volunteered geographic information for emergency response

Transcription

ISBN : 978-602-97639-4-2
PROCEEDING
International Fulbright and BPPT Symposium on
Science and Technology
The Role of Science and Technology in Climate Change and
Disaster Mitigation and Adaptation
September 4 – 6, 2012
PUBLISHER :
Geo-system Technology and Hazard Mitigation Laboratory
( GEOSTECH - BPPT )
In Collaboration
AGENCY FOR THE ASSESSMENT AND APPLICATION OF TECHNOLOGY
( BPPT)
FULBRIGHT
AMERICAN INDONESIAN EXCHANGE FOUNDATION
( AMINEF )
Editorial Staff for AMINEF 2013
The American
Indonesian Exchange
Foundation (AMINEF)
2013
April 2013
Editors
Udrekh, Joko Prayitno, Saraswati Diah R., Ressy Oktivia
Advisors
Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology (BPPT)
The American Indonesian Exchange Foundation (AMINEF)
Adaptation Sector Journal Title
: Arif Arham
: Volunteered Geographic Information For Emergency Response
Disaster Mitigation Sector : Danny Hilman Natawidjaja
Journal Title
: Fakta Geologi Dari Siklus Mega-Tsunami Di Wilayah
Aceh-Andaman Dan Konteknya Dalam Sejarah Aceh
: Dwikorita Karnawati, Teuku Faisal Fathani, Budi Andayani, Sani
Tanaka And Eric G. Frost
: Hybrid Socio-Technical Approach for Strategic Disaster Risk
Reduction Program in Indonesia
: Faisar Jihadi
: Political Dynamic and External Factors in a Post Disaster
Rehabilitation & Reconstruction; Case Study of Nias Islands Post
the 2004 and 2005 Earthquake and Tsunami
: Ichsan
: Community Participation in Post-Tsunami Redevelopment:
The Case Studies of Four Villages in Aceh
Mitigation & Adaptation Sector : Kardono
Journal Title
: Identifying Low Carbon Technology for Sustainable Development
Editorial Staff for AMINEF 2013
The Economic of Climate Change Sector : Perdinan, Rizaldi Boer, Kiki Kartikasari, Bambang
Journal Title
Dwi Dasanto, Rini Hidayati, and Diva
: Economic and Adaptation Cost of Climate Change: A Case Study of
Indramayu – West Java Indonesia
Adaptation Sector : Rahmawati Husein
Journal Title
: Assessing Hazard Mitigation Policies and Strategies in Java Coastal
Areas
The Economic of Climate Change Sector : Rony Bishry
Journal Title
: Climate Change and Economic Policy for Developing Countries
The Economic of Climate Change Sector : Saiful Mahdi
Journal Title
: Bridging the Gap: Knowledge Development and Management in
Climate Change Issues in Aceh
Mitigation & Adaptation Sector : Yeni A. Mulyani and Noor F. Haneda
Journal Title
: Edge vs Interior Habitat of Forest Plantation in Gunung Walat,
Sukabumi: Response of Insectivorous Birds to Changing in Microclimate
FOREWORD
BY
The Deputy Chairman for the Technology of Natural Resources
The Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology
(BPPT)
This is the proceeding of the International Fulbright Symposium on Science and
Technology with the topic of “The Role of Science and Technology in Climate Change and
Natural Disaster Mitigation and Adaptation on the occasion of the Anniversary of the
Fulbright Program in Indonesia held in Jakarta on September 2012
The symposium was of scientific discussions on the nature and causes underlying
the climate change and natural disasters. This is in line with the program of the United
Nation’s Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC] which was formed to provide
an assessment of global climate change.
The purpose of this international Fulbright Symposium was to initiate discussions
on science and technology from various perspectives in relation to global warming and
natural disasters. The aim is to build a movement, a network of scientists, technologist,
economists, policymakers, elected representatives and concerned citizens who believe in
sound science and technology policy options. The goal is to identify the role of Science and
technology for the climate change and natural disaster mitigation and adaptation.
This conference was open to academics, researchers, policy makers, government
officials, media, concerned citizens and civil society activists. There were invited presentations
from American and Indonesian Fulbright alumni who were interested in presenting a paper
under any of these broad themes.
I would like to offer our appreciation to AMINEF for their cooperation to hold such
special academic program together with us. We also thank you for the participants who
delivered their scientific paper in this symposium. We hope this proceeding will be useful
for references of further discussion related to the topic.
Yours Sincerely,
Dr. Ridwan Djamaluddin
FOREWORD
BY
The Executive Director of the American Indonesian Exchange Foundation
(AMINEF)
Forward for BPPT publication of Fulbright/AMINEF/BPPT Climate Change and
Natural Disaster Mitigation Symposium September 2012:
As Executive Director of the American Indonesian Exchange Foundation (AMINEF)
and on behalf of the Fulbright Programs we administer, I would like to express my sincere
thanks to the Agency for the Application and Assessment of Technology (BPPT) and all of
the Fulbright alumni, other scientists, scholars, and academics from various fields, and
those from other relevant sectors who were there out of interest in the important topics
presented.
This important symposium was one of the key highlights of the 60th Anniversary of
Fulbright in Indonesia special programs we supported to honor the 60 years of Fulbright
and 20 years of AMINEF as the bi-national Fulbright Commission. We hope that we can
continue these types of events in the future and publish the proceedings to share with a
broader audience.
We greatly value our collaboration with BPPT and hope that this symposium was an
impetus for further collaboration and that it generates networking and collaboration in the
future among those who are devoted to these important issues of our time. In the midst
of a comprehensive partnership between Indonesia and the United States of America, this
symposium is also symbolic and emblematic as a model for cooperation in the future on
scholarly events that bring experts together to find common ground and interest in dealing
with the role of science on important issues such as climate change and natural disaster
mitigation.
The Fulbright Program administered by AMINEF in Indonesia, is known around the
world for its alumni becoming leaders in their fields. Under a current Fulbright initiative
which is part of that comprehensive partnership between our two countries, we have
expanded the number of STEM field grants for study and research for sending Indonesians
to the US and for Americans to come to Indonesia. Dr. Indroyono Soesilo and Dr. Brian
Atwater are two examples of experts participating in this symposium who lectured in the
US and Indonesia respectively as part of a special exchange of Senior Scholar Lecturers
under Fulbright and administered by AMINEF in STEM fields.
Yours Sincerely,
Michael E. McCoy
LIST OF CONTENT
Foreword .......................................................................................................................
List Of Content ..............................................................................................................
i
iii
1.
Volunteered Geographic Information For Emergency Response
Arif Arham ........................................................................................................... 1-11
2.
Fakta Geologi Dari Siklus Mega-Tsunami Di Wilayah Aceh - Andaman
Dan Konteknya Dalam Sejarah Aceh
Danny Hilman Natawidjaja ................................................................................. 1-17
3.
Hybrid Socio-Technical Approach For Strategic Disaster Risk Reduction
Program In Indonesia
Dwikorita Karnawati, Teuku Faisal Fathani, Budi Andayani,
Sani Tanaka1 And Eric G. Frost ............................................................................ 1-11
4.
Political Dynamic And External Factors In A Post Disaster Rehabilitation &
Reconstruction; Case Study Of Nias Islands Post The 2004 And 2005
Earthquake And Tsunami
Faisar Jihadi ......................................................................................................... 1-12
5.
Community Participation In Post-Tsunami Redevelopment: The Case Studies
Of Four Villages In Aceh
Ichsan ................................................................................................................... 1-11
6.
Identifying Low Carbon Technology For Sustainable Development
Kardono ............................................................................................................... 1-11
7. Economic And Adaptation Cost Of Climate Change: A Case Study
Of Indramayu – West Java Indonesia
Perdinan, Rizaldi Boer, Kiki Kartikasari, Bambang Dwi Dasanto,
Rini Hidayati, and Diva Oktavariani ................................................................... 1-10
8.
Assessing Hazard Mitigation Policies And Strategies In Java Coastal Areas
Rahmawati Husein ..............................................................................................
1-8
9.
Climate Change And Economic Policy For Developing Countries
Rony Bishry .........................................................................................................
1-6
10. Bridging The Gap: Knowledge Development And Management
In Climate Change Issues In Aceh
Saiful Mahdi ........................................................................................................ 1-19
iii
VOLUNTEERED GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION FOR
EMERGENCY RESPONSE
Arif Arham
Department of Geography, Texas A&M University
Adaptation in Disaster Management and National Strategy
Volunteered Geographic Information for Emergency Response
Arif Arham
ABSTRACT
The participation of large numbers of private citizens who are informal in the creation of
geographic information is widespread for centuries and has been reserved to official agencies.
This participation becomes a dramatic innovation that will certainly have profound impacts on
geographic information systems (GIS) and more generally on the discipline of geography and its
relationship to the general public. This phenomenon is called volunteered geographic information
(VGI), a special case of the more general Web phenomenon of user-generated content such as
Wikimapia (www.wikimapia.org), a service allowing citizens to provide descriptions of places of
interest to them; Picasa (www.picasaweb.google.com), a collection of worldwide geo-referenced
photographs; OpenStreetMap (www.openstreetmap.org), a volunteer effort street map project of
the entire world; and Google Earth, a software that is link to the internet and provide satellite
image of the globe with geography information that can be provided by public from everywhere.
This technology can be used to share information about the emergency situation to others.
Emergency manager can use the data to further emergency management and decision making.
This paper also discusses about the uncertainty of geography information for the uncertainty of an
unpredicted emergency event.
Keywords: Emergency, information, internet, response, volunteer.
1. INTRODUCTION
There are several achievements have been
established in the past five years in GIScience
as the field that supports theory behind
the development and the use of geographic
information systems (GIS) as a tool. Most of them
are generally used by people to understand their
surroundings. The most phenomenal is Google
Earth which is software that lets everyone
explore rich geographical content anywhere
on Earth using satellite imagery, maps, terrain,
3D buildings and even explore galaxies in the
sky. At this point, satellite imagery of a certain
time (temporal resolution) and scale (spatial
resolution) of any place on earth in Google Earth
figures out the surface of Planet Earth in the
most real than before for general audiences.
Following the success of Google Earth, GIS
then becomes a network system that established
by communities to provide spatial information.
People around the world can use the software for
free and more than that they can share photos
of places on earth with others. This collaboration
among both amateurs and experts using Web
2.0 technology is then called the wikification of
GIS (Sui, 2008). Wikification of GIS drives people
to volunteer in many data collection held by
government and non-government organizations
such as National Mapping Corps sponsored by
the US Geological Survey (USGS) in collecting
information that contributes to the US national
map; the US Census Bureau in collecting census
data for the homeless; and Urban and Regional
Information System Association (URISA)’s GIS
Volunteer Corps in helping the relief efforts from
New Orleans to Afghanistan (Sui, 2008).
To share spatial information digitally, Google
Earth’s users can save their geographical data
to a KML file format and then use Google Earth
or other applications, including Google Maps,
Google Maps for mobile, NASA WorldWind,
ESRI ArcGIS Explorer, Adobe Photoshop,
AutoCAD, and Yahoo! Pipes, to display KML
(“KML Documentation,” 2009). This is another
development in GIS application when one
format data can be used by different software.
Therefore, geographical data are more flexible to
transfer in communities. Likewise, tight coupling
(both the model and the GIS read and write the
same files within a GIS environment without any
translation process) become more popular in
the future than loose coupling (a model is run
as a separate piece of software and data are
1
exchanged to and from the GIS in the form of
files in export format) (Longley, Goodchild,
Maguire, & Rhind, 2005).
Another exciting development in GIScience is
in management and policy. GIScience does more
than what GIS did in the early days. GIScience
is not only depicting how the world looks, but
it is developing this extensive application into
a bigger agenda to successful problem solving
(Longley et al., 2005). Today GIS is used by any
level of government in decision making process
for public services in economic development,
transportation and services routing, housing,
infrastructures, health, tax maps, human
services, law enforcement, land-use planning,
park and recreation, environmental monitoring,
emergency planning, and citizen information/
geodemographics (O’Looney 2000 cited in
Longley et al., 2005)
Global Positioning System (GPS) technology
is another technology in GIScience that has
been used widely by public. It arose from a 1969
research project of the U.S. Defense Department
as a military research project to fly atomic clocks
on satellites and use the data for navigation;
but nowadays, GPS can be found in cars, boats
and airplanes, cell phones, wristwatches and
computers for navigation, farming, mining,
construction, surveying, taxicab operations,
logistical supply-chain management, package
delivery and science and technology applications
(“History of GPS,” 2006). Many fields of science
use GPS for their researches. For instance,
geologists can use GPS to measure expansion
of volcanoes and movement along fault lines;
ecologists use it to map differences in a forest
canopy; biologists can track animals using radio
collars that transmit GPS data; and Geographers
can define spatial relationships between features
of the Earth’s surface (“History of GPS,” 2006).
2. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
2.1. The Ontology and Representation of Space and Time in GIScience
Systematic thinking about space originally
comes from geography, mathematics, physics,
and philosophy which have developed their
perspective on space and time with different
The participation of large numbers of private
citizens using the information technology in the
past years who are informal in the creation of
geographic information is widespread and has
been reserved to official agencies (Goodchild,
2007a). Goodchild added that the private
citizens are largely untrained and their actions
are almost always voluntary, and the results
may or may not be accurate. He found that this
participation becomes a dramatic innovation that
will certainly have profound impacts on GIS and
more generally on the discipline of geography
and its relationship to the general public. He
then calls this phenomenon as volunteered
geographic information (VGI), a special case of
the more general Web phenomenon of usergenerated content.
A disaster is a geographer phenomena and
geographical information provides data about
features and phenomena located on or near the
surface of the Earth (Goodchild et al., 1999 cited
in Zhang & Goodchild, 2002). In addition, the
practical need to solve geographical problems
by government agencies and various private
sector companies makes GIS, and also remote
sensing, increasingly popular in gathering and
processing geographical or spatial information
(Zhang & Goodchild, 2002; McMaster & Usery,
2004). However, this method is not only used in
the field of geography; other disciplines such as
agriculture, hydrology, landscape ecology, soil
conservation and even emergency management
also have the opportunity to gain information
from geographical perspectives (Zhang &
Goodchild, 2002).
The paper will discuss about VGI for disaster
management, particularly for emergency
response phase. This will include the introduction
to
geographic
information,
emergency
management, and the prospect of using VGI to
help decision maker in an emergency response
phase.
perspective (Longley, Goodchild, Maguire,
& Rhind, 1999). Geography represents the
empirical perspective on the subject of space
and time at geographical scale; mathematics
represents the formal perspective on space and
time, bringing its formidable deductive power to
the representation such as Euclidian geometry;
physics gives contribution of general relativity
and quantum mechanics to our understanding of
2
space and time go well beyond the absoluterelative controversy; finally, philosophy
formulate two conflicting hypothesis: (a) there
exist things in time and space which have
(known and unknown) attribute (lead to an
ontology of object); (b) the spatio-temporal
clusters of known attributes are the things (lead
to an ontology the field) (Longley et al., 1999).
Representation of geographical phenomena
followed by these questions: What is to be
represented? What things exist? What is the
ontology of geographical space? (Longley et
al., 1999). Ontology is a branch of philosophy
that proves ‘‘the existence of things in the
world. Specifically, it studies the generic traits
of every mode of being and becoming, as well
as the peculiar features of the major general
of existence’’ (Bunge 1977 cited in Bian, 2007).
From this perspective, the information about
this change is very important in space and time
because all things change (Wand 1989 cited in
Bian, 2007).
Representation in Geographic phenomena
has become more complex through time as
new concepts emerged (Goodchild, Yuan, &
Cova, 2007) simultaneously with the evolving in
information technology. GIS is designed to help
people to manage and analyze those phenomena.
GIS has two categories of geographical concepts:
geographical entities (e.g. mountain, rivers,
valleys, coastal and artificial feature such as road
and cities) and geographical phenomena (the
things that happen such as flooding, wildfire,
erosion, and urban growth), and the spatial and
temporal properties and relations characterizing
these; because it is not just about thing listed in
a map nor are about spatial information of the
object on earth (Longley et al., 1999). Longley
and his colleagues describe that geographical
entities are mountain, rivers, valleys, coastal
and artificial feature such as road and cities; and
phenomena are the things that happen such as
flooding, wildfire, erosion, and urban growth. In
addition, Goodchild et al. (2007) explain about
space and time in GIS in a practical term (how
big and how long). They mention that, in most
applications, spatial dimensions will not be
resolved to finer than one cm, and the temporal
dimension will not be resolved to finer than
one second. Moreover, they conclude that the
geographic domain includes the surface of the
Earth, and the near-surface, so the domains of
groundwater hydrology, geology, oceanography,
and atmospheric science, may be around 10 km
below the surface and 30 km above it.
Numerous definitions of geographic
information focus on the concept of georeferencing that is the association of locations
in the geographic domain with the properties
of those locations (Goodchild et al., 2007). It
is similar to what Bian (2007) says about the
object-orientation. Although it is incomplete
for spatial representation, Bian confirms that
objects in object-orientation can represent an
almost unlimited range of phenomena using
properties, behavior, and relationships of
objects, either individually or in combination.
He also states that the importance of attributes
is widely recognized in the GIScience literature
to identify spatial phenomena. Furthermore,
Bian affirms that objects act on, or they are
acted upon by, other objects; as well, methods
can change the state of an object as an event.
Bian (2007) verifies that not all spatial
phenomena are best represented as objects
nor can they be best manipulated using GIS
software. He explains that spatial objects,
spatial regions, and fields can be represented
in three categories: well represented as objects,
reasonably represented as objects, and not well
represented as objects. He affirms that the power
of object-orientation reaches its full potential
for the representation of spatial objects because
their conceptual model matches the principles of
object-orientation. Nevertheless, Bian remarks
that object-orientation cannot be used for the
representation of continuous fields, because it
has conflict between the discrete assumption of
objects and the continuous nature of fields.
Most computer programs gain their meaning
from the relationship between their internal
algorithms/protocol and some aspect of the
real world (Longley et al., 1999). Additionally,
Longley and his colleagues point out that many
of the characteristic of the geographical world
can be measured by tool and by human cognitive
function. They affirm that human behavior
is influenced by a combination of perceptual
inputs, conscious decisions, and motor acts.
However, they also state that since cognitive
factor often influence behavior, human’s
reasoning and decisions cannot be better than
their knowledge of situations such as distance
or directions.
3
2.2. The Importance of Scale
Conventionally, maps portray the phenomena
distributed on Earth’s surface in a static format
with constant or near-constant ratio between
distance as measured in the real world and in a
map which is known as ‘scale’ by cartographer;
but today GIS provide digital maps in multiscale
representations along with statistical and other
techniques (Quattrochi & Goodchild, 1997).
2.3. The Implications of Location - Aware
Computing for Geographic Information
Quattrochi & Goodchild (1997) state that
geographic scale is important because it defines
the limits to our observations of the Earth in
a small linear dimension, that is the limiting
spatial resolution, the size of the smallest
observable object, the pixel size, the grain of
the photographic emulsion, or some similarity
defined parameter. On the other hand, they also
argue that observation must also have a large
linear dimension that is the geographic extent of
the study, project, or data collection effort. They
conclude that a change of a dimension resulting
a change in resolution.
Information technology has been growing
expansively in the last ten year both hardware
and software. From the hardware site, mobile
computing is very popular for communication
and work. Laptop, GPS, and cellular phone
are three top mobile gadgets that are used
by people around the world for daily-based
activities. Basically, laptop can be used for
work, entertainment, and communication using
internet technology; GPS can be used in car for
identifying location on Earth using satellite; and
cellular phone can be used for communication.
Nowadays, the capabilities of those gadgets are
improved. So, they can be used for more other
needs since the computer software has been also
developed rapidly for many purposes. For full
computing experience, laptop can be installed
many useful software, in which location of the
laptop can be detected by others using GPS,
or the brand new internet-based application
called “Google Latitude”. GPS also becomes a
multifunction gadget since it is implanted with
multimedia player so user can navigate, drive
and listen to music simultaneously. In addition,
cell phone is more powerful since it is also has
capability for navigating, playing multimedia,
typing, browsing, and gaming. In short, computer
hardware and software development change
the way we work and travel into a worldwide
networking activities.
Geographical scale is also important because
it is often a parameter in the physical and social
processes that shape geographic phenomena
(Quattrochi & Goodchild, 1997). In the digital
era, massive amount of geographic data are
collected from various sources and at different
scales; therefore, researchers should understand
about scale in analyzing particular geographic
phenomena because changing the scale of data
without understanding the effects of it can lead
to a mistaken result (McMaster & Usery, 2004).
Furthermore, McMaster & Usery (2004) remark
that since many processes do not scale linearly,
awareness of how that pattern or process
changes with scale is very important so that the
scaling process can be performed sensibly.
The location-aware computing is the cause
for a new age of geographical information and
has significant impacts for computational in
GIScience. Mobile computing change the way
we handle data from collecting, saving, analyzing
and in the decision making process (NRC, 2003).
People now can report a phenomenon in a
particular location using laptop and send the
data to others using internet. Data also can be
stored at the small size yet huge capacity hard
disk, both internal and external. Moreover,
analyzing phase to produce new information
can be done by collaboration among expertise
from distance using online conference. This
mechanism can improve the decision making
process, both in term of time and quality.
In geography, scale is used to refer the
magnitude of a study (e.g., its geographic
extent) and the degree of detail (e.g., its level
of geographic resolution), both in the contexts
of space (geographical scale), time (temporal
scale), and many other dimensions of research;
the closer we look at the world, the more detail
we see (Quattrochi & Goodchild, 1997).
4
2.4. The Implications of Cloud Computing
for Future of Geographic Information
Internet is one of the important aspects
in information technology development. This
networking technique changes the way we work
and gain geographical information. Following
the success of internet, browser software also
improved and utilized for internet applications.
For example, people now can use “Yahoo
Calendar” for manage their schedules. This
calendar application is not installed in the local
hard disk, but in the Yahoo’s server that the users
have no idea where it is. All they have to do is
open a Yahoo account, log in to the account, and
use a lot of internet applications for free. This
phenomenon then is called cloud-computing
to illustrate the unknown computer hardware
location which users around the world access as
if they use the local computer hardware.
Cloud-computing has significant implication
for computational in GIScience, especially in
the way we use hardware. Software installation
needs space in hard disk as well as data storage,
but in cloud-computing the space is not in local
hard disk rather in a huge hard disk somewhere
on Earth. Implication for this state is file transfer
capacity and speed play significant role for
data storage. Although users do not need more
space in their local hard disk, they still need a
broadband internet connection for accessing
data and application from the ‘cloud’.
Another implication is related to the GIS
software. An important question can be asked:
will GIS disappear into the cloud? The short
answer is yes, it will. However, some issues
are needed to consider to the implementation
of this cloud-computing. Firstly, broadband
connection is a must since geographical
information is not only in attribute table but
also in image. Image file usually has a big size
depending on resolution; thus, low connection
can ruin the data processing and analyzing both
attribute tables and images. Secondly, due to
its feature/addon/plugin, the size of application
such as ArcGIS is relatively big. Hopefully, if this
application in the future can be accessed from
the internet then full feature is also needed to be
installed to make this cloud-computing reliable
for GIScience. Thirdly, the price to purchase the
software could be decreased since the user will
not really have the software and only can be
accessed where the computer connected to the
internet. Moreover, it also could be free since
some GIS open source software such as GRASS
and Quantum GIS are significantly enhanced
recently.
2.5. Uncertainty in Geographic Information
Geographic information provides data about
features and phenomena located on or near the
surface of the Earth (Goodchild et al., 1999 cited
in Zhang & Goodchild, 2002). Almost similar to
that, spatial information usually used for the
information related to any multi-dimensional
frame, which suggests a more general context
of geographical problems (Zhang & Goodchild,
2002). Additionally, the practical need to solve
geographical problems by government agencies
and various private sector companies makes
remote sensing and GIS increasingly popular
in gathering and processing geographical or
spatial information (Zhang & Goodchild, 2002;
McMaster & Usery, 2004). However, this method
is not only used in the field of geography; other
disciplines such as agriculture, hydrology,
landscape ecology, and soil conservation also
have the opportunity to gain information from
geographical perspectives (Zhang & Goodchild,
2002).
Zhang & Goodchild (2002) emphasis that
GIS is not only a digital way to make a map, but
it consists of scientific background to sustain
technology developments which enhances
accuracy in observations to support facts or
knowledge obtained from investigation, study,
or instruction about specific places on the
Earth’s surface.
Handling of large amounts of geographical
information can lead to uncertainty in a number
of forms (Longley, Goodchild, Maguire, & Rhind,
1999). This uncertainty may occur due to errors
in measuring the positions and attributes of
geographical entities, or in sampling distribution
of geographical phenomena (Zhang & Goodchild,
2002). In fact, errors in data sources are likely to
have the most profound impacts on the resultant
information products and decision-making
(Zhang & Goodchild, 2002). This uncertainty
could be more important when it deal with
the uncertainty event such as an emergency
situation. How these uncertainty phenomena
can be help with the uncertainty geographical
information through VGI is an important aspect
for emergency management.
5
In general, uncertainty within spatial
information can be error, vagueness, or ambiguity
(Longley et al., 1999). Zhang & Goodchild (2002)
state that the whole process in GIScience
research from geographical abstraction, data
acquisition, and geo-processing to the use of
data as the following next analysis cannot be
pure from uncertainty. They also remark that
this could happen because of lack of information
for recovering the truth. Fundamental
understanding about uncertainty is very crucial
to all users of GIS (Longley et al., 1999).
An implication of understanding uncertainty
in geographical information is one significant
step towards redefining GIS as science (Wright
et al., 1997 cited in Zhang & Goodchild, 2002).
Users of GIS should be aware of the possible
complications to their analysis caused by
uncertainty; in fact, they need to provide a
report of uncertainty in the final results together
with the plausible outcomes (Longley et al.,
1999). Regarding to this, McMaster & Usery
(2004) state that users of GIS can do such work
since each object in a GIS database carries
information describing its accuracy (Goodchild
1993 p.98 cited in McMaster & Usery, 2004);
every operation or process within a GIS can
track and report error; and accuracy measures is
a standard feature in GIS. Moreover, using data
without consideration of its intrinsic uncertainty,
can lead to a high probability in inappropriate
decisions (McMaster & Usery, 2004). In short,
ignoring uncertainty can lead to incorrect
predictions or can be completely fatal to the use
of the GIS (Longley et al., 1999).
Since uncertainty is very important
in GISscience, University Consortium for
Geographic Information Science (UCGIS)
latter conducts research on uncertainty in
geographical data to know how uncertainties
arise, or are created and propagated in the
GIS information process; and to identify the
effects these uncertainties might have on the
results of subsequent decision-making (Zhang &
Goodchild, 2002).
2.6. Volunteered Geographic Information
Goodchild (2007b) affirms that nowadays,
the pattern of citizens volunteering information
can be found in many Web services. He gives
some examples: Wikimapia (www.wikimapia.
org), a service operating on similar lines to
Wikipedia, and allowing citizens to provide
descriptions of places of interest to them,
along with geographic coordinates; Picasa
(www.picasaweb.google.com), a collection
of worldwide geo-referenced photographs;
OpenStreetMap (www.openstreetmap.org), a
volunteer effort street map project of the entire
world; Google Earth, a software that is link to the
internet and provide satellite image of the globe
with layers, photograph, website link, and other
geography information that can be provided by
public from everywhere.
Figure 1. Google Mashup in Google Earth
Working with Google Earth user can find a
friendly tool to create geographic information
which is called Google Mashup. With this tool
user can make documentation about a particular
place on Earth’s surface with text, image, and
link to one or more website that provide detail
information, and even video. The data is store in
the “cloud” for free. Figure 1 shows an example
of Google Mashup with several forms of media.
The first one is a simple text brief description
about the Sixth Floor Museum at Dealey Plaza.
Secondly, a link to the museum’s website so
people can get more detail information about
the museum and its program from the official
source. Thirdly, an image shows the building
of the museum which is stored in Picasa Web
Album (picasaweb.google.com) so people can
see the place at glance. Finally, a short video of
the place stored in Youtube (www.youtube.com)
shows the museum and its surrounding area.
This information originally in KML format and
then can be shared using KMZ format so other
can open the file in Google Earth instantly.
6
3. EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT
Emergency management can be described
as “the discipline and profession of applying
science, technology, planning and management
to deal with extreme events that can injure
or kill large numbers of people, do extensive
damage to property, and disrupt community life”
(Drabek, 1991, cited in Lindell, Prater, & Perry,
2006). The person who conducts an emergency
management usually called an emergency
manager. He or she identify, anticipate, and
respond to the risks of catastrophic events in
order to reduce to more acceptable levels the
probability of their occurrence or the magnitude
and duration of their social impacts (Lindell et
al., 2006). Moreover Lindell and his colleagues
emphasis that hazards, emergencies, and
disasters afflicted human societies much longer
than academic disaster research has existed.
There are four phases or principal functions
of emergency management: hazard mitigation,
emergency preparedness, emergency response,
and disaster recovery (Lindell et al., 2006). Of
the four phases, mitigation is the only one that
is conducted before the disaster event while the
other stages all occur just before or after the
disaster (Godschalk, Beatley, Berke, Brower, &
Kaiser, 1998). Likewise, to protect communities
from environmental hazard, mitigation and
preparedness are the preventive practices in
emergency planning which is very important
for community or organizational preparedness
to reduce risk (Perry & Lindell, 2006). As a
consequence, immediate protection action
should be made to save life.
Hazard mitigation activities are performed
to eliminate the causes of a disaster, to reduce
the likelihood of its occurrence, or to limit the
magnitude of its impacts if it does occur (Lindell
et al., 2006). It provides passive protection at the
time of disaster impact (Perry & Lindell, 2006)
. In addition, Godschalk et al. (1998) state that
natural hazard mitigation typically carried out as
part of a coordinated mitigation strategy or plan,
either structural or non structural, depending
on whether they affected building or land
use. This includes: (a) strengthening buildings
and infrastructure expose to hazard by means
of building codes, engineering design, and
construction practices to increase the damage
resistance of the building; (b) avoiding hazard
areas by directing new development far from
risk area through land use plans and regulations
and by relocating people to safe areas; and (c)
protecting sand dunes, wetlands, forest and
vegetated areas and other ecological elements
that absorb and reduce hazard impacts.
Disaster preparedness activities are
undertaken to protect human lives and property
that cannot be controlled or from which only
partial protection is achieved by mitigation
phase (Lindell et al., 2006) and to develop the
capability to conduct an active response at the
time of disaster impact (Perry & Lindell, 2006).
Furthermore Lindell et al. (2006) mention some
issues that are needed to be concern of by a
jurisdiction’s disaster preparedness program: (a)
what agencies will participate in preparedness
and the process by which they will plan; (b)
what emergency response and disaster recovery
actions are feasible for that community; (c) how
the emergency response and disaster recovery
organizations will function and what resources
they require; and (d) how disaster preparedness
will be established and maintained.
Emergency response activities are conducted
since the detection of the event and ends with
the stabilization of the situation following impact
which is including securing the impact area,
evacuating threatened areas, conducting search
and rescue for the injured, providing emergency
medical care, and sheltering evacuees and
other victims by different group, either formally
constituted or volunteers (Lindell et al., 2006).
After disaster impact has been stabilized,
disaster recovery activities are conducted with
two objectives: (a) the immediate objective that
is by restoring the physical infrastructure of the
community such as water, sewer, electric power,
fuel (e.g., natural gas), telecommunication, and
transportation (as the immediate objective),
and (b) the ultimate objective that is until the
community’s quality of life back to the same
level as it was before the disaster (Lindell et al.,
2006). Recovery is also categorized based on
time of implementation time: (a) short range
(relief and rehabilitation) activities usually
include clearance of debris and restoration of
access to the impact area, reestablishment
of economic (commercial and industrial)
activities, restoration of essential government
or community services,and provision of an
interim system for caring for victims—especially
housing, clothing,
7
and food, and (b) long-range (reconstruction)
measures (Lindell et al., 2006).
Real success in long-term reconstruction
comes from both effective plan and
awareness by planers and other local official
in the short-term obstacles (Schwab, 2003).
3.1. Disaster Myth
Many actors or stakeholders involve in
emergency management. All citizens are
recognized as stakeholders as all are affected by
the decisions made by elected and appointed
officials; however, there are different types of
group who have an interest in the emergency
management process (Lindell et al., 2006).
Lindell et al. (2006) divide the community
stakeholder groups into three different
categories. First, social groups are the basic
organizational unit for emergency management
that involves household that adopt hazard
adjustments
(especially
mitigation and
preparedness measures), households evacuate,
and households suffer economic losses.
Secondly, political groups are relating to
governmental stakeholders. In the US, beginning
at the base is the lowest level of organization,
the municipality (i.e., town or city) and the
county. Each state has its own rule in granting
powers to these local jurisdictions, so there
are varying levels of power from one state to
another. The different levels of government also
have different agencies that vary widely on the
dimensions of size, organizational complexity,
and amount of human, financial, and technical
resources. Thirdly, economic groups are relating
to any kind of profit organization. Businesses
are the fundamental units in the hierarchy of
economic stakeholders.
The news media, as one particular set of
businesses, is especially important to the
success of emergency management activities
because they not only deliver news of an
imminent disaster or of all phases of emergency
management, but also educate the public about
hazards that might strike the community (Lindell
et al., 2006). People collect information not
only from authorities, but also from the news
media, peers, and environmental cues because
they assumed that the news media were more
knowledgeable than self or peers but less
knowledgeable than local, state, or federal
government (Lindell et al., 2006). Unfortunately,
Perry & Lindell (2006 cited in Lindell et al.,
2006) affirm that the news media can provide
sensational story for those who have not had
direct experience with such events. According
to Lindell et al. (2006), the news media consume
“hard news” about environmental incidents and
the responses to those incidents by describing
the course of events and reporting the views
of different stakeholders. On the other hand,
they state that the news media can also create
“soft news” to build support for emergency
management even when there is no “hard news”
about disasters by describing the results of
hazard/vulnerability analyses and the activities
of planning organizations. In summary, the
news media tends to perpetuate disaster myths
rather than provide accurate information (Perry
& Lindell, 2006).
Classic research in the disaster field
also highlighted between the realities and
myths concerning disaster behavior (Tierney,
Bevc, & Kuligowski, 2006). Disaster myth
is misconceptions about people’s behavior
in disasters and contrasts these with the
findings of research (Lindell et al., 2006). Since
the prevalence of disaster myths was first
documented, more research has been done
discussing such topics as the extent to which
the public believes disaster myths (Wenger et al.
1975 cited in Tierney et al., 2006).
Drabek & McEntire (2003) mention some
assumptions in a disaster that is not true: (a)
government is the only actor in emergency
response; (b) information from outside official
channels is lacking; (c) standard operating
procedures will always work, (d) ad hoc
emergence is not productive; and (d) citizens are
passive in disaster operations.
Tierney et al. (2006) warn that the wrong
assumptions above could affect emergency
management planning in a disaster. They also
state that the belief in myths concerning disaster
behavior is harmful because of their potential
for influencing organizational, governmental,
and public responses during disasters. Finally,
they affirm that incorrect assumptions can lead
to misallocations of public safety resources that
could be put to better use in providing direct
assistance to victims.
8
4. THE UNCERTAINTY FOR THE UNCERTAINTY
Geographic information could be wrong
and a disaster is unpredictable. Then, the next
question is how can one uncertainty help another
uncertainty? The existing approach to handle
uncertainty and scale in geographical information
for emergency management are based on
data acquisition from satellite, journalistic and
citizen report. Emergency manager can use
geographical data from several resources to
make a better emergency planning through
training and knowledge of disaster history in a
particular area. Moreover, this information can
help elected officials, managers, and emergency
authorities define strategies and tactics used
in emergency response. GIS, for example, can
be used to find an appropriate location and
allocation of urban resources for emergency,
such as transportation planning for evacuation,
fire station location, and fire truck routing. Since
the reliability of the policy decisions very much
depends on the quality of geographic data
(McMaster & Usery, 2004) uncertainty in data
collection related to unpredictable of a disaster
event could be a major issue in emergency
management. Beside, scope of geographical
information that are needed to be collected is
also important regarding to potential risk area,
population density, type of disaster, and range
of risk effect.
An example of VGI for emergency response
can be seen from the Swine Flu cases. After
the news media informed about this epidemic
in April 2009, several other non-government
sources discuss about Swine Flu through the
internet. As usual, Wikipedia marks an article
about an emergency situation with “This article
documents a current event. Information may
change rapidly as the event progresses” (“2009
swine flu outbreak - Wikipedia,” n.d.). Visitors
can get new information about this epidemic
provided by volunteers. In addition, with KML
file from Google, volunteers also can inform
others about the distribution of Swine Flu cases
around the world as shown in Figure 2.
The structure of the planning process to
address all the issue in a timely manner can
be approached from many ways; and one of
the important things is defining the roles of
public and private agencies in the emergency
response (Perry & Lindell, 2006). In fact,
citizen as the sensor (Goodchild, 2007a) can
be included in this approach to provide upto-date information that can be used by an
emergency operation center (EOC). Since the
EOC provide and distribute technical assistance,
resources, and information to the different
organizations and governments involve in the
emergency response, it requires flexible and
extensive telecommunications and informationprocessing equipment (Perry & Lindell, 2006).
Figure 2. Google Mashup in Google Map shows
the Swine Flu epidemic distribution around
the world (source: “H1N1 Swine Flu - Google
Maps,” n.d.)
The process of emergency planning begins with
a careful local hazard/vulnerability assessment
(H/VA) to identify the hazards exposure, impact
area, and forecast consequences (Perry &
Lindell, 2006). In identifying hazards, planner
and public officials usually have limitation in the
knowledge about the geophysical (earthquake
and volcano), meteorological (tornado and
hurricane), or technological (hazardous
material) hazards (Perry & Lindell, 2006). In this
case, help from experts can be provided through
the VGI. The mechanism for this can be arranged
by registering and training the volunteers. This
is not only helping decision making by collecting
information from the world-wide-web, but also
avoid the bad impacts of invalid information
from non-government agency. Nobody can stop
the dissemination information from people that
use internet, but the government can poll them
in one group. The EOC then verify information
provided by volunteers and disseminate correct,
complete and clear information for emergency
agents and public, either directly or via the mass
media. Hence, the EOC and the citizen can work
together to help the victims based on agent-
9
generate and response-generate demand
they found. For example, the government
agency that conducts emergency management
(e.g.
Federal
Emergency
Management
Agency (FEMA) in the US; Badan Nasional
Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB) in Indonesia)
can open an opportunity for citizen to register as
volunteers that will provide information when an
emergency occurs. In the registration process,
the volunteers should provide a valid identity
(e.g. driver license) so they will not provide false
information about an emergency in a particular
location. The agency can provide volunteers
with codes and train so they know how to send
information by internet. An online form should
be provided so volunteers can participate easily.
5. CONCLUSION
In the future, GIScience helps this world to
be more open and transparent for everybody.
Spatial information/geodatabase will be not
exclusively own by government or military,
rather it is shared across countries among
communities. World becomes borderless since
information technology is expanding greatly
and this will also affect to GIScience. Moreover,
GIScience would be a new cause of the new era of
democracy, which means people become more
literate in spatial knowledge and can participate
in solving their problems in any sectors.
Longley et al. (2005) affirm that although
GIScience is not a panacea, more fields as
mentioned above will use this geographical
approach
in
mapping,
measurement,
monitoring, modeling, and management
because GIS applications need to be based
on sound science that makes it possible to
incorporate diverse physical, biological, and
human elements. However, they also add that
interdisciplinary science with algorithms and
statistical procedures can lead GIS applications
to conflict with an older principle of scientific
reporting; consequently, the results of analysis
should always be reported in sufficient detail to
allow someone else to
replicate them. Finally, since science is complex,
they suggest users who sometime use some
tools developed by others without sufficient
understanding to know as many of details
of GIS analysis as is reasonable possible.
Data collection is the key words for VGI. In
this matter, citizen as sensor play the important
role to gain geographical data and share with
others (Goodchild, 2007a). Using locationaware computing, this work can be done more
rapid and easier in term of data sharing and then
analyzing by the expertise. Therefore, real time
data for emergency management, especially
in response phase can be acquired by the
emergency manager to conduct an appropriate
action to safe live.
The cloud computing helps both data
collectors and emergency manager in data
sharing and storage. Data can be saved in
thousand miles away from the hazard area and
can be accessed by other emergency agencies
from federal, state, and local authorities.
This privilege can help a local EOC to seek aid
from several resources out of the impact area.
Consequently, more live and properties could be
saved from a disaster.
REFERENCES
2009 swine flu outbreak - Wikipedia. (n.d.).
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en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
2009_swine_flu_
outbreak.
