial skill really is, which term should be used to identify it, how it can be described, and
what spatial skill is in reality, or shortly, the nature of spatial skill, has not yet gained clarity (Linn & Petersen,
1985). Different terms used to describe this ability in the literature include spatial ability, visualisation, spatial
skill, visual spatial skill, spatial intelligence, spatial reasoning, spatial orientation, and spatial thinking (Işık,
2008; Çakmak, 2009).
Researches in the literature focusing on spatial ability focus on four major topics. These skills are as follows:
• Description of particular spatial abilities
• Gender differences regarding spatial ability
• The impact of spatial skills on predicting profession
• Gaining of spatial skills via education
The most clear result of century-long research experiences on spatial skills is that spatial ability is a complex
cognitive process, and that each and every one of research conducted on this topic will provide significant
contributions to the field (Mohler, 2008).
Elements of Spatial Ability
In the literature, spatial skills are analyzed in varying dimensions. In this regard, researches having different
perspectives have defined spatial skills in different ways (Yang and Chen, 2010). According to the definition of
Kersh, Casey and Young (2008), spatial skills cover individuals’ capacity to compare, manipulate and transform
the non-verbal, visual information.
Using the term “spatial ability”, Grande (1990) has presented seven components of spatial ability, that are eyebody coordination, figure-ground perception, perceptional continuity, perception of location in space, spatial
relations, visual distinction, and visual memory (Tekin, 2007).
Tartre (1990) has defined spatial skills as the mental skills such as understanding, directing, interpreting and
reorganizing visual relations. Lohman (1988, 1996) has defined spatial ability as the production, preservation
and recalling of well-structured visual images, and has presented three sub-factors in relation to this ability,
that are spatial visualization, speeded rotation, and spatial orientation.
Zavotka classifies spatial abilities in four main titles (Allen, 2010):
• Mental visualisation of two-dimensional objects in a three-dimensional space
• Three-dimensional visualization of two-dimensional drawings
• Mental twirling of an object in a different plane
• Visualisation of a scaled down object
Linn and Petersen (1985) have defined spatial ability as a set of skills including remembering, production,
transformation and representation of symbolic and non-verbal information. Additionally, based on a metaanalysis study they have conducted, Linn and Petersen have stated that spatial ability covers multiple
components, including spatial perception, spatial visualisation, and mental rotation.
When the above-mentioned definitions of spatial abilities are analyzed, one can see that this ability covers a set
of different components. Three of these elements will be covered in this study, that are spatial visualisation,
spatial perception and perspective.
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Mental Rotation
Mental rotation covers the mental visualization of a particular object’s or the picture of an object’s appearance
when that object is rotated in a three dimensional or two dimensional space (Casey, Andrews, Schindler, Kersh,
Samper and Copley, 2008). Linn and Peterson (1985) define mental rotation as individuals’ ability to quickly and
correctly visualize the rotated versions of two dimensional and three dimensional figures. Newcombe and Frick
(2010) define mental rotation skill as the ability to visualize the new appearance of an object after it is rotated,
scaled down or up, sliced into two, or folded. According to these researchers, mental rotation is the mental
visualization of the movement of an object.
Mental rotation covers four sub-processes. These processes are coding of the stimulus to be rotated, mental
visualization of the stimulant’s appearance, planning and implementation of the rotation, and comparison of
the mentally rotated stimulant to the present stimulant (Lamm, Windischberger, Moser and Bauer, 2007; cited
in Richter, Brenner & Karnath, 2009). The simple form of mental rotation skills can be seen in infancy, and
these skills keep developing in the early childhood (Newcombe & Frick, 2010). The results of a research
conducted by Kosslyn, Margolis, Barrett, Goldknopf and Daly (1990) show that five-year-old children are
capable of mental rotation. The results of certain developmental researches focusing on mental rotation show
that children of ages 4-5 are capable of both mental rotation and of utilizing mental rotation strategies, and
that the processing speed increases with age (Frick, Daum, Walser & Mast, 2009). Moreover, certain other
researchers have also expressed the opinion that mental rotation can be learnt by education (Tzuriel & Egozi,
2010).
Spatial Visualization
Spatial visualization covers a process wherein spatial data is used in multiple phases, including retention of
figures, detecting a figure among many other complex figures, or forming a new figure by bringing two figures
together (Linn & Peterson, 1985).
Creating cognitive maps related to one’s environment, utilization of these maps, and spatial relations are
covered within the scope of spatial visualization (Gilmartin & Patton, 1984). Data acquired from the
experimental research by Rafi, Samsudin and Said (2008) show that spatial visualization skill can be developed
with education.
Spatial Perception
Spatial perception is defined as an individual’s determination of the relationship between objects based on the
direction his/her body faces (Linn & Petersen, 1985). According to Heddens and Speer (2006), spatial
perception includes skills such as hand-eye coordination, figure-ground perception, perceptional continuity,
positioning in space, visual distinction, visual memory, and perception of spatial relations. Hand-eye
coordination means integrating visual stimulants and motor responses. Children use this ability while stacking
blocks on top of each other. Similar to a jigsaw puzzle, figure-ground perception is the ability to find a particular
figure in a given ground. Perceptional continuity is the ability to recognize figures even when their size,
orientation or color-shade features change. Positioning in space is the associating the position of the object
with one’s own position in the given space. Finally, spatial relations is both associating one’s own position with
the positions of objects, and to associate positions of different figures with each other (Heddens & Speer,
2006).
Perspective Taking
The initial researches on taking perspective have been conducted by Piaget. Known in the literature as the
“three mountain task”, Piaget has attempted to determine whether children of different ages were able to
understand the appearance of mountains from different angles. As the result of these researches, Piaget has
concluded that children were not able to percieve different perspectives before the ages 9-10 (Newcombe and
Huttenlocher, 2000). Perspective taking includes an individual’s imagining of oneself as the observer, moving
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and taking perspective according to the figure and the order of the figure. In perspective taking, the observer
mentally designs his/her own movement (Newcombe & Frick, 2010).
Piaget and Inhelder (1956) define spatial perspective as increasing decentration, as well as the ability to draw
distinctions between left and right, or front and back (Salatas & Flavell, 1976).
In certain studies, the development of spatial perspective has been analyzed within three rules (Flavell, Favell,
Green & Wilcox, 1981). These rules are:
• When two people share the same position, the appearance of an object is the same to both of them.
• When objects that have different features are rotated on their own vertical axis, they appear differently;
different individuals at different locations also have different views of the object.
• When single-sided objects such as a sphere or a cylinder are rotated on their vertical axis, they will appear
the same; different individuals at different locations will also have different views of these objects as well.
Based on their research, Flavell, Favell, Green and Wilcox (1981) have argued that children of ages 4-5 are able
to comprehend all three of the above-mentioned rules.
Before comprehending that objects can be viewed differently to different people, children first realize that
objects have different appearances. In ages 3-5, children’s ability to understand others’ perspective develops;
they begin to accept that someone else that sits opposite to them may have a different view of the given object
(Bigelow & Dugas, 2008).
Silvern, Waterman, Sobesky and Ryan (1979) have stated that perspective taking develops in four levels. The
first level is level zero (0). At this level, children cannot realize that others may have different views than
themselves. At level one, they realize that people may have different points of view. At level two, they realize
that one can be able understand the point of view of both themselves and others; and at level three, they
become capable of understanding the point of view of both themselves and others.
Research shows that perspective taking in children begins to develop at earlier ages than what is indicated
(Flavell, Flavell, Green & Wilcox, 1981). These research findings show an increase in preschool children’s
success on the perspective-taking-related tasks. When suitable tasks and options are provided, even threeyear-old children have very little difficulty in determining others’ perspective (Ives, 1980). The research with
five-year-old children conducted by Newcombe and Huttenlocher (1992) show that five-year-olds have the
capability to comprehend others’ perspective. Another study by Rosser (1983) conducted with children of ages
4, 6 and shows that even four-year-old children are aware of different perspectives.
Learning of Space and Development of Spatial Skills among Children
Children begin to conceptualize space from very early ages onwards (Melendez, Beck & Fletcher, 2000). They
begin discovering their surroundings beginning from their moment of birth; the actions they execute
throughout this process constitute one of the resources for spatial information. The first spatial figure that
babies come across is the face of their mother. As the mother lies down on the bed, holds the baby in her arms,
or sits upright, the baby views the mother’s face at different angles each time (Smith, 1997). Developmental
changes cause babies’ ability to move in a particular space to increase. With the increase in their movement
ability (crawling, standing, walking etc.), they begin to learn new information about their surroundings, which
eventually impacts their process of understanding space (Siegler & Alibali, 2005). In this process, they feel the
need to define objects and position them in space. Defining and positioning are two important steps for them
to reach objects, or orient themselves towards those objects (Siegler & Alibali, 2005). As babies reach a toy,
crawl towards an object, or pull themselves upwards, they build relations with their surroundings (Stiles, 2001).
Children’s awareness of space and their surroundings begin with their awareness of their own bodies.
Realization of the space other than the body begins by understanding directions, perceiving the position of
his/herself in a given space, and understanding the distance between objects (Pollman, 2010).
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Development of Spatial Ability
The first theoretical approach with regards to the development of spatial abilities in children belongs to Piaget.
Piaget has argued that children make only limited use of basic spatial skills, that they begin to use projective
and metric features in coordination only from ages 9-10 onwards, and that this development continue in the
mid-childhood ages. While some of the studies conducted after Piaget’s have supported his theory, many other
studies in the following years have shown that children are able to make use of topological, projective and
metric features either all together or one by one (Blaut, 1997). Moreover, the results of many researches show
that basic spatial skills among children begin to appear before the ages nine or ten (Newcomce & Sluzenski,
2004; Lourenco & Huttenlocher, 2007; Boardman, 1990; Rosser, Campbell & Horan, 2001; Malofeeva, 2005;
Blades, Sowden & Spencer, 1995; Somerville & Bryant, 1985; Bremner, Bryant, Mareschal & Volein, 2007;
Michaelidou, Filippakopoulou & Nakos, 2007).
While some researchers argue that spatial skills can be improved by training and experience (Lohman, 1996),
other place particular emphasis on a systematic and structured education for improving spatial skills (HollidayDarr, Blasko & Dwyer, 2000). In the literature, studies conducted with preschool and first-grade children appear
to be quite limited (Mohler, 2006). In addition to particular training programs, spatial skills can also be
supported with traditional in-class methods (Gagnon, 1985).
In light of the information provided above, this study aims to analyze the impact of Spatial Skills Education
Program on the spatial skills of preschool children.
METHOD
Research Model
In line with the aim stated for the research, the experimental design is construed of pretest, posttest and
control group pattern (Büyüköztürk, 2007).
The Sample Group
At the implementation stage of this research, it is highly significant to have teachers at schools to contribute to
the implementation in classrooms. The fact that the administration of Halil Rüştü Elementary School (located in
the Üsküdar district of Istanbul province) has agreed to the conditions of implementation, and that the
teachers at this school have agreed to participate in the project voluntarily have been the factors that enabled
the selection of this school. At this school, dual education is being practiced. Group matching technique is used
for the formation of experimental and control groups in the research. In this technique, two equal groups are
being formed based on group averages of related variables (Büyüköztürk, 2007).
The working group for this research consists of the children attending the kindergarten at Üsküdar Halil Rüştü
Elementary School. Following the formation of experimental and control groups, studies have begun with 20
children in the experimental group (morning) and 23 children in the control group (noon). However, due to
reasons such as changing of groups by children, leaving school, absence during the test period, or unwillingness
to respond to the tests, the statistical analyses have been realized based on the data provided by 16 children in
the experimental group, and 15 children in the control group.
Demographic Information on the Workgroups
The experimental group has included 7 girls (43.8%) and 9 boys (56.2%), adding up to 16 children in total; and
the control group has included 9 girls (60%) and 6 boys (40%), adding up to 15 children in total. The age of the
children in the experimental and control groups change between 60-67 months.
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Information on the Equilibrium of the Workgroups
In order to determine whether both groups are equal with regards to spatial perception, spatial concept
development and spatial abilities, three different measurement tools have been applied on both of the groups
simultaneously. These tools were Spatial Measurement Scale, Bracken Basic Concept Test and Spatial Ability
Form.
The Mann Whitney U-Test has been applied upon the direction-position sub-aspect of the Bracken Basic
Concept Test of the experimental and control groups, as well as the pretest scores of the Spatial Perception
Scale and Spatial Ability Form. The scores reached have showed that the children in the experiment and control
groups do not have a meaningful difference with regards to their direction-position subaspect scores at
Bracken Basic Concept Test (U=119,5 p>.05). Moreover, no significant difference has been found between the
Spatial Perception Scale (U=86,5 p>.05) and Spatial Ability Form (U=114, p>.05) score gradings of the
experimental and control groups.
When all pretest findings have been evaluated, it can be said that prior to the implementation the spatial
perception, spatial ability and direction-position concept scores of all children in the experimental and control
groups have been close to each other.
Data Collection
Data Collection Tools
Within the scope of this research, the measurement tools below has been used to determine the spatial
perception, spatial concept development, and spatial abilities of the children in the experimental and control
groups both at the beginning and end of the study.
Personal Information Form
The personal information form used in the research covers the the child’s age, sex, whether the child has
received any prior preschool education, the educational background of parents, and the employment status of
the parents. The classroom teachers have provided assistance in the collection of the data in the form.
Spatial Perception Scale
In order to observe the in-group and inter-group differences, the “Spatial Perception Scale” has been
implemented to both groups both prior to and after the experimental study. The scale had been developed by
Tığcı and Güven (2003) so as to measure the spatial abilities of 6 year-old children. The scale consists of 49
articles. The coefficient of internal consistency in the scale has been calculated as .82. The Raven Progressive
Matrice Group Intelligence Test has shown positive correlation in criterion validity. The scale has been applied
to the children on an individual basis and in a silent environment. The articles in the scale are graded based on
two choices, that are ‘right’ or ‘wrong’. The practitioner codes the right answers as ‘1’, and the wrong answers
as ‘0’. A large number of right answers show that the children’s spatial perception development level is high,
while a large number of wrong answers show that the children’s spatial perception development level is low.
Bracken Basic Concept Scale
Prior to the experimental implementation, the Bracken Basic Concept Scale-Expressive has been applied to the
children in both the experimental and the control groups. The scale had been previously developed by Bracken,
and was revised in the year 2006. The scale has been developed so as to measure the basic concept
development of children of ages 2 years and 6 months to seven years and 11 months. The Revised Form of the
Bracken Basic Concept Scale consists of 11 sub-tests and 308 articles (Bracken, 1998; cited in Bütün-Ayhan and
Aral, 2007).
Each sub-aspect can be evaluated within itself. The scores received from the first five aspects constitute the
preparation to school aspect. The test is marked as right (1) and wrong (0). If the total score of the first six tests
is the total score of the School Readiness Composite (SRC) Test, then it would be entitled as Expressive TC. The
concept development level of each child is determined by comparing his/her test score to the standard score
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stated in the scale. Based on the test scores, the concept development level of the child is evaluated as
advanced, good, intermediate, low, and very low. The retest reliability of the original test has been calculated
as .95, the coefficient of internal consistency of the direction-position sub-aspect has been calculated as .92,
and the coefficient of consistency of Expressive TC has been calculated as .97 (Bracken, 2006). The scale has
been adapted to Turkish by Yoleri (2010). The retest reliability of the scale for children of ages 3-6 has been
calculated as .99, and the KR 20 internal reliability coefficient has been calculated as .89. The KR 20 value for
the direction-position sub-aspect has been calculated as .89 (Yoleri, 2010).
Spatial Ability Form
The Spatial Ability Form used in the study so as to measure the spatial abilities of the children in the
experimental and control groups has been developed by the researcher. A set of related research has been
used as resources for the preparation of the articles in the form, as well as its implementation (Gzesh & Surber,
1985; Petty & Rule, 2008; Frick, Daum, Walser & Mast, 2009; Estes, 1998; Lehnung, Leplow, Haaland &
Mehdorn, 2003; Blumberg & Torenberg, 2005; Sorby, 2009; Plumert & Hawkins, 2001). The draft form had
been prepared as 23 articles.
The validity and reliability studies of the form has been implemented based on the phases found in the
literature (Tavşancıl, 2005; Büyüköztürk, 2005). The reliability studies of the Spatial Ability Form has primarily
covered the reliability of scope. For this aim, advice has been taken from five Pre-School Education Experts and
one Mathematics Expert. As part of the reliability studies of the Spatial Ability Form, the Cronback Alpha
coefficient of internal consistency and test-retest coefficients of reliability have been analyzed.
The Spatial Ability Form has been applied to 35 children (60-72 months) attending the Şehit Öğretmen Nuriye
Ak Kindergarten located in the Ataşehir district of Istanbul twice, each application being three weeks apart. The
test-retest reliability of the gathered data have been conducted by using the Pearson Product-Moment
Correlation Coefficient formula. This way, the reliability coefficient has been found to be r=.85 (p<0.01). KR-20
calculation is recommended for dual-category evaluation tools consisting of two answering options as right or
wrong (Büyüköztürk, 2005). Therefore the results of the data gathered from the 50 children (60-72 months)
attending the Şehit Öğretmen Nuriye Ak Kindergarten located at the Ataşehir District of Istanbul has been
corrected using the article analysis statistical program, and the article-total score correlation and KR-20 value
(.79) has been calculated by using Excel software.
According to the article-total correlation, in order to have an item to be considered reliable, it has to have a
weight value of .30 or higher. If need be, articles of weight values such as .20-.30 may also be kept in the scale
(Büyüköztürk, 2005). Nevertheless, in this study, the articles that have a weight value below .25 (articles
1,2,4,6,7,12,13) has not been covered in the form. Other applications and analyses in the research has been
realized by using 16 articles.
The articles in the Spatial Ability Form are applied to the children on an individual basis, and in a quiet room.
The duration of implementation of the Spatial Ability Form is 20-30 minutes per child. Due to the qualifications
of this age group, the speed factor or time limit in responding to the questions has not been taken into
consideration. Based on the individual difference between the children, the necessary sensibility has been
shown with regards to their use of time. The form aims to measure the spatial abilities of 60-72 month-old
children (preschool), such as mental rotation, perspective taking, mapping, model design, and finding the
hidden object in the design. The right answers in the form have been graded as ‘1’, while the wrong answers
have been graded as ‘0’. The highest score that can be achieved from the Spatial Ability Form has been 16, and
the lowest score has been 0. A large number of right answers reflects high spatial ability performance, whereas
a large number of wrong answers reflect low spatial ability performance.
Spatial Skills Education Program
The establishment of the Spatial Skills Education Program has first began with a literature review. The literature
review has been conducted in two frameworks; these two frameworks were space and definition of space, and
spatial ability. As the second step for the formation of the program, the aims and gains of the program has
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been established. The 2006 Preschool Education Program of the Ministry of National Education has been
studied for this aim; the space-related aims and goals have been identified; and in line with the literature
studied, additional goals and gains have been established by considering the developmental features of
children.
Afterwards, a set of activities have been designed in light of the aims and goals identified. The general structure
of the educational environment and the preschool education program have also been considered for the
preparation of activities. The factors considered for the selection of the materials used in the activities were
the familiarity of children with these materials, how much attention they attracted with regards to color and
appearance, and ease of accessibility. The activities have been planned as individual as well as small and big
group activities, thereby enabling all children to participate in the activities.
In the research, the Spatial Skills Education Program designed for developing the spatial abilities of children has
been implemented by integrating it into the preschool education program. Games have been used as the
primary method in the activities. In addition to games as the primary method of activities, question-answer and
problem solving techniques have also been used in the activities.
The primary aim of the program has been developing children’s ability of understanding and using the
direction-position words, mental rotation, understanding different perspectives, being able to recognize
objects in different positions, interrelating spaces depending on their different features, and spatial
representation.
The Operation
The experimental group is construed of the goals and gains defined in the 2006 Preschool Education Program
of the Ministry of National Education, the goals and gains defined by the researcher so as to fulfill those of the
Ministry of National Education, as well as the 12-week-long Spatial Skills Education Program that consists of
activities designed to reach these aims and gains.
The Spatial Skills Education Program has been conducted for 12 weeks, two days of the week by the researcher
(Tuesdays and Thursdays), and two days (Wednesdays and Fridays) by the classroom teacher. The classroom
teacher has participated in the program by either repeating and consolidating a particular activity previously
applied by the researcher, or by applying the worksheets provided by the researcher. The worksheets
completed in the classroom under the guidance of the classroom teacher had been delivered back to the
researcher.
Data Analysis
Prior to the experimental study, a non-parametric test Mann-Whitney U Test (MWU) had been given to the
children so as to determine whether there were any meaningful differences between their scores in the
Bracken Basic Concept Scale Total and Direction-Position SubTest, Spatial Perception Scale, and the Spatial
Ability Form. The Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test has been used to determine the difference between the pretest
and posttest score averages between each group.
RESULTS
The results of the Mann Whitney U-Test has been provided in tables 1-3. The results of the Mann Whitney UTest are based on the comparison of the post-implementation scores of those children who have attended the
Spatial Skills Education Program and those who have not. The scores reflect children’s performance in the
Bracken Basic Concept Test Direction-Position SubAspect, Spatial Perception Test, and Spatial Ability Form.
129
Table 1: The Mann Whitney U Test Results Regarding the Bracken Basic Concept Scale Direction-Position SubTest Scores of the Experimental and Control Groups
Direction-Position Sub-Test
Group
N
Control
Rank Total
U
z
p
15 10,13
152,00
32
3,57
,001
Experimental 16 21,50
344,00
Total
Rank Average
31
When Table 1 is analyzed, one can see a significant difference between the Bracken Basic Concept Test
Direction-Position SubAspect scores of the children who have participated in the Spatial Skill Education
Program, and the students who have not (U=32, p<.05). When the rank averages are analyzed, one can see that
the children who have participated in the Spatial Skill Education Program have higher scores in the directionposition subtest, in comparison to those who have not.
Table 2: The Mann Whitney U Test Results Regarding the Spatial Perception Scale Scores of the Experimental
and Control Groups
Spatial Perception Scale
Group
N
Control
Rank Total
U
z
p
15 11,73
176,00
56
2.55
,011
320,00
Total
Rank Average
31
When Table 2 is analyzed, one can see a significant difference between the Spatial Perception Scale scores of
the children who have participated in the Spatial Skill Education Program, and the students who have not
(U=56, p<.05). When the rank averages are analyzed, one can see that the children who have participated in
the Spatial Skill Education Program have higher posttest scores in the Spatial Perception Scale, in comparison to
those who have not.
Table 2: The Mann Whitney U Test Results Regarding the “Spatial Ability Form” Posttest Scores of the
Experimental and Control Groups
Spatial Ability Form
Group
N
Rank Average
Control
15 8,87
Total
Rank Total
U
z
p
133,00
13
4.25
,001
363,00
31
When Table 3 is analyzed, one can see a significant difference between the Spatial-Skill-Requiring Tasks Form
scores of the children who have participated in the Spatial Skill Education Program, and the students who have
not (U=13, p<.05). When the rank averages are analyzed, one can see that the children who have participated
in the Spatial Skill Education Program have higher posttest scores in the Spatial Skill Form, in comparison to
those who have not.
DISCUSSION
Results of this research show that the children in the experimental group have scored higher in the Bracken
Basic Concept Scale Direction-Position subtest and the Spatial Ability Form, in comparison to the children in the
control group. These findings can be interpreted as follows: the implementation of the Spatial Skill Education
Program alongside the 2006 Preschool Education Program of the Ministry of National Education develops
children’s spatial skills better than the 2006 Preschool Education Program of the Ministry of National Education
does by itself.
130
The results of the research in the literature conducted to develop spatial skills also tend to support the results
of this research.
The results of the research conducted by Gabrielli, Rogers, and Scaife (2000) show that the activities conducted
by using technology have a positive impact on the spatial-task-performances and spatial abilities of six-year-old
children. The findings of a research by Fenna and Doorman (2011) have shown that the implemented education
program has been effective in 4-6 year-old children’s ability to recognize spatial arrangements.
The results of an experimental research conducted by Tzuriel and Egozi (2010) on 116 children of ages 6-7 have
shown that the gender-based difference between the performances of the children in the experimental and
control groups has disappeared following the implementation of an education program on the representation
and transformation of visual-spatial information.
The results of an experimental research conducted by Tığcı (2003) with 6-year-old children have shown that the
spatial perception level of the children who have attended a spatial perception education program develop
more than those who have not.
In their experimental study, Petty and Rule (2008) have applied a 10-week-long spatial skill program to children
in the experimental group, while the children in the control group have continued with their curriculum-based
education. At the end of the research, a significant increase has been found in the spatial skills of the children
who have participated in the spatial skill education program. According to the results of a research conducted
by Casey, Andrews, Schindler, Kersh, Samper and Copley (2008), an intervention program prepared for spatial
skills have given rise to the spatial visualisation skills of the children in the experimental group.
A research conducted by Davis and Hyun (2005) show that establishment of an educationally-rich environment,
encouraging children to speak, cooperation with children, providing children with constructivist discussion and
reflection, support children’s ability to use the concepts related to projective and metric space in an integrated
way. In the research, jigsaw puzzles had been used as educational materials. The results of the research have
shown that the use of this material for education has positively impacted 5-7 age children’s reasoning skills of
in visual space (Verhaegh, Resing, Jacobs & Fontijin, 2009). In a research where the impact of the right and left
relational concept training has been studied, a meaningful difference has been seen between the spatial-skillrelated pretest and posttest averages of preschool children (Wilmshurst ve Rubin, 1974).
Researches show that spatial skills are related to particular activities and that they can be improved by proper
education. There are no obligations to incorporate spatial skills into educational programs. As a consequence,
individuals’ participation in spatial-ability-related activities and gaining of experiences in this regard are left to
chance (Tang, 2006). The Spatial Skill Education Program used in this research, as well as the other education
programs for improving spatial abilities developed in other studies, develop spatial abilities within a systematic
program, rather than mere coincidences. Such programs provide children with the opportunity to repeat the
spatial-skill-related activities more often. This situation allows them to gain such experiences wherein abstract
(concepts) and solid (materials) stimulants are harmonized in a systematic structure. At the basis of the positive
impact of spatial skill education programs on the spatial skills of children lay the awareness, opportunity for
repetition, and the opportunity for transfer, all acquired as results of planned activities and active participation.
Spatial skills impact many fields and disciplines, and can impact success in various areas of life (Mohler, 2008).
The results of developmental studies, as well as the findings regarding the individuals’ differences in spatial
thinking as presented in the research, all show that spatial skills can be improved by effective and wellstructured education and/or technology (Newcombe & Frick, 2010). As the result of a meta-analysis study,
Baenninger ve Newcombe (1989) have shown that participation in spatial activities are effective on the spatial
skills of children, and that the spatial skill performance of children can be developed via education. While
spatial skills can be observed in the early childhood, development in this area continues until mid-childhood,
and this development includes significant personal differences. This situation places great significance on the
131
educational programs that aim to develop this skill in the preschool era (Newcombe & Frick, 2010). Blades,
Sowden and Spencer (1995) state that the education of certain spatial skills have to begin in the preschool age.
