The Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Science

Transcription

ISSN: 2289-3024
The Malaysian Online
Journal of Educational
Science
Volume 4, Issue 1
October 2016
2016
Editor-in-Chief
Professor Datuk Dr. Sufean Hussin
Editor
Assoc. Prof. Datin Dr. Sharifah Norul Akmar Syed Zamri
Dr. Onur İŞBULAN
Associate Editors
Professor Dr. Omar Abdull Kareem
Associate Prof. Dr. Ibrahem Narongsakhet
Associate Prof. Dr. Mohd Yahya Mohamed Ariffin,
Associate Prof. Dr. Norani Mohd Salleh
Associate Prof. Dr. Wan Hasmah Wan Mamat
Inst. Aydın Kiper
[www.moj-es.net]
2016 (Volume 4 - Issue 1)
,
Copyright © 2013 - THE MALAYSIAN ONLINE JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE
All rights reserved. No part of MOJES’s articles may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher.
Contact Address:
Professor Dr. Saedah Siraj
MOJES, Editor in Chief
Published in Malaysia
University of Malaya, Malaysia
www.moj-es.net
Message from the editor-in-chief
The Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Sciences (MOJES) strives to provide a national and international
academic forum to meet the professional interests of individuals in various educational disciplines. It is a professional
refereed journal in the interdisciplinary fields sponsored by the Faculty of Education, University of Malaya. This
journal serves as a platform for presenting and discussing a wide range of topics in Educational Sciences. It is
committed to providing access to quality researches ranging from original research, theoretical articles and concept
papers in educational sciences.
In order to produce a high quality journal, extensive effort has been put into selecting valuable researches that
contributed to the journal. I would like to take this opportunity to express my appreciation to the editorial board,
reviewers and researchers for their valuable contributions to make this journal a reality.
Professor Datuk Dr. Sufean Hussin, University of Malaya, Malaysia
January 2016
Editor in chief
Message from the editor
The Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Sciences (MOJES) seeks to serve as an academic platform to
researchers from the vast domains of Educational Sciences. The journal is published electronically four times a year.
This journal welcomes original and qualified researches on all aspects of Educational Sciences. Topics may
include, but not limited to: pedagogy and educational sciences, adult education, education and curriculum,
educational psychology, special education, sociology of education, Social Science Education, Art Education, Language
Education, educational management, teacher education, distance education, interdisciplinary approaches, and
scientific events.
Being the editor of this journal, it is a great pleasure to see the success of the journal. On behalf of the editorial
team of the Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Science (MOJES), we would like to thank to all the authors and
editors for their contribution to the development of this journal.
Assoc. Prof. Datin Dr. Sharifah Norul Akmar Syed Zamri & Dr. Onur İŞBULAN
January 2016
Editor
www.moj-es.net
Editor-in-Chief
Professor Datuk Dr. Sufean Hussin, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Editors
Associate Professor Datin Dr. Sharifah Norul Akmar Syed Zamri, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Onur İŞBULAN, Sakarya University, Turkey
Associate Editors
Professor Dr. Omar Abdull Kareem, Sultan Idris University of Education, Malaysia
Associate Prof. Dr. Ibrahem Narongsakhet, Prince of Songkla University, Thailand
Associate Prof. Dr. Mohd Yahya Mohamed Ariffin, Islamic Science University of Malaysia
Associate Prof. Dr. Norani Mohd Salleh, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Associate Prof. Dr. Wan Hasmah Wan Mamat, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Inst. Aydın Kiper, Sakarya University, Turkey
Advisory Board
Emeritus Professor Dr. Tian Po Oei, University of Queensland, Australia
Professor Dr. Fatimah Hashim, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Professor Dr. Jinwoong Song, Seoul National University, Korea
Professor Dr. H. Mohammad Ali, M.Pd, M.A., Indonesian University of Education, Indonesia
Professor Dr. Moses Samuel, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Professor Dr. Nik Azis Nik Pa, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Professor Dr. Richard Kiely, the University College of St. Mark and St. John, United Kingdom
Professor Dr. Sufean Hussin, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Zawawi Bin Ismail, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Editorial Board
Emeritus Professor Dr. Rahim Md. Sail, University Putra of Malaysia, Malaysia
Professor Dr. Abdul Rashid Mohamed, University of Science, Malaysia
Professor Dr. Ananda Kumar Palaniappan, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Professor Dr. Bakhtiar Shabani Varaki, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran.
Professor Dr. H. Iskandar Wiryokusumo M.Sc, PGRI ADI Buana University, Surabaya, Indonesia
Professor Dr. Ramlee B. Mustapha, Sultan Idris University of Education, Malaysia
Professor Dr. Tamby Subahan Bin Mohd. Meerah, National University of Malaysia, Malaysia
Associate Professor Datin Dr. Sharifah Norul Akmar Syed Zamri, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dato’ Dr. Ab Halim Bin Tamuri, National University of Malaysia, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Abdul Jalil Bin Othman, University of Malaya, Malaysia
www.moj-es.net
Associate Professor Dr. Ajmain Bin Safar, University of Technology, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Habib Bin Mat Som, Sultan Idris Education University, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Hj. Izaham Shah Bin Ismail, Mara University of Technology, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Jas Laile Suzana Binti Jaafar, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Juliana Othman, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Loh Sau Cheong, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Mariani Binti Md Nor, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Mohamad Bin Bilal Ali, University of Technology, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Norazah Mohd Nordin, National University of Malaysia, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr.Rohaida Mohd Saat, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Syed Farid Alatas, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Dato’ Dr. Hussein Hj Ahmad, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Datuk Dr. Abdul Rahman Idris, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Datin Dr. Rahimah Binti Hj Ahmad, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Abu Talib Bin Putih, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Abd Razak Bin Zakaria, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Adelina Binti Asmawi, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Ahmad Zabidi Abdul Razak, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Chew Fong Peng, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Diana Lea Baranovich, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Fatanah Binti Mohamed, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Ghazali Bin Darusalam, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Haslee Sharil Lim Bin Abdullah, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Husaina Banu Binti Kenayathulla, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Kazi Enamul Hoque, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Latifah Binti Ismail, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Lau Poh Li, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Leong Kwan Eu, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Madhyazhagan Ganesan, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Megat Ahmad Kamaluddin Megat Daud, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Melati Binti Sumari, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Mohammed Sani Bin Ibrahim, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Mohd Rashid Mohd Saad, University of Malaya, Malaysia
www.moj-es.net
Dr. Muhammad Azhar Bin Zailaini, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Muhammad Faizal Bin A. Ghani, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Nabeel Abdallah Adedalaziz, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Norlidah Binti Alias, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Pradip Kumar Mishra, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Rafidah Binti Aga Mohd Jaladin, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Rahmad Sukor Bin Ab Samad, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Renuka V. Sathasivam, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Rose Amnah Bt Abd Rauf, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Selva Ranee Subramaniam, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Sit Shabeshan Rengasamy, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Shahrir Bin Jamaluddin, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Suzieleez Syrene Abdul Rahim, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Syed Kamaruzaman Syed Ali, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Vishalache Balakrishnan, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Wail Muin (Al-Haj Sa’id) Ismail, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Wong Seet Leng, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Zahari Bin Ishak, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Zahra Naimie, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Zanaton Ikhsan, National University of Malaysia, Malaysia
Cik Umi Kalsum Binti Mohd Salleh, University of Malaya, Malaysia
En. Mohd Faisal Bin Mohamed, University of Malaya, Malaysia
En. Norjoharuddeen Mohd Nor, University of Malaya, Malaysia
En. Rahimi Md Saad, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Alina A. Ranee, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Azni Yati Kamaruddin, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Fatiha Senom, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Fonny Dameaty Hutagalung, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Foziah Binti Mahmood, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Hamidah Binti Sulaiman, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Huzaina Binti Abdul Halim, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Ida Hartina Ahmed Tharbe, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Norini Abas, University of Malaya, Malaysia
www.moj-es.net
Pn. Roselina Johari Binti Md Khir, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Shanina Sharatol Ahmad Shah, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Zuwati Binti Hashim, University of Malaya, Malaysia
www.moj-es.net
Table of Contents
1
FORMATIVE FEEDBACK IN A MALAYSIAN PRIMARY SCHOOL ESL CONTEXT
Sedigheh Abbasnasab Sardareh
INFORMAL AND FORMAL ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION INFUSION: ACTIONS OF MALAYSIAN
TEACHERS AND PARENTS AMONG STUDENTS IN A POLLUTED AREA
9
Baniah Mustam, Esther Sarojini DANIEL
MALAYSIAN MATHEMATICS TEACHERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT THE NATURE OF TEACHING AND
LEARNING
21
Nuraini Mohd Zikre, Leong Kwan Eu
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANXIETY AND TEST-TAKING C-TEST AND CLOZE-TEST
30
Mozhgan Azimi
SELF-EFFICACY AND CHEMISTRY STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN SENIOR
SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN NORTH-CENTRAL, NIGERIA
43
Titilayo Funmisho Baanu, Oloyede Solomon Oyelekan, Adekunle Solomon Olorundare
www.moj-es.net
Formative Feedback in a
Primary School ESL Context
Malaysian
2016 (Volume4 - Issue 1 )
[1] Department of English, Faculty
of Humanities, Bandarabbas
Branch, Islamic Azad University,
Bandarabbas, Iran
Sedigheh Abbasnasab Sardareh [1]
ABSTRACT
The idea of providing students with formative feedback is a crucial part of formative
assessment. Teachers need to provide students with feedback that improves their learning.
In other words, formative feedback should provide learners with information that help
them bridge their learning gap. As formative assessment itself is a newly introduced
product in an innovative transformation introduced by the Ministry of Education, Malaysia,
it would be particularly interesting to investigate how formative feedback which is the main
component of formative assessment is being implemented. To answer this main question,
classroom observations were conducted and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were carried
out with a group of primary school ESL teachers in Malaysia. The results indicated that
using feedback systematically to support learning is rare and teachers are not aware of
strategies to implement formative feedback to improve students’ learning and use the
information in their future instruction.
Keywords:
ESL, Formative assessment, Formative feedback, Qualitative
research
INTRODUCTION
Feedback has been conceptualized in different ways. The concepts of feedback as a gift, feedback as
Ping-Pong and feedback as dialogue or loop have been recognized by Askew and Lodge (2000). Behaviorists
define feedback as a gift from teacher to student, even though this concept does not help learners develop
autonomy.
As Askew and Lodge (2000) put it feedback as a gift “fosters dependence rather than independence
or interdependence and encourages notions of failure/success, wrong/right” (p. 5). Whilst, constructivists
believe that feedback should be descriptive rather than evaluative. According to Askew and Lodge (2000)
feedback is given “to provide a narrative which can be added to, to offer insights for reflection” (p. 9).
Although within this perspective learners are central knowledge constructors, it is still teacher who decides
the agenda.
Sadler (2007) and Hattie and Timperley (2007) operated from constructivism and suggested that
feedback information should be used to bridge students’ learning gaps. Therefore, effective feedback gives
students information about where they are, where to proceed next and how to move their learning forward
(Hattie & Timperley, 2007). Yet, the importance of personal domain cannot be neglected. As observed by
Askew and Lodge (2000) “as soon as we ask for feedback, we open ourselves to the possibility of criticism”
(p. 8).
In the sociocultural perspective the responsibility for learning is shared between teacher and
students and feedback is viewed as loop or dialogue (Abbasnasab Sardareh & Saad, 2012). As mentioned by
Askew and Lodge (2000) “the roles of learner and teacher are shared and expertise and experience of all
participants are respected. All parties to such a dialogue have an expectation of learning” (p. 13).
1
www.moj-es.net
For a long time, educators neglected to take into account learners’ differences and assumed that
there is no need to adapt instruction to learners’ needs. They considered that failure in learning rely on
learners themselves. However, Bloom and his students in the 1960s investigated the idea that the normal
distribution of students’ achievements was due to the failure of instruction in taking into account learner
differences and the outcome was not natural. Thus, Bloom claimed that one-to-one tutoring is effective in
student learning.
According to Guskey (2010), one-to-one tutoring is effective because the tutor identifies errors in
students’ work and then provides them with clarifications. This is what Bloom called ‘feedback’ and
‘correctives’. However, this distinction has been counterproductive.
That is to say, information from students’ work becomes feedback only if it is employed to bridge
the learning gap (Black & Wiliam, 1998b; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Ramaprasad, 1983; Sadler, 1989, 2007).
Yet, Bloom separated the information about the learning gap from its instructional consequences (Wiliam,
2011). Moreover, feedback should affect students’ future performance and help them improve their learning
(e.g., Black & Wiliam, 1998a).
In the 1990s when researchers began to investigate learning from an integrative viewpoint, Graue
(1993) illustrated an instructional assessment framework and suggested that “to meld teaching and
assessment so that they are simultaneous and dialogic, both teacher and students become learners” (p. 285).
The integration of assessment and instruction, particularly from a social constructivist viewpoint, was
demonstrated as a part of educational process. Graue (1993) concluded that, “Assessment and instruction
are often conceived as curiously separate in both time and purpose” (p.53).
Many researchers and educators support the use of assessment to guide learning and instruction.
Sadler (1989) emphasized the cognitive and social functions of assessment and the important role of
feedback in bridging the gap between students’ current level of achievement and the desired learning
intentions. Based on the new conceptions, assessment is a part of the teaching and learning process and
provides students with opportunity to think and reflect on their learning and helps them to use feedback to
improve their understanding. Therefore, the current study aims at investigating the ways Malaysian primary
school ESL teachers give feedback to their students based on the new conception of feedback discussed
above.
METHODOLOGY
Data Collection and Analysi
To collect data, this qualitative study adopted Focus Group Interviews (FGIs) and classroom
observations. The purpose of a FGI is to gain a deeper understanding of the participants’ views and
experiences, feelings, perceptions, beliefs and attitudes towards the successful implementation of formative
feedback. This technique is quite popular in the market research to identify needs and interests of clienteles.
FGI was set in this study because it narrows to a set of priorities on a problem to get more in-depth
information on the phenomena. Moreover, it is one of the approaches to get feedback and input quickly in a
non-threatening environment with few meetings and more focused agendas (Morgan, 1993).
In order to provide more comprehensive data, three sessions of each participating teacher's
classroom were observed. Classroom observation is one of the important sources of information in
qualitative study. According to Nunan (1992), classroom observations provide useful information that help
the researcher understand social events in the classroom context. Data from FGIs and classroom observations
were tape recorded and transcribed verbatim for further analysis using Constant Comparative method of
data analysis.
Participants
Three ESL teachers were purposively selected from several government primary schools in Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia, as the participants of the current study. These participants had tenure of not less than ten
years. They were directly involved in formative assessment, had attended workshops on formative
assessment and were willing to take part in this research.
This study is focused on one subject area. The participating teachers were teaching English which
is one of the core subjects in primary schools in Malaysia. To reach a point of data saturation, two rounds of
2
www.moj-es.net
FGIs and three rounds of classroom observation were conducted with the participating teachers. It is
important to mention that Pseudonyms were used to protect teachers' identity.
RESEARCH FINDING
The participating teachers acknowledged the importance of giving feedback to the students and
asserted feedback given to the students is not really effective. So students do not know where they are going.
They do not know what their level is and they do not feel happy about themselves. For instance, we human
beings like compliments, we need to be praised, and that will keep us going. Some students take criticism
positively. Some students will turn off. So it is best to pick your words wisely when you want to give feedback
to your students (Izyan, Interview; August, 2014).
This assertion indicates that effective feedback should give information on students’ level of
achievement. Moreover, when they want to give feedback to their students, teachers need to give it in such
a way that keeps students motivated to learn better. The participants recognized that feedback would help
teachers ensure students’ learning and encourage them to learn better. “When we give feedback to the
students we can understand whether they are learning or not. Teachers and also students can find out their
strengths and weaknesses and enhance their learning” (Devi, Interview; October, 2014).
The teachers shed light on the role of feedback in determining where the students stand relative
to the learning targets. According to Irwan “Feedback is very important because students need to know
where they stand. If you do not give feedback and if you do not tell them their weaknesses, how are they
going to improve?” (Irwan, Interview; August, 2014).
The results showed that most of the time the teachers gave feedback to the students in the form
of praise. They praised their students whenever they answered the questions correctly or completed a
worksheet or activity successfully. If the students gave the wrong answers to the questions or activities, the
teachers themselves provided the correct answer or asked other students to respond to the question. It was
also observed that the teachers provided the students with one-to-one instruction when they were unable
to complete worksheets or activities by themselves.
Based on the studies reviewed, Shute (2008) concluded that formative feedback should be
supportive, timely and specific to the students’ work and also non-evaluative. Information from formative
feedback modifies the learners’ behaviour or thinking and improves their learning. In other words, the
purpose of giving feedback to the students is more than just a process of linear information transmission to
correct students’ mistakes; effective dialogic feedback is crucial to improve academic achievement.
As explained by Hattie and Timperley (2007) and Pryor and Crossouard (2008) in order for feedback
to be effective, students’ understanding of the quality of the work they are expected to accomplish should
be challenged and improved. To this end, feedback should be given through a dialogic approach in which
students’ understandings are transformed.
Within a sociocultural perspective, feedback is conceptualized as loop or dialogue that plays an
important role in informing learners’ personal competence (Wenger, 1998). Social constructivists view
competence as belonging within the community of practice and extending identity towards more central
participants. Therefore, feedback on the task is personal as well because it informs and builds “personal
histories of becoming in the context of our communities” (Wenger, 1998, p. 5).
The findings of this research revealed that most of the time, feedback given by the teachers did not
help the students to extend their identity towards more central participants. To illustrate, we will examine
some classroom episodes. In these extracts, the teachers praised those students who gave correct answers
to the questions. Yet, this type of feedback given to the students did not help them to develop autonomy.
In the following extract, one of the participants, Izyan, asked the students to spell the word ‘bake’.
She asked them to put up their hands and answer the question. Then the teacher gave feedback in the form
of praise to S12 and S16 who answered the question.
3
www.moj-es.net
Extract 1
T: How do you spell *bake*?
OC- Ss are spelling the word ‘bake’
T: ▼ You put up your hand
Yes
S 12 : b-a
T: Yes Adam?
S 12 : k
T: ‘k’ good
Ayman ‘e’
Very good
OC- The teacher was giving feedback to Ayman (S 16 )
S12
T
S16
Figure 1: Feedback 1
This figure indicates that teacher praise for student effort was a one way feedback. It is worth
mentioning that this type of feedback did not lead to the students’ increased engagement, enhanced selfreflections as well as improved understanding. And throughout the observation period S12 and S16 remained
peripheral participants.
Devi and Irwan also gave the same type of feedback to their students. For instance, Extract 2 shows
that the first three students to accomplish the activity were rewarded by Devi.
4
www.moj-es.net
Extract 2
T: O.K. Class finished?
Ss: No ↑
T: O.K, this is Norree’s work. Because she is the first person who finished, I give a sticker to Norree as
present.
O.K. Norree collect your sticker.
OC- The chatter decreased when the teacher praised S 10 .
T: O.K, Angel. This one is Angel’s work. O.K, Angel also gets sticker.
OC- the teacher gave a sticker to S 8
T: Only for first, second and third
S x : Siapa nak jadi ketiga? [Who wants to be the third?]
S 15 : Saya [me]
T: So who is the third one? O.K. Faster
O.K faster. Who wants the third sticker?
Color it nicely
O.K. Umar gets the last sticker
Ss: Alaa
OC- (disappointed)
T: O.K, the last sticker is for Umar
When the teacher praised S10, S8 who actively participated in classroom activities was persuaded
to finish the work faster to receive a sticker from the teacher. Finally S8 accomplished the task successfully
and received a reward sticker. However, it was observed that when the teacher gave reward to the third
student, other students felt frustrated to complete the task. That is to say, they did not try to extend their
identity towards more central participants as they found out that they would not be rewarded by the teacher.
T
S15
S8
S10
The same thing happened in Irwan’s class. In extract 3, he announced that he would praise the
winners. Irwan rewarded the first three winners of the bingo game by letting them leave the class five
minutes earlier than other students. As is evident in this Figure, one way transmission of feedback to some
specific students was not converted into increased participation.
5
www.moj-es.net
Extract 3
T: Let’s see who is the winner of this bingo game.
The first three winners
I will select three winners you can go back five minutes early today.
Ss: Yeay
OC- The students were excited
T
S9
S4
S11
DISCUSSION
According to social constructivists such as Wenger (1998), in an AfL classroom feedback is assumed
more than dialogue between teacher and student about the task and involves all formal and informal ways
of giving information to students about their competence within a community of practice. By helping learners
to develop identity within their community of practice, feedback is considered as a practice rather than just
a strategy to be practiced and moves focus from the letter to the spirit of AfL. In other words, for feedback
to be dialogic and improve students’ understanding, students should actively participate in the feedback
process.
When they get involved in an activity, students should be given an opportunity to comment on
each other’s work, move around the classroom, look at other students’ work and learn from each other.
Therefore, they receive feedback from their teacher and peers, reflect on their work and become
autonomous learners. Through the process of feedback students need to be stimulated to develop their
sense of responsibility and agency. To achieve this, teachers need to provide the students with a safe and
supportive learning environment such that they can get engaged in the feedback process.
The results showed that the students were not actively engaged in the feedback and their voice
was not given credence due to the nature of the tasks as well as teacher authority in the classroom. It was
observed that feedback was not integrated into the patterns of participation of the class to become part of
the shared repertoire. This finding does not support the results of the studies conducted by Fluckiger et al.
(2010), Handley et al. (2011), and Havnes et al. (2012) that highlighted the importance of students’
involvement in the feedback process. The participating teachers lacked effective understanding of feedback
(Weeden & Winter, 1999) and feedback given to the students was not based on the principles of AfL (Irving