Bian, L. (2007). Object-Oriented Representation
of Environmental Phenomena: Is Everything
Best Represented as an Object? Annals of the
Association of American Geographers, 97(2), 267281. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8306.2007.00535.x.
Drabek, T. E., & McEntire, D. A. (2003). Emergent
phenomena and the sociology of disaster:
lessons, trends and opportunities from the
research literature. Disaster Prevention and
Management: An International Journal, 12(2),
97-112.
Godschalk, D., Beatley, T., Berke, P., Brower, D.,
& Kaiser, E. J. (1998). Natural Hazard Mitigation:
Recasting Disaster Policy and Planning (p. 591).
Island Press.
10
Goodchild, M. F. (2007a). Citizens as sensors: the
world of volunteered geography. GeoJournal,
69(4), 211-221. doi: 10.1007/s10708-0079111-y.
Goodchild, M. F. (2007b). Citizens as sensors:
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Goodchild, M. F., Yuan, M., & Cova, T. J. (2007).
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maps/ms?ie=UTF8&hl=en&t=p&msa=0&msid=
106484775090296685271.0004681a37b713f6b
5950&ll=32.639375,-110.390625&spn=15.7381
51,25.488281&z=5.
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22, 2009, from
http://usinfo.state.gov/
xarchives/display.html?p=washfile-english&y=
2006&m=February&x=20060203125928lcnirell
ep0.5061609.
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Documentation.
(2009).
KML
Documentation Introduction. Retrieved April 3,
2009, from http://code.google.com/apis/kml/
documentation/.
Lindell, M. K., Prater, C. S., & Perry, R. W. (2006).
Fundamentals of Emergency Management.
Longley, P., Goodchild, M. F., Maguire, D. J., &
Rhind, D. (1999). Geographical Information
Systems (p. 40).
McMaster, R. B., & Usery, E. L. (2004). A Research
Agenda for Geographic Information Science (p.
402).
NRC. (2003). IT Roadmap to a Geospatial Future.
Retrieved March 2, 2009, from http://nap.edu/
openbook.php?record_id=10661&page=1.
Perry, R. W., & Lindell, M. K. (2006). Emergency
Planning (p. 552). Wiley.
Quattrochi, D. A., & Goodchild, M. F. (Eds.).
(1997). Scale in Remote Sensing and GIS (p. 406).
Schwab, J. (2003). Planning for Post-Disaster
Recovery and Reconstruction (p. 348). Federal
Emergency Management Agency.
Sui, D. Z. (2008). The wikification of GIS and its
consequences: Or Angelina Jolie's new tattoo
and the future of GIS. Computers, Environment
and Urban Systems, 32(1), 1-5. doi: 10.1016/j.
compenvurbsys.2007.12.001.
Tierney, K., Bevc, C., & Kuligowski, E. (2006).
Metaphors Matter: Disaster Myths, Media
Frames, and Their Consequences in Hurricane
Katrina. The ANNALS of the American Academy
of Political and Social Science, 604(1), 57.
Zhang, J., & Goodchild, M. F. (2002). Uncertainty
in Geographical Information (p. 266).
Longley, P., Goodchild, M. F., Maguire, D., &
Rhind, D. (1999). 2 Volume Set, Geographical
Information Systems: Principles, Techniques,
Applications and Management, 2nd Edition (2nd
ed.). Wiley.
Longley, P., Goodchild, M. F., Maguire, D., &
Rhind, D. (2005). Geographic Information
Systems and Science (p. 536). Wiley.
11
FAKTA GEOLOGI DARI SIKLUS MEGA-TSUNAMI DI
WILAYAH ACEH-ANDAMAN DAN KONTEKNYA DALAM
SEJARAH ACEH
Danny Hilman Natawidjaja 1,2
LabEarth – Puslit Geoteknologi-LIPI,
Tim Independen Studi Katastropik Purba Nusantara
1
2
Disaster Mitigation and Risk Reduction
Fakta Geologi Dari Siklus Mega-Tsunami Di Wilayah Aceh-Andaman Dan
Konteknya Dalam Sejarah Aceh
1
2
ABSTRACT
Mega-tsunami in Aceh-Andaman region in 2004 triggered a monumental changes of history
from a society that used to ignore the threats of natural disasters, especially from earthquakes
and tsunami, became aware of the responsible to anticipate natural disasters that may threat
the existence of human civilizations in anytime. On the otherside, this natural event also acts as
a major cause for changing in politics and social infrastructures in Aceh, from a period of terror
and darkness to a new episode of society that reassemble and develop better life. In fact, the
event like mega-tsunami in 2004 was neither the first time nor the last one. Paleoseismological
studies, from coral microatolls in Simelue Islands and from stratigraphical records of soil layers
along the coasts of Banda Aceh as well as Thailand, indicate that there were two similar
tsunami events around the early 14 Century, in around 1390 AD and 1440 AD. These facts are
also confirmed by tectonic geodesy (GPS) data that the earthquake with magnitude Mw 9.2
like in 2004 can be produced by strain accumulations on the subduction interface caused by
plate relative motions in about every six hundred years. Meanwhile, in Aceh region, an ancient
kingdom (pre-Islamic period) had existed at least since 600 AD as indicated by a 1400 tears old
ancient stepped pyramid structure below the historical Indrapuri Mosque that was first built
in 13 Century on top of that more ancient structure. A few sources indicate about the first
ancient Islamic Kingdom, named Jeumpa, had appeared in 770 AD. The Jeumpa Kingdom is
often misinterpreted as “Champa” (an ancient Kingdom in Cambodia). Later in 840 AD, another
Islamic Kingdom, Perlak, appeared. These Islamic Kingdom were most likely co-existed with
Hindu-Budha Kingdoms, including what so-called the Lamuri Kingdom or Lam-reh. In 1236
AD, the most famous and well known Islamic state, Samudra Pasai, came into play, marking a
new era in Aceh. After 1450 AD, Samudra Pasai seems to be going dimmed and mysteriously
disappeared. Later in 1496 AD, a new Islamic Kingdom, Aceh Darussalam, appeared and
dominated the Aceh region. Aceh Darussalam achieved its golden age during the period of
the King Iskandar Muda (1607-1636). It is strongly suspected that the change of power from
Samudra Pasai to Aceh Darussalam was linked with the mega-tsunami events in 1390 and 1440
AD. It needs further in-deep geological and historical studies to investigate those ancient megatsunami disasters and their affects to the people of Aceh in ancient time, if possible back to the
time before Samudra Pasai period. Understanding ancient natural catastrophic and the affected
society is crucial in developing concept and strategy in natural-disaster mitigations, especially in
developing a true local wisdom.
1. PENDAHULUAN
Sejarah dan fakta geologi banyak memberikan
pelajaran tentang bagaimana kejadian bencana
alam di masa lalu dapat memusnahkan peradaban
manusia. Boleh jadi, para leluhur nusantara juga
meninggalkan berbagai catatan‐catatan yang
belum tersentuh tentang pengalaman berharga,
nasihat‐nasihat atau bahkan teknik‐teknik jitu
dalam menghadapi berbagai bencana alam yang
pernah terjadi di zaman mereka. Adalah tugas
kita untuk menggali‐nya. Konsep siklus alam
mengajarkan bahwa segala apa yang pernah
terjadi di masa lampau pasti akan terjadi lagi di
masa datang.
Dalam ilmu kebumian dikenal satu konsep
utama yaitu “The past is the key to the
future”. Untuk mitigasi bencana alam hal ini
diterjemahkan sebagai berikut: untuk
13
memahami ancaman bencana di masa
datang kita harus belajar dari bencana alam yang
sudah pernah terjadi di masa lampau. Bencana
alam adalah interaksi dari kejadian siklus alam,
seperti siklus gempabumi, siklus letusan gunung
api, siklus gerakan tanah dan siklus banjir, dari
skala kecil sampai dengan skala sangat besar
atau katastropik. Sejarah peradaban manusia
mencatat bahwa baik di wilayah nusantara
ataupun dunia banyak sekali peradaban kuno
yang runtuh bahkan seperti lenyap dari muka
bumi karena peristiwa bencana alam katastropik.
Tanpa ada manusia yang terkena dampak,
maka peristiwa alam yang berbahaya tersebut
tidaklah menjadi suatu bencana. Oleh karena
itu penelitian bencana alam tidak terlepas dari
mempelajari manusia yang terkena dampaknya.
Dalam 10 tahun terakhir ini Indonesia dilanda
oleh berbagai macam bencana alam yang
mengakibatkan korban jiwa mencapai ratusan
ribu dan kerugian material yang sangat banyak.
Tragedi besar dari mega‐tsunami di Aceh‐
Andaman tahun 2004 adalah contoh konkrit
masa kini tentang bagaimana suatu bencana
alam dapat menghancurkan (sebagian besar)
peradaban di Banda Aceh hanya dalam tempo
sekejap saja. Sebelumnya masyarakat, khususnya
di wilayah Aceh, hamper tidak mengenal
kata tsunami sehingga sama sekali tidak siap
menghadapi bencana tsunami. Padahal dalam
perbendaharaan di Aceh ada kata Ieu Beuna
yang artinya air bah besar (=tsunami). Di tempat
lain, yaitu Pulau Simeulue, masyarakat masih
2. SEJARAH KEGEMPAAN DI WILAYAH
ACEH‐ANDAMAN
Mega‐tsunami yang dibangkitkan oleh
gempa “megathrust’ di zona subduksi Aceh‐
Andaman Mw 9.2) tahun 2004 merupakan
bencana tsunami yang terbesar sepanjang Abad
20 yang menelan korban lebih dari 200.000 jiwa.
Bencana tsunami yang tidak kalah dahsyatnya
juga menimpa wilayah Tohoku, Japan pada awal
tahun 2011 yang menelan korban puluhan ribu
jiwa dan kerugian infrastruktur dan dampak
lingkungan yang luar biasa. Peristiwa bencana
tsunami tahun 2004 sudah menjadi tonggak
kesadaran batu dibidang mitigasi bencana
alam. Sebelum 2004, banyak orang yang
bahkan tidak mengenal istilah tsunami, namun
setelah tragedi mengerikan tersebut, boleh
ingat akan peristiwa bencana besar tsunami
di masa lalu karena kejadiannya belum begitu
lama, yaitu tahun 1907 (Newcomb and McCann
1987), sehingga orang Simeulue yang masih
mengenal tsunami atau smong menjadi lebih
siap dan banyak yang selamat ketika peristiwa
tsunami Aceh tahun 2004 tersebut. Baru‐baru
ini, penelitian yang dilakukan oleh Tim peneliti
gempa dan tsunami dari Earth Observatory of
Singapore (EOS), LIPI dan Tim (Studi) Katastropik
Purba menguak fakta bahwa ternyata banyak
sisa‐sisa bangunan kota kuno beberapa meter
di dasar laut di lepas pantai Banda Aceh. Data
geologi dari stratigrafi pantai dan penelitian
koral mikroatol penentuan umur dengan
radiometric dating diketahui bahwa kota kuno
tersebut kemungkinan besar musnah diterjang
tsunami besar pada abad 14 atau mungkin juga
yang di masa yang lebih kuno lagi. Pembelajaran
mengenai sejarah bencana alam di masa lalu dan
upaya untuk mengurangi dampaknya menjadi
hal yang penting untuk meningkatkan ketahanan
masyarakat untuk menghadapi bencana pada
masa yang akan datang. Jadi seharusnya kita
belajar dari sejarah bencana alam di masa lalu
sehingga bisa bersiap diri. Kurangnya data baik
fakta geologi dari bencana alam di masa lalu dan
juga impaknya terhadap masyarakat yang hidup
waktu itu menyebabkan masyarakat seperti
kehilangan memori akan pengalaman dan
kearifan dari masa lalu.
Sumber Gempa di Aceh dan Gempa Tsunami
Tahun 2004
dibilang tidak ada lagi orang yang tidak tahu
apa itu tsunami. Setelah 2004, sudah banyak
berbagai usaha dibidang mitigasi bencana
alam, khususnya tsunami dan gempa bumi,
yang dilakukn, termasuk pemasangan berbagai
jaringan pemantau gempa dan tsunami yang
meliputi peralatan pemantau seismik, pemantau
gerakan kerak bumi – GPS, alat pasang surut,
dan berbagai pemantau naikturunnya muka air
laut. Demikian juga penelitian dibidang gempa
da tsunami menjadi meningkat dengan pesat.
Gempa Tohoku tahun 2011 yang sekali lagi
menyentak komunitas dunia menjadi semakin
menumbuhkan kesadaran baru tentang
betapa pentingnya kita memahami proses
alam yang dapat sangat destruktif ini untuk
dapat mengantisipasi ancaman bahayanya bagi
peradaban manusia.
14
Fakta Geologi Dari Siklus Mega-Tsunami Di Wilayah Aceh-Andaman Dan Konteknya Dalam Sejarah Aceh
Setelah gempa tahun 2004, wilayah Sumatra,
khususnya Aceh, bagaikan terus diberondong
oleh ribuan gempa‐gempa dengan skala
magnitude 5, ratusan gempa dengan skala
magnitude 6 dan puluhan gempa dengan
skala magnitude 7 atau lebih. Salah satunya
yang terbesar adalah Gempa Nias‐Simeulue
berkekuatan Mw 8.6 yang terjadi pada bulan
Maret tahun 2005 (Briggs, Sieh et al. 2006), hanya
3 bukan setelah Gempa Aceh bulan Desember
2004. Gempa tahun 2005 ini merontokan banyak
rumah‐rumah di wilayah Nias dan juga Selatan
Pulau Simeulue. Gempa lain yang cukup besar
terjadi tahun 2008 di Pulau Simeulue (Mw 7.3)
dan tahun 2010 di wilayah Pulau Banyak –Singkil
(Mw 7.7).
yang merupakan siklus. Siklus gempa besar ini
terjadi karena di sepanjang zona subduksi proses
akumulasi tekanan bumi karena pergerakan
lempeng terus berlangsung, tidak pernah
berhenti, sehingga akumulasi energi ini sewaktu‐
waktu akan dilepaskan berupa (energi) gempa
tersebut. Tentu untuk memproduksi sebuah
gempa besar diperlukan waktu yang sangat
lama untuk mengumpulkan tenaganya secara
perlahan‐lahan. Rentang waktu sejarah dan
rekaman alat terlalu pendek kalau dibandingkan
dengan perioda ulang gempa besar tersebut.
Peristiwa seperti gempa tahun 2004
sebenarnya bukan satu hal baru yang terjadi
tiba‐tiba. Bahkan sebenarnya gempa tahun
2002 di Simeulue (Mw 7.2) adalah merupakan
“foreshock” atau gempa pembuka dari mega‐
gempa tahun 2004 tersebut (Gbr. 2). Di masa
lalu, sudah cukup banyak gempa-gempa besar
yang terjadi di wilayah Aceh‐Andaman ini. Di
wilayah zona subduksi di Laut Andaman yang
pecah ketika gempa tahun 2004 dulu pernah
terjadi gempa besar tahun 1881 (M~7.9) dan
tahun 1941 (Ms 7.7) (Gambar 2). Kemudian di
zona subduksi yang pecah tahun 2005 tersebut
dulu pernah terjadi gempa yang serupa tahun
1861 (M~8.5). Di wilayah Pulau Simeulue,
tahun 1907 pernah diterjang oleh tsunami
yang bahkan mempunyai tinggi gelombang
yang dua kali lebih besar dari yang terjadi
tahun 2004 walaupun sebenarnya sumber
gempa penyebabnya jauh lebih kecil (M~7.6).
Gempa tahun 1907 di Simeulue ini mempunyai
mekanisme yang serupa dengan yang terjadi di
Pulau Pagai, Mentawai pada bulan September
2010 (Hill 2011), yaitu walaupun magnitudenya
tidak terlalu besar tapi sebenarnya pergerakan
patahan yang terjadi sangat besar sehingga
membangkitkan tsunami yang jauh diatas
perkiraan. Gempa jenis ini sering disebut
sebagai “tsunami earthquake” atau juga “silent
earthquake” (Hill et al, 2011).
Memang benar bahwa dalam catatan sejarah
dan rekaman jaringan pemantau gempa–seismik
tidak ada gempa dengan kekuatan setara dengan
mega‐gempa tahun 2004 (Mw 9.2). Namun, hal
ini bukan berarti bahwa tidak pernah ada gempa
sebesar itu. Peristiwa gempa adalah proses alam
15
Gambar 2. Peta kegempaan di wilayah Sumatra bagian utara dan Laut Andaman. Elips dengan warna
adalah wilayah patahan megathrust yang pecah ketika gempa dengan keterangan tahun
kejadian dan kekuatan magnitude gempa (from Meltzner dkk, 2010)
Gempa Aceh tahun 2004 ini menyebabkan
pergerakan kerak bumi mencapai 20 meter di
bidang patahan sepanjang lebih dari 1200 km
dari Pulau Simeulue sampai wilayah Thailand
di Andaman utara (Gbr.3a) (Subarya, Chlieh et
al. 2006). Gerakan (=slip patahan) sebesar ini
pada bidang zona subduksi (=”megathrust”)
yang miring sekitar 10‐20 derajat ke arah
timur menyebabkan pengangkatan dasar laut
mencapai 5 meter (Gbr. 3b). Itulah sebabnya
tsunami yang dibangkitkannya menjadi sangat
besar. Pada bidang batas lempeng di wilayah
ini, dari data jaringan GPS, diketahui bahwa
kecepatan relatif pergerakannya adalah
sekitar 50 – 45 mm/tahun (Chlieh, Avouac et
al. 2007). Bidang batas lempengnya berupa
penunjaman lempeng yang miring (“oblique”)
sehingga kecepatan gerak lempeng yang efektif
diakomodasi oleh megathrust (=yaitu komponen
yang arahnya tegak lurus) hanya sebagian saja,
yaitu kurang lebih sekitar 30 mm/tahun.
16
Jadi untuk memproduksi gempa dengan
magnitude Mw 9.2 (=slip ~20 meter) maka
diperlukan waktu akumulasi regangan sampai
600 tahunan. Oleh karena itu untuk melacak
kejadian gempa besar di masa purba atau
pra‐sejarah diperlukan studi paleoseismologi
dan paleotsunami, yaitu mencari bukti‐bukti
kejadian gempa dari rekaman alam.
Gambar 3a,b. Slip dan Uplift ketika Gempa Aceh‐Andaman tahun 2004 dari data koral dan GPS
(setelah Chlieh dkk, 2007).
Dari pemodelan data GPS dan pengangkatan
terumbu karang, khususnya jenis koral massif
“mikroatol” Gempa tahun 2005 (Mw 8.6)
menyebabkan slip pergerakan sebesar 10‐12
meter pada bidang megathrust di bawah Pulau
Nias dan Selatan Simeulue (Briggs, Sieh et al.
2006). Hal ini menyebabkan wilayah pesisir barat
Pulau Nias dan selatan Pulau Simeulue terangkat
hingga 2.5 meter dan 1.5 meter (Gbr.4). Uniknya
Pulau Simeulue ini pada waktu gempa tahun 2004
bagian utaranya juga terangkat hingga 1.5 meter
(Gbr 3b). Hal ini terjadi karena bidang patahan
(=”fault ruptures”) dari dua gempa raksasa ini
bertemu persis ditengah‐tengah Pulau Simeulue
(Gbr.5). Diantara dua pengangkatan gempa 2004
dan 2005 ini terdapat “gap kekosongan slip” atau
disebut juga sebagai “seismic gap’ (Meltzner
2012). Slip gap inilah yang kemudian ‘diisi’ oleh
gempa tahun 2008 (Mw 7.3) tersebut. Ini adalah
contoh yang bagus bahwa dengan melakukan
penelitian dan pemetaan pergerakan gempa‐
gempa besar yang terjadi kita sebenarnya dapat
membuat perkiraan tentang potensi gempa
besar selanjutnya di wilayah yang sama.
17
Gambar 4. Peta kontur pengangkatan dan penurunan bumi akibat gempa tahun 2005 (Mw 8.6)
berdasarkan data koral mikroatol (dari Briggs dkk, 2006)
18
Gambar 5 (a).
Peta kontur pengangkatan (dalam cm) di Pulau Simeulue akibat gempa tahun 2004 (Mw 9.2) dan 2005 (Mw 8.6). (b) “seismic‐slip gap” diantara dua pengangkatan
gempa tersebut. Slip yang tersisa ini dilepaskan ketika gempa tahun 2008 (~Mw 7.5).
(Meltzner 2012
3. DATA PALEOSEISMOLOGI DAN PALEOTSUNAMI
Kejadian gempa megathrust di masa lalu
dapat diketahui dengan meneliti unsur‐unsur
alam yang terkena pengangkatan/penurunan
karena gerak patahan yang terjadi ketika gempa.
Koral massif “mikroatoll” dari genus Porites dan
Goniastrea sangat ideal untuk digunakan sebagai
alat perekam gempa alamiah karena koral ini
pertumbuhannya sangat sensitif terhadap
perubahan muka air laut (Natawidjaja, K.Sieh et
al. 2004). Mikroatol yang tumbuh secara radial
dari tengah kesamping dan ke atas pertumbuhan
lapisan tahunannya yang mempunyai ketebalan
rata 1‐2 cm sangat dipengaruhi oleh tinggi
muka airlaut ketika tumbuh. Lapisan radial
koral ini beranalogi dengan lapisan tahunan
pada pohon (=”tree rings”). Apabila muka air
laut berada di atas level pertumbuhan maka
koral akan terus tumbuh ke samping dan ke
atas ‘mengejar’ muka air laut. Kemudian kalau
level pertumbuhannya sudah mencapai muka
air laut (surut minimum) maka koral tersebut
tidak lagi dapat tumbuh ke atas karena dia
harus tetap berada di bawah air laut sehingga
hanya tumbuh menyamping. Apabila ada gempa
besar yang mengangkat koral tersebut sehingga
muka airlaut menjadi relatif turun terhadap
koral maka yang terjadi semua bada koral yang
diatas muka air laut akan mati sedangkan yang
masih berada di bawah air akan terus tumbuh
setelah gempa (Gbr. 6) (Natawidjaja, K.Sieh
et al. 2006). Namun apabila gempa tersebut
mengangkat badan koral seluruhnya menjadi
di atas muka air maka koral tersebut akan mati
total. Dengan keunikan pertumbuhan mikroatol
ini maka kita dapat merekonstruksi sejarah
turun naiknya muka air laut yang dalam hal ini
khususnya yang berhubungan dengan gerak‐
gerak tektonik gempa. Sebuah koral mikroatol
dapat hidup sampai puluhan bahkan ratusan
tahun. Sehingga dengan meneliti banyak koral‐
koral yang berumur modern sampai yang
purba (fosil) maka kita dapat merekonstruksi
siklus gempa selama ratusan bahkan lebih dari
seribu tahun. Hebatnya lagi koral ini tidak hanya
merekam besar pengangkatan yang terjadi
waktu gempa tapi juga gerakan perlahan‐lahan
dari pengangkatan / penurunan pada waktu
perioda antar gempa (=”interseismic”) selama
puluhan ratusan tahun.
19
Gambar 6. Metoda mengukur pengangkatan gempa dari koral mikroatol. Pertumbuhan koral sangat
sensitive terhadap perubahan muka air laut. Apabila ada pengangkatan karena gempa,
bagian koral yang tersembul di atas muka air akan mati. Bagian yang masih di bawah air
dapat terus tumbuh (inset). (Natawidjaja 2005).
Dengan mengukur koral‐koral modern
yang terangkat ketika gempa inilah kita dapat
memetakan wilayah pengangkatan tektonik yang
terjadi seperti yang diperlihatkan oleh gambar 5
di atas. Oleh karena itu untuk melacak gempa‐
gempa besar yang pernah terjadi ratusan tahun
lalu kita dapat meneliti fossil koral mikroatol
yang pernah terangkat ketika terjadi gempa
purba tersebut. Dari penelitian koral mikroatol
di Pulau Simeulue yang dilakukan secara intensif
selama bertahun-tahun, dari tahun 2005 sampai
2010, kita berhasil menungkap bahwa pulau
ini tidak hanya pernah terangkat pada tahun
2004 dan 2005 saja, tapi pernah juga terangkat
berkali‐kali ratusan tahun sebelumnya. Di bagian
selatan Pulau Simeulue dan juga di bagian utara
Pulau Nias kita menemukan banyak koral‐koral
tua yang sudah lama mati terangkat pada tahun
1861 oleh gempa waktu itu. Kemudian di bagian
utara Pulau Simeulue; khususnya di lokasi
Ujung Salang, Teluk Dalam, Langi, Lhok Pauh,
Lewak, Nga, dan Ujung sangiran; ditemukan
banyak sekali fossil koral mikroatol yang pernah
terangkat sekitar tahun 1390‐an dan 1450‐an
(Abad 14‐15 ) Masehi, 550‐600 tahun sebelum
gempa 2004 (Meltzner 2010). Kemudian ada
juga fosil mikroatol yang terangkat oleh gempa
yang lebih tua lagi, yaitu berumur sekitar 960
M. Data koral terangkat ini juga ditunjang oleh
data endapan tsunami dengan kisaran umur
sama di pantai Banda Aceh dan juga di Thailand
(Jankaew 2008; Monecke 2008). Gambar 7
mengilustrasikan contoh sayatan slab vertikal
dari koral mikroatol yang terangkat oleh gempa
tahun 1390‐an Masehi di lokasi Lhok Pauh. Koral
mikroatol di lokasi LKP‐2 ini hidup selama sekitar
90 tahunan dari tahun 1300‐an Masehi sampai
tahun 1390‐an Masehi. Pola pertumbuhannya
memperlihatkan bahwa lokasi ini dari 1308
M sampai 1390 M mengalami penurunan
terus menerus secara perlahan‐lahan dengan
kecepatan rata‐rata sekitar 4 mm/tahun
(=“interseismic submergence rate”). Kemudian
pada sekitar tahun 1390‐an lokasi ini terangkat
(karena gempa) lebih dari 40 cm sehingga koral
ini mati total.
20
Gambar 7. Tracing dari X‐Ray sayatan slab vertikal dari koral mikroatol, dipotong dari tengah ke pinggir di lokasi LKP‐2, Lhok Pauh. (Meltzner 2010).
Kemudian Gambar 8 adalah salah satu contoh
dari koral mikroatol yang terangkat oleh gempa
purba sekitar tahun 1450‐an Masehi. Sama
seperti halnya Slab dari Lhok Pauh (LKP‐2) di atas,
sampel ini di potong dari tengah ke samping.
Hasil U‐Th radiometric dating menunjukkan
bahwa koral ini tumbuh sejak sekitar tahun
1390‐an Masehi. Jadi kemungkinannya adalah
penghuni baru di Lhok Pauh setelah gempa
yang membunuh para pendahulunya seperti
yang di LKP‐2 tersebut. Data pola pertumbuhan
dari sampel LKP‐4 ini juga mengkonfirmasi
bahwa dalam perioda yang panjang diantara
gempa lokasi ini mengalami penurunan sekitar
4 mm/tahun, oleh karena itu koral ini terus
berkembang ke samping dan ke atas mengejar
air laut yang terus naik . Pada sekitar tahun
1390‐an terlihat ada pegangkatan sekitar 15
cm yang dicirikan oleh morfologi “step‐down”
dari permukaan koral. Karena gempa ini tidak
mengangkat seluruh badan koral maka bagian
koral yang masih dibawah air masih hidup dan
terus tumbuh sampai akhirnya mati pada sekitar
tahun 1450 Masehi karena sebuah gempa yang
mengangkat seluruh badan koral ke atas muka
air.
21
Gambar 8. Tracing dari X‐Ray sayatan slab vertikal dari koral mikroatol, dipotong dari tengah ke pinggir di lokasi LKP‐4, Lhok Pauh. (Meltzner 2010)
Rekaman data turun naiknya muka air laut,
dalam hal ini yang berkaitan dengan proses
gempa, dari banyak koral slab kemudian
dihimpun, dikorelasikan dan diinterpretasikan
secara terintegrasi untuk merekonstruksi sejarah
(geologi) dari turun naiknya muka bumi di setiap
lokasi dan dalam suatu wilayah seperti contoh
yang diperlihatkan dalam gambar 9 untuk Lokasi
Lhok Pauh.
22
Gambar 9. Rekonstruksi siklus gempa besar di Lokasi Lhok Pauh berdasarkan data paleo-geodesi dari
pertumbuhan koral mikroatol (From Meltzner dkk, 2010).
Kejadian gempa purba tidak hanya terekam
oleh fosil mikroatol, tapi juga dapat diteliti
dari jejak endapan tsunami yang dibangkitkan.
Endapan tsunami purba itu ditemukan pada
stratigrafi pantai di pantai utara Banda Aceh.
Pada singkapan tebing pantai di lokasi terdapat
dua lapisan pasir dengan ciri‐ciri endapan
tsunami (gbr.10). Hasil carbon radiometric
menunjukkan bahwa dua lapisan pasir itu
terjadi pada sekitar tahun 1390 AD dan 1450
AD (Tim EOS, Laporan belum dipublikasikan).
Di wilayah yang sama ditemukan juga endapan
tsunami dengan kisaran umur antara 1400 –
1510 (Monecke 2008). Endapan tsunami dengan
kisaran umur 1300‐1450 M juga ditemukan di
Pantai Phra‐Tong, Thailand (Jankaew 2008).
23
Gambar 10. Bukti endapan tsunami dari Gempa yang terjadi di sekitar tahun 1390 dan 1450 Masehi
pada singkapan stratigrafi Pantai di Lamreh, Banda Aceh.
4. ULASAN SINGKAT SEJARAH ACEH
Aceh sebenarnya mempunyai masa sejarah
yang cukup panjang, paling tidak sampai Abad
ke‐7 Masehi sejak berdirinya Kerajaan Indrapuri.
Tidak banyak data sejarah tentang kerajaan
Kuno (Hindu) Indrapuri ini. Data sejarah Aceh
yang ada sekarang sangat minim. Umumya
sejarah hanya menceritakan dari masa kerajaan
terakhir, yaitu Kesultanan Aceh Darusalam
yang berdiri pada akhir Abad 15. Paling tua
hanya sampai masa Kerajaan Samudra Pasai
yang didirikan pada tahun 1236 M dan banyak
dianggap sebagai dimulainya perioda Islam di
Aceh. Namun beberapa sumber mengatakan
bahwa ratusan tahun sebelumnya sudah ada
Kerajaan Islam, yaitu Kerajaan Jeumpa yang
didirikan pada tahun 770 Masehi oleh seorang
tokoh islam legendaris, Syech Salman Al Parsi.
Salman Al Parsi (atau Salman Al‐Farisi) berasal
dari Campia, Persia yang menikah dengan putri
dari Meurah Purba raja kerajaan Hindu Purba di
Aceh. Kerajaan Jeumpa ini kemudian menjadi
cikal bakal terbentuknya Kerajaan (Islam) Perlak
pada tahun 840 M dan juga Kerajaan Samudra
Pasai pada tahun 1236 M tersebut. Banyak
tokoh‐tokoh penting yang pernah berkunjung
ke Aceh pada masa Samudra Pasai. Armada
Marcopolo pernah mampir ke Kerajaan Pasai
pada tahun 1292 M. Ibnu Battutah, musafir
Islam terkenal asal Maroko, pernah menjadi
tamu Kerajaan Pasai pada tahun 1345 Masehi.
Dalam buku catatan perjalananya disebutkan
bahwa dia sangat terkesan saat mengunjungi
sebuah kerajaan di pesisir pantai timur Sumatera
(i.e. Samudra Pasai) setelah berlayar selama 25
hari dari Barhnakar (sekarang masuk wilayah
Myanmar). Battutah mengilustrasikan bahwa
tempat itu sangat subur. Perdagangan di daerah
itu sangat maju, ditandai dengan penggunaan
mata uang emas. Ia semakin takjub karena ketika
turun ke kota ia mendapati sebuah kota besar
yang sangat indah dengan dikelilingi dinding
dan menara kayu (Gbr.11). Laksamana Cheng‐
Ho berkunjung ke Pasai, Aceh sebanyak tiga kali
yaitu pada tahun 1405, 1408, 1412 (Reid 2005).
24
Gambar 11. Lukisan Kota Banda Aceh kuno yang mirip dengan yang digambarkan oleh Ibnu Batuta
di buku catatannya (from http://acehpedia.org)
Bukti besar dari keberadaan Kerajaan kuno
Indrapuri adalah berupa bangunan dari batu di
bawah Mesjid tua Indrapuri. Bangunan batu itu
mempunyai bentuk dasar bujur sangkardengan
struktur ke atas menyerupai punden berundak
atau “stepped pyramid”; Panjang sisi‐sisi nya
sekitar 100 m dan ketinggiannya dari tanah
sampai dasar mesjid sekitar 10‐12 meter
(Gbr.12a,b). Seluruh struktur bangunan batu
sudah dilapisi oleh tembok dan batubata
dibagian luarnya sehingga yang terlihat
sekarang seperti bangunan sebuah mesjid
yang didirikan di atas benteng. Sebenarnya
plester tembok itu tipis saja; dibeberapa bagian
sudah terkelupas sehingga bagian struktur batu
yang aslinya kelihatan. Mesjid tua itu sendiri
pertamakali dibangun di atas struktur batu
berundak tersebut pada Abad ke 13 ketika masa
Kerajaan Samudra Pasai . Kemudian pada masa
pemerintahan Raja Iskandar Muda, Kerajaan
Aceh Darussalam, mesjid itu dipugar kembali.
Sekarang Mesjid Indrapuri statusnya adalah
Situs Cagar Budaya. Sewaktu meninjau ke lokasi
Bulan Mei 2011, tim melakukan survey georadar
pendahuluan disekeliling Mesjid Indrapuri untuk
memindai struktur punden berundak purba di
bawah mesjid itu. Hasil dari salah satu lintasan
georadar utama yang melintas dari arah jalan
raya melalui jalur masuk utama yang ke arah
gerbang mesjid (Gbr.13) cukup mengejutkan.
Terlihat bahwa dibawahnya sampai kedalaman
sekitar 25 meter kemungkinan masih berupa
struktur bangunan bahkan kelihatannya ada
struktur ruangan. Jadi sebagian struktur
bangunan tersebut sudah terbenam atau
tertimbun di bawah permukaan tanah yang
sekarang. Masih diperlukan penelitian lebih
lanjut untuk mengkaji peninggalan bangunan
kuno yang cukup besar ini. Pada tahun 1496 M
lahirlah kerajaan baru, yaitu Kesultanan Aceh
Darussalam (Reid 2005).
Kemudian hanya 13 tahun setelahnya, 1509,
Portugis tiba. Tahun 1511, Portugis menaklukan
Malacca (=Malaysia sekarang). Tahun 1520, Aceh
mulai gencar melakukan peperangan melawan
Portugis. Aceh Darusallam mencapai Zaman
keemasannya ketika pemerintahan Sulthan
Iskandar Muda (1607‐1636). Setelah itu Aceh
mulai memudar seiring dengan menguatnya
Belanda di Indonesia. Perang Aceh lawan
belanda (1873‐1903) – menandai berakhirnya
masa Kesultanan Aceh.
25
Gambar 12. Foto Mesjid Indrapuri yang didirikan pada Abad 13 di atas bangunan tua dari Abad 7
Gambar 13. Hasil dari survey georadar dengan Zond‐12 e dan antenna MLF 100 Mhz di lintasan
jalan utama menuju gerbang mesjid
5. DISKUSI KAITAN BENCANA DAN PERKEMBANGAN SEJARAH
Seperti diuraikan di atas, dari data
pengangkatan koral‐koral dapat diketahui bahwa
gempa‐tsunami besar yang terjadi tahun 1390
M dan 1450 M adalah sebesar gempa 2004,
bahkan besar pengangkatan dari gempa 1450
M di utara Simeulue lebih besar dibandingkan
dengan yang terjadi tahun 2004 (Gbr.14). Fakta
geologi ini sesuai denga perhitungan studi GPS
bahwa perioda gempa setara Mw 9.2 di wilayah
ini adalah sekitar 550 – 600 tahunan. Beberapa
koral mikroatol juga mengindikasikan terjadinya
gempa besar sekitar tahun 960 M. Atas dasar
dataa‐data ini maka dapat disusun rekonstruksi
siklus gempa besar seperti terlihat pada gambar
14 di bawah. Yang menjadi acuan siklus gempa
besar ini adalah data paleogeodetic atau turun
naiknya muka bumi di wilayah Simulue utara.
Siklus gempa sangat besar ini disebut juga
sebagai “earthquake supercycles”. Ada indikasi
bahwa satu masa pelepasan akumulasi energi
dikeluarkan oleh lebih dari satu gempa besar
seperti yang terjadi pada tahun 1390 dan 1450
M. Hal yang serupa juga terjadi di segmen zona
subduksi di wilayah Mentawai (Sieh dkk, 2008;
Natawidjaja dkk, 2006). Setelah gempa Mw 9.2
memang sudah terjadi banyak sekali gempa‐
gempa besar yang mengikutinya. Namun
menurut perhitungan akumulasi energi gempa
sejak gempa 1390 dan 1450 itu kemungkinan
masih ada simpanan gempa yang cukup besar
di wilayah Pulau Simeulue ke utara, sehingga hal
ini harus diwaspadai.
26
Yang menarik dari sejarah Aceh, Kerajaan
Samudra Pasai sepertinya menghilang dari
sejarah secara misterius setelah pemerintahan
Sultan Abu Zaid Malik az‐Zahir (1412 – 1455).
Dalam beberapa sumber diceritakan bahwa
masih ada beberapa sultan setelah Abu Zaid
tapi sepertinya tidak ada aktifitas berarti,
terutama menyangkut hubungan ke luar negeri.
Lebih menarik lagi bahwa pada tahun 1496
muncul kerajaan yang sama sekali baru, bukan
terusan dari Samudra Pasai, yaitu Kesultanan
Aceh Darussalam. Tidak seperti sebelumnya, di
kesultanan baru ini hubungan dan pencampuran
kebudayaan dengan Asia (India, Arab, Cina)
kelihatannya lebih intens. Bangsa Asing (Portugis)
juga mulai masuk dan berperan setelah Samudra
Pasai menghilang. Oleh karena itu sangat patut
dicurigai bahwa keruntuhan Samudra Pasai boleh
jadi erat kaitannya dengan bencana tsunami
sangat besar yang terjadi tahun sekitar tahun
1450 M tersebut. Fakta bahwa pemerintahan
Sultan Zain al ‐Abidin Malik az –Zahir (1383 –
1405) sepertinya baik‐baik saja dan juga tiga
kali kedatangan Laksamana Cheng‐Ho pada
tahun 1405, 1408, dan 1412 pada masa Sultan
Shalahuddin (1405 – 1412) tidak memberitakan
ada bencana besar mengindikasikan bahwa
bencana gempatsunami tahun 1390‐an tidak
terlalu besar, dan ini memang cocok dengan data
koral di utara Simeulue yang memperlihatkan
bahwa pengangkatan gempa 1390 jauh lebih
kecil dibanding dengan 1450 (Gbr. 14).
Apabila benar bahwa bencana gempa‐
tsunami memisahkan Zaman Samudra Pasai dari
Aceh Darussalam maka mulai terkuak kenapa
jejak‐jejak sejarah sebelum Aceh Darussalam ini
seolah‐olah hilang ditelan bumi, sedikit sekali
yang tersisa. Ada beberapa jejak bangunan purba
yang sekarang berada di bawah zona pasang
surut di utara Banda Aceh, termasuk Makam Para
Raja di Ujung Pancu/ Lhok Lambaro (McKinnon
1988). Sebuah makam para raja biasanya di
tempat tinggi. Jadi fakta bahwa makam itu
sekarang ada di bawah air menandakan bahwa
lokasi ini mengalami penurunan (tektonik) yang
sangat cepat. Hal ini memang cocok dengan
kondisi tektoniknya karena lokasi ini berada
pada zona “transtensional” besar dari Patahan
Sumatra. Di zona pasang‐surut di dekat makam
ini pernah juga dilaporkan ada bekas fondasi
bangunan besar yang diduga bekas sebuah
mesjid kuno, kemungkinan berasal dari zaman
Pasai atau sebelumnya. Singkat kata, jejak-jejak
peradaban Pasai dan sebelumnya kemungkinan
besar memang banyak musnah dihancurkan
gelombang tsunami dan sekarang banyak
tertimbun di perairan dangkal atau sudah
ditutupi oleh sedimen pantai yang tebal. Fakta
lain yang menarik adalah catatan Ibnu Batutta
yang datang tahun 1345 tentang gambaran
Kota Tua di lokasi Banda Aceh sekarang yang
kurang lebih seperti pada Gambar 11. Hal yang
menarik untukmeneliti kenapa kota tua yang
indah dan megah ini seolah‐olah hilang jejaknya
ditelan bumi, termasuk benteng‐benteng yang
mengitari kota itu. Apakah karena dihancur
leburkan oleh Belanda atau oleh tsunami?