In light of the findings in this research, the relationship between development of spatial concept in children and
spatial skill can be recommended as a further study with regards to preschool education and new researches in
the area. Moreover, the impact of this education program and similar programs on the later education lives of
children can be researched as well.
th
IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at 5 International Conference on New Trends in Education and
Dr. Atiye ADAK ÖZDEMİR completed her master studies on Preschool Teacher Education
in Marmara University (2011) in Turkey. She has been working at Pamukkale University
since 2004 in Primary Education Department (Preschool Teacher Education). Her main
research interests are children and media, play and spatial development in preschooler.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Atiye ADAK ÖZDEMİR
Pamukkale University Education Faculty
Primary Education Department
Preschool Teacher Education
Denizli- TURKEY
She compl She completed her BA studies on Child Development and Education in
Hacettepe University (1975) in Turkey. She got her master’s degree in special education
(Early Education of Mentally Handicapped) from University of Illinois (1978) in USA. She
has been working at Marmara University since 1991 in Primary Education Department
(Preschool Teacher Training). She is scholarly interested in child development and
education (especially, mathematical thinking and creativity in early childhood).
Prof. Dr. Yıldız GÜVEN
Marmara University
Ataturk Faculty of Education
Primary Education Department (Preschool Teacher Traning)
Göztepe Kampüsü 34722/ Kadıköy-İstanbul- TURKEY
132
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137
ANALYZING SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING
ATTITUDES IN TERMS OF CERTAIN VARIABLES
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dilek ÇAĞIRGAN GÜLTEN
İstanbul University
Hasan Ali Yucel Education Faculty
Istanbul- TURKEY
İlker SOYTÜRK
Matematics Teacher
Istanbul- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
This research study aims to examine secondary school students’ mathematical problem-solving attitudes in
terms of certain variables. The study was carried out to determine whether the students’ mathematical
problem-solving attitudes differ or not in terms of the variables of gender, grade, attending nursery school,
parents’ education level and mathematical achievement. The research sample consists of the students enrolled
in the different gradesof randomly chosen secondary schools in the European side of Istanbul during 2013-2014
academic year.The research data were obtained using the “Mathematical Problem Solving Attitude
Scale” developed by Canakciand Özdemir (2011) and a personal information form. The statistical analyses of
the research data were performed with the package program of SPSS 19.0. The research findings are expected
to contribute not only to the literature but also to the planning of teaching process taking into account the
students’ mathematical problem-solving attitudes. The findings were discussed for further research and
researchers in accordance with the relevant literature.
Key Words: Mathematics, Maths Problem, Matematical Problem-Solving Attidue, Secondary School.
INTRODUCTION
Upbringing individuals who produce, explore and question has come into prominence in today’s world, which is
changing and advancing rapidly with technological growth.Therefore, a high-quality education plan is expected
to be the one which enables individuals to develop their reasoning and problem-solving skills. In this context,
problem-solving processes which take into account individual differences at every stage of education should be
shaped with education plans because individuals need to solve everyday problems in order to adapt to life
effectively. In a sense, to live means to solve problems, and there might be several types of problems: social,
emotional, physical, mathematical etc. There might be small differences in these problems; nevertheless, the
method to follow in any problem-solving situationis similar.
Since education and schools aim at upbringing active, efficient and therefore happy individuals, the ultimate
aim of the curriculum is to help individuals solve some problems in order to build a better world and lead a
happy life. However, problem-solving skills cannot be earned in a didactic way. This process needs to be carried
out actively in an educational environment. One of the most effective ways of earning problem-solving skills is
to work on mathematical problems because thinking strategies used in mathematical problem-solving would
also influence an individual’s life perspective.
As is known, problem-solving process plays an active role in understanding mathematical knowledge and
establishing a connection between the pieces of mathematical knowledge. Therefore, mathematics teachers
138
are in agreement that students’ problem-solving skills should be developed (Karataş and Güven, 2003). Recent
studies in primary mathematics programs and assessment standards pay a special attention to developing the
skills of mathematical problem-solving and reasoning, and they emphasize the importance of using these skills
to solve problems we face in real life (Arslan and Altun, 2007).
Problem is any situation that requires a solution and for which there is no immediate solution in daily life
(Polya, 1997). In terms of mathematics, problem is defined as a matter that needs to be found and shown, but
the way to find and show it is not obvious with available information at first sight (Kayan and Çakıroğlu, 2008).
Mathematical processings require divergent thinking skills. Mathematical problems are those that are
encountered for the first time and for which there is no immediate solution. Therefore, they are a sum of
processings that require using divergent thinking strategies to solve.
Students are observed to have difficulty with understanding mathematical terms or grasping what has been
asked in a question, reading and telling a problem accurately, focusing on a problem, describing a problem, and
checking a solution due to limited skills and insufficient time (Shermen and et al., 2005).For this reason,
problem-solving, which is known as a process, has a role in forming both positive and negative attitudes. As
long as there is no change in students’ wrong beliefs and negative attitudes towards mathematics and
mathematical problem-solving, students will not be a good problem solver. The concept of attitude, which is an
acquired internal state that influences an individual’s choice in their acts towards a set of things, individuals,
events and various settings, becomes prominent (Senemoğlu, 2001).
Attitude is defined as a learned tendency to respond to a particular object in a positive or negative manner
(Fishbein&Ajzen, 1975). Attitude is “a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience,
exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon an individual’s response to all objects and situations with which
it is related” (Allport, 1935). Attitude, as a tendency to develop a way of possible conduct and behaviourin
response to any event or situation, forms the root of every human act (Çelik, 2005, cited in Çanakçı and
Özdemir, 2011). It is of essence to know students’ problem-solving attitudes in a problem-solving process
because it will be infuential to determine the teacher’s methods and approaches in a problem-solving process
and teaching of it. As knowing about students’ attitudes and knowing how to measure their attitudes could be
a major factor in increasing the quality of education, research studies conducted with the aim of measuring
students’ problem-solving attitudes towards certain subject matters are essential (Duatepe and Çilesiz, 1999).
For this reason, it is necessary to develop valid and reliable measuring instruments that will measure students’
problem-solving attitudes and to plan the teaching process taking into account students’ attitudes for
athematical achievement (Çanakçı and Özdemir, 2011).
As is known, it is expected to earn students basic mathematical skills such as problem solving, communication,
association, and reasoning in every stage of education, from primary school to university (Cantürk-Günhan and
Başer, 2007). Problem-solving takes place among the purposes of mathematics and all other subjects (Soylu
and Soylu, 2006). It is obvious that mathematics and its education can only develop in relation with other
sciences. Within this context, problem-solving education rises in importance as students learn how to learn and
solve problems they face in their daily lives with a more rational and analytical way of thinking (Soytürk, 2011).
In the light of this information, the problem of this research study is to examine secondary school students’
mathematical problem-solving attitudes.
Aim of Research
This research study aims to examine secondary school students’ mathematical problem-solving attitudes in
terms of certain variables. The study was carried out to determine whether the students’ mathematical
problem-solving attitudes differ or not in terms of the variables of gender, grade, attending nursery school,
parents’ education level and mathematical achievement.
139
METHOD
This research study is designed in descriptive survey model. The survey model aims to describe the existing
situation as it stands in the past or currently (Karasar, 2005).
Research Group
This research study, which was carried out in the city of İstanbul during 2013-2014 academic year, consists of
160 randomly chosen students enrolled in the fifth and sixth grades of a secondary school.The research group
was determined using the easily accessible method of sampling. The sampling method provides pace and
convenience for the research because the researcher chooses an easily accessible case with this method.
(Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2006 ).
Data Collection and Data Analysis
The data were collected using the “Mathematical Problem-Solving Attitude Scale” developed by Canakci and
Özdemir (2011) and a personal information form. Depending on the variables, the parametric tests of
independent group t test and ANOVA were used for the analysis of the data which show homogeneous
distribution. As a result of the ANOVA, complementary Post-Hoc analysis techniques were carried out when
significant differences were obtained.
Mathematical Problem-Solving Attitude Scale: Mathematical Problem-Solving Attitude Scale (MPSAS) was
developed by Çanakçı and Özdemir (2011) due to the absence of a scale that measures mathematical problemsolving attitudes of the second grade primary students in Turkey. The two-dimensional Likert-type
MPSAS,which measures second grade primary students’ mathematical problem-solving attitudes, is composed
of 19 items, and is valid and reliable. The first factor, which consists of 10 items, is titled “Enjoyment Scale”
since the items in this factor reflect the attitudes about whether or not students like solving problems, they get
bored of solving problems,or they have difficulty in solving problems. The second factor, which consists of 9
items, is titled “Teaching Dimension” since the items in this factor reflect students’ attitudes towards the
teaching process of problem-solving. The internal consistency coefficient is 0.848 for the whole scale. It was
found to be 0.638 in this study.
FINDINGS
Table1: Students’ Frequency and Percentage Values For the Variable of Gender
Gender
F
%
Girl
83
51,9
Boy
77
48,1
Total
160
100
The research sample group consists of 160 secondary school students, 83 (51,9%) of which are female, and 77
(48,1%) of which are male.
Table 2: Students’ Frequency and Percentage Values For the Variable of Grade
Grade
F
78
48,8
th
82
51,2
160
100
6 Grade
Total
%
th
5 Grade
The research sample group consists of 160 secondary school students, 78 (48,8%) of which are from the fifth
grade, and 82 (51,2%) of which are from the sixth grade.
140
Table 3: Students’ Frequency and Percentage Values for the Variable of Parents’ Education Level
Mother’s Educational Level
Father’s Educational Level
%
f
%
f
Illiterate
5
3,1
6
3,8
Primary School
55
34,4
38
23,8
Secondary School
57
35,6
52
32,5
High School
38
23,8
45
28,1
University
5
3,1
19
11,9
160
100
100
100
Total
Of all the secondary school students in the research sample group, 5 (3,1%) students stated that their mothers
were illiterate; 55 (34,4%) students stated that their mothers were primary school graduates, 57 (35, 6%)
stated that their mothers were secondary school graduates; 38 (23,8%) stated that their mothers were high
school graduates, and 5 (3,1%) students stated that their mothers were university graduates. On the other
hand, 6 (3,8%) students stated that their fathers were illiterate; 38 students (23,8%) stated that their fathers
were primary school graduates; 52 (32,5%) students stated that their fathers were secondary school graduates;
45 (28,1%) students stated that their fathers were high school graduates; 19 (11,9%) students stated that their
fathers were university graduates.
Table 4: Students’ Frequency and Percentage Values For the Variable of Their Math Grades
Math Grades
f
%
1
12
7,5
2
15
9,4
3
47
29,4
4
40
25,0
5
46
28,8
Total
160
100
Of all the students in the research sample group, 12 (7,5%) students got 1; 15 (9,4%) students got 2; 47 (29,4%)
students got 3; 40 (25%) students got 4; and 46 (28,8%) students got 5 in mathematics.
Table 5: Results of the Independent Group t Test Performed to Determine Whether Secondary School
Students’Mathematical Problem-Solving Attitude Scale (MPSAS) Scores Differ or Not in Terms of “Gender”
Scores
Groups
N
Mean
Std.
Std.
Rank
Deviation
Error
t
df
Sig.
Mean
MPÇTÖ
Girl
83
3,71
0,58
0,06
2,985
158
0,003
Total
Boy
77
3,44
0,57
0,06
MPÇTÖ
Girl
83
3,82
0,85
0,09
2,135
158
0,034
Enjoyment
Boy
77
3,54
0,80
0,09
MPÇTÖ
Girl
83
3,59
0,51
0,05
3,183
158
0,002
Teaching
Boy
77
3,33
0,53
0,06
As shown in Table 5, as a result of the independent group t test performed to determine whether secondary
school students’ MPSAS scores differ or not in terms of the variable of “gender”, significant difference was
found among the groups in favor of female students (t=2,985; p<.05). When the other scale sub-dimensions are
examined, significant difference was found between the sub-dimensions of Enjoyment (t= 2,135;p<.05) and
Teaching (t=5,084;p<.05) in favor of female students. According to this finding, it can be concluded that
141
mathematical problem-solving attitudes differ in terms of gender, and female students have a more favourable
attitude in comparison to male students.
Students’Mathematical Problem-Solving Attitude Scale (MPSAS) Scores Differ or Not in Terms of “Grade”
Scores
Groups
N
Mean
Std.
Std. Error
t testi
Rank
Deviatio
Mean
t
df
Sig.
n
th
MPÇTÖ
5 Grade
78
3,67
0,62
0,70
1,941
158
0,054
th
Total
6 Grade
82
3,49
0,55
0,06
th
78
3,80
0,88
0,10
MPÇTÖ
5 Grade
1,642
158
0,103
th
Enjoyment
6 Grade
82
3,58
0,78
0,08
th
MPÇTÖ
5 Grade
78
3,53
0,53
0,06
1,638
158
0,103
th
Teaching
6 Grade
82
3,40
0,53
0,05
school students’ MPSAS scores differ or not in terms of the variable of “grade”, no significant difference was
found among the groups (t= 1,941;p>.05). When the other scale sub-dimensions are examined, no significant
difference was found between the sub-dimensions of Enjoyment (t= 1,642;p>.05) and Teaching
(t=1,638;p>.05). According to this finding, mathematical problem-solving attitudes can be said not to differ in
terms of grade.However, when table 6 is examined, it can be observed that fifth grade students have higher
mean scores in spite of the lack of significant difference. In this context, it can be concluded that as grade level
increases, students’ mathematical problem-solving attitudes decrease.
Students’Mathematical Problem-Solving Attitude Scale (MPSAS) Scores Differ or Not in Terms of “Attending
Nursery School”
Scores
Groups
N
Mean
Std.
Std. Error
t testi
Rank
Deviatio
Mean
T
df
Sig.
n
MPÇTÖ
Yes
75
3,58
0,58
0,06
-0,039
158
0,969
Total
No
85
3,58
0,59
0,06
MPÇTÖ
Yes
75
3,69
0,85
0,09
0,049
158
0,961
Enjoyment
No
85
3,68
0,83
0,09
MPÇTÖ
Yes
75
3,46
0,51
0,05
-0,176
158
0,860
Teaching
No
85
3,47
0,56
0,06
school students’ MPSAS scores differ or not in terms of the variable of “attending nursery school”, no
significant difference was found among the groups (t= -0,039;p>.05). When the other scale sub-dimensions are
examined, it was observed that there was no significant difference between the sub-dimensions of Enjoyment
(t= 0,049;p>.05) and Teaching (t=-0,176;p>.05). According to this finding, it can be stated that the variable of
attending nursery school is not influential in mathematical problem-solving attitudes.
142
Table 8: Results of the One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Performed to Determine Whether Secondary
School Students’Mathematical Problem-Solving Attitude Scale (MPSAS) Scores Differ or Not in Terms of
“Mother’s Education Level”
Source of
Sum of
df
Mean
F
P
Variance
Squares
Square
MPÇTÖ
Between Groups
1,522
4
0,381
0,364
Total
Within Groups
54,178
155
0,350 1,089
Mother’s
Total
55,700
159
Educational Level
MPÇTÖ
Between Groups
4,565
4
1,141
0,167
Enjoyment
Within Groups
107,886
155
0,696 1,640
Total
112,451
159
MPÇTÖ
Between Groups
0,276
4
0,069
0,919
Teaching
Within Groups
45,864
155
0,296 0,233
Total
46,140
159
As shown in Table 8, as a result of the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) performed to determine whether
secondary school students’ MPSAS arithmetic mean scores differ or not in terms of the variable of “Mother’s
Education Level”, the difference among their arithmetic mean scores was not found statically significant [F(4159)=1,089; p>.05]. As a result of the ANOVA test performed in relation to the other scale sub-dimensions, no
significant difference was found in the sub-dimensions of Enjoyment[F(4-159)=1,640; p>.05] and Teaching [F(4159)=0,233; p>.05]. Accordingly, it can be stated that mathematical problem-solving attitudes are not influenced
by mother’s education level.
“Father’s Education Level”
Source of
Sum of
df
Mean
F
P
Variance
Squares
Square
MPÇTÖ
Between Groups
1,199
4
0,300
0,494
Total
Within Groups
54,501
155
0,352 0,853
Total
55,700
159
Father’s
MPÇTÖ
Between Groups
4,580
4
1,145
Educational
0,166
Enjoyment
Within Groups
107,871
155
0,696 1,645
Status
Total
112,451
159
MPÇTÖ
Between Groups
0,687
4
0,172
0,673
Teaching
Within Groups
45,453
155
0,293 0,586
Total
46,140
159
secondary school students’ MPSAS arithmetic mean scores differ or not in terms of the variable of “Father’s
Education Level”, the difference among their arithmetic mean scores was not found statically significant [F(4159)=0,853; p>.05].As a result of the ANOVA test performed in relation to the other scale sub-dimensions, no
significant difference was found in the sub-dimensions of Enjoyment[F(4-159)=1,645; p>.05] and Teaching [F(4159)=0,586; p>.05]. Accordingly, it can be stated that mathematical problem-solving attitudes are not influenced
by father’s education level.
143
“Mathematics Achievement Score”
Source of
Sum of
df
Mean
F
P
Variance
Squares
Square
MPÇTÖ
Between Groups
10,441
4
2,610
0,000
Total
Within Groups
45,259
155
0,292 8,940
Total
55,700
159
Mathematics
MPÇTÖ
Between Groups
16,847
4
4,212
Achievement
0,000
Enjoyment
Within Groups
95,604
155
0,617 6,828
Score
Total
112,451
159
MPÇTÖ
Between Groups
5,770
4
1,443
0,000
Teaching
Within Groups
40,370
155
0,260 5,539
Total
46,140
159
secondary school students’ MPSAS arithmetic mean scores differ or not in terms of the variable of
“mathematics achievement score”, the difference among the arithmetic mean scores was found statistically
significant [F(4-159)=8,940; p<.05]. As a result of the ANOVA test performed in relation to the other scale subdimensions, there was also a significant difference in the sub-dimensions of Enjoyment[F(4-159)=6,828; p<.05]
and Teaching [F(4-159)=5,539; p<.05].
After the ANOVA test, complementary Post-Hoc analysis techniques were performed to determine between
which math grades the significant difference resulted from. In order todecide which post-hoc multiple
comparison technique to be used, the Levene’s test was performed to verify the homogeneity of group
distribution variances, and it was found that the variances were homogeneous. Then, Tukey’s multiple
comparison tecnique was preferred since the variances were homogeneous. As a result of the Tukey’smultiple
comparison analysis, it was found that MPSAS scores of the students with the Mathematics Achievement Score
of 5 differed significantly when compared to the students with the Mathematics Achievement Score of 3, 2,
and 1; MPSAS scores of the students with the Mathematics Achievement Score of 4 differed significantly when
compared to the students with the Mathematics Achievement Score of 3 and 2 in terms of total scale scores. It
was also found that MPSAS scores of the students with the Mathematics Achievement Score of 5 differed
significantly when compared to the students with the Mathematics Achievement Score of 3 and 2; MPSAS
scores of the students with the Mathematics Achievement Score of 4 differed significantly when compared to
the students with the Mathematics Achievement Score of 3 in the dimension of Enjoyment; and MPSAS scores
of the students with the Mathematics Achievement Score of 5 differed significantly when compared to the
students with the Mathematics Achievement Score of 3 and 2; MPSAS scores of the students with the
Mathematics Achievement Score of 4 differed significantly when compared to the students with the
Mathematics Achievement Score of 2 in the dimension of Teaching.According to this research finding, it can be
concluded that mathematical problem-solving attitudes of the students with higher mathematics achievement
scores were more favourable when compared to those with lower mathematics achievement scores.
According to the research findings, it can be concluded that mathematical problem-solving attitudes differ in
terms of gender and female students have a more favourable attitude in comparison to male students. When
the literature is examined, as also suggested by Gülten and Soytürk (2012), it is seen that there are different
results regarding the way female and male students’ problem-solving skills are perceived (Polat and Tümkaya,
2010),and whether problem-solving skills differ or not in terms of gender depends on the research sample
group (Arlı, Altunay, Yalçınkaya, 2011). On the other hand, gender difference in mathematics draws attention
of researchers and educators in many different countries of the world, and this brings about studies on gender
difference (Duru and Savaş, 2005). In this context, it is considered important to investigate mathematical
problem-solving attitudes in terms of gender and identify the situation.
144
It can be stated that mathematical problem-solving attitudes do not differ in terms of grade levels. In spite of
the lack of sigificant difference, when table 6 is examined, it is observed that fifth grade students have higher
mean scores. In this context, it can be concluded that as grade level increases, students’ mathematical
problem-solving attitudes decrease. Another finding is that no difference was observed in the mathematical
problem-solving attitudes of students in the research group in terms of “Attending Nursery School” and
“Parents’ Education Level”.As suggested in a research study conducted by Berkant and Eren (2013), although
students’ problem-solving skills are expected to increase relatively as their grade levels, mean scores, parents’
income and education levels increase, it was observed that the results obtained were not parallel with this
expectation.In addition to these findings, this study shows that attending nursery school is expected to
influence problem-solving, but no difference was found. On the other hand, since the research sample is small,
it might be impossible to make definite judgements.
The last finding is that secondary school students’ arithmetic means of MPSAS scores differed significantly in
terms of the variable of “Mathematics Achievement Score”. Thus, it can be stated that students with high
mathematics achievement scores have more favourable attitudes of mathematical problem-solving. Students
who are successful at solving problems are actually expected to be successful in mathematics. It was observed
that there was a significant and positive relationship between problem-solving skills and achievement in
mathematics. Students who were not good at mathematics were also observed not to be good at problemsolving (Özsoy, 2005). The research studies conducted by Özsoy (2005) and Yılmaz (2009) support this study in
terms of the relationship between mathematical achievement and problem-solving.
In line with the research findings, the following suggestions can be provided for further research:
- Similar research studies can be conducted with student groups from different grades in order to examine
mathematical problem-solving attitudes in terms of the variable of gender.
- In addition to the variables used in this study, other variables that would influence mathematical problemsolving attitudescan be identified and more extensive qualitative and quantitative research studies can be
conducted.
-Research sample groups whose mathematical problem-solving attitude levels are low can be identified and
relevant solutions can be found after detecting the reasons with qualitative research studies.
- With the help of experimental studies, different methods and techniques of teaching can be used to obtain
approaches that would positively influence mathematical problem-solving attitudes.
IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at 5th International Conference on New Trends in Education and
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESS OF AUTHORS
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dilek ÇAĞIRGAN GÜLTEN currently employed as an Associate Professor
Doctor at Istanbul University, Hasan Ali Yücel Faculty of Education, Department of
Mathematics Education. She is specifically interested in contemporary approaches in
instruction, approaches and techniques of teaching, creative drama, curriculum
evaluation, lifelong learning, individual differences in learning, the teaching of
mathematics and learning of mathematics.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dilek ÇAĞIRGAN GÜLTEN
Department of Primary Education, Istanbul- TURKEY
145
Ilker SOYTURK graduated from Department of Mathematics Education in 2008. He also
graduated form Department of Primary Education Master Program in 2011. He won a
scholarship from Minister of National Education to study in Department of Measurement
and Evaluation. Now, he is studying English at University of Georgia. He is specifically
interested in mathematical problem solving, math literacy and learning style.
Ilker SOYTURK
Istanbul- TURKEY
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INNOVATION AND CHANGE IN EDUCATION:
THE CASE OF ENGLISH INSTRUCTORS AT A PRIVATE UNIVERSITY IN TURKEY
Büşra TOMBAK
School of Foreign Languages
FSM University
Istanbul- TURKEY
Dr. Mehmet ŞAHİN
Istanbul- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The aim of this paper is a) to analyze the views of the English language instructors at a private university about
the positive and negative effects of innovation and change in education on the learning of the students and b)
to discover possible improvements in the design of the language courses of prep-classes. This qualitative study
with focus group interview data collection method seeks answers to the problems that instructors face in the
classrooms in terms of learning outcomes of the students. In Turkey, most private universities accept students
who get lower degrees than the others and one year of English instruction is regarded as unnecessary for the
students or they lose their interest in the time of eight months. The problems and suggestive ideas are
analyzed in two main categories: a) the learning abilities and the quality of instruction in the lessons and b) the
motivation, interest and attitude of the students towards English.
Key Words: Innovation, Change, Instructors, Private University.
INTRODUCTION
Baskan (2001) defines the ‘higher education’ as the system after middle-school including institutions where
students study at least for two years. University is regarded as a program which prepares one for the vocation
forehead. University students are expected to do scientific research and publications, whose main topics and
subjects are determined by the needs of societies (Baskan, 2001). The needs of societies, on the other hand,
are changeable with the development of technology and information. In this sense, universities are bound not
only to follow the changes in the society and information but also precede them and hold a leading role. They
are expected to lead the society and information, and alter their own systems or practices from time to time.
The first step of a developed higher education system is the high number of universities in a country.
In Turkey, there has been a drastic increase in the number of private and state universities, from 70 to 170, in
the last decade (Hürriyet, 2013). Although all these universities are bound to the regulations of YOK (The
Higher Education Council), with the law released in 1946, they have been granted with the permission of being
autonomous (Gür, 2011). Universities constitute their own schedule and program as long as they provide
certain courses and this autonomy leads to variations in the techniques and methods used in the same
departments. This autonomy of the universities has been fancied by many researchers and instructors;
however, the board of trustees has been criticized by some researchers as it limits the autonomy of the
university and education quality (Gür, 2011).
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As for teaching and learning activities, the teaching styles and techniques have been altered in the past years
into a more student-centered and more engaging way of teaching (Rogers, 1951). From classrooms where
teachers were the only source of information and power, the education has moved to a more humanitarian
style which enables the students to participate in the decision making process and distribute their distinctive
qualities or interests in the classroom.
History of Higher Education
Humboldt’s reform of connecting both the scientific research and education under ‘higher education’ affected
the higher education system in European countries for a long time (Aydin, 2010). This German higher education
reform was also effective in the 1933 Turkish Higher Education Reform and universities were required both to
do scientific research and to serve the quality education to the students. However, universities were only
available for the higher class in Europe and the United States. After the Second World War, they also became
available for the people who were not ‘elite’. The universities of today, likewise, are serving the majority of the
society rather than being exclusive only to some part of it. The new information and technology discovered or
invented in universities should be used for the wellness of the society, which requires the universities to
examine their academic values, education methodologies and social role. Additionally, Aydin propounds all the
universities in Turkey, from the new and local ones in the East to the traditional ones, should become
international in terms of sharing information and cultural values of the district.