et al., 2011; Newby & Winterbottom, 2011; Tan, 2011)
They were not provided with a collaborative learning environment and only a few specific students
dominated the discussions. To illustrate, during classroom questioning and discussion some specific students
6
www.moj-es.net
responded to the questions and received one way feedback in the form of praise from their teacher when
they gave the correct answers. When a student gave the wrong answer, the teachers themselves answered
the question or directed the question to another student.
Moreover, the students had to complete the worksheets individually and if the teachers noticed
that a student could not manage to accomplish the task, they provided that particular student with one-onone instruction. The same thing happened in language arts classes. During language arts, the students were
not divided into groups and more often they competed with each other to finish the task sooner than others
to receive a reward from their teacher. Therefore, the students did not have the opportunity to think and
reason together. Dialogic feedback is more than hierarchical relationship between teacher and students and
it involves relationships in which students reflect on the task, reason together and become more central
participants.
REFERENCES
Abbasnasab Sardareh, S., & Saad, MRM. (2012). A Sociocultural Perspective on Assessment for Learning: The
Case of a Malaysian Primary School ESL Context. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 66, 343-353.
Askew, S., & Lodge, C. (2000). Gifts, ping-pong and loops: Linking feedback and learning. In S. Askew (Ed.),
Feedback for learning (pp. 1-18). London, UK: Routledge.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998a). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education: Principles,
Policy and Practice, 5(1), 7-74.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998b). Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. Phi
Delta Kappan, 80(2), 139-148.
Graue, M. E. (1993). Integrating theory and practice through instructional assessment. Educational
Assessment, 7(4), 283-309.
Guskey, T. R. (2010). Formative assessment: The contributions of Benjamin S. Bloom. In H. L. Andrade & G. J.
Cizek (Eds.), Handbook of formative assessment (pp. 106–124). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Hattie, J. C., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81–112.
Morgan, D. (1993). Successful Focus Groups: Advancing the State of the Art. London, UK: SAGE Publications.
Nunan, D. (1992). Research methods in language learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Pryor, J., & Crossouard, B. (2008). A sociocultural theorization of formative assessment. Oxford Review of
Education, 34(1), 1–20.
Ramaprasad, A. (1983). On the definition of feedback. Behavioral Science, 28(1), 4–13.
Sadler, D. R. (1989). Formative assessment and the design of instructional strategies. Instructional Science,
18, 119-144.
7
www.moj-es.net
Sadler, D. R. (2007). Perils in the meticulous specification of goals and assessment criteria. Assessment in
Education: Principles, Policy and Practice, 14, 387- 392.
Shute, V. (2008). Focus on formative feedback. Review of Educational Research, 78(1), 153-189.
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge
University Press.
Wiliam, D. (2011). What is assessment for learning? Studies in Educational Evaluation, 37(1), 3-14.
8
www.moj-es.net
Informal And Formal Environmental
Education Infusion:
Actions of Malaysian Teachers and
Parents Among Students in a Polluted
Area
[1] [email protected]
Faculty of Education, University of
Malaya
Baniah Mustam [1], Esther Sarojini DANIEL [2]
ABSTRACT
The study explored Environmental Education infusion among students by teachers and
parents in two schools located in a highly polluted area. Qualitative data was collected
through observations, interviews and an open-ended questionnaire. Participants of the
observations and interviews were 6 Secondary 4 students, 6 teachers and 6 parents.
Participants for the open-ended survey consisted of 60 Secondary 4 students, 30 teachers
and 30 parents. Data from the three sources were triangulated to identify how
Environmental Education infusion happened through formal and informal education in
school and at home. Findings indicate that parents and teachers do make an effort to infuse
elements of environmental education through different ways.
Keywords:
Environmental Education; Infusion; Formal & Informal Education
INTRODUCTION
Malaysia is undergoing vast economical growth with the expansion of manufacturing industries,
especially in electronics, chemical products and rubber products. Additionally, the increasing rate of
production has resulted in excessive releases of organic and non-organic gases, chemical substances and dust
(Department of Environment, 2011). Agricultural activities and exploration for natural resources which
involves exploring new locations for human settlement and agriculture, logging, construction of
infrastructure such as roads, streets and town buildings, and construction projects for human settlement and
industrial activities continue to occur. All these activities result in erosion of land which pollutes the rivers
(Haliza, 2007). The latest statistics (Department of Environment, 2011) show that 7 rivers are very polluted
and 60 rivers are slightly polluted out of the 143 rivers in the country. Malaysia has realised that there is a
need to protect and preserve the environment. Preventive measures and conservation efforts have been
continually worked into the Five-Year Malaysia Plans since the early days of independence. In the latest 10th
Malaysia Plan which ends in 2015, the government’s focus is on, “Building an environment that enhances
quality of life” (10th Malaysia Plan, p. 246). Nevertheless, to achieve this enhanced quality of life is not an
easy task and has to be related to the education system of the nation. The education on the importance of
the environment is essential to increase the level of individuals’ self-awareness. Environmental education
has the potential to assist the future generation to manage life and to establish a prosperous future
(Perikleous, 2004).
Environmental Education has been officially integrated across the national curriculum since the
nineties. The process of infusion of Environmental education involves integrating the various environmental
aspects into all taught subjects during classroom teaching and learning sessions (Curriculum Development
9
www.moj-es.net
Center, Malaysia, 1998). The methods and techniques used should create an interesting teaching and
learning environment in which the students can participate actively (Adenan Satem, 2004). Several studies
have been conducted to try and establish the status of how successful this integration of Environmental
Education has been. Pauziah Abdul Wahab’s (2004) research among 115 teachers teaching various subjects
in 4 primary schools in the northern state of Kedah showed that 92.1% of the sample stated that the
integration of Environmental Education across the curriculum was unsuccessful. Furthermore, 53.6% of the
respondents had problems in carrying out the Environmental Education due to time constraint and had
difficulty in accessing teaching aids. Five years on in 2009, another study carried out by Hazinah Nor Hanipah
among 613 secondary school teachers found that 70.85% of the teachers were confident of integrating
Environmental Education in the curriculum and only 8.1% were negative. Positive as this was, another study
among primary school heads by Ika Liana Khalid, Rosta Harun, Azizi Muda and Ismi Arif Ismail (2011), revealed
that the level of knowledge on environmental education is only moderate (69.5% mean score) and more
importantly the study found that the heads are little aware of the implementation of cross-curriculum
environmental education in schools.
Infusion of Environmental Education
The infusion of environmental education refers to the insertion process, integration and the
relationship on the environment into formal and informal education. Teachers are the main factor in
successful infusion programmes (Winther, Volk & Shrock, 2002). The environmental teacher’s approaches
for success include practising student centred learning, utilising students’ strengths, exhibit experiential
teaching orientation, use cooperative techniques, involve external experts and continuously reflect upon and
plan lessons (May, 2000). Ernst (2007) found that teachers who have strong environmental literacy
knowledge, have support in their schools, environmental sensitivity, positive environmental attitudes and
are receptive to environmental education. These teachers are the ones who will try and infuse environmental
education.
Besides the formal infusion of environmental education across the curriculum, there are numerous
societies and groups who assist schools in the informal infusion of environmental education. For example in
the East Malaysian state of Sabah, the Sabah Environment Protection Department, Department of
Environment Malaysia, Sabah Forestry Department, Science and Technology Unit, Kota Kinabalu Wetland
Centre, Sabah Education Department and other environment-related organisations are active in trying to
assist schools in infusing knowledge and skills related to the environment (Pudin, 2008). In relation to this, a
longitudinal intervention study utilising environmental education kits for Geography, English, Bahasa
Malaysia (the national language) and Science conducted by WWF-Malaysia on the integration of
Environmental Education in four schools strategically located in the main four zones of the Malay peninsula
from 2008 to 2012, has indicated that although knowledge of the environment among the students is high
and positive attitudes abound, this does not necessarily translate into pro-environmental behaviour. These
results are similar to Kollmuss and Agyeman (2002). Furthermore, the multiplier effects from this
intervention in the local community and parents were not visible. Nevertheless, the study by Vaughn, Gack,
Solorazano and Ray (2003) showed that parents learnt from their children who attended an environmental
education course. This negative result pointed to weak implementation by teachers as student views of the
teaching approaches did not live up to expectations as the focus was on preparing students for national
examinations (WWF-M, Research Report, 2010, 2011, 2012). Another finding from the WWF-Malaysia
reports was that students preferred field trips. The same was reported by Barney, Mintzes and Yen (2005).
Furthermore, Farmer, Knapp and Benton (2007) found that even one full year after a field trip, the
participating students could remember the activities during their trip well and seemed to have developed a
pro-environmental attitude. The present article discusses a study conducted to investigate the formal and
informal infusion of environmental education within a community in a selected polluted area through a
qualitative lens. Thus far, no such study has been conducted in Malaysia.
10
www.moj-es.net
METHODOLOGY
A qualitative data collection approach was utilized, that is through observations, interviews and an
open-ended survey. The location for this study was an area which has a high air pollution index in a district
in the central state of Perak. The location is an industrial area which has many factories dealing with palm
oil, rubber, steel, cement and vehicles’ accessories and spare parts. The justification for choosing this area is
because the researcher assumed that the surrounding pollution should develop awareness towards the
environment among students, teachers and parents. Therefore, the researcher wanted to investigate how
the location influences the infusion of the Environmental Education in the nearby two schools. These schools
will be named as Secondary School 1 and Secondary School 2. The sampling of the students involves Form 4
students. Six (6) students to participate for the interviews and observations. Sixty (60) students participated
in the open-ended questionnaire. Six (6) teachers participated in the interview while 30 teachers participated
in the open-ended questionnaire. Thirty (30) parents and guardians participated in the open-ended
questionnaire, while six (6) of them agreed to participate in the interviews and observations. Data from
observations, interviews and the open- ended survey were triangulated to identify concepts and the method
of Environmental Education infusion.
Data Collection Techniques
Data collection techniques done in three ways, namely observation, interviews and openended survey . Observations were recorded in the observation record form for analysis. The interviews were
taped and transcribed before analyzed. While open-ended survey responses were categorized and analyzed.
All three techniques carried out on all three groups of respondents, that are students, teachers and parents.
The observations were carried out using three different settings which include formal education in the school
classrooms, informal education that occurs in the school environment and informal education that occurs at
the students’ home. The procedure for the observation was developed based on several aspects which were;
1. The observation related to the informal education at home included i) observations around the
students’ home, ii) observations of interactions between the parents and students, iii) observations
of the house surroundings and iv) observations during the family activities. The collection of data for
observations made informally at home by visit to the house of participants and recorded in the
special forms namely Observation Protocol Informal Education at Home. Observations carried out
twice and observation time was 40 minutes. Trip time depends on the approval of the participants.
2.
The observations related to the informal education in school included i) observations around
the school environment, ii) observations of the school’s facilities and their use, iii) observations of the reading
materials and their use, iv) observations of school society activities.
3.
The observations related to the formal education in school included lessons conducted in the
classroom. The aspects included i) observations on the preparation and use of the teaching aids, ii) lesson set
inductions, iii) observations of interactions between the students and the teacher during the lessons, and iv)
the closure of the lesson.
The lessons were video recorded after consent was obtained from all participants.
The interviews with the students, teachers and parents were carried out in two phases. Phase
1 interviews were conducted to obtain the specific and detailed information while phase 2 interviews were
conducted if there is unclear aspect faced in the first phase interviews. The purpose of this phase is to obtain
more comprehensive information regarding vague and uncertain matters during the observations. Three
interview protocols were prepared for the three groups of participants.
The open-ended questionnaire was planned to obtain answers and responses without limit
from the participants. Each group was given different sets of questions.
Data Analysis
The researcher analysed the data from triangulating the three resources (Merriam, 2001;
Bailey, 2007). The interviews were recorded and transcribed. The frequency of certain expressions, words,
phrases and statements from all three sources were identified to decide the themes emerging from the
participants. Each transcript was read meticulously and deep attention was given to each word and sentence
to determine essential expressions as early coding was conducted (McMillan, 2000). After this, themes were
11
www.moj-es.net
developed based on comparison of the three sources. Triangulation increases the validity and
trustworthiness of the findings. The table below shows an example of triangulation.
Table 1: Triangulation of the Three Data Sources
Meaning of infusion
Teaching and Learning
Method:
Discussion
Data Collection Techniques
Observation from
Teaching and
Interview
Learning Session
“ The application of
Environmental Education
throughout the
curriculum... Erm..aa...
means teaching and
learning session which
connects , aa... topics
related to environment in
subjects such as Science,
English Language, Arts and
others.”
[H, IN, T3, SMK B,
(02072013), (4:20)/13-16]
“ Then I use group
“ I’ll give you 10
discussion in which an
minutes, alright. 10
exercise form is distributed
minutes for you to
to students and they are
discuss with each
given approximately 20
other. If you don’t
minutes to discuss the
know, you can ask
effects of human
me”
activities.”
[F, T&L, T1, SMK A,
BIO, 4P/201-203]
[C, IN, T2, SMK A,
(21062013), (6:38)/38-41]
Open-Ended
Questionnaire
The application of
Environmental
Education throughout
the curriculum is an
effort to connect the
Environmental
Education with all
subjects such as Malay
Language, Geography
and others.
[T2, OEQ, SMK A, A1]
“ I do group discussion
regarding an essay title
related to environment,
for example types of
environmental
pollution, causes, ways
to solve and then, the
students write an essay
about it.”
[ T5, OEQ, SMK B, A3 (i)]
Notes:
1. Observation cord - [F, T&L, T1, SMK A, BIO, 4P/201-203] : Faris (respondent name), Teaching and
learning, SMK A (first school), Biology, Class form 4P/line 201 to 203
2. Interview cord - [H, IN, T3, SMK B, (02072013), (4:20)/13-16] : Hani (respondent name), Interview,
Teacher 3, SMK B (Second school), date of interview, time/line 13 to 16
3. Open-ended questionnaire cord –[T5, OEQ, SMK B, A3] : Teacher 5, Open ended question, SMK B
(Second school), Answer 3(i).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This section discusses the infusion of Environmental Education informally by the parents at home,
formally in the classroom and also informally in school during co-curricular activities.
Informal Infusion at Home by Parents and Guardians
The techniques which emerged in the study in relation to informal infusion of environmental
education at home were i) via verbal communication, ii) via actions and behaviour and iii) via instilling moral
values. Communicating verbally to infuse Environmental Education informally at home was seen through
providing guidance, giving advice, emphasizing, warning, discussion, explanation, and giving reminders.
Infusing via actions and behaviour informally at home was carried out through, i) working together, ii)
12
www.moj-es.net
modeling or showing examples and iii) teaching from one’s religion. The infusion of environmental education
was also subtly done through the instilling of values. Some examples of excerpts are given in Table 2.
Table 2: Excerpts for Environmental Education Infusion at Home
Via verbal communication
"At home, parents guide us so that we keep
the surroundings clean. For example they
advise us not to throw rubbish everywhere
but into the dustbins".
[F, IN, S4, SMK B, (02072013), (6:31)/20-22]
"My parents emphasise to me to always
keep the house clean – outside as well.
Every weekend, we together as a family
clean up the garden".
[Q, IN, S3, SMK B, (02072013), (5:35)/2125]
"If my parents see me throwing rubbish
eveywhere, they warn me sternly”.."
[K, IN, S6, SMK B, (04072013), (5:17)/22-23]
”Sometimes my parents discuss with us
about ways to improve the surroundings by
planting trees and flowers ... to create a
garden”.
[S, IN, S2, SMK A, (02072013), (5:15)/25-27]
"I explain to my children the benefits of
caring for the environment so that my
children will develop a more positive
attitude and be more responsible in not
polluting the environment”.
[Y, IN, G4, YH, (03072013), (4:47)/27-31]
"Aa.. I remind my children and
grandchildren that we have to care for the
environment. If not the environment will
become polluted and we will feel the
consequences. As it is now we have to face
the haze and air pollution here”.
[Z, IN, G2, ZH, (29062013), (3:42)/23-26]
Via actions and behavior
"Every weekend, we as a
family work together to clean
the garden and the house”.
[K, IN, S6, SMK B, (04072013),
(5:17)/23-24]
"If there are tins around the
house collecting rain water,
my mother checks and quickly
throws them away properly in
order to avoid mosquito
larvae. I also follow her
example”.
[F, IN, S4, SMK B, (02072013),
(6:31)/22-24]
"Before I advise my children, I
try and set a good example so
that they will follow. For
example in the car, I will put
all rubbish in a bag and when
we reach our destination I will
throw the rubbish in a
dustbin. I do not want my
children to throw rubbish out
of the car”,
[M, IN, G1, MH, (01072013),
(4:20)/34-40]
"I always emphasise
cleanliness as taught by our
religion which teaches
cleanliness”.
[N, IN, G3, NH, (29062013),
(4:17)/34-36]
Via instilling values
”........I will teach my children to
work together and help one
another in cleaning up the
surrounding area so that they will
realise their responsibilities
towards the environment”.
[N, IN, G3, NH, (29062013),
(4:17)/42-45]
"Loving nature is a virtue. I love
to plant flowers and other plants.
So, I teach my children to love
plants and to do what I do.
During holidays, we sometimes
plant new flowering plants
together. This not only keeps us
healthy but makes our garden
beautiful".
[M, IN, G1, MH, (01072013),
(4:20)/46-50]
"I advise my children that if we
do not take care of the
environment now, the negative
effects will be felt by the future
generations like their children”.
[N, IN, G3, NH, (29062013),
(4:17)/45-48]
”A polluted place can bring about
bad health. If we are not healthy,
no matter how much money we
have has no meaning”.
[Y, IN, G4 4, YH, (03072013),
(4:47)/38-43]
Communication between parents and children are important (Abdullah Nasih Ulwan, 2004;
Adawiyah Ismail, 2007). Parents must also set good examples for the children (Moore, 1992). It is imperative
that parents inform their children that the environment needs to be preserved for future generations (Palmer
& Neal, 1994) and that it is everyone’s responsibility (Adenan Satem, 2004). In this study, the pollution in the
area probably does encourage parents and guardians to be more conscious in teaching their children about
taking care of the environment. As stated by the children, they do ‘hear’ and ‘follow’ what is taught by their
parents as was also found by Jaana, Anu , Anssi dan Markku, (2012).
13
www.moj-es.net
Formal Infusion in School
The teaching method chosen by a teacher is a way to achieve the learning objectives with a wellmanaged approach (Hasan Langgulung, 1981; Sharifah Alwiah Alsagoff; 1986; Mok Soon Seng, 1992). In the
research discussed in this article, how infusion of Environmental Education occurred was investigated.
Several teaching techniques used in the formal classroom emerged, namely giving explanations, discussions,
demonstrations, question-and-answer sessions, experiments, simulations and role-play. Excerpts are given
in Table 3 to indicate the different ways of infusion.
Table 3: Ways of Infusing Environmental Education in the Formal Classroom
No.
Infusion
Approach
Excerpt
"In Biology, our teacher explains in detail about the environment and how
pollution occurs and what steps we can take to overcome it”.
[OEQ, S15, SMK A, A2(ii)]
1.
Explaining
" Ok, in my class just now, I used several approaches – first I attracted the
attetnion of my students by drawing the cartoon and then I went on to give
the explanation”.
[C, IN, T2, SMK A, (21062013), (6:38)/35-37]
"Ok. In my class, first I gave the students time to watch the video which had
music and song and was in a cartoon form. Secondly, after this I used the
dicussioin method to get the message across based on the video”.
[H, IN, T3, SMK B, (02072013), (4:02)/29-32]
2.
Discussions (by
using video/ text
book etc) in
groups
Teacher: Air pollution is a common occurrence here. Remember last year?
The air quality here was not good. Okay… now I want you to get into your
groups and discuss about this. After this we will have the presentations by
each group. [N, T&L T4, SMK B, CHEM, 4SC/28-36]
"Ok.. In my class this morning, I asked the students to look for the sources of
pollution, the effects and how to solve some of the problems. I divided the
students into groups and distributed some reading and reference materials
for them to discuss. They had to present the results of their discussion.
[A, IN, T5, SMK B, (05.07.2013), (7:01)/37-43]
3
Demonstration
Teacher
: Ok, the second activity – we will use empty mineral water
bottles – I want you to make flowers or an animal like the penquin? Each
group can choose. If you want to make flowers you have to cut like this…can
you see? If you want the size to be small you make smaller cuts. After you
cut it looks like this.. can you see?
[L, T&L, T6, SMK B, VAE, 4I/69-81]
14
www.moj-es.net
No.
4
Infusion
Approach
Question and
Answer
Excerpt
"……Ok ya… come to the white board please. I have drawn a cartoon – now
my question. Who can tell me the meaning of the cartoon? Who wants to
try? Please raise your hand. Do not worry if your answer is wrong…Ok Najmi
go ahead try…”.
[C, T&L T2, SMKA, GEO, 4S/16-21]
Teacher
: …Very good. One activity is logging. Besides logging what
other human activity can have an impact upon flora and fauna? Who would
like to try, please raise your hand..Yes Akmal?
[C, IN T2, SMKA, GEO, 4S/45-49]
Teacher : How can we control pollution from becoming a big threat?
Student: Have a conservation campaign
Teacher: Another campaign? What else?
: Kempen. Lagi? Yang
perempuan?
Student: Organise a clean up
: Gotong-royong.
Teacher: Another clean –up? Other than these every citizen must follow…?
: Gotong-royong. Lagi? Aa… selain daripada kempen apa lagi,
Student: Environmental Protection laws.
Teacher: Good…
: Undang-undang.
[H, T&L T3, SMK B, SC, 4A/134-142]
"In Biology, my friends and I have done an experiment to study the level of
water pollution around the factory which spills oil...”
[OEQ, S26, SMK B , A2(ii)]
5
Experiments
"Ok. In science we carry out several experiments to study pollution, such as
water and air pollution. [F, IN, T1, SMK A, (20092013), (9:25)/53-54]
Student 1: Good morning everyone. My group is going to simulate what can
happen at a supermarket carpark here. One day Arie and her friend Fahira
are going home after grocery shopping.
Student 2 (Arie): Please start the car I will be there soon.
Student 3 (Fahira): Okay will do
6
Simulation
Student 1: There is another lady driver who was walking towards her car
parked behind Arie’s car. When Arie started her car, exhaust fumes came out
and the lady driver of the car behind started to have an asthma attack.
Student 2 and Student 3 (Arie and Fahira) rush towards the lady to try and
help…
Student 1: Perhaps the fumes caused her asthma attack – we better take her
to the hospital. [N, T&L T4, SMK B, CHEM, 4SC/156-172]
15
www.moj-es.net
No.
7
Infusion
Approach
Role - Play
Excerpt
Student 1(Newsreader): Good evening. We have news that in the small town
of TM there is a very unhealthy haze caused by open burning. The residents
in TM are facing many health issues because of this. Now let us listen to our
reporter who is over there now…
Student 2 (Reporter on site): Thank you. I am Aishah from TV X reporting
from TM which is experiencing a severe haze since three days ago. I have
interviewed several residents .. let us listen to them now….
[N, T&L T4, SMK B, CHEM, 4SC/38-48]
Techniques such as class discussions can be effective in infusing environmental education
(Shahabuddin Hashim, Rohizani Yaakub, Mohd. Zohir Ahmad, 2003) as students learn to express themselves
clearly and also the skills of argumentation. Demonstrations and Question and Answer sessions can help
students to remember and recall concepts that they learn (Ramlah Hamzah, 1993). Experiments strengthen
understanding as well as assist students to conceptualise better (Lave dan Wagner, 1991; Ertepinar H. &
Geban O., 1996). The findings do indicate that some of the examples used by the teachers are based on local