Gempa‐Tsunami dalam konteksnya dalam Sejarah Aceh
27
6. KESIMPULAN
Dari data tektonik dan pengukuran tektonik
GPS setara dengan yang terjadi tahun 2004
(Mw9.2) dapat berulang setiap 500 ‐600 tahun.
Hal ini ditunjang oleh data paleogeodesi‐koral
dan endapan tsunami yang mengungkapkan
bahwa gempa‐tsunami besar pernah terjadi
pada Abad 10 dan dan Abad 14‐15. Sejarah
Aceh mengindikasikan bahwa bencana
tsunami yang terjadi sekitar tahun 1450‐an
kemungkinan punya andil dalam pergantian
kekuasaan dari masa Kerajaan Samudra Pasai
ke masa Kesultanan Aceh Darussalam. Integrasi
pengetahuan bencana alam dan sejarah sangat
penting untuk dapat memahami dengan utuh
tentang bencana dan dampaknya terhadap
peradaban manusia. Pemahaman ini sangat
penting untuk membangun strategi dan
kesiapsiagaan masyarakat dalam mengantisipasi
bencana yang mengancam kehidupan di masa
datang seperti halnya yang sudah terjadi di
masa lalu.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Briggs, R. W., K. Sieh, et al. (2006). "Deformation
and slip along the Sunda megathrust in the
great 2005 Nias‐Simeulue earthquake." Science
311(5769): 1897‐1901.
Chlieh, M., J.‐P. Avouac, et al. (2007). "Coseismic
slip and afterslip of the great Mw 9.15 Sumatran‐
Andaman earthquake of 2004." BSSA 97(No.1A):
8152‐8173.
Hill, E. M., J.C.Borrero, H.Zhenhua, Qiang
Qiu, P.Banerjee, D.H.Natawidjaja, P.Elosegui,
H.M.Fritz, B.W.Suwargadi, I.R.Prananyo, LinLin Li,
K,A.Macpherson, V.Skanavis, Costa E.Synolakis,
and K.Sieh (2011). "The 2010 Mw7.8 Mentawai
earthquake: Very shallow source of a rare
tsunami earthquake determined from tsunami
field survey
and near‐field GPS data." Journal of Geophysical
Research.
Jankaew, K., B.F. Atwater, Y.Sawai, M.Choowong,
T. Charoentiti at, M.E. Martin, dan A.Prendergast
(2008).
"Medieval forewarning of the 2004 Indian Ocean
tsunami in Thailand." Nature 455: 1228‐1231.
McKinnon, E. (1988). "Beyond Serandib; A
note on Lambri at the Northern Tip of Aceh."
Indonesia 46: 103‐121.
Meltzner, A. J., K.Sieh, H‐W Chiang,C‐C Shen,B.
W.Suwargadi,D.H.Natawidjaja,.E.Philibosoian,R.
W.Briggs,
J.Galetzka (2010). "Coral evidence for earthquake
reccurence and an A.D. 1390‐1455 cluster at the
south end of the 2004 Aceh‐Andaman rupture."
Journal of Geophysical Research 115(B10402).
Meltzner, A. J., K.Sieh,H‐W Chiang, C‐C Shen,B.
W.Suwargadi,D.H.Natawidjaja,B.Philibosian,and
R.Briggs
(2012). "Persistent termini of 2004 and 2005‐like
ruptures of the Sunda megathrust." Journal of
Geophysical Research 117(BQ4405).
Monecke, K., W.Finger, D.Klarer, W.Kongko,
B.G.McAdoo, A.L.Moore, and S.U.Sudrajat
(2008). "A 1,000‐year sediment record of
tsunami reccurence in northern Sumatra."
Nature 455: 1232‐1234.
Natawidjaja, D. H. (2005). The Past, recent,
and future giant earthquakes of the Sumatran
megathrust.
JASS05 Great Earthquakes in the Plate
Subduction, Nagoya,Japan, Nagoya University
and the JSPS.
Natawidjaja, D. H., K.Sieh, et al. (2006). "Source
Parameters of the great Sumatran megathrust
earthquakes of 1797 and 1833 inferred from
coral microatolls." J.Geophys. Res. 111.
Natawidjaja, D. H., K.Sieh, et al. (2004).
"Paleogeodetic records of seismic and aseismic
subduction from
central Sumatran microatolls, Indonesia."
J.Geophys. Res. 109(B4)(4306): 1‐34.
Newcomb, K. R. and W. R. McCann (1987).
"Seismic history and seismotectonics of the
Sunda Arc." Journal of Geophysical Research
92: 421‐439.
Reid, A. (2005). An Indonesian Frontier:
Acehnese and Otehr Histories of Sumatra,
Singapore Univ.Press
Subarya, C., M. Chlieh, et al. (2006). "Plate‐
boundary deformation associated with the great
Sumatra–
Andaman earthquake." Science 440: 46‐51.
28
HYBRID SOCIO-TECHNICAL APPROACH FOR STRATEGIC
DISASTER RISK REDUCTION PROGRAM IN INDONESIA
Dwikorita Karnawati1
Teuku Faisal Fathani1
Budi Andayani1
Sani Tanaka1
Eric G. Frost2
Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia – Fulbright Alumni
2
San Diego State University, USA.
1
Hybrid Socio-Technical Approach for Strategic Disaster Risk Reduction
Program in Indonesia
Dwikorita Karnawati1, Teuku Faisal Fathani1, Budi Andayani1, Sani Tanaka1 and Eric G. Frost2
Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia – Fulbright Alumni
2
San Diego State University, USA.
1
ABSTRACT
Indonesia is frequently struck by various types of geological disasters, such as earthquake, tsunami,
volcanic eruption, landslide and debris flood. Unfortunately, the communities living in the disaster
prone areas are not always well-prepared to face those disasters due to various limitations, such
as limited access for the community to have appropriate information and knowledge about the
phenomena of disasters and how to reduce the risk of any potential disasters, as well as because of
the unavailable or ineffective disaster management system in their living area. As the result, more
and more socio-economical losses occurred due to those disasters, despite a lot of efforts that have
been conducted to develop and implement the Science and Technology for mitigating and reducing
the risk of such disasters.
Accordingly, Karnawati et al (2008 and 2009) promoted the Hybrid Socio-Technical approach as
a strategic and effective effort for developing the appropriate technology in disaster mitigation
and risk reduction. This approach emphasized on the integration of social system into technical
system, by implementing the research-based community learning and empowerment. To ensure
the effectiveness of disaster mitigation and risk reduction, the technical system must be established
by implementing simple and low cost technology with respect to the indigenous knowledge, for
hazard monitoring as well as disaster early warning and mitigation. As a part of the technical
system, the community-based hazard and risk maps need to be developed to decide the installation
site of the implemented technical system, as well as to support the development of appropriate
landuse management system and to facilitate the emergency plan at the village.
In parallel with the development of technical system, the social system must be developed by
implementing the research-based community learning process and public education program.
To support the effectiveness of the social system, socio-cultural and psychological mapping and
analysis are required, and thus the existing community perception and knowledge about the
respective hazard and disaster phenomena in their living area can be identified, and also the
community expectation on the disaster risk reduction program can be evaluated to encourage their
willingness to actively participate in disaster mitigation and risk reduction program. Therefore, by
implementing both social and technical systems a strategic disaster management system can be
developed with the effective mitigation and risk reduction program.
Keywords: socio-technical system, mitigation, risk reduction
1. INTRODUCTION
Situated in such a dynamic geological region,
which is occupied by high density of population,
Indonesia is frequently struck by various types
of geological disasters, which lead to substantial
death tolls, casualties and socio-economical
losses. In fact, 6,632 events of natural disasters
(mainly geological disasters) have been
recorded within the period of 1997 to 2009 by
the Indonesian National Agency for Disaster
Management (2009). Such disasters resulted in
total death tolls of 151,277 people. Furthermore,
the events of disasters continuously occur and
numbers of socio-economical losses inevitably
increase. Therefore, it is very urgent to develop
systematic and effective efforts to reduce the
risk of disasters.
Disaster risk reduction (DRR) is the concept
and practice of reducing potential socioeconomical and cultural losses due to any
disaster, through systematic efforts to analyze
and minimize the causal factors of disasters. It is
believed that the implementation of appropriate
Science and Technology is the most important
key element to ensure the establishment of
systematic and effective disasters risk reduction
program.
30
HYBRID SOCIO-TECHNICAL APPROACH FOR STRATEGIC DISASTER RISK REDUCTION PROGRAM IN INDONESIA
2. CHALLENGES IN DISASTER RISK REDUCTION
a. Systematic scale adjustments for disaster
risk reduction efforts
The scale approach in disaster risk reduction
has to be adjusted properly, according to the
level of problems and types of the disasters.
The disaster risk reduction effort at national
scale such as through the top-down approach is
obviously required to provide the national policy
and legal aspect in the disaster management.
However, most of the disaster events occur
at the local area and have to be tackled
locally. For instance, the tsunami disaster
risk reduction effort may not be effectively
implemented without the empowerment of the
local community to anticipate the risk of such
disaster, although the tsunami early warning
system has been developed at the national level
by the national government.
Therefore, the knowledge and technology
for disaster risk reduction need to be developed
by considering the needs to tackle the local
problem as the complementary for the national
problem solving.
b. Socio technical challenges
It is apparent that most of the disaster prone
areas in Indonesia are unique due to the local
socio economical and cultural conditions as
well as because of the site-specific control.
Accordingly, the implementation of Science
and Technology in DRR should address the
uniqueness of the local socio-economical and
cultural conditions of the disaster prone area.
There have been quite many evidences
that the technology and engineering design
are not always developed and implemented
successfully to solve the real problems in the
field due to various gaps, such as the complexity
of the developed -technology versus the
simplicity of the existing indigenous knowledge
and limited local capacity, and may also because
of the economical and cultural constrains. The
development of any technology for disaster risk
reduction must be simple enough to allow the
local community to understand, operate and
maintain such implemented technology by theirown resources. Another important challenge is
the “appropriateness” of approach to encourage
the community participation in the process of
developing the technology”. This approach must
be designed to build the community perception
to consider that the developed technology is
not a “gift” for the community, but it is a “need”
requested by the community. Obviously a socioengineering approach is required in the process
of introducing and implementing any developed
technology in the local community.
3. HYBRID SOCIO-TECHNICAL CONCEPT IN DISASTER RISK REDUCTION
With respect to the challenges above as
well as to ensure the effectiveness in the
implementation of any technology for disaster
risk reduction, a combined (hybrid) system,
which considers both social and technical
conditions has been developed by Karnawati
et al (2009 and 2011). A case example of the
implementation of such concept is for reducing
the risk of landslides. In such case, the hybrid
socio-technical approach was applied to
develop the technical system for providing
community landslide hazard/ risk map and early
warning system, and also to establish the social
system for developing appropriate community
empowerment program. The technical system
is recommended to address the development
of the existing indigenous or local knowledge
and technology, by considering the simplicity
of such system and technology. Moreover, the
utilization of the local material is promoted,
by encouraging the local knowledge (local
experts and local operators) to drive the local
participation program. Indeed, it is important
that the hybrid system should be performed
with a low cost and simple technology, approach
and method, so that it can be easily understood,
reproduced, operated and maintained by the
local community, such as suggested by Karnawati
et al (2008, 2009 and 2011). This empowerment
program relies on the public education,
encouraging community participation in
developing and implementing action plan for
disaster mitigation and risk reduction. Schematic
concept of this approach is illustrated in Fig 1.
All of this concept can be done only if the local
community has been empowered. Therefore,
process of technology development can be
carried out during or as a part of the process of
community empowerment.
31
4. LESSON LEARNED FROM THE PILOT STUDY
A hybrid socio-technical system has been
implemented in one pilot area in Central
Java, especially in Karanganyar Regency. This
Regency is situated at the western slope of Lawu
Volcano, in which 30% of the region is highly
risk for landslide due to the high susceptibility
condition (indicated by red colour in the map of
Fig. 2), which is controlled by the geology and
climate conditions, and also because of the high
vulnerability of the socio-economical conditions
in the landslide prone area (Karnawati et al 2009
and 2011). Managing the social-conditions for
reducing the socio-economical vulnerability
in the landslide prone area is considered to be
more feasible, instead of changing the natural
conditions, such as the geology and climate.
Thus, the landslide disaster risk reduction in
the pilot study area was conducted by targeting
the social conditions through the adaptive
management as suggested by Andayani et al
(2008), Karnawati et al (2009 and 2011), and
also Halcombe et al (2012), which emphasized
on the improvement of community resilience
by implementing the hybrid socio- technical
approach.
a.
Development of Technical System
The technical system for landslide disaster
risk reduction was developed by Karnawati et
al (2009, 2011 and 2012), consisting of several
technical components such as the instruments
for landslide early warning system recommended
by Fathani et al (2008) and also Fathani and
Karnawati (2009), supported by the smart-grid
for landslide hazard communication, monitoring
and early warning developed by Karnawati et al
(2012) as well as the community-based landslide
hazard map suggested by Karnawati et al (2010).
Early warning instruments
The early warning instruments was designed
by relying on the manual extensometers (5
sets) connected with the alarm generated by
dry battery as illustrated in Fig. 3. Each of these
instruments is facilitated with the automatically
pull able wire installed across the progressive
crack (Fig. 4), so that the progress of crack
development due to the slope movement can
be monitored. The instalment of extensometers
was also supported by the rain-gauge (1 set)
as illustrated in Fig. 3b and solar panel (1 set);
so two different stage of warning levels can be
defined. The first threshold of warning was setup by setting the ON alarm in response to the rain
precipitation of 70 mm/hour or the accumulative
rain precipitation of 100 mm, whilst the second
threshold was defined when the extension of
pull able wire reached the distance of 5 cm. The
function of first alarm was used for raising the
community alert, and the second alarm was
set-up for starting the evacuation process in the
landslide prone zone.
Admittedly, the numbers of early warning
instruments are limited which were not sufficient
to cover the large area of prone zone. Therefore,
a smart grid for landslide early warning has been
developed by Karnawati et al (2012).
Smart grid for landslide hazard monitoring
and early warning
Smart Grid is a participatory cyber-based
communication and information system,
developed as a system of handling networks of
information nodes consisting of local experts,
local surveyors, or selected members of local
task force and the contact person in the local
communities. The information is sent to the
‘online’ web or cyber system, with the specific
functions to facilitate the participatory data
reporting via the online web, mobile phone (text
message), or other various social media, and also
to store and analyse those participatory inputreports (related to the geological/ geotechnical
conditions and process, which considered as the
symptoms or early indications of landslides), for
defining the landslide hazard and risk level in
any particular site or zone.
Results of the analyses are required to
provide the emergency-decision supports,
which relate to the information of the zone and
level of landslide hazard/ risk, evacuation route
and shelter, as well as the recommendation
of method or approach for mitigation,
preparedness and emergency actions. All of the
information about hazard/risk and the guidance
for response will be blasted/ transmitted back
to the respective-reporting node as well as
to the other relevant registered nodes. This
participatory system can also be connected to
various types of social media (mobile phone call/
text, Twitter, Facebook, Google+, Yahoo, etc.).
32
It is also important that the multi-two way
direction facilitates the communication flow in
this participatory smart grid system. Such system
can also be linked to the existing communitybased landslide early warning instruments
developed in parallel with this smart grid system.
Concept of the smart grid design is illustrated
in Fig. 5, whilst the example to the web
performance of smart grid is displayed in Fig. 6.
Community-based hazard map
The understanding and simplicity of the
approach and method of mapping is the most
critical part to guarantee the effectiveness of
disaster risk reduction program.
Unfortunately, it is apparent that most of the
technical landslide hazard map was not easy to
be understood by the local community. That
is why a simple participatory hazard mapping
method was developed by Karnawati et al 2010,
to facilitate the community landslide hazard
mapping, which also addressing the Landslide
Risk Assessment and Mitigation Strategy
suggested by Lacasse and Nadim (2008).
Therefore, the standard technical method for
landslide hazard mapping was simplified to
prepare a simple landslide hazard map, which
can be conducted by the local community on
the existing village base-map (i.e. the village
“situation” map), through the participatory
mechanism. Such map was presented without
any contour, but mainly showing the lay out of
roads, rivers, houses and land farming areas
which were very easy to be identified by the
local community. Identification of the high
susceptible zone (red zone) and low susceptible
or safe zone (green zone) for landslides was
carried out by the community task force through
public participation, which is advised by the local
expert. Fig. 7 shows the landslide hazard map,
which was developed by the local community
in Tengklik Village, Tawangmangu District,
Karanganyar Regency, Central Java.
the hybrid system was initiated by social survey
and mapping, to identify the existing knowledge
about the landslide hazard, which will affect
the community’s perception about landslide
risk and their expectation on the proposed
developed-technology for landslide disaster
risk reduction. Identification on all of those
aspects significantly control their motivation
or willingness for actively participating in any
disaster risk reduction program. Results of this
social survey and mapping will be crucial to
formulate the appropriate and effective strategy
for public education related to the effort for
raising the community awareness and also for
conducting community empowerment program.
Various target groups were defined, and
those comprise the group of women (as the
key person in the family), teachers, children
as well as the young and senior leaders. The
local government of Karanganyar Regency also
continuously and actively supported this social
development program.
Results of the social survey and mapping
indicated that most of the community members
had been quite aware with the potential
occurrence of landslides at the rainy season,
because the landslide disasters have quite
frequently struck their living area, especially
under the heavy or long continuous rainfall.
Nevertheless, most of the community members
preferred to remain living in their vulnerable
region, instead of being relocated to the other
safer areas. Obviously, the fertility of soil, the
abundance of water resources, the beauty
of mountainous panorama and the strong
psychological engagement with their homeland
or home-heritage, strongly prevented their
willingness to leave their dangerous homeland.
This map is also very important to decide
where the early warning instruments should be
installed and how the evacuation route should
be decided.
b. Development of Social System
Development of the social component in
33
Unfortunately, they did not have enough
knowledge, skill and capacity to decide about
“what should” and “what should not do” for
preventing the landslide as well as for protecting
their life and environment from the landslide
occurrences. Eventhough, they had not yet been
capable to identify the sites (slopes), which were
susceptible for landsliding, and to recognize the
initial symptoms of land-sliding. Therefore, the
hybrid socio-technical approach for communitybased landslide early warning was applied to
develop their capacity for implementing the
appropriate landslide disaster risk reduction
program, which will support the improvement
of the community resiliency in this landslide
prone area.
A community task-force for disaster risk
reduction at the village level was also established
under the coordination with the Agency for
Disaster Management at the Regency level (Fig.
8). This network is also linked to the local hospital
(health centre), the local army and police, and
also the Search and Rescue Team (SAR team) at
the local Regency. Indeed, this task force played
an important role as the driving power for the
disaster risk reduction program, and also to
effectively implement and sustain the technical
system for landslide risk reduction.
c. Evaluation
It was apparent that the existence of a
community task force for landslide disaster
risk reduction at each village level was the
most important factor to ensure the affectivity
and sustainability of landslide mitigation and
risk reduction program. This task force had
an important role as the driving agent in the
empowerment and mitigation program. In
fact, since this proposed hybrid socio-technical
approach implemented in several pilot areas
in Karanganyar Regency, such as in Ledoksari
Village in 2008, Tengklik Village in 2009, Matesih
Village in 2010 and also Gempolan and Plosorejo
Villages in 2011, the community resilience for
landslide disasters has gradually increased, the
socio-economical losses due to landslides can
be minimised and the numbers of landslide
victims have been dropped to zero. It seems
that this approach could effectively empowered
to local community to mitigate the landslides.
Eventhough the key person, who is also the
member of the community task force and was
in charged for the mitigation program, was also
invited to share their experiences in facilitating
the community empowerment actions to tackle
the landslide problems in another landslide
disaster area in Tanjungsani Village at Agam
Regency, West Sumatera.
Therefore, the Hybrid Socio-Technical
approach is also very applicable to be developed
in several other disasters area in developing
countries, although several adjustments may be
required to address the social and environmental
characteristics at the specific site. Moreover,
the importance of commitment and leadership
of the local Agency for Disaster Management
at the Regency and District levels to support
the effectiveness of the disaster management
program at the village must be highlighted.
It was also obvious that the socio-cultural
and socio-economical constrains during the
mitigation program can be minimized by
implementing the hybrid socio-technical
approach. Indeed, the introduction and
implementation of a new technology for early
warning and disaster management system can
be conducted more effectively through the
public participation actions. That is why more
enthusiastic response of the local community
and local authority to actively participate in the
landslide disaster risk reduction program can be
performed as illustrated in Fig. 8.
Conclusion
One of the most critical considerations
on disaster risk reduction in Indonesia is the
assurance for the effectiveness and sustainability
of the disaster management program. It is
apparent that the uniqueness of the local
socio-economical and cultural conditions must
be addressed to ensure the effectiveness and
sustainability of the application of science
and technology for disaster risk reduction.
The proposed model, which is so called as the
combined (hybrid) socio-technical approach has
been quite effective and strategic to improve the
community resilience at the landslide vulnerable
village. It is also crucial that the system should be
developed through community participation and
the provision of simple and low cost technology
for the hazard mapping and early warning.
34
Indeed, the establishment of community
task force at the village level is very important
to ensure the effectiveness, continuity and
sustainability of this proposed system. This
approach may also be applicable to tackle
similar problems for landslide risk reduction in
other developing countries in Asia.
Figure 1. The concept and key component of a hybrid socio-technical system for landslide mitigation
and early warning system (Karnawati et al 2009 and 2011)
Lawu
Volcano
Lawu
Volcano
Figure 2. Landslide susceptibility map of Karanganyar Regency, Central Java, Indonesia, developed in regional scale of 1 : 100,00 (Karnawati et al 2009 and 2011)
35
a)
b)
Figure 3a. Above, the manual extensometer (generation 1 on the left and generation
2 on the right), connected with alarm system in the middle, and 3b below, the rain gauge with the alarm system (Fathani et al, 2008; Fathani and Karnawati, 2009).
Automatic
Extensometer
Crack
PVC pipe
Foundation
Invar wire
Movement direction
Stake
Figure 4. The automatically pull able wire, protected inside the PVC pipe and installed across the
progressive crack (Fathani et al, 2008).
36
Web System
“expert system
analysis” on:
Hazard Level
• Low
• Moderate
• High
Risk Level
• Low
• Moderate
• High
Figure 5. Concept of expert system in the smart grid design developed by Karnawati et al 2012.
37
Figure 6. Web performance showing the geographical position of the reporting nodes
Figure 7. Community-based landslide hazard map of Tengklik Village, Karanganyar Regency, Central
Java, indicating zones of hazard level (red is high level and green is low level), recommended
by Karnawati et al 2010.
38
B
26
Figure 8. Activities to develop and empower the community task force at Tengklik Village which
were facilitated by the student community service program conducted by Universitas
Gadjah Mada
REFERENCES
Annoname, “Landslide disaster databased”
Indonesian National Agency for Disaster
Mitigation, 2009.
Andayani B, Karnawati D and Pramumijoyo S
(2008) Institutional framework for community
empowerment towards landslide mitigation
and risk reduction in Indonesia. Proc. of the
1st World Landslide Forum, Tokyo, Global
Promotion Committee of the Int. Program on
Landslide (IPL) – ISDR, pp. 57-59.
Anderson MG, Halcombe E, Esquivel M,
Toro J and Ghesquire F (2010) The Efficacy of a
Program of Landslide Risk Reduction in Area of
Unplanned Housing in the Eastern of Caribbean.
Environmental Management (45): 807-821.
Anderson MG, Halcombe E, Blake JR,
Ghesquire F, Holm-Nielsen N and Fisseha T
(2011) Reducing Landslide Risk in Communities;
Evidence for the Eastern Caribbean. Applied
Geography. Elsevier (31): 590-599.
Fathani, T.F, Karnawati D, Sassa K, Fukuoka,
H and Honda K (2008) Landslide Monitoring,
Prediction and Early Warning in Banjarnegara,
Indonesia. Proc. of 1st World Landslide Forum,
Tokyo, pp. 195–198.
Fathani TF and Karnawati D (2009) Early
warning of landslide for disaster risk reduction
in Central Java Indonesia. Proc. of Int’l Workshop
on Early Warning for Landslide Disaster Risk
Reduction in the Eastern Asian Region: Kunming,
China.
Halcombe E, Smith S, Wright E and Anderson
MG, (2012) Integrated Approach for Evaluating
the Effectiveness of Landslide Risk Reduction in
Unplanned Communities in the Caribbean. Nat
Hazards (61): 351-385.
Karnawati D, Fathani, TF, Andayani B,
Burton PW and Sudarno I (2009) Strategic
program for landslide disaster risk reduction;
a lesson learned from Central Java, Indonesia
Disaster Management and Human Health
Risk; Reducing Risk, Improving Outcomes,
WIT Transactions on the Built Environment
Transaction, K. Duncan and C.A. Brebbia,
Ed. Southompton: WIT Press. 115-126.
39
Karnawati D, Setianto A, Wilopo W,
Andayani B and Suharto (2010) Development of
Community Landslide Hazard Map for Landslide
Risk Reduction. Proceeding of 11th Int. Assoc. of
Engineering Geologist Congress, Auckland, 5-10
September, 2010. Auckland, New Zealand. pp.
1203 – 1208.
Karnawati D, Fathani TF, Andayani B, Legono
D, and Burton PW (2011) Landslide hazard
and Community-based Risk Reduction Effort in
Karanganyar and the Surrounding Area Central
Java, Indonesia. Journal of Mountain Science,
8(2): 149-153.
Karnawati D, Frost EG, Fathanni TF and Subroto
(2012) Smart Grid for Landslide Monitoring and
Early Warning System in Indonesia. Proceedings
of the 10th Anniversary of ICL – January 2012,
Kyoto, In Press.
Lacasse S and Nadim F (2008) Landslide
Risk Assessment and Mitigation Strategy. In
Landslide Disaster Risk Reduction. (eds). Sassa K
and Canuti P, Springer Verlag Berlin Heidenberg.
p. 31 – 61.
40
POLITICAL DYNAMIC AND EXTERNAL FACTORS
IN A POST DISASTER REHABILITATION &
RECONSTRUCTION; CASE STUDY OF NIAS ISLANDS
POST THE 2004 AND 2005
EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMI
Faisar Jihadi
Political Dynamic and External Factors in a Post Disaster Rehabilitation &
Reconstruction; Case Study of Nias Islands Post the 2004 and 2005
Earthquake and Tsunami
Faisar Jihadi
Email: [email protected] Phone: 081319601537
ABSTRACT
Rehabilitation and reconstruction activities in Nias Islands post the 2004 tsunami and 2005
earthquake were highly affected by 3 factors: (1) the delay in the response of the government of
Indonesia in enacting laws and regulations on Disaster Risk Reduction concerns; (2 the political
separation process of Nias to North Sumatra started with the proliferation of Nias Islands from 2
districts in 2005 to 5 districts/municipality; and (3) the resulting lack of access to aid for development
by civil society organization, due to presence of the National Implementation Modality System
(NIMS) policy implementation to control the flow of donor aid and activities for post disaster
recovery.
Each factor is associated one into another and shapes the impact of the rehabilitation and
reconstruction activities toward the safety of Aceh and Nias Islands from future disaster risks.
All of the abovementioned factors are relatively external factors which was associated with
political decisions at national level, which are beyond the control of local decision makers in
Nias Islands. However, those factors defined the planning, implementation and evaluation of
rehabilitation, reconstruction and Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) efforts in Nias Islands. Therefore,
this it is important to access on how local community and government institutions participation
for Disaster Management happen under such an uncontrollable planning situation for them. More
specifically, how economic, social, infrastructural and institutional resilience status of Nias Islands
has significantly changed under such environment?
1. INTRODUCTION
The rehabilitation and reconstruction
activities in Nias Islands post the 2004 tsunami
and 2005 earthquake can be classified into two
periods: 1) Under the Board for Aceh and Nias
Islands Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Board
(BRR) coordination (2006-2009) and 2) post the
BRR (2009-2012). The activities were mostly
happen when the national law on disaster
management still in drafting process . Therefore,
when the law and its derivative regulations and
guidelines were disseminated in 2008, most
of aid agencies were operating in Nias Islands
started scaling down or ended their physical and
non-physical projects there.
As response to a need for the completion
of the rehabilitation and reconstruction,
including the absence of Disaster Risk Reduction
mainstreaming in the redevelopment of Nias
and Reconstruction Completion of Nias Islands
(BKRN), with a secretariat office in BAPPEDA
Office of North Sumatera in Medan.
The earthquake and tsunami disasters in Nias
Islands were also used by local governments
in Nias Islands as momentum to propose a
separated province from North Sumatra, started
with the proliferation of Nias Islands from 2
districts into 5 new rural districts/municipalities
in 2008. The proliferation also created needs
for the new local governments to agree on new
administrative boundaries.
The presence of Law Number 45, 46 and
47 in 2008 have split Nias District into Nias,
North Nias, and West Nias Districts and also
Gunungsitoli Municipality.
1 Law 24/2007 on Disaster Management.
Islands previously, the Government of Indonesia
(GoI) established a Board for Rehabilitation
42
POLITICAL DYNAMIC AND EXTERNAL FACTORS IN A POST DISASTER REHABILITATION & RECONSTRUCTION;
CASE STUDY OF NIAS ISLANDS POST THE 2004 AND 2005 EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMI
The proliferation process has also generated
uncertainty on new administrative boundaries.
For example, Nias District is the only district in
Sumatera that have 2 separated administrative
areas on the same terrestrial region.
National regulations made to implement the
NIMS are also related to national policies on
who has authority to do what and where, who
has authority to manage the aid and how, and
how beneficiary of the aid/grant is defined.
Nias Islands was also an underdeveloped
and a very marginalized islands, indicated by
highest poverty rate in the province, very limited
basic infrastructure (road, bridges, health
and education facilities) to support social,
economic and government administration
activities compare to other districts in North
Sumatra province. The situation became one
of reasons for the district governments in Nias
Islands proposing the separation from the North
Sumatra province.
The NIMS application, the proliferation
process, and absence of Disaster Risk Reduction
guided regulations are external factors for the
implementation of Nias Islands Rehabilitation
and Reconstruction. This paper is aimed at
assessing on how local governments and civil
society organizations’ participation for DRR and
disaster resilience building, affected by those
The
continuation
of
Nias
Islands
reconstruction post the BRR was also impacted
by the signature of Jakarta Commitment on
January 12th, 2009 between the GoI with its
development partners, aimed at improving
the effectiveness of development aids . Based
on the agreement, all parties committed to
implement a National Implementation Modality
System (NIMS) for development aid delivery.
The NIMS, consequently, replace the existing
Direct Implementation Modality System (DIMS)
for development aids delivery.
Conceptually, by using NIMS as fund
channeling mechanism, all grants/development
funds will be registered and synchronized with
the national development priorities, to allow the
GoI to have a better sense of ownership to the
aid delivered by the donor partners. Practically,
the aid will be registered as part of national
annual development budget managed by a
relevant ministry institution and delivered from
the ministry’s bank account, to avoid overlapping
of budget and development activities facilitated
by the GoI and the development partners’
assistance.
The development partners are ADB, Government
of Australia, Government of Japan, the Netherland
Government, Government of Republic of Poland,
World Bank, Austrian Embassy, Agence FranCaise de
Development, Canadian International Development
Agency, Department for International Development
of the United Kingdom, Delegation of European
Commission, Embassy of Finland, French Embassy,
Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany,
Embassy of Italy, Japan International Cooperation
Agency, Korea International Cooperation Agency,
Royal Norwegian Embassy, New Zealand Agency
for International Development, Embassy of
Sweden, United States Agency for International
Development and United Nation System in Indonesia.
The Jakarta Commitment is aimed at:
(1) strengthening country ownership over
development through (a) strengthening
capacities and using stronger government
system; and (b) improving the international
governance of aid and strengthening southsouth cooperation; (2) building more effective
and inclusive partnership for development
through (a) development of a new partnership
paradigm; (b) strengthening existing aid
instruments and shaping new ones; and
expanding dialogue to include new actors;
(3) delivering and accounting development
results through: (a) strengthening a focus on,
and capacity to manage by, development results;
and (b) working together to review progress across
development partnerships. external factors.
43
This discussion is also trying to start a very
preliminary mapping on how economic, social,
infrastructure, and institutional resilience under
such a rehabilitation and reconstruction climate?
2. METHODOLOGY
This paper focus on impact of three
external factors toward the rehabilitation and
reconstruction of Nias Islands, referring to
literature study and relevant national policies.
These three factors, which were not exclusive
to political dynamic are: (1) the delay in the
response of the government of Indonesia in
enacting laws and regulations on Disaster Risk
Reduction concerns; (2) the political separation
process of Nias to North Sumatra started with
the proliferation of Nias Islands from 2 districts
in 2005 to 5 districts/municipality; and (3) the
resulting lack of access to aid for development
by civil society organization, due to presence of
the National Implementation Modality System
(NIMS) policy implementation to control the
flow of donor aid and activities for post disaster
recovery.
Literatures and relevant policies analysis
is made to get a better understanding on how
institutional resilience development in Nias
Islands have happened and have included civil
society organizations participation. This paper
also discuss whether some or all of three
external factors should or should not be allowed
to affect the on-going process rehabilitation and
reconstruction post a national scale disaster.
This paper is also trying to raise an issue on
how the existing national policies on DRR have
anticipated the need for a more comprehensive
community resilience building to disaster
impacts.
This study also sees an opportunity to
reclassify the resilience categories and indicators
suggested by Cutter (2010) into vulnerability
and capacity components used by the National
Disaster Management Board Decree 2/2012.
National Disaster Management Board Decree
2/2012 was enacted started from 2012, when
most of the rehabilitation and reconstruction
projects funded by donor communities started
to end. The guideline defines that vulnerability
is a function of losses and exposure. While
capacity is a function of policy, early warning,
capacity building, mitigation and preparedness.
The development of this paper also involved
interview and discussions with relevant
stakeholders, especially the Head of Regional
Disaster Management Boards in Nias Islands
and the Head of DRR Forum within the period of
May and June 2012.
This study refers to resilience definitions,
category, and indicators discussed by Cutter
et.al (2010), which have classified resilience
into 5 categories: social, economic, institutional,
infrastructure, and community capital. The
categories and indicators will be compared with
vulnerability and capacity categories suggested
by National Disaster Management Board Decree
4/2008 on Disaster Management, National
Disaster Management Board Decree 2/2012
on Guideline for Disaster Risks Assessment and
No. 3/2012 on Guideline for Regional Capacity
Evaluation in Disaster Management.
44
3. STUDY AREA
BPS (2010) indicates that Nias Islands is
a 5320,6 kilometers square territory with
population not less than 154.194 households
(Table 1). The population is distributed on 799
villages in five districts / municipality. However,
among the 799 village in the islands, only 6 of
them classified as urban villages (Podes 2010).
Gunungsitoli is the least wide region with the
highest population density in Nias Islands (Table
2). Gunungsitoli also has the highest percentage
of poor population (33,87%) compared to its
neighboring districts. While the average poverty
rate in Nias Islands is 28,02%.
District/
Municipality
Total
Population
Width
(km2)
Gunung sitoli
126.202
469,36
264
Nias
131.377
980,32
134
Nias Selatan
289.708
1.825,20
178
Nias Barat
81.907
544,09
150
Nias Utara
127.444
1.501,63
85
Density
(individual/ sq.
kilometer)
Excluding the municipality of Gunungsitoli,
Growth Domestic Product (GDP) of all districts
in Nias Islands shows high dependency of local
economy to single sector contribution, which
is the agriculture sector. Average proportion
of agriculture sector contribution to the GDP
of West Nias, North Nias and South Nias from
2008 to 2010 is 73%, 69%, 56% and 40%. The
contribution comes from plantation activities,
especially rubber, cacao and coconut. The
commodities are still being produced traditionally
and sent to manufacturing industries outside of
Nias Island through Gunungsitoli sea port. At the
same time, other sector average contributions
to the GDP of West Nias, Nias and South Nias
are less than 7%, 8% dan 18,5%.
Post the BRR, the BKRN coordinated the
redevelopment of Nias Island. One of guidelines
used by the BKRN was the Action Plan for
Nias Islands Rehabilitation & Reconstruction
Completion (RENAKSI). The RENAKSI acted as
an important reference for any aid projects
operating in Nias Islands, including aid project
supported by the United Nations organizations
or other national and international aid projects.
Aid project covering DRR in Nias Islands post
the BRR was very limited. UNDP Indonesia,
through Nias Islands Transition Project (NITO)
was the one and only project facilitated by
UN organization that gave attention to this
theme, which special focus on capacity building
in disaster mitigation and preparedness.
Previously, there were also DRR support
delivered by both international and national
NGOS focusing on certain villages or subdistricts
in disaster preparedness. Surfaid International
is also the only NGO providing support in both
preparedness and mitigation, but only limited in
certain, especially South Nias. However, none
of that aid assistance has adequately covered
an islands wide economic and infrastructure
vulnerability reduction effort till now.
Except West Nias, all districts/municipality in
Nias Islands have already established Regional
Disaster Management Board (BPBD). The BPBD
of Gunungsitoli was established in 2009 based
on the Decree of Gunungsitoli Mayor 8/2009.
Both BPBD Nias and South Nias Selatan were
established in April 2011 with support from the
NITP, followed by the establishment of BPBD
North Nias through a head of regency Decree
15/2011. Fortunately, those institutions are not
seriously being challenged by tasks on how to
improve the community awareness on how to
adapt with disaster risks, or how to train their
personnel to implement emergency response
tasks. A relatively high frequency of natural
events have made those institutions started
gaining experience from emergency response
task just after the institutions established.
People in Nias Islands have already used to
live with natural events for centuries. People
living in Gido and Idanogawo sub-districts of
Nias, Susua sub-district of South Nias, Afulu
sub-district of North Nias, and Sirombu subdistrict of West Nias have understood that flood
will happen 2 to 3 times a year during rainy
seasons, especially after a 2 days continuous
rainfall. Earthquake with magnitude above
5 Richter scale occurred at least once a year
within the last 7 years, making the natural event
as one of important considerations for housing
construction there. As response to the tsunami
and flood, more houses and public facilities in
Nias Islands have already been constructed on
higher grounds or upland area or close to higher
grounds even before the BPBD established, to
anticipate evacuation need if tsunami happen.
45
4. RESULTS
4.1 External Factors and Community
Participation
The absence of national laws, regulations and
guidelines on DRR, including inadequacy of the
disaster management policies dissemination
in 2005 till 2009, have made the rehabilitation
and reconstruction activities in Nias Islands
were not aimed at reducing economic, social,
infrastructure and environmental vulnerabilities
yet, and improving both local communities
and governments’ institutional resilience,
systematically. The absence of the regulations
have also avoided the redevelopment activities
to optimally make the population living on the
islands more resilience from disaster impacts.
The absence of linkages between the 2005
– 2009 physical reconstruction activities and
needs to reduce infrastructure vulnerabilities
in Nias Islands, have also contributed to todays’
uncertainty on availability and distribution of
the ex-rehabilitation and reconstruction assets
which were delivered to Nias Islands to improve
local community preparedness and mitigation
from disasters risk.
There are at least 2 gaps appeared post the
BRR role in Nias Islands: (1) lack of managerial
capacity of the new established district/
municipality governments to accept and manage
the ex-rehabilitation and reconstruction assets;
and (2) absence of DRR mainstreaming into local
development planning and implementation.
GoI, through the National Development
Planning Board (BAPPENAS) responded the gaps
by facilitating the development of an Action Plan
for Nias Islands Rehabilitation & Reconstruction
Completion (RENAKSI). The RENAKSI was finalized
in 2010 and enacted under a Decree of North
Sumatra Governor 43/2010. The document also
provided information on actors from national,
provincial and district/municipality levels incharged for the rehabilitation and reconstruction
completion. of the supports were aimed at allowing the
organizations to monitor the implementation of
the RENAKSI and develop effective partnerships
with local governments to ensure the RENAKSI
implemented accordingly.
Using DIMS, CSO’s in Nias Islands could
access and manage aid from aid agencies based
on agreement made between both parties.
However, when NIMS took place started from
2011, implementations of the DIMS were not
recommended anymore. For example, Nias
Islands Transition Project (NITP) supported
by UNDP Indonesia and Local Economic
Development Project (LEDP) funded by the
Asian Development Bank started implementing
NIMS called Daftar Isian Program dan Anggaran
or DIPA (Budget Program Implementation Form)
in 2011.