The first secular institution was founded in 1773 in the Ottoman Empire and three other institutions,
respectively one for engineering, one for medical and one for military, followed it (Başkan, 2001). Almost a
century later, The Ottoman University was founded in the Ottoman Empire and it was active until 1933 with
certain times of inactiveness due to external and governmental reasons. In 1933, The Ottoman University was
abolished and transformed into ‘Istanbul University’ due to the lack of parallelism with the society and the new
regulations in new Turkish Republic and education system. Within the same period of time, other universities
started to be founded in Ankara and other cities in Anatolia. The higher education system is regarded as being
behind the development of the society, which has required it to be reformed in every ten years so far (Aypay,
2003). In 1933, the first institution with the name of “university” was opened in Turkey and, in 1946,
universities were made more autonomous. After 1946, universities were meant to be more autonomous with
several other reformations in 1964 and 1973. In 1981, The Council of Higher Education was founded and
foundation universities were founded after the foundation of the Council of Higher Education. It is stated in the
article that governance, organization, the number and quality of instructors, the need for employment, quality,
rivalry, the relationship between education and employment and the effect of market mechanism on higher
education have a big influence on the development of higher education. The factors noted in the article as the
determinative factors creating reformations are: the decrease in the quality of education as a result of a rise in
numbers, equality of opportunity, poorness of instructors both in terms of number and quality, the increase in
demand, the concentration of powers, universities’ relationship with the government, private universities and
the idea that higher education institutions should answer to an justify themselves to a higher authority.
Aypay (2003) states in his article that there are three causes of reformations in higher education: a)
productivity, b) balanced resource allocation and c) realization of pre-determined social and cultural aims and
governments make the regulations in two ways: a) rational model where the regulations are set by the
government and applied by the universities and b) self-regulation where universities are in charge of their own
regulations.
Innovations in Higher Education
Departments of education and psychology do not teach how to teach as the instructors in these departments
lecture in the way they were lectured (Enarson, 1960). Although innovation is seen as vital and encouraged by
foundations, teachers in universities seem to have doubts about the efficacy of new teaching styles in the same
way printing was rejected by some scholars, the article suggests. In spite of the accepted efficiency of smallsized classrooms for better teaching and learning, faculty members insist on keeping the standard numbers for
their universities and classrooms. It is suggested in the article that faculty members should take the classroom
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sizes, the optimal benefits of the various techniques and styles for different types of courses into account while
preparing the catalogues and schedules of the courses. Enarson also suggests that lectures on televisions
include more innovation and they would be more successful than the courses given in faculties of universities
in the U.S.
It is stated in the article titled Teachers’ craft knowledge and curriculum innovation in higher engineering
education that innovation in education is not complete unless the teachers are also trained for the innovation
being made as teachers’ role in the process of innovation is not-to-be-questioned (Van Driel, Verloop, Van
Werven & Dekkers, 1997). At the beginning of an innovation process, the teachers’ craft knowledge is inquired
since it is believed that the craft knowledge of teachers affect the innovation process deeply. Craft knowledge
is defined in the article as teachers’ knowledge, viewpoints, virtues and notions they develop for teaching. The
earlier the viewpoints of teaching are constituted, the harder it becomes to change them. As a result of the
high importance of teacher viewpoints, innovations in curriculum are designed according to the past
experiences and current beliefs of teachers as well as the present conditions of students and learning
environment. In an engineering higher education school in the Netherlands, the management desired to
renovate the curriculum of engineering courses to keep up with the contemporary educational and engineering
developments and, more importantly, to improve the negative image of the poor achieving students’ year over
year. The new curriculum was designed as a student-centered one.
In the article titled Preservice elementary teachers and self-reflection: How innovation in mathematics teacher
preparation challenges mathematics beliefs (Santos, 1995), a new course is analyzed with the methods of
observation, document analysis and interviews. It can be concluded from this article that although the students
who took the innovated course did not personalize the learning at the beginning of the semester, it helped
them increase their awareness of learning, teaching and knowing mathematics.
According to Ghaith and Yaghi (1997), whether tiny or deep, the innovations in education are subject to the
practices of teachers in the classrooms. It is stated in the article that self-attitudes are highly influential on the
behaviors of the teachers and their attitudes of themselves are improved when they are trained and willing to
adopt educational innovations. On the other hand, the teachers who regard themselves as professionally
achieving have a stronger determination for educational innovations. Another finding is that the older the
teachers are, the less self-efficacy and faith in innovations they have. However, teachers with better selfefficacy have better attitudes towards the innovation introduced.
Teacher Beliefs
According to Knight, Tait and Yorke (2006) educational professional development is a constant development
interacting with both the surrounding and self and it is stressed that the learned new ideas or techniques about
education or testing will be lost if the working environment is not feasible for these new ideas or the other
members of the working team are not eager to apply them. In the study by Knigh, Tait & Yorke (2006), for
creating their professional knowledge, most of the full-time instructors stated that they learned to teach in
higher education by trying and practicing themselves, their own experience as a student in higher education,
and collaborating with their colleagues. Part-time instructors agreed with them with only one difference of the
answer as “workshops and conferences”. It can be concluded from the study that instructors in higher
education affect themselves to become better at their jobs, had the motivation for personal development and
regarded external world as incentives. Norton, Richardson, Hartley, Newseat & Mayes (2005) explain the effect
of teacher views on the education in practice. In their study, they analyze the relationship between the
teachers’ ‘beliefs’ and ‘intentions’ regarding teaching in the higher education. In the article, ‘beliefs’ are
defined as the teachers’ personal opinions about teaching teachers while ‘intentions’ are defined as the
professional practices of them. It is concluded from the research that the intentions and beliefs of the teachers
in higher education are in parallel with each other. Also, in a study to test the effect of teachers’ beliefs of the
innovation in a secondary Dutch school and the success of the innovation in practice, the teachers are asked to
state their opinions about the newly-introduced home-schooling system (Evers, Brouwers & Tomic, 2002). The
teachers’ burnout level, their views of self-efficacy and their opinions about the innovated program are
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analyzed and it is concluded that teachers’ opinions about the program have a positive correlation with their
views of self-efficacy.
In this context, this study aims to find out the beliefs of the instructors at a private university in Istanbul,
Turkey. The instructors’ beliefs about the policy change for proficiency exam, as a new assessment type,
portfolio, and the modern language teaching techniques will be analyzed.
METHODOLOGY
This qualitative study tries to analyze the quality of the teaching of English, the motivation of the students, the
assessment of the students’ level in a private university which was founded four years ago in Istanbul, Turkey.
To get the opinions of the instructors at the university, a focus group interview is designed with predetermined questions about the policy change, the assessment of the students, the motivation level of the
students and the quality of the teaching methods. This study is based on a qualitative research technique: focus
group interview. A focus group is, according to Lederman (Thomas et al. 1995), a technique involving the use of
in-depth group interviews in which participants are selected because they are a purposive, although not
necessarily representative, sampling of a specific population, this group being ‘focused’ on a given topic. This
data collection technique is used in this study as it must be noted that one year ago, the policy to pass prepschool was changed and the students were made to attend 70 percent of the lessons rather than to pass a
proficiency test. Before the policy change, the students had to pass a proficiency test before they could start
their departments. However, with the policy change, the obligation to pass the proficiency test was demolished
and the attendance requirement was introduced (Yabancı diller bölüm baskanlıgı, 2013).
The main objective of the interview is based on two questions: a) what are the instructors’ opinions at the
foreign languages department of a private university in Istanbul about a reform recently made? b) how
effective is the assessment of the students’ English from the viewpoint of the instructors at the private
university? To collect an extensive data about the viewpoints of the instructors at the university, to get a more
deep insight about the instructors’ opinions of the methods and new system used at the university, the ‘focus
groups interview’ method of collecting data is chosen. In this study, each instructor was invited to participate in
the interview. However, three instructors were on their off-day and they could not have the chance to
participate. Among the other instructors who were at school on that day, only eleven accepted willingly to take
part in the interview, one of whom came ten minutes late to the interview. The participants are illustrated in
the table below.
Participant No
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
Mother tongue - Nationality
English – United States of America
English – United Kingdom
Uygur – Uygur
Turkish – Turkey
Turkish – Turkey
Turkish – Turkey
Turkish – Turkey
Turkish – Turkey
Turkish – Turkey
Turkish – Turkey
Turkish – Turkey
Year of experience
5
6
3
1
3
2
4
3
3
4
3
Research Procedure
Fatih Sultan Mehmet University is chosen for the study as the policy of foreign languages department changed
within the previous year and the instructors who work there for two years could observe the effects of the
policy change clearly. Also, the instructors at this department are around the same age level and from the same
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education backgrounds, which made it possible to reach a summary of viewpoints about the teaching methods,
the new principle being applied and the assessment of the students from the instructors. Most of the
instructors at Fatih Sultan Mehmet University (FSMVU) graduated from Bogazici University, Foreign Languages
Education, Western Languages and Literature or Translation and Interpreting Studies (15/24), and the rest of
the instructors graduated from the same departments (Yabanci diller bolum baskanligi, 2013).
The instructors at the university are willing for professional development, and most of them are studying for
their master’s degree. They design their own lesson materials, pacing schedules, and they select their books
with the supervision of the head of the department. They take part in the curriculum design and the
assessment of the students with speaking and writing portfolios. It is hypothesized that the ideas of the
instructors at this university would create a clear image of the state of the universities and the practices.
Both the foreign and Turkish instructors were invited to participate in the focus group interview. The three
foreign participant instructors came from different countries like England, the United States, and the Uygur
State. Not all of their native languages are English, but they are highly fluent in the language. The instructors
were invited to take part in the study, and the ones who had time to spare and enthusiasm about it
participated in the study.
The instructors at FSMVU were interviewed to reach a consensus about the teaching style, assessment and the
reform of the policy one year ago. All teachers are familiar with the teaching styles and the methods,
assessment and the policy change. A room was set up for the focus group so that they can feel comfortable,
neutral, private, free from distractions and easily accessible. The questions emerging from the explored ideas
of the group members were asked by the moderator, who was the first author. Interview was tape-recorded
for accuracy with the permission obtained from the interviewee. Notes were also taken during interview to
check the questions and answers recorded for subsequent transcription. Then, the information generated was
coded and summarized for analysis and discovery. Transcripts were carefully read and the data were phrased
and grouped into categories so as to form the themes.
RESULTS
The transcribed record of the interview and the notes taken during the interview were compared for the
reliability. After categorization and theme forming stage, the following themes came out.
Policy Change
At FSMVU, the students do not have to pass a proficiency exam to finish prep-school and start their
departments. However, they had to pass a proficiency exam one year ago and this situation was changed with
an innovation in the department of foreign languages. Students can take the proficiency exam and get a
certificate for English depending upon their will. The instructors are asked about their opinions of this
innovation’s effect on the learning of the students and the classroom environment. Most of the instructors’
opinions of the new innovation is negative, and they stated clearly that they were not happy with the new
policy. P2 expressed the negative effect of the new innovation on the students’ motivation as: “As they have no
tests to evaluate their success, their inner motivation decreases.”. Also, P6 and P11 teaching at the same
module (upper-intermediate) explained the unwillingness of the students to start a higher module as:
“They don’t care about the exams. They just want to fail and stay at the level they are already in.”
“Especially this is the case with upper-intermediates. They don’t want to pass on the next module and learn
more difficult things, because their level is already enough to get a certificate. They don’t want to get into more
trouble.”
It is believed that the proficiency exam increases the students’ motivation for being a tool to evaluate their
overall success. P9 indicated that another way of assessment type should be used to evaluate the learning of
the students instead of one proficiency test: “I am not against cancelling the whole exam, but we should use
another way for assessment. There should be passing or failing again, but we can use continuous assessment
like portfolios.”
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On the other hand, P3 who was not teaching at the university before the policy change stated that “I don’t
think the students can get to that. Some students are forced to learn a language from zero and some students
do not want to learn a language at all. I think it is a very high expectation, it is unrealistic.”.
Innovations in Teaching Styles and Methods
Among eleven participants, seven instructors are graduates of foreign languages department at high school and
university. They have learned English with the old methods like Grammar Translation-translating English
sentences into Turkish-, Audio-lingual Method-where the language drills and repetition are highly valued-, and
grammar-based teaching. The grammar was taught explicitly, skills were not regarded as significant, and the
assessment and production was mostly accuracy-based. On the other hand, the students of FSMVU were not
given a chance or reason to communicate, and writing and speaking skills were ignored at primary, secondary
and high school. However, the instructors are encouraged to use communicative approach by the head of the
department and the lesson plans and language materials are designed accordingly with this method where
students are required to communicate in English via authentic materials and activities.
The participants of the study were directed a question to compare the old methods they learned English with
the contemporary methods they have been using to teach English. The first comments about the old methods
of learning English were:
-Well, we all learned English (P11)
-Very well, though (P10)
-Even though it took a lot of time, we know a lot of detail (P11)
-We know every grammatical detail (P6)
-Because they were based on accuracy and we know all the details. But when it comes to speaking, we might
face some difficulties.(P5)
-Yes, still. (P11)
-But after learning everything, speaking was easier for me. (P9)
-When I graduated from high school, I remember I couldn’t utter a word in English. I knew everything about
English, but I never used it for communication until I started university. (P6)
-I learned to speak in English when I started university.(P7)
-But when I started university, I had to communicate in classes with teachers. So, you need to have some kind of
communication at the end to use it. (P6)
The participants agreed on the unproductiveness of the old style of learning English and its requirement for
accuracy. They knew it takes a long time with the accuracy-based English teaching to produce the language and
start communicating. However, they seemed satisfied with the old style of learning English.
When the participants were asked to compare the old style with the contemporary one, they came to a
consensus that the communicative approach used at FSMVU requires a real reason to communicate to
succeed. P2 expressed: “The communicative approach depends on a reason to communicate. We are giving the
students an opportunity to communicate, not a real reason. And then we test them, and we don’t test them in a
communicative way.”
The participants were pleased with the results of the old style of teaching English, but they were not satisfied
with the lack of authenticity of the lessons as there are no real reasons for the students to communicate and
the assessment type since it is not compatible with the teaching method.
Assessment
The participants stated that the assessment and the teaching styles are not compatible with each other, and
this makes the students feel less motivated (P2). The communicative approach is adopted in the foreign
languages department; however, the students are tested for ‘use of English’ (grammar) as well as the writing,
reading and speaking skills. Although the grammar is presented in an implicit way with only some explicit
information, the students are asked to apply the grammar rules in exercises such as fill-in-the-blanks, multiple
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choice, matching, etc. P2 stated “The students come here, and they don’t want to talk about volcanoes. I don’t
want to talk about volcanoes. And then we test them, and we don’t test them in a communicative way. Then
they don’t want to talk to me.”. It was accepted by the other teachers that the students lose their motivation
when they are taught and tested in different techniques.
One of the participants (P4) who has been teaching in the same university for three years stated “We should
have continuous assessment like portfolios”, which is a better way to assess for communicative approach.
Writing portfolios are started to be used in the department in 2012–2013 education year with a 10%
contribution to the overall grades of the students; however, no criteria is determined and suggested for the
teachers to use. The participants agreed that the portfolios are not graded objectively as P5 uttered “Not that
much objective. Because each teacher has his/her own criteria. For example some teachers give plus or minus. If
I see the homework, I give plus, but some of us grade them”. P7 expressed that he uses both plus and minus
and grading to appreciate both the progress and the work of the students. “I do them both. I give plus to show
that they have done their homework. My other criterion is that I give them grades just to see how much they
have focused on their homework. Did they spend only five minutes doing their homework or did they really work
for it? If they have done all their homework, the grade is not important, though. I give them one hundred”. The
assessment of the portfolios apparently differed from one instructor to another as P5 remarked “I give the
students pluses and minuses too, but I do not accept their homework unless they really worked for it. If I am not
satisfied with the homework, I ask the student to write it again. And they write it again and again until they
have done well enough”.
The participants seemed unhappy with the assessment of the students with the tests, whereas they were
content with the portfolios (P4,5,7). Even though they had some concerns about the objectivity of the
portfolios, they agree on that each teacher is grading the portfolios objectively: “Each teacher has his/her own
understanding of portfolio. I mean it is objective within a classroom, but it is not objective across the
classrooms”(P9). Most of the other instructors agreed on this statement, and they suggested there should be
some criteria to assess the portfolios: “We should agree on how to assess them”(P8) “We should prepare some
criteria. We can, or you can prepare criteria to assess them”(P11).
Comparison of the Public and Private Universities
The participants were asked to evaluate the university as a whole for the academic performance and almost all
of them seemed content with the teaching methods used at the university. They also agreed on not to compare
FSMVU with the famous and old universities as P10 stated: “If we compare our university with the old and big
universities, we will see big differences. So, we should compare our university with the new-established ones”.
When they are asked to compare the university with the state universities P8 who worked at a state university
three years ago explained: “The quality of the staff, I mean the instructors, and the materials are more or less
the same with the other new private universities. As for students, there will always be differences. Ours may not
have future concerns. Our students may not internalize English language lessons. When we compare our
university with state universities, ours is better. Our classroom application, the teaching staff is much better
than state universities. They do not integrate technology into classes, they have traditional model of lessons,
and they just take their course books and go to the classrooms.”
The other instructors also agreed that FSMVU and its teaching style is much better than the state universities
as P6 reported: “Teachers in state universities are always older” and P11 affirmed: “They start working there,
they feel comfortable and they never leave.”.
Despite the agreement of the instructors on the quality of FSMVU, P9 of the instructors stated: “Unless we
really become a part of other universities’ systems, we can never understand what it is like to teach or study
there Also, I have a friend who works at an old famous university, he also complains about the students because
they don’t study enough” to prove that other universities also have motivation problems as they do.
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Having a Say at the Decision Phase of the University
The participants were asked whether they feel comfortable for not having a say in the decision phase for the
innovation at university and their department, and P4 uttered: “Other universities are not different, I guess.
They don’t also have choices”. P9 stated that they lack the experience to make important decisions for the
university pronouncing “Without experience nobody can know the results. We should have experience first”.
Also, P7 - who has been working at FSMVU for three - years expressed: “We could have said yes for the policy
change, too”. It can be concluded that the instructors feel satisfied with their position in decision-making
process and they accept it as the other universities also apply the same regulations.
Motivation
When the participants were asked about the policy change introduced last year, P8 stated: “Students see the
prep-school as instrumentative. They don’t have inner motivation for English. As they have no tests to evaluate
their success, their inner motivation decreases.” Also, P3 uttered the difficulty to motivate the students as “I
find it quite difficult to motivate 19-20 year old students. We should have goals for them to reach. I am not
saying that it is impossible to motivate them, but it is very difficult to do it”. Moreover, when the participants
were asked about the innovations in the language teaching methods they remarked there is a lack of
motivation because of the assessment styles, the presentation of English in Turkey and the importance given to
English in higher education. P2 remarked the inconsistency between the teaching method and the assessment
decreases the motivation as: “The students come here, and they don’t want to talk about volcanoes. I don’t
want to talk about volcanoes. And then we test them, and we don’t test them in a communicative way. Then
they don’t want to talk to me.” The conversation between the participants about the presentation of English in
Turkey and the importance given to it by The Higher Education Council is:
P2: “It is so much easier to motivate the students in England, for example. Because they have to speak English
to communicate with a person next to them, they have no other option. And also the project one of our
instructors heading they have to speak English to communicate with people in Austria motivates them. And it
makes them realize that one day they are going to speak in English to communicate with another person.”
P3: “There is a lack of realization. When it is the press language of the country, it is essential. I think, for me,
half of the problem we cannot deal with. It is with the YOK (The Higher Education Council), they have to deal
with it. And the other half, we can do.”
P1: “And also, the television is also dubbed in Turkey. In countries like Germany, or Holland foreign programs
have subtitles.”
It was noted that the other instructors nodded when the statements above were made. The instructors at
FSMVU believe that students lack motivation to learn English, and this is due to the media, the policy of YOK
(The Higher Education Council) and the assessment style of the university itself.
CONCLUSION
It can be concluded from the data obtained, the assessment and the students’ motivation needs improvement
for a more successful university. Participants state clearly that abolishment of the proficiency requirement for
the students to start their departments decrease the motivation of the students. Also, they point out the
inconsistency of the methods of assessment and teaching and its result in the motivation of the students and
the quality of the lessons. For the portfolio assessment which was started to be used in 2013 is not objective
across the classrooms as each instructor has his/her own portfolio criteria. It can also be inferred that the
assessment style and the teaching style need to be hand in hand for better education quality. Moreover, the
criteria of a new assessment type are better to be determined and the instructors can be trained for the new
assessment type to make it more objective.
Furthermore, the participants signify the motivation of the students to be kept at a high level for better
learning and teaching. For language prep-schools, the language taught is better to be used in the departments
so that the students can grasp the significance and the future benefits of the language being taught. Moreover,
155
a proficiency exam is a good target for the students to assess themselves and understand the need to learn the
language.
IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at 5th International Conference on New Trends in Education and
Büşra TOMBAK is an instructor at Foreign Languages Department, Fatih Sultan Mehmet
Waqf University, Istanbul, Turkey. She is a graduate of the Department of Foreign
Languages Education, Boğaziçi University, Istanbul, Turkey and she has been studying
Division of Curriculum and Instruction at Yıldız Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey. She
has been enrolled in international training and education programs and suggestes as a
Fulbright Foreign Languages Teaching Assistant.
Her researches interests are values education, gender and education, foreign languages
teaching, pre-service teachers and training programs.
Instructor Büşra TOMBAK
Mehmet ŞAHİN is Assist. Prof. Dr. at Department of Educational Sciences, Faculty of
Education, Yıldız Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey. He has been teaching; teaching and
learning strategies, curriculum design and instruction, assessment and evaluation,
instructional design. He has been involved in EU projects as researcher and coordinator.
His research interests are teacher training, teaching and learning theories, values and
Education, curriculum design for vocational and technical education and lifelong learning.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mehmet ŞAHİN
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157
MUSIC TEACHERS’ VIEWS ABOUT THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ACTIVITIES IN LEARNING
DOMAINS IN THE PRESENT SECONDARY SCHOOL SIXTH GRADE CURRICULUM
Assist. Prof. Dr. Onur KÖKSAL
Selcuk University
School Of Foreign Languages
Konya- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The present study examines music teachers’ views about the implementation of music activities in the present
curriculum by music teachers who teach at secondary schools in the province of Konya. The present study is a
field study conducted with survey model. Sample is formed by randomly selected 30 secondary school music
teachers, who teach in the province of Konya. The participants were asked semi-structured questions; and their
views based on written statements were interpreted according to the frequencies and percentages.
In accordance with the obtained data, it was observed that most of the music teachers conduct music activities
in the present curriculum with various implementations. For instance; it was observed that music teachers
carry Listening-Singing-Playing activities by singing simple songs; Musical Perception and Grounding activities
by practicing on songs; Musical Creativity activities by listening different genres of music with students, and
making students express their views related to the music with pictures, stories, or poems, and Musical Culture
activities by listening different genres of music and asking students to brainstorm about the genre of the music.
Key Words: Music lesson, music education, learning domain, music activities.
INTRODUCTION
The effects of change in the world can also be observed in the field of education. Therefore, in order to keep up
with the changes and innovations in the world, educational programs should be updated as well. Since
education programs are dynamic; they need to be renovated. So, music lesson teaching programs should also
be more modern, involving renovations. Köksal, Yağışan and Çekiç (2013), emphasize that programs that
require active participation of students in learning and teaching process will be more successful, and so this
kind of a program should be innovative.
Music teaching programs have a structure that involves objectives, behaviours, assessment and evaluation
processes. Any inconsistency between two of these elements will cause the failure of the program. The new
constructivist music curriculum that is in operation as of 2005 in Turkey, aims at meeting the music needs of
students and society, revealing students’ talents, and providing a more pleasurable and efficient learning and
teaching process. New music curriculum focuses on not only observable behaviours of students but also
concepts such as attitude towards music lesson, skills, and values. Thus, this activity-based program aims at
raising more socially conscious, sharing and responsible individuals who can choose their professions in
accordance with their skills. It aims at creating sophisticate secondary education students who recognize social
problems, contribute to economic, social and cultural development of the country, and ready for higher
education. In order to provide this, elective courses that can realize the specific targets, and conducting of
these courses with activity-based implementations are required. Music lesson is one of the basic courses that
students can express themselves, realize their talents, and acquire personal and social skills (Dilci, Duran and
Köksal, 2011). For the realization of attainments of the music lesson, secondary education students’ conducting
music activities and experiencing these is the most basic key provision. For secondary education students’
conducting music activities by living and experiencing them, 2006 music lesson curriculum determined 4
learning domains. These are “Playing-Singing-Listening”, “Musical Perception and Grounding”, “Musical
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Creativity”, and “Musical Culture” (Megep, 2006). A learning domain is the whole of a related subjects, themes,
concepts, and skills. The subjects are provided with consecutive educational applications comprehensively in
learning domains.
The present study is conducted by receiving the views of music teachers who teach at secondary schools in the
province of Konya, about the implementation of activities in learning domains in the present curriculum. The
purpose of the present study is contributing to researches conducted in this field by offering suggestions in
accordance with these views. During the implementation of the present study, we made use of music course
books of Ministry of Education, and journals related to the new curriculum published by Turkish Education
Board.
The purpose of the present study is determining the views of music teachers about the implementation of
th
Learning Domains Activities in the Present Curriculum with the secondary education 6 Graders.
In accordance with this purpose, answers to the following questions are sought :
According to music teachers:
1- How do secondary education music teachers implement Listening-Singing-Playing activities in the
curriculum?
2- How do secondary education music teachers implement Musical Perception activities in the curriculum?
3- How do secondary education music teachers implement Musical Creativity activities in the curriculum?
4- How do secondary education music teachers implement Musical Culture activities in the curriculum?
METHOD
Research Model
In order to determine music teachers’ views about the implementation of activities in learning domains in the
th
present curriculum with secondary education 6 graders, the present research adopted case study model,
which is a quantitative research method. Case study is a research model that is used when the researched
phenomenon is examined in its own living frame, when there are no distinctive lines between the phenomenon
and the environment it is in; and when there are more than one evidence or data resource (Yıldırım and
Şimşek,2006). And when case study is the model of a research, that research examines a phenomenon or a
case in a longitudinal and comprehensive design, instead of using large samples and studying the limited
number of variables according to strict rules (Flyvbjerg, 2006). The work group of the present research is
formed by 30 music teachers who taught in the province of Konya in 2014. During the formation of the work
group of the research, convenient sampling method was adopted. Convenient sampling method provides pace
and practicality for the research. Convenient samples are generally of low cost. For these reasons, researchers
may want to include a convenient sample in their researches. Cost, and accessibility are important factors for
quantitative researches (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2006: 113).