experience. Hence, it appears that the location of the schools in the polluted area may indeed have made
the teachers more aware of the environment.
The Informal Infusion in School
Much of the informal infusion of environmental education in school occurs during co-curricular
activities especially in societal activities after school. The analysis indicates that the most common activities
are camping, environmental campaigns, field trips, out of class activities, recycling activities and
competitions. Table 4 gives some examples.
Table 4: Ways of Informal Infusing Environmental Education in the School
No.
1
2
Infusion
Approach
Camping
Environmental
Campaigns
3
Field trips
4
Out of class
Excerpt
"During camping activities, we go jungle tracking and other activities related
to nature. We are taught how not to damage any plants and such. We also
learn about keeping the environment clean”.
[F, IN, S4, SMK B, (02072013), (6:31)/58-61]
"During our co-curricular activities sometimes we have an environmental
campaign. Normally we have outside speakers who will give us a talk about
mother earth and how we should care for it”.
[Q, IN, S3, SMK A, (02072013), (5:35)/57-59]
"In our Science and Mathematics Club, we had a Green Earth campaign and
we prepared a herbal gardenas our activity. We planted several types of
herbal plants.. to guard our mother earth”.
[H, IN, S5, SMK B, (09072013), (4:55)/55-58]
"......Yes. in the Geography society, we try and make field trips – for example
I take my students to the sewage or rubbish treatment centres”.
[A, IN, S5, SMK B, (05.07.2013), (7:01)/65-68]
16
www.moj-es.net
No.
5
Infusion
Approach
activities/
Recycling
activities
Competitions
Excerpt
"Emm... in our Consumer and Recreation clubswe emphasise environmental
cleanliness. For example we have activities where our members create
objects from recyclable activities such as bottles, paper, boxes and sich’.
[S, IN, S2, SMK A, (02072013), (5:15)/62-65]
"Ok.. I can infuse environmental education through competitions. For
example in the National Language Society I try and organise speech and
peotry competitions, essay competitions and even forums about the
importance of caring for the environment.
[A, IN, T5, SMK B, (05.07.2013), (7:01)/60-64]
Krantz (2002) emphasized the importance of experiential learning. Through the activities mentioned
above, teachers would be able to infuse Environmental Education inside or outside classroom (Mohammad
Zohir Ahmad & Nordin Abdul Razak, 2007). It is clear that several societies in the school plan and execute
environmental related activities. Once again this could be because of the location of the schools.
CONCLUSION
Recent disturbing statistics about melting ice and changing weather, the case for effective
environmental education [which now in Malaysia as elsewhere evolving into Education for Sustainable
Development (ESD)] is even more necessary. In Malaysia as was stated earlier, from the nineties
environmental education was to be integrated or infused across the curriculum. Many previous studies of
both urban and rural locations have indicated only minimum success in terms of infusion as teachers often
say that preparing students for examinations supersedes all else. This study located in a polluted area which
investigated both formal and informal approaches both in school and at home indicates encouraging positive
behaviour on the part of the teachers and parents in trying to infuse environmental education through the
various activities in school and at home. Many of the activities and techniques carried out by the parents and
teachers appear to be influenced by the local surroundings. Nevertheless, the parents and teachers for most
of the time act independently of each other. Therefore, perhaps this could be a starting point in Malaysia
where parents can be consciously included by schools and be continually made aware of what and how they
can participate together with the teachers in various school activities to take the infusion of environmental
education to the next level. The results also showed the informal infusion of Environmental Education at
home and in school are the method of implementing environmental education through experience. The
informal infusion at home are also important as a basic environmental education which is begins in childrens
live. However, since it occurs indirectly and unplanned, so its less effectiveness than formal infusion in school.
Therefore the infusion of formal environmental education in schools is more likely lead to pro environmental
behaviour. This is due to the application of methods that are more effective, organized and planned.
REFERENCES
Abdullah Nasih Ulwan, (2004). Pendidikan Anak-anak Dalam Islam. (Terj. Syed Ahmad Semait). Jil. 1 dan 2.
Cet. Ke-13. Singapura: Pustaka Nasional.
Adawiyah Ismail. (2007). Kaunseling Islam Ke arah Pembentukan Keluarga Dinamik. Shah Alam: Karisma
Publications Sdn. Bhd.
Adenan Satem. (2004). Asas Pembentukan Sekolah Lestari. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
17
www.moj-es.net
Bailey, C.A. (2007). A guide to qualitative field research (2nd Edition). London: Pine Forge Press.
Barney, E., Mintzes, J., & Yen, C. (2005). Assessing knowledge, attitudes, and behavior toward charismatic
megafauna: The case of dolphins. The Journal of Environmental Education, 36(2), 41–55.
Curriculum Development Centre. (1998). Buku Panduan Guru Pendidikan Alam Sekitar Merentas Kurikulum
KBSR. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Education Malaysia.
Department of Environment. (2011). Environmental Quality Report, Ministry of Science, Technology and
Innovation, Malaysia.
Economic Planning Unit Malaysia, (2011). Tenth Malaysia Plan.
Ernst, J. (2007). Factors Associated With K–12 Teachers’ Use of Environment-Based Education. The Journal
of Environmental Education, 38 (3), 15 – 31.
Ertepinar, H. & Geban, O. (1996). Effect of instruction supplied with the investigative-oriented laboratory
approach on achievement in a science course. Educational Research, 38, 333-341.
Farmer, J. Knapp, D & Benton, G.M. (2007). An Elementary School Environmental Education Field Trip: LongTerm Effects on Ecological and Environmental Knowledge and Attitude Development. The Journal of
Environmental Education, 35 (3), 33-42.
Haliza Abdul Rahman, (2007). Suatu Tinjauan Terhadap Isu Pencemaran Sungai di Malaysia. Retrieved on
March 26, 2014, from http://sssums.files.wordpress.com/2007/09/suatu-tinjauan-terhadap-isupencemaran-sungai-di-msia
Hassan Langgulung. (1981). Beberapa tinjauan dalam pendidikan Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Antara.
Hazinah Nor Hanipah, (2009). Penerapan Pendidikan Alam Sekitar Merentas Kurikulum di Kalangan Guru
Sekolah Menengah: Satu Tinjauan. Unpublished Thesis. Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris.
Ika Liana Khalid, Rosta Harun, Azizi Muda & Ismi Arif Ismail, (2011). Level of Knowledge on Environmental
Issues and Enviromental Education of Primary Schools’ Headmasters in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. World
Applied Sciences Journal, 14, 97 -100
Jaana M.L., Anu E. H., Anssi M.L. dan Markku T.K., (2012). Parent-Child Similarity in Environmental Attitudes:
A Pairwise Comparison. The Journal of Environmental Education, 43 (3), 162-174.
Kollmuss, A. & Ageyman, J. (2002). Mind the Gap: why do people act environmentally and what are the
barriers to pro-environmental behaviour. Environmental Education Research, 8 (3), 239 – 260.
Krantz, P.D. (2002). A Study of the Impact of Environmental Education Workshops on Teachers’ attitude and
efficacy. Thesis Ph.D. University of Missouri Columbia. Umi ProQuest Digital Dissertations.
Lave, J. & Wagner, E. (1991) Situated Learning: Legitimate Pepheral Participation. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
18
www.moj-es.net
May, T. S. (2000). Elements of Success in Environmental Education through Practitioner Eyes. The Journal of
Environmental Education, 31 (3), 4 – 11.
McMillan, J. H. (2000). Educational Research: Fundamentals for the consumer.(3rd. Ed.). New York: Longman.
Merriam, S. B. (2001). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. California: Jossey-Bass.
Mohammad Zohir Ahmad & Nordin Abdul Razak. (2007). Pendidikan Alam Sekitar di Sekolah: Komitmen Guru.
Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Mok, S. S. (1992). Pedagogi 2: Strategi Pengajaran Pembelajaran Mikro. Kuala Lumpur: Kumpulan Budiman
Sdn. Bhd.
Moore. Shirley G. (1992). The Role of Parents in the Development of Peer Group Competence. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Services No.ED346992).
Palmer, J. & Neal, P. (1994). The Handbook of Environmental Education. London: Routledge.
Pauziah Abd Wahab, (2004). The implementation of environmental education across the curriculum at the
primary school level. Unpublished Master’s Thesis. Universiti Malaya.
Perikleous, E., (2004). The Status of Environmental Education in Cyprus Today. Dlm. MIO-ECSDE. The status
of environmental education in the Mediterranean countries within the formal & non-formal
educational systems. Dec, Issue No.34.
Pudin, S. (2008). Environmental education and awareness in Sabah. Paper presented at the PUSAT
symposium, 15 August 2008, Environment Protection Department Sabah.
Ramlah Hamzah (1993). Persepsi dan Masalah Guru Terhadap Mata Pelajaran Kemahiran Hidup. Jurnal
Pendidikan Guru , Bahagian Pendidikan Guru (KPM) Bil.9 : 50-71.
Shahabuddin Hashim, Rohizani Yaakub, Mohd. Zohir Ahmad. (2003). Pedagogi: Strategi dan Teknik Mengajar
dengan Berkesan. Pahang: PTS Publications & Distributor Sdn. Bhd.
Sharifah Alwiah Alsagoff (1986). Ilmu Pendidikan: Pedagogi. Kuala Lumpur: Heinemann, ctk.4.
Singletary, T. J. (1992). Case Studies of Selected High School Environmental Education classes. The Journal of
Environmental Education, 23(4), 35-40.
Vaughan, C., Gack, J., Solorazano, H. & Ray, R. (2003). The effect of environmental education on school
children, their parents and community members: A study of intergenerational and intercommunity
learning. The Journal of Environmental Education, 34 (3), 12 – 21.
Winther, A.A., Volk, T. L. & Shrock, S.A. (2002). Teacher decision making in the 1st year of Implementing an
Issues-Based Environmental Education program: A Qualitative Study. The Journal of Environmental
Education, 33 (3), 27 – 33.
19
www.moj-es.net
WWF-Malaysia Report, (2010). Infusing Environmental Education in the Existing National Curriculum – First
Cycle. WWF-Malaysia Publication.
WWF-Malaysia Report, (2011). Infusing Environmental Education in the Existing National Curriculum –
Second Cycle. WWF-Malaysia Publication.
WWF-Malaysia Report, (2012). Infusing Environmental Education in the Existing National Curriculum – Third
Cycle. WWF-Malaysia Publication.
20
www.moj-es.net
Malaysian Mathematics Teachers’ Beliefs
about the Nature of Teaching and Learning
[1] University of Malaya,
[email protected]
[2] University of Malaya,
[email protected]
Nuraini Mohd Zikre [1], Leong Kwan Eu [2]
ABSTRACT
Teachers play a vital role in nurturing and shaping learners in school. Extensive researches
have been conducted showing that beliefs in the nature of teaching and learning held by
the teachers will affect their actual classroom practices. In Malaysia, not many studies have
been done on mathematics teacher's beliefs at the national level. The purpose of this study
is to investigate the beliefs of Malaysian mathematics teachers at the secondary level. The
sample of this study consisted of 39 mathematics teachers who were randomly selected
from all the secondary schools in Malaysia. This is a quantitative study using descriptive
statistics and mean differences to interpret the data. The finding showed that constructivist
beliefs are stronger than the direct transmission beliefs both the male and female teachers.
In addition, there was no significant difference in the direct transmission beliefs and
constructivist beliefs by gender.
Keywords:
Direct transmission beliefs; constructivist beliefs; secondary
mathematics teachers
INTRODUCTION
Learners require the “21st century skills” in order to succeed in todays’ challenging world. As part of
developing these skills, teachers teaching and their role as a teacher will also change. Teachers face the
challenge to start shifting from the 20th to 21st century classroom. One of the ways to help teachers to
overcome the challenge is to study the beliefs held by them. This is because Pajares (1992) claimed that the
teachers’ beliefs about the nature of teaching and learning plays a vital role in determining the teachers’
effectiveness and their instructional practices (Leder, Pehkonen, & Torner, 2002; van de Schaaf, Stokking, &
Verloop, 2008; Wilkins, 2008).
Studies have suggested that teachers’ beliefs and values about teaching and learning will affect their
teaching practices (see reviews by Clark & Peterson, 1986; Fang, 1996; Kagan, 1992; Thompson, 1992).
According to Pajares (1992), there is a strong relationship between pedagogical beliefs of teacher, their
planning for teaching, teaching decisions and classroom practices (as cited by Fakhri R. Khader, 2012. Ernest
(1989) believes that the beliefs hold by the teachers will have a strong effect in their teaching practices. This
is because the teacher will convert their beliefs into a practical reality.
Literature Review
Content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and beliefs held by the teachers are factors that will
influence the effectiveness of teaching and learning in a classroom. Among these, teacher’ beliefs is the key
in determining the teacher’ teaching. According to Johnson (1994), there are three basic assumptions used
while studying teachers’ beliefs: (a) Influence of teachers’ beliefs on perception and judgment, (b) role of
teachers’ beliefs in translating information into the classroom practices, (c) teaching practices and education
21
www.moj-es.net
programs can be improved by understanding teachers’ beliefs (as cited in Farrell, 2005, p. 439). This shows
that teachers are highly influenced by their beliefs (William & Burden, 1997).
Beliefs are filters that teachers use as a guide for their instructional and curricular decision making
(Pajares, 1992; Prawat, 1992). It thus affects how, what and why teachers adopt a particular approach or
method during teaching, which in turn will affect the learners’ development (William & Burden, 1997).
Teachers’ beliefs systems indicate their personal theories regarding the nature of knowledge (Hofer &
Pintrich, 1997; Lovat & Smith, 1995; Pajares, 1992). Thompson (1984) claimed that teachers’ beliefs is the
“manifestations of unconsciously held views of expressions of verbal commitments to abstract ideas that
may be thought of as part of a general ideology of teaching” (p. 112 ).
Beliefs held by the teachers are very complex since it involves many aspects (Dogruera, et. al, 2010).
Researchers agreed that a system of mathematics beliefs mainly consist of the beliefs about (a) what
mathematics is, (b) how mathematics teaching and learning actually occur, and (c) how mathematics teaching
and learning should occur ideally (Ernest, 1989a, a1989b; Thompson, 1991). Among these, beliefs about what
mathematics is play an important role in determining how mathematics teaching occurs and how it should
actually occur, ideally.
A number of researches have been conducted both nationally and internationally. In Malaysia, the
study about the teachers beliefs were anylysed by qualitative (Maizan, 2010; Siti Mistima & Effandi, 2010)
and quantitative (Roslina, 2007; Marzita, 2005; Cheah, 2001) methods. A study reported that the beliefs of
mathematics pre-service teachers were more positive towards constructivism approach (Effandi Zakaria &
Norulpaziana Musiran, 2010). Another study by Salmiza Salleh & Afik Aziz (2012) found that Malaysian
teachers were still bounded by the conventional teaching methods (teacher-centered). This is consistent with
a study conducted by Munirah Ghazali & Santi Sinnakaudan (2014) stating that Malaysian SJKC mathematics
teachers favour informal beliefs, which is constructivist belief; while SK and SJKT teachers favour formal
beliefs, which is direct transmission belief. However, the results also showed that SK and SJKT mathematics
teachers held mixture of both formal and informal beliefs.
According to Schoenfeld (1985), beliefs of mathematics teacher is his / her individual perspectives on
how students should engage with mathematical tasks. Beliefs held by the teachers are affected by the
teachers’ own experiences, experience with schooling and instruction, and experience with formal
knowledge (Richardson, 1996). Randolph Philipp used “teachers’ orientation” to refer to the pattern of
beliefs held by the teachers. Philipp (2007) divided orientations into conceptual and calculational
orientations.
This study adapted several items from The Teaching and Learning International Study
(TALIS)
study (OECD, 2009). In addition, this study utilised the beliefs on nature of teaching using the two constructs
for the beliefs in the nature of teaching and learning, which include direct transmission and constructivist
beliefs. Teachers who held the direct transmission beliefs tend “to communicate knowledge in a clear and
structured way, to explain correct solutions, to give students clear and resolvable problems, and to ensure
calm and concentration in the classroom” (OECD, 2009, p. 92). On the other hand, teachers with
constructivist beliefs “emphasize facilitating student inquiry, prefer to give students the chance to develop
solutions to problems on their own, and allow students to play active role in instructional activities” (OECD,
2009, p. 92).
Singer (1996) claimed that beliefs held by the male and female teachers may differ systematically (as
cited in OECD, 2009). However, Chan (2004) reported that there are no differences in the conception of
teaching and learning among the Hong Kong pre-service teachers. Research by Effandi Zakaria &
Norulpaziana Musiran (2010) found that “beliefs about the nature of mathematics and mathematics learning
are influenced by gender, but no difference was found regarding mathematics teaching” (p. 349).
The differences in beliefs may be caused by teachers’ experiences, which includes upbringing, life
experiences or their previous schooling processes (Raths, 2001). Belief was initially formed based on the
teacher’s experience when they were students and the influence of their former teachers on them (Effandi
Zakaria & Norulpaziana Musiran, 2010). Research by Li (1999) showed that there are links between teachers’
beliefs and students’ gender in mathematics education. Furthermore, Li (1999) claimed that teachers tend
to believe that mathematics is male dominant and thus have a more positive attitude towards them. This
will, in turn, affect the students’ beliefs as some of them might grow up to be an educator in the future.
22
www.moj-es.net
Studying beliefs is very important in education research (Pajares 1992). This is not due to the
emotional debate on the topic, but because teachers’ belief is a complex process. In addition to that, the
effects of teachers’ beliefs also have to be taken into account since it involves students’ performance, who
will be our future leaders.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Objective and Research Question
The objective of this study is to investigate the beliefs in the nature teaching and learning among the
secondary (Form 1) mathematics teachers in Malaysia. The study attempted to answer two research
questions:
1. What beliefs does a mathematics teachers hold on the nature of teaching and learning?
2. Is there any significant difference between the male and female mathematics teachers’ beliefs on
the nature of teaching and learning?
Participants
The focus was given to the national secondary schools since it covers more than 80% of the secondary
schools in Malaysia. The schools were randomly selected throughout the country. Once a particular school
was selected, all the form one teachers teaching Malay, English, Mathematics and Science were included in
the sample. However, the teachers have the freedom to choose whether to participate or not. In addition to
that, if any of the school chose not to participate in the research, then the next school in the randomized list
was selected. The same process was repeated until a minimum of 30 teachers were achieved for each subject.
For this study purposes, only the sample of mathematics teachers were taken. A total of 39 in-service
teachers with 27 females (75%) and 12 males (25%) whose teaching experiences ranged from 1 to 25 years
participated in this study. These teachers were all teaching Form One mathematics.
Research Instrument
In this study, the researcher employed the quantitative analysis method using descriptive statistics
and independent t-test to analyse the data. The instrument used in this study to gather data was a survey
questionnaire. The questionnaire consists of 20 items on teachers’ instructional practices and beliefs in the
teaching and learning. For this study, only item 17 on teachers belief on nature of teaching and learning was
analysed. The beliefs were measured using four-point Likert scales, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly
agree. This question will be used to assess the beliefs of the respondents involved in the research. Item 17,
which was adapted from the TALIS study, consists of two main constructs, i.e. direct transmission beliefs and
constructivist beliefs.
Reliability of the instrument used was determined by using Cronbach’s Alpha. Table 1 shows the
constructs that were measured in this study and the Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients. The internal reliability of
the instrument ranging from 0.570 to 0.681, while the total reliability of the eight items is 0.650; which
indicates acceptable reliability.
Table 1: Constructs and its reliability
Construct
Number of items
Direct transmission beliefs
4
Constructivist beliefs
4
Total
8
Cronbach’s Alpha
Coefficient
0.570
0.681
0.650
23
www.moj-es.net
RESULTS
Research question 1, “What beliefs does a mathematics teachers hold on the nature of teaching and
learning?” was analysed using descriptive statistics. Table 2 summarises the frequencies and percentages of
secondary teachers on the nature of teaching and learning. The results showed that the teachers have
different perceptions regarding the descriptions of each of the beliefs. The results will be discussed based on
the descriptor for each type of the beliefs.
Based on the items Q17a, Q17g, Q17h and Q17k that focuses on the direct transmission beliefs,
majority of the teachers believes that in the process of teaching and learning, teachers should
(i)
Demonstrate the correct way of solving problem
About 92% of the teachers chose “Agree” and “Strongly Agree” that they should show to the students
how to solve problems correctly. Only 2.6% chose “Disagree”.
(ii)
Provide instruction around problems with clear, correct answers and around ides that most
students can grasp quickly
Around 90% of the teachers “Agree” and “Strongly Agree” about this statement.
(iii) Teach facts to the students
About 67% and 18% teachers “Agree” and “Strongly Agree” that factual knowledge should be
delivered in a classroom.
The last item of direct transmission beliefs showed a variation. Almost the same number of teachers
“Disagree” and “Agree” (15 and 13, respectively) that more quiet classroom atmosphere is needed for
effective teaching.
Table 2. Frequencies and Percentages for Teachers’ Beliefs in the Nature of Teaching and Learning
Constructivist Direct Transmission Beliefs
Beliefs
Description
(Q17a)
Effective / good teachers
demonstrate the correct way to
solve problem
(Q17g)
Instruction should be built
around problems with clear,
correct answers and around ideas
that most students can grasp
quickly
(Q17h)
How much students learn
depends on how much
background knowledge they have
– that is why teaching facts is so
necessary
(Q17k)
A quiet classroom is generally
needed for effective teaching
(Q17d)
My role as a teacher is to
facilitate students’ own inquiry
(Q17f)
Students learn best by finding
Strongly
Disagree
0
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
1
17
19
2.6%
43.6%
48.7%
1
28
7
2.6%
71.8%
17.9%
4
26
7
2.6%
10.3%
66.7%
17.9%
1
15
13
8
2.6%
38.5%
33.3%
20.5%
4
25
9
10.3%
64.1%
23.1%
2
16
19
0%
0
0%
1
0
0%
0
24
www.moj-es.net
Description
solutions to problems on their
own
(Q17i)
Students should be allowed to
think of solutions to practical
problems themselves before the
teacher shows them how they
are solved
(Q17l)
Thinking and reasoning processes
are more important than specific
curriculum content
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
0%
5.1%
41.0%
48.7%
0
20
18
0%
51.3%
46.2%
2
26
9
5.1%
66.7%
23.1%
0
0%
0
0%
Based on the items Q17d, Q17f, Q17i and Q17l that focuses on the constructivist beliefs, majority of
the teachers supported this belief in teaching and learning.
(i)
About 87% of the teachers “Agree” and “Strongly Agree” that their role, in the process of
teaching and learning, is to facilitate on the students’ inquiry, instead of mere transferring of
knowledge.
(ii)
Almost 90% of the teachers believe that students learn best by finding solutions on the own and
think that thinking as well as reasoning processes are important compared to the curriculum
content.
(iii) All teachers who answered Item 17(i) “Agree” and “Strongly Agree” that students should be
allowed to think of the solutions to the given problem, before they are showed how to solve.
An independent t-test was conducted to answer the research question 2, "Is there any significant
difference between the male and female mathematics teachers’ beliefs on the nature of teaching and
learning?
Table 3. Mean Score Differences Between Gender using Independent t-test
Construct
Gender
Mean
SD
t-value
Direct
transmission
beliefs
Constructivist
beliefs
Male
Female
12.78
12.30
1.09
1.81
-.75
Sig (2
tailed)
.46
Male
Female
13.10
13.37
1.73
1.42
.49
.63
As shown in Table 3, the data on teachers beliefs were obtained from samples of 27 females and 12
males, with a male sample mean of 12.78 (M=12.78, SD=1.09) and a females sample mean of 12.30 (M=12.30,
SD=1.81) for the direct transmission beliefs. Male teachers had stronger direct transmission beliefs than
female teachers. For the constructivist beliefs, the males sample mean of 13.10(M=13.10, SD=1.73) while the
female sample means of 13.37(M=13.37, SD=1.42). Female teachers had higher constructivist beliefs when
compared to male teachers. When comparing the two beliefs constructs, male and female teachers had a
stronger constructivist beliefs than the direct transmission beliefs.
The independent t test indicated that the direct transmission beliefs means were not statistically
significant for male and female teachers (t=-.75, df=37, p=.46). Thus, we fail to reject the null hypothesis that
the direct transmission beliefs means were the same by gender was rejected at the .05 level of significance.
The results provide evidence to support the conclusion that males and females do not differ in direct
transmission beliefs.
25
www.moj-es.net
The independent t test indicated that the constructivist beliefs means were not statistically
significant for male and female teachers (t=.49, df=37, p=.63). Thus, we fail to reject the null hypothesis that
the constructivist beliefs means were the same by gender was rejected at the .05 level of significance. The
results provide evidence to support the conclusion that males and females do not differ in constructivist
beliefs.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
This study investigated the beliefs in the nature teaching and learning among the secondary
mathematics teachers in Malaysia. The results showed some similarities and differences in terms of direct
transmission beliefs and constructivist beliefs in nature of teaching and learning.
The results showed that in general Malaysian mathematics teachers had stronger constructivist