Under the DIPA mechanism, ownership and
responsibility to disburse and supervise the aid/
grant delivery lied at selected national ministry.
Legally, the delivery of the aid/grant must follow
all relevant government policies. Factually, the
DIPA have indirectly limited access for CSO’s to
the aid/grant to be able to perform their role as
pressure groups. However, the DIPA modality
was still allowing the CSO’s to access the aid/
grant to implement advocacy activities where
the activities endorsed by local governments.
Although, bargaining position owned by CSO’s
in Nias Islands to involve in capacity building
activities under DIPA was relatively weak as
their role can easily be substituted by local
governments’ technical agencies (dinas/badan),
private companies, or individual consultants
from universities.
The absence of national guideline for
community capital resilience strengthening till
now, have also made the implementation of
NIMS could only provide a limited access for
civil society, religious institutions and advocacy
organizations in Nias Islands to access the donor
aids and perform as equal partners for local
governments’ institutions/agencies.
Before NIMS guided Nias Islands
rehabilitation and reconstruction, foreign aid
organizations strengthened local civil society
organizations through capacity building
assistance using DIMS mechanism. Some
46
Specifically for disaster management
designated agencies, political dynamic due to
the islands proliferation process, have impacted
to a relatively high turnover or rotation of
personnel at managerial position. For example,
the BPBD of Nias and South Nias had already
experience change of managerial positions for
at least 3 times since the institutions established
in 2011. One of the reasons for the turn-over
or rotation was to reward certain personnel
with opportunity to lead more than 2 different
agencies, so they could be promoted to fill a
higher position and be promoted to get a higher
echelon positions in future.
Such a political dynamic reduced the
effectiveness of managerial capacity building
supports for local governments which were
funded by aid agencies. For the local CSO’s,
this situation pushed them to allocate more
resources and energy to maintain effective
partnership with local government institutions.
For example, a local CSO’s alliance forum called
FORNIHA (Nias Islands Forum), which had
already developed a strong partnership with
the Social Agency of Nias District for the drafting
of a local regulation (PERDA) on a DRR guided
gender mainstreaming since 2010, was unable
to advocate and complete the draft due to key
personnel rotation in the agency in 2011.
Within the period of 2006 to 2009, the
following situations were happened in
Nias Islands: (a) new districts/municipality
governments institutions established; (b)
districts/municipal government’s consolidation
to recruit their executive and legislative bodies;
(c) local election; and (d) turn-over or rotation
of managerial positions at local governments
bodies/agencies. As a result, the dynamic have
reduced the focus of local government bodies/
agencies to monitor and evaluate the on-going
aid projects for Nias Islands rehabilitation and
reconstruction. One of the impacts is all of
the rehabilitation and reconstruction assets
listed from the BRR phase, must be identified
and verified again. The ex-rehabilitation and
reconstruction assets delivered under the BRR
coordination were still being listed under Nias and
South Nias districts only, due to unavailability of
appointed personnel from the new established
districts in 2009 to handle the work before the
BRR close their operation. As a result, validity
and completion of the assets data became a
subject of today’s’ argumentation in Nias Islands.
Using the classification of 1 for a situation
where 0%-20% of the ex-rehabilitation and
reconstruction assets based on a Decree from
the Ministry of Finance Decree 275/MK.6/
WKN.01/2010 can be located and verified by
districts governments, and 5 for 80% - 100%
of the assets can be located and verified, the
study found that the validity of the assets list
falls under 1 classification. Therefore, the data
is irrelevant to be used for physical vulnerability
and infrastructure resilience change mapping.
Overall, the political dynamic affecting Nias
Islands, which was associated the proliferation
process of Nias Islands from 2 districts into 5
districts/municipality, the establishment of
executive and legislative boards/agencies, and
the on-going process of Nias Islands separation
process from North Sumatra province, had
already disturbed local decision makers attention
to ensure the implementation of the RENAKSI.
In fact, some of the financial commitments for
project activities listed in the RENAKSI which
requires funding support from the province’s
development budget are not executed, yet till
now. On the other part, the role of local CSO’s
in Nias Islands to guard and participate in the
implementation of the RENAKSI under NIMS
was also limited by lack of adequate technical
guidelines from national level.
4.2 External Factors and Disaster
Resilience
Recently, national guidelines for institutional
resilience development for DRR do not
specifically provide directions for community
capital resilience building. Parameters such
as civil society, religious organization and
advocacy institutions involvement, place of
attachment, and social cohesion changes
due to political dynamic in particular regions,
are not accommodated yet in capacity
development and vulnerability reduction for
DRR. At the level of DRR implementation, the
absence of the abovementioned parameters
at policy level have created lack of confidence
among BPBD managers to allow CSO’s
managing APBD fund for DRR activities.
47
The absence of community capital parameters
have made the rehabilitation and reconstruction
assistance in Nias Islands were challenged by
questions like: How to put local communities as
first priority and main beneficiary of the recovery
assistance?; Should the proliferation happened
in a region where the local communities had
just been impacted by a national scale disaster?;
Does not the proliferation process contribute to
lack of local government ability to better focus
and define priorities and directions of their
territories rehabilitation and reconstruction?; Is
there any guarantee that unequal distribution
of aid delivery between the existing and new
established districts due to the proliferation
will not reduce trust from the local government
to the new established but unprepared local
governments due to their inability to match
with the existing districts in getting additional
development assistance?; and how to justify
that the districts, sub districts and village
proliferation will not reduce social cohesion and
weaken community capital resilience as those
process were automatically followed by efforts
made by local legislative and local leaders
candidate to classify their constituents based on
their political interest?
Evidence showed that results of the
proliferation process could not be automatically
responded by aid agencies or donor
organizations operating in Nias Islands to ensure
that equal distribution of the rehabilitation
and reconstruction assistance across the
districts/municipal could happen. In fact, the
proliferation process was also not a reason for
many aid agencies operating in Nias Islands
to slow down their activities to allow the new
established districts finalize the establishment
process of their executive bodies/agencies. For
example, BPBD South Nias and Nias received
more technical assistance from aid agencies as
the institution had already been equipped with
personnel and logistic started from 2010. While
BPBD North Nias only has 2 definitive personnel
in February 2012, or 4 months before the closure
of all Multi Donor Funded (MDF) non-physical
projects on the islands.
reclassification of vulnerability maps into
economic, social, and infrastructure/physical
resilience maps. Therefore, vulnerability maps
produced by Nias Islands Transition Project can
be adopted for a preliminary social, economic,
and physical resilience mapping. Certainly, some
of the parameters used by the National Disaster
Management Board Decree 2/2012 for capacity
and vulnerability measurements still require
improvement.
The
reclassification
of
vulnerability
categories recommended by National Disaster
Management Board Decree 2/2012 into Cutter’s
resilience classification made resilience maps
for Nias islands can be associated to particular
hazards. Using the methods, the output of
disaster risks mapping in Nias Islands, could
still be considered as relevant reference for the
development of resilience maps. For example,
vulnerability maps from Nias Islands Disaster
Risk Mapping could be utilized to develop an
aggregate resilience map, excluding institutional
resilience.
The map marked the highest vulnerability
zones with red color which also can be associated
with low resilience, and lowest vulnerability
is marked with green, which also could be
interpreted as the highest resilience zones.
Till the end of 2011, Indonesia did not have a
national guideline for disaster risks assessment
and mapping, including for vulnerability
and capacity assessment and mapping. The
guideline for BNPB for disaster risk assessment
and mapping released in 2012 also does not
By combining resilience classification
suggested by Cutter et.al (2010) for resilience
mapping with vulnerability mapping methods
used in the National Disaster Management
Board Decree 2/2012, this study suggest the
48
incorporate more specific parameters for
social and infrastructure/physical vulnerability
mapping, such as vehicle ownership for
evacuation need, telephone/mobile phone
ownership to send or receive information on
crisis situation, and health insurance ownership.
2/2012 suggests the use of population density,
poverty rate, vulnerability groups and proportion
of male and female, for social vulnerability
measurement.
Evidences gathered from Nias Islands
earthquake 2005 and 2012 indicated that local
communities preferred to evacuate their family
members, including the vulnerable groups in
their families (pregnant women, children < 5
years, the elderly and family members with
health problems) using their 2-wheel or 4-wheel
vehicles.
Another evidence found in Nias Islands
from the 8,8 magnitude earthquake response
in April 2012 and January 2012 landslide
emergency response in South Nias was that
local communities preferred to exchange any
information using cellular phone for logistic
collection, searching proper shelter locations,
moving to the same evacuation location and
gathered with family members and relatives.
2/2012 also recommends physical vulnerability
mapping based on 3 indicators: house density,
public facilities and critical facilities availability.
However, there is no detail information on the
facilities and measurement unit to classify the
facilities for physical vulnerability mapping. For
example, there are no directions on minimum size
and line for primary arterial roads and bridges on
a particular coastal region to anticipate vehicles
movement during a tsunami evacuation. Taking
Nias Islands for example, primary arterial roads
are located on the coastal regions, and are used
as main facilities for people and commodity
movement. However, the longest the distance of
the road segments from the districts/municipal
capital, the narrower the road width (2 meters/
lane, and no lane separation bar/block).
Using National Disaster Management Board
Decree, result of the social, economic, and
physical vulnerability of West Nias to landslide
is also indicating that social, economic, and
resilience status of West Nias. from landslide
is relatively strong to moderate, except on
the highland area of Tumori and Gunungbaru
villages (see map 3). Main reason for this is
limited number of population living on mapped
location
Map 3. Social, Economic, Physical Resilience
of West Nias to Landslide
Source: Nias Islands Disaster Risks Map (NITP,
2012)
Using the result of hazard mapping facilitated
by NITP (2012) for the same location, all highland
regions of Mandrehe, North Mandrehe, Lolofitu
Moi, and Ulu Moro’o are classified as landslide
hazard zones. (See Map 4).
Map 4. Landslide Hazard Map of West Nias
Source : Nias Islands Disaster Risks Map (NITP, 2012)
In South Nias, landslide hazard mapping
facilitated by NITP (2012) also able to locate all
upland regions affected by landslide disaster
within the last 10 years. Landslide hazard
are found on the upstream region of Susua
Watershed, which are intersected with Susua,
Mazo, Gomo and Lolomatua sub-districts.
49
Excluding institutional resilience, the social,
economic, and infrastructure resilience of the
same upland region of South Nias to landslide
hazards are not at the lowest level. Even before
red zones for landslide mapped, local community
living in Susua watershed aware that those
area are safer for agroforestry activities than
for settlements (See Map 6). The red zone are
being utilized by local communities for rubber
plantation.
A disaster risk mapping facilitated by UNDP
Indonesia through NITP project in 2012 have
also able to locate tsunami hazard zones in Nias
Islands. Taking North Nias as example, hazard
zones for tsunami are also found at the northern
and western most of North Nias coastal area,
especially at Afulu sub districts .
High poverty rate, more than 2000 population
exposed to the tsunami risk, high loss potential,
and population density above 90 individuals/
hectares, including poor infrastructure for
tsunami evacuation, made this sub-district
could be classified as less resilience to tsunami
(See Map 8).
A unique situation found after the 2004
tsunami and 2005 earthquake in Nias Islands
was that the disaster had raised a more than 2
hectares coral reefs in Lotu village of North Nias
district. On the contrary, about the same size
of Bozihona village on the eastern side of Nias
District is now under the ocean, and makes the
distance of the remaining area of the village is
closer to the ocean and impacted by a higher
frequency of tide floods (See Map 2).
Nias Islands Risk Mapping provided a same
level of governments’ institution capacity across
Nias Islands, which is relatively moderate.
However, institutional capacity is not merely
about governments’ institutions capacity to
reduce disaster risks.
Indeed, institutional and community
resilience mapping used by Cutter et al (2010),
cannot be directly replicated or modified to
change the capacity and vulnerability mapping
methods recommended by National Disaster
Management Board Decree No.2/2012.
However, incorporating the parameters for
institutional capacity development, could avoid
an interpretation that subject for any capacity
development supports for DRR and disaster
resilience development is only governments’
ministries/bodies/agencies.
4.3 Conclusion and Recommendation
1. The rehabilitation and reconstruction
activities post the 2004 tsunami and
2005 earthquake in Nias Islands did
not specifically directed yet for social
and community capital resilience
development.
2. The activities happened in parallel with
the regional proliferation process. The
process has reduced local decision
makers’ focus to guard the process and
continue the progress of the rehabilitation
and reconstruction there. Therefore,
learning for Nias Islands experience,
it is necessary to reconsider whether
regional proliferation may take place
or be endorsed when local leadership
must focus on helping their community
through the recovery, rehabilitation and
reconstruction activities post a national
scale disaster.
3. At one side, the implementation of NIMS
has increased sense of ownership from
government institutions to manage,
integrate and synchronize the use of
development aids with governments’
resources. However, NIMS is obviously
still need improvement to provide
more opportunities for civil society
organizations to participate in the
shaping process of the aid management.
50
4. In the context of disaster resilience
development, GoI, especiallly the
National Disaster Management Board
need to prepare more specific indicators
for infrastructure, social and economic
vulnerability and resilience evaluation
and mapping, including community
capital resilience evaluation and
mapping. Parameters used for capacity
evaluation and mapping should also
need to include civil society, religious and
advocacy institutions roles for DRR and
resilience development.
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52
COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN POST-TSUNAMI
REDEVELOPMENT: THE CASE STUDIES OF FOUR
VILLAGES IN ACEH
Ichsan
Malikussaleh University, Kampus Bukit Indah, Jln. Sumatera No 1-2,
Lhokseumawe, Indonesia
Community Participation in Post-Tsunami Redevelopment: The Case Studies
of Four Villages in Aceh
Ichsan
Malikussaleh University, Kampus Bukit Indah, Jln. Sumatera No 1-2, Lhokseumawe, Indonesia
E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The research aims were to examine the implementation of community participation in posttsunami redevelopment in Aceh. The methodological approach used in this study was case studies
of Acehnese communities in the tsunami-affected areas consisting of the following villages: Lam
Teungoh, Lam Hasan, Lambung, and Merduati. In this study, I employed qualitative methods
consisting of document analysis and in-depth interviews.
The sources of data were documents pertinent to the profiles of case study villages as well as
the nature of community participation at the case study villages adopted prior to and following
the tsunami. Interviews were conducted with three groups: government officials, NGO and
International Agency workers, and community leaders (heads of villages and informal leaders).The
four case study villages were selected based on the level of development and tsunami-affected. Key
aid organizations and agencies involved in post-tsunami redevelopment were chosen in the four
case study villages. Each village was represented by two aid organizations or agencies.
This research finds that the occurrence of “ad hoc” participation (participatory activities mainly
mobilized by community members) was related to community members’ urgent needs right
after the tsunami as well as their creativity and networking. With regard to aid organization/
agency-promoted participation (participation mobilized by NGOs, international agencies, and the
Indonesian Government), the findings indicates this kind of participation was associated with the
willingness and capacity of aid organizations/agencies, nature of recovery projects, readiness of
residents to participate, adequate time in exercising participation, and community facilitators’
approaches.
Keywords: community participation, post-tsunami, redevelopment efforts.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
On December 26, 2004, an extremely
strong earthquake with a magnitude of 9.1 on
the Richter scale and the resulting tsunamis
devastated the South Asia region. Of 12 nations
hit by the tsunami, Indonesia suffered the
greatest. The overall fatalities were estimated
at 127,000 people, 93,285 people missing, and
about 500,000 people displaced (BRR, 2009a).
In Indonesia, the Province of Nanggroe Aceh
Darussalam was affected the worst, while Nias
Island in the Province of North Sumatra was
affected to a much lesser extent.
The earthquake and tsunami wave damaged
most of Aceh's coastal areas, infrastructure,
settlements, and public facilities such as schools,
health centers, market places, and government
buildings. This disaster also affected the social
and economic life of the people as well as their
psychological condition (Republic of Indonesia,
54
2005). It was estimated that to rebuild the areas
affected by the disaster in Aceh and Nias, the
government of Indonesia needed approximately
USD 4.9 billion. Pledges made by aid agencies
surpassed the minimum required to rebuild to
pre-tsunami level by 2.3 billion. Eventually 93%
of the pledges were converted in.to real funding.
Funds (in total USD 6.7 billion) came from three
main sources: NGOs (USD 2.4 billion), donor
agencies (USD 2.2 billion), and the Government
of Indonesia (USD 2.1 billion) (BRR, 2009c).
The government of Indonesia anticipated
the reconstruction and rehabilitation phase
after the disaster by initiating a master plan and
establishing a special agency to coordinate the
mitigation of the disaster, i.e. the Reconstruction
and Rehabilitation Agency of Aceh and Nias (in
Indonesian is known as Badan Rehabilitasi dan
Rekonstruksi Aceh dan Nias or called BRR for
short).
The government of Indonesia views
community participation after the tsunami
as an important component in the decision
making process starting from the planning
and implementation phases through to the
monitoring and evaluation phases (The Republic
of Indonesia, 2005; BRR, 2006). The government
wants the survivors of the disaster to play an
important role in the post-tsunami development
activities along with the governments (central,
regional, and local), the private sector,
universities, professional associations, the mass
media, and the community at large. In this regard,
BRR is expected to lead the Aceh rehabilitation
and reconstruction process. The process will
be based on a participatory approach as the
manifestation of good governance principles.
The
implementation
of
community
participation after the tsunami in Aceh Province
is important to analyze due to the scale of
the disaster. The Aceh tsunami disaster is
considered one of the worst natural disasters in
modern times. Questions arising here are what
roles did Acehnese community members play in
redevelopment efforts, and what was the extent
of and how effective was their involvement?
Community participation refers to a situation
in which community members take part in
decision making, planning, implementation,
and evaluation processes in the affairs they are
interested in (Voth and Bonner, 1978; Whyte,
1986).
According to Arstein (1969), the levels of
participation vary from the “no power” (non
participation) to “superficial power” (tokenism)
and “real power” levels. In the non participation
level, citizens have no chance to get involved
in planning or conducting programs. This
level has two rungs, i.e. manipulation (the
officials persuade and advise the citizens) and
therapy (the authorities “cure” the “diseases”
suffered by the citizens, but not solve their
real problems). Tokenism, which is the middle
level of participation, can take the rungs of
consultation and placation. In the consultation
rung, communities are invited to contribute
ideas or considerations; however, there is no
guarantee that their input will be considered
by the government officials or others in charge.
The placation rung enables the involvement
of communities in development through the
inclusion of their representatives in planning
boards, but it depends on those in charge to
accommodate the representatives’ advice.
Citizen power, which is the highest level
of participation, has the following rungs:
partnership, delegated power and ciitizen
control. Partnership refers to a situation in
which government officials or others in charge
collaborate with citizens in planning and
implementing redevelopment programs, while
the final decision is made based on both parties’
agreement. Delegated power is associated with
empowering citizens by fully placing
Final decision-making is in the hands of
citizens. Citizens control allow citizens to govern
a program, to handle managerial aspects, and to
negotiate to change the conditions
In democratic systems, it is widely accepted
that citizens have determinant power in dealing
with many aspects of their lives. Democracy, in
general, requires that the government be in some
way selected by, guided by, and accountable
to the public. Some democratic theorists
view the democratic system as a mechanism
for representing citizen interests as well as
developing an informed citizenry consistent with
the educative functions of democracy (Pateman,
1970). This so-called “participatory democracy”
is considered pivotal to development of citizens.
Added to the complications of representation
and multiple levels and forms of government is
the fact that, even in representative systems, the
control individual citizens can, or should, have
over government is limited by factors of numbers
and widely varying levels of attentiveness and
even knowledge (Dahl, 1990). Hence, typically
pluralism exists (Dahl, 1961; Truman, 1951).
Pluralism is a system in which there is a
whole plethora of groups and organizations
–now often referred to as “interest groups”—
intervening between the grassroots of individual
citizens and their various governments (Dahl,
1961; Truman, 1951).
55
Community Participation in Post-Tsunami Redevelopment: The Case Studies of Four Villages in Aceh
This plethora of intervening groups and
organizations is a large portion of what is now
commonly referred to as civil society, something
that is being promoted aggressively by U.S,
European, United Nations, etc. organizations
in their approach to the currently emerging
nations in their efforts to promote their vision
of democracy.
In fact, the right to participate in government
by voting also varies and has changed over
time. Mostly, various mechanisms have
emerged to extend the franchise to a broader
range of citizens. One very significant, and
somewhat unique, mechanism for expanding
the franchise is “administrative participation.”
This is the engagement of the public via “public
involvement” by administrative agencies,
often on a program-by-program basis, and
very frequently directly engaging grassroots
citizens. This is done in the form of such things
as hearings, public meetings, organization
of advisory committees, each focusing upon
specific public agencies and/or programs (May,
1971; Voth & Bonner, 1978).
There is a wide range of flexibility in the
manner where citizens may participate, which
allows for a considerable amount of what can
best be called “ad hoc” participation (Dodge,
1974). Ad hoc participation may take a number
of forms: committees, ombudsmen, citizen
research and information offices, volunteer
programs, and fund-raising efforts.
Community participation in development
benefits both communities and the government
(Rukmana et. al, 1993; Voth & Bonner, 1978).
First, community participation mobilizes
the resources of citizenry (money, material,
knowledge, skills, and leadership) which
contributes to complementing the lack of
government resources. Second, community
participation creates a possibility for decisions
to be based on the community’s needs and
priorities. Third, community participation
ensures community’s knowledge, creativity, and
skills are recognized and used that in turn results
in the enhancement of community’s capacity
building. Fourth, community participation builds
up the self enabling and cooperative spirit of
the community. Fifth, community participation
ensures a greater acceptance and appreciation
of development programs. This may result in
better care and maintenance. Sixth, community
participation can function to reduce conflict by
airing conflictual issues openly and attempting
to resolve them.
Constraints on community participation in
policymaking can come from the government or
the community. The willingness and readiness
of both parties affect community participation
in policymaking process (Cogan et al., 1986;
Hoff & Steinberg, 1992; Snel, 1999). The roles of
these groups and their cooperation determine
the success of community participation
in policymaking process. More successful
community participation requires the political
will and the skills of government bureaucrats
and government agencies to stimulate the
participatory process, as well as the awareness
and abilities of community members to
participate in the process (Hoff & Steinberg,
1992).
Community participation has been widely
accepted as a tool for analyzing and addressing
social problems in a sustainable way (Osti,
2004). However, the exercise of community
participation is surely contingent upon the
settings in which it is implemented. Community
participation in an emergency situation poses
different challenges and constraints from
those in a normal situation. The demand for
quick decisions and actions in a context of
complicated issues presents impediments for
the implementation of community participation
in post-disaster reconstruction (Moe &
Pathranarakul, 2006; Waugh & Streib, 2006).
Research shows that community participation
plays an important role in the recovery process
after disasters. In post-disaster reconstruction
taking place in Maldives, India, and Nepal,
for instance, the involvement of the affected
communities is vital to meeting the need of
communities, improving capacity building of
communities and maintaining the continuum
of development. In terms of maintaining the
continuum of development, their involvement in
post-disaster reconstruction helps preserve the
continuity of development (Newport & Jawahar,
2003; Pardasani, 2006; Waugh & Streib, 2006).
56
Although there have been different opinions
on the degree of community involvement
needed in redevelopment efforts, research
shows that participation of affected individuals
and communities is a determining factor leading
to overall success (Buckle & Marsh, 2002;
Coghlan, 1998; McCamish, 1998; McDowell,
2002; Pardasani, 2006). Buckle and Marsh (2002)
argue that despite the significant role of experts
in assessment of planning and implementation
efforts, local knowledge, strengths, and priorities
affect the redevelopment success. According
to Buckle and Marsh (2002), the involvement
of communities in needs assessment may be
fraught with risk; however, this contributes to
reducing disaster vulnerability and increasing
resilience.
The involvement of communities in
redevelopment efforts can encompass the
stages of need assessment, design, and
implementation of the rebuilding efforts.
This involvement promotes the recognition,
acquisition, maturation and connection of
community assets and produces self-reliant,
self-sustaining and empowered communities
(Delgado, 2000; Homan, 2005, Kramer & Specht,
1983). To support participatory approaches,
education, training, and awareness building
within communities, related departments, and
other concerned parties are an inevitable need
(Newport & Jawahar, 2003).
Based on his research on community
participation in post-tsunami reconstruction and
redevelopment in the Maldives, Pardasani (2006)
proposes a participatory model to implement
a comprehensive disaster management and
rehabilitation program. This model suggests the
establishment of councils at two main levels:
a National Advisory Council and Community
Councils. The National Advisory Council functions
to coordinate all redevelopment efforts involving
all agencies, organizations, representatives from
international development programs, financial
experts, construction company executives,
reconstruction experts, and community
councils that are involved in the process of
redevelopment. It also assists in creating a blue
print for reconstruction and prepares reports
and briefings for the public. Community Councils
are based in villages and towns and consist of
representatives of the local community from
various backgrounds and professions, including
at-risk groups. These councils have the right to
review funding proposals and redevelopment
efforts and propose modifications. These
councils have representatives to the national
advisory council elected by each community
council (Pardasani, 2006).
Pardasani (2006) accentuates the important
role of NGOs in the model. According to him
NGOs should be advocates for the affected
communities and help empower communities
in terms of supporting their rights and needs,
educating and informing them, helping
community councils function, and guiding
them in complex negotiating processes with
bureaucracy and other institutions. Furthermore,
he recommends that the whole process of
reconstruction should be undertaken in an open,
accessible, accountable, and transparent manner
to build trust among all components involved.
Considering its general and applicable principles,
it seems that Pardasani’s participatory model for
post-disaster reconstruction can be adopted in
different settings with some modifications and
adjustments.Although community participation
in post-disaster reconstruction in other countries
has been intensively studied, there is only
limited research paying attention to such work
in Aceh’s reconstruction after the 2004 tsunami.
It is hope that by learning the implementation
of community participation in post-tsunami
redevelopment in Aceh, policy makers can set
a more comprehensive and proper strategy
for the participatory approach in post-disaster
redevelopment in Indonesia in the future.
1.2 The Aim and Significance of the
Research
The aim of the research is to examine the
implementation of community participation
in post-tsunami redevelopment in Aceh. The
examining of community participation after the
Aceh tsunami is important for both Aceh Province
and any other regions across the country as one
of valuable bases for the preparation of more
effective post-disaster participatory policies
in the future. In post-disaster reconstruction,
the involvement of the affected people and
communities at large is instrumental to any
long-term plans for sustainable recovery.
57
2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The affected people and communities at
large’s involvement in reconstruction efforts is
a crucial component in terms of building the
capacity of communities, meeting the needs of
the community, and maintaining the continuum
of development. In terms of maintaining the
continuum of development, their involvement in
post-disaster reconstruction helps preserve the
continuity of development (Newport & Jawahar,
2003; Pardasani, 2006; Waugh & Streib, 2006).
This research will also add to the growing
body of community participation literature
on disaster mitigation efforts. It will provide
alternative strategies and conceptual models
for community participation after the disaster
as well as enhance the basis for further study
in community participation as part of disaster
relief in global communities.
This research can benefit a number of parties.
It will provide agencies and institutions at the
local, national, and international levels with
strategies and methodologies for developing
community participation in the post-disaster
period. This research will also help researchers
in understanding community participation in
the post-disaster term in developing countries,
with a specific reference to Indonesia. The
methodological approach used in this study was
case studies of Acehnese communities in the
tsunami-affected areas. This study employed
qualitative methods consisting of document
analysis and in-depth interviews. Documents analyzed came from various
sources pertinent to community participation
in rehabilitation and reconstruction of Aceh
Province after the tsunami, particaularly at
the four case study villages. The documents
included reports from the government, village
administrations, BRR, NGOs, international
agencies, BPS - Statistics (provincial and district
levels) on post-tsunami redevelopment and
socio-economic profiles of the four case study
villages prior to and following the tsunami.
Interviews were conducted with three
groups: government officials (BRR) and Ministry
of Public Works officials), NGO and International
Agency workers, and community leaders (heads
of villages and informal leaders). Selection
of participants for the interviews was based
on the relevance of their contribution to the
understanding of the research problem. The
interviews were mainly intended to gather
information about the community participation
process and benefits, supporting factors and
constraints of partcipation.
2.1 Place and Time of the Research
The case study areas chosen in this study
included the following Acehnese villages: Lam
Teungoh, Lam Hasan, Lambung, and Merduati.
Data were collected from September 2009
through September 2010. The primary sources
of data concerning the profiles of Aceh Province
and case study villages prior to and following
the tsunami and other relevant preliminary
data were collected from September 2009 until
January 2010. During this period, I also chose
four case study villages based on certain criteria
(presented in the sample selection
With regard to education, Lam Teungoh’s
condition is serious. Referring to Lam Teungoh
village data in 2008 (Gampong Lam Teungoh,
2008), quite a lot of villagers had no education
(39.88%). Only 22.09% had a senior high
school level of education and 1.23% had an
undergraduate education. The remaining
villagers were in the level of education of junior
high school (30.67%) and elementary school
(6.13%).
Table 1. Level of education of Lam Teungoh
residents in 2008
Education
No education
Elementary
Junior High
Senior High
University
(undergraduate)
Total
Number
65
10
50
36
2
Percentage
39.88
6.13
30.67
22.09
1.23
163
100.00
Sources: Processed based on data from:
The Five Year Development Plan (2008-2012) of
the Village of Lam Teungoh, and interview with
Husaini, community leader of the Village of Lam
Teungoh on March 8, 2010.
58
Economy
According to Husaini, community leader
of the Village of Lam Teungoh (personal
communication, March 8, 2010), the fishery
sector has been a source of income for many
villagers before and after the tsunami. This
sector suffered severe damage because of the
tsunami. Most of fisherman’s boats were carried
away by the waves. In the same vein, the fish and
shrimp ponds were all destroyed and covered
with sludge and sand carried by the tsunami
from the sea. Unfortunately, for many fishermen
in the village fishing was the only skill they had.
Serious damage was also experienced in the
agricultural sector. The damage to farmland
encompassing hectares of rice fields and
plantations. Rice fields could not be sowed
anymore since they contained too much mud
and sand. They were also filled with debris
from collapsed houses. Meanwhile, hundreds
of cows, water buffalos, sheep, goats, and fowl
were dead or missing.
Given the damage to village’s economy
above, in the months following the tsunami, as in
other tsunami-hit areas, villagers relied heavily
on handouts given by the government, NGOs
and other aid organizations. Later, when the
reconstruction process took place, villagers could
earn a living again by doing their previous jobs
(particularly for fishermen) and getting involved
in the reconstruction effort (e.g. cash-for-work
projects, building village’s infrastructure, etc).
Besides working in the fishery and agricultural
sectors, a number of Lam Teungoh residents
make a living as poultry and cattle breeders,
unorganized day laborers, construction
related professionals, merchants, drivers, and
government employees. Based on information
from Husaini, (personal communication, March
8, 2010), monthly income/capita in the village is
now about Rp 800,000 – 1 million. This income
places this village as a poor village in the province.
By 2009, the provincial minimum wage was Rp 1.2
million per month (Bank Indonesia & Bappeda
Aceh, 2010), while the provincial income/
capita calculated per month was Rp. 1.4 million.
Table 2. The livelihood of Lam Teungoh residents
in 2008
Occupation
Number
Percentage
Fisherman and fish
and shrimp pond
farmer
30
26.79
Farmer
25
22.32
Poultry and cattle
breeder
17
15.18
Unorganized day
laborer
10
8.93
Construction6
related professional
5.36
Merchant
3
2.68
Driver
2
1.79
Government
employee
1
0.89
Unemployed
18
16.07
Total
112
100.00
Sources: Processed based on data from:
The Five Year Development Plan (2008-2012)
of the Village of Lam Teungoh, and interview
with Husaini, community leader of the Village of
Lam Teungoh on March 8, 2010.
Infrastructure
All buildings and public facilities in Lam
Teungoh were destroyed by the tsunami. The
tsunami swept away houses, the village office,
the village clinic, the elementary school, the
prayer house, sport facilities and asphalt roads.
In line with the arrival of many parties from
within the country and all around the globe in
assisting the rescue and relief operations, Lam
Teungoh began to rebuild (Husaini, personal
communication, March 8, 2010).
UPLINK, a consortium of Indonesian and
international development groups, gave
materials for the 40 temporary homes. The
Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) provided a canoe
and material for a small, temporary mosque.
The US Agency for International Development
(USAID) paid villagers to clean their fields
through the cash-for-work project (later, this
project was also carried out by an Indonesian
relief group Pugar and a NGO Mercy Coprs).
59
USAID also built a community center,
volleyball court and garden. Pugar and Al Amin,
a Muslim aid group, provided fishing boats.
The French group Secours Populaire Francais
constructed an ice factory to keep the fish fresh
for market, while CARE supplied rice, toiletries,
cooking oil and other goods. Permanent homes
were built by a German organization, GTZ. Later,
the homes were also constructed by UPLINK and
BRR (Husaini, personal communcation, March,
8, 2010).
Presently, the condition of the village
infrastructure is back to normal. In a way, the
quality of many community houses, roads,
and other public facilities is better than that of
previous facilities.
Lam Hasan
Geography
The Village of Lam Hasan, 5 kms from Banda
Aceh, is bordered on the north by the Vilage of
Payatieng, on the south by the Village of Rima
Keuneruem, on the east by the Village of Ajuen
and the Village of Lampoh Daya, and on the
west by the Village of Payatieng and the Village
of Lam Geu-eu. Located in the Peukan Bada
Subdistrict, the Aceh Besar District, this village
has 7 hamlets: Paya Loe, Lampoh Raya, Lamdan,
Komplek Perumahan BTN, Lampoh Sukon, Pola
Permai, and Darma Sakinah.
Lam Hasan has a spacious area of 90 hectares,
consisting of 70 hectares of settlements and
public facilities and 17 hectares of agricultural
and plantation areas (Gampong Lam Hasan,
2009a). Like its neighboring village of Lam
Teungoh, Lam Hasan’s elevation is also very low
with a flat topography.
According to head of the Village of Lam Hasan,
Bukhari MY (personal communication, May
9, 2010), out of 7 hamlets, 5 hamlets, namely
Lamdan, Lampoh Raya, Lampoh Sukon, Darma
Sakinah, and Paya Loe, were totally flattened
to the ground by the tsunami. The remaining
neigborhoods of Komplek Perumahan BTN and
Pola Permai were partially destroyed.
Socio – Demography
Around 600 Lam Hasan residents were
dead from the December 26, 2004 tsunami.
Immediately after the tsunami, the remaining
population was about 1700 (Bukhari MY, personal
communication, May 9, 2010). Although located
fewer than 2 killometers inland, the death toll
was relatively low (approximately 26%). The
location of some of its hamlets which are 200500 meters from Gle Genteng (Genteng Hill)
provided enough time for a lot of Lam Hasan
residents to climb the hill and runaway from the
tsunami.
The survivors from Lam Hasan scattered
in several areas in Aceh. Most of them stayed
in the MPI building in Ajun. The rest mostly
lived in their relatives’ homes or stayed in host
communities in the unaffected areas around
Aceh Besar, Banda Aceh and other areas. In
early March 2005, after UPLINK’s 36 temporary
tents were erected in Lam Hasan, a number of
villagers initiated to return to their home village.
Later, more and more villagers went back to the
village once many permanent homes were built.
As of 2009, data show that Lam Hasan had a
population of 2316, far higher than that in the
aftermath of the tsunami (Gampong Lam Hasan,
2009). The increase in the number of population
resulted from influx of new inhabitants and new
births.
In terms of education, data (Gampong Lam
Hasan, 2009) show that in 2009 the majority
of Lam Hasan residents had a senior high
school education (57.53%), whilst 5.64% had an
undergraduate education. Interestingly, 1.58%
had master or doctoral degrees, reflecting that
the village had a few number of residents with
high levels of education. Those well-educated
residents worked as lecturers or educators.
However, education levels in the village are
disparate, reflected by the high number of
residents with no-education (12.28%).
Table 3. Level of education of Lam Hasan
residents in 2009
Education
No education
Elementary
Junior High
Senior High
Undergraduate
Master degree
Doctoral degree
Total
Number
257
116
365
1204
118
31
2
2093
Percentage
12.28
5.54
17.44
57.53
5.64
1.48
0.10
100
60
Economy
According to data in 2009 (Gampong Lam
Hasan, 2009), 21.81% of Lam Hasan residents
were state or private workers, 13.14% were
farmers, 21.51% were government employees,
the remainder being poultry and cattle breeders
(6.08%), bakers (4.83%), retired goverment
employees (4.38%), unorganized day laborers
(3.57%), police and military (3.40%), tailors
(2.23%), construction related professionals
(1.79%), merchants (1.61%), midwives (1.52%),
mechanics (1.34%), carpenters (1.07%),
fishermen (0.71%), medical doctors (0.45%),
and miscellaneous (0.80%). This occupation
portrait is basically the same as that prior to the
tsunami. Monthly income/capita in Lam Hasan
is around Rp 1 - 1.2 million (categorized as a
poor village). This is because a large number of
residents are unemployed, while others still have
low monthly income jobs (bricklayers, bakers,
tailors, mechanics, carpenters, and fishermen)
(Bukhari MY, personal communication, May 9,
2010).
Table 4. The livelihood of Lam Hasan residents in 2009
Occupation
Private or state
company worker
Farmer
Government
employee
Poultry and cattle
breeder
Baker
Retired
(government
employee and
police & military)
Unorganized day
laborer
Police and Military
Tailor
Construction
related professional
Merchant
Midwife
Mechanic
Number
244
Percentage
21.81
147
140
13.14
12.51
68
6.08
54
49
4.83
4.38
40
3.57
38
25
20
3.40
2.23
1.79
18
17
15
1.61
1.52
1.34
Carpenter
Fisherman
Medical doctor
Miscellaneous
(police officer,
lawyer, etc)
Unemployed
Total
12
8
5
9
1.07
0.71
0.45
0.80
210
1119
18.76
100.00
Source: The Profile of the Village of Lam Hasan,
2009
Infrastructure
Based on the head of the village Bukhari’s
information (personal communication, May
9, 2010), 60-70% buildings in Lam Hasan
were wiped out by the tsunami. Although
a number of residents’ houses and other
infrastructure (prayer house, drainage, schools)
were not completely destroyed, they did
require reconstruction. Immediately after the
tsunami, relief agencies, and local and foreign
governments came to the village to provide
emergency assistance.
In the beginning, UPLINK dominated
the reconstruction effort in the village. This
organization provided materials for temporary
shelters and subsequently built and renovated
houses. UPLINK also rehabilitated drainage
(later continued by Mercy Corps) and made
route evacuation. Mercy Corps carried out
the cash-for-work project, creating a source
of income for the villagers. BRR, Muslim Aid
and British Red Cross constructed new homes.
AIPRD built a village office. Water was delivered
by Care and Oxfam, whilst food was provided
by Care, WFP, and Save the Children. In the next
period of relief efforts, other parties such as
Plan, Luis Fernandez Fund, and Turkey Red Cross
also took an active part (Bukhari MY, personal
communication, May 9, 2010).
61
Lambung
The rest of the survivors not living in the shelters
scattered in other cities in the province (Langsa
and Sigli) or in other provinces (Medan, Jakarta).
Geography
Lambung is situated in the Meuraxa
Subdistrict, one of 9 subdistricts in the city of
Banda Aceh. During the 2004 tsunami, Lambung
along with 15 other villages in the Meuraxa
subdistrict experienced severe damage.
Lambung is close to the Indian Ocean, bordered
on the north by the Vilage of Deah Glumpang,
on the south by Jalan (Street of) Sultan Iskandar
Muda, on the east by the Village of Ulee Lheue,
and on the west by the Village of Blang Oi.
Four hamlets are part of the village: Seulanga,
Mawar, Dahlia, and Melatika. As a whole,
Lambung’s area covers 52 hectares; 29 hectares
of settelements and public facilities, 15 hectares
of mangrove areas, and 8 hectares of fish and
shrimp pond areas (Gampong Lambung, 2009).
“The Profile of Lambung Village, the
Meuraxa Subdistrict, the city of Banda Aceh”
(2009) describes that Lambung lost 1037 out
of 1368 or around ¾ of its population when
the earthquake and tsunami struck. According
to head of Lambung village, Zaidi M. Adan
(personal communication, July 2, 2010), aside
from fishermen who were going fishing on the
boat during the disaster (15 people including
himself) and those who survived from the
tsunami waves in the village, survivors were
also those who were travelling around the city
of Banda Aceh after the earthquake (before
the tsunami). In addition, some residents were
also safe because of being out of the village for
the purpose of studying, running a business
and doing other activities in the provinces like
Medan and Jakarta.