Data Collection Tools and Data Collection
For the first step of the research, related literature was reviewed and 4 open-ended questions were created by
the researcher in accordance with the literature. “Open-ended questions” or “open-ended survey” is a
technique used to collect data for quantitative researches. In this method, participants are asked to answer
questions, as in interviews. (Creswell, 2005; Gay, Mills and Airasian, 2006: Cited in: Akdağ, 2008). Open-ended
question form prepared by the researcher was evaluated by the field experts and then it was finalized. This
open-ended questionnaire was explained by the researcher, so that secondary school music teachers can
evaluate the questions better.
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Descriptive analysis method was used for the analysis of the data. The purpose of descriptive analysis is making
collected raw data be comprehensible and usable by the readers. Data obtained via descriptive analysis are
summarised and interpreted according to pre-determined themes. Direct quotations are frequently used
during descriptive analysis in order to reflect the views of the participants (Altunışık, Coşkun, Yıldırım and
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Bayraktaroğlu, 2001; Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2006). Then, forms were ordered and numbered (T:1, T:2, T:3…).
Data obtained with the analysis were summarised and interpreted. During the formation of themes it was
taken into consideration that;
- Themes are comprehensive,
- They are independent in a way they don’t effect each other,
- Each theme is unique and expresses one certain thought,
- And each theme is suitable for the purpose of the research.
Obtained findings were categorized and their frequencies and percentages were calculated. Since the views
stated by the music teachers were included in more than one category, the tables presenting this kind of data
don’t include percentages.
FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATIONS
In this section, the views of music teachers in the work group related to the implementation of the activities in
the learning domains in the present curriculum are presented in tables as (f) frequencies, and (%) percentages.
Table 1: Frequencies and Percentages Related to Music Teachers’ Views on the Implementation of ListeningSinging-Playing Activity in the Curriculum
Implementation
of Views
f
%
Listening-Singing-Playing Singing songs
12
40
Activities
Listening to music of
various
rhythmic 7
23
structures
Playing the songs with 5
17
the instruments
With
team-work,
forming chorus
Conducting interesting
activities for students to
recognize sounds
Singing melodies with
students
3
10
2
7
1
3
As can be seen in Table 1, 12 music teachers (%40) stated that they implement “Listening-Singing-Playing”
activity in the program, by singing songs in the classroom.
Teacher T7 said, “I make students sing simple songs that they can easily sing. This way they are more active in
the class.”
7 music teachers (%23) stated that they implement “Listening-Singing-Playing” activity in the program, by
listening to music of various rhythmic structures in the class.
Teacher T30 said, “I bring various musical instruments to the class, and make students recognize various
rhythmic sounds”.
5 music teachers (%17) expressed that they conduct “Listening-Singing-Playing” activity in the program, by
making students play the melodies with their instruments.
Teacher T9 said, “I carefully select songs that students know well. This way students can easily play the songs
with their instruments”.
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3 music teachers (%10) stated that they implement the activities by forming chorus and make students sing
songs and anthems together.
Teacher T2 said, “I form a chorus as a group activity”.
2 music teachers (%7) stated that they conduct interesting activities for students to recognize sounds. Teacher
T3 said, “I conduct interesting activities. This way students recognize sounds easily”.
1 music teacher (%3) stated that they sing melodies and the students listen.
In accordance with the findings in Table 1, it can be observed that most of the music teachers make students
sing songs during the implementation of Listening-Singing-Playing activities in the class. This indicates that
students actively participate in the implementation of these activities.
It can be observed in Table 1 that, only one of the teachers in the sample stated that they sing melodies and
students listen to them while implementing Listening-Singing-Playing activities. This indicates that, music
teachers don’t actively participate in the activities, even music courses require the active participation of the
teacher.
Table 2: Frequencies and Percentages Related to Music Teachers’ Views on the Implementation of Musical
Perception and Grounding Activity in the Curriculum
Musical Perception and Views
f
%
Grounding Activities
Practicing on the songs
18
60
Associating with other
lessons
6
20
Listening to various
sounds and finding the
differences
4
13
Explaining the vocal
changes among humans
with examples
2
7
As can be seen in Table 2, 18 music teachers (%60) stated that they implement “Musical Perception and
Grounding Activities” by practicing on the songs.
Teacher T3 said, “I practice on the songs in order to give students a chance to learn by practice and
experience”.
6 music teachers (%20) stated that while they implement “Musical Perception and Grounding Activities” they
associate the activities with other courses.
Teacher T27 said, “As long as possible, I associate the subject with Body Systems learning domain in Science
and Technology curriculum”.
4 music teachers (%13) stated that they make students listen various sounds and make them find the
differences during the implementation of the activity.
Teacher T1 said, “In accordance with the levels of the students, I play them music tracks with two or three parts
and ask them to find the differences”.
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2 music teachers (%7) stated related to the activity that they explain the vocal changes among humans and the
properties of these changes with examples.
Teacher T4 said, “I explain vocal changes during puberty, and their properties, and carefully select songs or folk
songs to be sung”.
According to the findings in Table 2, most of the music teachers practice on songs while they implement
Musical Perception and Grounding Activities in the class. This indicates that students actively participate in the
process during the implementations. In other words, students are not pawns but the sources of the process.
Table 2 also shows that, only two of the teachers in the work group explain the vocal changes among humans
and the properties with examples during the implementation of Musical Perception and Grounding Activities.
This indicates that, teachers don’t use the most important element of teaching, which is exampling phase,
effectively, in order to teach the subjects and present the differences.
Creativity Activity in the Curriculum
Musical
Creativity Views
f
%
Activities
Listening to various
genres of music and 21
70
expressing the views
related to music with
pictures,
stories
or
poems.
Singing along the songs 7
23
made by the students
together
Singing melodies with
the newly learnt notes
2
7
As can be seen in Table 3, 21 music teachers (%70) stated that, they implement Musical Creativity Activities” by
playing music of various genres for students, and ask students to express their views related to that music via
pictures, stories, or poems.
Teacher T11 said, “I play different genres of music for students. Then, I make use of peculiar expression styles
to understand what feelings are aroused by the music they had listened”.
7 music teachers (%23) stated that they make students sing the songs made by the students together while
they implement “Musical Creativity Activities”.
Teacher T16 said, “I make students play along with the melody with the rhythm structure made by them”.
2 music teachers (%7) stated that, they make students sing melodies with the newly learnt notes to implement
the activity.
Teacher T30 said, “I make students try new melodies with the newly learnt notes, and ask them to sing these”.
According to the findings presented in Table 3, most of the music teachers use peculiar expression styles during
the implementation of Musical Creativity Activities in the classroom. This indicates that, students can freely
express their feelings, views, dreams, and expressions.
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Table 3 also shows that, very little of the music teachers in the work group make students sing melodies with
the newly learnt notes, while implementing Musical Creativity Activities in the curriculum. This can be
interpreted as that, music teachers don’t give the students chance to sing their own melodies.
Culture Activities in the Curriculum
Musical Culture Activities Views
f
%
Listening to various 14
47
genres of music and
brainstorm about the
genre of the music
Activities
such
as;
discussions,
debates,
panels related to various
genres of music
10
33
Information technologies
6
20
As can be seen in Table 4, 14 music teachers (%47) stated that, while implementing “Musical Culture Activities”
in the classroom, they played various genres of music for students and made them brainstorm about the genre
of the music they had listened to.
Teacher T21 said, “I play various genres of music in our country for the students. I play examples of Turkish folk
music, Turkish classical music, pop music, and modern polyphonic Turkish music for the students. The purpose
here is making students differentiate between main genres of music in our country”.
10 music teachers (%33) stated that they organized activities such as discussions, and panels related to various
genres of music while implementing “Musical Culture Activities” in the classroom.
Teacher T1 said, “By creating a platform of discussion, I make students use audio-visual materials and different
tools of communication”.
6 music teachers (%20) stated that they made use of information technologies.
Teacher T8 said, “I make my students make use of information technologies for their music related
researches”.
According to the findings presented in Table 4, most of the teachers make their students brainstorm about the
genres of music while implementing Musical Culture Activities in the classroom. This indicates that students
can freely express their views in the classroom.
The present study, which aims at determining music teachers’ views related to the implementation of the
th
activities in the learning domains in the present curriculum for secondary education 6 grade, which is in action
as of 2005-2006 academic year concluded that, most of the music teachers try to realize the attainments in the
curriculum. It was found that most of the teachers try to involve their students actively in the learning process.
Şahin and Aksüt (2002) found in their research that, most of the teachers who teach music at primary schools
consider themselves inefficient in implementing the activities in the curriculum. They state that music teachers
don’t follow the publications related to the music education; pre-service education is not effective enough for
163
the solution of the problems encountered in music education; music teachers are not proficient about teaching
student with psychological problems or hearing impairments; and they don’t have skills and information to
form and manage music choruses. And therefore, they cannot implement the activities in the curriculum
effectively. For this reason, starting from the primary schools, music classes should be taught by the branch
teachers (Şahin and Aksüt, 2002).
th
Kocabaş and Selçioğlu (2005) found in their research that, staring from primary school 4 grade, activities in
music classes cannot be implemented effectively, and this is caused by the fact that these classes are not
taught by branch teachers.
Similarly, Göğüş (2008) states that, music education has an important place in education, and students start
st
getting planned music education in primary school 1 grade. However, music education cannot be conducted in
these schools effectively. This inefficiency is caused by the fact that, music education is not given by branch
st
nd
rd
teachers, but grade teachers in the 1 , 2 , and 3 grades. Consequently, it was found that music education can
be more effective if grade teachers are guided by music teachers in planning and implementing stages, and
would be even more effective if some implementations are carried by music teachers, not grade teachers
(Göğüş, 2008). These findings indicate that, for an efficient implementation of activities in music classes, music
classes should be taught by branch teachers.
Ekinci (2007) found that most teachers think lack of materials complicates the accomplishing of the objectives
in music classes. This finding is in agreement with the findings of some other researches conducted by Akamca,
Hamurcu, and Günay, (2006),Battal (2008), Sancar Tokmak (2011), Çınar et al. (2006), Doğan (2010), Duru and
Korkmaz (2010), Kenan and Özmen (2010). This may be related with the fact that, like many other courses,
transition to new curriculum in music courses occurred very fast and there are still some problems
encountered related to the substructure. None the less, further researches are required in the subject field.
Gündoğdu (2007) found in his research that, music teachers are well-informed and assiduous about the
implementation of the activities in the new curriculum. This finding indicates that music teachers have the
required knowledge, skills, and desire for the implementation of the activities. On the contrary, Kırmızıbayrak
(2012) revealed that music teachers are not informed enough about the new music curriculum. This finding is
also not in agreement with the findings of the present research. Therefore, further researches are required in
the subject field with more extensive samples.
Albuz and Akpınar (2009) emphasize in their literature study that, music teachers are not informed and
equipped enough for the implementation of activities in learning domains in the new curriculum.
Demir (2009), found that teachers encounter problems during the learning and teaching dimension of the
program; most of the teachers think activities in the course books are appropriate for student-centred
approach; but they believe that the activities, methods, and techniques cannot be implemented in the
classrooms of large sizes. The findings of this research are in agreement with the findings of the researches
conducted by Akgül, (2006) Aykaç and Ulubey (2012) Aykaç (2011) Çelikkaya and Kuş (2009) Şimşek, Hırça and
Coşkun (2012).
Ataman and Okay (2010) stated in their research that, music curriculum and activities’ being student-centred is
positive. However, they stated in accordance with the data they obtained from music teachers that music
teachers are not informed enough to implement the activities in the curriculum efficiently. For this reason, inservice training programs are required for the efficient implementation of these activities. Some other
researches conducted by Ağlagül (2009), Aykaç and Ulubey (2012), Çoruhlu, Er Nas and Çepni (2009), Özdemir
and Kıroğlu (2011), Ocak, (2012), Önen et al. (2011), Tuncer and Yılmaz (2012) also found that in-service
training programs are required to make up the deficiencies of teachers related to the new program.
164
Umuzdaş and Levent (2012) stated in their research that, teachers try to realize student-centred
implementation during teaching process, but the physical conditions and large classroom sizes complicate this
process.
Köksal, Yağışan and Aksoy (2013) revealed in their research that, implementing music activities with a studentcentred approach would create a significant increase in the achievement of students. This finding indicates that
the activities in the present curriculum are student-centred, but teachers are of great importance for the
implementation of these activities effectively. About the subject matter, Coşkun (2005) expressed that no
matter how good the developed programs are, success of these programs is only possible with teachers’
knowledge of the methods and techniques in the program.
Yağışan, Köksal and Karaca (2014) found in their research that, music activities implemented in other courses
would increase both active participation and achievement of students.
He was born in 1980 in Mucur county of Kırşehir province. He completed his elementary
education in Kayseri Aydınlık Evler and Hayriye Dabanoğlu primary schools and
secondary education in Şehit Aziz Özkan secondary school and completed his high
school in Kayseri Şeker high school. He graduated from English Language Teaching
department of Selçuk University in 2002 and started working for MEB (Ministry of
National Education) as an English language teacher in the same year. After working for
MEB for 5 years at various levels and positions ( e.g. as a member of European Union
Project Unit at Kayseri Provincial Directorate of National Education) he started working as an English language
instructor at School of Foreign Languages of Selçuk University in 2007. He received his master’s degree in
English Language teaching from Graduate School of Social Sciences at Selçuk University in 2009. He started his
PhD studies in education programs (curriculum) and instruction department of Graduate School of Educational
Sciences at Selçuk University in 2009. He has carried out studies on English Language Teaching, Special
Teaching methods in foreign language instruction, Active Learning, Brain-Based learning, Mnemonics,
Constructivism, 5-e and 7e model, Lateral Thinking Approach, Teaching Methods and Techniques, Tutor
Supported Teaching Method, Multiple Intelligence Theory, Thematic Teaching and Curriculum Development in
English language. Besides, he has studies on problems foreign language teachers face in teaching process.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Onur KÖKSAL
Selçuk University School of Foreign Languages
Konya- TURKEY
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ANALYSIS OF PRE-SERVICE SCIENCE TEACHERS’ VIEWS ABOUT THE METHODS WHICH
DEVELOP REFLECTIVE THINKING
Ufuk TÖMAN
Bayburt University
Bayburt- TURKEY
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sabiha ODABAŞI ÇİMER
Sogutlu/Trabzon- TURKEY
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Atilla ÇİMER
Sogutlu/Trabzon- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
In this study, we investigate of science and technology pre-service teachers' opinions about the methods
developed reflective thinking and we determined at the level of reflective thinking. This study is a descriptive
study. Open-ended questions were used to determine the views of pre-service teachers. Questions used in the
statistical analysis of data for obtained student’s through. Solution to the problems encountered in practice as
a method for the production of research so descriptive research approaches used in the survey method. This
study was applied Department of Science Teaching at the Faculty of Education students in the third class.
Department of ScienceTeaching 32 students participated the study in Bayburt University. The 32 students in
the sample and all of the mare 18 female and 14 male. The findings of the study about students opinion for
reflective thinking skills that most of the prospective science teachers’ technical reflective thinking skills were
beter than critical reflective thinking skills. In the area of critical reflective thinking skills is not at all note
worthy. In addition, pre-service teachers have expressed their positive contributions to the teaching skills of
the methods developed for reflective thinking. Work towards the development of preservice teachers'
reflective thinking skills are complemented by recommendations.
Key Words: The methods developed reflective thinking, Descriptive reflective thinking, Critical reflective
thinking, Pre-service science teachers.
INTRODUCTION
Education is the most important component of economic and social development in our day and it is in the
state of rapid and continuous change throughout the world. Today’s information society demands for
individuals who have thinking skills, can think critically, demonstrate different methods while solving problems,
are sharing, and can materialize the knowledge they have gained (Köksal and Demirel, 2008). In line with this
condition, pre-service teachers take a lot of theoretical and applied courses related to content knowledge,
general knowledge and professional knowledge (Kılınç, 2010). The new science curriculum has adopted an
approach based on research and inquiry and it is quite important that reflective thinking which is a sort of
cognitive driving force of this approach should be promoted within the pre-service teachers so that teacher can
adopt it (Gencer, 2008; Kılınç, 2010; Töman and Çimer, 2014).
Reflective journals are very important to foster reflective thinking. Journals are the materials in which students
record their own personal reactions, questions, feelings, changing ideas, thoughts, learning processes, and the
knowledge related to their learning content (Ünver, 2003). Students do not simply discuss their experiences
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during the learning process in reflective journals. These writings include the explanations, analysis, and
reflections which students make about their learning (Ünver, 2003). In other words, they are written in a
certain system, plan and program. Moreover, journals are effective for students to actively engage in a course
or any learning activity. An important effect of reflective journals is that teachers can get feedback about the
curriculum which they implement from the students’ reflective writings. Therefore, teachers can design more
suitable teaching and learning activities for the students. Teachers can also write about the curriculum which
they implement and their teaching behaviours. These pieces of writings can give them opportunities to
evaluate the curricula they have implemented, teaching approaches, and themselves. Teachers can also benefit
from these writings to create a better class environment and to develop themselves (Rodgers, 2002; Ünver,
2003).
According to Wilson and Jan (1993), reflective thinking is a self-evaluation process. It is stated that these
evaluations can serve for individual’s self-concept, experiences and learning. Such questions as which topic did
I choose? (adaptation process), what do I need first to complete the topic ? , what are my resources?
(identifying the needs), how did my ideas change? What can I do in the next stages?, did I understand the
topic? can be asked in this approach which enables a student to communicate, plan, organize and reflect his
own learning (Dolapçıoğlu, 2007). Self-evaluation includes students in the teaching process during the
evaluation process. Self-evaluation encourages reflective thinking in students. It enables them to take more
responsibility for their learning. Students who can evaluate themselves can create goals and they can follow
how they achieved these goals. In addition, they can evaluate the results they have obtained and generate
new ways of solutions after discovering their weaknesses (Ersözlü, 2008).
Microteaching studies intended for the pre-service teachers can also develop reflective thinking (Gencer, 2008;
Kılınç, 2010). Microteaching is intended to help pre-service teachers acquire experiences regarding teaching
experiences before they practice them in real education environments. In microteaching practices, the teacher
candidates criticise themselves and each other and they participate in the reflection process (Ünver, 2003). In
such kind of activities, video cameras are used and thanks to videotaping, the pre-service teachers view
themselves and their teaching skills, so they can make contributions to enhance their reflective thinking. In
addition to this, the instructor examines the lesson plans prepared for the short lesson and gives positive or
negative feedback which are quite effective on reflective thinking (Alp and Taşkın, 2007; Ünver, 2003).
The teachers’ and pre-service teachers’ levels of reflective thinking, their development, and reflective thinking
dimensions have been a new field of study in our country in recent years. Although the skill of “training
teachers who can think reflectively” is included in teacher training programs in theoretical terms, lack of theory
and implementations regarding this skill in education faculties necessitate studies related to reflective
thinking(Alp and Taşkın, 2007; Dolapçıoğlu, 2007; Töman and Çimer, 2014; Yorulmaz; 2006). It is considered
that this study ,which aims at examining the pre-service science teachers’ views regarding the methods which
develop reflective thinking skills in the “Special Teaching Methods I” course, will lead other research studies in
this field.
Purpose
The aim of this study is to examine the pre-service science teachers’ views about the methods which develop
reflective thinking skills considering the reflective thinking aspect.
METHOD
The study which is carried out to examine the pre-service science teachers’ views about the methods which
develop reflective thinking skills considering the reflective thinking aspect is a descriptive research. Openended questions were used to determine the views of the pre-service teachers. The statistical analysis of the
data obtained via questions was utilized. Thus, survey model, one of the descriptive research methods, was
chosen to investigate the situations which were encountered during the implementation and to generate
solutions. Survey models are the arrangements of the scan carried out on all of the universe or a group of
sample taken from it or carried on samples in a universe composed of many elements with the aim of passing a
180
general judgment (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2011). Generalisations are tried to be achieved through the statistical
analysis of the data obtained with questions. After a complete picture of the case which is studied is obtained,
case studies can be started after taking a very special sample from this picture (Çepni, 2012).
The Sampling Method
The research was carried out with the third year students studying in Science Teaching Department of
Education Faculty in Bayburt University. Thirty-two students from Science Teaching Department at Bayburt
University participated in the study. Out of 32 students, 18 of them are females and 14 of them are males. This
study was carried out within the framework of “Special Teaching Methods I” course taken by the students in
the spring term. Each pre-service teacher individually made 20-25 minute presentations. Each pre-service
teacher prepared a lesson plan for the presentations. In addition, microteaching was carried out with the perservice teachers about their practices and following the microteaching, teacher candidates filled in selfevaluation forms and reflective journals. Furthermore, they participated in the meetings regarding the
methods which enhance reflective thinking.
Data Collection Tools
Four open-ended questions which were designed to examine the pre-service science teachers’ views about the
methods which develop reflective thinking were used as a data collection tool. Moreover, observations which
the researcher did during the implementations were utilized. The open-ended questions were evaluated by
taking the views of an expert with regard to content, language, and clarity and intelligibility. Necessary
corrections were made in line with the expert opinions and the questions were finalized. Semi-structured
interview was used in this research and the interviews were carried out individually. The interviews were
carried out with 32 pre-service science teachers, who were identified as special case, and according to the
criteria determined by the researcher. Each interviews lasted 20-25 minutes. Some abbreviations were used
while presenting the findings obtained from the interview data. The abbreviations were given as follows. For
example, IPST-1 represents “the first student among the pre-service teachers with whom the interviews were
carried out”.
R: Researcher (Interviewer ),: I (Interview), PST: Pre-service science teacher
1: First Student , 2: Second Student , 3: Third Student , 4: Fourth student , 5: Fifth Student
Data Analysis
The data obtained from the interviews carried out with the pre-service science and technology course teachers
was analyzed via content analysis technique. The data which are similar to each other are gathered within the
framework of certain concepts and themes; they are organized clearly, and interpreted (Yıldırım and Şimşek,
2011). In line with this technique, the data were classified and evaluated. The data obtained from the
responses of the teachers to the open-ended questions were analysed in the research. The data were analysed
and their frequencies (f) and percentages (%) were given. Out of the teacher responses to the questions,
quotes were also used.
In addition to these, when the research questions were identified, the research studies carried out by
Dolapçıoğlu (2007), Ekiz (2006), Yorulmaz (2006) and Şahin (2009) were utilized. It was considered that the
reliability of the questions used in the relevant literature was provided. Moreover, the reliability of the
questions was provided with the expert opinions and the relevant literature. In the next section of the study,
the findings obtained from the analysis were presented widely.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The findings obtained from the analysis of the responses given to the four open-ended questions which were
designed to examine the pre-service science teachers’ views about the methods which develop reflective
thinking skills considering the reflective thinking aspect were presented below.
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Table 1: The findings obtained from the Interviews of Pre-service Science Teachers about the Methods which
Develop Reflective Thinking
Methods
Which
Develop
Reflective
Thinking
Levels of Reflection
Questions Asked
in the Interviews
Categories
Micro
teaching
What do you
think about the
microteaching
carried out during
the
implementation
process?
Do you think that
it is effective in
your learning?
Why?
-An implementation
that is carried out
for the first time
-Its contribution to
teaching skills
Lesson plan
What do you
think about the
lesson plan which
you
prepared
during
the
process?
Do you think that
it is effective in
your
learning?
Why?
Self
Evaluation
Reflective
Journals
Reflections in
Technical Field
Reflections in the
Implementation
Field
f
22
%
69
f
10
%
31
Reflecti
ons in
the
Critical
Field
f
%
0
0
teaching practices
- Its contribution to
teaching skills
teaching the lesson
-An implementation
that is carried out
for the first time
22
69
10
31
0
0
What kind of
effect did selfevaluation have
on your learning?
Why?
teaching skills
-An implementation
that is carried out
for the first time
24
75
8
25
0
0
What do you
think about the
reflective journals
which are kept
during
the
implementation
process?
Do you think that
they are effective
in your learning?
Why?
teaching skills
-An implementation
that is carried out
for the first time
26
81
6
19
0
0
182
As it is viewed in Table 1, when the findings obtained from the interviews of pre-service teachers about the
methods which develop reflective thinking, the pre-service teachers mostly (69%) answered the question which
was about the microteaching implementations in the process as reflections in the technical field. The preservice teachers who developed reflections in the technical field mostly used simple and plain expressions
about microteaching implementations. The levels of reflection with the pre-service teachers were mostly
observed in the technical field and the reason for this is that they only focused on the necessary principles to
reach the goals which were specified (Langer, 2002; Tang 2000). Similar conditions were identified in the study
conducted by Şahin (2009). All of the pre-service teachers stated that they did not do any practices which
fostered reflective thinking before. Moreover, all the pre-service teachers stated that these methods which
develop reflective thinking would specifically make contributions to the development of their teaching skills.
The response of a pre-service science teacher can be given as an example to this condition:
R: What do you think about the microteaching carried out during the implementation process?
RIPST-20: I believe that microteaching has benefits.
R: Why is it beneficial?
IPST-20: Normally you just explain it. But when you watch yourself after the teaching process you realize your
weaknesses.
R: Have you ever experienced microteaching implementations in your previous education process? How?
IPST-20: We have never done such educational implementations before.
R: What do you think about such implementations which are intended for reflective thinking? IPST -20: To me,
these methods are quite good. This is our first experience. It will be better next time. I believe it was quite
good.
As it is seen in table 1, it was understood from the responses of the pre-service teachers given in the interviews
about the microteaching which is carried out to develop reflective thinking that the level of reflection in the
implementation level (31%) was lower than the level of reflection in the technical field. The pre-service
teachers who developed reflections in the field of implementation made comments depending on their
individual perceptions regarding implementation of microteaching and reflective thinking. Similar conditions
were also discovered in the literature (Tok, 2008; Yorulmaz, 2006). The response of a pre-service science
teacher can be given as an example to this condition:
R: What you think about micro teaching which is carried out during the implementation process? Do you think
that it is effective in your learning?
IPST -11: Of course, micro teaching has benefits.
R: Why is it beneficial?
IPST -11: When you are at the board, you sometimes don’t see what you are doing. You say that I’m good
because the students participate in the lesson and I’m teaching the subject. However, when we watched the
video, I said that if I had walked around the classroom, I would have controlled the class better. If I had given
students more opportunity to talk, the students would have participated in the lesson more actively and I
would have the whole class get involved in the course. Therefore, I realized my weaknesses.
R: Have you ever experienced microteaching implementations in your previous education process? How?
IPST -11: We have only done presentations before. We have never carried out such practises intended for
reflection before.
R: What do you think about such implementations regarding reflective thinking?
IPST -11: In my opinion, if you had intervened in every step, such a negative thing would have occurred: I would
be demoralized and discouraged if you had told me to stop or that it would be better if you did it like that while
I was teaching and due to demoralization, I would not transfer the information as I wished. Moreover, I, myself,
identified my learning objectives and prepared my materials. If you had set them, I would have practised them
as you wanted and I would have had difficulties. Because I set my learning objectives, I thought that if I carried
out this implementation, I would have my students gain them. I think it was really good for us to actualize the
implementation.