beliefs then directed transmission beliefs for both male and female teachers. This would mean that they
believe in a student-centered learning environment where teachers facilitate the learning and students play
an active role in the mathematics classroom. Teachers with a constructivist view would not be too concerned
with transmitting knowledge but to also focus on helping students construct their knowledge in mathematics.
Furthermore, this would fit nicely with the 21st century learning skills that encourages students to develop
their knowledge through exploration and investigation. Teacher education and curriculum implementation
would have influenced teachers’ constructivist beliefs. The next step would be to observe whether the
constructivist beliefs of teachers would be reflected in their instructional practices.
Male teachers tend to have stronger direct transmission beliefs than female teachers in the nature
of teaching and learning mathematics. This is consistent with TALIS study claiming that “female teachers are
less likely than male teachers to see teaching as the direct transmission of knowledge and are more likely to
adopt structuring and student oriented practices” (OECD, 2009, p. 88). However, the inferential statistics
results indicated that there is no significant difference in the direct transmission beliefs by teacher’s gender.
For the constructivist beliefs, female teachers had a higher mean score compared to the male teachers.
Nonetheless the t-test result showed that there is no significant difference in the constructivist beliefs for
the male and female teachers. What is more important is the result indicated that Malaysian teachers
supports direct transmission beliefs or constructivist beliefs without looking at gender. In addition, the beliefs
about how beliefs in pedagogy played a pertinent role in determining how mathematics teaching occurs and
how it should actually occur in the classrooms (Ernest, 1989a, Thompson, 1991).
In future studies, the consistency between teachers’ beliefs and instructional practice could be
investigated. This would provide a clear connection between what teachers’ beliefs and how it affects their
classroom practice. The beliefs study could be extended further by comparing on the nature of mathematics
and beliefs about mathematics teaching and learning that includes factors such as students’ learning,
teacher’s role and teaching practice with the results of this study. By understanding the beliefs of
mathematics teachers, the teacher education programme could design and develop courses that suit the
need for the 21st century learning skills. A further study could be done to explore the relationships of their
beliefs, instructional practice and professional development.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was funded in part by the University of Malaya Research Grant (UMRG) RP004-13SBS, the
Equitable Society Research Cluster and the University of Malaya Rakan Penyelidikan Grant.
REFERENCES
Chan, K.W. (2004). Preservice teachers epsitemological beliefs and conceptions about teaching and learning:
Cultural implications for research in teacher education. Aust. J. Teacher Educ., 29: 1-13.
26
www.moj-es.net
Cheah, U. H. (2001). The construction of mathematics beliefs by trainee teachers in a teachers college: A
multicase study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Clark, C. M., & Peterson, P. L. (1986). Teachers' thought processes. In M. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research
in teaching (3rd ed.) (pp. 255-296). New York: MacMillan.
Doğruer, N., Menevi, I., & Eyyam, R. (2010). EFL teachers’ beliefs on learning English and their teaching styles.
Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 3, 83–87.
Effandi Zakaria & Norulpaziana Musiran. (2010). Beliefs about the nature of mathematics, mathematics
teaching and learning among trainee teachers. The Social Sciences, 5(4), pp. 436-351.
Ernest, P. (1989a). The impact of beliefs on the teaching of mathematics. In P. Ernest (Ed.), Mathematics
teaching: The state of art (pp. 249–254). New York: Falmer.
Ernest, P. (1989b). The knowledge, beliefs and attitudes of the mathematics teacher: A model. Journal of
Education for Teaching, 15, 13–34.
Fakhri R. Khader. (2012). Teachers’ Pedagogical Beliefs and Actual Classroom Practices in Social Studies
Instruction. American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 2(1).
Fang, Z. (1996). A review of research on teacher beliefs and practices. Educational Research, 38(l), 47-65.
Farrell, T. S. C. & Lim, P. C. P. (2005). Conceptions of grammar teaching: A case study ofteachers' beliefs and
classroom practices, TESL-EJ, 9(2), 1-13.
Hofer, B. K., & Pintrich, P. R. (1997). The development of epistemological theories: Beliefsabout knowledge
and knowing and their relation to learning. Review of EducationalResearch, 67(1), 88-140.
Kagan, D. M. (1992). Implications of research on teacher belief. Educational Psychologist, 27, 65-90.
Leder, G. C., Pehkonen, E., & Torner, G. (Eds.). (2002). Beliefs: A hidden variable in mathematics education?
(Vol. 31). Dordrecht, The Netherlands/Boston, MA/London, England: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Li, Q. (1999). Teachers' beliefs and gender differences in mathematics. A Review of Educational Research,
41(1), 63 -76.
Lovat, T. J., & Smith, D. (1995). Curriculum: Action on reflection revisited. Australia: Social Science Press.
Maizan Mahmud. (2010). Kepercayaan dan Pengetahuan Pensyarah Matematik dan Pencapaian Pelajar
Politeknik Malaysia: Pendekatan Model Persamaan Berstruktur. Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Marzita Puteh. (2005). The Affective Domain of Learning Mathematics, in Improving Teaching and Learning
of Mathematics: From Theory to Practice. Shah Alam: UPENA, Universiti Teknologi MARA.
27
www.moj-es.net
Munirah Ghazali & Santi Sinnakaudan. (2014). Reasearch on teachers’ beliefs about mathematics teaching
and learning between Sekolah Kebangsaan (SK), Sekolah Jenis Kebangsaan Cina (SJKC) ans Sekolah
Jenis Kebangsaan Tamil (SJKT). Journal of Education and Practice, 5(31).
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2009). Creating effective teaching and learning
environments:First
results
from
TALIS.
Paris,
France:
Author.
Retrieved
from
http://www.oecd.org/education/school/43023606.pdf
Pajares, M. F. (1992) Teachers’ beliefs and educational research: Cleaning Up a messy construct, Review of
Educational Research, 62, 3, 307-332.
Philipp, R. A. (2007). Mathematics teachers’ beliefs and affect. In F. K. Lester (Ed.), Second handbook of
research on mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 257-315). Charlotte, NC: National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics & Information Age Publishing.
Prawat, R. S. (1992). Teacher’s beliefs about teaching and learning: A Constructivist perspective. American
Journal of Education, 100(3), 354–394.
Raths, J. (2001) Teachers’ beliefs and teaching beliefs. Early Childhood Research and Practice, 3(1), Retrieved:
http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v3n1/raths.html
Richardson, V. (1996). The role of attitudes and beliefs in learning to teach. In J. Sikula(Eds.), Handbook of
research on teacher education (2nd ed., pp. 102-119). NewYork, U.S.A.: Macmillan.
Roslina Radzali. (2007). Kepercayaan matematik, metakognisi, perwakilan masalah dan penyelesaian
masalah matematik dalam kalangan pelajar. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia.
Salmiza Saleh & Afik Aziz. (2012). Teaching practices among secondary school teachers in Malaysia. In
International Proceedings of Economics Development and Research, 47, pp. 63-67. DOI:
10.7763/IPEDR.
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1985). Mathematical problem solving. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.Siti Mistima Maat &
Effandi Zakaria. (2010). Hubungan antara kepercayaan matematik, amalan pengajaran dan
pengetahuan pedagogi kandungan guru-guru matematik sekolah menengah. Prosiding Seminar
Penyelidikan Siswazah UKM Jilid 5, 2010.
Thompson, A. G. (1984). The relationship of teachers’ conceptions of mathematics and mathematics teaching
to instructional practice. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 15, 105-127.
Thompson, A. G. (1991). The development of teachers conceptions of mathematics teaching.
Proceedings of the 13th Annual Conference of the North American Chapter of the International Group for the
Psychology of Mathematics Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 352274.)
Thompson, A. G. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and conception: A synthesis of the research. In D.
28
www.moj-es.net
A. Grouws (Ed.), handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 127-146). New York:
Macmillan. van de Schaaf, M. F., Stokking, K. M., & Verloop, N. (2008). Teacher beliefs and teacher
behavior in portfolio assessment. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(7), 1691–1704.
Wilkins, J. L. M. (2008). The relationship among elementary teachers’ content knowledge, attitudes, beliefs,
and practices. Journal of Mathematics Teachers Education, 11(2), 139–164.
Williams, J., & Burden, R. (1997). Psychology for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
29
www.moj-es.net
The Relationship Between Anxiety and
Test-Taking C-Test and Cloze-Test
University of Malaya
Mozhgan Azimi [1]
ABSTRACT
Anxiety has an important role in teaching and learning. If teachers can recognize which kind
of tests create high anxiety then they will be able to omit these kinds of tests. Then, the
results of test can probably show the students’ knowledge more carefully. The subjects of
the present study were sixty Iranian female junior university students. They were given
three kinds of test: an anxiety test, a C-test and a Cloze-test. Descriptive statistics for
subjects' performance on the Cloze-test and C-test were used to compare the mean score
of the subjects in both tests. Finally, the results of anxiety test and C-test were correlated
and then the results of anxiety test and Cloze-test were also correlated. The anxious
students feel more anxiety while taking C-test than Cloze-test.
Keywords:
Anxiety, Cloze-Test and C-test
INTRODUCTION
Anxiety creates many potential problems for learning foreign languages, because it has negative
effects on the acquisition, retention, and production of language (Robinson, 2009). One of the results of
anxiety is that students forget lessons and assignments, and cannot concentrate on their lessons and
understand them. These lead to memorizing or cheating and generally, they have no chance for success
(Coşkun, 2013).
Psychologists believe that anxiety is a drive whose reason is not fully known. Anxiety is a general term
for several disorders that cause nervousness, fear, apprehension, and worrying. It is a general phenomenon
and does not lead to any special target. Anxiety is usually accompanied by danger expectations (Corsini,
1999). Generally speaking, anxiety is an unknown phenomenon. Anxiety is like a wave; at first, it springs up
in an individual, then it will be intensified and it will gradually reach its peak and then it will decrease and
finally disappear (Lefrancois, 1991,1995). People often experience a general state of worry or fear before
confronting something challenging such as a test, examination, recital, or interview. These feelings are easily
justified and considered normal. Anxiety is considered a problem when symptoms interfere with a person's
ability to sleep or otherwise function. Generally speaking, anxiety occurs when a reaction is out of proportion
with what might be normally expected in a situation
Anxiety has been defined “As apprehension, tension or uneasiness from anticipation of danger, the
source of which is largely unknown or unrecognized primarily of intrasychic origin, in distinction fear, which
is the emotional response to a consciously recognized and usually external threat or danger. Anxiety may be
regarded as pathologic when it interferes with effectiveness in living, achievement of desired goals or
satisfaction, or reasonable emotional comfort” (Edgerton, 1994, p. 17).
30
www.moj-es.net
Spielberger (1983) and Faleye (2010) stated that anxiety is created when someone faces a problem,
or an obstacle, so that they cannot satisfy their needs and if these are important and vital needs, anxiety will
be more sever and lasting. In addition, if these obstacles reach to the level of constant frustration, the person
will always be anxious.
It must be noted here that a small degree of anxiety is normal and even necessary to do things. This
fact should be considered that anxiety is very beneficial at normal levels (Csizér & Piniel, 2013), the point is
that less anxious students will be more successful than the more anxious students because the former group
is more spontaneous, more creative and have better judgment, but the latter ones are very careful about
their errors, consume more time solving a problem and check the problems several time and finally cannot
recognize their thoughts creatively (Çubukçu, 2008). Anxious learners do not volunteer to answer questions
or to participate in classroom activities. These students always complain that their class moves too quickly
and they are left behind. It is natural because the anxious students require more time for learning. These
factors aeffect not only on learning but also on test taking, they cannot perform well, they do not have
enough time and they cannot remember the things, which they have learned before (Tsai, 2013). Anxious
students use simple structures in their speaking, this problem will cause these students not to be able to
communicate in the second language (Oxford, 1999).
Review of Literature
According to Horwitz (1986) there are four major theoretical approaches to anxiety, but none of them
is thorough and perfect. They cannot fully explain the nature and origin of anxiety. However, they present
some insights about anxiety, which are helpful in grasping a better view of it.
(1)
(2)
a.
b.
(3)
a.
(4)
Biological Theory of Anxiety
Psychoanalytic Theory of Anxiety
Freudian Theory
Neo-Freudian Theory
Behavioral Theory of Anxiety
Cognitive Social Learning Theory
Cognitive Theory of Anxiety (Horwitz, 1986)
Here, it will be examined each of these theories separately.
(1)
It is obvious that there is a strong relationship between biological processes and anxiety. But, so far
it has not recognized whether anxiety causes biological changes or biological changes produce anxiety
(Horwitz, 1986).
Rreferring to Eysenck’s view (1997), Powell and Enright (1991) stated that “Individual differences in
the experience of anxiety may occur as a result of the inheritance of a particular genetic make-up that
predisposes the individual toward high or low emotional ability. This is defined as the tendency to react with
greater or lesser intensity to a particular stimulus, which might cause distress. Eysenck (1991) also suggests
that some individuals are also more likely toward forming strong conditioned responses; it means, certain
personality characteristics are believed to have certain genetic components; therefor, they are more likely
to experience anxiety in many occasions (Ibid).
31
www.moj-es.net
(2)
This theory consists of two parts as the following:
a.
Freudian theory
b.
Neo-Freudian theory
a.
Freudian theory
Referring to Freud’s opinions Powell and Enright (1991) believe that “There
are
three
kinds of anxiety: Real anxiety, which is said or responded to real
danger. Mood and neurotic anxiety,
which cause psychological problems. The
first experience of anxiety occurs as a result of birth. The
infant is dispatched
from the security of the womb into new and unfamiliar situation. This primary
anxiety sets the pattern. Then for all other experiences of anxiety”. (p.35) The other kind of anxiety
is moral anxiety, which is called fear of punishment. It is
recognized as guilt or shame. The third one,
neurotic anxiety is associated with
socially unacceptable behavior.
b.
Neo-Freudian theory
This theory was developed against Freud’s theory. Neo-Freudians rejected
Freud’s idea.
According to this theory; “primary anxiety did not occur at birth,
but later. A child has not only
physiological needs but also psychological. She needs protection and support and anxiety is aroused or
potential frustration of these dependency needs” (Powell and Enright, 1991, p.36)
(3)
Behavioral Theory of anxiety
Watson and Rayner (1993) worked on behavioral theory of anxiety and they believed that anxiety
could be acquired by classical conditioning. They contend that some fears through a process become
conditioned. Behaviorist theory believes learning takes place through stimulus and response. The
behaviorists believe there is a strong connection between stimulus and response. If the response is desirable,
it will be strengthened by positive reinforcement. This process is repeated several times and gradually the
desired response will change into a habit. If the response is not desirable, it will be discouraged and it will be
hindered before changing into a habit. Generally, reinforcement is a very important tool in learning,
especially in the early stages (Ibid).
a.
Cognitive-social learning theory
This theory is one branch of behavioral Theory of anxiety (Bandura, 1986,
1986). According to this theory, anxiety is learned through four
mechanisms:
Horwitz,
i.
By classical conditioning: as mentioned before in behavioral theory of
anxiety section.
ii.
By vicarious experience: watching another person who suffers from
anxiety.
iii.
By symbolic instruction: which is associated with learning through
education.
iv.
By symbolic logic: in which someone might infer or induce some
kinds of danger. This inference might be reasonable or unreasonable.
(4)
Cognitive Theory of Anxiety
Cognitive theorists believe that situations on matters, by themselves, do not produce anxiety. Rather,
the individuals’ interpretation cause anxiety and this kind of anxiety is not related to the external world.
Someone might misinterpret a real situation which would cause unreal anxiety (Rieg, et.al, 2007).
Relationship Between Anxiety and Second Language Learning
The main point is that anxiety is related to learning other languages. It is a fact that every aspect of a
task has many small elements and this feeling whether we can tackle these elements properly or not, or
generally this complex task, can create anxiety ( Pourebrahim, et. al, 2010). Since second language learning
32
www.moj-es.net
has many complex tasks, we cannot consider it an exception. Listening and speaking are considered as the
main sources of creating anxiety. Spontaneous speech, unprepared communication, inability for
understanding words, idioms or expressions and comprehension difficulty create high levels of anxiety, not
only at anxious situation but also at normal situations (Tum, 2012).
Anxious students learn at a slow rate and they have more difficulty to recall the learned subjects. The
anxious students study more than normal or relaxed students, but their performance does not reflect their
efforts. Another way of compensation is over-studying. Some anxious students will be so anxious when they
make errors in their test, and they try to compensate it by studying more. However, these additional efforts
will not lead to get better scores (Chapell, et, al, 2005).
According to Faleye (2010), students’ situation in one class may cause anxiety while in other classes
may not lead to anxiety. The students are anxious because of their experiences; they know their teachers
judge them. They do not like to be corrected in the presence of their peers. But it is proposed that low anxiety
has a positive effect on performance, but beyond a certain level, it hinders learning. Some kinds of anxiety
make learning more efficient and some kinds are regarded as hindrances to learning (Faleye, 2010).
Anxiety and Test-Taking
Anxious students feel that they learned the materials but their test performance did not reflect their
learning. Horwitz (1988) states that while test taking, most students feel anxiety. They usually complain to
counselors and teachers that they know the answers of the questions but they forget them because of high
anxiety. It is more common wile oral or speaking test “when many grammar points must be remembered
and coordinated simultaneously” (p.28). Horwitz (1988) goes further and states that same problem will be
occurred while selling test or syntax. The students remember correct answer after the test when the test
anxiety will be completely disappeared. If the student realizes he or she is making preventable errors during
the test, anxiety-and errors-may escalate.’(Ibid. P. 28)
Generally, anxiety does not permit students to examine more effective ways (Burns, 2004). They do
not want to wait to find the best solutions. They prefer to become relieved of the anxious situations. They
lose sight of broader circumstances and also they cannot see effective ways to their solution. The anxious
students are worried not only about answering questions but also about the result of the test. For this reason,
they cannot concentrate completely and perhaps this difference is one of the main factors for being
successful or unsuccessful. Most students feel anxious on the test so excessively that they forget everything
they learned before (Chinta, 2005).
Parks-Stamm, et, al, (2010) pointed out that test anxiety is concerned with many things. The first and
the most important part are related to the lack of preparation. This point can easily be removed. If someone
is well prepared, but he still fears, he is suffering from test-taking.
Cassady and Johnson (2002) argued that few people are not suffering from anxiety. He believed that
students become anxious because they should respond in the test even if they are not inclined to. Also they
know that there performance in the test reflect their abilities in the second language.
Eum and Rice (2011) stated that test anxious students often put unrealistic demands on themselves
and expect to do things perfectly. Thus test performance is a failure for them. Students who are test-anxious
in foreign language class probably experience considerable difficulty, when tests and quizzes are frequent
and they do not consider this fact that even the brightest and most prepared students often make errors.
One aspect of anxiety is worrying about frequent testing and it is not clear yet that it is related to
type of test or it can be generalized to every test, because of normal test anxiety. It is generally known that
the global test creates less anxiety than specific test (Lindsay, 2010). According to Zeidner (2007), one of the
most important reasons for test anxiety is fear of negative evaluation. Another important factor, which
33
www.moj-es.net
creates anxiety, is the emotional problems of students. Sometimes, the students’ high anxiety relates to
inappropriate family atmosphere, quarrels and… sometimes teachers create anxiety involuntary and
indirectly (Ibid). Teachers always compare the students to each other and admire the diligent students.
Teachers ignore the anxious students’ abilities and encourage their disabilities and weaknesses. Zeidner
(2007) pointed out that fear of failing creates high anxiety, because the anxious students know if they cannot
obtain the top score, they must hear taunt and contempt. It is one of the most important factors, which
create high anxiety, even though they completely dominate the material test, they cannot perform well
(Zeidner, 2007).
Cloze-Test and C-Test
It must be mentioned here that Clece-Murcia (1991) referring to Cohen’s statement, pointed out that
“ the origins of the Cloze-test date back farther than many would think-to 1897, in fact” (p.41).
Cloze-test for the first time was introduced by Taylor in 1953 (cited in Culhane, 1970. The main idea
of it is that if someone can understand all the message, it is easy to guess a single removed word. If this word
is common and simple, guessing will be easy. This notion is a basis for creating Cloze-test. The word Cloze is
taken from the concept of closer which is used in Gestalt psychology. It pinpoints to this fact that individuals
can fill the gaps of incomplete units.
In a Cloze-test, words are deleted from a selective passage at regular intervals (usually between every
fifth and every tenth words). This is periodic or fixed-ration deletion, but we can use of random deletion. The
length of removed words must be at the same length.
To construct a Cloze-test, firstly choose a long passage in which you can produce at least fifty blanks.
The kind of selective test depends on the purpose of the test. Second, every nth word must be deleted and
put a blank with the same length, until you have 50 blanks. The first and the last sentences must be intact.
Every nth word means if every fifth word has been deleted in first paragraph, we must delete fifth
word in other paragraph. Then, the reader must read the whole passage and guess the deleted words. This
process is comprehension first and then production.
There are two ways to score Cloze-test:
The testee must guess the exact word.
The testee can write appropriate word which is acceptable in the text.
Cloze-test has been used to to measure the readability of the written materials, and then it was
applied to first language reading comprehension (Heaton, 1975). Generally speaking, it was used as a
teaching device; the teachers used them to improve the students’ reading silks. The students must read more
carefully, use the contextual clues, and they were actively involved with the reading passage.The Cloze-test
has been used to measure English language proficiency (Aitken, 1977; Brown, 1993; Caulfield & Smith, 1981;
Chavanachat, 1986; Fotos, 1991; Oller & Conrad, 1971; Stubbs & Tucker, 1974).
It must be mentioned here that Cloze-tests are different form simple blank-filing testes. In Clozetests, deleted words are selected subjectively, namely, of structural comprehension ability. But, there was a
controversial argument about Cloze -test. It was believed that traditional fixed-word-deletion could only
measure reading ability at the word or the sentence level not at discourse level. There was no production
and generally it was not clear that Cloze-tests could measure language proficiency or not. For these reasons
another form of Cloze-test has been proposed by Klein-Braley (1981), which is called C-test or first letter
Cloze. In this method, the second half of every second word is deleted. Like Cloze-tests, the first and the last
sentences must be intact, but there is a difference here; a C-test consists of a number of different texts. Using
many topics in one test, we can measure different language elements and also evaluate writing ability with
reading ability. In other words, there is comprehension and production at the same time in C-test but there
is a problem here; by deleting half of the word, students may not understand the whole text but can guess
34
www.moj-es.net
the deleted words. According to Raatz (1985) cited in Klein-Braley (1997), C-test is based on the following
criteria:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The C-Test should be much shorter and should have at least 100 items.
The deletion rates and starting points of deletion should be fixed.
Only exact word scoring method should be employed.
There should be a number of different texts.
The words affected by the deletion should be a representative sample
Adult educated native speakers should make perfect scores on the test
The test should have high reliability and validity (p. 136).
of the text.
Nonetheless it is not clear so far that test anxiety would hinder the learners’ performance more on
C-tests or Cloze-tests.
METHODOLOGY
Subjects and instruments
This study conducted to compare learners’ performance on C-test and Cloze-test and find out which
kind of these two tests create more anxiety. To achieve the object, one university in Mashhad, Iran was
selected, randomly and then, 60 Iranian female Junior students were chosen randomly among three classes