According to Zaidi M. Adan (personal
communication, July 2, 2010), as many as 50
survivors sought refuge in their relatives’ houses
concentrating around Cot Gu, Mata Ie, near the
National Television Station (Televisi Republik
Indonesia, TVRI). One month later, a number
of male survivors started building temporary
shelters in the village. The shelters accomodated
more than one hundred villagers for more than
2 years due to the long village mapping and
land consolidation process among villagers for
replanning and rebuilding permanent houses.
In 2009, five years after the disaster, Lambung
residents lived in their village comfortably
and safely. The number of Lambung residents
increased to 420. New residents (resulted from
marriage, birth, the presence of more house
renters, etc) contributed to the increased
population. Renters were attracted by a more
orderly and beautiful Lambung village.
In the education sector, as a whole, the
2009 data (Gampong Lambung, 2009) show
that Lambung residents had a relatively better
portrait than two previous villages. The number
of residents who had no education was very
small (2.28%). The majority of residents
(61.82%) had a senior high school education and
21.08% had a college education. The rest of the
residents were in the education levels of junior
high school (13.11%), and elementary school
(1.71%).
Table 5. Level of education of Lambung residents
in 2009
Education
No education
Elementary
Junior High
Senior High
University
(undergraduate)
Total
Number
8
6
46
217
74
Percentage
2.28
1.71
13.11
61.82
21.08
351
100.00
Sources: The Profile of Lambung Village, the
Meuraxa Subdistrict, the city of Banda Aceh,
2009, and interview with Zaidi M. Adan, head of
Lambung Village on July 2, 2010
Economy
Data in 2009 show that the majority of
people in Lambung village were employed as
workers in the private companies, government
employess, construction-related professionals,
and merchants. A number of inhabitants,
especially male groups, produced Acehnese
unique cakes which were quite famous all over
Aceh (Gampong Lambung, 2009).
62
According to the head of Lambung Village,
Zaidi M. Adan (personal communication, July
2, 2010), due to economic reasons as well
as the awareness to rebuild their village, a
certain number of residents participated in the
income-generated cash-for-work (cleaning up
the village) project sponsored by several relief
agencies (International Relief and Development,
Inc., etc) after the tsunami. The project was
really helpful in providing community members
with a regular income during the months after
the disaster. As in other tsunami affected areas,
most residents in Lambung could not practice
their occupation for quite a long time after the
tsunami. Later, as the project was over and the
situation was getting normal, residents returned
to their previous jobs.
Based on information from the head of the
village (personal communication, July 2, 2010),
monthly income of each villager is currently
about Rp 1.5- 1.75 million, relatively high
compared to residents in other villages in Aceh.
Table 6. The livelihood of Lambung residents in
2009
Occupation
Private company
worker
Government
employee
Construction-related
professionals
Merchant
Fisherman
Retired gov.
employee,police &
military
Police and Military
Farmer
Miscellaneous
(medical doctor,
lawyer, etc)
Having irregular jobs
Unemployed
Total
Number Percentage
68
27.83
28
11.67
27
11.25
18
7
7
7.50
2.92
2.92
3
2
16
1.25
0.83
6.67
30
34
240
12.50
14.17
100.00
Sources: The Profile of Lambung Village, the
Meuraxa Subdistrict, the city of Banda Aceh,
2009, and interview with head of Lambung
village, Zaidi M. Adan on July 2, 2010
Infrastructure
Like Lam Hasan village, Lambung village
was also completely destroyed by the tsunami.
In contrast to the surrounding villages which
were built at high speed by NGOs immediately
after the tsunami, the initial redevelopment
progrees in Lambung was slow. A common
agreement on rearranging the village mapping
among community members took a long time
(Zaidi M. Adan, personal communication, July 2,
2010). This village had to wait until 2006 to start
building permanent homes for its residents. The
old Lambung village, which was not properly
planned like most villages in Indonesia, finally
turned into the block system village with wide
roads. The village used to have a narrow road
and small alley leading Lambung villagers to be
trapped inside the village and unable to escape
from the tsunami. Lambung has now often been
considered a model village for spatial mapping
and for the successful participative post-disaster
redevelopment, particularly in Aceh (BRR,
2009b).
Reconstruction in Lambung was supported by
the government and various aid organizations.
Through the Re-Kompak program (Rehabilitasi
dan Rekonstruksi Masyarakat dan Permukiman
or
The
Community-Based
Settlement
Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Project),
the Multi Donor Fund (MDF) through the
Community-Based Settlement Rehabilitation
and Reconstruction Project (Rehabilitasi dan
Rekonstruksi Masyarakat dan Permukiman
or ReKompak) provided funding to build 309
houses. Japan International Cooperation System
(JICS) built a three story community escape
building with a helicopter pad on its roof as a safe
place for communities during a tsunami or other
disasters. RCTI, a private television station based
in Jakarta the capital city of Indonesia, donated
funds for the construction of one school complex
which has the level of education of kindergarten,
elementary, junior high and senior high. From
its own funding, Lambung gave a contribution
to build a volleyball court, Pos Kamling (Law and
order of the neigborhood post) and a village
office (Zaidi M. Adan, personal communication,
July 2, 2010). Many other development projects
have been succesfully implemented in Lambung.
63
Merduati
Geography
Having an area of 30.71 hectares, Merduati
is surrounded by Lampaseh Kota village on the
west side, Kampung Baru on the east and south
sides, and Peulanggahan village and Keudah
village on the North side. Since 2009, this area
(along with other areas which were formerly
kelurahans), has legally turned into a village or
gampong as a consequence of the enactment of
Law No 11/2006 on the Aceh Government.
The elevation of Merduati is about 0.5
meter above sea level, quite low compared to
other villages in the Kuta Raja subdistrict which
have the elevation ranging from 0.5 to 1 meter.
Like other villages in the Meuraxa Subdistrict
(Lampaseh Kota, Keudah, Peulanggahan,
Gampong Jawa, and Gampong Pande), Merduati
has flat topography (PNPM-Mandiri, 2008).
According to the head of the village, Turmizi
(personal communication, August 14, 2010), the
tsunami destroyed 70-75 percent of the total 5
hamlets in the village, namely Seroja, Kemuning,
Sedap Malam, Mawar, and Melatika.
In terms of land use, Merduati is organized
as follows: 19.4 hectares of settlements, 2.21
hectares of public facilities, 8.17 hectares of
trading and service areas, 0.81 hectares of
office complex areas and 0.07 hectares of other
areas. Its strategic location near the capital city,
to some extent, makes Merduati an influential
trading and service area, both in the city of
Banda Aceh and in the province. The standing
of this area is also associated with its proximity
to 3 central markets in the province: Pasar Aceh,
Kawasan Perdagangan, and Pasar Peunayong
(GTZ-SLGSR, 2006).
Merduati is the most populous area among
other 5 villages in the Kuta Raja subdistrict.
Like many villages in the Kuta Raja subdistrict,
Merduati is also a densely populated area. Before
tsunami, it had a population of 5365 (GTZ –
SLGSR, 2006). Based on information from Khair,
one of community Merduati leaders (personal
communication, August 14, 2010), tsunami
killed a large number of residents including the
head of the village, Zakaria. It was predicted
that only about 1500 (28%) residents survived
(Turmuzi, personal communication, August 14,
2010) . Like survivors in its neighboring villages,
most survivors were safe because they were out
of the village during the tsunami.
Like many survivors from Lam Teungoh
and other areas, survivors from Merduati
also sought refuge around TVRI area on Jalan
Sudirman, Mata Ie. Others scattered, living in
their relatives’ homes and host communities or
school and government buildings located around
Banda Aceh and Aceh Besar areas like Lambaro,
Ulee Kareng, Darussalam and Tungkop. One
month later, a number of residents returned to
their home village and lived in several spots like
Arrahman Mosque and Taman Dianjung Mosque
or even in the ruins of village buildings. After
a base camp for Merduati residents equiped
with the Indonesian soldier (TNI)-donated tents
was established in Geuceu Iniem, some 100
Merduati residents then moved there (Turmuzi,
personal communication, August 14, 2010).
As of July 2010, most of survivors have
returned home and many new residents have
lived in Merduati. Data show that Merduati
population currently reaches 2651 (Gampong
Merduati, 2010). As a thriving business area, the
population of Merduati is predicted to increase
over time (Gampong Merduati, 2010).
In terms of the education condition, based
on the 2008 report, the majority residents had
senior high school level of education (48.31%).
Those who had an undergraduate or higher
education level were 20.15%. Other residents
had the level of education of junior high school
(16.50%) and elementary school (6.15%).
Meanwhile, 8.88% had no education.
Table 7. Level of education of Merduati residents
in 2008
Education
No education
Elementary
Junior High
Senior High
University*
Total
Number
163
113
303
887
370
1836
Percentage
8.88
6.15
16.50
48.31
20.15
100.00
Source: PNPM-Mandiri, The participative review
of the five year development plan for combating
poverty 2008-2010
64
*Including level of education above
undergraduate, but the exact number of post
graduate level is unavailable.
Source: PNPM-Mandiri, The participative review
of the five year development plan for combating
poverty 2008-2010
Economy
Infrastructure
Prior to the tsunami, the majority of
people in Merduati village worked as private
company workers, government employees, and
merchants, while the remainder being national
police and military, drivers, medical workers,
fishermen, and fish and shrimp pond farmers.
As an area close to the center of the province,
Lambung had to deal with unemployement
issues. Even though Merduati enjoys a relatively
high income/capita compared to other case
study villages (about Rp. 2.5 million per month),
prosperity is not equally distributed. A large
number of its resident are unemployed or still
do not have regular jobs (Turmuzi, personal
communication, August 14, 2010).
The tsunami devastated about ¾ of
Merduati’s infrastructure including settlements,
social and educational facilities, roads, medical
facilities, sport facilities, and religious facilities.
The village was paralyzed and road access was
obstructed by thousands of tons of debris and
hundreds of corpses. It took about 3 months for
the city of Banda Aceh and other organizations to
systematically clean this area. IRD (International
Relief Development, Inc.) paid each resident
involving in the cleanup as much as Rp 35,000/
day (Turmuzi, personal communication, August
14, 2010).
The government of Indonesia (through BRR
As in other tsunami-hit villages, after the and several projects), various NGOs and aid
tsunami, Merduati residents also participated agencies took part in the redevelopment process
in the cash-for-work project. In their village, of Merduati. BRR and government-related
this was run by IRD (International Relief and projects of P2KP (Program Penanggulangan
Development, Inc.). However, many of them Kemiskinan Perkotaan or The Urban Poverty
were not used to doing manual labor and did Project) and PNPM (Program Nasional
not want to continue getting involved in the Pemberdayaan Masyarakat or the National
project. Therefore, as the majority of cleanup Community Empowerment Project) constructed
had been accomplished and as the situation was infrastructure like roads and drainage. In
getting more normal, most of them returned to cooperation with a Christian Doctors' Association
from Jakarta, Bayer supports a neighborhood
their previous sources of employment.
health clinic. The members of this Doctor’s
Table 8. The livelihood of Merduati residents in association had previously gotten involved in
2008
providing medical aid right after the tsunami.
The clinic was mainly directed to child and
Occupation
Number
Percentage mother care (Turmuzi, personal communciation,
August 14, 2010).
Private company
169
17.70
worker
Government
employee
Trader
Police and Military
Driver
Medical worker
Fisherman
Fish and shrimp pond
farmer
Having irregular jobs
Unemployed
Total
124
12.98
122
33
12
10
7
3
12.77
3.46
1.26
1.05
0.73
0.31
431
44
955
45.13
4.61
100.00
Another
organization,
Unicef
(the
United Nations Children’s Fund) helped
Muhammadiyah (the second largest Indonesian
Islamic organization) rebuild schools in the
village. The schools had several facilities such as
a library, a multi purpose hall, a canteen, toilets,
and a sport court. Unicef contracted the United
Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS) to
build the schools.
65
Meanwhile, UN-Habitat and UNDP (the
United Nations Development Program) with
their Aceh-Nias Settlements Support Program
(ANSSP) funded by the Government of United
Arabs Emirates, built and renovated 486
houses. Besides UN-Habitat/UNDP, ADB (the
Asian Development Bank), BRR, and Genesis
also constructed houses as many as 300 units
2010).
Other organizations including Care, Muslim
Aid, Oxfam, Unicef and Bayer also supported
relief efforts by constructing numerous public
facilities which were urgently needed by
Merduati residents.
2.2 The Implementation of Community
Participation
in
Post-Tsunami
Redevelopment in Aceh Province
Various types of participation took place in
the reconstruction term following the tsunami
in the four case study villages of Lam Teungoh,
Lam Hasan, Lambung, and Merduati. Referring
to the participation theories discussed in the
literature chapter, the types of participation
can be asociated with the actors promoting
or mobilizing the participation itself. They
include “ad hoc” participation, administrative
participation, and civil society participation.
“Ad hoc” participation relates to voluntary
actions mainly mobilized by community
members themselves and plays a role in such
forms as volunteer programs, information
offices, and fund-raising efforts. Administrative
participation is a participation mechanism
in which administrative agencies take the
initiative in reaching out to the citizens and
involving them. Civil society participation
is promoted by “interest groups” and help
empower affected communities through such
activities as supporting their rights and needs,
educating and informing them with relevant
information, providing funds, building facilities,
and others. In the context of the relief efforts in
Aceh following the tsunami, besides community
members, administrative agencies, and
interest groups, aid organizations like foreign
government organizations were also involved in
the participatory-based development programs.
In many cases, the process of all participation
types taking place on the ground mentioned
above were not fully in line with the guideline of
community participation embeded in the Master
Plan for Rehabilitation and Reconstruction for
Aceh Province. The hierarchycal participatory
process through Development councils from
the village to provincial levels could not be
implemented in the beginning years following
the tsunami, due to the demand for quick relief
actions at the village level and the difficulty in
reaching an agreement on land consolidation
between residents related to land titling issues.
What was happening was the reconstruction
efforts managed by government agencies and
aid organizations were mostly accentuated in
the village scope (Nazarul Khairi, ex head of
BRR for Aceh Besar District & Iqbal Barata, ex
head of BRR for Banda Aceh District; personal
communication, June 15, 2009 & August
18, 2010). In Lam Teungoh and Lam Hasan,
facilitated by Mercy Corps, the Five Year Village
Development Plans (comprehensive village
plans) with the participatory approaches were
succesfully formulated in 2008. This document
was a reference used by those villages in
proposing their village development plan at
the upper development structure (subdistrict).
Mercy Corps was also one of aid organizations
which succeeded in facilitating the formulation a
document on short‐term community planning in
Merduati right after the tsunami (in 2005). The
formulation was possible with strong support
from village leaders and the community as a
whole (UNDP & UN-HABITAT, 2006).
It is important to note that the reconstruction
effort promoted by aid organizations had some
similar characteristics in terms of initial steps
taken, implementation of existing community’s
representative structure, and the funding
sources of their projects. In general, before
starting the village reconstruction effort, aid
organizations made consultations with the local
authorities (pertinent government agencies,
heads of subdistricts, heads of villages, etc). In
the consultations, there had been socialization
and instruction about the organizations’ mission,
vissions and other relevant aspects. After
preliminary agreement was achieved between
those parties, aid organizations supported by
village apparatus organized village meetings
to determine the needs and priorities of
communities. In the beginning, village meetings
were usually held in barraks/temporary tents,
later on in village halls, mosques or prayer
houses after they were built.
66
With respect to functionalization of existing
community’s representive structure, The
Activity Managing Team (Tim Pengelola Kegiatan
or TPK) and the committee for Rehabilitation
and Reconstruction (Komite Rehabilitasi dan
Rekonstruksi or KERAP which later became
the Community Self-help Body or Badan
Keswadayaan Masyarakat/ BKM) models, for
instance, were often adopted. The models had
been used for already existing government
development projects like the Sub-District
Development Project (Program Pengembangan
Kecamatan or PPK). Meanwhile, in terms of
funding sources, aid organizations mainly
funded their projects from their own sources,
donor agencies or donor countries.
Below is the implementation of community
participation following the Aceh tsunami which
is grouped based on the aforementioned
types of participation. The second type of
participation, civil society participation, is
extended to be “aid organization/agencypromoted participation” since it also describes
the involvement of international agencies in the
participatory approaches. Data were gathered
from interviews with community leaders and
heads of villages of the case study villages
and community facilitators of associated aid
organizations working on reconstruction efforts
in those villages.
“Ad hoc” Participation
1. Lam Teungoh
In the beginning days following the tsunami,
survivors from Lam Teungoh who were scattered
in Aceh Besar and Banda Aceh, individually
returned to their village to find out if their
family members were missing. On the next
second week, survivors who mostly gathered in
the evacuation area in Lamseudaya village and
survivors from neighboring village of Lamtutui
who sought refuge in the same area, organized
themselves to continue the searching process
led by the head of Lamtutui village, Baharuddin.
Later Baharuddin also served as head of Lam
Teungoh village at the same time, since the
previous head of Lam Teungoh village, Masri,
was killed by the tsunami. While searching for
corpses, they started collecting rough data
about death toll in the village (Husaini, personal
communication, March 8, 2010).
The paralized local governments and the
absence of any relief agencies right after the
tsunami, led the survivors to evacuate corpses
of their family members, relatives, or friends by
themselves. Those corpses were buried in any
possible areas in their village. Within the first
week after the tsunami, the men began burying
corpses. In total, some 500 corpses were buried
by mid-February. Later, the Indonesian Red Cross
and other parties assisted with evacuation and
burial process. At that time, most dead bodies
were buried in the largest tsunami mass grave in
Lambaro, Aceh Besar. In parallel with search for
corspes, data collection on death tolls was also
undertaken by the community.
More than one month after the tsunami,
community members of Lam Teungoh Village
and Lamtutui Village, led by Baharuddin, held
a meeting to make a decision with regard to
survivors’ lives. In the meeting, they decided to
go back to Lam Teungoh and Lamtutui because
they needed to work again in the villages (mostly
as fishermen). They also agreed to rebuild a
temporary prayer house and some temporary
houses.
With limited resources, tens of male survivors
started initial redevelopment of the village. In
February 2005, Lam Teungoh villagers finally
finished the development of the temporary
prayer house and 10 temporary houses. They
used wood from remaining trees and debris for
wall materials. Iron sheeting donated by the
Welfare Justice Party (PKS) was used for roofing.
The temporary prayer house then became
a community center enabling residents to
organize themselves and deal with many issues
such as death toll dissemination and trauma
counseling (Husaini, personal communication,
March 8, 2010).
The return of villagers to the villages was
very much influenced by the high spirit of
togetherness among them to redevelop their
village. Of all tsunami-affected area inhabitants
in Aceh, Lam Teungoh and Lamtutui villagers
were the first groups who came back to
redevelop their villages following the tsunami.
This phenomenon is quite amazing given the
high level of damage and loss of life suffered
by the village. The quick decision to return
to their home village helped accelerate the
redevelopment efforts in the village, reduced
survivors’ traumatic feelings and helped earn
a livelihood particularly for most villagers who
work as fishermen.
67
The fact that most villagers were native
inhabitants who were related to each other
contributed to the strength of social ties among
them (Husaini, personal communication, March
15, 2010).
That spirit impressed USAID which carried
out the cash-for-work project, that is, payed
residents to clean the land and build a community
center and other public facilities. UPLINK, Mercy
Corps and other aid organization then were also
attracted to provide materials or give funding
for the village reconstruction process.
Besides the tight bond among residents,
the strong leadership of Baharuddin also
played an important role in the return and
initial redevelopment process in the village
of Lam Teungoh. Given the low level of
education among many community members,
leadership played an important role in the
mobilization process. This low level of condition,
in many cases, prevented residents from
active participation in the rebuilding process.
Baharuddin succeeded in motivating villagers
to return to the village and rebuild it (Husaini,
personal communication, March 15, 2010). He
was communicative, decisive, charismatic and
close to the people – typical of Acehnese natural
born leader. As a fisherman, he spent more than
30 years on the sea. Before the tsunami, he
had been not only head of Lamtutui village, but
also Sea Commander (Panglima Laot), leader
of an association of fishermen in nine villages
including Lam Teungoh village.
2. Lam Hasan
Like in Lam Teungoh village, the absence of
local government and other aid organizations
during the first days after the tsunami forced
survivors from Lam Hasan to take urgent
measures in initial relief efforts in their village.
Two days after the tsunami, community members
who escaped to Gle Genteng (Genteng Hill)
returned to Lam Hasan and started looking for
their dead family members and relatives. Their
return was also to find food (bread, coconut,
snacks, and drinking water) from houses and
food shops leftover in the neighboring village of
Lampasi Engking.
A couple of days later, they sought refuge in
the MPI’s building in Ajun and emergency tents
surrounding the building. Besides survivors
from Lam Hasan, survivors from other villages
around Aceh Besar and the City of Banda Aceh
gathered in this area. In the beginning, survivors
built the tents by using wood and plastic coming
from tsunami debris. Later, emergency tents
were supplied by various local and international
relief organizations (Bukhari MY, personal
During the third and fourth week, survivors
began evacuating corpses and buried them in a
collective manner as well as collecting data about
death tolls. Most corpses were buried in front
of the village’s prayer house (about 60 corpses),
while the rest were buried in community’s or
village land. When the reconstruction process
started taking place, the evacuation and burial
processes were supported by the Indonesian
Red Cross and other parties (Bukhari MY,
personal communication, May 9, 2010). Like
in Lam Teungoh, most dead people were then
buried in the tsunami mass grave in Lambaro.
The strong wish to return to their own village
motivated survivors to ask for any needed
assistance from several aid organizations.
Among others, led by the head of the village
Bukhari MY, they approaced Mercycorps,
UPLINK and the Welfare Justice Party (PKS).
As a result, in February 2005, villagers cleaned
tsunami debris in their village supported by
Mercy Corps through the cash-for-work project.
One month later, Lam Hasan villagers could stay
in the village temporary tents. As many as 36
tents were provided by UPLINK. They utilized
wood floors contributed by PKS. The function
of the tents was significant. It also supported
any other necessities in an emergency situation,
that is to deal with trauma healing and the need
for disaster information (Bukhari MY, personal
3. Lambung
Like other survivors in tsunami-affected areas
in Aceh, right after the tsunami, survivors from
Lambung village also returned to their village to
find the corpses of their family members, other
relatives, and friends. Due to the flat topography
of this area and surrounding areas, only ten
corpses were found amid the tsunami debris
(Zaidi M. Adan, personal communication, July
2, 2010). Many corspes were swept away by the
tsunami waves to other areas. The corpses were
then burried in the village cemetery.
68
To reconsolidate his village inhabitants, the
head of Lambung village coordinated male
survivors from the village who sought refuge
in their relatives’ houses concentrating around
Cot Gu, Mata Ie, to start erecting temporary
shelters in their home village one month after
the tsunami. They used debris from the State
Junior High School 11 (SMPN 11) building
located 200 meters west of the village office as
well as materials donated by villagers’ relatives
residing around Banda Aceh. Fortunately,
many of the survivors’ relatives were building
contractors who kept some building materials
at their home areas. The shelters were finished
within one month and immediately after that,
40 of the survivors lived in them. The number of
residents living in the village temporary shelters
increased, and in the fourth month, reached 120
people. Like in Lam Teungoh and Lam Hasan,
the existence of these temporary shelters was
really significant pertaining to access to disaster
information and restrengthening social life
(Zaidi M. Adan, personal communication, July 2,
2010).
In supporting relief efforts of their village,
Lambung residents were quite creative. Led by
their head of the village, who is well educated,
with a bachelor degree in social and political
sciences, Lambung residents also opened
a community bank account for receiving
donations and announced it widely. Then they
advertised village redevelopment meetings in
local newspapers or on local radio. The village
bureacrats’ and community leaders’ relations
with ex-Lambung inhabitants who had moved
to other areas, including businesspersons,
government officials, and other prominent
figures, made it easy for the village to collect
funds donated by those people and to network.
This relation also enabled the village to have
information access to any development projects
managed by the government and various
aid organizations (Zaidi M. Adan, personal
communication, July 2, 2010). From its own
funding, Lambung successfuly built a volleyball
court, Pos Kamling (Law and order of the
neigborhood post), and a village office.
Through village development meetings,
which were usually attended by more than one
hundred inhabitants, the proposal of a number
of survivors to rebuild the village into better
organized settlements was discussed. With
the participation of most survivors, the village
eventually arrived at a common agreement
concerning a redrawing of boundaries and
land-use patterns. The new land-use plan was
handled by professional rural spatial planners.
Approved by villagers, all the land was properly
consolidated and the village was replanned and
built with an open green area and a minimal width
of roads of four meters. This could be realized
after villagers agreed to freely give at least 1015% of their land for the construction of roads
and public buildings. It is important to note that
religious approaches made by the head of the
village as well as cultural and religious leaders by
linking the land contribution to religious services
were the key factors in this process (Zaidi M.
Adan, personal communication, July 2, 2010).
4. Merduati
Unlike the three previous villages, Merduati’s
proximity to the center of the capital city of
Banda Aceh, made it a bit easy for several
parties to immediately get involved in the
village relief efforts. Along with volunteers from
the Indonesian Red Cross and the Indonesian
Mobile Brigade troops, a number of survivors
from Merduati evacuated corpses in the village
a few days after the tsunami. Those corspes
were taken to the area around the Lambaro
intersection, before being buried in the next
couple of days in the mass grave near that area
2010).
One month after the tsunami, with tents
donated by The Indonesian National Soldier
(TNI), survivors established a base camp
in Geuceu Iniem on land owned by a local
inhabitant. In this base camp, some 100 survivors
organized themselves to search for remaining
corpses in their village, made a list of the death
toll and served any emergent necesities of
survivors (logistic, clothing, information, etc). It
is important to note that close working relations
between the head of the village and community
leaders (particularly religious leaders) made
it easier for survivors to tackle participation
emergency activities. Later, religious leaders
also took an active role in involving Merduati
residents in the village recovery process
2010).
69
As a thriving business area, Merduati attracts
many people from different ethnic backgrounds
(Chinese, Indian, Javanese, Padangnese, etc)
and occupations (private sector workers,
government employees, traders, etc). Many
people also lease buildings and houses over time
in this area to make a living as traders or to just
stay at boarding houses (students, etc) because
of its strategic location. It creates a low sense
of belonging for the newcomers to the village
and weakens social ties among community
members which in turn, influence participation
among community members (Turmuzi, personal
Unlike previous villages, survivors from
Merduati did not immediately return to their
village and did not build barracks/temporary
homes in the village. Most survivors stayed in
the evacuation areas or lived in their relatives’
homes and host communities until permanent
homes were built in the village by some aid
organizations. Its proximity to the capital city
resulted in easy access to any relief assistance
including barracks/temporary shelters. The
death of the head of the village because of
the tsunami also caused coordination among
survivors to be difficult which, in turn, inhibited
survivors from wider participation in the
reconstruction process. The new village head,
Zakaria, was appointed 6 months later (Turmuzi,
personal communication, August 14, 2010).
The status of Merduati was still as a kelurahan
until 2009 where its head was appointed by the
government.
Summary of “Ad-hoc” Participation in the
Four Case Study Villages
Given data about the participatory activities
mainly mobilized by the community members
above, it can be concluded that residents of the
four case study villages participated in (1) corpse
evacuation; (2) data collection on the death
toll in their own village; and (3) disseminating
disaster-related information. The occurance of
this kind of participation was basically related
to communities’ urgent needs right after the
tsunami. Communities had no choice except
to participate in these activities because aid
agencies were still not involved actively in the
relief effort at that time. All case study villages,
except for Merduati, also participated in barrack/
temporary shelter development. The non-
existence of temporary shelter development in
Merduati resulted from the lack of coordination
among its community members due to the death
of its former head of village in the tsunami and
its proximity to the capital city which resulted in
easy access to relief assistance.
Lambung village surpassed other village
interm of the variety of participatory
activities. Lambung made some breakthroughs
through their residences’ initiatives in village
development planning, land contribution for
public facilities, opening a bank account for public
donations, advertising village meeting, and
public facilities construction with fillage funds.
Table 9 bellow summarizes the participatory
activities of the four case study villages in posttsunami redevelopment.
Table 9. “Ad-hoc” participation following the
tsunami in the case study villages of
Lam Teungoh, Lam Hasan, Lambung and Merduati
Lam
Teungoh
Lam
Lam- Merdu
Hasan bung ati
Corpse evacuation
√
√
√
√
Initial data
collection on death
toll
√
√
√
√
Barrack/temporary
home development
√
√
√
Disseminating
disaster related
information (in
barracks/tents/
evacuation areas,
community center
building, etc)
√
√
√
Activity
Village
Village
development
planning
√
Massed land
contribution for
public facilities
√
Opening a bank
account for public
donations
√
Advertisement of
village meeting in
media
√
Public facility
construction with
village funds
√
√
70
Aid Organization / Agency - promoted
Participation
Mercy Corps and the community by
taking into account the conformity of the
programs with Mercy Corps’ missions and
focused work in Aceh Province.
Mercy Corps (Lam Teungoh Case)
1. Relief activities
Mercy Corps, a global aid organization, started
operating in Aceh province right after the
tsunami hit this area. Mercy Corps focused its
work on community development, economic
development and local government initiatives
(Mercy Corps, 2009). In Lam Teungoh, Mercy
Corps operated from January 2005 through
March 2010.
A number of relief efforts have been
conducted by Mercy Corps in the village. The
cash-for-work project, aimed at cleaning up the
village to make it ready for reconstruction and
enabling households to earn cash, was its first
project in the village. This project was followed
by several construction projects including
construction of the ritual ablution place/bathing
place, women’s group building, public cemetery
fence, and drainage system. The economic
development program included training on
business and entrepreneurship, providing
grants both for survivors to run businesses (as
mechanics, cattle breeders, etc) and for the
village (to establish a village shop and to provide
rental wedding supplies and kichenware). The
leadership and governance program consisted
of village administration data base development
and facilitating the formulation of Five Year
Village Development Plan (2008-2012) of the
Village of Lam Teungoh in cooperation with
the Indonesian government. The program
also included training on administration and
leadership, bookkeeping, project management,
and reporting, (Gampong Lam Teungoh, 2008).
2. Participatory Process
• Facilitated by Mercy Corps and supported
by village bureaucrats (the head of the
village and his apparatus) and community
leaders, Lam Teungoh residents organized
a series of community meetings begun in
early 2005 to discuss urgent relief efforts
in the village. Twenty to thirty villagers
usually participated in the meetings.
• Improvements, objectives and goals were
determined based on agreement between
• Once projects were decided, committees
were established. One committe consisted
of three people (chair, secretary, and
treasurer). Each project was associated
with a different committee. The committee
in the women group building construction
project, for instance, was different
from that of drainage construction.
Committees were responsible for the
overall implementation of their related
projects. Their members were chosen by
village meeting participants (the input
of the head of the village was, however,
considerably important).
•
Mercy Corps provided consultation and
relevant training for committee members
to support construction projects.
Meanwhile, training on entrepeneurship,
administratiion, leadership, etc, was
conducted with participants who were
selected by the head of the village and
his apparatus by considering input from
residents.
• Construction designs (for ritual ablution
place/bathing place, Women’s Group
building, public cemetery fence, drainage)
were prepared by the Mercy Corps
Technical staff by taking into account the
community’s aspirations.
• Local community members were prioritized
to be laborers in the construction projects.
Non-local laborers were employed as
minimally as possible to enable local
residents to improve their incomes. The
use of manual labour without a contractor
was enabled because of the small scale of
the construction projects.
• Committees managed project funds and
dealt with builders and material suppliers
(community contracting model). To
control the use of funds, Mercy Corps
disbursed the funds in several stages,
based on the progress of the construction.
This helped projects meet the contract
timing and quality specifications.
71
• Program monitoring and evaluation was
formally done by village bureaucrats
supported by tuha peut (an advisory council
consisting of four people considered
knowledgeable and resourceful within
the community). Community members
were also persuaded to participate in
this process. Communities could direct
their complaints, questions, or input to
pertinent committees or Mercy Corps.
• Committees made reports of program
implementation and evaluation. The
report of one program subsequently
became a useful reference for other
future programs.
• In accordance with the comprehensive village
plan, the Five Year Village Development
Plan (2008-2012) was formulated in 2008.
Its process was entrusted to the Village
Planning Team (Tim Perencana Gampong
or TPG). TPG members were selected by
the head of the village and started working
on the project in 2008 (with Mercy Coprs’
facilitation). The planning process of
the document consists of several steps.
First, TPG members identified village
assets, potential, and problems. They also
analyzed Mercy Corps’ former projects
that had been implemented in their
village. Subsequently, TPG came up with
detailed potential projects and activities
and made a presentation. After receiving
feedback, the planning draft was approved
by tuha peut and sent to the subdistrict.
To carry out projects approved in the five
year development plan, Mercy Corps gave
the village $21,000 in 2008 and $25,000
in 2009.
• For the economic projects in the early
phase of the emergency period (right
after the tsunami), Mercy Corps provided
individuals or groups of residents with low
incomes with grants. Those people were
to make proposals regarding economic
activities they wanted to undertake
(development of machine shops, food
shops, etc). The approval of the proposals
was done through the Mercy Corps’
review process. Grants, rather than loans,
were given since the majority of residents
were poor and only ran small businesses.
For economic projects outlined in the five
year village development plan, there had
been the establishment of the Village
Owned Enterprise (Badan Usaha Milik
Gampong). Mercy Corps proposed this
project to minimize the dependence of
the village on external sources of funding
so that the village would be able to realize
its future development projects.The
enterprise was aimed at generating profit
for the community. The establishment of
a village shop, provision of rental wedding
supplies and kichenware became the
means for the village to generate funding
for its economic development.
(Tasir Muhammad Rizal Husein, Mercy Corps’
community facilitator, Jan 2008 – Dec 2009,
personal communication, April 4, 2010; Mercy
Corps, 2010).
USAID/DAI (Lam Teungoh Case)
1. Relief Activities
The U.S. Agency for International
Development
(USAID)
supported
Aceh
reconstruction with a number of recovery efforts
including the cash-for-work projects (cleaning
up village land), village planning facilitation,
public infrastucture reconstruction, training on
community empowerment and leadership (BRR,
2009d) . In implementing its programs, USAID
cooperated with Development Alternatives,
Inc. (DAI), a global consulting firm providing
social and economic solutions in developing and
transitioning countries.
In Lam Teungoh USAID/DAI worked from
March 2005 through December 2007. USAID/
DAI finished the following projects: debris
removal, village office construction, volley ball
court construction, soccer field rehabilitation,
provision of kitchenware for village women’s
group as well as computers and tables for the
village office, rice field rehabilitation, and
training for food science, vehicle repairmen,
leadership, etc (Gampong Lam Teungoh, 2008).
• USAID/DAI in cooperation with influential
village figures (particularly the head
of the village and community leaders),
facilitated village meetings to absorb the
community’s aspirations and needs. In
the meetings residents discussed their
problems, needs and expected programs.
More than 20 villagers usually attended
the meetings.
72
Table 10. The role of residents and other actors for each phase of Mercy Corps’ projects in Lam Teungoh*
Actor
Activity
Program initiation
for village
redevelopment
Residents/
beneficiaries
Committees/
community
representatives
√
Mercy
Corps
Hired
Contractor
√
1. Construction project (bathing place, women’s group building, public cemetery
fence, and drainage)
Project initiation
Arnstein’s level
of community
participation
√
√
Design
√
Construction
√
√**
Monitoring &
evaluation
√
√
√
2. Small grant project for individual(s) business
Project initiation
√
√***
Proposal making
√
√***
Running of
business
√
Monitoring &
evaluation
√
3. The establishment of the Village Owned Enterprise
Project initiation
√
Proposal making
√
Running of the
enterprise
√
Monitoring &
evaluation
√
√
“partnership”
(joint decision
making between
Mercy Corps and
the community,
project funding
management in
the hands of the
community)
“delegated
power” (decision
making and
project funding
management in
the hands of the
community)
“informing”
(decision
making in the
hands of Mercy
Corps, residents
were informed
their rights,
responsibilities
and options)
*This table (and other similar tables in the next section of this chapter), especially the “construction
project” part, is adapted from Davidson C. H., et al.’s matrix of post-disaster housing project
management.
* *The village committee managed the process
** *Mercy Corps facilitated the process
• Technical issues of programs were discussed
in Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) consisting
of village bureaucrats, members of the
village advisory council (tuha peut), and
representatives of various groups in the
community (Farmers’ group, Fishermen’s
group, Women’s group, Youth’s group, etc).
FGD members were chosen by community
members.
73
• USAID/DAI’s community facilitators also
communicated with villagers, especially
vulnerable people like women and children,
in an informal manner to better understand
their situations, problems, and needs.
This communication was relayed to FGDs’
members. The results of this initiative were
the provision of kitchenware for the village
women’s group and food science training for
village women.
• The FGD consisted of 8-10 members and
was assigned for one project with different
members. However, due to their strategic
positions and the consideration of project
implementation smoothness, the head and
secretary of the village served as members
in every FGD.
• Village Office was designed by the USAID/
DAI’s technical staff, while its development
mainly employed local laborers. Like in
Mercy Corps’ projects, USAID/DAI did
not need to hire any contractors for their
projects due to simple construction of the
projects.
• USAID/DAI managed project funds and
dealt with builders and material suppliers.
According to USAID/DAI, this saved time and
minimized the misuse of funds.
• Program monitoring and evaluation was
primarily done by USAID/DAI in cooperation
with FGDs. Any complaints and consideration
from both parties and communities were
discussed mainly on a development stage
basis.
(Mulizarni, DAI’s communitcy facilitator March
2005 – Aug 2007, personal communication, June
8, 2010).
Table 11. The role of residents and other actors for each phase of USAID/DAI’s construction projects
(village office, volley ball court, and soccer field) in Lam Teungoh
Actor
Activity
Program
initiation
for village
redevelopment
Residents FGDs
USAID/ DAI Hired
Contractor
√
√
√
√
√
Project initiation
Design
Construction
Monitoring &
evaluation
√
√
√
√
Arnstein’s level
of community
participation
“partnership” (joint
decision making
between USAID/DAI
and the community,
but project funding
was managed by
USAID/DAI)
√
UPLINK (Lam Hasan Case)
Urban Poor Linkage (UPLINK) is an urban
poor community organizer focusing on urban
poverty and impoverishment isues. In the
reconstruction of Aceh after the tsunami,
UPLINK worked in many village areas to provide
homes, infrastructure reconstruction, economic
development, reinforcement of social relations
and cultural cohesion, and environmental
regeneration (Sudirman Arif, ex UPLINK’s
community organizer, personal communication,
May 5, 2010).
In Lam Hasan, UPLINK working with
villagers constructed 236 new homes and
rehabilitated 40. It also constructed roads and
drainage systems and recovered village-based
small scale economic activities. By adopting
participatory reconstruction approaches in
its development activities, UPLINK intended
to increase community cohesion, resilence
and reconciliation. The organization worked in
Lam Hasan about four years from 2005-2008
(Gampong Lam Hasan, 2008 & Gampong Lam
Hasan, 2009).
74
• In cooperation with the Indian NGO Abhiyan,
UPLINK established Udeep Beusaree
Network (Jaringan Udeep Beusare or JUB)
consisting of 25 neighboring coastal villages
stretching from Ulee Lheue to Lam Pageu
to enforce community involvement in post
tsunami redevelopment.
• JUB increased social cohesion of 25 village
communities and was a medium for
community workshops and empowering
communities to manage their lives. It
facilitated communities to discuss any issues
and problems resulting from the tsunami
and the possible solutions. In the early phase
of relief efforts, rather than taking quick
actions in carrying out construction projects
in the tsunami-affected areas, UPLINK
focused on facilitating JUB’s activities in light
of strengthening communal spirit among
community members, both intra- and intervillages.
• Before starting its Community Based
Housing Reconstruction Program (CBHRP),
UPLINK had to settle the dispute over land
ownership. Long disagreement about landtitling issues between BRR and the National
Land Affairs Agency (BPN) led UPLINK to
use a community land adjudication system
through a community land mapping process.
The results of the process were published to
finalize land boundaries. This participatory
process was quite effective and avoided the
long delays of the housing project. Later,
the agreement among communities, in
turn, resulted in the issuance of a land legal
certificate from BPN.
• In a series of meetings, communities sat
together to develop a village spatial plan
(facilitated by UPLINK) as a general reference
for any development activities in the village,
including the housing development project.
• Through CBHRP, UPLINK helped community
members become involved in all aspects of
the housing development process with the
final decision in the hands of the communitiy.
• In the first stage of housing development,
residents actively participated in land
surveying and mapping, data collection,
and housing design. For the housing design,
UPLINK adopted Community Action Planning
(CAP) methodology. UPLINK technical staff
helped communities prepare the housing
design.
• The Activity Managing Team (Tim Pengelola
Kegiatan or TPK) for housing construction
was established. Its members consisted of
3 people (supervisor, supplier coordinator,
and head of laborers) and were chosen by
villagers.