Moreover, as it is represented in Table 1, the most remarkable point is that none of the pre-service teachers
had reflections regarding critical field concerning the implementations of microteaching and reflective thinking.
183
When the findings obtained from the interviews of pre-service teachers about the methods which develop
reflective thinking, it was determined that the pre-service teachers mostly (69%) had levels of reflection in the
technical field concerning the lesson plans which they prepared according to their practices. The pre-service
teachers who developed reflections in the technical field stated that the points which they focused on were
only what they saw, experienced and felt. Taggart and Wilson (2005) attribute this to the fact that
inexperienced (novice) pre-service teachers lacked experiences regarding the methods which foster reflective
thinking. Similar conditions were identified in the study carried out by Dolapçıoğlu (2007). The pre-service
teachers mostly focused on the implementation of the lesson plan and its contributions to their teaching skills
in their statements about lesson plan. All of the pre-service teachers stated that they had not prepared a lesson
plan before and they mentioned the positive contributions of the lesson plan to their teaching. The response of
a pre-service science teacher can exemplify this condition:
R: What do you think about the lesson plan which you prepared during the implementation process? Do you
think that it had an effect on your learning?
IPST -7: The lesson plan certainly made contributions to me.
R: Why did it make contributions?
IPST -7: It was my road map. Anything did not happen by sticking to something. All of them followed each
other and the results were better.
R: Have you ever prepared a lesson plan in your previous education process? How?
IPST -7: No, I haven’t. It is the first time in this course we have done something like this. Before this
implementation, we prepared slides, we were at the board, told them, and then sat at our desks. This is our
first experience except this one.
A: What do you think about such implementations regarding reflective thinking?
IPST -7: It was more effective to introduce our opinions. If you had intervened about this subject, we would not
have been able to express our opinions; we would have reflected your opinions.
As it is presented in Table 1, it is understood from the responses of the pre-service teachers given in the
interviews that the level of reflection in the implementation level (31%) was lower than the level of reflection
in the technical field. The pre-service teachers who developed reflections in this field not only stated the
contributions the lesson plan made to their implementations and teaching skills at a simple level but also they
made comments depending on their subjective perceptions. Similar conditions were also discovered in the
literature (Yorulmaz, 2006). The responses of a pre-service science teacher can be given as an example to this
condition:
R: What do you think about the lesson plan which you prepared during the implementation process? Do you
think that it is effective in your learning?
IPST -29: I had a little difficulty when I first made the lesson plan, but when I took it from my friend, it was
blank. In other words, changing an existing one is taking the easy way out. I was in trouble while preparing it,
but I asked to the students in upper grades. In other words, I learned how to prepare a lesson plan. At least I
learned how to overcome the weaknesses and how to explain the topic.
R: What are the benefits of a lesson plan?
IPST -29: You learn new methods. They are the methods which you know but you learn how to apply them. It
was good in that way. Because it was the first time I used them, it was quite different and fun.
R: Have you ever prepared a lesson plan in your education life before? How?
IPST -29: No, I haven’t. But we did something like that. Suppose that a topic is going to be taught in history. We
prepared our slides and explained it. It was not an assessment or evaluation. We got only extra points from it
and it was added on our final grade. We do not know its results.
R: What do you think about these implementations regarding reflective thinking?
IPST -29: This one was really better. I mean that you shared with us your theoretical knowledge. We do our
homework with the help of this knowledge; as a result we have to consider it as an assignment. But also we
have to feel that it is our first professional day. Of course, we will have weaknesses. You let us go and it is really
great. That is to say, you do not interfere, just sit at the back. Thus, when I am at the board, I feel independent.
Moreover, as it is seen in Table 1, it is found that reflection regarding the lesson plans in the critical field was
not identified by any of the teachers.
184
When the responses of the pre-service teachers to the question about self-evaluation, one of the methods
which develop reflective thinking, in the interview were considered, it was determined that the pre-service
teachers mostly (75%) had levels of reflection in the technical field. When the responses related to the level of
reflection in the technical field were examined, it was revealed that the pre-service teachers mentioned the
positive contributions self- evaluation made to their teaching skills at descriptive and simple levels. Similar
results were obtained in the study conducted by Ekiz (2006). In addition, all of the pre-service teachers stated
that they hadn’t carried out any practices regarding self-evaluation. The response of a teacher was given below
to exemplify this condition.
R: How did self-evaluation affect your learning during the implementation process?
IPST -23: Self-evaluation was so useful.
R: Why do you think it was so useful?
IPST-23: I saw the difficulties and constraints encountered during the implementation in self-evaluation form. I
began to notice the things which I had not noticed during the implementations. It made me view myself and
make comments.
R: Have you ever performed self-evaluation practices in your previous education life? How?
IPST -23: We have never practised such implementations of reflective thinking. We only explained the topic.
IPST -23: I evaluated myself; I realized my weaknesseses and mistakes. I will never do them again.
As it is seen in Table 1, it is understood from the responses of the pre-service teachers about self-evaluation in
the interview that their levels of reflection in the implementation field (25%) was lower than their levels of
reflection in the technical field. The pre-service teachers who developed reflection in the implementation field
did not mention the positive contributions of self-evaluation to their teaching skills at a simple level. Moreover,
they interpreted the positive contributions of self-evaluation with its reasons. Similar cases also occur in
literature (Töman and Çimer, 2014). The response of a teacher was given below to exemplify this condition.
R: How did self-evaluation affect your learning during the implementation process?
IPST -14: Of course, self evaluation has benefits.
R: Why is it useful?
IPST -14: When a person is at the board, he does not realize or see what he is doing. You say that I am good,
but when you watch yourself and self-evaluate, you realize that it is not so. The questions in the self-evaluation
form are very important because they give us a chance to review what we have done during the
implementation. Therefore, you say that I won’t make these mistakes next time. For example, if I did the same
practice again, I would stick to the same format, but different form this, I would choose experiment designs
from daily life For example, I would do experiments and use materials which students would identify as light
and sound when they saw them.
R: Have you ever performed self-evaluation practices in your previous education before? How?
IPST -14: In line with such a plan, we have not had any applications of self-evaluation. So, with this
implementation, we had an opportunity to evaluate ourselves both in terms of materials and methods we
used. It was very effective. We not only turn on the slides and read them but also we use our teaching skills and
evaluate these skills later.
IPST -14: We have never performed such implementations before. We only brought the slides to the classroom
and explained them. But now this practice is really better. The students in the class learned a lot of things.
When we become a teacher in the future, new ideas will begin to emerge in our minds about the topic we are
going to teach and the methods we are going to use.
As it is seen in Table 1, it is found that reflection regarding self-evaluation method in the critical field was not
identified with any of the teachers.
When the findings obtained from the interviews of pre-service teachers about the methods which develop
reflective thinking, it was determined that the pre-service teachers mostly (81%) had levels of reflection in the
technical field concerning the reflective journals which they prepared according to their practices. The preservice teachers who developed reflections in the technical field used simpler and plainer expressions
185
regarding reflective journals. Gencer (2008) and Kılınç (2010) determined similar situations in their research
studies. All of the pre-service teachers stated that they did not keep reflective journals before. Moreover, all
the pre-service teachers pointed out that reflective journals would make contributions to promote their
teaching skills. The response of a teacher was given below to exemplify this condition.
R: What do you think about the reflective journals which are kept during the implementation process? Do you
think that they are effective in your learning?
IPST -30: In my opinion, they are very helpful.
R: Why do you think they are very helpful?
IPST -30: The journals I wrote had benefits. I read them and saw my mistakes. I tried not to make these
mistakes again. I revised them. I look at what I did better or what I can do better. It was fine.
R: Have you ever used reflective journals in your previous education before? How?
IPST -30: We have never used them before. Before the journals, we used to explain from the slides. I think they
will be helpful in the practical training next year.
IPST -30: Journals have benefits. You evaluate yourself. You realize your weaknesses and strengths and you are
more careful next time.
As it is seen in Table 1, it is understood from the responses of the pre-service teachers about reflective journals
which they kept to foster reflective thinking in the interviews that their levels of reflection in the
implementation field (19%) was lower than their levels of reflection in the technical field. The pre-service
teachers who developed reflections in the implementation field made comments depending on their individual
perceptions. Similar cases occur in literature (Alp ve Taşkın, 2008; Erginel, 2006). The response of a teacher was
given below to exemplify this condition.
R: What do you think about the reflective journals which are kept during the implementation process? Do you
think that they are effective in your learning?
IPST -22: Of course, they are effective.
R: Why do you think they are effective?
IPST -22: I wanted to write my diary as soon as I went home because I wanted to reflect my weaknesses or
strengths with my new-found knowledge. Keeping journals helped me think what I did. Therefore, I believe that
journals are useful. You write what you think; you look at it and say that I made a mistake here. When I have
my journal with me and I review it, I will remember my weaknesses. For example, during my implementation, I
had a trouble of managing the class. The questions in the journal reminded me this problem and it made me
think about its reasons. Moreover, it helped me to consider alternative ways of solutions. That’s why it was so
effective.
IPST -22: To me, this is better. If we are appointed, we will explain these topics in the class. It was much better
because we determined the whole process and you used methods which encouraged us to consider out
implementations.
R: In what ways it was good?
IPST -22: We identify the topic and the activity and we think about our weaknesses. If you had told us the
learning objectives and which method to use, we would have practised them. However, we considered which
one would be better and efficient to teach and we made a decision
RESULTS
Considering the findings obtained from the research, it was revealed from the most of the statements of the
pre-service teachers in the interviews that their levels of reflection in the technical filed were in the forefront.
The pre-service teachers presented the situations they encountered for the methods which develop reflective
thinking. In addition to this, it was found that there was lack of statements concerning the technical field in the
interviews of pre-service teachers. Thus, it was concluded that the pre-service teachers could not adequately
reveal their skills of reflection in technical field during the interviews.
186
Although most of the pre-service teachers expressed statements regarding reflections in technical field, there
were not statements regarding reflections in critical field. The pre-service teachers could not entirely
demonstrate their skills of reflection in critical field. It was determined that the pre-service teachers who used
expressions which could be counted as reflections could not use their skills of reflection in implementation field
and technical field together. Most of the teachers asserted that such practices as lesson plan, self-evaluation,
reflective journals, and micro teaching made contributions to their teaching skills. Moreover, it was concluded
that the pre-service teachers carried out the implementations which develop reflective thinking for the first
time in their life. While the pre-service teachers made explanations about the methods which promote
reflective thinking, they simply and clearly described what they experienced. However, the pre-service
teachers could not consider the situations they described critically. They introduced their implementations in
superficial ways.
Regarding the results obtained from the research study, pre-service teachers must be given theoretical training
in the courses regarding development of teaching skills on reflective thinking, kinds of reflective thinking and
importance of reflective thinking. In line with this, in practical training course, while they are writing journals
for each training day for their teaching file, they may be asked to keep these journals in a way to exhibit their
reflective thinking skills. Pre-service teachers can be directly given the criterion which they are going to take
into account when they are filling in a self-evaluation form, keeping journals, and preparing a lesson or this
criterion can be determined with them.
Ufuk TÖMAN, currently employed as a Lecturer at Bayburt University Faculty of Education,
Department of Science Education. He is specifically interested biology education, concept
instruction, teacher education.
Ufuk TÖMAN
Bayburt University
Education Faculty
Department of Science Education
Bayburt- TURKEY
E. Mail:[email protected]
Sabiha ODABAŞI ÇİMER, currently employed as an Associate Professor at Karadeniz
Technical University Faculty of Education, Department of Secondary Education dicipline of
biology education. She Phd degree in Nottingham University. She is specifically interested
in biology education, measurement and assessmen, teacher education.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sabiha ODABAŞI ÇİMER
Education Faculty
Department of Secondary Education
Trabzon-TURKEY
E.Mail: sabihaodabası@gmail.com
187
Atilla ÇİMER, currently employed as an Associate Professor at Karadeniz
Technical University Faculty of Education, Department of Secondary Education
dicipline of biology education. He Phd degree in Nottingham University. He is
specifically interested in biology education and teacher education.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Atilla ÇİMER
Education Faculty
Department of Secondary Education
Trabzon-TURKEY
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189
STRUCTURED PROBLEM POSING CASES OF PROSPECTIVE MATHEMATICS TEACHERS:
EXPERIENCES AND SUGGESTIONS
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sare ŞENGÜL
Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty
İstanbul- TURKEY
Dr. Yasemin KATRANCI
Kocaeli University Education Faculty
Kocaeli- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
In problem posing, students are faced with complex situations or events and they feel responsible from these
situations or events. It is stated from this perspective that it is necessary to carry out problem posing studies
and teachers should have a strong perspective for problem posing activities. In this sense, the aim of this study
is to evaluate structured problem posing cases of prospective mathematics teachers about Ratio and
Proportion Subject’, to determine the experiences (for instance; difficulties) of the prospective teachers during
problem posing process and to elicit suggestions regarding the experienced difficulties (if any).
For this purpose the data was collected by the researchers through a data form. This developed data form was
conducted to 42 primary school mathematics prospective teachers. Prospective teachers were given 40
minutes to fill in this form. In data analysis, ‘Problem Posing Evaluation Form (PPEF)’ which was developed by
the researchers for the first part of the data form was used. At the end, the results of the evaluation were
presented on the basis of frequency (f) and percentage (%). The content analysis was used for the analysis of
the data obtained from the second and third parts. The obtained themes were presented on the basis of
frequency (f) and percentage (%) through digitalizing the data for the interpretation of the findings. NVivo 10
software was used in content analysis.
In conclusion, it was concluded that prospective mathematics teachers posed clear and understandable
problems which were compatible with the mathematical principles and which were in the form of simple and
exercise type. Besides, it was concluded that posed problems had solvable problem features. The
experiences/difficulties faced during problem posing process were determined as; having difficulties in deciding
the numerical expressions that will be given in problems, in ability to construct a different problem other than
stated in the example, in ability to construct the text of the problem, inability to recognize the cognitive levels
of students and inability to correlate problems with daily life. The solutions which were proposed for the
difficulties faced were determined as in the following; solving before the problem which is considered to be
posed, constructing problems by using daily life, analyzing similar problems which are considered to be posed
and taking them as example, carrying out activities for creating more meaningful problem texts by focusing on
how to construct a problem and gaining experience about problem posing.
Key Words: Structured problem posing, experiences, difficulties, suggestions.
INTRODUCTION
“Each problem that I solved became a rule, which served afterwards to solve other problems”
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
Problem is defined as the situations that an organism cannot solve with current reactions (Açıkgöz, 2006),
something which is thrown in front of you and which blocks you (Adair, 2000), a situation in which one wants to
do something but does not know or predict how to do it immediately (Altun, 2001), the difference between the
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current situation and the desired situation (Kneeland, 2001), an event, subject or activity that students do not
have a memorized or specific rule about the solution (Van de Walle, 2003). In order to be able to assess a
situation or event as a problem, it should bring some challenges and some disturbance to an individual. The
person who has faced with this challenge before will need to make some effort to overcome this difficulty and
try to eliminate this problem (Akay, 2006). Once you face with a problem and solve it, the same situation loses
its feature to be a problem anymore (Ergün, 2010). In this regard, problem can also be defined as a situation
(Katrancı, 2014) which obscures someone’s faith when he/she encounters it for the first time, which challenges
him/her and which someone does not have a memorized or specified rule for the solution of this situation.
Considering the definitions stated above, when we say problem, the first thing that comes to one’s mind can be
every day problems that he/she faces in his/her daily life. In this regard, Gündüz (2008) classified problems in
his study according to; i) the easiness difficulty of the problems (complexity), ii) content of the problems, iii)
characteristics of the problems, iv) to the strategy which is used in the solution of problems and v) structure of
the problems. Boran and Aslaner (2008) divided problems in to three as; well-structured, less structured and
not well-structured problems. Altun (2008) classified problems as routine and non-routine problems and
approached them mathematically. Zeits (2007, quoted from Şimşek, 2012) divided mathematical problems into
three groups as; open-ended problems, fun and content problems. Foong (1990) in his literature scan about
problem solving and using problems classified mathematical problems which were used in mathematics classes
as ‘closed’ and ‘open-ended’ problems. In this sense, studying about mathematical problems results with
mathematical thinking for creating strategies regarding rational solutions of the problems and helps to adapt
these strategies to any kind of problems that can be encountered during every day (Israel, 2003). And this can
be achieved by carrying out problem posing studies.
Problem posing which is a special case of problem solving (Christou, Mousoulides, Pittalis, Pitta-Pantazi &
Sriraman, 2005) is re-formulating a given problem or creating new problems in accordance with the given
situation. Problem posing is defined as a problem solving activity which includes producing new problems and
questions that will be analyzed and discovered about a given situation (Akay, Soybaş & Argün, 2006), a process
which is based on mathematical experiences and where comments generated by moving from concrete
situations are transformed into meaningful mathematical problems (Stoyanova & Ellerton, 1996), a way of
analytical thinking (Akay & Boz, 2010) and a process which includes for learners to produce new thoughts with
the help of different methods (Kojima, Miwa & Matsui, 2009). In this process, students are encountered with a
complicated situation or event and they feel responsible from this complicated situation or event (Gür &
Korkmaz, 2003).
When the previous research was analyzed (Abu-Elwan, 2007; Dickerson, 1999; Grundmeier, 2003) it was seen
that there are various problem posing methods. These methods are as in the following; i) free problem posing,
ii) semi-structured problem posing, iii) structured problem posing and iv) what if?...what if not?. In free problem
posing, the point is to ask students to pose problems about any subject without providing them any data, figure
or problems (Ergün, 2010). In semi-structured problem posing, an open–ended situation is given to students
and students are asked to generate problems about this situation by using their own skills, knowledge and
mathematical experiences (Akay, 2006). In structured problem posing, the matter is posing a new problem by
changing the known (Akay, 2006). In ‘what if? ... what if not?’ method; the point is to pose new problems from
the problems that were solved before with a change in the conditions or purpose of the original problem
(Abrams & Honeyman, 2002, quoted from Yaman & Dede, 2005).
It is stated that all these problem posing studies which helps students for their individual learning and reduces
their dependence to course books (Işık, Kar, Yalçın & Zehir, 2011) cause a positive effect on students (Craig,
1999). The students participating in the activities which are carried out in this process have an opportunity to
understand the meaning of ‘doing mathematics’ (Lavy & Shriki, 2009). As problem posing provides students to
think different and flexible, it also helps them to get rid of their negative attitudes towards mathematics
(Ergün, 2010). Besides, problem posing which helps teachers to learn to what extent the learning is realized
informs us about how to improve teaching and learning environments and the problematic fields that are
needed to be emphasized (Lin & Leng, 2008). From this perspective it is thought that problem posing activities
191
should be carried out and teachers should have a strong understanding about problem posing activities (Lin,
2004). It is predicted with help of this perspective that the opinions of prospective teachers on problem posing
are also important.
When literature about problem posing is analyzed, it is seen that; the opinions of prospective teachers on
problem posing (Akay & Argün, 2005; Akay & Boz, 2009), the effect of problem posing on the academic
achievements of prospective teachers (Akay & Boz, 2008) were analyzed, the conceptual analysis of the
problems posed by prospective teachers were conducted (Işık, 2011), the problems which were posed by
mathematics prospective teachers for audio and visual representations were analyzed (Işık, Işık & Kar, 2011)
and the problem posing skills of the prospective teachers about different problem posing models were
searched.
Besides, studies in which the problem posing strategies used by classroom prospective teachers when they
encountered with different problem posing situations and the difficulties they faced in this process are
determined (Kılıç, 2013), in which the changes in problem posing strategies of prospective teachers are
analyzed (Crespo, 2003) and in which the points that teachers and prospective teachers focus on while posing
problems are determined (Stickles, 2006) have been found.
When the studies stated above are analyzed, it is seen that structured problem posing cases of prospective
teachers are rarely analyzed or has never been analyzed and it is not focused on the difficulties that
prospective teachers face. Besides, it has drawn attention that there are not any studies for determining the
solutions proposed by prospective teachers regarding the difficulties appeared in this process. In this sense, the
aim of this study is to evaluate structured problem posing cases of prospective mathematics teachers about
Ratio and Proportion Subject’, to determine the experiences (for instance; difficulties) of the prospective
teachers during problem posing process and to elicit suggestions regarding the experienced difficulties (if any).
The answers of the following research questions were searched in accordance with this purpose.
1. What is the level of structured problem posing skills of prospective mathematics teachers?
2. What are the experiences that prospective mathematics teachers have during problem posing process (for
example the difficulties that they faced)?
3. Which solutions are proposed by prospective mathematics teachers regarding the difficulties that they
face (if any)?
METHOD
The Research Design
The qualitative researches; are the studies where perceptions and events are demonstrated in a holistic and
realistic manner in a natural environment (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008). In this sense, this study is a qualitative
research which is aimed to demonstrate results regarding a particular situation. The document analysis which
includes the analysis of written documents about the case or cases which are intended to study (Yıldırım &
Şimşek, 2008) was carried out within the scope of this study.
Study Group
The study group of this study is consisted of 42 prospective sophomore students who are studying in Marmara
University, Teaching Primary School Mathematics. 35 of the prospective teachers are female (%83,33) and 7
(%16,67) of them are male.
Data Collection Tools and Data Collection
The data was collected through a ‘data form’ which was prepared by the researchers. This data form is
composed of three parts and these parts are as in follows: i) the task of posing structured problems, ii) the
experiences during problem posing process (for example; the difficulties faced) and iii) suggestions for solution
strategies. This data form was given in Table 1.
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Table 1: The Data Form
About ‘Ration and Proportion’ Subject;
Pose a similar problem to the following one and solve the problem;
“The side lengths of a triangular-shaped field, whose circumference is 512 meters, are proportional with
the numbers of 4, 5 and 8. How long is the longest side of this field?”
Please write your experiences that you had (for example; what kind of difficulties do you have?) during
problem posing.
What are your suggestions for the solutions regarding the problems that you faced during problem posing
process (If any)?
This data form which was prepared by the researchers was distributed to prospective teachers and they were
asked to fill in this form. The prospective teachers were given 40 minutes for filling the form. In conclusion, all
this collected data created the documents of the study.
Data Analysis
First of all, the data obtained from the first part of the data form was evaluated by the researchers separately.
As a result of this analysis, it was determined that all the posed problems were about ‘Ratio and Proportion’
subject. For instance;
Fig. 1. The Problem Posing Task of the Prospective Teacher with Number 2
Fig. 2: The Problem Posing Task of the Prospective Teacher with Number 11
42 problems from the first part were evaluated by using ‘Problem Posing Evaluation Form (PPEF)’ which was
developed by the researchers (Şengül & Katrancı, 2014). This evaluation form consists of four dimensions and
each dimension consists of three sub-dimensions. It was determined that the agreement percentage regarding
the compatibility of each dimension for evaluation changed between 0,89 and 0,92 and the agreement
percentage regarding the compatibility of the sub-dimensions to dimensions changed between 0,86 and 0,90.
42 problems were evaluated by the researchers separately with this evaluation form and the results were
compared. The differences appeared were discussed and a consensus was reached. In conclusion, the results of
the evaluation which was conducted as being related with each sub-dimension were presented on the basis of
frequency (f) and percentage (%).
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Content analysis was used in the analysis of the data regarding the second and third part of the data form. In
content analysis similar data is combined around particular concepts and themes and they are edited and
interpreted as readers can understand (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008). In this sense, first of all the data was coded.
At this phase, the researcher tries to divide the data into meaningful parts and to find what each part means
conceptually by analyzing the collected data (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008). Researchers created a code list by
reading separately the data more than once. The codes were compared and then discussion was made on
different codes. Then, it is necessary to find themes which can generally explain the data by considering the
codes appeared (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008). Secondly, researchers created themes separately by gathering
similar codes together. The level of agreement between the evaluation of the researchers was set by using the
formula as “Agreement Percentage = [Agreement / (Agreement + Disagreement)] x 100” (Miles & Huberman
1994). In this regard, it was decided that the agreement percentage of the researchers regarding the themes
changed between 0,88 and 0,92. After calculating the agreement percentages, themes were edited and
presented to readers. For the interpretation of the findings, the themes were presented on the basis of
frequency (f) and percentage (%) by digitalizing the data. The qualitative data was digitalized to enable to
repeat a small scale research or case study with a bigger sample later on by using instruments such as surveys
(Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008). NVivo 10 program was used in the conducted content analysis.
FINDINGS AND COMMENTS
Findings and comments regarding the research problem which was specified as “What is the level of structured
problem posing skills of prospective mathematics teachers?” are as in the following.
Table 2: The Evaluation of Structured Problem Posing Task
Evaluation Criteria
The text of the problem is not clear and
understandable.
Problem Text (Language and
The text of the problem is relatively clear and
Expression)
understandable.
The text of the problem is clear and understandable.
The problem is not suitable to mathematical
principles.
The Compatibility of the Problem
The problem is relatively suitable to mathematical
with the Mathematical Principles
principles.
The problem is suitable to mathematical principles.
Exercise.
The Type/Structure of the Problem
Easy Problem type.
Difficult problem type.
The problem cannot be solved.
The Solvability of the Problem
Problem can be solved but it is erroneous.
It can be solved.
f
%
0
0
6
14,29
36
85,71
0
0
4
9,52
38
34
8
0
0
0
42
90,48
80,95
14,05
0
0
0
100
When Table 2 is analyzed, it is seen that 6 of the posed problems (%14,29) are relatively clear and
understandable. It was determined that 36 (%85,71) problems are clear and understandable. It is seen that 4 of
the posed problems (%9,52) are partially suitable mathematical principles and 38 (%90,48) problems are
suitable to mathematical problems. While 34 (%80,95) of the posed problems are exercise type problems, 8
(%14,05) of them are easy problems. It is seen that there are not any difficult problems. It was determined that
all the posed problems are solvable problems. For instance;
194
When the data regarding the research problem which was specified as “What are the experiences that
prospective mathematics teachers have during problem posing process (for example the difficulties that they
faced)?” were analyzed, it was determined that the prospective teachers focused on the points that they had
difficulties. In this sense, the findings and comments are as in the following.