with the total estimated average number of students 150 (both sex); since females are more anxious than
males (Kendler, et. al, 1992, Aida, 1994,Shear,1997, Pigott, 2003, Buss, 2011, Chaplin, et. al., 2013, Caballo,
et. al. 2014), subject must be of the same sex. All the subjects were studying Bachelor degree in English
Translation. First of all, the researcher must determine anxious students, for doing this, they were given an
anxiety test. For this research, Hamilton test was selected as a standard anxiety test. After this procedure,
C- test and Cloze- test were given, simultaneously. Both tests must be similar together as much as possible.
Proficiency and difficulty level and numbers of item should be the same, both tests must have the same
length.
The researcher selected Mashhad as the study site because she was completely familiar with the
teaching context in this city, since she has been teaching there for more than 15 years as an English teacher.
All of the selected participants were learning in Mashhad; however, they might have originally come from
other parts of Iran.
Procedures
All subjects were given Cloze-test with 30 blanks, at first, they were asked to read the whole passage
quickly, because of this belief that students do better if they have a general idea about it (Culhane,1970;
Heaton, 1975). One minute was given to respond to each item of the test. After 40 minutes, when all
participants completed the Cloze-test, an anxiety test with unlimited time was given. Based on the results of
anxiety test, the anxious students were identified, but the results were not announced. It was only recorded
for analysis. It must be mentioned here that the students with a score more that 100 points were considered
anxious students. Two weeks later, the same passage was given to the same students while it was changed
into C-test. It must be mentioned here the purpose of doing these two tests, Cloze-test and C-test, is to
measure reading comprehension ability in the present study. The test was constructed out of the passages
extracted from authentic source.To control the observer effect, the tests were administered by the subjects'
own teacher and in their own class time.The used scoring methods for Cloze test was guessing the
appropriate word method and for C-test was guessing the exact word method.
Analysis
Descriptive statistics for subjects' performance on the Cloze-test and C-test were used to compare
the mean score of the subjects in both tests. And then, Coefficient correlation formula was taken to
determine whether there is any relationship between two variables; between C-test and anxiety test, and
Cloze-test and anxiety test. It must be mentioned here that treatment was not necessary in this research.
35
www.moj-es.net
Cloze-test and C-test have been chosen for this paper because Cloze tests have been widely used for
measuring reading comprehension since their introducing to the testing world by Taylor in 1953. But in 1982,
Klein-Braley criticized cloze procedure mostly for their deletion and scoring problems. They introduced their
newly developed testing procedure, C-test, which was an evolved form of cloze tests without their
deficiencies (Klein-Braley, 1982 cited in Baghaei, 2008). After that, the effectiveness of C-test and Cloze test
became the main interest of the scientists in the field of language testing. The other reason for choosing
these two kinds of tests for the present paper is that they are easy to construct and to score (Connelly,1997;
Raatz & Klein-Braley, 1985), and highly reliable and valid ( Connelly, 1997; Dornyei & Katona, 1992; KleinBraley, 1997; Weiss,1983) and finally, they are economical (Weir, 1990, 1993).
After scoring, for the ease of comparison all the scores were calculated out of 100. Descriptive
statistics for both Cloze test and C-test are represented in Table 1.
Table 1 Descriptive statistics for subjects' performance on the Cloze-test and C-test
Cloze-Test
C-Test
N
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Standard
Deviation
60
60
42.10
28.57
84.21
76.78
65.72
49.83
10.82
12.20
As table 1 presents, the mean score of the subjects in cloze test (65.72) is higher than the mean score
of them in the C-test (49.83).
Table 2 SPSS output to test the relationship between anxiety and Cloze-Test & anxiety and C-test
Anxiety
Pearson
1.000
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
60
Pearson
Cloze-Test
-.723**
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
N
60
Pearson
C-Test
-.474**
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
N
60
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Anxiety
Cloze-Test
C-Test
-.723**
-.474**
.000
60
.000
60
1.000
.752**
60
.000
60
.752**
1.000
.000
60
60
The SPSS results show a clear relationship between anxiety and C-test.
36
www.moj-es.net
One conclusion of this research is that students who experience high anxiety in the second language
class, they will feel more anxiety in the test-taking and while comparing Cloze-test and C-test, the students
feel more anxiety while taking C-test. Cloze-Test seems to test general knowledge of English comparing with
C-Test. Birjandi and Alemi (2010) pointed out that students feel less anxiety while doing a test in general
English. Moreover, Cloze-Tests are more similar to some academic tests while C-Tests are more about
guessing. Dordi Nejad et. al. (2011) stated that there is a negative relationship between test anxiety and
academic performance. Dedeyn (2011) suggested that there is negative relationship between anxiety and
language performance evaluation. It can be concluded that Cloze is easier to take than the C-test, because
the higher number of deletions in the C-test makes the process of comprehension difficult, and If C-test is
assumed to be reading comprehension test, more time will be needed. The other reason refers back to his
fact that there is more than one word which begins with the same letters.
Implications
We investigate the negative effects of high anxiety so far. By referring too much valid research could
approximately show its outcomes. But how can we overcome this negative feeling? Or if it is impossible, how
can we decrease it? Most psychologists believe that there are many ways to remove anxiety which are very
easy theoretically and almost impossible practically. The consultants can play a major role in reducing the
anxiety which has been created by the kind of the test. First of all, the root of anxiety (here, C-test) must be
specified. By clarifying the problem, a plan can be constructed to overcome anxiety; try to change individuals’
attitudes about their personal feeling and help them to concentrate on the tasks rather than on feelings of
fear, for example.
Another technique for removing anxiety is that teachers help students gain learning strategies and
they can also change instructional method and evaluation. The main step for removing anxiety includes some
efforts to deal with the situation.
There is an important point here that a person can overcome his anxiety at low level. As anxiety
grows, overcoming will be more difficult and finally at the very high level, it will create panic and serious
problems. For this reason, it is better the anxious students discuss their problem with an educational
counselor, directly. The responsibility of consultants is an attempt to change self-related cognition. Anxious
students can concentrate on the positive parts of their abilities. They must consider their abilities and try to
encourage them and step by step, they must change their attitudes.
It should be noted here when an issue creates anxiety, the anxiety can travel from that issue to
another issue or even to other issues; in this case, the anxiety will get worse and many types of anxiety will
be mixed to each other. Based on the findings of the present study, consultants must consider the fact that
the type of test taking which creates anxiety, can lead to create the other kind of anxiety.
One of the best solution for decreasing the feel of anxiety is social support; the consultants can make
some groups of students who have the most similar characteristics and introduce some new anxious students
to these groups.
The other support which anxious students can be received is informational and emotional support
which lead to decreasing academic stress and anxiety. This important job can be done by educational
consultants and teachers.
The findings of the present study is important to the teachers and consultants showing them the
causes of anxiety and also give the some possible ways to decrease it; however, we should do research to
discover ways of preventing test-anxiety from developing in the first place. Up to now, researchers have had
37
www.moj-es.net
difficulty in showing the role of anxiety in second language learning. Questions remain about the manner
anxiety influences language learning.
LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER STUDIES
No research is absolutely complete and consequently no researcher can claim that the results of
her/his study can be applied in all possible cases. Additional research is obviously needed. This study is not,
however, an exception. There are other alternatives related to this research, which are worthy of further
investigation. This study focused on two kinds of tests and Participants were selected from Mashhad, the
hometown of the researcher. Hence, the results of this study cannot be generalized to all students in Iran or
worldwide . On the other hand, the participants of this study were all females. Therefore, according to Nazari
(2007), the underlying principles can be generalized to the theory, not to a population. That is to say, the
issue will be put forward and the related general theme not by “enumerative induction” but “analytical
induction” (Mitchell, 2000). Considering the limitations of this study, further researches can be conducted
such as:
1- The effect of age on the test-taking
2- Just one kind of tests can be chosen
3- The place of the research can be tested, i.e., will this research with the same topic have the same
results?
REFERENCES
Aida, Y. (1994). Examination of Horwitz and Cope’s construct of foreign language
students of Japanese. The modern language Journal, 78, 155-168.
anxiety: the case of
Aitken, K. G. (1977). Using Cloze procedure as an overall language proficiency test. TESOL Quarterly, 11(1),
59-67.
Baghaei, P. (2008). The effects of the rhetorical organization of texts on the C-test
construction:
Rasch Model 149 study. Melbourne Papers in Language and
Testing, 13(2), 32-51.
A
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
theory. Englewood
Bienvenu, O. J., Wuyek, L. A., & Stein, M. B. (2010). Anxiety disorders diagnosis:
controversies. Curr Top BehaveNeurosci. 2:3-19.
some history and
Birjandi, P., & Alemi, M. (2010). The impact of test anxiety on test performance
among Iranian EFL
learners. BRAIN: Broad Research in Artificial
Intelligence and Neuroscience, 1(4), 44-58.
Brown, J. D. (1993). What are characteristics of natural cloze tests? Language Testing, 10(2), 93-116.
Burns, D. J. (2004). Anxiety at the time of the final exam: Relationships with
performance. Journal of Education for Business, 119-124.
38
expectations
and
www.moj-es.net
Buss, D.M. & Schmitt, D.P. (2011). Evolutionary psychology and feminism. Sex
Roles, 64,768-787.
Caballo, V. E., Salazar, I. C., Irurtia, M. J., Arias, B., Hofmann, S. G., & CISO-A
ResearchTeam.
(2014). Differences in social anxiety between men and women across 18 countries. Personality and
Individual Differences, 64, 35-40.
Cassady, J. C. and Johnson, R. E. (2002). Cognitive test and academic performance.
Educational Psychology 27(2): 270-295.
Caulfield, J., & Smith, W. C. (1981). The reduced redundancy test and the
as measures of global language proficiency. Modern
Language
Contemporary
Cloze
procedure
Journal, 65(1), 54-58.
Celce-Murcia, M. (1991). Teaching English as a second or foreign language. (2nd ed.). New York: Newbury
House Publishers.
Chapell, M. S., Blanding, Z. B., Silverstein, M. E., Takahashi, M., Newman, B., Gubi,
A. and McCann, N.
(2005). Test anxiety and academic performance in
undergraduate and graduate students.
Journal of Educational Psychology,
92(2): 268-274.
Chaplin, T. M., & Aldao, A. (2013). Gender differences in emotion expression in
analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 735-765.
children: A meta-
Chavanachat, P. (1986). The use of a cloze test as a measure of English proficiency for Thai university
graduates. PASAA, 16(1), 26-35.
Chinta, R. (2005). Exam anxiety effect on exam performance: An empirical
replication in the Middle
East. Proceedings of the International Business
Research Conference Athens 2005, 18 pp,
Aryan Hellas, Ltd., Athens, Greece.
Connelly, M. (1997). Using C-Test in English with post-graduate students. English
Purposes. 16(2), 139-150.
for
Specific
Corsini, R.J. (1999). The dictionary of psychology. Ann Arbor, MI: Brunnery/ Mazel.
Coşkun, A. (2013). Stress in English language teaching practicum: the views of all
Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 28(3), 97-110.
stakeholders.
Csizér, K., & Piniel, K. (2013). Motivation, anxiety and self-efficacy: the interrelationship
of
individual
variables in the secondary school context.
Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching,
3(4), 523-550.
Çubukçu, F. (2008). A study on the correlation between self-efficacy and foreign
anxiety. Journal of Theory and Practice in Education, 4(1),
148-158.
Retrieved http://eku.comu.edu.tr/index/4/1/fcubukcu.pdf.
language
learning
Culhane, J. W. (1970). Cloze procedures and comprehension. Reading Research, 23(5), 410-413, 464.
39
www.moj-es.net
DeDeyn, R. (2011). Student identity, writing anxiety, and writing performance: A
correlational
study (Master’s thesis). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No.
1493752).
Dordi Nejad, F. G., Hakimi, H., Ashouri, M., Dehghani, M., Zeinali, Z., Sadegh- Daghighi, M., & Bahrami, N.
(2011). On the relationship between test anxiety
and academic performance. Procedia Social
and Behavioral Sciences, 15,
3774-3778.
Dornyei, Z., & Katona, L, (1992). Validation of the C-Test amongst Hungarian EFL learners. Language Testing,
9(2), 187-206.
Edgerton, J.E. (1994). American psychiatric glossary (7th. Ed.) Washington DC:
psychiatric press.
American
Eum, K. and Rice, K. G. (2011). Test anxiety, perfectionism, goal orientation, and
performance. Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 24(2): 167-178.
academic
Faleye, B. A. (2010). Cognitive test anxiety and learning outcomes of selected undergraduate students.The
African Symposium, 10(2): 69-74. Glasgow, N. A.
Fotos, S. S. (1991). The cloze test as an integrative measure of EFL proficiency: A substitute for essays on
college entrance examinations? Language Learning,
41(3), 313-336.
Heaton, J. W. (1975). Writing English Language Tests. London: Longman.
Hicks, C. D. (2003). What Successful Teachers Do: 91 Research-Based Classroom Strategies for New and
Veteran Teachers, Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, A. J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety’’. In E. K. Horwitz &
D. J. Young (Eds). Language anxiety: from
theory to research to classroom implications. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Horwitz, E.K. (1988). The beliefs about language learning of beginning university
students. Modern language Journal, 72,283,294.
foreign
language
Kendler, K.S., Neale, M.C., Kessler, R.C., Heath, A.C., & Eaves, L. J. (1992).
Generalized anxiety disorder
in women. A population-based twin study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 49(4):267-72.
Klein-Braley, C. (1981). Empirical Investigations of Cloze Tests. Unpublished dissertation, University of
Edinburgh, Scotland.
Klein-Braley, C. (1997). C-Test in the context of reduced redundancy testing: An appraisal. Language Testing,
14(1), 47-84.
Lefrancois, G.R. (1991). Psychology for teaching. Belmont: Wardsworth publishing
company.
company.
40
www.moj-es.net
Lindsay, P. C. (2010). Assessing the relationships among achievement goal
orientation, test anxiety,
self-efficacy, metacognition, and academic
performance. MA thesis, Northen Illinois University.
Nazari, A. (2007). EFL teachers’ perception of the concept of communicative competence. ELT Journal, 613.
Oller, J. W., Jr., & Conrad, C. A. (1971). The cloze technique and ESL proficiency. Language Learning, 21(2),
183-195.
Oxford, R. L. (1999). Anxiety and the language learner: new insights. In J. Arnold
language learning. Cambridge: CUP.
(Ed).
Affect
in
Parks-Stamm, E. J., Gollwitzer, P. M. , Oettingen, G. (2010). Implementation
intentions and test anxiety:
Shielding academic performance from distraction.
Learning and Individual Differences, 20(1):
30-3.
Pigott, T. A. (2003). Anxiety disorders in women. Psychiatr Clin North Am.
26(3):621-72.
Pourebrahim, Z, P. , Konesh, T. & Gh. K. A. A. (2010). The effects of skills training
of
emotions
confronting on test anxiety and academic performance of female
students. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 3(4 (12)):7-20.
Powell, T.J. and Enright, S.T. (1991). Anxiety and stress management: London: Rotledged.
Raatz, U. (1985). Test of reduced redundancy – the C-Test, a practical example. In C. Klein-Braley, & U. Raatz
(Eds.), C-Test in der Praxis.
Fremdsprachenund Hochschule, AKS-Rundbrief, 13/14 (pp. 14-19).
Bochum, West Germany: Arbeitskreis Sprachenzentrum [AKS].
Rieg, S. A., Paquette, K. R., & Chen, Y. (2007). Coping with stress: an investigation
stressors in the elementary classroom. Education, 128(2),
211-226.
of novice teachers’
Robinson, D. H. (2009). Evaluation (test) anxiety. In Anderman, E. M. and
Andermand, L. H. Eds.
Psychology of Classroom Learning–An Encyclopedia,
1: 387-390. Cengage-Learning GALE,
Farmington Hills, MI.
Shear, M. K. (1997). Anxiety disorders in women: gender-related modulation of
behavior. Semin Reprod Endocrinol. 15(1):69-76.
neurobiology
Spielberger, C.D. (1983). Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory (form Y). Palo,
consulting psychologists press.
Alto,
and
California:
Stubbs, J. B., & Tucker, G. R. (1974). The cloze test as a measure of English proficiency. Modern Language
Journal, 58(5-6), 239-241.
Taylor, W., L. (1953). Cloze procedure: A new tool for measuring readability. Journalism Quarterly, 30, 415453.
41
www.moj-es.net
Tsai, C. C. (2013). The impact of foreign language anxiety, test anxiety, and selfefficacy
among
senior high school students in Taiwan. International Journal of English Language and Linguistics
Research, 1(2), 31-47.
Tum, D. O. (2012). Feelings of language anxiety amongst non-native student teachers. Procedia-Social and
Behavioral Sciences, 47, 2055-2059.
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.948.
Watson and Rayner (1993).Conditioned Emotional Reactions. First published
Psychology, 3(1), 1-14.
in Journal of Experimental
Weir, C. J. (1990). Language Testing. New York: Prentice Hall.
Weir, C. (1993). Understanding and Developing Language Tests. London: Prentice-Hall.
Weiss, R. (1983). The C-Test. (Seminar Paper in Hebrew). Jerusalem, Israel: Hebrew University, School of
Education.
Zeidner, M. (2007). Test anxiety in educational contexts: Concepts, findings, and
future
directions. Emotion in education. In Schutz, P. A. and Pekrun, R.
(Editors).
Emotion
in
education, Educational psychology series, 165-184.
Elsevier Academic Press, San Diego,
CA.
42
www.moj-es.net
Self-Efficacy and Chemistry Students’
Academic
Achievement
in
Senior
Secondary Schools in North-Central,
Nigeria
Titilayo Funmisho Baanu [1], Oloyede Solomon Oyelekan[2], Adekunle
Solomon Olorundare [3]
[1] School of Science,
Kwara State College of Education,
Ilorin, Nigeria.
[email protected]
[2] Department of Science
Education,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
[email protected]
(Correspondence author)
[3] Adekunle Solomon Olorundare
Department of Science Education,
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Self-efficacy reflects the extent to which students believe that they can successfully
perform in school. It usually positively correlated with outcome expectations but it is
possible that a student’s has high self-efficacy does not transform into a high academic
achievement. This study sought to find out the relationship between chemistry students’
self-efficacy and their academic achievement in senior secondary schools in North-central,
Nigeria. The study is an ex-post facto research and is a descriptive survey. The subjects of
the study were one thousand one hundred and fifty (1150) senior secondary school III
chemistry students selected from Kogi, Kwara and Niger States of Nigeria. The data
collected were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics of mean, percentage
and Pearson Product Moment Correlation. The findings revealed that no significant
relationship existed between self-efficacy and the academic achievement of the chemistry
students. The study concludes that students’ self-efficacy needs to be complemented with
a host of other factors to achieve high academic achievement in Chemistry. It is therefore
recommended that attention be paid to other factors necessary for better students’
achievement in chemistry to complement students’ high self-efficacy, so that a
combination of these factors could result in high academic achievement in Chemistry
Keywords:
Self-efficacy, Chemistry Students, Academic Achievement, Senior
Secondary Schools, Nigeria.
INTRODUCTION
Self-efficacy is defined as one’s belief in his/her capacity to perform a specific action successfully
(Bandura, 1997, 2001). Self-efficacy determines how people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave.
Such beliefs produce these diverse effects through four major processes, which include cognitive,
motivational, affective and selection processes. A strong sense of efficacy enhances human accomplishment
and personal well-being in many ways, such as academic achievement.
Students might have different self-efficacy judgments in different types of tasks or domains. For
instance, a student who feels efficacious in biology might not feel that efficacious in chemistry. Self-efficacy
influences people’s choice of tasks, showing effort and persistence at the task, and thus, is a better predictor
of performance and motivation compared to other variables (Bandura, 1997). Similarly, Hampton and Mason
(2003); Multon, Brown and Lent (1991); Pajares and Miller (1994); Shell, Colvin and Bruning (1995);
Kupermintz (2002); Pintrich and Schunk (2002); Britner (2008); Kiran and Sungur (2011) have affirmed the
relationship between self-efficacy and students’ achievement. According to Schunk (1985), self-efficacy
43
www.moj-es.net
beliefs mediate the effects of prior achievement, knowledge and skills on subsequent achievement. For
instance, in schools, students with high self- efficacy tend to choose more challenging tasks, show more
effort, and do not give up easily, which explains why students of similar ability can have different academic
achievement (Bandura, 1997).
Efficacious students look for new challenges, show persistence at tasks and have the ultimate success
(Britner, 2008; Zeldin & Pajares, 2000). Even though such students have prior difficulties, the belief in their
capabilities to overcome these difficulties results in the motivated performance (Bandura, 1986; Schunk,
1985). Studies have shown that science self-efficacy is associated with science achievement and sciencerelated choices across grade levels (Britner, 2008). Andrew (1998) also found out that science self-efficacy
predicted achievement at the college level. Among high school students, science self-efficacy was found to
be a good predictor of achievement and engagement with science-related activities than gender and parental
background (Kuperminty, 2002; Lau & Roeser, 2002; Lodewyk & Winne, 2005).
As a science subject, Chemistry is concerned with the study of composition and properties of natural
substances. It occupies a pivotal position in science and technology and is needed by everybody and in every
aspect of human endeavor (Agwagah & Harbor-Peters, 1994; Akinsola, Tella & Tella, 2007; Olayemi, 2009;
Abubakar & Eze, 2010). For instance, human beings have used organic compounds and their reactions for
thousand of years in the manufacture of many valuable products for men use e.g. soap, oils, hydrogenated
oil, kerosene, petrol, plastic, lubricants, vaseline, ceramics and detergents. More so, the ancient Egyptians
used organic compounds (indigo and alizarin) to dye cloths which are products of scientific discovery.
Chemistry is regarded as the hub of science and it is considered as a service subject (Bajah, 1997). Chemistry
is the catalyst for sustainable national growth and development.
In spite of the central position of chemistry among science subjects and its importance in sustaining
sustainable economic growth and development, the performance of Nigerian candidates in School Certificate
Chemistry over the years is not encouraging (Figure 1).
%
C
80
r
60
e
50
d
i
t
p
a
s
s
72.34
70
62.49
50.7
44.4
49.54
43.7
43.13
40
% Credit pass
30
20
10
0
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Year
Figure 1: Performance of Nigerian students in the Chemistry in the May/June School Certificate
Examinations conducted by the West African Examinations Council between 2008 and 2014. (Source:
Statistics Division, West African Examinations Council (WAEC), National Head Office, Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria).
Figure 1 shows that during the percentage credit pass was less than 50% for most of the years
reviewed. In 2013, the performance improved but slid back again in 2014. Self-efficacy researchers typically
assume that students’ belief in their ability to succeed in chemistry tasks, courses, or activities, or their sense
44
www.moj-es.net
of self-efficacy, has a powerful impact on their choices of science-related activities, the effort they expend
on those activities, the perseverance they show when encountering difficulties, and the ultimate success they
experience (Bandura, 1997; Britner & Pajares, 2006; Zeldin & Pajares, 2000; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Could
the dismal performance of Nigerian candidates in School Certificate Chemistry be traceable to their selfefficacy? It is on the basis of the preceding paragraphs that this study was conducted to find out the
relationship between students’ self-efficacy and their academic achievement in chemistry in North-Central
Nigeria which include Benue, Kogi, Kwara, Nasarawa, Niger, and Plateau states as well as the Federal Capital
Territory (FCT).
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Self-efficacy is largely grounded in the social cognitive theory. This theory explains that human
functioning results from interactions among personal factors (e.g., cognitions, emotions), behaviors and
environmental conditions (Bandura, 1986, 1997). From this perspective, self-efficacy affects one’s behaviors
and the environments with which one interacts and is influenced by one’s actions and conditions in the
environment. Self-efficacy is hypothesized to affect individuals’ task choices, effort, persistence and
achievement (Bandura, 1997; Schunk, 1995). Compared with learners who doubt their capabilities, those
who feel self-efficacious about learning or performing a task competently are apt to participate more readily,
work harder, persist longer when they encounter difficulties and achieve at higher levels.
Learners acquire self-efficacy information from knowledge of others’ performances through social
comparisons. Similar others offer the best basis for comparison. Students who observe similar peers learn a
task may also believe that they can learn it. Such vicarious information typically has a weaker effect than
actual performance because vicariously-induced self-efficacy can be negated by subsequent performance
failure.
Some researchers such as Pajares and Schunk (2001) and Usher and Pajares (2006) have reported