• Housing beneficiaries were grouped into
clusters of 5 households. Leaders and
representatives of clusters were elected
by the clusters’ members themselves.
Each cluster had a cluster savings account,
to receive funds for construction. These
funds were disbursed in 3 phases, based on
construction progress.
• UPLINK’s facilitators motivated community
members to strengthen social ties through
working with group members. UPLINK also
provided the community with training to
enhance community spirit and to support
construction projects. The training included,
among other things, mass mobilization,
building design, building materials and
construction.
• Housing beneficiaries had latitude to
employ laborers (including themselves if
possible) and dealt with material suppliers
for their housing development. In many
cases, local laborers were optimally used
which helped boost village economies. In
the case that reconstruction laborers and
resource requirements were not available in
the village, they were supplied from other
places.
• Housing beneficiaries with the help of TPK
acted as building inspectors and evaluators
for their own home construction or
rehabilitation.
• TPK managed funds for housing
development. It also helped beneficiaries
monitor, evaluate and report the
development progress on a development
stage basis.
75
• For the small scale construction of roads and
drainage, UPLINK also adopted community
based approaches. A particular TPK was
established for this and communities got
involved in provision of laborers and material
supply. In the asphalting phase, due to the
work complexity, UPLINK hired a contractor.
Meanwhile for drainage construction,
participatory approaches were used for
provision of materials and laborers for the
entire construction process.
Table 12. The role of residents and other actors for each phase of UPLINK’s projects in Lam Hasan
Actor
Activity
Program initiation
for village
redevelopment
Residents/
beneficiaries
TPKs
√
UPLINK
Hired
contractor
Arnstein’s level
of community
participation
√*
1. Housing construction and renovation
Project initiation
√
Design
√
Construction
√**
Monitoring &
√
evaluation
2. Small scale drainage construction
Project initiation
√
Design
Construction
√
Monitoring &
√
evaluation
3. Small scale road construction
Project initiation
Design
Construction
Monitoring &
evaluation
√*
√***
√
√*
√
√***
√
√*
√
√***
√
√*
“delegated
power”
(decision
making and
project funding
management
in the hands of
the community)
√*
√
√****
√
√*
√****
√
4. Small grants project for households’ business
Project initiation
Proposal making
Running of
business
Monitoring &
evaluation
*
**
***
****
√
√
√
√***
√*
√
√
√*
UPLINK facilitated the process
Beneficiaries could either build their houses or give the house construction to
professional builders
TPKs managed the process
Residents did not participate in the last part of construction (asphalting) because of the
work complexity; it was done by a hired contractor.
76
• In the village economic recovery, UPLINK provided households with small grants (Rp 3.2 –
3.5 million) that enable them to gain access to capital for income generating activities. One
TPK consisting of 3 elected representatives was established to handle project administration.
Households submitted their prioritized economic activities. Besides kinds of activities they
planned to carry out, they had to break down budget for needed equipment. UPLINK provided
households with technical assistance and finalized the proposal. The funds were disbursed
by BRI through the opening of household bank accounts. Economic activities proposed by
households included: composting, mushroom cultivation, rice farming, cattle and poultry
breeding, mechanical working, barbering, etc.
(Sudirman Arif, UPLINK’s community organizer, personal communication, May 5, 2010 & Campagnoli,
2007).
AIPRD (Lam Hasan Case)
Australia
Indonesia
Partnership
for
Reconstruction and Development (AIPRD),
jointly managed by the Australian and Indonesian
Governments, was developed to support
Indonesia’s reconstruction and development
efforts both in and beyond tsunami-affected
areas. In Aceh, AIPRD reconstructed public
infrastructure, rebuilt people’s livelihoods,
strengthened government service delivery,
democracy, and peace in the province (AIPRD,
2010).
AIPRD worked from January 2006- December
2007 in Lam Hasan. AIPRD successfully
constructed Village Office, tsunami victims’
cemetary fence and volleyball and table tennis
courts. AIPRD also provided stationery for village
office and equipment for village health clinic as
well as conducting training for management
and leadership (for village bureaucrats and
community leaders), capacity building of village
development cadre, women’s empowerment,
five year development plan and craftsmanship
(Gampong Lam Hasan, 2008 & Gampong Lam
Hasan, 2009).
• AIPRD consulted with village authorities to
discuss the possible efforts to rebuild the
village and the community.
• The Activity Managing Teams (Tim Pengelola
Kegiatan or TPK) were established for all
development projects (tsunami victims’
cemetery fence construction, and volleyball
court construction), except for village office
construction. One TPK was assigned for
one project. It consisted of 3 community
representatives and was elected by the
community.
• AIPRD techical staff made the construction
designs by taking residents’ input and
consideration into account.
• TPKs managed funds and laborers (except
for village office construction). Local laborers
were prioritized for the construction
process to provide jobs and empower the
community’s economy. The village office
was constructed by a hired contractor and
laborers from outside of the village were
employed for its construction.
• Program monitoring and evaluation were
done by AIPRD supported by communities.
Communities directed input and any
comments regarding projects to AIPRD.
Specifically for village office construction, it
was monitored and evaluated by the hired
contractor and AIPRD.
(Marziani, AIPRD’s community facilitator, Jan
2006 – Dec 2007, personal communication, July
27, 2010).
• Supported by village leaders, AIPRD
organized village meetings to gather
community’s wishes and aspirations.
The decision making process concerning
projects was based on agreement between
the community and AIPRD.
77
Table 13. The role of residents and other actors for each phase of AIPRD’s construction
projects (Village Office, tsunami victims’ cemetery fence, and volleyball and table
tennis courts) in Lam Hasan
Actor
Residents
TPKs
AIPRD
Activity
Program initiation for
village redevelopment
Project initiation
Design
Construction
Monitoring &
evaluation
Hired
Contractor
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√*
√*
Arnstein’s level
of community
participation
decision making
between AIPRD and
the community,
project funding
management in
the hands of the
community)
* For the village office, construction as well as monitoring and evaluation was done by a hired
contractor. For cemetery fence, and volleyball and table tennis courts, the contractor was not
involved in the project management.
World Vision (Lambung Case)
In response to the tsunami, World Vision,
a Christian relief, development and advocay
organization, carried out programs pertaining
to supporting tsunami survivors, rehabilitating
livelihoods and construction of public facilities.
Food was distributed and equipment and
supplies were provided to clinics, hospitals
and schools. World Vision also built temporary
shelters, permanent houses, temporary and
permanent schools as well as facilitating
massive training for teachers to achieve quality
education (World Vision Indonesia, 2010).
During its work time in Lambung, 20052010, World Vision has built temporary shelters,
warehouses, and artesian wells. Work Vision
has also provided knockdown buildings for a
temporary clinic and a temporary kindergarten.
This construction work was tackled during
the emergency period soon after the tsunami
through Indonesian Tsunami Response
Programs. Since 2007 (until present), with its
Aceh Development Program, World Vision has
focused on economic activities and community
health service empowerment. In the health
sector, World Vision has helped the village
health clinic develop its service through training
for clinic workers and provision of initial medical
equiment and medicine. In the economic
sector, World Vision has strengthened village
long-term livelihood prospects, as well as
strengthening residents’ confidence, skills and
expertise through the combination of training
and various economic activities. The economic
activities supported by World Vision include
producing Acehnese cakes (doi, meusekat, etc)
and other cakes, embroidering, and village fish
pond development. In 2010, the latter activity is
still in progress by strengthening the Village Fish
Pond Farmer Association (the establishment of
the association was facilitated by World Vision)
(Gampong Lambung, 2009).
• In the Lambung reconstruction relief right
after the tsunami until about 2 years later,
World Vision mostly accomodated Lambung
community’s proposal for needs and
priorities in in the village reconstruction. Like
many other relief organizations operationg in
Aceh, World Vision used a PRA (Participatory
Rapid Appraisal) method in the decision
making process. In this regard, World Vision
helped community members identify the
problems, design and implement program
activities. From its meetings with village
authorities and the community, World
Vision approved communities’ proposals
for the following reconstruction: barracks,
artesian well, temporary clinic, temporary
kindergarten building and warehouse.
78
• Communities got involved in the artesian
well reconstruction through the bidding
process with the bidding participants from
Lambung community.
• In health sector development, community
members were voluntarily involved in
providing service for patients in the World
Vision’s village clinic enhancement project.
World Vision itself provided some needed
equipment for the clinic.
• In the next period of time (2007-present),
World Vision has focused its work mainly
on economic and education development.
In Lambung, economic development has
taken up a large portion of World Vision’s
programs. World Vision proposed small
and medium enterprise development and
the establishment of the fish pond farmer
cooperative.
Table 14. The role of residents and other participants for each phase of World Vision’s artesian well
construction project in Lambung
Actor
Activity
Program initiation
for village
redevelopment
Residents/
benefeciaries
Committees
√
World
Vision
Hired
contractors
√
1. Artesian well construction
Project initiation
√
Design
√
Construction
√
Monitoring &
evaluation
√
√
√
2. Small grant project for individual(s) business
Project initiation
√
√
Proposal making
√
√*
Running of
business
√
√**
Monitoring &
evaluation
√
√
Project initiation
√
Administering of
the cooperative as
a corporate body
√
√
Monitoring &
evaluation
√
√***
√
“partnership”
(joint decision
making between
World Vision and
the community,
project funding
management in
the hands of the
community)
“partnership”
(joint decision
making between
World Vision and
the community)
√*
3. The establishment of the cooperative for fish pond farmers
Managing the
cooperative
Arnstein’s level
of community
participation
√
“informing”
(decision making
in the hands of
World Vision,
residents were
informed
their rights,
responsibilities
and options)
* World Vision facilitated the process
** World Vision conducted training (on bookkeeping, marketting, etc) for beneficiaries
*** World Vision in cooperation with microfinance institutions have been providing technical
assistance
79
• World Vision conducted training (on
bookkeeping, marketting, etc) for small
business development and provided the
community with the financial support for
the establishment of the cooperative for
fish pond farmers. The financial support
was used for the process of administering
the cooperative as a corporate body.
World Vision came up with the idea of
establishing the cooperative based on their
own initiative to boost the future village
economy. World Vision, in cooperation
with Aceh microfinance institutions, also
provided technical assistance to strengthen
cooperative management and performance.
So far, this cooperative has 25 members who
have been participating in this economic
project by making initial and monthly
member contributions.
(Mukhlishin, World Vision’s community
development coordinator, Sept 2009 –Sept
2010, personal communication, July 23, 2010)
UN-HABITAT (Merduati Case)
Immediately after the tsunami, United
Nations Human Settlements Programme (UNHABITAT), the agency for human settlements in
the UN system, started working to assess the
damage and support survivors to rebuild their
lives, their communities and economic activities.
UN-HABITAT, through the Aceh-Nias Settlements
Support Programme (ANSSP), which was part of
the UNDP’s broader Aceh Emergency Response
and Transitional Recovery (ERTR) Programme,
was involved in rehabilitation and reconstruction
of housing and community infrastructure,
introduction of risk mitigation infrastructure,
mapping of basic information at the level of
the settlement, and technical assistance and
policy support to the Aceh Nias Rehabilitation
and Reconstruction Agency (BRR) (UNDP & UNHABITAT, 2006; UN-HABITAT, 2006).
In Merduati, UN-HABITAT facilitated the
formulation of short‐term community planning
(Perencanaan Jangka Pendek or PJP) and
reconstructed 486 houses (445 new units and 41
rehabilitated ones). The housing reconstruction
project in the village and Peulanggahan Village
(both part of Kuta Raja subdistrict) was funded
through support from the Government of
United Arabs Emirates. The project started
operating in July 2005 with the establishment
of the field office, recruitment of staff
and staff training and ended in December
2007 (PNPM-Mandiri 2008; Turmuzi, personal
• Consultations with head of Merduati,
the committee for Rehabilitation and
Reconstruction’ (Komite Rehabilitasi dan
Rekonstruksi or KERAP) members and the
community to build a common vision in the
relief effort process. KERAP was part of P2KP
project and was formed beforehand.
• KERAP facilitated discussions on the
community’s needs to rebuild their lives
by using the Community Action Plan (CAP)
methodology. The product of the discussions
was a document on short‐term community
planning (Perencanaan Jangka Pendek or
PJP). This document was approved by the
village community and verified in the focus
group meetings attended by community
representatives. PJP prioritized construction
of the following infrastructure: roads, water
supply, drainage, school, mosque, and
community hall.
• Participatory mapping of the land ownership
boundaries was conducted to prepare the
settlement layout plan (the community land
adjudication system). This was important
for the land certification process required
by BPN.
• After the settlement layout was approved,
a series of meetings were organized to
determine whether the reconstruction was
still in the same location or relocation was
required. The communities finally decided
to rebuild in the same area.
• In the first stage of house construction, UNHABITAT facilitated communities to share
their ideas on house designs, construction
and the terms of their participation.
80
• Seven to thirteen households form one
cluster (Kelompok Pembangunan Rumah
or KPR). Each cluster had plotted their
previous land boundaries in coordination
with the surviving neighbours. KPR
consisted of 3 cluster representatives:
chair, secretary, and treasurer. They had
the authority to operate the KPR’s bank
account to receive funds from UN-HABITAT
as well as managing other issues related to
the housing reconstruction. At the village
level, beneficiaries were represented by TPK
consisting of 3 representatives of all KPRs
(chair, secretary, and treasurer).
• Monitoring started with supervision in each
KPR group (by a supervisor of each KPR).
The report to the village level will be made
if needed.
(UNDP & UN-HABITAT, 2006; UN-HABITAT, 2006).
Table 15. The role of beneficiaries and other participants for each phase of UN-HABITAT’s
housing project in Merduati
Actor
Benificiaries Committees UN-HABITAT Hired
Arnstein’s level
contractors of community
Activity
participation
Program initiation √
√
for village
decision between
redevelopment
UN-HABITAT and
the community,
Project initiation √
√
project funding
Design
√
√*
management in
Construction
√**
the hands of the
community)
Monitoring &
evaluation
√
√
√
* UN-HABITAT facilitated the process
** Beneficiaries could either build their houses or give the house construction to professional
builders
Administrative Participation
BRR (in 4 Case Study Village)
The Agency for the Rehabilitation and
Reconstruction of Aceh and Nias (Badan
Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi Aceh dan Nias,
BRR), established by the Government of
Indonesia on April 16, 2005 through the issuance
of Government Regulation in Lieu of Law (Perpu)
No. 2/2005, functioned to coordinate and
jointly implement a community-driven recovery
program for Aceh and Nias (BRR, 2009g). BRR
basically had the dual roles: coordinating
domestic and international efforts to rebuild
Aceh and Nias as well as implementing its own
projects (BRR, 2009c). BRR ended its term on
April 16, 2009. The relay of recovery work was
continued by the associated ministries/agencies
and regional governments.
In the four case study villages, BRR carried
out the following projects: house construction
(in Lam Teungoh, Lam Hasan, Merduati),
road construction (in all case study villages),
construction of drainage, prayer house, village
meeting hall, building for producing cakes and
Mukim (a legal communit unit formed from
several villages) Office (in Lambung), mosque
rehabilitation and water supply (in Merduati)
(Gampong Lambung, 2009; Gampong Lam
Hasan, 2008; Gampong Lam Teungoh, 2009;
PNPM-Mandiri, 2008). In addition, BRR also
provided grants and loans for the tsunami
victims to restart small businesses. Grants
were given directly from BRR (right after the
tsunami), while loans were then given through
microfinance institutions and cooperatives until
2008.
81
• Through the Committee for Acceleration
of Housing and Settlements Development
(KP4D), established by BRR’s initiative with
some of its members were community
representatives, BRR conducted surveys
about housing needs assessment (except
for Lambung which its housing project was
tackled by the Ministry of Public Works in
cooperation with the Multi Donor Funds).
These surveys involved community members
at the grassroots level coordinated by KP4D.
The final decision on the overall housing
development (number, beneficiaries, etc)
was made by BRR. Housing design and
funds were also managed by BRR, while
the construction was done by contractors.
These housing development approaches
which enable communities to participate in
the project in a less meaningful way were
adopted by BRR to prevent the high risks
borne by this new relief agency. The BRR
housing project was the biggest housing
construction project of all housing projects
managed by aid organizations/agencies in
the reconstruction process.
• Using its own and other parties’ data
and assessment (NGOs’, etc), BRR built
infrastructure such as roads, bridges, etc
by hiring contractors without necceseraly
employing village laborers in order to
achieve timely project targets (commercial
contracting model), in the tsunamiaffected areas. The choice of hiring
contractors was made in a situation where
BRR was a new relief agency which had a
lot of responsibilities in coordinating all
recovery efforts and in implementing its
own projects in a relatively short period
of time. In terms of implementing its own
project, BRR was responsible for the biggest
housing development project of all aid
organizations/agencies. In such a situation,
BRR should carefully consider the extent to
which communities would participate in its
projects to avoid the delay and unsuccesfull
results.
community at-large. BLT funds were fixed
amounts decided by BRR. BLM were given
based on proposals made by individuals or
parties considering the feasibility of projects
offered and the eligibility of benefeciaries
(economic conditions, etc).
• Later, BRR provided loans instead of
grants through microfinance institutions
and cooperatives for tsunami victims’
businesses and other community members
economic activities. This scheme also
required beneficiaries to make business
proposals. The microfinance institutions or
cooperatives would select the beneficiaries
based on the proposals. The microfinance
institutions and cooperatives received
technical
assistance
(management
assistance, training, internship programs,
etc) from BRR. Unfortunately, the low return
on loans caused by the misconception
among borrowers that the loans belong to
them still remains the biggest challenges.
• Program monitoring and evaluation for
housing construction was done by hired
contractors and BRR, while provision of
loans and grants by BRR and associated
microfinance institutions and cooperatives.
(Nazarul Khairi & Iqbal Barata, personal
communication, June 15, 2010, & August 18,
2010 respectively; BRR, 2009f).
• BRR provided grants for housing renovation
(BLT/Bantuan Langsung Tunai) and grants
for business capital (BLM/Bantuan Langsung
Masyarakat) for tsunami victims the
82
Table 16. The role of project participants for each phase of BRR’s projects in the four case study
villages
Actor
Activity
Residents/
beneficiaries
Community’s
committees
Program initiation
for village
redevelopment
BRR
Hired
contractors
Arnstein’s level of
community participation
√
1. Small scale public infrastructure and housing construction (roads,
drainage, village hall, prayer house, etc)
Project initiation
√
Design
√
√
Construction
√
Monitoring &
evaluation
√
√
2. Housing renovation
Project initiation
√
Design
√
Construction
√*
Monitoring &
evaluation
√
√
√
3. Grants and loans for supporting survivors’ economic activities
Project initiation
√
√
Business proposal
making
√
√**
Running of business
√
Monitoring and
evaluation
√***
“consultation”
and “placation”
(community’s input was
considered through
surveys and the
involvement of their
representatives in KP4D,
but the final decision
was in the hands of BRR)
decision between BRR
and the community,
project funding
management in
the hands of the
community)
decision between BRR
and the community,
project funding
management in
the hands of the
community)
*
Beneficiaries could either build their houses or give the house construction to professional builders
** BRR (through microfinance institutions or cooperatives) facilitated the process
*** Loans were monitored and evaluated by associated microfinance institutions and cooperatives
which gave the loans
The Ministry of Public Works and BRR/
ReKompak (Lambung Case)
The
Community-Based
Settlement
Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Project
(Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi Masyarakat dan
Permukiman or ReKompak) provided grants to
rebuild and repair houses and to rehabilitate
infrastructure using a community-driven
approach in the tsunami-affected areas in Aceh.
Funds for village infrastructure development
were distributed through the Urban Poverty
Project (Program Penanggulangan Kemiskinan
di Perkotaan or P2KP) and the Kecamatan
Development Project (Program Pengembangan
Kecamatan or PPK). At the beginning, ReKompak,
launched in early 2006, was executed under
the coordination of Ministry of Public Works.
Later, going through a step by step process, the
management and execution of the program was
handed over to BRR (BRR, 2009e).
83
As a whole, the work of ReKompak following
the Aceh tsunami was funded by the Multi
Donor Fund (MDF), International Development
Agency (IDA) and the Government of Indonesia
represented by BRR in cooperation with
Directorat General for Settlements, Ministry
of Public Works. Meanwhile in the Lambung
reconstruction, ReKompak’s funding source
came from MDF.
Three parties were involved in MDF: the
Government of Indonesia represented by
BRR, donors represented by the European
Commission and the World Bank as manager
of MDF. MDF’s members included donor
countries and international institutions, such
as the European Commission, United Kingdom,
Sweden, Norway, Germany, Canada, Belgium,
Finland, the United States, New Zealand, Ireland,
and the Asian Development Bank (BRR, 2009d).
ReKompak operated in Lambung from 20062009 focusing on the construction of 309 new
homes (Dedi Setiawan, ReKompak’s housing
facilitator, 2006-2009, personal communciation,
September 3, 2010) .
from ReKompak. Fund disbursement was set
up into 3 phases, based on the construction
progress. Funds allocated for a new house
were Rp 45 million and for a rehabilitated
one, Rp 15 million maximum.
• The community decided whether to
choose the self-employed or to work
with builders especially the local ones
(collectively organized by each cluster
group). Benefeciaries could use their own
funds to build bigger houses with the help
of ReKompak in building designs.
• Monitoring was done by each KP and
each beneficiary household leader. Both
beneficiary household leaders and KPs
should make progress reports on the
reconstruction progress.
• Housing facilitators accompanied TPK and
KP in the housing development process.
One facilitator was assigned to 3 KPs which
consisted of about 30 households.
(Dedi Setiawan, ReKompak’s housing facilitator,
2006-2009,
personal
communciation,
September 3, 2010).
• Supported by Rekompak, residents mapped
and assessed the damages in the village to
identify construction needs and housing
benefeciaries.
• At the beginning, housing designs were
offered to the community. However,
communities wanted the designs were
prepared by the Rekompak team. In
response to this request, ReKompak
provided a couple of alternative designs
and communities picked one.
• Communities formed the Settlers Groups
(Kelompok Pemukiman or KP), a group of
beneficiary families consisting of about
10 household leaders. In total, there
were 33 KPs on the list. Each household
democratically chose three representatives
to manage its own KP (chair, secretary, and
treasurer). At the village level, the Activity
Managing Team (TPK) was responsible for
the whole rehabilitation and reconstruction
of settlements in the village.
• KP representatives opened and operated
the KPR’s bank account to receive funds
84
Table 17. The role of residents and other participants for each phase of ReKompak’s housing project
in Lambung
Activity
Actor
Beneficiaries
TPK ReKompak
Team
Program initiation for village √
redevelopment
√
Project initiation
√
√
Design
Hired
contractors
decision between
Rekompak team
and the community,
project funding
management in
the hands of the
community
√
Construction
√*
Monitoring & evaluation
√
√
Arnstein’s level
of community
participation
√
* Beneficiaries could either build their houses or give the house construction to professional builders
The Ministry of Public Works/PNPM-Mandiri
(Merduati Case)
The National Community Empowerment
Program (Program Nasional Pemberdayaan
Masyarakat Mandiri or PNPM-Mandiri), a
government flagship program coordinated by
the Ministry of Planning (Badan Perencanaan
Pembangunan Nasional or Bappenas) and the
Coordinating Ministry Social Welfare (Kementrian
Koordinator Kesejahteraan Rakyat or Menko
Kesra), aims to increase community capacity to
implement a participatory development process
in reducing poverty and creating jobs through
the provision of investment resources to support
proposals developed by communities. PNPMMandiri was launched in 2007 and implemented
through the PPK and P2KP. Beginning in 2008,
all community empowerment programs for
poverty reduction managed by government
ministries and agencies were integrated into
PNPM Mandiri (PNPM-Mandiri, 2008; Ministry
of Public Works, 2009).
Following the tsunami, PNPM-Mandiri’s
projects in Aceh, especially in the tsunamiaffected areas, were then linked to the
reconstruction
effort.
PNPM-Mandiri’s
reconstruction projects in Aceh included
infrastructure reconstruction (roads, drainage,
water and sanitation facilities, etc), provision of
capital and financial resources through micro
credit for the poor, and inreasing community
and local government capacity through training
and disseminating information on business skills
and good governance.
In Merduati, as of 2008, community block
grant (Bantuan Langsung Masyarakat or BLM)
managed by PNPM-Mandiri was allocated for
two main activities: construction of economic
and social infrastructure as well as providing
microcredits through community-managed
revolving fund. The former comprised, among
others, construction of drainage, roads, and
a warehouse. The latter included providing
revolving funds for poor families who have no or
limited access to other sources of credit. These
funds were used to develop economic activities
of, among others, cattle and poultry breeders,
fishermen, notions traders, and meatball
vendors (PNPM-Mandiri, 2008).
• The socialization of the program (pertaining
to its objectives, participatory approaches,
basic principles, etc) was conducted in the
village and hamlet level meeting.
• A representative body to supervise
PNPM-Mandiri programs at the village
level, the Community Self-help Body
(Badan Keswadayaan Masyarakat or
BKM), was elected by the residents. To
syncronize its programs with the whole
village development plan, PNPM-Mandiri
coordinated with the village head.
• The revolving funds were managed by the
Financial Management Unit (Unit Pengelola
Keuangan or UPK) set up within BKM. UPK
members along with volunteers and other
development teams/units for construction
related activities were elected in the village
meeting.
85
• The community mapped and identified local
potential, problems and needs. The results
of this process were used by the community
for preparing community development
plans, namely the Three Year Village
Development Plan and the Annual Village
Development Plan. This plan contained
programs and activities designed to improve
the village conditions.
• Based on the community development
plan, villagers selected and determined the
local institution which would get involved
in the activity implementation, as well as
discussing funds disbursement, provision of
laborers, material and logistics.
• All activities were carried out by the
community facilitated by community
facilitators, a consultant, and local
government staff. For construction related
activities, local resources (laborers, skills,
etc) were prioritized.
• A review of the whole project performance
was undertaken by UPK and reported to BKM.
In particular, facilitators, the consultant,
and local government officials conducted
financial and performance audits.
• Project implementation progress was
reported on a monthly/couple of month
basis. The report included detailed project
implementation and problems faced on the
ground.
• Complaints and questions as to the projects
were directed to UPK, related development
teams, BKM and facilitators. These both
followed up the reported complaints and
questions if needed.
• In providing microcredits for poor families,
PNPM-Mandiri targeted residents with
small businesses. However, loan was also
allocated for other purposes (for instance
for education in Merduati case). The
microcredits were distributed through
group lending (about 10 people per group)
with the guarantee from the group. Group
leaders were responsible for collecting loan
repayments from their group members,
as well as in monitoring and managing
delinquent loans. Loan repayments are
usually made on a monthly basis and
collected by the group leaders who, in turn,
repay UPK on behalf of the group. Training
on bookeeping was provided to microcredit
groups, while technical assistance as to
revolving funds managment was provided
to UPK.
(Ministry of Public Works, 2009; PNPMMandiri, 2008; Raja Dalam, personal
Table 18. The role of residents and other participants for each phase of PNPM-Mandiri’s projects
in Lambung
Actor
Activity
Residents/
beneficiaries
Community
Development
Team
Program initiation for
village redevelopment
PNPM-Mandiri
Team
Hired
contractors
Arnstein’s level
of community
participation
√
1. Small scale construction project (drainage, roads, and warehouse)
Project initiation
√
Design
√
Construction
√
√
√
√*
√
2. Microcredits for poor families
Project initiation
√
Proposal making
√
Running of business
√
√
√*
√
√*
√
√
“partnership”
(joint decision
between
PNPM-Mandiri
Team and the
community,
project funding
management in
the hands of the
communty)
* PNPM-Mandiri team facilitated the process
86
Summary of Aid Organization/Agency- did not want to risk its projects and relied very
promoted Participation and Administrative much on its own and contractors’ roles in project
Participation in the Four Case Study Villages management. In this regard, BRR only engaged
Based on aid organization/agency experience
in exercising community participation in posttsunami redevelopment described above, it can
be concluded that there are many ways that
communities could participate in post-tsunami
redevelopment both in decision making and
project management. In decision making,
communities in cooperation with or facilitated
by aid organizations/agencies could play a role
in the program and project initiation process.
This process begin with the identification of the
existing situation, problems and needs as well
as setting priorities. Specifically, in terms of the
infrastructure projects, the participation ranges
from design, construction, and monitoring and
evaluation. Meanwhile, in the case of grants or
loans for small businesses, the participation
includes proposal making for businesses,
operation of businesses, and monitoring and
evaluation.
Of all aid organizations/agencies, UPLINK
was the only party applying “delegated power”
level of participation in its recovery projects in
Lam Hasan, including housing construction and
renovation, public infrastructure construction,
and small business development. In the whole
process of its infrastructure, economic, and
other projects, UPLINK consistently empowered
the community by facilitating the community in
decision making and project management. The
final decision was in the hands of the community.
All aid organizations/agencies, except for
the Ministry of Public Works (PNPM-Mandiri)
and BRR (Indonesian government agencies),
endorsed communities to participate in the
development of recovery programs and projects.
The absence of community participation in
decision making of PNPM-Mandiri’s program
was caused by the fact that PNMP-Mandiri is
the continuation of the previous programs that
had been designed by the central government
long before the tsunami. Meanwhile, BRR with
no experience in implementing community
participation approaches (as a new agency)
and its large scale housing and infrastructure
construction projects (for housing projects, the
biggest in all tsunami affected areas in Aceh
compared to other aid organizations/agencies),
communities in the rebuilding process by
considering their input through surveys and the
involvement of communities’ representatives
on the related board. The final decision was in
the hands of BRR. Only in housing renovation
projects and small grants projects for business
which had relatively low risk, BRR gave more
space for the community to participate by
joint decision making between BRR and the
communitiy/beneficiaries (“partnership” level
of participation).
Except for BRR’s housing reconstruction
project, most aid organization/agencies applied
“partnership” Arnstein’s level of participation in
implementing their construction projects. They
made decisions regarding projects together
with communities and involved communities in
project management in a meaningful manner.
In project design, they facilitated communities
in the design process (UPLINK and UNHABITAT). In cases where communities were
not capable of making the design (based on
their or communities’ appraisal), they handled
it (Rekompak, Mercy Coprs, AIPRD, USAID/
DAI, PNPM, and World Vision). Construction
was handled by communities (managed by
communities through self-help or appointing
professional builders). The use of local laborers
contributed to boosting village economies.
However, the complexity of asphalting work in
road construction in Lam Hasan led UPLINK to
hire a contractor for finishing the work. Only
village office construction (AIPRD’s project in
Lam Hasan) was handled by a hired contractor.
With regard to monitoring and evaluation, aid
organizations/agencies and communities mostly
worked together except for the few number of
contractor-based projects.
Two economic projects, namely the
establishment of the village owned enterprise
in Lam Teungoh (Mercy Corps) and the
establishment of the cooperative for fish pond
farmers in Lambung (World Vision) fall into the
“informing” level of participation due to the
absence of communities involvement in the
decision making process.
87
However, this occured because these projects
were advanced ones in which communities had
no initial idea on these matters, while Mercy
Corps and World Vision considered the projects
important for boosting the future village
economy. Meanwhile, the other economic
project, i.e. small business development for
low income community members supported
by Mercy Corps, World Vision, and PNPMMandiri fall into the “partnership” category
since the final decision was made based on the
agreement from the aid organizations/agencies
and communities.
Consequently, it is obvious that the extent
to which communities participate in the
reconstruction effort is associated with the
willingness and capacity of aid organizations/
agencies, the nature of recovery projects and
the readiness of communities to participate. It
is also important to note that adequate time
in exercising participation (UPLINK case in Lam
Hasan) and community facilitators’ informal
approaches to engage communities in the
reconstruction effort (USAID/DAI case in Lam
Teungoh) are also significant for optimizing
participation.
Table 19. The comparison of communities and other participants’ roles for each phase of Aid
Organizations/Agencies’ projects in the four case study villages (the role of communities
is highlighted)
Actor
NGOs
International Agencies
Indonesian Gov’t Agencies
Ministry of Pub. Works
UP LINK
(Lam
Hasan)
AIPRD
(Lam
Hasan)
World
Vision
(Lambung)
USAID/
DAI
(Lam
Teungoh)
UNHA-BITAT
(Mer-duati)
Rekompak
(Lambung)
PNPMMand.
(Merduati)
Mercy-Comm
UPLINKComm
AIPRDComm
WVComm
USAIDComm
UNHABITATComm
RekComm
PNPMMand.
BRR
Activity
Program
initiation for
village redev’t
BRR
(4 case
study
villages)
Mercy Corps
(Lam Teungoh)
1. Housing construction
Project
initiation
-
Comm
-
-
-
UNHABITATComm
RekComm
-
BRR
Design
-
Comm
-
-
-
Comm
Rek
-
BRR
Construction
-
Comm
-
-
-
Comm
Comm
-
Con
Monitoring &
evaluation
-
UPLINKComm
-
-
-
UNHABITATComm
RekComm
-
Con-BRR
Arnstein’s
level of
participation
-
Delegated
power
-
-
-
Partner-ship
Partnership
-
Consultation &
placation
2. Housing renovation
Project
initiation
-
Comm
-
-
-
UNHABITATComm
-
-
BRR-Comm
Design
-
Comm
-
-
-
Comm
-
-
Comm
Construction
-
Comm
-
-
-
Comm
-
-
Comm
Monitoring &
evaluation
-
UPLINKComm
-
-
-
UNHABITATComm
-
-
BRR-Comm
Arnstein’s
level of
participation
-
Delegated
power
-
-
-
Partner-ship
-
-
Partnership
88
3. Small scale public infrastructure project
Project
initiation
MercyComm
Comm
AIPRDComm
WV
USAIDComm
-
-
PNPMComm
BRR
Design
Mercy
Comm
AIPRD
Comm
USAID
-
-
Comm
BRR
Construction
Comm
Comm &
ConComm
Comm &
Con-Res’t
Comm
Comm
-
-
Comm
Con
Monitoring &
evaluation
MercyComm
UPLINKComm
AIPRDCommCon
WV-Comm
USAIDComm
-
-
PNPM-Comm
Con-BRR
Arnstein’s
level of
participation
Partnership
Dele-gated
power
Partnership
Partnership
Partnership
-
-
Partnership
Consultation &
Placation
4. Small business development (grants, loan, training, etc)
Project
initiation
MercyComm
Comm
-
WV-Comm
-
-
-
PNPM-Comm
BRR
Proposal
making
Comm
Comm
-
Comm
-
-
-
Comm
Comm
Running of
business
Comm
Comm
-
Comm
-
-
-
Comm
Comm
Monitoring &
evaluation
Mercy
UPLINKComm
-
WV-Comm
-
-
-
PNPM-Comm
BRRComm
Arnstein’s
level of
participation
Partnership
Dele-gated
power
-
Partnership
-
-
-
Partnership
Partnership
Comm: The community; Con: Hired contractor
Arstein’s level community participation:
• Delegated power: decision making was
in the hands of the community, the aid
organization/agency only facilitates the
process
• Partnership: joint decision making between
the aid organization/agency and the
community
• Consultation and placation: community’s
input was considered through surveys and
the involvement of its representatives on
the related board, but the final decision was
in the hands of the aid organization/agency
2.3 Benefits, Supporting Factors and Constraints
of Community Participation
Community participation in post-tsunami
redevelopment in four case study villages has
brought about positive impacts on tsunami
survivors, villagers and villages as a whole.
Particular benefits were gained by each village.
Immediate survivors’return to the village
coordinated by their charismatic head of village
in Lam Teungoh accelerated the villagers’
economic recovery process. The majority of
residents who worked as fishermen were able to
go to sea to make a living again. The return also
encouraged various aid organizations/agencies
to take quick efforts to rebuild the village
(Husaini, personal communication, March 8,
2010). The choice of qualified Activity Managing
Teams’ (TPKs) members in Lam Hasan resulted in
a relatively quick process of project management
(Marziani, personal communication, July
27, 2010). Lambung community members’
endurance and preserverance in a long and
tough village mapping and land consolidation
process, as well as their willingness to give
their land without any compensation resulted
in more organized existing settlements (Zaidi,
personal communication, July 2, 2010).
The role of community leaders, particularly
religious leaders, in involving residents in the
reconstruction projects in Merduati influenced
the increase in the number of residents involved
in the participatory process (Raja Dalam,
personal communication, August 19, 2010),
although its number (percentage) still lagged
behind the three other villages.
89
Aside from specific achievements, the four
case study villages also gained similar benefits
by exercising community participation in their
village redevelopment. The major benefits
included improving community capacity
building in organizing community resources and
project management (planning, funding, design,
construction and monitoring and evaluation);
meeting community’s needs; reducing traumatic
feelings among survivors; and providing more
income for communities from reconstruction
related jobs (through the cash-for-work projects
and community contracting model of housing
and public infrastructure projects, etc). In
terms of reducing traumatic feelings, survivors’
involvement in the village relief efforts, to some
extent, shifted their attention from post-tsunami
depression (due to loss of family members, etc)
to reconstruction activities (Husaini, Bukhari,
Turmuzi, & Zaidi, personal communication,
March 8, 2010, May 9, 2010, August 14, 2010, &
July 2, 2010, respectively).
In terms of constraints and supporting
factors of the participation process, they varied
from village to village. Socio-cultural and
economic conditions, leadership, communities’
endurance in participatory process, and social
ties determined the success of community
participation in post-tsunami redevelopment.
In the case of Lam Teungoh, lack of knowledge
among community members (especially
vulnurable people like women and children)
which was caused by low income conditions
inhibited them from actively participating in
decision making. In this regard, the situation was
handled by the role of community USAID/DAI’s
facilitators in improving their self confidence
and absorbing their aspirations through informal
interaction between the aid organization and
the community. The facilitators also played an
important role in channeling their wishes to
FGDs members, which in turn, resulted in the
accommodation of their needed projects such
as provision of women’s group building and
kitchenware (Husaini, personal communication,
March 8, 2010). Meanwhile, native inhabitants
tended to be more attached to their village
and had strong social ties which helped the
participatory process. In cases of Lam Teungoh
and Lambung (the majority of their inhabitants
were native), for instance, villagers were
relatively easy to mobilize for collective action
(Husaini & Bukhari, personal communication,
March 8, 2010 & May 9, 2010 respectively).
Merduati which had a lot of new inhabitants had
difficulties in involving them in the participatory
process (Turmuzi, personal communication,
August 14, 2010). In the future it is important
for Merduati to conduct any activities that can
improve the sense of village ownership among
new inhabitants, so that they will be willing to
get involved in the village development process.
Other constraints of community participation
included communities’ reluctant to relocate
or give their land for public facilities, low
coordination between aid organizations and
government, time consuming process of
participation, and the negative effect of “the
cash-for-work” projects. In Lam Teungoh, Lam
Hasan, and Merduati, a common agreement
concerning a redrawing of boundaries and
land-use pattern between residents could
not be achieved because post-tsunami land
certification process from BPN (National Land
Affairs Agency) took place slowly and/or the
reluctance of residents to give their ancestorinherited land even with compensation (Husaini,
Bukhari, & Turmuzi, personal communication,
March 8, 2010, May 9, 2010, & August 14, 2010
respectively). On the contrary, Lambung leaders
(the head of the village and religious leaders)
succeded in convincing residents to give their
land to build more organized settlements.
The leaders stated that contributing land was
part of religious service which would bring
merit to residents’ ancestors (Zaidi, personal
communication, July 2, 2010)
Low coordination between aid organizations
and government particularly in the beginning
periode of reconstruction leading to unsuccesful
projects in Lam Teungoh and Lam Hasan,
for instance, also resulted in the decrease in
community’s moral in getting involved in the
participatory process. The unusable boat dock
due to the mistake of development location
choice (quite far from the beach line) done by
BRR in Lam Teungoh and the unfunctioned
tab water pipelines built in Lam Hasan by BRR
because of not gaining support from Localowned Water Supply Company or PDAM)
resulted in disappointment among communities.
90
Apart from the unproper feasibility study of
the project, the former case also happened since
BRR did not properly involve the community,
especially fishermen, in the planning phase of
the project. The fishermen then ignored the
implementation of the project although they
apprehended the wrong project location choice.
The latter case was caused by the careless of
BRR as the coordinator agency of post-tsunami
redevelopment in involving the related agency
in its project management (Husaini & Bukhari,
personal communication, March 8, 2010, & May
9, 2010, respectively).
In Lambung, a common agreement on
village mapping land consolidation among
community members took a long and tough
process. Permanent homes for residents could
be occupied around 2007. However, residents’
endurance and patience in the negotiation
process as well as trust among them resulted
in more organized settlements (Zaidi, personal
communication, July 2 , 2010).