195
Fig. 6: The Experiences (e.g. difficulties) faced in Problem Posing Process
It is seen that the experiences (e.g. difficulties) that prospective teachers had in problem posing process
grouped under five themes. It is seen that the prospective teachers mostly stated their opinions about the
‘result’ theme (23; %51,11). The prospective teachers stated that they had difficulties in deciding on the
numbers to have a whole number in the result. They stated that they lost time for providing a whole number in
the result. For instance;
Fig. 7: The Opinion of the Prospective Teacher with Number 2
Secondly, the prospective teachers stated their opinions about ‘editing’ theme (8; %17,78). They stated that
they had difficulties in deciding how to edit a problem while posing a problem. Thirdly, the prospective
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teachers stated their opinions about ‘problem text’ theme (6; %13,33). They expressed that they hesitated in
deciding whether the texts of the posed problems were understandable or not. Besides, it was seen that they
stated their concerns on the points whether problem texts had misconceptions or not. They expressed that
they had difficulties on the points whether the text of a problem was understandable or not. For instance;
It was seen that the prospective teachers who stated their opinions on ‘suitability to everyday life’ had
difficulties in deciding on whether the problems are suitable to everyday life or not. About the ‘level of
students’, it was seen that they expressed that they could not realize whether the problems are suitable to the
levels of the students or not. It was seen that they had concerns about having difficult problems for the
students. It was also determined that there were prospective teachers who did not have any difficulty during
problem posing process (4; %8,89).
The findings and comments regarding ‘What are the solution strategies of the prospective mathematics
teachers for the points that they had difficulties (if any)?’ are as in the following figure.
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Fig. 11: The Solution Strategies for the Difficulties faced during Problem Posing Process
When Figure 11 was analyzed, it is seen that 9 of the prospective teachers (%20,45) did not suggest any
solutions. It was seen that prospective teachers mostly suggested ‘problem solving’ (16; %36,36) for
overcoming the difficulties faced in problem posing process. They stated that it is necessary first to solve the
problem that is thought to be constructed. They stated that it is necessary to construct a problem by moving
from the solution of the same problem. For instance;
It was determined that they suggested ‘suitability to everyday life’ theme secondly (8; %18,18). They stated
that it is necessary to pay attention to construct problems which are suitable to everyday life. For instance;
It is seen that the other solution strategies of the prospective teachers grouped under ‘sample problems’ (5;
%11,36) and ‘problem text’ (5; %11,36). It was seen that prospective teachers stated that it is necessary to scan
and use different resources for constructing problems. It was determined that they sated that the problems
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occurred in constructing problem texts can be overcome by making meaningful sentences and reading a lot.
For instance;
It was also determined that stated difficulties above can be overcome as one gains experience in time.
CONCLUSION, DISCUSSION AND SUGGESTIONS
As a result of the collected data, it is concluded that the texts of the problems which are posed by prospective
teachers regarding problem posing task are clear and understandable. It is appeared that the posed problems
are suitable to mathematical principles and rules. It is understood that all the problems are solvable and
exercise type problems. Albayrak, İpek and Işık (2006), Crespo (2003), Crespo and Sinclair (2008), Işık, Işık and
Kar (2011) determined in their studies that prospective teachers constructed predictable, simple and not wellstructured problems. In this sense, it can be said that result obtained in this study such as ‘prospective teachers
posed exercise type problems’ is overlapping with the studies mentioned above.
Tirosh (2000), Toluk-Uçar (2009), Utley and Redmond (2008) and Zembat (2007) concluded that prospective
teachers’ skills for posing problems about divisions in fractions were low. It can be interpreted in this way that
the fact that prospective teachers posed only exercise type problems about ‘Ration and Proportion’ subject in
this study is showing parallelism with this case mentioned above. Besides, Korkmaz and Gür (2006) stated that
prospective teachers were confused about the problem concept and the concept of doing exercises. They
concluded that prospective teachers had difficulties in the editing and characteristics of their problems and had
common mistakes and misconceptions about the problem concept. It is also determined in this study that
prospective teachers constructed exercise type problems. At this point, it is thought that it is important to
question the knowledge of prospective teachers regarding the concepts of problem and doing exercises. In this
sense, it is suggested to carry out studies which are focused on this point.
It has been concluded that prospective teacher have difficulties in five different themes during problem posing
process. These themes are appeared as; ‘result’, ‘editing’, ‘problem text’, ‘suitability to everyday life’ and
‘student’s levels’. In this regard, the difficulties faced during problems posing process were appeared as; having
difficulties in deciding the numerical expressions that will be used in the problem, the inability to edit a new
problem which is different from the sample problem, the inability to construct the problem text, the inability
for students to recognize their own cognitive level and the inability to correlate problems to everyday life. Akay
and Boz (2009) determined the difficulties of prospective teachers in problem posing process as; the inability to
be creative, being introvert, feeling insecure, the lack of mathematical knowledge, the fact that problem posing
activities are different approaches and the nature of posing problems. Although it is determined that
prospective teachers have not faced with similar difficulties in the studies, it is concluded that the studies are
parallel in terms of showing prospective teachers have faced with difficulties in problem posing process.
Besides, Işık, Kar, Yalçın and Zehir (2011) determined in their studies that prospective teachers displayed a low
achievement in problem posing. Işık and Kar (2012) claimed that prospective teachers should be provided
opportunities to pose their own problems. Thus, they suggested that prospective teachers’ skills about problem
199
posing can be improved. Stickles (2006) presented in her study that teachers and prospective teachers made
some effort to pose their own problems. Also in this study, it is concluded that prospective teachers mostly
have problems in deciding on the numerical expressions that will be used in the problem. It is thought that this
difficulty can be overcome by providing opportunities to prospective teachers to pose their own problems. In
this sense, it is thought that the findings of the previous studies are supported and it is necessary to let
prospective teachers to pose their own problems.
It is emphasized in Teaching Primary School Mathematics Program (MEB, 2009) that concepts related with
mathematics should be taught by correlating them with real life situations. It is stated that having correlations
between real life situations and mathematical concepts has an important place. It is concluded in this study
that prospective teachers think that they will have difficulties at this point. In this case, the necessity of raising
prospective teachers’ awareness about problem solving becomes important. In this sense, it is suggested that
educational faculties should provide more information about problem posing to their studies.
It is concluded that prospective teachers stated their opinions about the solution strategies regarding the
mentioned difficulties in five different themes. These solution strategies are; ‘problem solving’, ‘suitability to
everyday life’, ‘sample problems’, ‘problem text’ and ‘experience’. In this regard, the solution strategies are
appeared as providing the solution of the problem which will be asked, posing problems by using everyday life,
analyzing similar problems to one that will be asked and using it as an example, writing more meaningful
problem texts by focusing on how to edit problem texts and having experience about problem posing. It is
presented in Teaching Primary School Mathematics Program (2009) that problem posing can be one of the
steps of problem solving. In this case, it can be said that prospective teachers provided a meaningful solution
strategy. However Dede and Yaman (2005) determined that prospective teachers can solve problems on the
contrary they are not able to pose new problems by moving from solutions. At this point it is thought that it is
necessary to provide opportunities to prospective teachers to pose problems by moving from solutions in
addition to let them pose their own problems.
It is found that prospective teachers stated that they need to use everyday situations so that they can pose
problems. Akay and Boz (2008), Crespo and Sinclair (2008), Dickerson (1999), Yuan and Sriraman (2010)
concluded in their studies that problem posing is an important tool to connect everyday life with mathematics
and to attract students’ attention. At this point, it can be said that prospective teachers have realized the
correlation between everyday life and problem posing in this study. It is determined that prospective teachers
expressed that it was necessary to analyze similar problems to the ones that would be asked. In this sense, it
can be said that the necessity for carrying out studies for raising prospective teachers’ awareness about
problem posing is once again appeared. In this case, it is suggested to provide prospective teachers to analyze
different problem types and to carry out problem posing studies for those problem types.
In this study, only structured problem posing process was considered. Besides, this process was only dealt with
Ration and Proportion subject. At this point, it is seen as necessary to repeat this study with different
mathematical subjects. It is suggested to have a more comprehensive study group so that opinions about
different themes can also be obtained. Besides, it is suggested that it is necessary to elaborate this qualitative
study in terms of its generalizability by supporting it with quantitative data.
th
IJONTE’S Note: This study has been presented as an oral presentation during the 11 National Science and
Mathematics Education Congress, 11-14 September 2014, Adana.
200
Sare ŞENGÜL is a associate professor at department of Primary Mathematics Education,
Atatürk Education Faculty, Marmara University, İstanbul, Turkey. Her research interests
are mathematic attitude, conceptual learning, metacognition, concept cartoons, number
sense and differential equations.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sare ŞENGÜL
Department of Primary Mathematics Education
Atatürk Education Faculty
Marmara University
İstanbul- TURKEY
Yasemin KATRANCI is a research assistant at department of Primary Mathematics
Education, Education Faculty, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey. Her research interests
are problem posing, problem solving, mathematical understanding, metacognition, RBC
theory and cryptology.
Research Assistant PhD Yasemin KATRANCI
Department of Primary Mathematics Education
Education Faculty
Kocaeli University
41380 Kocaeli- TURKEY
E. Mail: [email protected] / [email protected]
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2ND YEAR STUDENTS’ AND THEIR TEACHER’S PERSPECTIVES ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE
PROGRAM APPLIED FOR THE FIRST TIME IN 2012-2013 ACADEMIC YEAR
Res. Assist. Fazilet Özge MAVİŞ
Gaziosmanpaşa University
Faculty of Education, Educational Sciences
Tokat- TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Gülay BEDİR
Sutcu Imam University,
Kahramanmaraş- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
In Turkey, with 30.03.2012 dated and 6287 numbered Primary Education Law, 4+4+4 system has started to be
nd
implemented in 2012-2013 academic years and with this law, English language teaching level is lowered to 2
th
year from 4 year in public schools. The purpose of this research is to discover the general perspectives,
nd
willingness, positive and negative emotions and experiences of 2 year grade students with the help of their
weekly written diaries. Besides, their teacher’s opinions are asked about the implementation of curriculum and
positive and negative aspects of it. For this purpose, the study is conducted in the academic year 2013-2014
with 30 students (7-8 years old) from a public school located in the center of Tokat city and named as Vali
Mehmet Özgün Primary School. Also, the researcher individually interviews with this class’ English language
teacher. This study generally shows that 7-8 year-old students demonstrate positive attitudes towards English
lessons. Students’ are more enthusiastic when they learn a new language with different games and activities in
nd
th
early ages. Furthermore, findings show that 2 graders curriculum is more appropriate than 4 year curriculum
for the level of students.
nd
Key Words: Turkey, primary public school, 2 year graders, English course.
INTRODUCTION
It is an undeniable fact that language is an important, maybe one of the most crucial necessities of human
communication. For centuries, it has been known that language is the source of power in the lives of people.
One of the clearest indications that language has an important part of being human can be given from some
tribes of Africa. In these tribes, new born babies are called as ‘kintu’ (a thing), and when they gain the ability to
speak they can be called as ‘muntu’ (a person). (Fromkin et all, 2003).
Why is language so important for human being? Most obvious reason is, of course, its usage as a tool for
human interaction. In today’s world, people need languages other than mother tongue to interact with people
globally. People are now able to interact with each other easily with the help of devices like radio, television,
telephone and internet. However, to convert this interaction into the communication, they should have a
common language. Nowadays, English is seen as a common language for the communication of individuals who
have different native tongues (Graddol, 2000). For that reason, people try to teach and learn English as a
foreign language and countries spend high amount of energy and money for English language learning. This
concept is on the agenda of Turkey, too. English language learning has taken place in Turkey’s education
programs for years.
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Long-term studies have been conducted in Turkey for many years in order to ensure foreign language teaching.
Despite these efforts, many deficiencies are found in language teaching. According to a study carried out by
Economic Policy Research Foundation of Turkey, the country takes place in 43 out of 44 states about language
proficiency. After conducting this research, Koru and Akesson (2011) state that Turkey is insufficient in
language teaching and it is emphasized that in order to overcome these shortcomings, changes should be made
in education system. They also indicate that language teaching should start in early ages of primary school
level.
The necessity of teaching languages at an early ages is affected by Lenneberg’s (1967)critical period hypothesis.
According to this hypothesis, language acquisition efficacy does not increase with maturation and development
but as the time passes and individual become older, language acquisition skills are decreased (Johnson and
Newport, 1991). As the age of the individual grows and matures, s/he experiences difficulties in learning a
language, too. For instance, in their study, Krashen, Long and Scarcella (1979) state that older children acquire
the second language faster than younger ones. However, acquirers who expose to second language in early
ages achieve higher second language proficiency than adults. In other words, when we provide students with
language in early ages, the possibility of being proficient in language learning can be increased.
There are some considerations to pay attention in teaching languages to young learners. One of them is the
effect of environmental input in shaping the neural organization of language (Perani et all, 2003). It is known
that environmental factors are affective in first language acquisition. Likewise, in second language learning,
environmental factors affect the individual. When it is considered in instructional perspective, it can be seen
that if the environment constructed in the way that attract the attention of students, they can concentrate on
the lessons and learn more in these kinds of places. Teachers should also provide students with environments
where different activities can be found for ensuring attendance in class. Studies show that game-based learning
activities have a big role in language learning especially in the younger age group of students (Genç-İlter ve Er,
2007; Kaya, 2007; Liu ve Chu, 2010; Macedonia, 2005; Yolageldili ve Arıkan, 2011). Through the games,
students can learn to communicate and cooperate with their friends and language can be learned in a context.
Another issue also emerges as the necessity to focus on oral language skills at an early age of language
learning. In this period, students have just gained reading and writing skills in their native tongue. If same skills
are focused in the same period, it can cause students to have difficulty in learning these skills in another
language and lose self-confidence. Lack of confidence in foreign language learning and language learning
anxiety frequently encountered problems in Turkey. Factors that cause anxiety in students can be listed as
students’ self-efficacy level, teachers’ behaviors, the difficulty level of foreign language courses, students’
language acquisition ability level and cultural differences (Aydın ve Zengin, 2008). It is important to prevent
students from experiencing these kinds of anxieties in early ages of language teaching for their language
development.
Students’ motivation to language learning can be the third issue. As we all know, individuals’ learning is directly
related to their motivation. Motivated students show more active attendance to class activities while less
motivated students show low participation. As a result, less motivated students’ learning rate and retention
reduce (Oxford and Shearin, 1994). In this respect, we can say that student’s participation also has a crucial role
in language learning. Active participation has great importance for the provision of language acquisition and
retention. For the smooth execution of communication, individuals find themselves while acting, using their
body language, arguing and moving around. In these circumstances, interpersonal contacts and relation and
coordination with other people can be developed (Korczynski, 2012). In language learning classes, the
environments in which communication and coordination provided are needed.
In Turkey, with 30.03.2012 dated and 6287 numbered Primary Education Law the duration of compulsory
education and training increased from 8 to 12 years and it separated into 4-year primary school (1,2,3,4
grades), 4-year secondary school (5,6,7,8 grades) and 4-year high school (9,10,11,12 grades) levels (Official
nd
th
Gazette, April 11, 2012, 28261). With this law, English language teaching level is lowered to 2 year from 4
year. Listening and speaking activities are included in the curriculum to provide love and confidence in
language learning in this level of students. English language teaching curriculum based on learning activities in
206
which students can encounter with daily life situations, visual, auditory and audio-visual materials and learn
with game-based learning.
nd
In Turkey, English language teaching lessons are carried out in 2 year grade students for the first time in
public schools and with this study; we try to determine the consequences of this situation. This study is
important for the reason that it provides information about the implementation of the program to the
preparers and practitioners of the curriculum with the help of students’ and teacher’s opinions.
The purpose of this study is to discover the general perspectives, willingness, positive and negative emotions
nd
and experiences of 2 year grade students with the help of their weekly written diaries. Besides, their
teacher’s opinions are asked about the implementation of program and positive and negative aspect.
METHOD
Participants
The sample of research is determined as one of the purposive sampling methods called typical case sampling.
This kind of sampling method can be described as “subjects are selected who are likely to behave as most of
their counterparts would.” (Bamberger et all, 2006). For this purpose, the study is conducted in the academic
year 2013-2014 with 30 students (7-8 years old) from a public school located in the center of Tokat city and
named as Vali Mehmet Özgün Primary School. Also, the researcher individually interviewed with this class’
English language teacher.
Instruments
As data collection tool, student diaries are used. In the first week, students are asked the questions to
determine their general point of view about English language learning class sessions. Other three weeks, the
purpose of open-ended questions in diaries is to reveal process of language learning, students’ positive and
negative emotions and experiences towards the same lesson. Students’ diaries are distributed by the
researcher after the English lesson and students complete them without time limitation and submit it to
researcher again. For teachers’ interview, the questions that search out what kind of differences the teacher
th
nd
notice between the 4 graders and 2 graders in language learning and which grade is more appropriate for
English language teaching is asked to her. Except for two main questions, several probing questions are asked
to explore her ideas more openly. The researcher tries to avoid any bias while asking the probing questions.
Interview is lasted about 15 to 20 minutes.
Data Analysis
The data including student diaries are analyzed with content analysis method which is one of qualitative
research design. In this method, researcher tries to find certain concepts in a text or a group of texts (Şencan,
2005). With explorative approach, the texts are segmented and grouped under specific categories. Teacher’s
interview is also documented and subjected to content analysis.
Validity and Reliability
First of all, validity and reliability of the data collection tools are carried out. To determine the surface validity
of open-ended questions asked in student diaries, researcher gets the opinion of students’ primary school
teacher and English language learning teacher. For content validity, in the opinion of two experts from
curriculum and instruction department and one English language instructor are consulted. After making the
necessary arrangements, applications are conducted and in order to ensure reliability in content analysis
perseverance, reproducibility and accuracy features are provided (Şencan, 2005). To achieve these three
properties, coding is made by multiple researchers and regulated by the comparison of findings in each stage.
When the equivalence is provided in findings, encoding is performed.
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FINDINGS
The students’ answers to the questions during four week and these answers are categorized into the sub-titles.
Categories are defined under the headings of general attitudes towards English sessions, willingness, topics in
lessons, students emotions, positive experiences and negative experiences during the lessons.
1. Students’ general attitudes towards English Sessions
After the students start to take English language courses, they provided to write diaries during the four week.
First of all, students are asked whether they like English courses or not and why. 13 of the students state that
they ‘like’ English courses, 6 students say they ‘love’ it. However, 4 of them indicate that they ‘do not like’ the
lessons.
The majority of students who reported that they like the lesson because it is fun (f=6), they like to learn new
things (f=7). Also, the other reason is love of teacher (f=3) and they think if they can learn English, they can
communicate and help foreign people (f=2). Students’ expressions examples are as follows:
‘I like it because we learn new things.’ (Name of the student-Umut).
‘I love English lessons. For example, if we go abroad and meet with a foreign child and I do not know English, I
cannot communicate with her.’ (Name of the student-Nidanur).
‘I like English courses. Why? Because I love my English teacher.’ (Name of the student-Ahsen)
Students who do not like English lessons explain that the courses are difficult (f=4) and for this reason they get
bored (f=2). The examples are as follows:
‘I don’t like it because it is hard to learn. For this reason, I get bored.’ (Name of the student-Çınar).
I don’t like English because it is very difficult. I was born in Tokat not in England.’(Name of the student-Hamza).
2. Willingness to English Language Learning
20 of the students state that they want to take more English courses while 3 of them do not want it. This shows
that students’ willingness is parallel to their attitudes towards lessons. One of the students who indicates that
she do not like the course states that they want to take more English lessons because when she learn easy
subjects, the lessons are good. This is among the interesting findings. Student express this like that:
‘I want more English courses because when I learn easy topics, it is good.’
3. The Topics Learned in the Course
Discovering how much the students can remember about the topic after the lessons and how they express
them, first week the students are asked ‘What do you learn in English courses?’ and other three weeks, they
are asked ‘What are you learning in today’s English course?’. In the beginning, the students have learned the
name of objects in their environment and numbers, first week they have seen numbers again with games and
activities, second week they have seen colors and the last week they have repeated the numbers and colors
again. In general, it can be said that students do not focus only on games and activities, they are aware of the
issues they learn and they are able to express it clearly in their diaries. While students give written answer to
the questions, they use Turkish characters for the reason that they only focus on speaking and listening so do
not know written version what they learn. The examples to this are as follows:
‘Pensıl (pencil), helo (hello), tedi (teddy), ambulans (ambulance) and numbers’ (Name of the student-İrem Mert).
‘Van (one), tu (two), tri (three), for (four), fay (five)… we learn these.’ (Name of the student-Yılmaz).
4. The Emotions that Students Express about English Courses
Students are demanded to express their feelings about English courses in their diaries. They have expressed
their positive, neutral and negative emotions. Students’ positive emotions and frequency of them have been
shown in table.1:
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Table.1: Positive emotion expressions of students
week
N
I feel so good
11
I feel happy
3
I feel beautiful
3
I have so much fun
1
I am so excited
I love it
I feel curious
I feel full of love
I like a lot
I feel energetic
TOTAL
week
week
18
N
10
4
6
4
2
3
1
1
-
N
10
2
7
1
1
1
31
22
As seen in the table, students have mostly indicated that they feel ‘so good’ in the courses. Unlike their friends,
some students use different expressions like ‘curious, full of love, energetic’ and ‘liking it’. In total, students
have expressed maximum positive emotions in second week (f=31), after that in third week (f=22) and lastly in
first week of the research (f=18). Students’ usage of positive expressions is as follows:
‘I feel happy’ (Name of the student- Zümral)
I feel so good and I am curious about what I will learn.’ (Name of the student-Çınar)
‘I have so much fun. It was very nice’ (Name of the student-Varis)
Furthermore, students have expressed their emotions as neutral and negative. In table.2, these emotions can
be seen.
Table.2. Neutral and negative emotion expression of students
week
week
N
Sometimes good,
2
sometimes bad
I feel nothing
I am sorry
2
I am afraid
2
I feel bored
1
I feel angry
I feel unhappy
TOTAL
7
week
N
1
N
1
2
1
1
1
1
-
5
3
Students have rarely used neutral or negative expressions about the course and the frequency of these feelings
are decreasing gradually. In first week, it is 7, second week it reduces to 5 and last week it is 3. We can see
neutral and negative expression of students as follows:
‘It is sometimes good but sometimes bad’ (Name of the student- Yılmaz)
‘I feel bored.’ (Name of the student-Zülal)
‘I feel afraid and sorry.’ (Name of the student-Esma Nur)
209
5. Students’ Positive Experiences in English Course
Students have been demanded to write what they like in the English course after the course finishes during the
three weeks in order to discover their positive experiences. They have written their positive experiences to the
diaries during three week. Table.3 shows these experiences.
Table. 3: Positive experiences
week
Statements
N
Learning the numbers 11
week
Statements
Learning the colors
week
Statements
Learning the colors
N
15
12
8
1
Activities
Songs
Pictures
8
3
1
Apologising
Activities
Playing games
6
2
1
Listening to music
1
Learning the numbers
1
Answering the
questions
1
Knowing everthing
1
Teacher
Friends’ positive
behaviors
1
1
TOPLAM
Songs
Games
Friends’ positive
behaviors
N
17
22
38
31
Considering the students’ positive experiences stated, it is seen that the students feel happy when they learn
new things in the course. Especially in the week that they learn ‘colors’, they use more positive experience
statements. Other than this, classroom activities like songs, games and pictures have been recorded as positive
experience. Students’ positive experience statements in their diaries are as follows:
‘I like the numbers.’ (Name of the student-Ali Kemal)
‘My friends and I like the music and games.’ (Name of the student-Melda)
‘I like colors. Other than this, I like the song which is related to colors.’ (Name of the student- Sude Naz)
6. Students’ Negative Experiences in English Course
In the same way, students have been demanded to write their negative experiences to their diaries after each
English lesson. Table.4 shows the negative experiences of students and their frequencies.
Table.4: Negative experiences
week
Statements
N
Friends’ fights
8
Nothing
3
Teacher’s sadness
1
Discussion with
1
friends
Games
1
TOTAL
14
week
Statements
Friends’ behaviors
Teacher’s anger
Numbers
Colors
N
2
1
1
1
5
week
Statements
Friends’ behaviors
N
2
2
It is seen that students’ negative experiences are not related to processing of course and course’s subjects but
resulting of interaction between students and teacher. For example, in first week, the students have stated
that they are disturbed by their friends fighting (f=8). Rarely, this condition has continued in the following two
weeks with indication of annoying by their friends’ behaviors. Negative experiences decreasing continuously in
each week like negative emotion expressions. Examples of students’ negative experiences are as follows:
210
‘My friends are mistreated. They upset my teacher’ (Name of the student- Melda)
‘Our teacher gets angry with us. Also I find it hard to learn colors.’ (Name of the student- Esin)
‘Alperen is fighting with Yılmaz in this course. It disturbs me.’ (Name of the student-Feyza)
7. Teacher’s Views
nd
th
‘What kind of differences do you see between the 2 and 4 graders in language teaching?’ and ‘Which level is
appropriate for English language teaching?’ are the questions asked to teacher lecturing 2/C class. She
nd
indicates that 2 graders are more successful in pronouncing the words; they are able to pronounce the words
in a way that is close to originals. Also they are eager and willing to the courses. They are able to learn more
quickly through games and activities. However, they can quickly get bored and lose their attention. According
th
to the teacher, 4 graders have more difficulty in pronouncing the words but they learn by writing and this
provide them to concrete the words more easily.
nd
‘Frankly, I can say that 2 graders are more successful in pronouncing the words. They can say the words more
easily and close to the original pronunciation.’
nd
nd
Teacher thinks that 2 graders are appropriate for learning a foreign language because 2 graders are able to
learn the language more easily, be aware of new language and differentiate it from their native tongue. Also,
nd
she states that 2 graders learn the language more quickly.
nd
‘According to me, 2 graders are appropriate for language learning. their age level is appropriate for learning a
new language.’
nd
th
nd
Teacher has been asked to evaluate the 2 and 4 graders teaching program. She indicates that 2 year
th
th
program is more appropriate than 4 graders because 4 graders curriculum includes a lot of words and topics
nd
and students get bored and confused more easily for this reason. 2 graders’ curriculum includes just listening
and speaking activities, it provides students to repeat the words over and over again with games and activities
and in this way, persistence increases. This teaching program is expected to increase the interest of students to
the course and facilitate language learning.
nd
th
‘2 graders’ program is better, appropriate to students’ level and teachable. Students get tired in 4 graders’
program because it includes a lot more words and topics.’
nd
In this article, primary school 2 grade students’ general attitudes, their willingness, learned topics, expression
of positive, neutral and negative emotions, their positive and negative experiences are set forth. First of all, it is
found that the students’ like the English courses and consequently they want to take more English lessons.
Only one of the students indicates that she does not like English courses. However, she thinks that the courses
might be more because when she learn easy words, it can be more enjoyable. It can be said that when the
courses are appropriate for the level of the students, their attitudes can be more positive. Previously, some
th
th
studies are done for evaluation of 4 and 5 graders’ English language teaching curriculum and it is stated that
some objectives and activities are above the level of students (Er, 2006; Mersinligil, 2002; Topkaya ve Küçük,
nd
2010). Considering these studies, experts have attempted to constitute a program which is suitable for the 2
graders’ level and it can be said that they can reach to their aims. However, the studies which will be conducted
to evaluate the curriculum at the end of the semester shed light on the experts and they can revise and form
the curriculum more appropriately.