that students’ beliefs in their abilities to achieve desired goals strongly influence their academic achievement.
In view of this Finn and Frone (2004) concluded that academic self-efficacy reflects the extent to which
students believe that they can successfully perform in school. Self-efficacies are usually positively correlated
with outcome expectations but it is possible that a student has high self-efficacy but low expectations about
the grades earned from the examinations (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996).
Self-efficacy beliefs develop as a result of information from four types of resources: mastery
(enactive) experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion and physiological states. Mastery or
enactive experiences are derived from what one has experienced are said to be the most forceful reference
of self-efficacy beliefs. Vicarious experiences are gained by observing a model’s performance and comparing
it with the observer. A comparatively weak source of self-efficacy is the persuasion like ‘I have faith in you’
given by others. The last source of students’ self-efficacy is physiological reactions which are stress, anxiety
and other feelings seen as signs of physical incompetence (Bandura, 1997).
Self-efficacy beliefs are domain specific and refer to perceptions of capabilities to learn or perform
given tasks within specified domains (Pajares, 1996). In gauging self-efficacy, people assess their skills and
capabilities to translate those skills into actions. Possessing skill can raise self-efficacy, which in turn can lead
to further skill acquisition, but skill and self-efficacy are not synonymous in meaning. Students’ own
performances offer the most reliable guides for gauging self-efficacy. In general, success raises self-efficacy
and failures lower it, although an occasional failure after some successes is unlikely to have much impact.
How people act can often be predicted better by their self-efficacy (i.e. the beliefs about their capabilities)
than by their actual skills (Bandura, 1986). Self-efficacy also depends on students’ intelligence and abilities.
In general, high-ability students feel more efficacious about performing well than do low-ability students, but
self-efficacy is not necessarily a direct reflection of students’ intelligence and abilities.
45
www.moj-es.net
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between self-efficacy and
chemistry students’ academic achievement in North-central, Nigeria. Specifically, the study determined:
i.
the level of academic achievement of senior school chemistry students in North-central, Nigeria.
ii.
the level of chemistry students’ self-efficacy in senior schools in North-central, Nigeria.
iii.
the relationship between students’ self-efficacy and their academic achievement in chemistry.
Research Questions
The study provides answers to the following questions:
i.
What is the level of the academic achievement of senior school chemistry students in Northcentral, Nigeria?
ii.
What is the level of chemistry students’ self-efficacy among senior schools in North-central,
Nigeria?
iii.
Is there any relationship between senior school chemistry students’ self-efficacy and their
academic achievement in chemistry?
Research Hypothesis
HO 1 : There is no significant relationship between self-efficacy and academic achievement of senior
school chemistry students in North-central, Nigeria.
The study is a research conducted via a descriptive survey. The population for the study comprised
all the chemistry students in the senior school three (SS3) in North-central, Nigeria. Four hundred chemistry
students were selected by stratified random sampling from ten secondary schools in Kogi, Kwara and Niger
States which made up of 1200 chemistry students and thirty secondary schools altogether in which one
thousand one hundred and fifty chemistry students duly completed the questionnaire for the study.
Two instruments were used for the study. The first one was a researcher-designed questionnaire
named students’ self-efficacy questionnaire (SEQ) adapted from Bandura (1986). The modification of the
questionnaire involved changing the response modes to the questions in the questionnaire from Very True
(VT), True (T), Untrue (U) and Not At All (NAA) to Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly
Disagree (SD) respectively, in the believe that the response modes better represent respondents’ personal
opinions. The change in the response modes necessitated the transformation of the questions which make
up the questionnaire items into statements. The responses were scored 4, 3, 2 and 1 respectively.
The items investigate the confidence which students had in undertaking different tasks in chemistry.
The questionnaire was validated by three lecturers in the Department of Science Education, University of
Ilorin, Nigeria for item structure and language clarity. The reliability of the questionnaire was determined
using a test-retest method of two weeks interval, in which the questionnaire was administered to thirty
chemistry students from another school not covered by the main study. The data obtained was subjected to
Pearson Product Moment Correlation. A calculated reliability coefficient of 0.72 was obtained.
The second instrument was the Chemistry result of the respondents in the Joint Mock School
Certificate Examination jointly conducted by all states in North-Central Nigeria. The Joint Mock School
Certificate Examination questions were normally taken through the basic processes of validation and
reliability before they were administered. Hence, the examination questions were deemed valid and reliable.
Copies of the questionnaire were directly administered to the students in each of the schools and
retrieved same day the school was visited. The data obtained were subjected to statistical analysis using
frequency counts, mean, standard deviation, and Pearson Product Moment Correlation was employed to test
the only hypothesis.
46
www.moj-es.net
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
The data obtained are presented and explained as follows:
Research Question 1: What is the level of the academic achievement of senior school chemistry
students in North-central, Nigeria?
The results obtained in respect of this research question are presented on table 1.
Table 1: Students’ grades in Chemistry in the Joint Mock Examinations conducted by states, in NorthCentral, Nigeria in 2012.
States
Grades
Total
A1
B2
B3
C4
C5
C6
D7
E8
F9
Kwara
4
3
5
11
28
36
50
49
214
400
Kogi
26
6
14
32
44
88
66
50
74
400
Niger
2
39
47
59
53
62
43
23
22
350
Total
32
48
66
102
125
186
159
122
310
1150
Source: State Ministries of Education.
Table 2: Description of Chemistry Students’ Grades in Joint Mock Examinations in Kogi, Kwara and Niger
States, Nigeria.
Grade
Frequency
Percentage
A1
B2
B3
C4
32
48
66
102
2.8
4.2
5.7
8.9
C5
C6
D7
E8
F9
Total
125
186
159
122
310
1150
10.9
16.2
13.8
10.6
27.0
100
Cumulative
percentage
2.8
7.0
12.7
21.6
Continued
32.4
48.6
62.4
73.0
100.0
Mean score is 49.39
Tables 1 and 2 show the level of Chemistry students’ academic achievement in the Joint Mock
Examinations conducted in Kogi, Kwara and Niger States, Nigeria. The result shows that only 559 (48.61%) of
the respondents from Kogi, Kwara and Niger states passed at the credit level. It could be concluded that the
level of academic achievement of chemistry students is low because the percentage score at credit level was
47
www.moj-es.net
less than 50%. The 48.61% was obtained from the addition of frequency from A1-C6 grade levels on table 2
and divided by the total frequency multiplied by one hundred i.e. 556 divided by 1150 multiplied by 100.
Research Question 2: What is the level of students’ self-efficacy among senior school chemistry
students in North-central, Nigeria? The data obtained in respect of this research question are presented on
table 3.
Table 3: Summary of ranks of students’ self-efficacy mean scores among senior school chemistry students
in North-central, Nigeria.
Item No
83
81
90
85
Items
I like explaining difficult topics in chemistry to
other students
I always obtain good grade in chemistry test
and examinations.
I find it easy to explain the main ideas of
public lectures on chemistry.
Mean
Rank
Self-efficacy
2.92
1st
High
2nd
High
2.85
2nd
High
2.83
4th
High
2.85
Continued
89
86
80
82
88
84
87
I easily apply theories learnt in chemistry
class to laboratory practical work.
I learn chemistry without fear.
I conveniently talk to scientists about
chemistry.
I am always in need of my chemistry teacher
to supervise me during practical class.
I always get high grades in essay part of
Chemistry questions during the examination
I easily get an appropriate formula to solve
Chemistry problems.
I easily write out the summary of a television
documentary that deals with chemistry.
2.83
4th
High
2.82
6th
High
2.82
6th
High
2.78
8th
High
2.77
9th
High
2.74
10th
High
2.72
11th
High
Table 3 presents data on the level of students’ self-efficacy among senior secondary school chemistry
students. The obtainable scores for the response modes of strongly disagree, agree disagree and strongly
agree are 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively, making 4 the maximum obtainable mean score for each of the items in
the questionnaire. Self efficacy was then graded at three levels:
Low: 0-1.4
Average: 1.5 – 2.4
High: 2.5-4.0
The table shows that all the eleven items were ranked high with the mean scores ranging from 2.92
to 2.72. This means that all chemistry students in the study had high self-efficacy.
Research Question 3: Is there any relationship between senior school chemistry students’ selfefficacy and their academic achievement in chemistry?
The corresponding hypothesis to research question 3 is hypothesis 1.
48
www.moj-es.net
The data obtained in respect of the question and the hypothesis is presented on table 4.
Table 4:Summary of Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient between self-efficacy and academic
achievement of senior school chemistry students in North-central, Nigeria.
Variables
No
Mean
SD
Students’
self-efficacy
1150
30.40
6.415
Academic
1150
achievement
Not sig. at P> 0.05
49.39
df
Calculated
r
p-value
1148
.038
.200
12.480
Table 4 shows [r (1148, 0.05) =0.200]. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. This
suggests that there was no significant relationship between self-efficacy and chemistry students’ academic
achievement in chemistry in North-central, Nigeria.
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
low.
From the findings of this study, it could be summarized that:
1.
the academic achievement of the respondents from Kogi, Kwara and Niger
States was
2.
the chemistry students’ self-efficacy in the three states under the study was high.
3.
there was no significant relationship between self-efficacy and chemistry
students’
academic achievement in chemistry in North-central, Nigeria.
DISCUSSION
The outcome of this study indicates that chemistry students in senior secondary schools in Northcentral Nigeria had a low level of academic achievement in the Joint Mock Chemistry Examination, as only
559 (48.61%) of the respondents passed at credit level. This is in spite of the fact that the result presented
on table 3 shows that all the respondents had high self-efficacy in learning chemistry. This finding contradicts
that of Britner (2008) and Kiran and Sungur (2011) who also reported high students’ self-efficacies in their
studies, but which produced a corresponding high level of academic achievement in Chemistry. The finding
is also not in agreement with those of Kupermintz (2002), Lau and Roeser (2002) and Lodewyk and Winne
(2005) who reported that science self-efficacy were a better predictor of achievement and engagement with
science related activities among high school students. It appeals to common sense that a high self-efficacy
should produce a corresponding high academic achievement in learners, but the outcome of this study has
indicated that this may not happen all the time. The differences observed in the outcome of this particular
study and those of others could be due to the influence of other variables that contribute to students’
achievement complementing self-efficacy in their own study but not in this particular study.
49
www.moj-es.net
CONCLUSION
In this study, it was found out that students’ level of academic achievement in chemistry in NorthCentral, Nigeria was low. Yet, their self-efficacy was high. It was also found out that there was no significant
relationship between the students’ self efficacy and their academic achievement. Hence, it could be
concluded that the academic achievement of the students could not be ascribed to their self-efficacy alone
as other factors contribute to the achievement of students in chemistry. The outcome of this study suggests
that no matter how self-efficacious students are, it may not have any significant impact on students’
achievement in chemistry if other crucial factors to the proper learning of chemistry are left unattended.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Since the outcome of this study has indicated that, self-efficacy alone cannot impact significantly on
students’ achievement in chemistry; attention should be paid to other factors necessary for better students’
achievement in chemistry. Such factors like provision of adequate laboratory materials, recruitment of
qualified teachers, provision of conducive classroom environment etc should be taken much more seriously
so that these can be complemented with the high self-efficacy of the students to produce a better
achievement of students in chemistry.
REFERENCES
Abubakar, R. B., & Eze, F. B. (2010). Female students’ academic performance in Mathematics at Federal
College of Education (Technical), Omoku, Rivers State. International Journal of Social and Policy Issues
6(1&2), 48-53.
Agwagah, U. N. V., & Harbor-Peters, V. F. (1994). Gender difference in Mathematics achievement. Journal of
Education and Psychology in third world Africa 1(1), 19-22.
Akinsola, M. J., Tella, A., & Tella, A. (2007). Correlates of academic procrastination and Mathematics
achievement of University undergraduate students. Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technical
Education 3(4), 363-370.
Andrew, S. (1998). Self-efficacy as a predictor of academic performance in science. Journal of Advanced
Nursing, 27, 596-603.
Bajah, S. T. (1997). Senior Secondary Chemistry Textbook (New Edition), Lagos: Longman Nig. Plc.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Australian Journal of Teacher
Education. 35(8) December 2010 p 56
Bandura, A. (2001). Guide for constructing Self-efficacy Scales. (Revised). Available from Frank Pajares, Emory
University, Atlanta. GA, 30322
50
www.moj-es.net
Barker, V. & Millar, R. (1999). Students’ reasoning about chemical reactions: What changes occur during a
context-based post-16 chemistry course? International Journal of Science Education, 21 (6), 645-665.
Britner, S. L. (2008). Motivation in high school science students: A comparison of gender differences in life,
physical, and earth science classes. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 45(8), 955-970.
Britner, S. L., & Pajares, F. (2006). Sources of science self-efficacy beliefs of middle school students. Journal
of Research in Science Teaching, 43(5), 485-499.
Finn, K. V. & Frone, M. R. (2004). Academic cheating: The role of students’ self-efficacy and identification with
school. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Nov. 9, 2004, vol.2 No 23.
www.ascd.org/.../toc.aspx
Hampton, N. Z. & Mason, E. (2003). Learning disabilities, gender, sources of self-efficacy, self-efficacy beliefs,
and academic achievement in high school students. Journal of School Psychology, 41, 101-112.
Kiran, D. & Sungur, S. (2011). Middle School Students’ Science Self-Efficacy and Its Sources: Examination of
Gender Difference. Journal of Science Education Technology, 23(3) 51-59.
Kupermintz, H. (2002). Affective and cognitive factors as aptitude resources in high school science
achievement. Educational Assessment, 8. 123-137.
Lau, S. & Roeser, R. W. (2002). Cognitive abilities and Motivational Processes in high school students’
situational engagement and achievement in Science. Educational Assessment, 8, 139-162.
Lodewyk, K. R. & Winne, P. H. (2005). Relations among the structure of Learning tasks, achievement and
changes in Self-efficacy in secondary students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 3-12.
Multon, K .D. Brown, S. D. & Lent, R. W. (1991). Relation of self-efficacy beliefs to academic outcomes: A
meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 30-38.
Olayemi, O. O. (2009). Students’ correlates and achievement as predictors of performance in physical
chemistry. ABACUS: The Journal of Mathematics Association of Nigeria 34(1), 99-105.
Pajares, F. & Miller, M. D. (1994). Role of self-efficacy ad self-concept beliefs in Mathematical problem
solving: A Path Analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 193-203.
Pajares, F. & Schunk, D. H. (2001). Self-beliefs and school success: Self-efficacy, Self-concept and School
achievement. London: Ablex Publishing. www.uky.edu/eushe2/pajares/eff.html
Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in achievement settings. Review of Educational Research, 66, 543-578.
Pintrich, P. & Schunk, D. (1996). Motivation in Education: Theory, Research & Applications, Ch. 3.Englewood
Pintrich, P. R. & Schunk, D. H. (2002). Motivation in Education: Theory, Research and Applications. Merrill,
Columbus.
51
www.moj-es.net
Schunk, D. H. (1985). Self-efficacy and classroom learning. Psychology in the Schools, 22, 208-223.
Schunk, D. H. (1995). Self-efficacy, Education and Instruction. In J. E. Maddux (Ed.), Self-efficacy, adaptation
and adjustment: Theory, research and application. Pp. 281-303. New York: Plenum.
Shell, D. F., Colvin, C., & Bruning, R. H. (1995). Self-efficacy, attribution, and outcome expectancy mechanisms
in reading and writing achievement: Grade-level and achievement-level differences. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 87, 386–398.
Usher, E. L. & Pajares, F. (2006). Sources of academic and self-regulatory efficacy beliefs of entering middle
school students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 31, 125-141. education.uky.edu/EDP/usher
Zeldin, A. L. & Pajares, F. (2000). Against the odds: Self-efficacy beliefs of women in mathematical, scientific
and technological careers. American Educational Research Journal, 37, 215-246.
52
www.moj-es.net
The Relationship Between Anxiety and
Test-Taking C-Test and Cloze-Test
University of Malaya
Mozhgan Azimi [1]
ABSTRACT
Anxiety has an important role in teaching and learning. If teachers can recognize which kind
of tests create high anxiety then they will be able to omit these kinds of tests. Then, the
results of test can probably show the students’ knowledge more carefully. The subjects of
the present study were sixty Iranian female junior university students. They were given
three kinds of test: an anxiety test, a C-test and a Cloze-test. Descriptive statistics for
subjects' performance on the Cloze-test and C-test were used to compare the mean score
of the subjects in both tests. Finally, the results of anxiety test and C-test were correlated
and then the results of anxiety test and Cloze-test were also correlated. The anxious
students feel more anxiety while taking C-test than Cloze-test.
Keywords:
Anxiety, Cloze-Test and C-test
INTRODUCTION
Anxiety creates many potential problems for learning foreign languages, because it has negative
effects on the acquisition, retention, and production of language (Robinson, 2009). One of the results of
anxiety is that students forget lessons and assignments, and cannot concentrate on their lessons and
understand them. These lead to memorizing or cheating and generally, they have no chance for success
(Coşkun, 2013).
Psychologists believe that anxiety is a drive whose reason is not fully known. Anxiety is a general term
for several disorders that cause nervousness, fear, apprehension, and worrying. It is a general phenomenon
and does not lead to any special target. Anxiety is usually accompanied by danger expectations (Corsini,
1999). Generally speaking, anxiety is an unknown phenomenon. Anxiety is like a wave; at first, it springs up
in an individual, then it will be intensified and it will gradually reach its peak and then it will decrease and
finally disappear (Lefrancois, 1991,1995). People often experience a general state of worry or fear before
confronting something challenging such as a test, examination, recital, or interview. These feelings are easily
justified and considered normal. Anxiety is considered a problem when symptoms interfere with a person's
ability to sleep or otherwise function. Generally speaking, anxiety occurs when a reaction is out of proportion
with what might be normally expected in a situation
Anxiety has been defined “As apprehension, tension or uneasiness from anticipation of danger, the
source of which is largely unknown or unrecognized primarily of intrasychic origin, in distinction fear, which
is the emotional response to a consciously recognized and usually external threat or danger. Anxiety may be
regarded as pathologic when it interferes with effectiveness in living, achievement of desired goals or
satisfaction, or reasonable emotional comfort” (Edgerton, 1994, p. 17).
30
www.moj-es.net
Spielberger (1983) and Faleye (2010) stated that anxiety is created when someone faces a problem,
or an obstacle, so that they cannot satisfy their needs and if these are important and vital needs, anxiety will
be more sever and lasting. In addition, if these obstacles reach to the level of constant frustration, the person
will always be anxious.
It must be noted here that a small degree of anxiety is normal and even necessary to do things. This
fact should be considered that anxiety is very beneficial at normal levels (Csizér & Piniel, 2013), the point is
that less anxious students will be more successful than the more anxious students because the former group
is more spontaneous, more creative and have better judgment, but the latter ones are very careful about
their errors, consume more time solving a problem and check the problems several time and finally cannot
recognize their thoughts creatively (Çubukçu, 2008). Anxious learners do not volunteer to answer questions
or to participate in classroom activities. These students always complain that their class moves too quickly
and they are left behind. It is natural because the anxious students require more time for learning. These
factors aeffect not only on learning but also on test taking, they cannot perform well, they do not have
enough time and they cannot remember the things, which they have learned before (Tsai, 2013). Anxious
students use simple structures in their speaking, this problem will cause these students not to be able to
communicate in the second language (Oxford, 1999).
Review of Literature
According to Horwitz (1986) there are four major theoretical approaches to anxiety, but none of them
is thorough and perfect. They cannot fully explain the nature and origin of anxiety. However, they present
some insights about anxiety, which are helpful in grasping a better view of it.
(1)
(2)
a.
b.
(3)
a.
(4)
Freudian Theory
Neo-Freudian Theory
Behavioral Theory of Anxiety
Cognitive Social Learning Theory
Cognitive Theory of Anxiety (Horwitz, 1986)
Here, it will be examined each of these theories separately.
(1)
It is obvious that there is a strong relationship between biological processes and anxiety. But, so far
it has not recognized whether anxiety causes biological changes or biological changes produce anxiety
(Horwitz, 1986).
Rreferring to Eysenck’s view (1997), Powell and Enright (1991) stated that “Individual differences in
the experience of anxiety may occur as a result of the inheritance of a particular genetic make-up that
predisposes the individual toward high or low emotional ability. This is defined as the tendency to react with
greater or lesser intensity to a particular stimulus, which might cause distress. Eysenck (1991) also suggests
that some individuals are also more likely toward forming strong conditioned responses; it means, certain
personality characteristics are believed to have certain genetic components; therefor, they are more likely
to experience anxiety in many occasions (Ibid).
31
www.moj-es.net
(2)
This theory consists of two parts as the following:
a.
Freudian theory
b.
Neo-Freudian theory
a.
Freudian theory
Referring to Freud’s opinions Powell and Enright (1991) believe that “There
are
three
kinds of anxiety: Real anxiety, which is said or responded to real
danger. Mood and neurotic anxiety,
which cause psychological problems. The
first experience of anxiety occurs as a result of birth. The
infant is dispatched
from the security of the womb into new and unfamiliar situation. This primary
anxiety sets the pattern. Then for all other experiences of anxiety”. (p.35) The other kind of anxiety
is moral anxiety, which is called fear of punishment. It is
recognized as guilt or shame. The third one,
neurotic anxiety is associated with
socially unacceptable behavior.
b.
Neo-Freudian theory
This theory was developed against Freud’s theory. Neo-Freudians rejected
Freud’s idea.
According to this theory; “primary anxiety did not occur at birth,
but later. A child has not only
physiological needs but also psychological. She needs protection and support and anxiety is aroused or
potential frustration of these dependency needs” (Powell and Enright, 1991, p.36)
(3)
Behavioral Theory of anxiety
Watson and Rayner (1993) worked on behavioral theory of anxiety and they believed that anxiety
could be acquired by classical conditioning. They contend that some fears through a process become
conditioned. Behaviorist theory believes learning takes place through stimulus and response. The
behaviorists believe there is a strong connection between stimulus and response. If the response is desirable,
it will be strengthened by positive reinforcement. This process is repeated several times and gradually the
desired response will change into a habit. If the response is not desirable, it will be discouraged and it will be
hindered before changing into a habit. Generally, reinforcement is a very important tool in learning,
especially in the early stages (Ibid).
a.
Cognitive-social learning theory
This theory is one branch of behavioral Theory of anxiety (Bandura, 1986,
1986). According to this theory, anxiety is learned through four
mechanisms:
Horwitz,
i.
By classical conditioning: as mentioned before in behavioral theory of
anxiety section.
ii.
By vicarious experience: watching another person who suffers from
anxiety.
iii.
By symbolic instruction: which is associated with learning through
education.
iv.
By symbolic logic: in which someone might infer or induce some
kinds of danger. This inference might be reasonable or unreasonable.
(4)
Cognitive Theory of Anxiety
Cognitive theorists believe that situations on matters, by themselves, do not produce anxiety. Rather,
the individuals’ interpretation cause anxiety and this kind of anxiety is not related to the external world.
Someone might misinterpret a real situation which would cause unreal anxiety (Rieg, et.al, 2007).
Relationship Between Anxiety and Second Language Learning
The main point is that anxiety is related to learning other languages. It is a fact that every aspect of a
task has many small elements and this feeling whether we can tackle these elements properly or not, or
generally this complex task, can create anxiety ( Pourebrahim, et. al, 2010). Since second language learning
32
www.moj-es.net
has many complex tasks, we cannot consider it an exception. Listening and speaking are considered as the
main sources of creating anxiety. Spontaneous speech, unprepared communication, inability for