The involvement of community members
in the reconstruction effort was also distracted
by the implementation of the cash-for-work
(cleaning up the village) projects managed by
several NGOs in the four case study villages.
This project was a dilemma. One the one hand,
it provided an income for survivors in the
emergency period. On the other hand, it led
many community members to be reluctant to
work for pure voluntary relief activities after
the emergency period. They would seriously
consider participating in the voluntary activities
(attending village meetings, being reconstruction
committee members, etc) as long as there were
financial incentives in return. Nowadays, after
the reconstruction process is over, gotong
royong kampung (a traditional community
self-help at the village level) that provides no
financial incentives tends to be attended by a
small number of residents (Husaini, Bukhari,
Turmuzi, & Zaidi, personal communication,
March 8, 2010, May 9, 2010, August 14, 2010, &
July 2, 2010, respectively).
role in the return of survivors to their village
and initial post tsunami redevelopment in Lam
Teungoh (Husaini, personal communication,
March 8, 2010). Decisive action shown by head
of Lam Hasan village by cancelling some delayed
UPLINK’s projects enabled this village to receive
support from other relief organizations/agencies
to maitain the continuity of the reconstruction
efforts. Head of this village also contributed in
giving input for capable candidates for TPKs’
members, which in turn, accelerated village
relief (Marziani, personal communication,
July 27, 2010). In Merduati, close relations
between village bureaucrats and informal
community leaders led to a relatively smooth
reconstruction management at the village level
(Raja Dalam, personal communication, August
19, 2010). In Lambung, the head of the village’s
bravery and exact calculation in a community
land adjudication decision was a starting point
for the success of creating more orderly and
planned village. In addition, his decision on
the uniformity of house construction types
(by allowing only Rekompak/MDF to manage
the whole housing project in the village)
strengthened togetherness and avoided jealous
feelings among community members (Dedi
Setiawan, personal communication, September
3, 2010).
Last but not least, the community
participation process also needs to be supported
by networking and creativity. Lambung case
shows that village’s broad networking with
various parties and individuals gave the village
access to financial support and reconstruction
information. Lambung’s creative initiatives for
opening a community bank account to receive
donations (with public announcement) as well
as the advertisement of village meetings in
the media were also significant for creating a
conducive environment for community driven
development.
Aside from social ties, the performance
and capacity of village bureaucrats and
community leaders apparently was also a major
determinant of involving the community in
the village rebuilding process. The charismatic
head of Lam Teungoh village took a leading
91
Table 20. Constraints, supporting factors, and benefits of community participation in the four case
study villages
Village
Lam Teungoh
Lam Hasan
Lambung
Merduati
(less developed, very
severely affected)
(less developed,
moderately to
severely affected)
(more
developed, very severely
affected)
(more developed,
moderately to severely
affected)
Socio-culture
-coastal rural area
-education level: 40%
have no education
-lots of native
inhabitants
-coastal rural area
-education level:
58% senior high, 7%
undergraduate and
higher
-mix of native and
new inhabitants
-semi urban area
-education level: 62% senior
high, 21% undergraduate
-lots of native inhabitants
-urban area
-education level:
48% senior high, 20%
undergraduate and
higher
-lots of new inhabitants
Economy
-major occupation:
fishermen and farmers
-very low income (Rp
800,000 – 1 million)
-major occupation:
private & state
company workers
and farmers
-low income (Rp 1 –
1.2 million)
-major occupation: private
company workers and civil
servants
-middle income (Rp 1.5 –
1.75 million)
-major occupation:
private company
workers, civil servants,
and traders
-middle income (Rp 2.5
million)
Supporting factors
of community
participation (strategies
of participation)
-strong leadership
-strong social ties
-USAID/DAI
facilitators’ informal
approaches to engage
uneducated villagers in
redevelopment
-capable
community’s
committee members
-decisive head of
village’s decision
on reconstruction
efforts
-adequate time
in exercising
participation
-capable head of village and
comunity leaders
-strong social ties
-creativity (public account,
meeting adv’t)
-broad networking
-religious approach
--residents willing to
relocate or give their land
for village redev’t
-One type of house design
and construction for all
beneficiaries
-close working
relations between
village bureaucrats and
community leaders
Constraints of
community
participation
-reluctant to relocate or
to contribute land
-low coordination
among aid organizations
-lack of knowledge and
skills among lots of
community members
-“income generated”
cash- for-work projects
(debris removal) ruin
traditional volunteer
program gotong royong
-reluctant to
relocate or to
contribute land
-low coordinations
among aid
organizations
-“income generated”
cash-for-work
projects ruin
traditional volunteer
program gotong
royong
-time consuming process
of village mapping and
land consolidation (about
2 years)
- many new residents
were difficult to
mobilized because of
many of new residents
- reluctant to relocate or
to contribute land
--“income generated”
cash-for work-projects
ruin traditional program
gotong royong
Benefits of community
participation
Immediate community’s
return to the village
after tsunami
accelerated the village
recovery process
Qualified committee
members resulted
in the quickness of
project management
More organized settlements
as a result of villagers’
endurance in the
participation process & their
willingness to contribute
their land
Improved sense of
village ownership (a
little) among inhabitants
due to the religious
leaders’ role
Component
-Improving community capacity building in project management
-Meeting community’s needs
-Providing more income for communities (from reconstruction jobs)
-Reducing traumatic feelings.
92
2.4 Discussion
The research findings show that types
of participation discussed in theory (“ad
hoc” and aid organization/agency-promoted
participation) have been implemented in posttsunami redevelopment in Aceh. The occurance
of “ad hoc” participation (participatory activities
mainly mobilized by community members) in
the four case study village was basically related
to communities’ urgent needs right after the
tsunami as well as community members’
creativity and networking. The urgent needs
of communities led the residents of the four
case study villages to partipate in (1) corpse
evacuation; (2) data collection on the death
toll in their own village; and (3) disseminating
disaster-related information. Communities
had no choice except to participate in these
activites because aid agencies were still not
involved actively in the relief effort at that time.
All case study villages, except for Merduati,
also participated in barrack/temporary shelter
development. The non-existence of temporary
shelter development in Merduati resulted from
the lack of coordination among its community
members due to the death of its former head
of village in the tsunami and its proximity to the
capital city which resulted in easy access to relief
assistance. The role of creativity and networking
in exercising “ad hoc” particpation can be seen
in the case of Lambung village. This village
made some breakthroughs through resident
initiatives in village development planning, land
contribution for public facilities, opening a bank
account for public donations, advertising village
meetings, and public facility construction with
village funds.
With regard to aid organization/agencypromoted participation (participation promoted
by NGOs, international agencies, and Indonesian
Government Agencies), the findings indicate that
the extent to which communities were involved
in this kind of participation was associated with
the willingness and capacity of aid organizations/
agencies, the nature of recovery projects, and
the readiness of communities to participate.
In addition, adequate time in exercising
participation (UPLINK case in Lam Hasan), and
community facilitators’ informal approaches
to engage communities in the reconstruction
effort (USAID/DAI case in Lam Teungoh) are also
significant for optimizing participation.
This findings show that besides requiring the
willingnes and capacity of aid/organizations/
agencies and the readiness of communities
as well as the adequate time in exercising
participation as suggested by theory, the
implementation (the level) of community
participation in the case of post-tsunami
redevelopment in Aceh also relates to the
nature of recovery project. The establishment
of the village owned enterprise in Lam Teungoh
(Mercy Corps) and the establishment of the
cooperative for fish pond farmers in Lambung
(World Vision), for instance, took place with
the absence of communities involvement in the
decision making process because those NGOs
considered these projects advanced ones in
which communities had no initial idea on these
matters.
By exercising community participation in
their village redevelopment, the four case study
villages also gained benefits including improving
community capacity building in project
management, meeting community’s needs,
providing more income for communities (from
reconstruction jobs), and reducing traumatic
feelings as suggested by theory.
Specifically,
the
benefits
of
the
implementation of community participation for
communities included accelerating the village
economic recovery process (Lam Teungoh
case), a quick process of project management
(Lam Hasan case), more organized settlements
(Lambung case), and an improved sense of
village ownership among inhabitants (Merduati
case). Based on information from the heads of
the villages, it can be concluded that constraints
of community participation included low
coordination among aid organizations/agencies
(Lam Teungoh and Lam Hasan cases), lack of
knowledge among community members (Lam
Teungoh case), the long participatory process
(Lambung case), and the bad influence of
“income generated” cash for work projects
(Lam Teungoh, Lam Hasan, and Merduati cases).
approaches, and residents’ willingness to make
contributions (Lambung case).
93
Meanwhile,
supporting
factors
of
participation included leadership (Lambung,
Lam Hasan, and lambung cases), social ties
(Lam Teungoh and Lambung cases), community
facilitator’s approaches (Lam Teungoh case), as
well as information on participatory activities,
networking, religious
3. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This research finds that the occurrence of
“ad hoc” participation (participatory activities
mainly mobilized by community members)
was related to community members’ urgent
needs right after the tsunami as well as their
creativity and networking. With regard to aid
organization/agency-promoted
participation
(participation mobilized by NGOs, international
agencies, and the Indonesian Government), the
findings indicates this kind of participation was
associated with the willingness and capacity of
aid organizations/agencies, nature of recovery
projects, readiness of residents to participate,
adequate time in exercising participation, and
community facilitators’ approaches.
This study has several limitations, many of
which should be addressed in future research.
The first is that community participation in the
four case study villages cannot really represent
community participation in Aceh. A much larger
number of villages with representative districts/
cities affected by the tsunami will better reflect
the portrait of community participation in the
tsunami affected villages in the entire Province.
Second, for the aid organization/agency, besides
the addition of its number, its variety (in terms
of, for instance, the scale of funding and country
of origin) should also be considered so that
aid organizations/agencies selected are more
representative of all aid organizations.
The research findings suggest that the success
of community participatory approaches in postdisaster redevelopment requires the willingness
and readiness of stakeholders (government, aid
organizations/agencies, community leaders, and
community members) and cooperation among
them. Results also suggest that government
should educate and train all stakeholders
as to community participation approaches.
The hope is that this effort help improve the
awareness and capacities of the stakeholders in
implementing community participation in postdisaster redevelopment.
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96
IDENTIFYING LOW CARBON TECHNOLOGY FOR
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Kardono
Center of Environmental Technology, Agency for The Assessment and Application
of Technology
20th Fl Building II BPPT, Jl. MH. Thamrin No. 8 Jakarta
Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change and Sustainable Development
IDENTIFYING LOW CARBON TECHNOLOGY FOR SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
Kardono
Center of Environmental Technology, Agency for The Assessment and Application of Technology
20th Fl Building II BPPT, Jl. MH. Thamrin No. 8 Jakarta
ABSTRACT
Over the past 30 years, significant findings regarding global warming highlighted the need to curb
carbon emissions. Carbon emissions are believed acting as green house gas (GHG) that heat the
atmosphere. In terms of carbon emissions, both developed and developing countries have basically
employed technologies at certain levels. These technologies have contributed in emitting carbon
dioxide (CO2) and resulted CO2 concentration in the atmosphere to increase.
From this, the idea for low carbon power was born. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), set the scientific precedence for the introduction of low carbon power or in general
it can be called as a low carbon technology (LCT). In the application of LCT in developing countries
such as Indonesia there are some constraints that need to be resolved. The first problem is about
the imported LCT due to the human resource capability and opportunity, and the second one is the
financial limitation.
Actually as a developing country, Indonesia has voluntarily committed to reduce its GHG emissions
by 26% by 2020 with its self financing or 41% with addition of foreign aids. This target will carry
consequences for Indonesia to make an action plan and at the same time to choose which LCTs are
employed in reducing GHGs to support the target. Several state documents have been launched for
curbing carbon emission, particularly from energy sources.
This paper will focus on discussing LCT of energy sector since the LCT is usually applied much
more in the energy areas than others. From 2009 TNA study, the technology option for reducing
CO2 emission (LCT) is suggested both for supply and demand sides. For supply side technology
it is prioritized for clean coal technology, geothermal and renewable energy resources including
biomass, hydro, wind, solar. For demand side, priority of technology is given to energy efficiency
technologies for industrial, residential and commercial building. Also, soft technology such as energy
audit, energy rating and labeling was proposed. Technology option for transportation sector is
outlined. Those are the use of advance lightweight material, power and control system and engine
technology. In terms of fuel used, the vehicles are suggested to utilize cleaner alternative fuel such
as gas to substitute gasoline. Transport demand management is also proposed to improve, like
using intelligent transportation system (ITS) and mass rapid transportation system (MRTS).
1. INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is a nation of about 17,500 islands
located between Asia and Australia continents.
It is the world’s largest archipelagic state with
population of more than 250 million people
and the world’s fourth most populous country.
More than 80% of its populations live in
agriculture and fishery sectors, which is highly
susceptible to climate variability. Serving as
the lung of world climate, Indonesia has forest
land coverage about 120.3 million hectares.
High economic growth in the last decades has
led to growing demand of energy supply and
utilizations in the country. This growing energy
demand goes in hand with increasing carbon
(CO2) emissions.
Climate change is a common problem at
98
global scale that needs cooperation among
nations for its mitigation and adaptation. No
individual country is able to solve the problem
by itself because of its scale and complexity. In
order to meet the principle of “common but
differentiated responsibility” it is often found
to be contradicted with the national interest of
each country. In fact, GHG emissions and their
impact do not depend on nation boundaries
and therefore they need to be worked out
cooperatively.
Over the past 30 years, significant findings
regarding global warming highlighted the need
to curb carbon emissions. Carbon emissions
are believed to be the cause of green house gas
(GHG) effects that heat the atmosphere.
Anthropogenic CO2 is the main source of GHG
accumulation in the atmosphere, due to the use
of fossil fuel since industrial revolution in 18th
century. In many cases, the use of technology
such as fossil fuel combustion results in negative
impact to the environment, in addition to its
benefit to the people. Carbon dioxide emission
from fossil combustion technology causing global
warming is an example of its negative impact
to the environment. Actually, both developed
and developing countries at certain levels have
employed technologies that contribute to
increase in CO2 emission in the atmosphere.
It is therefore required a cooperation among
all nations to apply all potential technologies
for current global problem of climate change
mitigation and adaptation. Thus, a series of
negotiation and conferences under UNFCCC has
been directed in the effort of applying low carbon
technology (LCT) to reduce GHG emissions as
well as to anticipate climate change impact.
LCT comes from processes or technologies
that, at the point of generation, release less
carbon dioxide than traditional means of power
generation. It includes zero carbon power
sources, such as wind, solar, geothermal, nuclear
power, as well as sources with slightly lowerlevel emissions than coal and oil, such as natural
gas. Increase energy efficiency is also considered
to be a LCT since it generates less CO2 emission.
The primary problem in implementing
those technologies is differences in technology
mastery between developed and developing
countries. The owners of these technologies
in developed countries are private entities
holding intellectual property right (IPR) for their
technologies. On the other hand, developing
countries are not yet ready in implementing
those technologies due to financial constraint
or limitation in human resource capabilities. It
is important for developing countries to always
assess and find low carbon technology that is
appropriate for their needs.
2. CONDITION OF ENERGY GENERATION AND USE IN INDONESIA
Total energy consumption in Indonesia
in 2006 was about 853.8 million BOE. Its
composition by sector was industry (37.14%),
residential (36.65%), transportation (20.09%),
commercial (2.57%), and others (3.55%) as
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Energy consumption by Sectors in
2006 (Source: Handbook of Energy &
Economic Statistics of Indonesia (2006)
taken from TNA 2009).
in 2020, as shown in Table 1. Its composition
in 2012 by fuel is HSD (8.57%), MFO (2.38%),
gas (21.09%), LNG (3.74%), coal (54.37%),
hydro (5.54%), solar/hybrid (0.002%), biomass
(0.03%) and geothermal (4.27%).
Whereas
its composition in 2020 is estimated to be HSD
(0.7%), MFO (0.02%), gas (8.31%), LNG (8.49%),
coal (64.20%), hydro (5.77%), solar/ hybrid
(0.002%), biomass (0.02%), import (0.09%) and
geothermal (12.39%).
In 2010 installed capacity for Java-Bali energy
generation system was 23,206 MW, consisted of
hydro (10.9%), steam power from coal (39.5%),
from gas/oil (4.3%) and from oil (2.2%), steam
gas power from gas/oil (19.4%) and from oil
(9.2%), gas power from gas/oil (1.1%) and from
oil (8.5%), diesel power (0.3%), and geothermal
(4.5%), as shown in Table 2 and Figure 2. Figure
3 shows the projection of CO2 emission in
Indonesia if electricity production is done with
fuel mix as listed in Table 1. Figure 3 indicates
that CO2 emission in Indonesia will increase
from
Total electricity production based on fuel
types in Indonesia is 202,386 GWh in 2012
and is predicted to increase to 371,373 GWh
99
IDENTIFYING LOW CARBON TECHNOLOGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Table 1. Electricity production based on fuel types in Indonesia (GWh) in 2012 and their
predictions in 2020
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Fuel Type
HSD
MFO
Gas
LNG
Coal
Hydro
Solar/Hybrid
Biomass
Import
Geothermal
Total
2012
17,346
4,807
42,691
7,578
110,043
11,204
4
63
8,650
202,386
(Source: RUPTL-PLN 2011-2010)
%
8.57
2.38
21.09
3.74
54.37
5.54
0.002
0.03
0.00
4.27
100.00
2020
2,635
65
30,879
31,541
238,432
21,429
7
63
317
46,005
371,373
%
0.71
0.02
8.31
8.49
64.20
5.77
0.002
0.02
0.09
12.39
100.00
Table 2. Installed capacity (MW) of electricity generation system in Java-Bali, 2010
Generation type
IP
1. Hydropower
1,103
2. Steam Power:
• Coal
3,400
• Gas/Oil
• Oil
500
3. Steam-Gas Power:
• Gas/Oil
1,180
• Oil
1,496
4. Gas Power:
•
Gas/Oil 40
•
Oil
806
5. Diesel power
76
6. Geothermal
360
Total
8,961
(Source: RUPTL 2011-2020, PLN)
PJB
1,283
PLN
IPP
150
System
2,536
%
10.9
800
1,000
1,920
-
3,050
-
9,170
1,000
500
39.5
4.3
2.2
2,587
640
740
-
-
4,507
2,136
19.4
9.2
62
320
6,692
858
3,518
150
685
4,035
252
1,948
76
1,045
23,206
1.1
8.5
0.3
4.5
100
141 Million Tons CO2e in 2011 to 276 Million
Tons CO2e in 2020. Of 276 Million Tons of CO2e
emission, 245 Million Tons (89%) is generated
from coal combustion. Average grid emission
factor for Indonesia in 2011 was 0.763 kg CO2/
kWh. It will increase to 0.8 kg CO2/kWh in 20132014 and it will decrease to 0.745 kg CO2/kWh
in 2020 due to operation of geothermal and
hydro power.
For Java-Bali system, CO2 emission projection
will increase from 110 Million Ton in 2011 to 205
Million Ton in 2020 or almost twice as much. Grid
emission factor however becomes better from
0.778 kg CO2/kWh in 2011 to 0.756 kg CO2/kWh
in 2020. This better grid emission factor is due
to the increase of natural gas and geothermal
utilization as well as supercritical technology for
coal power generation.
In addition to energy generation and
utilization, the use of LCT will also be discussed
for transportation, industry and household.
Energy use in transportation, household and
industry come from petroleum (65.9%), natural
gas (12.7%), coal (7.4%), electricity (12.5%) and
LPG (1.6%).
100
Figure 2. Installed capacity of electric generation system of 23,206 MW in Java-Bali, 2010
Figure 3. CO2 emission per fuel type, compounded Indonesia (Source: RUPTL-PLN 2011-2020)
Indonesian transportation, particularly road
transportation consumes the biggest primary
energy. About 88% of total primary energy
consumption for all modes of transportation
in the country is used by road transportation.
The passenger cars dominate the energy
consumption (38%), followed by trucks,
buses, and motorcycles at 32%, 18%, and 12%
respectively.
Industrial sector produces GHG emissions
from both its energy utilization and its
production processes. The growth of industrial
sector is parallel with the growth of national
economy. Since national economy continues to
increase, the GHG emissions from the industry
will consequently increase. Energy consumption
in industrial sector, including feedstock is about
53% of the total national energy consumption.
101
Indonesia has voluntarily declared to reduce
its GHGs emissions by 26% with self financing or
41% with additional foreign aids by 2020. This
target has become a reference in designing and
planning all technologies needed to reduce GHG
emissions in each sector. Table 3 shows target
of GHG emissions reduction of five potentially
identified sectors.
Table 3. Emission reduction target of each sector in National Action Plan for GHG (NAP-GHGs)
No
1
2
3
4
5
Sector
26% Emission
Reduction
(in Giga ton CO2e)
0.008
0.672
0.038
41% Emission
Reduction
(in Giga ton CO2e)
0.011
1.039
0.056
Agriculture
Forestry and peatland
Energy and
Transportation
Industry
0.001
0.005
Waste management
0.048
0.078
Total
0.767
1.189
(Source: Presidential Regulation No. 61 of 2011)
3. IDENTIFYING LOW CARBON TECHNOLOGIES FOR ENERGY SECTOR
In addition to achieving emission reduction
target, LCT can be a determining factor in next
economic era leads to low carbon economy.
There is currently however no clear or agreed
definition on LCT. Wikipedia states that low
carbon power comes from processes or
technologies that, at the point of generation,
release less carbon dioxide than the traditional
means of power generation. In general term low
carbon power can be assumed as LCT. It includes
zero carbon power sources, such as wind power,
solar power, geothermal power and, including
fuel preparation and decommissioning, nuclear
power, as well as sources with slightly lowerlevel emissions than coal, such as natural gas. For
the case of Indonesia, clean coal technology is
also considered as LCT. These power generation
techniques emit significantly less carbon dioxide
than a traditional fossil fuel power plant.
Low carbon technologies for targeted
sectors in terms of reducing GHG emission in
Indonesia have actually been established by
the Government via President Regulation No.
61 year 2011 Annex 1. This paper will identify
LCTs that are outlined by the Government of
Indonesia based on its commitment to reduce
GHGs emissions and how they are planned by the
sector especially for energy and transportation
sector as well as for industrial sector.
3.1. Energy Generation and Transportation
For energy and transportation sector,
targeted reduction of GHG emission by 2020
based on 26% is about 0.038 G.Ton CO2e and
based on 41% is about 0.056 G.Ton CO2e.
They will be done through (1) increase of
energy conservation, (2) clean fuel switching,
(3) increase of new and renewable energy
resources, (4) use of clean technology, and (5)
sustainable low carbon development of national
mass transportation.
The following action plans, for examples,
were formulated: (1) implementation of
energy management for intensive energy
users (10,16 MT CO2e), (2) implementation
of energy conservation partnership (2,11 MT
CO2e), (3) increase household appliances’
efficiency (9,82 MT CO2e), (4) accessibility and
management of new and renewable energy
and energy conservation such as development
of microhydro, minihydro, solar, wind and
biomass (4.4 MT CO2e), (5) biogas utilization
(0.13 MT CO2e), (6) use of natural gas for rural
transportation (3.09 MT CO2e), (7) household
gas transmission (0.15 MT CO2e), development
of intelligent transport system (1.77 MT
CO2e), parking management (1.07 MT CO2e),
reformation of bus rapid transit (0.69 MT CO2e),
renewed public transportation (0.36 MT CO2e),
and others.
102
Energy Generation
In line with the government policy to
utilize new and renewable energy resources
as documented in the President Regulation
Number 5 Year 2006 on National Energy Policy,
Electric State Owned Company (PLN) has set up
policy to prioritize geothermal and hydro power.
PLN has also been assigned by the government
to provide power to rural communities that
have not yet received electricity. Based on this
policy, PLN plans to develop geothermal with
large capacity, hydro power with large, medium
and small capacity, and small scale of new and
renewable energy like solar power, wind power,
biomass, biofuel and coal gasification. PLN also
support research and development of other
new and renewable energy sources such as
thermal solar power, sea water current, ocean
thermal energy conversion (OTEC) and fuel cell.
For solar power system, PLN plans to develop
centralized PVs at large scale to electrify remote
area communities, a far from the grid and
underdeveloped area, and front end islands
next to neighboring countries.
Geothermal power is generated from
geothermal energy (Wikipedia: retrieved 16-82012). Technologies in use include dry steam
power plants, flash steam power plants and
binary cycle power plants. Current worldwide
installed capacity is 10,715 MW, with the largest
capacity in the United States (3,086 MW).
Philippines, and Indonesia. Geothermal power
is considered to be sustainable because the
heat extraction is small compared to the Earth's
heat content. Carbon emission of existing
geothermal electric plants is on average 122
kg of CO2 per megawatt-hour (MWh), a small
fraction of that of conventional fossil fuel plants.
Geothermal technology is selected by Indonesia
because the resources are abundant and still
low in its utilization. It is planned to enhance
geothermal development around 2,875 MW
in the next 10 years in Java – Bali system (see
Table 2). Deployment of advanced geothermal
technology such as binary cycle might be
suitable for some areas of Indonesia.
Hydroelectric plants have the advantage of
being long-lived and many existing plants have
operated for more than 100 years. Hydropower
is also an extremely flexible technology from
the perspective of power grid operation. Large
hydropower provides one of the lowest cost
options in today’s energy market, even compared
to fossil fuels and there are no harmful emissions
associated with plant operation. Hydroelectric
power is currently the world’s largest installed
renewable source of electricity, supplying
about 17% of total electricity in 2005. China is
the world's largest producer of hydroelectricity
in the world, followed by Canada (Wikipedia:
retrieved 16-8-2012).
Hydroelectric power is one of renewable
energy technology selected by Indonesia. Its
water resources are abundant and its utilization
is still very low. However, it requires a huge
budget to build it in addition to social and
environmental constraints. The government of
Indonesia through PLN and IPP has planned to
construct hydro power plant about 473 MW in
the next 10 years in Java – Bali alone (see Table
2). It consists of micro and large scale of plants.
Wind farm capacity worldwide was 157,900
MW, representing an increase of 31 percent
during the year, and wind power supplied
some 1.3% of global electricity consumption.
Wind power accounts for approximately 19%
of electricity use in Denmark, 9% in Spain and
Portugal, and 6% in Germany and the Republic
of Ireland. The United States is an important
growth area and installed U.S. wind power
capacity reached 25,170 MW at the end of
2008. As of November 2010, the Roscoe Wind
Farm (781 MW) is the world's largest wind farm
(Wikipedia: retrieved 16-8-2012).
Indonesia will also initiate the use of wind
power combined with the gas power to produce
energy for about 6 MW in the next 10 years
for Java-Bali system. Technology chosen is to
improve efficiency and reliability of low-speed
wind turbine, light material for blade, control
system and motor and other main parts.
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into
electricity, either directly using photovoltaics
(PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar
power. Concentrated solar power systems use
lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus
a large area of sunlight into a small beam. PV
converts light into electric current using the
photoelectric effect. Indonesia will build solar
power system about 2,440 MW in the next 10
years in Java-Bali system.
103
For year 2011- 2020, electricity generation
for Java-Bali system is shown in Table 4. Total
additional capacity for the next 10 years in
Java-Bali system will be 32,1 MW or around
3,1 GW per year. Steam coal combustion will
still dominate the generation (22,5 GW or 70%)
while steam gas generation will be the second
(2.8 MW or 8.8%), followed by renewable energy
such as geothermal (2.9 GW or 8.9%) and hydro/
minihydro/solar power (2.9 GW or 9.1%), and
finally gas power (1 GW or 3%).
Table 4. Electricity generation needed for Java-Bali
Year
2011
Steam
2012
2013
2014
2015
2019
2020
3,880 4,095 1,050 1,040 2,320 3,520 3,860 1,200
600
1,000 22,565
Geothermal
-
-
60
-
385
325
270
815
855
165
2,875
Gas-Steam
594
743
-
-
-
-
-
-
750
750
2,837
Gas
-
-
-
150
-
-
-
400
-
400
950
Minihydro
9
4
68
18
-
-
-
-
-
-
99
Hydro
-
-
-
-
257
62
37
-
-
18
374
Solar
-
-
-
-
-
1,010 -
-
450
950
2,440
Gas-Wind
-
-
-
3
3
-
-
-
-
6
Total
4,483 4,842 1,178 1,211 2,965 4,917 4,167 2,415
Biomass is another source of energy for
Indonesia, namely agriculture waste, agriculture
biomass, palm oil, other biofuel, and industrial
waste. Several biomass conversion technologies
such as direct combustion and co-firing
technology can help utilization of the potential
resources.
In the last 15 years, several biomass plant
projects such as biomass power generation using
rice husk or straw have been introduced but the
result was poor due to the lack of continuity
of the feedstock. Therefore, in addition to the
deployment of biomass conversion technology,
there is a need to develop data base of potential
of biomass resources in Indonesia which can be
updated regularly.
Study on low carbon technologies in energy
generation in the purpose of technology transfer
was conducted and part of the result can be
seen in the following Tabel 5.
Transportation
LCT to reduce CO2 emission from
transportation includes adoption of advanced
vehicle technologies with less or no CO2
emission. Improvement of transportation
management system, including advanced
transportation control and development of
mass rapid transit system is another option.
It is also suggested to reduce the GHG’s by
2016
2017
-
2018
TOTAL
2,655 3,283 32,116
using alternative fuel technology (bio-fuel and
gaseous based fuels) for the vehicles. Other less
greenhouse gases emission technologies such as
hybrid gasoline/diesel-electric powered and bifueled (CNG) vehicles are also suggested.
The application of low GHGs emission
technologies should be encouraged by the
government through strategic measures and
actions and involving all stakeholders (including
private, public and society). Measures are
needed by the government to undertake the
“Zero Growth Vehicles” policy in major cities
of Indonesia. The development of mass rapid
transit system especially in the metropolitan
cities in Indonesia should be prioritized by the
Central Government and Regional Government,
as it is potentially reducing the greenhouse
gaseous emission.
Table 6 shows the vehicle low carbon
technology based upon the rate of fuel saving
and Table 7 shows the vehicle LCT based upon
selected alternative fuel.
3.2 Industrial Sector
For industrial sector targeted reduction of
GHG emission by 2020 based on 26% is about
0.001 G Ton CO2e and based on 41% is about
0.005 GTon CO2e. They will be done through
optimalization of energy utilization.
104
The following action plans were formulated:
(1) implementation of technology and process
modification (2.75 MT CO2e), (2) energy audit
and conservation (4.81 MT CO2e), and (3)
passing out ozone depleting substances (1.5 MT
CO2e).
The reduction of GHG emission from the
industries is carried out by improving the process
and energy utilization according to cleaner
production mechanisms. These activities range
from changing or retrofitting the equipment
and materials that are no longer efficient to
optimizing the use of the waste for energy.
Figure 4 shows the grand strategy of energy
conservation and CO2 emission reduction in
Industrial Sector 2010 – 2020. This grand strategy
shows the way to reduce CO2 emission from
targetted industries in order to share about 2%
of 41 % reduction decided by the Government.
Identified technology
Present situation
Advanced thermal
Pulverized Coal
power technology/ clean Power Plant; Thermal
coal technology
efficiency: 33%, 1 ton
CO2/MWh
The phase 1 implementation is energy
conservation and CO2 emission reduction in
industrial sector in 2011. Energy audit for 35
steel industries and 15 pulp and paper industries
has been done. Following technology audit,
some recommendations were made with the
following categories:
a. No Cost and Low Cost, such as improvement
of monitoring system and energy management;
recuperator maintenance, heat waste utilization,
insulation and coverage of steam pipe leaks.
b. Medium Cost, such as recuperator installation,
bank capacitor improvement, dust collector
inverter installation, blow-down heat recovery
installation, flash tank equipment addition.
Technology input
Emission reduction
potential
Subcritical Pulverized
Coal Power Plant,
36% eff.
Supercritical and
Ultra Supercritical
Pulverized Coal
Power Plant, 40-46 %
efficiency
0.70 ton CO2/MWh (w/o
CO2 capture)
0.830 ton CO2/MWh (w/
CO2 capture)
0.170 ton CO2/MWh (w/o
CO2 capture)
0,891 ton CO2/MWh (w/
CO2 capture)
Cogeneration
0.325 ton CO2/MWh
IGCC, 38 – 41% eff.
0.168 ton CO2/MWh w/
Pre-combustion
0.898 ton CO2/MWh, w/
CO2 capture
Coal upgrading
Vary depending on quality
of coal; 5% emission
reduction of conventional
PC
Improve efficiency.
1% increase of eff. will
reduce 2-2.5% CO2 emission
Fuel switching
Combine Cycle Gas
Turbine to Replace HSD
Generator
Gas to replace HSD
Coal to Gas (50%)
N.A
0.5 ton CO2/MWh
Utilization of renewable
energy technology
More than 95 % of
primary energy uses oil,
coal and gas.
Government set a
target to reduce oil
but increase new and
renewable energy up
to 15 % of total primary
energy mix,
Biomass Power – Cofiring
Geothermal - Flash
Steam
Geothermal - Binary
Cycle
Geothermal- Hot Dry
Rock
15-20 % of emission
reduction depends on the
main fuel
Avoid CO2 emission from
coal combustion.
0.9 – 1 ton CO2/MWh
(depend on type of PP
replaced)
105
Photovoltaic – Single
Crystal/Mono
Idem
Wind turbine
idem
Micro and Mini Hydro
idem
Advanced Hydro Power
idem
Nuclear Power : PWR/
BWR 2nd Generation
0.85 – 0.9 ton CO2/MWh
(depend on type of
power plant replaced)
Nuclear Power PWR/
BWR 3/3+ generation
idem
Table 5. Identified low carbon technology from supply side
Table 6. Selected vehicle technology
Technology
Table 7. Selected alternative fuel technology
% Fuel Saving
Technology
% Potential CO2
reduction to BAU
1.
Gasoline direct injection
3-4
2.
Six-speed automatic
transmission
4-5
1.
Cellulosic ethanol
≈ 90
2.
Biodiesel fuel
≈ 70
3.
Continuously variable
transmission
≈7
3.
Ethanol
≈ 60
4.
No Torque converter
3-4
4.
CNG
≈ 30
5.
LNG
≈ 20
5.
Hybrid vehicle without
30-40
Torque converter
(Source: TNA 2009 Study of Indonesia)
6.
LPG
≈ 20
Source: TNA 2009 Study of Indonesia)
Figure 4. Grand Strategy of Energy Conservation and CO2 Emission Reduction in Industrial Sector 2010 – 2020 (Source: Pusat Pengkajian Industri Hijau Dan Lingkungan Hidup, Badan Pengkajian Kebijakan Iklim Dan Mutu Industri, Kem. Perindustrian, 2012)
106
c. High Cost, such as new incinerator addition,
variable speed driver addition, recuperator
change with the more efficient one.
Priority of LCT is given to energy efficiency
and soft technologies for industrial, residential
and commercial building.
Implementation of these recommendation
is strongly depend on capability of the industry
and therefore it needs a stimulation to the
industry from the government.
a. Energy efficiency technologies for industry
such as:
In cement industry, LCT is used for energy
efficiency because the big contribution on CO2
emission from cement industry is due to coal fuel
and electricity. Calcination of calcium carbonate
is also a source of CO2 emission. Therefore LCT
for cement industry is:
• To reduce fuel consumption for example
through burner modification, alternative
fuel, waste heat recovery, use high efficiency
motor, optimize compressed air system.
• To use alternative raw material such as
limestone with low CaCO3, fly ash, bottom
ash, etc.
• To increase grinding efficiency;
•
Lightning system
•
Pump and Fan
•
Industrial Motor
•
Cogeneration
•
Cooling system
b. Soft technology:
•
Energy Audit
•
Energy Rating and Labeling
•
Energy Management
Table 8 shows more detailed information on
energy efficiency for the demand side suggested
by TNA Study (2009).
• To maintain general measures such as by
preventive maintenance, efficient lighting,
automatic process control system and
energy management.
Table 8. Identified low carbon technology from demand side
Technology
Efficiency measure
Result
CFL (Compact
Fluorescent Lamp)
Replacement of incandescent bulb with
CFL
Efficient light bulb can reduced up to 80% of
energy use for Household and Commercial
Use of solar water
heater
The use of solar water heater in producing
hot water.
Reducing electricity consumption up to
50% for Households, commercial, and some
industries
Electronic Ballast
Replacement of magnetic ballast with
electronic ballast.
20 % reduction of energy use for Household
and Comm.
High Efficiency AC
Replacement of standard air conditioner
(AC) with high efficiency AC
Standard AC’s CoP = 2,5; High efficiency AC’s
CoP= 3,3
(COP: Coefficient of Performance); Reducing
energy cons up to 50 %, for Households.
Hydrocarbon
Refrigerant
Replacement of CFC with hydrocarbon
refrigerant
Electricity saving up to 20 % for Households ,
Commercial.
BAS (Building Automatic The application of BAS to monitor lightning Electricity saving 10 – 20 % for Commercial.
System)
and energy use in building
High Efficiency Chiller
Replacement of normal chiller with high COP normal chiller = 4,0
efficiency chiller
COP high efficiency chiller = 5,0 for Comm.&
industry
High Efficiency Electric
Motor
Replacement of normal electric motor
with high efficiency electric motor
High efficiency can reduce energy
consumption up tp 25 % for Industry.
107
4. SUMMARY
A policy for low carbon technology was
established by the government through President
Regulation No. 61 Year 2011 on National Action
Plan on GHG reduction. The policy and strategy
as well as the activities and target have been
formulated. Related sectors have also made
the plan to implement those action plans. This
paper outlines some of low carbon technologies
use to reduce green house gases for energy
and transportation sector and industry sector.
For example in energy sector, low carbon
technology scenario is dedicated to reduce the
GHG emission via pre-fossil combustion to avoid
more use of fossil energy, such as efficient energy
technologies (high efficiency light, efficient
appliances, etc); renewable energy technologies
(Geothermal, Hydro, Solar, Wind, etc.); and
fossil pre-treatment (Coal Upgrading). It can also
be done during fossil combustion to protect GHG
emission, such as efficient Technologies (Cogeneration), low carbon electricity Generation
(High Efficiency Low Emission, IGCC, etc.), and
clean fuel technology (Fuel Switching). Finally, a
post fossil combustion to mitigate emitted GHG
from existing sources is also important to be
conducted, such as through carbon capture and
storage technologies and utilization of CO2.
5. REFERENCES
Ministry of Environment and UNIDO. 2009.
Indonesia Second National Communication
Under the United Nation Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Ministry of Environment, BPPT and GTZ. 2010.
Indonesia’s Technology Needs Assessment on
Climate Change Mitigation of 2009.
Situmeang, H. 2011. Energy Trends and Carbon
Path. KNI-WEC. Presentation Material.
President Regulation No. 16 Year 2011
concerning National Action Plan on Green House
Gases Reduction.
Center for Green Industry and Environmental
Assessment, Agency for Assessment of
Industrial Climate and Quality, Ministry of
Industry, Program of Industrial Revitalization
and the important of insentive for industries in
order to implement clean and efficient energy
technology, Bogor , 30 Juli 2012.
http://en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Low-carbon
power, Accessed on 16 August 2012.
Rencana Usaha Penyediaan Tenaga Listrik
(RUPTL), PT. PLN 2011-2020, Diterbitkan oleh
Sekretariat PT. PLN.
108
Economic and Adaptation Cost of Climate Change: A Case Study of
Perdinan1,2,3, Rizaldi Boer1,2, Kiki Kartikasari2, Bambang Dwi Dasanto1,2, Rini Hidayati1,2, and
Diva Oktavariani2
Department of Geophysics and Meteorology, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia 16680
2
Center for Climate Risk and Opportunity Management, Bogor, Indonesia 16680
3
Fulbright Presidential Fellow at Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA 48824
1
The Economic of Climate Change and Social Participation
Economic and Adaptation Cost of Climate Change: A Case Study of
Perdinan1,2,3, Rizaldi Boer1,2, Kiki Kartikasari2, Bambang Dwi Dasanto1,2, Rini Hidayati1,2, and Diva
Oktavariani2
2
3
1
ABSTRACT
Climate change is already occurring. In Indonesia, many evidences such as changing rainfall
patterns in many parts of the country (e.g., Sumatra and Java) indicate the impacts of global
climate change on Indonesian climate. This new climate regime eventually will influence water
availability in many parts of the country. This paper discusses economic loss (unit costs) incurred
on major economic sectors (i.e., agriculture, fishery, drinking water, and health) of Indramayu
districts – West Java Indonesia due to flood and drought as an approximation to quantify
potential economic consequences of climate change.
The estimation was based on discussions with the local authorities and communities (field
survey) in 2008. The unit costs were estimated based on rice production loss (agriculture), milk
fish and prawn production loss (fishery), additional costs for clean water supply (drinking water),
and additional incidences of dengue fever (DBD) and diarrhea (health).