Generally, students do not focus only on the activities done in the lessons but are aware of what they learn.
This shows that English course reaches to its aim and it is a correct decision to decrease the level of English
nd
language teaching to 2 level. When the students have been asked to explain what they learn in English
courses, they use Turkish characters while writing them because they only make the activities which develop
their listening and speaking skills and they do not know English writing system. The previous weeks have been
repeated with different activities for ensuring the retention of learned knowledge. However, the students
enjoy much more when they learn a new topic ‘colors’ in second week than they repeat the ‘numbers’ in first
211
week. This shows that when the students learn a new topic, they can be more enthusiastic and curious about
the lesson.
Students have been expressed positive emotions more than negative ones during the three weeks. While
mostly used positive emotion expressions are ‘I feel so good, I feel beautiful end I feel happy’, negative emotion
expressions are ‘I am sorry, I am afraid and I get bored’. It is seen that in second week, students have used
positive emotion expressions more. The reason for this can be learning a new topic with enjoyable songs and
activities. Students’ negative emotion expressions have been decreasing during the three week. It shows that
students’ attitudes towards English course change in a positive way in these weeks. It is known that even
university students exhibit negative attitudes towards English language learning and have difficulty in learning a
new language (Gömleksiz, 2003). Therefore, it is important to provide students with positive attitudes from the
first time they encounter with a new language. This ensures learning and retention of a new language.
It is seen that students state singing songs, playing games, pictures and computer-based learning activities
among the positive experiences as well as what they learn in the course. As it known, games are important for
the child development mentally, emotionally and improve the psiko-motor skills of students (Karadağ ve
Çelışkan, 2005). In this article, it is concluded that playing games supported by songs and activities attract the
attention of 7-8 year-old-children and provide the retention of learned items. Also, as we all know, importance
of computer-based language learning increases day by day (Levy, 1997). It is beneficial for students to be in
computer-based activities in language learning because it attracts students’ attention and provides student to
learn the language more easily.
Negative experiences are not directly related to content of the course. The reasons are generally students’
communication problems with each other and teacher’s negative attitudes towards students. According to
Johnson (1981), students’ interaction greatly influenced their academic achievement, socialization and health
development. Furthermore, students’ interaction affects their attitudes towards the school. This study shows
that the students’ interaction has an impact on their attitudes towards the lesson. For example, students who
are uncomfortable with the other students’ quarreling indicates that they do not like the course while in other
week, some others are satisfied with the course because their peers are keep quiet and listen to their teacher’s
in the lesson. Especially, in small aged groups, teachers have a great impact on students. Researches show that
teachers have influenced their students’ academic achievement (Harris and Sass, 2011; Rockoff, 2004;
Rothstein, 2010; Wright ve diğerleri, 1997). This study shows that not only the academic achievement but also
attitudes towards the lesson are affected by the teacher. Teachers’ attitudes towards the students influence
both their cognitive and affective development. For this reason, teacher should know both cognitive and
affective level of their students and behave accordingly.
nd
Teachers’ opinions show that 2 graders’ ages are more appropriate to begin language learning. small aged
group is more successful in pronunciation of the words, they are more enthusiastic and willing to learn new
things and the retention is more in this level. This is parallel the studies done previously (Cameron, 2001; Gençİlter ve Er, 2007; Larson-Hall, 2008;Wilburn Robinson, 1998). Furthermore, she thinks that it is beneficial for
nd
th
students to develop only listening and speaking skills with different games and activities in 2 grade level. 4
year students’ curriculum is intensive for the level and this causes students to get tired and bored easily. The
nd
teacher indicates that 2 graders’ curriculum is a development in terms of education programs.
This study generally shows that 7-8 year-old students demonstrate positive attitudes towards English lessons.
Students’ are more enthusiastic when they learn a new language with different games and activities in early
nd
th
ages. Furthermore, findings show that 2 graders curriculum is more appropriate than 4 year curriculum for
the level of students. It can be suitable for researchers to evaluate the teaching curriculum at the end of the
semester, taking students’, teachers’, parents and administrators’ opinions about the English language teaching
in this level.
212
Fazilet Özge MAVİŞ is Research Assistant in Gaziosmanpaşa University, Department of
Curriculum and Instruction, Tokat/Turkey and also master degree student in the same
department. She graduated from Middle East Technical University English Language
Teaching Department. Her research interests are principles and methods of teaching,
thinking skills and English language teaching curriculum development.
Res. Assist. Fazilet Özge MAVİŞ
Gaziosmanpaşa University
Curriculum and Instruction Department
Tokat- TURKEY
Gülay BEDİR is Assistant Professor in Sütçü İmam University, Department of Curriculum
and Instruction, Kahramanmaraş/Turkey. She received her bachelor, master and PhD
degrees in curriculum and instruction department. Her research interest is especially
instruction. Learning styles, active learning practices and peace education are the fields
she studied in.
Assist.Prof. Dr. Gülay BEDİR
Sütçü İmam University,
Curriculum and Instruction Department
Kahramanmaraş- TURKEY
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215
THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN STUDENT ENGAGEMENT
AND THEIR ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
Assist. Prof. Dr. Selim GUNUC
Department of Computer Education
and Instructional Technologies
Van- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between student engagement and academic
achievement. In another saying, this study aimed at determining the extent to which student engagement
explains or predicts academic achievement. The study was carried out with the correlational research. The
research sample was made up of 304 students. Student Engagement Scale and Demographic Variables Form
were used for data collection tools. For the analysis of the data, descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, twostep cluster analysis, independent samples t-test and regression analysis were applied. The results obtained via
the analyses conducted revealed that there were significant relationships between the students’ academic
achievement and student engagement as well as between their academic achievement and especially the
dimensions of cognitive engagement, behavioral engagement and sense of belonging. In addition, it was found
out that cognitive, behavioral and emotional engagements - that is class engagement - predicted academic
achievement and explained it with a rate of 10%.
Key Words: Student engagement; campus engagement; class engagement; student achievement; higher
education.
INTRODUCTION: STUDENT ENGAGEMENT
Student engagement is an important study field of education psychology. Engagement requires not only being
active but also feeling and sense making (Harper and Quaye, 2009). Bomia and colleagues (1997) define
student engagement as students’ willingness, needs, desire motivation and success in the learning process. Hu
and Kuh (2001) and Kuh (2009a) refer to student engagement as the time allocated by students to educational
activities to contribute to the desired outcomes and as the quality of their related efforts. According to Stovall
(2003), student engagement includes not only the time students spend on tasks but also their willingness to
take part in activities. Krause and Coates (2008) associated student engagement with the high quality in
learning outcomes. All these definitions could be said to have common points for each school level. It is also
important that student engagement in higher education is defined in a way to cover the processes of campus
engagement and class engagement. In this respect, student engagement was defined by Gunuc and Kuzu
(2014) as “the quality and quantity of students’ psychological, cognitive, emotional and behavioral reactions to
the learning process as well as to in-class/out-of-class academic and social activities to achieve successful
learning outcomes.”
In the past decade, student engagement has been examined as a multi-dimensional concept (Gunuc and Kuzu,
2014; Fredricks et al. 2004). In this study, the Student Engagement Scale (SES) developed by Gunuc and Kuzu
(2014) as a multidimensional scale was used. In the study carried out by Gunuc and Kuzu (2014), student
engagement was examined in two main components such as campus engagement and class engagement with 6
dimensions: Valuing, Sense of Belonging, Cognitive Engagement, Peer Relationships (Emotional Engagement-I),
Relationships with the Faculty Member (Emotional Engagement-II) and Behavioral Engagement (Figure 1).
216
Figure 1: Student Engagement Structure
Campus Engagment
Student engagement in higher education has certain differences when compared to student engagement in
other school levels, especially the context of campus or social life. It was observed that the campus itself and
campus activities have indirect effects on students especially in higher education (Gunuc, 2013). Such concepts
as giving value to campus (university) or to education, sense of belonging and participation in campus activities
are considered to be among important parts of student engagement (Blimling, 1993; Chickering, 1975; Gunuc &
Kuzu, 2014; Pike, & Kuh, 2005; Terenzini et al., 1996). In this respect, Willms (2003) defines engagement as
students’ sense of belonging, accepting the value of school and active participation in school activities.
Voelkl (1996) refers to school engagement by emphasizing the themes of sense of belonging to school and
value given to school. According to Goodenow (1992), sense of belonging occurs when students feel that they
are accepted, supported and involved by other people in the social setting of a campus/school (other students,
teachers and so on). On the other hand, sense of belonging is one of important components of psychology
because sense of belonging could be said to have positive or indirect influence on academic achievement and
on motivation (Goodenow, 1993; Kember, Lee & Li, 2001).
In addition, in several studies, it was pointed out that the campus/school climate is likely to have influence on
students’ performance, their achievement and on their positive and negative behavior (Gunuc, 2013; Finn,
1989; 1993; Finn & Voelkl, 1993). Matthews and colleagues (2011) and Nauffal (2011) indicated that social
learning areas or the campus itself have important contributions to the development of sense of belonging and
student engagement. The concept of sense of belonging also includes participation in campus. Participation is
regarded as taking part especially in out-of-class activities or in campus. It could be stated that giving value not
just means giving value to the campus or to other related elements but also covers the value given to the
concepts of school, university, education and learning (Gunuc & Kuzu, 2014).
Class Engagement
Class engagement involves students’ cognitive, emotional and behavioral responses to in-class and out-of-class
activities. Cognitive engagement includes investment in learning, value given to learning, learning goals, selfregulation and planning. Cognitive engagement has an important relationship with learning motivation.
Cognitive engagement refers to students who invest in their own learning, who accordingly determine their
needs and who enjoy the mental difficulties (Gunuc & Kuzu, 2014; Fredricks et al. 2004). Emotional
engagement involves students’ responses to the teacher, peers, course content and to the class which all
include attitudes, interests and values (Bryson & Hand, 2007; Gunuc & Kuzu, 2014). In addition, such emotions
as sense of belonging to school/university, loving the university and feeling oneself to be a member of a group
217
are also examined within the scope of emotional engagement (Fredricks et al. 2004). Behavioral engagement
includes students’ participation in academic, their efforts, their attendance in classes and their participation in
class (Gunuc & Kuzu, 2014). The basic of behavioral engagement could be said to be related to class activities.
The campus (out-of-class) and social activities are also examined within the scope of behavioral engagement
(Fredricks et al. 2004).
Patrick and colleagues (2007) considered social and emotional environments in the classroom to be among
prerequisites to students’ engagement with activities and tasks. In addition, in several studies, it was reported
that emotional engagement, emotional support or positive emotions increased participation in activities or
behavioral engagement (Ladd et al. 2000; Li et al. 2010; Skinner et al. 2008). In another saying, positive
emotions were found important to maintain the behavior and action (Clore, 1994; Fredrickson, 2001). Also, it
was pointed out that positive emotions made contributions not only in behavioral context but also in cognitive
context (Aspinwall, 1998). Li and Lerner (2013) demonstrated that behavioral engagement had influence on
cognitive engagement. Similarly, Gibbs and Poskitt (2010) regarded emotional and behavioral engagements as
prerequisites to cognitive engagement. In this respect, it was reported that the student is supposed to develop
emotional and behavioral engagements prior to cognitive engagement. In addition, studies conducted
generally revealed that there were mutual relationships between behavioral and emotional engagements (Li &
Lerner, 2013; Skinner et al., 2008). Fredricks and colleagues (2004) pointed out that the cognitive, emotional
and behavioral dimensions were not examined together in many studies and that examining these dimensions
together was important. In this respect, in related literature, it is seen that mostly emotional and behavioral
engagements were examined (Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Patrick et al. 1993; Ryan et al. 1994; Skinner & Belmont,
1993). One of the most important reasons for this could be the fact that it is much more difficult to measure
cognitive engagement.
Theories/Models and Student Achievement in Student Engagement
Student achievement was also explained in certain theories and models regarding student engagement. Finn
(1989), in the Participation-Identification Model, focused on behavioral and emotional dimensions and tried to
explain students’ school drop-out. The model was based on the idea that successful students identify
themselves with their schools and that the unsuccessful ones can not do so. In the model, it was claimed that
participation in school and class activities increases students’ performance and their achievement and that
students’ performance has influence on their feeling of identifying themselves with the school.
Csikszentmihalyi (1990; 1997) asserts that focusing deeply on teaching with the Flow Theory leads to a higher
level of learning experience. Flow activities including mentally difficult tasks tend to be satisfying and pleasing
as well (Shernoff et al. 2003). The Flow Theory was explained with the relationship between the challenges and
the skills of an individual and with the balance in this relationship. This balance regarding the relationship inbetween is fragile. According to the theory, based on this balance, either flow or apathy, anxiety and relaxation
occur (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997; Shernoff & Csikszentmihalyi, 2009).
The frequency of the instructional activities in which flow occurs could be said to bring about student success.
As can be understood from this theory and the models developed, the student’s participation in class and
activities is considered important for academic achievement. Finally, Campus-Class-Technology (CCT) Model
was developed by Gunuc (2013). According to the model, for successful student outcomes, the relationships
between student engagement and technology were theoretically explained. In this respect, the value given by
the students to university life and university education was among the important factors which helped the
students have the sense of belonging to university/campus, which allowed them to spend time in the campus
and which resulted in increase in class engagement. Another factor influential on class engagement was
technology. Effective integration of technology in class is important for increasing students’ class engagement.
An increase in class engagement not only increases students’ level of academic achievement but also leads to
positive outcomes. CCT Model continues in the form of a cycle. In other words, academic achievement and
positive outcomes have influence on the value students give to learning and to university as well as on the
sense of belonging to university.
218
In order for students to go through an effective learning process, they should have a high level of campus
engagement and especially class engagement. Student engagement is regarded not only as an indicator of the
education levels of societies and their education systems but also as one of the indicators of the quality of
education given in an institution (Kuh, 2001a). In addition, student engagement is important and beneficial for
students’ academic competencies, achievements, socialization, welfare, life satisfaction as well as for effective
learning (Harris, 2008; Krause & Coates, 2008; Lewis, 2010; Li et al. 2010; Park, 2005; Wang & Eccles, 2012;
Willms et al. 2009). It is quite difficult to say that an education system with little or no student engagement will
bear positive outcomes. In this respect, it is seen that there is a positive relationship between student
engagement and learning outcomes or learning achievement (Carini, Kuh & Klein, 2006; Coates, 2005; Connell
et al. 1994; Furlong & Christenson, 2008; Marks, 2000; Park, 2005). In other words, student engagement is
considered necessary for learning, performance and achievement (Appleton et al. 2006; Carini et al. 2006;
Fredricks et al. 2004; Klem & Connell, 2004).
Although some studies have drawn attention to the positive relationships between student engagement and
learning outcomes or students’ achievement, there is limited research directly investigating the relationships
between the dimensions of student engagement and academic achievement especially in higher education. So
it was wondered that directly student engagment’s effect on academic achievement. Therefore, the basic
purpose of this study is to examine the relationships between student engagement and academic achievement.
In another saying, considering the dimensions included in student engagement, this study is aimed at
determining the extent to which student engagement explains or predicts academic achievement. In addition,
the study is also considered important because the results to be obtained are thought to allow higher
education institutions to focus on the dimensions of student engagement, which was found to have a direct
relationship with achievement, as well as because the study is believed to contribute to the development of
strategies to be applied to achieve higher levels of these dimensions in future studies.
METHOD
Sample
Correlational research was used. The correlational research is done to determine relationships among two or
more variables and to explore their implications for cause and effect (Fraenkel et al. 2012). The research
sample was made up of 304 students attending the Education Faculty of Anadolu University in Turkey in the
academic year of 2013-2014. Freshman students were not included in the research sample as these students’
academic achievement scores were not determined at the time of the study (Table 1).
Table 1: Demographic Variables
Variable
f
%
Female
196
64.5
Male
108
35.5
304
100.0
Department
Computer Education and Instructional Technology
59
19.4
Special Education
Foreign Language Education
Primary Education
Fine Arts Education
Educational Sciences
Total
39
89
63
16
38
304
12.8
29.3
20.7
5.3
12.5
100.0
Gender
Total
Grade
219
Variable
f
%
Female
196
64.5
Male
108
35.5
2
165
54.3
3
88
28.9
4
51
16.8
304
100.0
Gender
Total
Data collection tools
Demographic Variables Form
In order to collect data regarding the students’ gender, class levels, departments and their average academic
achievement scores, a personal information form was used. For the students’ average academic achievement
scores, the students’ average scores in all the courses they had taken by the time the present study was
conducted were taken into account.
Student Engagement Scale (SES)
A SES developed by Gunuc and Kuzu (2014) was used. The scale applied was a five-point Likert-type scale made
up of 6 factors with 41 items. The total variance explained regarding the six factors of the scale was calculated
as 59%. The Cronbach Alpha (α) internal consistency reliability coefficient for the total scale was calculated as
,957 with the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and as ,929 with the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). As for
the research sample in the present study, the reliability coefficient of the scale was calculated as ,932. The
scale included two main components such as campus engagement and class engagement. There were two
components and six dimensions (factors) in total: the factors of Valuing and Sense of Belonging found under
the component of Campus Engagement; and the factors of Cognitive Engagement, Peer Relationships
(Emotional Engagement-I), Relationships with the Faculty Member (Emotional Engagement-II) and Behavioral
Engagement found under the component of Class Engagement. Higher scores to be produced by the scale
indicated campus engagement and class engagement, while lower scores demonstrated either poor campus
engagement and poor class engagement or disengagement.
Data analysis
The possible missing data and outliers were examined to get accurate results from the analyses conducted.
Next, the normality, linearity and multicollinearity, which are all assumptions of multivariate analyses, were
examined. As a result, the data were made appropriate to the analyses to be conducted (Mertler & Vannatta,
2005). The distribution of the research data was examined with skewness-kurtosis, histogram, P-P and Q-Q
graphics. For the analysis of the data, descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, two-step cluster analysis,
independent samples t-test and regression analysis were applied. For these analyses, SPSS 18.0 computer
package program was used.
FINDINGS
Preparing the Data for Analysis and Examining the Assumptions
Regression analysis is a type of multivariate analysis. Therefore, after the research data were gathered, they
were typed into the statistical package program which was followed by such steps as examining the consistency
of the data, checking the data entered and checking the missing data and outliers. In this way, the data were
made appropriate to multivariate analyses. In this respect, the data found inconsistent (data thought to be
marked randomly) were not entered in SPSS 18.0 package program. The research data were checked to see if
there was any misentry, and the necessary corrections were made. In addition, the data set did not include any
missing data with a rate higher than 5% in terms of the individual and the item. For the research data collected
from 304 students in the research sample, z scores for univariate outliers and Mahalanobis distances for
multivariate outliers were calculated (Huck, 2012; Kline, 2011). Z scores are suggested to be in the range of ±3
220
(Hutcheson & Sofroniou, 1999; Kline, 2011). For this reason, as a result of the examination of the outliers in the
sub-factors, the data collected from a total of 12 students were not included in the data set. As not only the z
scores for the remaining 292 students but also the values in Mahalanobis chart were between acceptable
limits, no other outliers were seen in the data set.
After the data set was checked, normality, linearity and multicollinearity, which are all assumptions of
multivariate analyses, were examined (Hutcheson & Sofroniou, 1999; Kline, 2011; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007).
The data were examined separately in terms of univariate and multivariate normality. Univariate normality was
determined by examining the skewness-kurtosis values, histogram, Q-Q and P-P graphics (Huck, 2012; Pallant,
2007). In literature, while some researchers suggest the range of ±1 for the acceptance range of skewness and
kurtosis, while some others suggest the range of ±3 for skewness and the range of ±10 for kurtosis (Kline,
2009). Table 2 presents the skewness and kurtosis values for achievement (dependent or predicted), SES and
sub-factors (independent or predictor).
Table 2: Skewness and Kurtosis Values for Dependent and Independent Variables
Skewness
Predictor/predicted variable
Kurtosis
Statistic
Std. Err.
Statistic
Std. Err.
Valuing
-.680
.143
.880
.284
Sense of Belonging
-.492
.143
-.051
.284
Cognitive Engagement
-.554
.143
.268
.284
Peer Relationships (Emotional Engagement-I)
-.814
.143
.650
.284
Relationships with the Faculty Member
(Emotional Engagement-II)
-.258
.143
-.019
.284
Behavioral Engagement
-.595
.143
.678
.284
Total-scale
-.451
.143
.333
.284
Achievement
-.101
.143
-.562
.284
For multivariate normality and linearity, the scatter diagram matrix was examined (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007).
The fact that there is an oval scatter between each pair of variables gives an idea about normality and linearity.
In the data set, normality and linearity were examined between the pairs of variables with the scatter diagram,
and all the variables were found to demonstrate an oval scatter. As a result, the data set was found to have a
normal distribution.
Lastly, in the study, whether there was a multicollinearity problem between each pair of variables to be
involved in the regression analysis was examined. Multicollinearity might occur with a high level of correlation
(rxy > .90) between two or more items. One way of testing whether there is multicollinearity problem or not is
to determine the items with a value of .90 or higher by examining the item-item matrix (Field, 2009; Kline,
2011; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). For the multicollinearity problem, Table 3 presents the correlation
coefficients between the variables, and Table 4 presents the tolerance and VIF values of the variables
predicting the variable of achievement.
221
Table 3: Pearson Correlation Between Student Engagement and Sub-Factors
Peer
Relationships with
Relationships
the Faculty
(Emotional
Member
Sense of Cognitive Engagement(Emotional
Behavioral TotalValuing Belonging Engagement
I)
Engagement-II) Engagement scale
Valuing
Sense of Belonging
1
*
.487
1
*
.462
*
.370
*
.439
*
.313
*
.772
Cognitive
Engagement
.372
Peer Relationships
(Emotional
Engagement-I)
.355
Relationships with the
Faculty Member
(Emotional
Engagement-II)
.317
Behavioral
Engagement
.312
Total-scale
*
p < .01
.590
*
1
*
.309
*
*
.437
*
.605
*
.784
1
*
.369
*
*
.300
*
.612
1
*
.360
*
*
.751
*
1
*
.621
1
As can be seen in Table 3, although there was a significant relationship between SES and the sub-factors, a high
level of correlation was not calculated between the variables (rxy > .90). In addition, the Tolerance and VIF
values for the variables to be involved in regression analysis are suggested to be in acceptable limits. Table 4
presents the Tolerance and VIF values for the predictor variables.
Table 4: Tolerance and VIF Values for the Sub-Factors of Student Engagement
Dimension (sub-factor)
Tolerance
VIF
Valuing
.703
1.422
Sense of Belonging
.617
1.620
.528
1.893
Peer Relationships (Emotional Engagement-I)
.768
1.302
Relationships with the Faculty Member (Emotional Engagement-II)
.697
1.434
.610
1.639
In this respect, it is seen in Table 4 that the tolerance value of each variable was higher than .10 suggested in
literature to conduct regression analysis and that the VIF value was lower than 10 as suggested in literature
(Kline, 2011). As a result of these analyses, it was found out that there was no multicollinearity problem
between the predictor variables.
Findings regarding the relationships between student engagement and academic achievement
Several analyses were applied to determine the profiles related to student engagements of the research
sample prior to regression analysis. Depending on the total scores received by the participants from SES, twostep cluster analysis was conducted. In this way, the students’ engagement scores were grouped as low,
moderate and high levels.
222
Table 5: Two-Step Cluster Analysis Regarding the Student Engagement Scores
Group
n
Total %
Mean
sd
1
145
49.7%
167.228
10.644
2
103
35.3%
143.825
6.670
3
44
15.1%
116.796
11.139
292
100.0%
151.373
20.401
Total
As can be seen in Table 5, only 15.1% of the research sample (n = 44) had low levels of student engagement. In
addition, Table 6 demonstrates the descriptive statistics regarding the average academic achievement scores of
the students.
Table 6: Descriptive Statistics Regarding the Average Academic Achievement Scores
n
Min.
Max.
Mean
Achievement
292
1.55
3.87
2.81
sd
.460
In Table 6, it is seen that the average academic achievement scores of the students in the research sample was
2.81. The students’ academic achievement scores were calculated out of 4.00, and the lowest average score for
the research sample was 1.55. The relationships between academic achievement and student engagement as
well as the sub-factors were examined, and the findings obtained are presented in Table 7.
Table 7: Pearson Correlation Between Achievement and SES Total Scores
Peer
Relationships
Sense of Cognitive
Valuing
(Emotional
Belonging Engagement
Engagement-II)
Pearso
Achievement n (r)
p
Relationships
with the Faculty
Behavioral TotalMember
Engagement scale
(Emotional
Engagement-II)
.012
.139
.270
.050
.029
.255
.183
.838
.017
.000
.396
.617
.000
.002
As can be seen in Table 7, there was a significant relationship between the academic achievement score and
student engagement total score (r = .183; p = .002) as well as the sub-factors of sense of belonging, cognitive
engagement and behavioral engagement (p < .05). On the other hand, no significant relationship was found
between the academic achievement score and the variables of valuing, peer relationships (emotional
engagement-I) and relationships with the faculty member (emotional engagement-II). Although there was no
significant direct relationship regarding these variables, it could be stated that an indirect relationship was
likely to exist between the academic achievement score and the sub-factors since significant relationships were
found regarding these variables (Table 3).
Student engagement total scores were grouped depending on those with high scores (group-1) and those with
low scores (group-2) with the two-step cluster analysis. These two groups were analyzed with independent
samples t-test according to their academic achievement scores as there was a normal distribution. The findings
obtained are presented in Table 8.
223
Table 8: Comparison of the Group-1 and Group-2 According to Their Academic Achievement Scores
Levene’s test
Equal variances
assumed
t-test
F
p
(Levene)
t
df
p
Mean
Difference
Std. Err.
Difference
.633
.427
2,770
290
.006
.148
.054
2,758
270,177
.006
.148
.054
Equal variances not
assumed
When the Levene test findings presented in Table 8 were examined, it was seen that the group variances were
equal; in other words, there was no significant difference between the group variances (p = .427). Therefore,
the values in the upper line were taken into consideration. According to these values, a significant difference
was found between the academic achievement scores of the groups (p = .006, p < .05). As can be seen in Table
8, the mean difference was found positive. Thus, it was found out that the students with high student
engagement scores had higher levels of academic achievement scores and that those with low student
engagement scores had lower levels of academic achievement scores.
Lastly, regression analysis was conducted to determine the extent to which the sub-factors of student
engagement (predictor variables) predict academic achievement (predicted variable); in other words, the
purpose was to determine the extent to which academic achievement was explained. The findings obtained are
presented in Table 9.
Table 9: Multiple Regression Analysis Regarding Predicting Academic Achievement
Model
Predictor variable
B
Std. err.