understanding words, idioms or expressions and comprehension difficulty create high levels of anxiety, not
only at anxious situation but also at normal situations (Tum, 2012).
Anxious students learn at a slow rate and they have more difficulty to recall the learned subjects. The
anxious students study more than normal or relaxed students, but their performance does not reflect their
efforts. Another way of compensation is over-studying. Some anxious students will be so anxious when they
make errors in their test, and they try to compensate it by studying more. However, these additional efforts
will not lead to get better scores (Chapell, et, al, 2005).
According to Faleye (2010), students’ situation in one class may cause anxiety while in other classes
may not lead to anxiety. The students are anxious because of their experiences; they know their teachers
judge them. They do not like to be corrected in the presence of their peers. But it is proposed that low anxiety
has a positive effect on performance, but beyond a certain level, it hinders learning. Some kinds of anxiety
make learning more efficient and some kinds are regarded as hindrances to learning (Faleye, 2010).
Anxiety and Test-Taking
Anxious students feel that they learned the materials but their test performance did not reflect their
learning. Horwitz (1988) states that while test taking, most students feel anxiety. They usually complain to
counselors and teachers that they know the answers of the questions but they forget them because of high
anxiety. It is more common wile oral or speaking test “when many grammar points must be remembered
and coordinated simultaneously” (p.28). Horwitz (1988) goes further and states that same problem will be
occurred while selling test or syntax. The students remember correct answer after the test when the test
anxiety will be completely disappeared. If the student realizes he or she is making preventable errors during
the test, anxiety-and errors-may escalate.’(Ibid. P. 28)
Generally, anxiety does not permit students to examine more effective ways (Burns, 2004). They do
not want to wait to find the best solutions. They prefer to become relieved of the anxious situations. They
lose sight of broader circumstances and also they cannot see effective ways to their solution. The anxious
students are worried not only about answering questions but also about the result of the test. For this reason,
they cannot concentrate completely and perhaps this difference is one of the main factors for being
successful or unsuccessful. Most students feel anxious on the test so excessively that they forget everything
they learned before (Chinta, 2005).
Parks-Stamm, et, al, (2010) pointed out that test anxiety is concerned with many things. The first and
the most important part are related to the lack of preparation. This point can easily be removed. If someone
is well prepared, but he still fears, he is suffering from test-taking.
Cassady and Johnson (2002) argued that few people are not suffering from anxiety. He believed that
students become anxious because they should respond in the test even if they are not inclined to. Also they
know that there performance in the test reflect their abilities in the second language.
Eum and Rice (2011) stated that test anxious students often put unrealistic demands on themselves
and expect to do things perfectly. Thus test performance is a failure for them. Students who are test-anxious
in foreign language class probably experience considerable difficulty, when tests and quizzes are frequent
and they do not consider this fact that even the brightest and most prepared students often make errors.
One aspect of anxiety is worrying about frequent testing and it is not clear yet that it is related to
type of test or it can be generalized to every test, because of normal test anxiety. It is generally known that
the global test creates less anxiety than specific test (Lindsay, 2010). According to Zeidner (2007), one of the
most important reasons for test anxiety is fear of negative evaluation. Another important factor, which
33
www.moj-es.net
creates anxiety, is the emotional problems of students. Sometimes, the students’ high anxiety relates to
inappropriate family atmosphere, quarrels and… sometimes teachers create anxiety involuntary and
indirectly (Ibid). Teachers always compare the students to each other and admire the diligent students.
Teachers ignore the anxious students’ abilities and encourage their disabilities and weaknesses. Zeidner
(2007) pointed out that fear of failing creates high anxiety, because the anxious students know if they cannot
obtain the top score, they must hear taunt and contempt. It is one of the most important factors, which
create high anxiety, even though they completely dominate the material test, they cannot perform well
(Zeidner, 2007).
Cloze-Test and C-Test
It must be mentioned here that Clece-Murcia (1991) referring to Cohen’s statement, pointed out that
“ the origins of the Cloze-test date back farther than many would think-to 1897, in fact” (p.41).
Cloze-test for the first time was introduced by Taylor in 1953 (cited in Culhane, 1970. The main idea
of it is that if someone can understand all the message, it is easy to guess a single removed word. If this word
is common and simple, guessing will be easy. This notion is a basis for creating Cloze-test. The word Cloze is
taken from the concept of closer which is used in Gestalt psychology. It pinpoints to this fact that individuals
can fill the gaps of incomplete units.
In a Cloze-test, words are deleted from a selective passage at regular intervals (usually between every
fifth and every tenth words). This is periodic or fixed-ration deletion, but we can use of random deletion. The
length of removed words must be at the same length.
To construct a Cloze-test, firstly choose a long passage in which you can produce at least fifty blanks.
The kind of selective test depends on the purpose of the test. Second, every nth word must be deleted and
put a blank with the same length, until you have 50 blanks. The first and the last sentences must be intact.
Every nth word means if every fifth word has been deleted in first paragraph, we must delete fifth
word in other paragraph. Then, the reader must read the whole passage and guess the deleted words. This
process is comprehension first and then production.
There are two ways to score Cloze-test:
The testee must guess the exact word.
The testee can write appropriate word which is acceptable in the text.
Cloze-test has been used to to measure the readability of the written materials, and then it was
applied to first language reading comprehension (Heaton, 1975). Generally speaking, it was used as a
teaching device; the teachers used them to improve the students’ reading silks. The students must read more
carefully, use the contextual clues, and they were actively involved with the reading passage.The Cloze-test
has been used to measure English language proficiency (Aitken, 1977; Brown, 1993; Caulfield & Smith, 1981;
Chavanachat, 1986; Fotos, 1991; Oller & Conrad, 1971; Stubbs & Tucker, 1974).
It must be mentioned here that Cloze-tests are different form simple blank-filing testes. In Clozetests, deleted words are selected subjectively, namely, of structural comprehension ability. But, there was a
controversial argument about Cloze -test. It was believed that traditional fixed-word-deletion could only
measure reading ability at the word or the sentence level not at discourse level. There was no production
and generally it was not clear that Cloze-tests could measure language proficiency or not. For these reasons
another form of Cloze-test has been proposed by Klein-Braley (1981), which is called C-test or first letter
Cloze. In this method, the second half of every second word is deleted. Like Cloze-tests, the first and the last
sentences must be intact, but there is a difference here; a C-test consists of a number of different texts. Using
many topics in one test, we can measure different language elements and also evaluate writing ability with
reading ability. In other words, there is comprehension and production at the same time in C-test but there
is a problem here; by deleting half of the word, students may not understand the whole text but can guess
34
www.moj-es.net
the deleted words. According to Raatz (1985) cited in Klein-Braley (1997), C-test is based on the following
criteria:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The C-Test should be much shorter and should have at least 100 items.
The deletion rates and starting points of deletion should be fixed.
Only exact word scoring method should be employed.
There should be a number of different texts.
The words affected by the deletion should be a representative sample
Adult educated native speakers should make perfect scores on the test
The test should have high reliability and validity (p. 136).
of the text.
Nonetheless it is not clear so far that test anxiety would hinder the learners’ performance more on
C-tests or Cloze-tests.
METHODOLOGY
Subjects and instruments
This study conducted to compare learners’ performance on C-test and Cloze-test and find out which
kind of these two tests create more anxiety. To achieve the object, one university in Mashhad, Iran was
selected, randomly and then, 60 Iranian female Junior students were chosen randomly among three classes
with the total estimated average number of students 150 (both sex); since females are more anxious than
males (Kendler, et. al, 1992, Aida, 1994,Shear,1997, Pigott, 2003, Buss, 2011, Chaplin, et. al., 2013, Caballo,
et. al. 2014), subject must be of the same sex. All the subjects were studying Bachelor degree in English
Translation. First of all, the researcher must determine anxious students, for doing this, they were given an
anxiety test. For this research, Hamilton test was selected as a standard anxiety test. After this procedure,
C- test and Cloze- test were given, simultaneously. Both tests must be similar together as much as possible.
Proficiency and difficulty level and numbers of item should be the same, both tests must have the same
length.
The researcher selected Mashhad as the study site because she was completely familiar with the
teaching context in this city, since she has been teaching there for more than 15 years as an English teacher.
All of the selected participants were learning in Mashhad; however, they might have originally come from
other parts of Iran.
Procedures
All subjects were given Cloze-test with 30 blanks, at first, they were asked to read the whole passage
quickly, because of this belief that students do better if they have a general idea about it (Culhane,1970;
Heaton, 1975). One minute was given to respond to each item of the test. After 40 minutes, when all
participants completed the Cloze-test, an anxiety test with unlimited time was given. Based on the results of
anxiety test, the anxious students were identified, but the results were not announced. It was only recorded
for analysis. It must be mentioned here that the students with a score more that 100 points were considered
anxious students. Two weeks later, the same passage was given to the same students while it was changed
into C-test. It must be mentioned here the purpose of doing these two tests, Cloze-test and C-test, is to
measure reading comprehension ability in the present study. The test was constructed out of the passages
extracted from authentic source.To control the observer effect, the tests were administered by the subjects'
own teacher and in their own class time.The used scoring methods for Cloze test was guessing the
appropriate word method and for C-test was guessing the exact word method.
Analysis
Descriptive statistics for subjects' performance on the Cloze-test and C-test were used to compare
the mean score of the subjects in both tests. And then, Coefficient correlation formula was taken to
determine whether there is any relationship between two variables; between C-test and anxiety test, and
Cloze-test and anxiety test. It must be mentioned here that treatment was not necessary in this research.
35
www.moj-es.net
Cloze-test and C-test have been chosen for this paper because Cloze tests have been widely used for
measuring reading comprehension since their introducing to the testing world by Taylor in 1953. But in 1982,
Klein-Braley criticized cloze procedure mostly for their deletion and scoring problems. They introduced their
newly developed testing procedure, C-test, which was an evolved form of cloze tests without their
deficiencies (Klein-Braley, 1982 cited in Baghaei, 2008). After that, the effectiveness of C-test and Cloze test
became the main interest of the scientists in the field of language testing. The other reason for choosing
these two kinds of tests for the present paper is that they are easy to construct and to score (Connelly,1997;
Raatz & Klein-Braley, 1985), and highly reliable and valid ( Connelly, 1997; Dornyei & Katona, 1992; KleinBraley, 1997; Weiss,1983) and finally, they are economical (Weir, 1990, 1993).
After scoring, for the ease of comparison all the scores were calculated out of 100. Descriptive
statistics for both Cloze test and C-test are represented in Table 1.
Table 1 Descriptive statistics for subjects' performance on the Cloze-test and C-test
Cloze-Test
C-Test
N
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Standard
Deviation
60
60
42.10
28.57
84.21
76.78
65.72
49.83
10.82
12.20
As table 1 presents, the mean score of the subjects in cloze test (65.72) is higher than the mean score
of them in the C-test (49.83).
Table 2 SPSS output to test the relationship between anxiety and Cloze-Test & anxiety and C-test
Anxiety
Pearson
1.000
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
60
Pearson
Cloze-Test
-.723**
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
N
60
Pearson
C-Test
-.474**
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
N
60
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Anxiety
Cloze-Test
C-Test
-.723**
-.474**
.000
60
.000
60
1.000
.752**
60
.000
60
.752**
1.000
.000
60
60
The SPSS results show a clear relationship between anxiety and C-test.
36
www.moj-es.net
One conclusion of this research is that students who experience high anxiety in the second language
class, they will feel more anxiety in the test-taking and while comparing Cloze-test and C-test, the students
feel more anxiety while taking C-test. Cloze-Test seems to test general knowledge of English comparing with
C-Test. Birjandi and Alemi (2010) pointed out that students feel less anxiety while doing a test in general
English. Moreover, Cloze-Tests are more similar to some academic tests while C-Tests are more about
guessing. Dordi Nejad et. al. (2011) stated that there is a negative relationship between test anxiety and
academic performance. Dedeyn (2011) suggested that there is negative relationship between anxiety and
language performance evaluation. It can be concluded that Cloze is easier to take than the C-test, because
the higher number of deletions in the C-test makes the process of comprehension difficult, and If C-test is
assumed to be reading comprehension test, more time will be needed. The other reason refers back to his
fact that there is more than one word which begins with the same letters.
Implications
We investigate the negative effects of high anxiety so far. By referring too much valid research could
approximately show its outcomes. But how can we overcome this negative feeling? Or if it is impossible, how
can we decrease it? Most psychologists believe that there are many ways to remove anxiety which are very
easy theoretically and almost impossible practically. The consultants can play a major role in reducing the
anxiety which has been created by the kind of the test. First of all, the root of anxiety (here, C-test) must be
specified. By clarifying the problem, a plan can be constructed to overcome anxiety; try to change individuals’
attitudes about their personal feeling and help them to concentrate on the tasks rather than on feelings of
fear, for example.
Another technique for removing anxiety is that teachers help students gain learning strategies and
they can also change instructional method and evaluation. The main step for removing anxiety includes some
efforts to deal with the situation.
There is an important point here that a person can overcome his anxiety at low level. As anxiety
grows, overcoming will be more difficult and finally at the very high level, it will create panic and serious
problems. For this reason, it is better the anxious students discuss their problem with an educational
counselor, directly. The responsibility of consultants is an attempt to change self-related cognition. Anxious
students can concentrate on the positive parts of their abilities. They must consider their abilities and try to
encourage them and step by step, they must change their attitudes.
It should be noted here when an issue creates anxiety, the anxiety can travel from that issue to
another issue or even to other issues; in this case, the anxiety will get worse and many types of anxiety will
be mixed to each other. Based on the findings of the present study, consultants must consider the fact that
the type of test taking which creates anxiety, can lead to create the other kind of anxiety.
One of the best solution for decreasing the feel of anxiety is social support; the consultants can make
some groups of students who have the most similar characteristics and introduce some new anxious students
to these groups.
The other support which anxious students can be received is informational and emotional support
which lead to decreasing academic stress and anxiety. This important job can be done by educational
consultants and teachers.
The findings of the present study is important to the teachers and consultants showing them the
causes of anxiety and also give the some possible ways to decrease it; however, we should do research to
discover ways of preventing test-anxiety from developing in the first place. Up to now, researchers have had
37
www.moj-es.net
difficulty in showing the role of anxiety in second language learning. Questions remain about the manner
anxiety influences language learning.
LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER STUDIES
No research is absolutely complete and consequently no researcher can claim that the results of
her/his study can be applied in all possible cases. Additional research is obviously needed. This study is not,
however, an exception. There are other alternatives related to this research, which are worthy of further
investigation. This study focused on two kinds of tests and Participants were selected from Mashhad, the
hometown of the researcher. Hence, the results of this study cannot be generalized to all students in Iran or
worldwide . On the other hand, the participants of this study were all females. Therefore, according to Nazari
(2007), the underlying principles can be generalized to the theory, not to a population. That is to say, the
issue will be put forward and the related general theme not by “enumerative induction” but “analytical
induction” (Mitchell, 2000). Considering the limitations of this study, further researches can be conducted
such as:
1- The effect of age on the test-taking
2- Just one kind of tests can be chosen
3- The place of the research can be tested, i.e., will this research with the same topic have the same
results?
REFERENCES
Aida, Y. (1994). Examination of Horwitz and Cope’s construct of foreign language
students of Japanese. The modern language Journal, 78, 155-168.
anxiety: the case of
Aitken, K. G. (1977). Using Cloze procedure as an overall language proficiency test. TESOL Quarterly, 11(1),
59-67.
Baghaei, P. (2008). The effects of the rhetorical organization of texts on the C-test
construction:
Rasch Model 149 study. Melbourne Papers in Language and
Testing, 13(2), 32-51.
A
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive
theory. Englewood
Bienvenu, O. J., Wuyek, L. A., & Stein, M. B. (2010). Anxiety disorders diagnosis:
controversies. Curr Top BehaveNeurosci. 2:3-19.
some history and
Birjandi, P., & Alemi, M. (2010). The impact of test anxiety on test performance
among Iranian EFL
learners. BRAIN: Broad Research in Artificial
Intelligence and Neuroscience, 1(4), 44-58.
Brown, J. D. (1993). What are characteristics of natural cloze tests? Language Testing, 10(2), 93-116.
Burns, D. J. (2004). Anxiety at the time of the final exam: Relationships with
performance. Journal of Education for Business, 119-124.
38
expectations
and
www.moj-es.net
Buss, D.M. & Schmitt, D.P. (2011). Evolutionary psychology and feminism. Sex
Roles, 64,768-787.
Caballo, V. E., Salazar, I. C., Irurtia, M. J., Arias, B., Hofmann, S. G., & CISO-A
ResearchTeam.
(2014). Differences in social anxiety between men and women across 18 countries. Personality and
Individual Differences, 64, 35-40.
Cassady, J. C. and Johnson, R. E. (2002). Cognitive test and academic performance.
Educational Psychology 27(2): 270-295.
Caulfield, J., & Smith, W. C. (1981). The reduced redundancy test and the
as measures of global language proficiency. Modern
Language
Contemporary
Cloze
procedure
Journal, 65(1), 54-58.
Celce-Murcia, M. (1991). Teaching English as a second or foreign language. (2nd ed.). New York: Newbury
House Publishers.
Chapell, M. S., Blanding, Z. B., Silverstein, M. E., Takahashi, M., Newman, B., Gubi,
A. and McCann, N.
(2005). Test anxiety and academic performance in
undergraduate and graduate students.
Journal of Educational Psychology,
92(2): 268-274.
Chaplin, T. M., & Aldao, A. (2013). Gender differences in emotion expression in
analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 735-765.
children: A meta-
Chavanachat, P. (1986). The use of a cloze test as a measure of English proficiency for Thai university
graduates. PASAA, 16(1), 26-35.
Chinta, R. (2005). Exam anxiety effect on exam performance: An empirical
replication in the Middle
East. Proceedings of the International Business
Research Conference Athens 2005, 18 pp,
Aryan Hellas, Ltd., Athens, Greece.
Connelly, M. (1997). Using C-Test in English with post-graduate students. English
Purposes. 16(2), 139-150.
for
Specific
Corsini, R.J. (1999). The dictionary of psychology. Ann Arbor, MI: Brunnery/ Mazel.
Coşkun, A. (2013). Stress in English language teaching practicum: the views of all
Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 28(3), 97-110.
stakeholders.
Csizér, K., & Piniel, K. (2013). Motivation, anxiety and self-efficacy: the interrelationship
of
individual
variables in the secondary school context.
Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching,
3(4), 523-550.
Çubukçu, F. (2008). A study on the correlation between self-efficacy and foreign
anxiety. Journal of Theory and Practice in Education, 4(1),
148-158.
Retrieved http://eku.comu.edu.tr/index/4/1/fcubukcu.pdf.
language
learning
Culhane, J. W. (1970). Cloze procedures and comprehension. Reading Research, 23(5), 410-413, 464.
39
www.moj-es.net
DeDeyn, R. (2011). Student identity, writing anxiety, and writing performance: A
correlational
study (Master’s thesis). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No.
1493752).
Dordi Nejad, F. G., Hakimi, H., Ashouri, M., Dehghani, M., Zeinali, Z., Sadegh- Daghighi, M., & Bahrami, N.
(2011). On the relationship between test anxiety
and academic performance. Procedia Social
and Behavioral Sciences, 15,
3774-3778.
Dornyei, Z., & Katona, L, (1992). Validation of the C-Test amongst Hungarian EFL learners. Language Testing,
9(2), 187-206.
Edgerton, J.E. (1994). American psychiatric glossary (7th. Ed.) Washington DC:
psychiatric press.
American
Eum, K. and Rice, K. G. (2011). Test anxiety, perfectionism, goal orientation, and
performance. Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 24(2): 167-178.
academic
Faleye, B. A. (2010). Cognitive test anxiety and learning outcomes of selected undergraduate students.The
African Symposium, 10(2): 69-74. Glasgow, N. A.
Fotos, S. S. (1991). The cloze test as an integrative measure of EFL proficiency: A substitute for essays on
college entrance examinations? Language Learning,
41(3), 313-336.
Heaton, J. W. (1975). Writing English Language Tests. London: Longman.
Hicks, C. D. (2003). What Successful Teachers Do: 91 Research-Based Classroom Strategies for New and
Veteran Teachers, Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, A. J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety’’. In E. K. Horwitz &
D. J. Young (Eds). Language anxiety: from
theory to research to classroom implications. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Horwitz, E.K. (1988). The beliefs about language learning of beginning university
students. Modern language Journal, 72,283,294.
foreign
language
Kendler, K.S., Neale, M.C., Kessler, R.C., Heath, A.C., & Eaves, L. J. (1992).
Generalized anxiety disorder
in women. A population-based twin study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 49(4):267-72.
Klein-Braley, C. (1981). Empirical Investigations of Cloze Tests. Unpublished dissertation, University of
Edinburgh, Scotland.
Klein-Braley, C. (1997). C-Test in the context of reduced redundancy testing: An appraisal. Language Testing,
14(1), 47-84.
company.
company.
40
www.moj-es.net
Lindsay, P. C. (2010). Assessing the relationships among achievement goal
orientation, test anxiety,
self-efficacy, metacognition, and academic
performance. MA thesis, Northen Illinois University.
Nazari, A. (2007). EFL teachers’ perception of the concept of communicative competence. ELT Journal, 613.
Oller, J. W., Jr., & Conrad, C. A. (1971). The cloze technique and ESL proficiency. Language Learning, 21(2),
183-195.
Oxford, R. L. (1999). Anxiety and the language learner: new insights. In J. Arnold
language learning. Cambridge: CUP.
(Ed).
Affect
in
Parks-Stamm, E. J., Gollwitzer, P. M. , Oettingen, G. (2010). Implementation
intentions and test anxiety:
Shielding academic performance from distraction.
Learning and Individual Differences, 20(1):
30-3.
Pigott, T. A. (2003). Anxiety disorders in women. Psychiatr Clin North Am.
26(3):621-72.
Pourebrahim, Z, P. , Konesh, T. & Gh. K. A. A. (2010). The effects of skills training
of
emotions
confronting on test anxiety and academic performance of female
students. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 3(4 (12)):7-20.
Powell, T.J. and Enright, S.T. (1991). Anxiety and stress management: London: Rotledged.
Raatz, U. (1985). Test of reduced redundancy – the C-Test, a practical example. In C. Klein-Braley, & U. Raatz
(Eds.), C-Test in der Praxis.
Fremdsprachenund Hochschule, AKS-Rundbrief, 13/14 (pp. 14-19).
Bochum, West Germany: Arbeitskreis Sprachenzentrum [AKS].
Rieg, S. A., Paquette, K. R., & Chen, Y. (2007). Coping with stress: an investigation
stressors in the elementary classroom. Education, 128(2),
211-226.
of novice teachers’
Robinson, D. H. (2009). Evaluation (test) anxiety. In Anderman, E. M. and
Andermand, L. H. Eds.
Psychology of Classroom Learning–An Encyclopedia,
1: 387-390. Cengage-Learning GALE,
Farmington Hills, MI.
Shear, M. K. (1997). Anxiety disorders in women: gender-related modulation of
behavior. Semin Reprod Endocrinol. 15(1):69-76.
neurobiology
Spielberger, C.D. (1983). Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory (form Y). Palo,
consulting psychologists press.
Alto,
and
California:
Stubbs, J. B., & Tucker, G. R. (1974). The cloze test as a measure of English proficiency. Modern Language
Journal, 58(5-6), 239-241.
Taylor, W., L. (1953). Cloze procedure: A new tool for measuring readability. Journalism Quarterly, 30, 415453.
41
www.moj-es.net
Tsai, C. C. (2013). The impact of foreign language anxiety, test anxiety, and selfefficacy
among
senior high school students in Taiwan. International Journal of English Language and Linguistics
Research, 1(2), 31-47.
Tum, D. O. (2012). Feelings of language anxiety amongst non-native student teachers. Procedia-Social and
Behavioral Sciences, 47, 2055-2059.
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.948.