Beta
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3
t
p
15,086
.000
4,771
.000
10,487
.000
(Constant)
2,143
.142
.019
.004
(Constant)
1,909
.182
.013
.005
.182
2,582
.010
.028
.014
.144
2,046
.042
(Constant)
2,057
.195
10,551
.000
.016
.005
.227
3,085
.002
.032
.014
.164
2,313
.021
.009
.004
.129
2,051
.041
Relationships with the Faculty Member
(Emotional Engagement-II)
2
R =.315; R = .099; F = 10.567, p < .000
.270
In order to determine whether the model was useful, ANOVA test was run. The fact that the p-value of F test
for the model fit in ANOVA results was significant (F(3,288) = 10,567, p <.05) demonstrated that the model was
significant and applicable.
For the regression analysis, the stepwise regression method was used with academic achievement (predicted
variable) and the variables of valuing, sense of belonging, cognitive engagement, peer relationships (emotional
engagement-I), relationships with the faculty member (emotional engagement-II) and behavioral engagement
(predictor variables). In stepwise regression analysis, such techniques as stepwise, forward and backward were
used. In this way, the contribution of each variable was calculated, and the model was formed with the
224
variables which had the highest rate of capability to predict or explain. The stepwise technique works by
choosing forward and by eliminating backward. This method was used to determine which of the models
formed by independent variables was better (Huck, 2012; Field, 2005).
As can be seen in Table 9, the best model was obtained in the third step, and the t significance values for the
predictor variables were calculated to be lower than p < .05. It was found out that among the predictor
variables, cognitive engagement was the strongest variable that predicted academic achievement (B = .016),
which was followed by the variables of behavioral engagement (B = .032) and relationships with the faculty
member (emotional engagement-II) (B = .009). As a result of the regression analysis conducted, the following
model equation was obtained.
Achievement= 2.057 + (Cognitive Engagement * .016) + (Behavioral Engagement * .032) + (Relationships with
the Faculty Member (Emotional Engagement-II) * .009)
2
2
As can be understood from the values of R and R obtained for the model (R = .315; R = .099), the variance
explained by the model was found to be 10%. In other words, the sub-factors regarding student engagement
explained academic achievement with a rate of 10%. The fact that academic achievement was explained only
by student engagement with a rate of 10% gave an idea about how important student engagement was for
academic achievement.
One of the most important objectives of education is to achieve effective learning. Therefore, in order to
increase students’ achievement, it is important to examine the factors influential on their achievement. In the
study described in this article, the relationships between higher education students’ average academic
achievement scores and student engagement as well as between their average academic achievement scores
and the dimensions of student engagement were examined.
The study described in this article investigated the relationship especially between student achievement and
the dimensions of student engagement. In line with the purpose of the study, correlation, t-test and regression
analyses were conducted for the dimensions of student engagement and the average academic achievement
scores of the students. The results obtained via the analyses conducted revealed that there were significant
relationships between the students’ academic achievement and student engagement as well as between their
academic achievement and especially the dimensions of cognitive engagement, behavioral engagement and
sense of belonging. Although sense of belonging was found to have direct influence, no strong relationship was
found with academic achievement. Also, in literature, it was stated that a sense of belonging contributed to
better quality learning outcomes (Kember et al., 2001). In addition, it was also found out that students with
high level of student engagement had higher levels of academic achievement and that those with low level of
student engagement had lower levels of academic achievement. Lastly, in order to determine the extent to
which the dimensions of student engagement explained achievement, regression analysis was conducted.
Differently from correlation findings, the variable of relationships with the faculty member (emotional
engagement-II) was determined as a variable predicting academic achievement. Thus, it was found out that
cognitive, behavioral and emotional engagements - that is class engagement - predicted academic achievement
and explained it with a rate of 10%. Although the dimensions of valuing and sense of belonging found under
the component of campus engagement were not found in the regression findings, it could be stated that
campus engagement and campus life are important dimensions for students’ development, engagement and
for their motivation (Blimling, 1993; Chickering, 1975; Gunuc, 2013; Pike & Kuh, 2005; Pascarella & Terenzini,
1991, 2005; Terenzini et al., 1996). Social dimensions in integration are as important as the academic (Bryson,
Hardy & Hand, 2009). In addition, students’ perceptions of the college environment or social involvement
represented another source of influence on learning and intellectual development (Pascarella, 1985; Pike,
1999; Pike, Kuh & Gonyea, 2003).
225
As the results of this study reveal, cognitive, emotional and behavioral engagements had a strong relationship
with academic achievement, it is important to increase students’ cognitive and behavioral engagements.
However, as can be seen thanks to the results obtained in the present study, cognitive engagement is quite
important especially for the student’s academic achievement. On the other hand, the dimension of Peer
Relationships (Emotional Engagement-I) was not in direct relationship with academic achievement could be
explained with such individual factors as the high-level learning skills of the students in the research sample.
Therefore, it is suggested that the direct effects of peer relationships on students should be examined in detail.
Consequently, in the present study, a significant relationship was found between student engagement and the
average academic achievement of a student. For this reason, there is a need for studies investigating the
methods and strategies to be applied to increase student engagement, especially their class engagement,
which is associated with academic achievement. As one of the limitations of the present study, it was
conducted with 304 participants from one faculty of a higher education institution. The other limitations were
variables regarding campus/university environment and Turkish culture. It means that campus spaces and life
can be different at every university or culture. Thus, campus engagement can affect on academic achievement
more at the other universities or cultures. In this respect, these factors and variables should be examined in
future studies. In addition, future studies to be conducted with a larger size of research sample from different
higher education institutions and faculties could focus on the effects of such factors as different institutions,
cultures and faculties on the relationships between academic achievement and student engagement.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRES OF AUTHOR
Selim GÜNÜÇ graduated from Computer Education and Instructional Technologies
Department in 2004. He graduated Educational Sciences Master Program in 2009. He
received him Ph. D. in Anadolu University, Department of Computer Education and
Instructional Technologies in 2013. He is an assistant professor in Department of
Computer Education and Instructional Technologies at Yuzuncu Yil University. His research
interes ciber psychology (technology/internet/game addictions so on), technology
integration and student engagement.
Van- TURKEY
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231
THE CONTRIBUTION OF READING LESSONS ON STUDENTS’
GENERAL OR WORLD KNOWLEDGE
Asst. Prof. Dr. Hülya İPEK
Anadolu University
Education Faculty
Eskisehir- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The aim of English language teaching programs is primarily to improve students’ English language proficiency.
The general knowledge or background knowledge students bring to the lessons are important in building
language proficiency and for reading comprehension. Also, content or topics covered in language course books
have important effects on the learner, such as increasing, motivation, interest, and comprehension. Besides
improving language proficiency, language programs can add to the general knowledge of learners by
incorporating topics that are new or interesting to the learners. Therefore, this study investigates whether the
content of an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) reading course contributes to the general or world knowledge
of students. The data were collected through open ended questions about the topics in the reading books used
in the reading lesson. 48 EFL students at an English Language Preparatory School participated in the study.
Subjects were at the beginner and elementary level of language proficiency. Participants were asked questions
on the topics covered in the units of the reading course book. The results revealed that students already some
general knowledge on certain topics before taking the reading course and that most of the topics in the reading
lesson added to the students’ general knowledge and.
Key Words: Reading comprehension, world knowledge, general knowledge.
INTRODUCTION
The aim of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) programs is primarily to improve students’ English language
proficiency. Factors such as language aptitude, affective factors, and motivation are very important in learning
a foreign language as they can support or hinder the process (Hedge, 2000). Various methods and materials are
used to improve students’ language learning processes. Furthermore, the general knowledge or background
knowledge that the students are equipped with is important in the language learning process. Such knowledge
is important since it aids and eases languages learning (Henry, 1999; Hedge, 2000; Hirsch, 2003).
Course books should not only be seen as instructional material but also as sources of knowledge and
information that expand ones world knowledge. Arıkan (2008, p. 75) indicates that “as students read for
comprehension, they do not only comprehend the linguistic forms but they grab the facts, thoughts, and values
that come into being with their reading process.” Although language teaching programs do not aim at adding
to or improving language learners’ world knowledge, it seems inevitable that learners are exposed to some
level of world knowledge included in the teaching material.
232
Vellutino (2003) states that knowledge of events, activities, persons, places and things that are not part of the
child’s daily life constitute world knowledge. Such knowledge can have been learned through direct experience
or vicarious experience such as reading or listening to stories or television. Such knowledge aid comprehension.
Therefore, children with much world knowledge are better equipped to comprehend and benefit from text
than children with less world knowledge. This argument also accounts for foreign language learners.
Brantmeier (2003) asserts that topic familiarity can be a highly significant factor in L2 comprehension. The need
for world knowledge is mostly obvious in reading in a foreign language. As Hirsch (2003, p. 20) says:
“comprehension – the goal of decoding – won’t improve unless we pay serious attention to building our
students word and world knowledge”. It is also noted that domain knowledge has useful implications for
improving students’ reading comprehension in that it increases fluency, broadens vocabulary, and enables
deeper comprehension.
At least six types of knowledge are required to make sense of a text. Among these six types of knowledge are
syntactic knowledge, morphological knowledge, topic knowledge, genre knowledge, sociocultural knowledge
and general world knowledge. Topic knowledge, genre knowledge, sociocultural knowledge and general world
knowledge are referred to as schematic knowledge and help the reader interpret the meaning of a text (Hedge,
2000).
In order to describe the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension Anderson and
Freebody (1981, as cited in Shen, 2008) offer the “knowledge” hypothesis” which sees vocabulary as an
indicator of good world knowledge which in turn supports reading comprehension. The most effective way to
build excellent world knowledge is to read, especially books about social, scientific, literary, and mathematical
contents (Pressley & Hilden, 2004). Extensive and diverse reading are regarded to be an important way of
obtaining world knowledge and domain-specific knowledge and are said to increase reading fluency and
proficiency (Vellutino, 2003).
Pressley (2000) asserts that skilled readers use text processing strategies such as using prior knowledge to
interpret the text and revising prior knowledge among others and states that: “Once children can decode, they
are empowered to read, read, and read, with greater fluency, vocabulary and world knowledge by-products of
such reading, all of which contribute to comprehension skill (p. 556).” Pressley and Hilden (2004) indicate that
the addition and interaction of word recognition, vocabulary, comprehension strategy, and world knowledge
constitute skilled comprehension. Comprehension is defined as the process of constructing meaning from text
based not only on semantic and syntactic knowledge but also on prior knowledge about the subject and
schematic knowledge a text presupposes. Conversely, lack of required prior knowledge or background
knowledge will leave students with inadequate information with which to construct meaning. Thus, in order to
learn for themselves after formal education, students need to possess vast amounts of world knowledge
(Henry, 1990; Anderson & Kulhavy, 1977 in Henry, 1990). Studies show that unfamiliar content causes more
difficulty in terms of comprehension for readers than unfamiliar form (Carrell, 1987) and that “familiarity with
the reading topic enhances the reconstruction of the main idea” (Afflerbach, 1986 in Yazdanpanah, 2007, p.
65). Yazdanpanah (2007) concludes that comprehension of a reading text requires matching the information
extracted from the written massage with the reader’s schemata.
It is obvious that background knowledge and general and world knowledge are important in reading
comprehension. Considering course books and reading texts used in foreign language classes, it can be argued
that besides improving language proficiency, language programs can also add to the general knowledge of
language learners by covering topics that are new or of interest to the learners. Therefore, the current study
investigates whether topics in reading texts used in a reading course contribute to the students’ general
knowledge.
233
METHODOLOGY
Participants
In order to identify whether the topics covered in EFL reading lessons contribute to students’ world knowledge
48 students enrolled in the school of foreign languages at the Anadolu University participated in this study. 23
students were at the beginner level and 25 students were at the elementary level. Students in each groups
were exposed to 6 hours of reading lessons a week.
Instrument
A questionnaire consisting of questions on the information covered in the chapters of the reading book was
prepared. Questions derived from 6 topics in the beginner reading book, and 7 topics in the elementary reading
book were applied. Considering that the students’ language proficiency is low and that the study is not
concerned with their English language proficiency, the questions were in the students’ native language,
Turkish, and students were asked to answer the questions in Turkish. The topics and questions for the beginner
and elementary students are given in Table 1 below.
Table 1: Questions asked to Beginner and Elementary level students before and after reading
Beginner
Elementary
Topics
Questions
Topics
Questions
1. Antiques
What is “Antiques Roadshow”? 1. April Fools Day
In which country did “April Fools
Roadshow
Day” originate?
2. Guardian
Angels
3. Small Shops
4. Charles
Lindbergh
5. Emilia Earhart
What kind of an organization
are the “Guardian Angels”?
What do “Guardian Angels”
do?
What is the reason for small
shops to close down?
Who is Charles Lindbergh?
What did Charles Lindbergh
achieve?
Who is Emilia Earhart?
What did Emilia Earhart
achieve?
2. Oldest University
Where is the oldest University?
3. Basketball
Where did Basketball originate
from?
Where did Volleyball originate
from?
“How often is the World
Football Championship held?”
Where did Carnival originate
from?
When do we celebrate Labor
Day?
Where was Labor Day first
celebrated?
4. Volleyball
5. Football
6. Carnival
7. Labor Day
Procedure
In the first reading lesson students were handed out the questions on the topics to be covered in the reading
book. They were asked to answer only those questions to which they know the answer to and not to make any
wild guesses. Subjects were briefly informed about the aim of the questions. They were assured that their
responses would not affect their reading grade in any way. This was done to eliminate any inhibitions on the
students’ part and to ensure that they would not read the future chapters. The initial responses of students
were highlighted in order to define the responses given prior to reading the texts. Then, 2 to 3 days after each
chapter was covered, the same questionnaire was applied and subjects were asked to answer the questions
related to the last chapter covered. The teacher indicated to the students what question(s) they needed to
answer particularly after each chapter. In case the subjects were not present when a particular chapter was
covered or when they did not remember the answer to a particular question, they were asked to indicate as
‘not present’ or ‘don’t remember’. Students were allowed to make any changes to the answers they had given
before reading the text. This procedure was followed throughout the whole term.
234
Data Analysis
The right and wrong or missing responses to each question was determined for each participant. Responses
that were correct were coded as correct. Those responses that were incorrect or where students did not
provide any answer were coded as wrong. The data were analyzed using the McNemar’s chi-square test to
identify whether there has been a significant change in the number of correct responses given to each question
before and after reading the texts. If the p value was below 0,005 the difference was regarded as significant
and if the p value was above 0,005 no significant difference was observed. Due to absenteeism, the number of
participants changed between 22 and 23 in the beginner level, and from 22 to 25 in the elementary level.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In order to identify whether reading topics covered in reading classes contribute to the world knowledge of the
students, responses of participants to questions on the reading topics before and after reading were analyzed
using the McNemar’s chi-square test. The results for the beginner level are shown in Table 2 and the results for
the Elementary level are shown in Table 3.
As can be seen in Table 2, no student was able to give a correct answer to the question “What is Antiques
Roadshow?” correctly. However, after reading, 20 students correctly answered the question and one student
gave a wrong answer. The increase in the number of correct responses before and after reading is significant,
p˂0,005. Similarly, for the questions “What kind of an organization are the ‘Guardian Angels’?” and “What do
‘Guardian Angels’ do?” no student was able to provide a correct answer and . Similarly, After reading the text
on “Guardian Angels” 21 students provided correct answers o the question “What kind of an organization are
the ‘Guardian Angels’?” and 20 students were able to respond correctly to the question “What do ‘Guardian
Angels’ do?” and the difference proved to be significant for both questions, p˂0,0005. These results suggest
that while students had no information on the topics “Antiques Roadshow” and “Guardian Angels” prior to
reading, after reading they seemed to have gained that missing information. This result suggests that the
information provided by both reading texts added to the general knowledge of the students.
For the question “What is the reason for small shops to close down?”, however, 17 students responded
correctly while 5 student gave no or a wrong response before reading the text. After reading the text, all 22
students were able to respond correctly but no significant difference was observed, p˂0,005. It can be said that
the majority of students, 17 students, already knew why small shops close down while only few students, 5
students, seemed to have no information on this topic. After reading the text the 5 students were able to
respond correctly to the question on why small shops close down. This suggests that the topic on small shops
added to the world knowledge of these 5 students.
With regards to questions on Charles Lindbergh, no student was able to indicate who Charles Lindbergh was or
what he had accomplished before reading the related text. However, after reading the texts all 23 participating
students were able to indicate who Charles Lindbergh was and what he had accomplished which resulted in a
statistically significant difference, p˂0,005. Similarly, no student was able to indicate who Emilia Earhart was or
what she had accomplished before reading the related texts, 21 students were able to answer the question
“Who is Emilia Earhart?” and 17 students could answer the question “What did Emilia Earhart achieve?” after
reading the text. The difference in the number of students answering these two questions after reading the
related texts proved to be statistically significant, p˂0,005. Again, it can be said that the information provided
by the texts about Charles Lindbergh and Emilia Earhart have contributed to the world knowledge of the
majority of students.
235
Table 2 : Changes in responses before and after reading in Beginner level
Antiques Roadshow
After Reading
Before Reading
Correct
Wrong
Total
Correct
0
0
0
Wrong
20
1
21
Total
20
1
21
Test Statisticsa
Pretest & Posttest
N
P
21
,000b
a. McNemar Test
b. Binomial distribution used.
Guardian Angels
Before Reading
Correct
Wrong
Total
After Reading
Correct
Wrong
0
0
21
1
21
1
Total
0
22
22
Test Statisticsa
Pretest & Posttest
N
P
22
,000b
a. McNemar Test
Guardian Angels
After Reading
Before Reading
Test Statisticsa
Correct
Wrong
Total
Pretest & Posttest
Correct
0
0
0
N
P
Wrong
20
2
22
22
,000b
Total
20
2
22
a. McNemar Test
Small Shops
After Reading
Before Reading
Test Statisticsa
Correct
Wrong
Total
Pretest & Posttest
Correct
17
0
17
N
P
Wrong
5
0
5
22
,063
Total
22
2
22
a. McNemar Test
Charles Lindbergh
After Reading
Before Reading
Test Statisticsa
Correct
Wrong
Total
Pretest & Posttest
Correct
0
0
0
N
P
Wrong
23
0
23
23
,000b
Total
23
0
23
a. McNemar Test
Charles Lindbergh
After Reading
Before Reading
Test Statisticsa
Correct
Wrong
Total
Pretest & Posttest
Correct
0
0
0
N
P
Wrong
23
0
23
23
,000b
Total
23
0
23
a. McNemar Test
Emilia Earhart
236
Table 2 : Changes in responses before and after reading in Beginner level (continued)
After Reading
Test Statisticsa
Before Reading
Correct
Wrong
Total
Pretest & Posttest
Correct
0
0
0
N
P
Wrong
21
1
22
22
,000b
Total
21
1
22
a. McNemar Test
Emilia Earhart
After Reading
Test Statisticsa
Before Reading
Correct
Wrong
Total
Pretest & Posttest
Correct
0
0
0
N
P
Wrong
17
4
21
22
,000b
Total
17
4
21
a. McNemar Test
Regarding Elementary level reading lessons, Table 3 shows that no student gave a correct answer to the
questions “In which country did ‘April Fool’s Day’ originate?” and “Where is the oldest University?” before
reading the related texts. However, after reading the texts, 23 students correctly answered the question “In
which country did ‘April Fool’s Day’ originate?” and 22 students correctly answered the questions “Where is
the oldest University?” and the difference in the number of students answering both questions correctly before
and after reading proved to be significant, p˂0,0005. It seems that while students had no knowledge on these
two topics before reading the text, they gained some knowledge on these topics after reading and such
knowledge may have contributed to their world knowledge.
Considering the question “Where did Basketball originate from?” 9 students gave correct answers and 14
students gave either no or wrong answers before reading the text. However, after reading the related text the
number of students giving correct answers to the questions on the origin of basketball increased significantly
from 9 to 23, p˂0,0005. Similarly, there is a significant difference, p˂0,0005, in the number of students
correctly answering the question “Where did Volleyball originate from?” before and after reading. While no
students could provide a correct answer before reading the text on volleyball, 17 students were able to
indicate where volleyball originated from after reading. These results too suggest that there has been a
contribution to the general knowledge of the students.
With regards to the question “How often is the World Football Championship held?” 19 students correctly
answered the question while 6 students did not provide a correct answer. After reading the text on football, all
25 students gave correct answers. However, the difference between students giving a correct answer before
and after reading the text was not significant p˂0,005. This result suggests that the majority of students already
knew how often the World Football Championship was held and that the text on this topic did not add to the
world knowledge of most of the students. However, 6 students could provide a correct answer after reading.
This suggests that the text contributed to the world knowledge of these 6 students.
Results on the origin of Carnival revealed that only 1 student knew where Carnival originated from and 23
students did not before reading the related text, after reading the text all participating students could indicate
where Carnival originated from. This difference was shown to be significant, p˂0,0005. This result indicates that
the text on Carnival contributed to the students’ world knowledge
Finally, the questions on the topic Labor Day revealed that 23 students correctly answered the question “When
do we celebrate Labor Day?”, p˂ 0,005, no student was able to answer the question “Where was Labor Day
first celebrated?” before reading the text. After reading the text on Labor Day all 24 students were able to
indicate where it originated from, p˂0,0005. It can be said that while the information of the date of Labor Day
was already present in the students’ world knowledge but that the information on where Labor Day was first
celebrated did contribute to their world knowledge.
237
Table 3: Changes in responses before and after reading in Elementary level
April Fool’s Day
After Reading
Before Reading
Test Statisticsa
Correct
Wrong
Total
Pretest & Posttest
Correct
0
0
0
N
P
Wrong
23
2
25
25
,000b
Total
23
2
25
a. McNemar Test
Oldest University
After Reading
Before Reading
Test Statisticsa
Correct
Wrong
Total
Pretest & Posttest
Correct
0
0
0
N
P
Wrong
22
3
25
25
,000b
Total
22
3
25
Correct
Wrong
Total
Correct
9
0
9
N
P
Wrong
14
2
16
25
,000b
Total
23
2
25
a. McNemar Test
Basketball
After Reading
Before Reading
Test Statisticsa
Pretest & Posttest
a. McNemar Test
Volleyball
After Reading
Before Reading
Test Statisticsa
Correct
Wrong
Total
Pretest & Posttest
Correct
0
0
0
N
P
Wrong
17
5
22
22
,000b
Total
17
5
22
a. McNemar Test
Football
After Reading
Before Reading
Test Statisticsa
Correct
Wrong
Total
Pretest & Posttest
Correct
19
0
19
N
P
Wrong
6
0
6
25
,031 b
Total
25
0
25
a. McNemar Test
238
Table 3: Changes in responses before and after reading in Elementary level (continued)
Origin of Carnival
After Reading
Test Statisticsa
Before Reading
Correct
Wrong
Total
Pretest & Posttest
Correct
1
0
1
N
P
Wrong
23
0
23
24
,000b
Total
24
0
24
a. McNemar Test
Labor Day - Date
After Reading
Test Statisticsa
Before Reading
Correct
Wrong
Total
Pretest & Posttest
Correct
23
0
0
N
P
Wrong
0
2
25
25
1,000b
Total
23
2
25
a. McNemar Test
Labor Day – Place of origin
After Reading
Test Statisticsa
Before Reading
Correct
Wrong
Total
Pretest & Posttest
Correct
0
0
0
N
P
Wrong
24
0
24
24
,000b
Total
24
0
24
a. McNemar Test
To summarize, the results revealed that students at the beginner level had no prior knowledge on 4 out of 5
topics. They provided either no or wrong answers to the questions. However, after reading these 5 topics, they
were able to provide correct responses to the questions. Likewise, students at the elementary level had no
prior knowledge on 5 topics but had some prior knowledge on 2 topics, the World Football Championship and
the date of Labor Day. Statistical analysis revealed that there was a significant increase in the number of
correct responses to the questions after reading the 5 texts in the beginner level and the 7 texts in the
elementary level. There were still students’ who could not provide a correct answer after reading. One reason
might be that they did not comprehend the content. Another reason might be that they tried to answers or
guess the answer to the questions although they were not present in the previous lesson where that particular
topic was covered or did not provide any answer. As mentioned before, such cases were coded as wrong. Thus,
it can be said that the majority topics covered in the reading lesson contributed to the general knowledge of
the students which may serve as background knowledge and aid comprehension (Henry, 1999; Hedge, 2000;
Hirsch, 2003).
CONCLUSION
As language teachers we expect our students to correctly answer the comprehension questions after reading
and are glad if they do so. However, it seems that EFL reading lessons not only improve students’ language
proficiency but provide them with information on various topics as well. It can be argued that the content of FL
reading courses can aid language learners to establish domain knowledge which would ease text
comprehension. Although not every topic or information covered in reading lessons may add to all of the
students’ world knowledge, it still seems that the topics covered contribute to the world knowledge of the
majority of students. Stubbs (1982, p. 138 cited in Arıkan, 2008) indicates that English teachers have always
been “responsible not only for the linguistic development of their pupils, but also for their psychological, moral
and interpersonal development – and to expect them also to provide a world view and philosophy of life.” This
can be realized by choosing material that involve information that can add to the student’s world knowledge.
239
Thus, it can be said that EFL reading lessons not only serve as a means to improve students’ language
proficiency but also serve as vicarious experience by which language learners gain world knowledge (Vellutino,
2003). Teachers and course book writers can take this into consideration and choose topics they believe will
improve language proficiency and contribute to the general or world knowledge of the students.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADRESS OF AUTHOR
Dr. Hülya İPEK is an assistant professor at the Department of English Language Teaching,
Education Faculty at Anadolu University, Turkey. She graduated from Anadolu University,
Department of English Language Teaching. Dr.İpek Received her M.A. and Ph.D degrees in
Anglish Language Teaching from Anadolu University. Her research interests are affective
factors in language learning and teaching, teaching and testing FL reading, speaking and
listening.
Asst. Prof. Dr. Hülya İPEK
Anadolu University
Education Faculty
Eskisehir- TURKEY
REFERENCES
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Brantmeier, C. (2003). Does gender make a difference? Passage content and comprehension in second language
reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 15(1), 1-27.
Carrell, P. L. (1987). Content and formal schemata in ESL reading. TESOL Quarterly, 21, 461-481.
Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and learning in the language classroom, Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Henry, J. (1990). Enriching Prior knowledge: enhancing mature literacy in higher education. Journal of Higher
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Hirsch, E. D. Jr. (2003). Reading comprehension requires knowledge – of words and the world. American
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Pressley, M. (2000). What should comprehension instruction be the instruction of? In M. Kamil, P. Mosenthal,
P. D. Pearson & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. III, pp. 545-562). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Pressley, M. & Hilden (2004). Towards more ambitious comprehension instruction. In E.R Silliman & L. C.
Wilkinson (Eds.), Language and Literacy Learning in Schools (pp. 151-174). New York: Guilford Press.
Shen, Z. (2008, December). The roles of depths and breadth of vocabulary knowledge in EFL reading
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