Watson and Rayner (1993).Conditioned Emotional Reactions. First published
Psychology, 3(1), 1-14.
in Journal of Experimental
Weir, C. J. (1990). Language Testing. New York: Prentice Hall.
Weir, C. (1993). Understanding and Developing Language Tests. London: Prentice-Hall.
Weiss, R. (1983). The C-Test. (Seminar Paper in Hebrew). Jerusalem, Israel: Hebrew University, School of
Education.
Zeidner, M. (2007). Test anxiety in educational contexts: Concepts, findings, and
future
directions. Emotion in education. In Schutz, P. A. and Pekrun, R.
(Editors).
Emotion
in
education, Educational psychology series, 165-184.
Elsevier Academic Press, San Diego,
CA.
42
www.moj-es.net
Self-Efficacy and Chemistry Students’
Academic
Achievement
in
Senior
Secondary Schools in North-Central,
Nigeria
Titilayo Funmisho Baanu [1], Oloyede Solomon Oyelekan[2], Adekunle
Solomon Olorundare [3]
[1] School of Science,
Kwara State College of Education,
Ilorin, Nigeria.
[email protected]
[2] Department of Science
Education,
[email protected]
(Correspondence author)
[3] Adekunle Solomon Olorundare
Department of Science Education,
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Self-efficacy reflects the extent to which students believe that they can successfully
perform in school. It usually positively correlated with outcome expectations but it is
possible that a student’s has high self-efficacy does not transform into a high academic
achievement. This study sought to find out the relationship between chemistry students’
self-efficacy and their academic achievement in senior secondary schools in North-central,
Nigeria. The study is an ex-post facto research and is a descriptive survey. The subjects of
the study were one thousand one hundred and fifty (1150) senior secondary school III
chemistry students selected from Kogi, Kwara and Niger States of Nigeria. The data
collected were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics of mean, percentage
and Pearson Product Moment Correlation. The findings revealed that no significant
relationship existed between self-efficacy and the academic achievement of the chemistry
students. The study concludes that students’ self-efficacy needs to be complemented with
a host of other factors to achieve high academic achievement in Chemistry. It is therefore
recommended that attention be paid to other factors necessary for better students’
achievement in chemistry to complement students’ high self-efficacy, so that a
combination of these factors could result in high academic achievement in Chemistry
Keywords:
Self-efficacy, Chemistry Students, Academic Achievement, Senior
Secondary Schools, Nigeria.
INTRODUCTION
Self-efficacy is defined as one’s belief in his/her capacity to perform a specific action successfully
(Bandura, 1997, 2001). Self-efficacy determines how people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave.
Such beliefs produce these diverse effects through four major processes, which include cognitive,
motivational, affective and selection processes. A strong sense of efficacy enhances human accomplishment
and personal well-being in many ways, such as academic achievement.
Students might have different self-efficacy judgments in different types of tasks or domains. For
instance, a student who feels efficacious in biology might not feel that efficacious in chemistry. Self-efficacy
influences people’s choice of tasks, showing effort and persistence at the task, and thus, is a better predictor
of performance and motivation compared to other variables (Bandura, 1997). Similarly, Hampton and Mason
(2003); Multon, Brown and Lent (1991); Pajares and Miller (1994); Shell, Colvin and Bruning (1995);
Kupermintz (2002); Pintrich and Schunk (2002); Britner (2008); Kiran and Sungur (2011) have affirmed the
relationship between self-efficacy and students’ achievement. According to Schunk (1985), self-efficacy
43
www.moj-es.net
beliefs mediate the effects of prior achievement, knowledge and skills on subsequent achievement. For
instance, in schools, students with high self- efficacy tend to choose more challenging tasks, show more
effort, and do not give up easily, which explains why students of similar ability can have different academic
achievement (Bandura, 1997).
Efficacious students look for new challenges, show persistence at tasks and have the ultimate success
(Britner, 2008; Zeldin & Pajares, 2000). Even though such students have prior difficulties, the belief in their
capabilities to overcome these difficulties results in the motivated performance (Bandura, 1986; Schunk,
1985). Studies have shown that science self-efficacy is associated with science achievement and sciencerelated choices across grade levels (Britner, 2008). Andrew (1998) also found out that science self-efficacy
predicted achievement at the college level. Among high school students, science self-efficacy was found to
be a good predictor of achievement and engagement with science-related activities than gender and parental
background (Kuperminty, 2002; Lau & Roeser, 2002; Lodewyk & Winne, 2005).
As a science subject, Chemistry is concerned with the study of composition and properties of natural
substances. It occupies a pivotal position in science and technology and is needed by everybody and in every
aspect of human endeavor (Agwagah & Harbor-Peters, 1994; Akinsola, Tella & Tella, 2007; Olayemi, 2009;
Abubakar & Eze, 2010). For instance, human beings have used organic compounds and their reactions for
thousand of years in the manufacture of many valuable products for men use e.g. soap, oils, hydrogenated
oil, kerosene, petrol, plastic, lubricants, vaseline, ceramics and detergents. More so, the ancient Egyptians
used organic compounds (indigo and alizarin) to dye cloths which are products of scientific discovery.
Chemistry is regarded as the hub of science and it is considered as a service subject (Bajah, 1997). Chemistry
is the catalyst for sustainable national growth and development.
In spite of the central position of chemistry among science subjects and its importance in sustaining
sustainable economic growth and development, the performance of Nigerian candidates in School Certificate
Chemistry over the years is not encouraging (Figure 1).
%
C
80
r
60
e
50
d
i
t
p
a
s
s
72.34
70
62.49
50.7
44.4
49.54
43.7
43.13
40
% Credit pass
30
20
10
0
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Year
Figure 1: Performance of Nigerian students in the Chemistry in the May/June School Certificate
Examinations conducted by the West African Examinations Council between 2008 and 2014. (Source:
Statistics Division, West African Examinations Council (WAEC), National Head Office, Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria).
Figure 1 shows that during the percentage credit pass was less than 50% for most of the years
reviewed. In 2013, the performance improved but slid back again in 2014. Self-efficacy researchers typically
assume that students’ belief in their ability to succeed in chemistry tasks, courses, or activities, or their sense
44
www.moj-es.net
of self-efficacy, has a powerful impact on their choices of science-related activities, the effort they expend
on those activities, the perseverance they show when encountering difficulties, and the ultimate success they
experience (Bandura, 1997; Britner & Pajares, 2006; Zeldin & Pajares, 2000; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Could
the dismal performance of Nigerian candidates in School Certificate Chemistry be traceable to their selfefficacy? It is on the basis of the preceding paragraphs that this study was conducted to find out the
relationship between students’ self-efficacy and their academic achievement in chemistry in North-Central
Nigeria which include Benue, Kogi, Kwara, Nasarawa, Niger, and Plateau states as well as the Federal Capital
Territory (FCT).
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Self-efficacy is largely grounded in the social cognitive theory. This theory explains that human
functioning results from interactions among personal factors (e.g., cognitions, emotions), behaviors and
environmental conditions (Bandura, 1986, 1997). From this perspective, self-efficacy affects one’s behaviors
and the environments with which one interacts and is influenced by one’s actions and conditions in the
environment. Self-efficacy is hypothesized to affect individuals’ task choices, effort, persistence and
achievement (Bandura, 1997; Schunk, 1995). Compared with learners who doubt their capabilities, those
who feel self-efficacious about learning or performing a task competently are apt to participate more readily,
work harder, persist longer when they encounter difficulties and achieve at higher levels.
Learners acquire self-efficacy information from knowledge of others’ performances through social
comparisons. Similar others offer the best basis for comparison. Students who observe similar peers learn a
task may also believe that they can learn it. Such vicarious information typically has a weaker effect than
actual performance because vicariously-induced self-efficacy can be negated by subsequent performance
failure.
Some researchers such as Pajares and Schunk (2001) and Usher and Pajares (2006) have reported
that students’ beliefs in their abilities to achieve desired goals strongly influence their academic achievement.
In view of this Finn and Frone (2004) concluded that academic self-efficacy reflects the extent to which
students believe that they can successfully perform in school. Self-efficacies are usually positively correlated
with outcome expectations but it is possible that a student has high self-efficacy but low expectations about
the grades earned from the examinations (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996).
Self-efficacy beliefs develop as a result of information from four types of resources: mastery
(enactive) experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion and physiological states. Mastery or
enactive experiences are derived from what one has experienced are said to be the most forceful reference
of self-efficacy beliefs. Vicarious experiences are gained by observing a model’s performance and comparing
it with the observer. A comparatively weak source of self-efficacy is the persuasion like ‘I have faith in you’
given by others. The last source of students’ self-efficacy is physiological reactions which are stress, anxiety
and other feelings seen as signs of physical incompetence (Bandura, 1997).
Self-efficacy beliefs are domain specific and refer to perceptions of capabilities to learn or perform
given tasks within specified domains (Pajares, 1996). In gauging self-efficacy, people assess their skills and
capabilities to translate those skills into actions. Possessing skill can raise self-efficacy, which in turn can lead
to further skill acquisition, but skill and self-efficacy are not synonymous in meaning. Students’ own
performances offer the most reliable guides for gauging self-efficacy. In general, success raises self-efficacy
and failures lower it, although an occasional failure after some successes is unlikely to have much impact.
How people act can often be predicted better by their self-efficacy (i.e. the beliefs about their capabilities)
than by their actual skills (Bandura, 1986). Self-efficacy also depends on students’ intelligence and abilities.
In general, high-ability students feel more efficacious about performing well than do low-ability students, but
self-efficacy is not necessarily a direct reflection of students’ intelligence and abilities.
45
www.moj-es.net
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between self-efficacy and
chemistry students’ academic achievement in North-central, Nigeria. Specifically, the study determined:
i.
the level of academic achievement of senior school chemistry students in North-central, Nigeria.
ii.
the level of chemistry students’ self-efficacy in senior schools in North-central, Nigeria.
iii.
the relationship between students’ self-efficacy and their academic achievement in chemistry.
Research Questions
The study provides answers to the following questions:
i.
What is the level of the academic achievement of senior school chemistry students in Northcentral, Nigeria?
ii.
What is the level of chemistry students’ self-efficacy among senior schools in North-central,
Nigeria?
iii.
Is there any relationship between senior school chemistry students’ self-efficacy and their
academic achievement in chemistry?
Research Hypothesis
The study is a research conducted via a descriptive survey. The population for the study comprised
all the chemistry students in the senior school three (SS3) in North-central, Nigeria. Four hundred chemistry
students were selected by stratified random sampling from ten secondary schools in Kogi, Kwara and Niger
States which made up of 1200 chemistry students and thirty secondary schools altogether in which one
thousand one hundred and fifty chemistry students duly completed the questionnaire for the study.
Two instruments were used for the study. The first one was a researcher-designed questionnaire
named students’ self-efficacy questionnaire (SEQ) adapted from Bandura (1986). The modification of the
questionnaire involved changing the response modes to the questions in the questionnaire from Very True
(VT), True (T), Untrue (U) and Not At All (NAA) to Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly
Disagree (SD) respectively, in the believe that the response modes better represent respondents’ personal
opinions. The change in the response modes necessitated the transformation of the questions which make
up the questionnaire items into statements. The responses were scored 4, 3, 2 and 1 respectively.
The items investigate the confidence which students had in undertaking different tasks in chemistry.
The questionnaire was validated by three lecturers in the Department of Science Education, University of
Ilorin, Nigeria for item structure and language clarity. The reliability of the questionnaire was determined
using a test-retest method of two weeks interval, in which the questionnaire was administered to thirty
chemistry students from another school not covered by the main study. The data obtained was subjected to
Pearson Product Moment Correlation. A calculated reliability coefficient of 0.72 was obtained.
The second instrument was the Chemistry result of the respondents in the Joint Mock School
Certificate Examination jointly conducted by all states in North-Central Nigeria. The Joint Mock School
Certificate Examination questions were normally taken through the basic processes of validation and
reliability before they were administered. Hence, the examination questions were deemed valid and reliable.
Copies of the questionnaire were directly administered to the students in each of the schools and
retrieved same day the school was visited. The data obtained were subjected to statistical analysis using
frequency counts, mean, standard deviation, and Pearson Product Moment Correlation was employed to test
the only hypothesis.
46
www.moj-es.net
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
The data obtained are presented and explained as follows:
Research Question 1: What is the level of the academic achievement of senior school chemistry
students in North-central, Nigeria?
The results obtained in respect of this research question are presented on table 1.
Table 1: Students’ grades in Chemistry in the Joint Mock Examinations conducted by states, in NorthCentral, Nigeria in 2012.
States
Grades
Total
A1
B2
B3
C4
C5
C6
D7
E8
F9
Kwara
4
3
5
11
28
36
50
49
214
400
Kogi
26
6
14
32
44
88
66
50
74
400
Niger
2
39
47
59
53
62
43
23
22
350
Total
32
48
66
102
125
186
159
122
310
1150
Source: State Ministries of Education.
Table 2: Description of Chemistry Students’ Grades in Joint Mock Examinations in Kogi, Kwara and Niger
States, Nigeria.
Grade
Frequency
Percentage
A1
B2
B3
C4
32
48
66
102
2.8
4.2
5.7
8.9
C5
C6
D7
E8
F9
Total
125
186
159
122
310
1150
10.9
16.2
13.8
10.6
27.0
100
Cumulative
percentage
2.8
7.0
12.7
21.6
Continued
32.4
48.6
62.4
73.0
100.0
Mean score is 49.39
Tables 1 and 2 show the level of Chemistry students’ academic achievement in the Joint Mock
Examinations conducted in Kogi, Kwara and Niger States, Nigeria. The result shows that only 559 (48.61%) of
the respondents from Kogi, Kwara and Niger states passed at the credit level. It could be concluded that the
level of academic achievement of chemistry students is low because the percentage score at credit level was
47
www.moj-es.net
less than 50%. The 48.61% was obtained from the addition of frequency from A1-C6 grade levels on table 2
and divided by the total frequency multiplied by one hundred i.e. 556 divided by 1150 multiplied by 100.
Research Question 2: What is the level of students’ self-efficacy among senior school chemistry
students in North-central, Nigeria? The data obtained in respect of this research question are presented on
table 3.
Table 3: Summary of ranks of students’ self-efficacy mean scores among senior school chemistry students
in North-central, Nigeria.
Item No
83
81
90
85
Items
I like explaining difficult topics in chemistry to
other students
I always obtain good grade in chemistry test
and examinations.
Mean
Rank
Self-efficacy
2.92
1st
High
2nd
High
2.85
2nd
High
2.83
4th
High
2.85
Continued
89
86
80
82
88
84
87
I easily apply theories learnt in chemistry
class to laboratory practical work.
I learn chemistry without fear.
I conveniently talk to scientists about
chemistry.
I am always in need of my chemistry teacher
to supervise me during practical class.
I always get high grades in essay part of
Chemistry questions during the examination
I easily get an appropriate formula to solve
Chemistry problems.
I easily write out the summary of a television
documentary that deals with chemistry.
2.83
4th
High
2.82
6th
High
2.82
6th
High
2.78
8th
High
2.77
9th
High
2.74
10th
High
2.72
11th
High
Table 3 presents data on the level of students’ self-efficacy among senior secondary school chemistry
students. The obtainable scores for the response modes of strongly disagree, agree disagree and strongly
agree are 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively, making 4 the maximum obtainable mean score for each of the items in
the questionnaire. Self efficacy was then graded at three levels:
Low: 0-1.4
Average: 1.5 – 2.4
High: 2.5-4.0
The table shows that all the eleven items were ranked high with the mean scores ranging from 2.92
to 2.72. This means that all chemistry students in the study had high self-efficacy.
Research Question 3: Is there any relationship between senior school chemistry students’ selfefficacy and their academic achievement in chemistry?
The corresponding hypothesis to research question 3 is hypothesis 1.
48
www.moj-es.net
The data obtained in respect of the question and the hypothesis is presented on table 4.
Table 4:Summary of Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient between self-efficacy and academic
achievement of senior school chemistry students in North-central, Nigeria.
Variables
No
Mean
SD
Students’
self-efficacy
1150
30.40
6.415
Academic
1150
achievement
Not sig. at P> 0.05
49.39
df
Calculated
r
p-value
1148
.038
.200
12.480
Table 4 shows [r (1148, 0.05) =0.200]. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. This
suggests that there was no significant relationship between self-efficacy and chemistry students’ academic
achievement in chemistry in North-central, Nigeria.
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
low.
From the findings of this study, it could be summarized that:
1.
the academic achievement of the respondents from Kogi, Kwara and Niger
States was
2.
the chemistry students’ self-efficacy in the three states under the study was high.
3.
there was no significant relationship between self-efficacy and chemistry
students’
academic achievement in chemistry in North-central, Nigeria.
DISCUSSION
The outcome of this study indicates that chemistry students in senior secondary schools in Northcentral Nigeria had a low level of academic achievement in the Joint Mock Chemistry Examination, as only
559 (48.61%) of the respondents passed at credit level. This is in spite of the fact that the result presented
on table 3 shows that all the respondents had high self-efficacy in learning chemistry. This finding contradicts
that of Britner (2008) and Kiran and Sungur (2011) who also reported high students’ self-efficacies in their
studies, but which produced a corresponding high level of academic achievement in Chemistry. The finding
is also not in agreement with those of Kupermintz (2002), Lau and Roeser (2002) and Lodewyk and Winne
(2005) who reported that science self-efficacy were a better predictor of achievement and engagement with
science related activities among high school students. It appeals to common sense that a high self-efficacy
should produce a corresponding high academic achievement in learners, but the outcome of this study has
indicated that this may not happen all the time. The differences observed in the outcome of this particular
study and those of others could be due to the influence of other variables that contribute to students’
achievement complementing self-efficacy in their own study but not in this particular study.
49
www.moj-es.net
CONCLUSION
In this study, it was found out that students’ level of academic achievement in chemistry in NorthCentral, Nigeria was low. Yet, their self-efficacy was high. It was also found out that there was no significant
relationship between the students’ self efficacy and their academic achievement. Hence, it could be
concluded that the academic achievement of the students could not be ascribed to their self-efficacy alone
as other factors contribute to the achievement of students in chemistry. The outcome of this study suggests
that no matter how self-efficacious students are, it may not have any significant impact on students’
achievement in chemistry if other crucial factors to the proper learning of chemistry are left unattended.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Since the outcome of this study has indicated that, self-efficacy alone cannot impact significantly on
students’ achievement in chemistry; attention should be paid to other factors necessary for better students’
achievement in chemistry. Such factors like provision of adequate laboratory materials, recruitment of
qualified teachers, provision of conducive classroom environment etc should be taken much more seriously
so that these can be complemented with the high self-efficacy of the students to produce a better
achievement of students in chemistry.
REFERENCES
Abubakar, R. B., & Eze, F. B. (2010). Female students’ academic performance in Mathematics at Federal
College of Education (Technical), Omoku, Rivers State. International Journal of Social and Policy Issues
6(1&2), 48-53.
Agwagah, U. N. V., & Harbor-Peters, V. F. (1994). Gender difference in Mathematics achievement. Journal of
Education and Psychology in third world Africa 1(1), 19-22.
Akinsola, M. J., Tella, A., & Tella, A. (2007). Correlates of academic procrastination and Mathematics
achievement of University undergraduate students. Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technical
Education 3(4), 363-370.
Andrew, S. (1998). Self-efficacy as a predictor of academic performance in science. Journal of Advanced
Nursing, 27, 596-603.
Bajah, S. T. (1997). Senior Secondary Chemistry Textbook (New Edition), Lagos: Longman Nig. Plc.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Australian Journal of Teacher
Education. 35(8) December 2010 p 56
Bandura, A. (2001). Guide for constructing Self-efficacy Scales. (Revised). Available from Frank Pajares, Emory
University, Atlanta. GA, 30322
50
www.moj-es.net
Barker, V. & Millar, R. (1999). Students’ reasoning about chemical reactions: What changes occur during a
context-based post-16 chemistry course? International Journal of Science Education, 21 (6), 645-665.
Britner, S. L. (2008). Motivation in high school science students: A comparison of gender differences in life,
physical, and earth science classes. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 45(8), 955-970.
Britner, S. L., & Pajares, F. (2006). Sources of science self-efficacy beliefs of middle school students. Journal
of Research in Science Teaching, 43(5), 485-499.
Finn, K. V. & Frone, M. R. (2004). Academic cheating: The role of students’ self-efficacy and identification with
school. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Nov. 9, 2004, vol.2 No 23.
www.ascd.org/.../toc.aspx
Hampton, N. Z. & Mason, E. (2003). Learning disabilities, gender, sources of self-efficacy, self-efficacy beliefs,
and academic achievement in high school students. Journal of School Psychology, 41, 101-112.
Kiran, D. & Sungur, S. (2011). Middle School Students’ Science Self-Efficacy and Its Sources: Examination of
Gender Difference. Journal of Science Education Technology, 23(3) 51-59.
Kupermintz, H. (2002). Affective and cognitive factors as aptitude resources in high school science
achievement. Educational Assessment, 8. 123-137.
Lau, S. & Roeser, R. W. (2002). Cognitive abilities and Motivational Processes in high school students’
situational engagement and achievement in Science. Educational Assessment, 8, 139-162.
Lodewyk, K. R. & Winne, P. H. (2005). Relations among the structure of Learning tasks, achievement and
changes in Self-efficacy in secondary students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 3-12.
Multon, K .D. Brown, S. D. & Lent, R. W. (1991). Relation of self-efficacy beliefs to academic outcomes: A
meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 30-38.
Olayemi, O. O. (2009). Students’ correlates and achievement as predictors of performance in physical
chemistry. ABACUS: The Journal of Mathematics Association of Nigeria 34(1), 99-105.
Pajares, F. & Miller, M. D. (1994). Role of self-efficacy ad self-concept beliefs in Mathematical problem
solving: A Path Analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 193-203.
Pajares, F. & Schunk, D. H. (2001). Self-beliefs and school success: Self-efficacy, Self-concept and School
achievement. London: Ablex Publishing. www.uky.edu/eushe2/pajares/eff.html
Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in achievement settings. Review of Educational Research, 66, 543-578.
Pintrich, P. & Schunk, D. (1996). Motivation in Education: Theory, Research & Applications, Ch. 3.Englewood
Pintrich, P. R. & Schunk, D. H. (2002). Motivation in Education: Theory, Research and Applications. Merrill,
Columbus.
51
www.moj-es.net
Schunk, D. H. (1985). Self-efficacy and classroom learning. Psychology in the Schools, 22, 208-223.
Schunk, D. H. (1995). Self-efficacy, Education and Instruction. In J. E. Maddux (Ed.), Self-efficacy, adaptation
and adjustment: Theory, research and application. Pp. 281-303. New York: Plenum.
Shell, D. F., Colvin, C., & Bruning, R. H. (1995). Self-efficacy, attribution, and outcome expectancy mechanisms
in reading and writing achievement: Grade-level and achievement-level differences. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 87, 386–398.
Usher, E. L. & Pajares, F. (2006). Sources of academic and self-regulatory efficacy beliefs of entering middle
school students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 31, 125-141. education.uky.edu/EDP/usher
Zeldin, A. L. & Pajares, F. (2000). Against the odds: Self-efficacy beliefs of women in mathematical, scientific
and technological careers. American Educational Research Journal, 37, 215-246.
52
www.moj-es.net

The Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Science

Transcription

Similar documents

Brief - Juwita Suwito

CYBERJAYA

October - Postpartum Support Virginia

Citrawarna Malaysia

Caudill Celebration - Frankfort School District 157-C

DPS - Cyberjaya University College of Medical Sciences

this document

Flag Off Ceremony, Malaysia, 10th September 2009

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

04 ABKH1103 CG