Seven adaptation options and their estimated costs are also proposed to cope with flood and
drought in the region. The options are 1) construction of a reservoir, 2) change of cropping
pattern, 3) rehabilitation of irrigation canals, 4) improvement of irrigation canals (cementing the
canals), 5) improvement of drainage system, 6) normalization of rivers, and 7) implementation
of system rice intensification (SRI). Potential benefits from each adaptation are also discussed.
Such discussion, together with estimated adaptation cost, will be useful for further evaluation
to measure the net benefit from each adaptation which can be helpful to assist decision makers
in choosing plausible adaptation options.
Keywords: climate change, economic costs, adaptation, flood, drought, Indramayu
1. INTRODUCTION
Climate change has been acknowledged as a
serious global environmental problem that poses
a challenge to human livelihoods. Its impacts on
a wide range of economic sectors (IPCC 2007)
have shifted our understanding to view climate
change not only as an environmental problem
but also as a social problem (Barnett 2010). In
Indonesia, the existence of climate change was
indicated by changing patterns of rainfall in
many parts of the country such as Sumatra and
Java (MoE 2007). An increase in climate related
hazard such as flood and drought within the
recent decades has also been observed. Boer
and Subbiah (2005) reported that the frequency
of massive drought increased over the last 40
years compared to the previous decades, i.e.
from once in three or four years to once in two
or three years. Similar observations have also
been made for flood: about 530 floods, which
occurred in nearly all provinces of Indonesia,
110
have been reported within the period 20012004 (MoE 2007). This increase in the frequency
of flood and drought may be associated with the
increasing frequency of ENSO (El-Nino-Southern
Oscillation – refers to El Nino and La Nina) due
to global warming (Timmermann et al. 1999).
ENSO, which significantly affects regional
climates in many tropical countries (Vecchi
and Wittenberg 2010), has been frequently
linked to cause climate extreme events such as
heavy rainfall and prolong drought in Indonesia.
Understanding the potential consequences of
climate change, devising adaptation strategies
to cope with potential impacts of future climate
change is a necessity. Unfortunately, a wide array
of uncertainties surrounding climate change
impact assessments (Winkler et al. 2011) causes
a difficulty in making the right decision to select
proper adaptation strategies to climate change.
Consequently, climate change adaptations
should be taken as no-regret interventions
(Heltberg, Siegel, and Jorgensen 2009) as
implementation of adaptation strategies will
incur additional costs (Tamirisa 2008). The
additional costs required for climate change
adaptation highlight the needs of economic
estimation for climate change impacts and
potential benefits from the implementation of
adaptation measures. However, such estimation
is rarely investigated in Indonesia.
This paper discusses economic costs of climate
change drawn from a field survey conducted
in Indramayu regency, located in the north
coastal area of West Java - Indonesia, as a case
study. This region was selected because flood
and drought were identified as the two main
climate-related problems in the region. Tamkani
and Boer (2005) stated that flood and drought
contributed about 86% of rice production loss in
Indramayu which was way more than pest and
diseases (about 14%) during the period of 19972003. Indramayu government clarified that the
topographical condition of Indramayu, which
is relatively flat (0-2% slope) and close to the
sea (0-18 m above sea level), is the reason why
Indramayu is vulnerable to flood and drought
during wet and dry season, respectively.
Per unit economic loss (i.e., unit costs) was
estimated by calculating unit costs of damages
during flood and drought for four major
economic sectors in Indramayu. The estimations
were based on rice production loss (agriculture),
milk fish and prawn production loss (fishery),
additional cost for clean water supply (drinking
water), and additional incidences of two major
health problems in Indramayu, i.e., dengue
fever (DBD) and Diarrhea (health). The approach
assumed climate change contributed to increase
the frequency of climate extreme events such
as heavy rainfall and to prolong drought as
described above. It is important to note this
paper is not intended to calculate economic
costs of the regional climate change impacts
as such evaluation requires impact models to
estimate the consequences of climate exposures
to economic activities in the region such as the
number of agricultural areas and fishery ponds
affected by flood and drought. Nevertheless,
the unit costs presented in this paper provide
information with which climate change impacts
on the regional economy can be estimated when
the impact models are available.
Seven adaptation options and their estimated
costs were proposed to cope with flood and
drought. The options are 1) construction of
a reservoir, 2) change of cropping pattern,
3) rehabilitation of irrigation canals, 4)
improvement of irrigation canals (cementing
the canals), 5) improvement of drainage
system, 6) normalization of rivers, and 7)
implementation of rice system intensification.
The dam construction was proposed with the
understanding that Indonesian government
was planning to build Jati Gede dam (Colenco
and Indrakarya 2000) to control water supply
in Indramayu. This government initiative was
encouraging as individuals and societies might
not have adequate capacity to incorporate
all social costs of adaptation (Burton and Lim
2005). Additionally, responses from government
to devise a policy for adaptation have been
endorsed internationally (Smit and Skinner
2002).
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. Survey Location
The estimation of economic costs was drawn
from a field survey conducted in Indramayu
regency in 2008. Geographically, Indramayu lies
on 107° 52´ - 108° 36´ E and 6° 15´ - 6° 40´ S
along the north coast of Java island. This regency
consists of 31 districts, 307 villages and 8 subdistricts with total area of 204,011 hectares.
The dominant land use type is irrigated rice
field (59.5%), followed by plantation (15.75%),
settlement (8.81%), fish ponds (6.18%), rainfed
rice field (6.09%), and others (3.67%) (Indramayu
Government 2012). Based on Indramayu’s
location, this regency has a tropical climate
environment with mean daily air temperature
about 22.9-30 ºC and relative humidity about
70-80%. Annual precipitation is about 1,587 mm
with numbers of wet days about 91 days.
The survey team, composed of climatologists,
hydrologists, GIS analysts, economists, social
scientists and research assistants, collected
economic information related to rice production,
fish production, drinking water supply and
health based on interviews with the local
authorities and communities. The interviews
were conducted face to face with
111
Economic and Adaptation Cost of Climate Change: A Case Study of Indramayu – West Java Indonesia
the local residents, focus group discussions,
the local authorities and communities. There
were about 63 local residents coming from
16 districts (Figure 1) who participated in the
survey. Most of them were farmers (67%),
and the others were local entrepreneurs,
government and private employees. The team
also visited eight local institutions (i.e., agencies
for agriculture, fishery, water, health, public
works, transportation, highway construction
and maintenance, disaster management, and
trade) to obtain information on economic loss
due to drought and flood. This approach was
part of a technique known as participatory
107°50'
107°55'
108°0'
108°5'
108°10'
integrated assessment (PIA) (Salter, Robinson,
and Wiek 2010) which has been employed
as an alternative to explore climate change
adaptation strategies. For example, Tarnoczi and
Berkes (2010) interviewed farmers in Alberta
and Manitoba Provinces of Canada to explore
sources of information for climate change
adaptations particularly those related to soil and
water conservation practices. Surveys have also
been applied for investigating the main problems
that might inhibit implementation of climate
change adaptations in the Nile Basin of Ethiopia
(Deressa et al. 2009) and in the Limpopo River
Basin of South Africa (Gbetibouo 2009).
108°15'
108°20'
108°25'
108°30'
-6°15'
-6°15'
Pasekan
Sukra
Cantigi
Sindang
Patrol
-6°20'
Kandanghaur
Anjatan
Bongas
Losarang
Balongan
Lohbener
-6°25'
Gabuswetan
Haurgeulis
-6°25'
Jatibarang
Sliyeg
Lelea
Kroya
-6°40'
Kedokan Bunder
Krangkeng
Tukdana
Sukagumiwang
Terisi
-6°35'
-6°40'
1 cm = 4 km
107°50'
107°55'
-6°30'
Kertasemaya
Cikedung
Gantar
-6°35'
Bangodua
Jutinyuat
Karangampel
Widasari
-6°30'
-6°20'
Indramayu
Arahan
108°0'
108°5'
108°10'
108°15'
108°20'
108°25'
108°30'
Figure 1. Location of districts within Indramayu regency. Shaded areas indicate residential areas where participants were lived at the time of the survey.
2.2. Calculation of Unit Costs
Per unit economic loss was estimated
separately for each sector (i.e., agriculture,
fishery, water supply, and health) based on
the survey results. Damaged costs associated
with flood and drought were the proxy that we
employed to estimate the unit costs of potential
climate change impacts on the regency.
Secondary data from previous study (Colenco
and Indrakarya 2000) were also employed to
complete the estimation.
Agriculture loss was mainly approached
based on rice fields damaged during flood and
drought. The unit costs were estimated from
the amount of financial resources that had been
spent by farmers to grow rice or its production
value (i.e., price multiplied by yield). The loss
estimation due to flood and drought was a little
bit different. For flood, it was determined based
on crop growth development when they were
exposed to flood. If flood streaked at the early
stage of crop development, farmers would do
replanting after the flood finished. In the case of
drought, there was no planting as there would
not be sufficient water in the fields.
112
The economic loss for fishery sector was
estimated based on the production costs for
cultivating prawn and milk fish, two major
commodities for fish industry in the region. The
loss was mostly due to flood which could flush
fish ponds. Based on the survey, it was found that
drought could increase water salinity; however,
its impact on prawn or milk fish production was
not clear. Fish farmers usually would not sow
fish or prawn if they had anticipated drought
condition.
For drinking water, the loss was equal to the
total additional costs required to supply clean
water during flood events. The occurrence of
floods would increase the turbidity of the raw
water and this would increase cost for processing
water. The additional cost for processing water
during flood events was estimated based on
historical data from 2000 to 2007 obtained from
State Owned Water Resources Company (PDAM
Indramayu). The additional cost (per day of
flood) was calculated by multiplying additional
cost average required for processing water
during flood events, which usually occurred on
days in February, and volume of water sold at
that time.
The loss for health sector was approximated
mainly from additional incidences of DBD and
diarrhea which could be more severe during
flood events. The additional incidences were
calculated based on historical monthly data on
DBD and diarrhea incidences from 2004-2008
provided by Environmental Health Division of
Indramayu. The economic loss for each day of
flood was approximated as follows (Murray and
Lopez, 1996):
2.3. Adaptations and Their Costs
Understanding the economic consequences
of flood and drought in Indramayu, discussions
with the stakeholders were held to identify
potential adaptation options. The discussions
identified that there were seven potential
adaptation options to cope with flood and
drought in the region, namely: 1) construction
of a dam, 2) change of cropping pattern,
3) rehabilitation of irrigation canals, 4)
improvement of irrigation canals (cementing the
canals), 5) improvement of drainage system, 6)
normalization of rivers and 7) implementation of
rice system intensification.
The additional cost required for implementing
each option was estimated based on previous
study related to an option or expert judgment
on the unit cost required for implementing an
adaptation at the time of analysis. The total
investment for each option was calculated by
multiplying the unit cost and the expected areal
coverage that would be impacted when an
adaptation is implemented. Detailed potential
benefits from each option which could be very
helpful for estimating the net benefits from
implementing such adaptation were drawn from
focus group discussions.
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Agriculture
Economic loss for death = Ratio of deaths
per 100 incidence* the additional incidences
per day of flood* Normal Working Years in a life
time*GDP per capita per year
Economic loss per hectare of rice production
due to flood in Indramayu is equal to the
number of financial resources that has been
spent for cultivating rice. According to the
survey, costs for rice production were spent
on sowing, cultivating and harvesting (Table 1).
Sowing costs refer to the number of financial
resources required for seed preparation and
planting. Cultivating costs are defined as the
spending related to maintaining crop growth
and development such as pesticide and fertilizer
application. Harvesting costs are the financial
resources required for harvesting and postharvesting process so rice is ready to be sold.
Normal Working Years in a life time = Retiring
Age (55 years) - Starting Age (18 years), and
annual GDP per capita was assumed to be about
17,956,450 IDR or about 1,931 USD (USD rate
was 9300 IDR) at the time of analysis.
The survey found that usually if flood occurs,
farmers would do replanting after the flood
event finished. This strategy was particularly
taken when flood events occurred during sowing
periods. Therefore, the economic loss refers to
Economic loss for illness = (Length of Illness
in weeks/total weeks in a year)*the additional
incidences per day of flood * GDP per capita per
year
113
the amount of money that has been spent for
sowing, is about IDR 2,000,000. Furthermore,
if flood events occurred during cultivating, but
farmers are still able to do replanting; the loss
is associated with the total spending for sowing
and cultivating, about IDR 4,500,000 (Table 1).
Table 1. Rice production in Indramayu
Data and Information
Price of rice (IDR/kg)
Yield (Ton/ha)
• Wet Season
• Dry Season*
Value (IDR/ha)
• Wet Season
• Dry Season
Costs (IDR/ha)
• Sowing
• Maintaining
• Harvesting
Values
2,400
7.34
6.73
17,616,000
16,148,000
2,000,000
2,500,000
1,500,000
However, if flood events happened for
relatively a long period so that farmers could
not do replanting, the economic loss is equal
to the production value of rice, average rice
yield multiplied by rice price (Table 1). This
approximation was preferred to only the total
spending for rice production (i.e., total costs of
sowing, maintaining and harvesting), because
rice supply would be impacted due to loss of rice
production, not only delayed in the case where
replanting is possible. The replanting might not
be possible particularly when floods damaged
rice during the harvesting period as there would
be not adequate time for replanting rice on that
planting season. Generally, Indramayu has three
planting seasons according to the irrigation
scheduling. This system rules the coverage of
irrigation area for each planting date with a total
of irrigated area up to 60,000 hectares during
the wet season and the first dry season and
30,000 hectares during the second dry season
(Table 2).
* Based on Colenco and Indrakarya (2000)
Table 2. Total of irrigation area and planting date for each planting season
Rice Planting Area / Irrigation
Scheduling
Planting Season Area (Ha)
WS
DS1
DS2
Planting Date
WS
DS1
DS2
I
15,000
15,000
30,000
1 Oct
1 Feb
1 May
II
25,000
25,000
0
15 Oct
15 Feb
NA
III
20,000
20,000
0
1 Nov
1 March
NA
Total Area
60,000
60,000
30,000
Under drought condition, farmers would not
grow rice as there would be not enough water
supply for planting especially for the dry season
2 (DS2). Damaged cost due to drought is equal
to rice production value, i.e., price multiplied by
yield. As with the case of impossible replanting
due to long flood events explained above,
the rice production value is suggested rather
than total production costs that have been
spent by farmers as rice supply or stock in
Indramayu will decrease as a consequence of
the rice production loss. This loss will eventually
decrease Indramayu’s income from agricultural
sector (economic loss to society), and may
increase the request for importing rice to meet
the consumers’ demand.
It is important to note, the estimation of
economic loss either due to flood or drought
is in IDR/hectare. This means estimation of
damaged area due to flood or drought will be
needed to approximate the regional economic
loss. The length of flood and drought will also
affect the total damage. Only flood occurred
with more than 5 consecutive days can cause
production loss in regions, which are vulnerable
to flood. The longer the flood occurrences, the
larger the damaged area will be. Based on group
discussions, more than 25 days consecutive
flood may inundate all vulnerable area to flood.
For drought, dry spell less than 10 days does
not have any effect on yield; whereas, length of
dry spell more than 25 days may damage crop
yield completely. This length criteria hint that
assumptions or formulations are needed to
evaluate the potential damage related to the
length of flood or drought.
114
3.2. Fishery
A little bit different from agriculture, fishery
production was more influenced by flood than
drought. Discussions with stakeholders during
the survey identified that the critical length of
flood that created loss was flood with more than
15 days length of spell. About 1,119 hectares
out of 22,977 hectares of total area for fishery
production in Indramayu was vulnerable to
flood. As with agriculture, the fish production
stages were divided into three categories:
sowing, maintaining and harvesting. There were
three sowing and harvesting periods of fish
production in the region. Sowing periods were
in March, July and November; and harvesting
periods were in June, October and February. The
costs of production for farming prawn and milk
fish are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Prawn and milk fish production costs
Components
Costs (IDR/ha)
Prawn
Milk Fish
1,500,000
1,400,000
• Maintaining
400,000
400,000
• Harvesting
350,000
350,000
• Sowing
Similar to the approach for estimating
economic loss in rice production, the loss
for fishery is equal to production costs that
have been spent for fish production as long as
farmers still have an opportunity for replanting
fish. However, when flood events occur during
harvesting, which cause insufficient time for
replanting during that planting season, the total
loss is the production value of prawn and milk
fish per hectares. The production values were
estimated by multiplying price for each fish
commodity and yield (Table 4). Unfortunately, we could not obtain
information on prawn and milk fish yields per
hectares from the survey as fish farmers did not
record the yields. To estimate the production
value, we used secondary data from previous
study conducted by Colenco and Indrakarya
(2000). This study reported that production of
prawn and milk fish were about 80 and 1,500
kg/ ha. This study also clarified that prawn
production could be much higher for semi
intensive management system with prawn yield
could up to 800 kg/ha, but, the total costs would
also be 5.5 times higher (about IDR 10,603,000
at the year of 2000 price) than extensive
management system that produced prawn of
about 80 kg/ha.
Table 4.Prawn and milk fish economic value
Components
Values
Price (IDR/kg)
•
Prawn
55,000
•
milk fish
9,000
Yield* (kg/ha)
•
prawn-extensive
80
•
prawn-semi intensive
800
•
milk fish
1,500
Production Value (IDR/ha)
•
prawn-extensive
•
prawn-semi intensive
44,000,000
•
milk Fish
13,500,000
4,400,000
* Based on Colenco and Indrakarya (2000)
Information on different management
system for prawn production (Colenco and
Indrakarya 2000) emphasizes that production
value and total cost of prawn are sensitive to
the choice of cultivated management system.
Under the semi intensive management system,
prawn production value is about IDR 44,000,000
(prawn price of 55,000*yield of 800 kg/ha) with
the total cost of about IDR 12,375,000 (the ratio
cost of semi intensive to extensive management
system of 5.5*total prawn production cost
obtained from the survey of IDR 2,250,000 (Table
3)). This approximation of the total cost for semi
intensive management system was made as the
prawn production cost presented in Table 3 is
much cheaper than that required for the semi
intensive management system reported by the
Colenco and Indrakarya study above. Thus, we
assumed the total prawn production cost (Table
3) was for the extensive management system.
Paying attention to the discrepancy of total
costs and prawn yields for the semi intensive
and the extensive management system, regional
estimation of potential damaged costs for
fishery production in Indramayu should carefully
consider the choice of prawn production system
at the time of analysis. This consideration
is critical as the total economic loss will be
sensitive to what management system fish
farmers choose for cultivating prawn.
115
3.3. Drinking Water
As can be seen from Table 5, cost average
for supplying clean water during flood events,
which were frequently happened in February,
is more expensive about IDR 927 per volume
of water than the costs for the other months.
Multiplying the additional cost with the daily
amount of water sold during the month when
floods regularly occurred (February) gives an
estimation of about IDR 32.7 million per day
additional cost, which is required for processing
and supplying clean water to meet the consumer
demand for water in Indramayu districts.
It should be understood that this estimation
is for the total additional cost per day required
for supplying clean water, not the total loss
incurred for supplying clean water in Indramayu
during flood events. To estimate the total loss,
information on the length of flood is needed as
the loss can be simply calculated by multiplying
the additional cost per day with the flood length.
For this purpose, impact models are required
for modeling the flood length based on weather
data as inputs.
Table 5. Additional cost required for supplying clean water during flood events
Components
Average cost for February (when flood occurs)
Average cost for the other months (excluding February)
Units
IDR/m3
IDR/m3
Values
3,701
2,774
Water sold for February
M3/day
35,235
Water clean loss production in case of flood
IDR/day
32,676,831
Table 6. Economic assessment for the health sector
Additional incidences of DBD
Cases
200
Average flood day
Days
10
The additional incidences per day of flood
case/day
20
Ratio of deaths per 100 incidence in case of DBD
%
4.36
Length of Illness in case of dengue fever1
Weeks
4
Illness
IDR/flood day
27,625,308
Dead
IDR/flood day
578,918,412
Total
IDR/flood day
606,543,720
Additional incidences of diarrhea
Cases
3,999
Average flood day
Days
10
The additional incidences per day of flood
case/day
399.9
Length of Illness in case of diarrhea1
Weeks
1
Illness
IDR/flood day
138,092,007
Total
Cases
138,092,007
Total Economic loss per day of flood
IDR/flood day
744,635,727
Economic loss per day of flood
Economic loss per day of flood
(Source: 1Murray and Lopez (1996)
3.4. Health
Economic loss for health sector was
estimated based on additional incidences of
DBD and diarrhea. Table 6 shows that about
200 additional cases of DBD and 3,999 diarrhea
occurred during flood events compared to
normal condition. These additional incidences
cause economic loss to the society as the
patients were unable to work either due to
illness or dead. Our estimation shows that daily
economic loss during flood events for DBD is
much higher than that for diarrhea (Table 6).
This estimation hints that plans and actions
are needed to minimize the negative impacts
particularly the additional incidences of DBD
during flood events.
116
3.5. Adaptation Costs
The investments required for implementing
each adaptation option are shown in Table 7. As
can be seen from this table, the total costs are
sensitive to the areal implementation of each
adaptation option, except for the Jati Gede dam
construction which had been planned by the
Indonesian government (Colenco and Indrakarya
2000). The investment required for the Jati
Gede dam was based on Colenco and Indrakarya
(2000); meanwhile, the unit costs for the other
options were based on expert judgement and
stakeholder discussions at the time of survey
was conducted. Consequently, information on
adaptation costs presented in Table 7 should
be used with caution and adjustments may be
needed.
Based on the total costs presented in Table
7, construction of Jati Gede dam is the most
expensive adaptation option. However, the
construction of dam (reservoir) will provide
multiple benefits for the region. The reservoir
will store water during rainy season and will
release it during dry season for irrigating rice
crop. Thus with the presence of the reservoir,
more area can be irrigated. In addition, planting
season can also be expanded from twice to
three times a year. Based on the Colenco and
Indrakarya study and consultation with Head of
Indramayu Irrigation Office, under the absence
of the reservoir, the normal cropping pattern
was Rice-Rice-Fallow with the total planting
area of 60,000 ha. On the other hand, under the
presence of the reservoir, the normal cropping
pattern would be Rice-Rice-Upland crop with
the total planting area of 90,000 ha for the wet
season (WS) and the dry season 1 (DS1), and
about 45 thousands hectares for planting upland
crops called as “Palawija” such as soybean in
the dry season 2 (DS2) (Table 8). The reservoir
can also mitigate flood events in Indramayu,
which eventually will reduce the potential
loss on drinking water and health sector. The
presence of Jati Gede dam can also be utilized
for electricity generation.
Table 7.Cost estimation for each adaptation to cope with flood and drought in Indramayu
No
Climate change
adaptations
Impact of each
option
Investment
costs (IDR/ha)
Area (ha) Total costs (IDR)
1
Construction of Dam
Water Supply
NA
4,803
2,200,000,000,000
2
Change of Cropping
Pattern
Water Demand
2,500,000
45,000
112,500,000,000
3
Rehabilitation of irrigation Irrigation
canals
Maintenance
3,500,000
45,000
157,500,000,000
4
Improvement of irrigation Irrigation Efficiency
canals
182,000
90,000
16,380,000,000
5
Improvement of drainage
system
Sediment removal
from Dam
150,000
4,117
617,550,000
6
Normalization of rivers
Normalization of
river
300,000
4,117
1,235,100,000
7
Implementation of SRI
Water Demand
600,000
90,000
54,000,000,000
Table 8. Expected planting areas to agricultural farms in case of Jatigede dam presence
Rice Planting Area/ Irrigation
Scheduling
Planting Season Area (Ha)
Planting Date
WS
DS1
DS2
WS
DS1
DS2
I
12,798
12,798
11,820
1 Oct
1 Feb
1 May
II
16,498
16,498
10,682
15 Oct
15 Feb
15 May
III
60,895
60,895
22,498
1 Nov
1 Mar
1 June
Total Area
90,191
90,191
45,000
117
The cost for the second adaptation (change
of cropping pattern) can be adjusted based on
expenses spent by farmers to cultivate their land.
The cost may incur due to additional planting
season. For example, the construction of Jati
Gede dam will offer an opportunity for farmers
to have the third planting season instead of two
as discussed previously. In this case, based on the
survey, most farmers indicated that they would
sow upland crops known as “Palawija” such as
soybean with a total cost of IDR 2.5 million.
The third and fourth adaptation option, i.e.,
rehabilitation and improvement of irrigation
canal, will increase the irrigation efficiency.
Further investigation is still needed to explore
the feasibility of this option: for example, how
much water can be reserved for other purposes
when the irrigation efficiency increases. This
evaluation is needed to properly measure
benefits of implementing these options.
The fifth and sixth options (improvement of
drainage system and normalization of rivers)
are among the less expensive option in terms of
total costs compared to the other adaptations.
Improvement of drainage system will benefit
to reduce the flood risk by increasing the
capacity of drainage canal to flow water to
the ocean. Normalization of rivers means
removing sediment from river which eventually
can increase the maximum capacity of river
to discharge water and reduce the volume of
overflow (‘luapan’).
The last adaptation option is proposed to
change rice farming system in the region. System
rice intensification (SRI) offers an alternative to
grow rice with less water demand. Hasan and
Sato (2007) reported that the implementation
of SRI on farming rice in Eastern Indonesia
(about 9,429 hectares) increased rice yield for
about 78% with less water demand (reduced by
40%) and fertilizer application (reduced by 50%)
compared to those required by the conventional
system. The basic principle of SRI in water use is
keeping rice field wet but not flooded or in other
words applies irrigation intermittently. Please
refer to Hasan and Sato (2007) for more detailed
information on SRI.
4. LIMITATION AND CONCLUSION
In this study, we mainly focused on
calculating unit costs associated with damages
due to flood and drought as an approximation of
evaluating potential impacts of climate change in
Indramayu regency. Per unit economic loss was
approximated for rice production, milk fish and
prawn production, drinking water supply, and
numbers of DBD and diarrhea incidences. The
calculations were based on price in 2008, which
hint the need for adjustments when using the
results for future evaluation. We only employed
secondary data on yields of rice, prawn and
milk fish, and cost ratio between semi intensive
and extensive prawn production system from
Colenco and Indrakarya (2000), which we
assume will not have any implication to readjust
price used by the Colenco and Indrakarya study
to be consistent with 2008 price.
We also, once again, emphasize that the loss
estimation is not purposed to quantify the total
loss for the regional economy. Such estimation
requires reliable impact models to evaluate
consequences of flood and drought temporally
and spatially. The models should be able to
estimate the length of flood and drought as
well as areas impacted by the two events. The
development of such models is also encouraged
particularly to be used for future climate change
assessment. Using the models, we can project
the frequency of flood and drought events in
the region as well as the duration and damaged
areas under certain climate change scenarios.
This information is necessary for estimating the
potential regional economic loss under the new
climate regime.
For adaptation costs, it should be understood
that social costs or potential conflicts incurred
for certain adaptations are excluded from the
discussion. For example, the dam development
may request for resettlement which may take a
long process. The increasing demand for water
due to the expansion of planting season (DS2)
may also result in potential conflicts as water
demand for other sectors such as drinking
water (i.e., domestic water demand) may also
increase in the future. On the other hand,
possible interactions between adaptations may
also enhance benefits of a particular adaptation
option. Consequently, further evaluation on
benefits from climate change adaptations
proposed in this study should also pay attention
to the potential side effects of each option.
118
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The survey was conducted as a part of a
project entitled an Adaptation Strategy and
Action Plan for the Water Sector in Indonesia
funded by GTZ and ProLH. We would like to
thank Prof. Dr. Dieter Kirschke (Humboldt
University of Berlin, Germany), Dr. Steffen
Noleppa (agripol – network for policy advice
GbR, Berlin, Germany) and Dr. Nana Künkel (GTZ)
for their inputs on survey evaluation and cost
assessment, Dr. Yanuar J. Purwanto (Department
of Civil Engineering and Environment, Bogor
Agricultural University) for his valuable inputs
and comments on hydrological consequences
of flood and drought. We also thank Adi
Rakhman and Fitriyani (Center for Climate Risk
and Opportunity Management for South East
Asia and Pacific (CCROM-SEAP)) for map of
Indramayu districts and data collection, and Mr.
Iwan Syahril (PhD candidate at the Department
of Education, Michigan State University) for
his help in editing the early version of this
manuscript. Special thanks to Pak Kusnomo
Tamkani (Head of Indramayu Agricultural Office)
for his support and guidance during the survey
and all participants involved in the survey.
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ASSESSING HAZARD MITIGATION POLICIES AND
STRATEGIES IN JAVA COASTAL AREAS
Rahmawati Husein
Government Studies, FISIPOL, Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta
Assessing Hazard Mitigation Policies and Strategies in Java Coastal Areas
Rahmawati Husein
Jl. Lingkar Selatan, Taman Tirto, Kasihan, Bantul, 55183 DIY. [email protected]
ABSTRACT
There has been a growing literature on the role of land use planning and development
regulations can play toward hazard mitigation (Beatley, 2009; Burby, 1998; Godschalk et al.,
1999). Although Indonesia is one of the longest coastal areas in the world, almost none of the
research in coastal hazard mitigation has been done in Indonesia. This study investigates policy
and practices of local jurisdictions, municipalities and regencies, along Java coastal areas, where
they are vulnerable toward hazards. It is specifically, examines the adoption and implementation
of land use planning, development regulations including building standards and information
dissemination strategies at the local levels (Kabupaten and Kota). The paper provides an overall
assessment of the types of land use and development regulations and policies implemented
by local jurisdictions based on survey of leading planner (head of Bappeda) and leading public
work officer (head of Dinas PU). In total 31 municipalities and regencies participated in the
survey from the total 65 regencies and municipalities in Java coastal areas. Statistical models
were developed to assess the adoption and extensiveness of using various forms of land-use
regulations, hazard mitigation programs, and hazard related building standards. Results
suggest wide variation in the adoption and extensiveness of usage the policies and strategies
for reducing any impact of hazards in the coastal areas.
Keywords: mitigation, land use planning, development regulations, Java coastal areas
1. INTRODUCTION
Over recent decades, Indonesia has
experienced a steady increase in the physical and
social impacts as well as economic losses due to
multiple hazards. The UNISDR report states that
Indonesia is one of the top 10 countries with the
largest number of natural disasters. (UNISDR,
2008 & 2009). This escalating toll of disaster
loss occurs partly because of the increasing
concentrations of population and infrastructure
in areas with high exposure to natural hazard.
Some scholars state that disasters occur when
hazards meet vulnerability. Yet, coastal areas
become hazards prone areas due to their fast
growing populations. It is estimated that 1.2
billion people (23%) of the world population live
within 100 km of the coastal line (Ahmed and
White, 2006). In Indonesia, about 62% of its 214
million people lived on the Java Island, 65% of
those live in the coastal area (Sukardjo, 2002).
In addition, it has been a rapid shift from the
hinterlands to coastal areas, whose population
densities’ average between 500 and 2,000
people per square kilometer (Hinrichsen, 2008).
These growths ratio in coastal areas increase
people’s hazard vulnerability and increase
122
the calls for mitigation as part of the solution
(Peacock, 2009).
One of the mitigation strategies is through
development regulation and land use planning,
which have been seen as crucial strategies at
the local government level. Hazard mitigation
offers an obvious way to avoid many natural
catastrophes (Hyndman & Hyndman, 2006) and
an important tool for reducing losses in natural
disaster (Burby, et.al, 2000).
Mitigation strategies have been classified in
many different ways. It is categorized as hazard
source controls, (Lindell, et.al., 2006), or often
divided broadly as structural and non structural
strategies (Godschalk, et.al, 1999; Mileti, 1999).
Yet, the mitigation strategies focus on long
term and proactive steps which give passive
protection (Lindell, et al., 2006) and range from
engineering to land use planning as well as
information dissemination.
Nevertheless, in the past, structural
mitigation techniques have dominated disaster
management in the world, including Indonesia.
The Dutch Colonial Government had built
structural facilities to protect people in coastal
areas and it was continued until new order
regime. These engineered approaches include
creating barriers to withstand wave forces
such as breakwaters and seawalls, dykes and
levees. In addition, structural methods also
applies channel to control the flow of the water
including dam, reservoir, and other methods
such as deepening, widening and straightening
channels.
The adverse impacts of the engineering
approach can be minimized by all efforts of the
structural method. However, the damage and
losses from natural damage has not decreased.
These can be caused by: first, building codes and
structures are designed to reduce the probability
of loss from hazard events only up to a certain
magnitude (Burby and Dalton, 1994). When
the natural disasters exceed such magnitude,
the damage can be catastrophic as it occurred
during the 2004 Sumatra earthquake and Indian
Ocean tsunami that killed hundred thousand
and destroyed infrastructure in many countries.
Second, structural measures are very
expensive and also require enormous ongoing
costs for their maintenance (Alexander 1993,
Burby, 1998). Moreover, a failure to maintain will
lead to a great loss. One of the example, several
years ago, Jakarta and its surrounding suffered
from a dam failure which was built during the
colonial era. The current government failed in
maintaining the structure and restricting people
to live in environmental sensitive areas (Jakarta
Post, 2009).
Third, structural solutions can bring a false
sense of security to the public (Burby and Dalton,
1994; White 1936). Although they do not give
complete security (Alexander 1993), but people
believe the protected areas are completely safe.
Fourth, researchers found that construction of
groins, seawall, bulkhead and other engineered
structures which is build to prevent coastal
erosion and to protect from hazard contributes
to environmental degradation and ecosystem
disruption such as the decline of fish and
wildlife habitats and adverse impacts on
aquatic ecosystems and may cause the very
problem (Abel, 1999, Klee, 1999, William and
Micalef, 2009). Thus, there has been growing
the adoption of a non-structural approach for
hazard mitigation planning.
This strategy
focuses on land use
management which its goals is to avoiding
and restricting development in hazard areas
by zoning, relocation, land acquisition through
purchase, gift and condemnation, residential
subdivision, setback ordinance, overlay districts
and building design/standard (Berke 1998;
Olshansky & Kartez, 1998; Godschalk et.al
1999; Burby, 1998, Brody and Highfield, 2005;
Srivastava, R., & Laurian, L. 2006).
In addition, this strategy includes Incentives
and other tools. Incentives policies such as
voluntary retrofitting of private structure,
voluntary land property acquisition, tax
abatement for using mitigation, density bonus
and low interest loans for retrofitting building are
commonly used (Berke,1996). Other incentives
are differential taxation, impact/use fee,
incentive zoning, and transfer of development
right from hazard areas to safer sites, reduced
or below-market taxation for open space or
reduced land use intensity in hazardous areas,
special assessments to fund added public costs
of hazard area development and also transfer of
development potential (Davis, 2004; Olshansky
& Kartez, 1998) as well as incentives for farm
and business diversification and low-interest
loans and aid programs for agriculture from
local government (Srivastava & Laurian. 2006).
Additionally, information dissemination
and awareness strategies for mitigation are
considered critical. Studies find that the
educational programs introduced by local
government to individuals or groups in their
respective communities will increase the level of
commitment of local government officials toward
hazard mitigation policies (Norton, 1995; Robins
2008). Others also find that public participation
in local hazard mitigation is significant and may
contribute to sustainable hazard mitigation
(Pierce, 2001; Deyle & Slotterback, 2006;
Godschalk et.al 2003; Tanaka, 2005; Stevens
et.al, 2009). Hynmand & Hyndman states that
public awareness will help people in adopting
mitigation policies in order to avoid potential
impacts or at least “modify their behaviour or
their property to minimize such impacts” (2006).
Yet, in Indonesia, these non-structural
mitigation policies and strategies have not been
widely implemented. Some of the reasons are
123
first, in the past, planning was heavily centralized
and concentrated in Java Island. Only starting
in 1999, when Regional Autonomy Law No. 24
was enacted, the local government has more
authority to manage its jurisdictions. This Law
was revised by Law No, 32/2004 and Law No.
12/2008 which remain having a basic framework
from previous including the broad authority for
local governments to manage their own affairs.
In addition, several laws which dealing land
use planning and disaster management were
considerably newly passed. These include three
laws that enacted in 2007 consisting Law No.
24 on Disaster Management, Law No. 26 on
Spatial Planning, and Laws No. 27 on Coastal
and Small Island Management. As a result of
these, mitigation through land use will still be
challenging as the decentralized environment
caused greater complexity and highly
fragmented policy and management in disaster
issues (Merthayasa, 2005).
However, the new series of Laws provide
window opportunity for local governments
to take more responsibility in using land use
and development regulations for reducing
any impact of disasters in coastal areas. Some
provincial governments have passed regional
legislation to control and supervise land use
practices according to regional spatial planning
to promote hazard mitigation (Wardani &
Kodoatie, 2008).
One of the examples is the restriction of
using the land in the riverbank and beaches
for residential or business (informal sector)
purpose. Local government has a power to force
people to move out particularly to those who
settle illegally, although they have been staying
for decades.
Other example of land use practice is the
issue of location permit. This permit is issued by
the Head of the District Land Office on the basis
of the Spatial Plan. This allows local governments
restrict the land use, as in principle location
permit will not be issued in the area designated
for conservation region. Having acquired lands,
the individual/groups have to apply land right,
then they received statement letter of granting
right with the permit stated. The right over
the land can be reviewed based on the permit,
which in the adverse situation their right on land
can be canceled and controlled by government
(Sastrowihardjo, 1997).
Additionally, the Coastal and Small Islands
Management Law No.27, 2007 provides
guidelines for conservation and protection of
sensitive areas and has discouraged development
in wetland. Although the Law is relatively new,
the integrated coastal management has been
practices for decades. Some local governments
particularly in Java, such as Cilacap, Central Java
has applied zoning to preserve wetlands and
marine system (Paw, J., & Chua, T. 1991). Based
on these, it is important to examine the usage of
land use planning and development regulations.
This study aims at assessing general land use
policies that can be used to enhance mitigation
and to compare hazard mitigation practices by
regency and municipalities in the north and
south of Java Island.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Area and time period
The primary focus of this study is kabupaten
(regencies) and kota (cities) along the Java coast
which are vulnerable to a variety of coastal
hazards. This study includes areas that have a
large portion as well as a small portion of coastal
line in the north and the south areas of Java. The
study was taken during June - August 2010.
2.2 Sample selection
In total a sample frame was developed to
survey 65 kabupaten and kota consisting of 51
kabupaten, 14 kota and six provinces which has
coastal line and considered coastal regions. The
primary targets for informants included head of
district/municipality planning agency (Bappeda)
and the head of Public Work Agency (Dinas PU)
The goal was to contact and ultimately obtain
an informant who was knowledgeable about
the adoption and implementation of land use
and development regulations in their areas The
process of developing the sample frame of key
jurisdictional administrative officials, including
their contact information required considerable
time because the size of the areas and the
address which sometime change.
The survey instrument consisted of a selfadministered questionnaire, distributed from
June through August of 2010, with some areas
124
even participating at the end of 2010. Survey
implementation followed the Dillman’s threetiered approach for mail survey (Dillman 2007).
At the beginning, potential respondents,
many of whom had been contacted during the
development of the sampling frame itself, were
contacted via phone. Then, the questionnaire
was distributed through priority mail along with
addressed and stamp return envelopes. It was
followed with a reminder call the respondent’s
contact after one week to ensure whether
respondent received the survey or not. If no
response was received after three weeks,
another mail was resent along with addressed
and stamped return envelopes.
In total 41 responses were obtained although
some represented double responses for a
specific jurisdictions. As a result there were
31 responses for the 65 kabupaten and kota,
yielding an overall response rate of 47.69%.
2.3 Variable measurement
The research measured the implementation
of policies and strategies using ordinal scales.
Respondents were asked a series of questions
of the usage of those strategies on a scale 0 to
3, where 0 is never used and 3 is used at a very
great extent. Following are various policies and
strategies that are collected by the survey.
1. Land use and development regulations
including: a). residential subdivision
ordinances, b) planned unit development,
c) special overlay districts, d) agricultural or
open space zoning, e) performance zoning,
f) hazard setback ordinance and g) storm
water retention requirements
2. Shoreline Regulations: a) limitation of
shoreline development to water-dependent
uses; b) restrictions on shoreline armoring;
c) restrictions on dredging/ filling; d) dune
protection; and e) wetland and costal
vegetation protection
3. Building standard including: a) building code
and types, b) standards for new building, c).
retrofitting standard for existing building, d).
special utility codes.
4. Information dissemination and awareness
programs: a) public education for hazard
mitigation; b) citizen involvement in hazard
mitigation planning; c) seminar on hazard
mitigation practices for developers and
builders; d) hazard disclosure; and e) hazard
zone signage.
5. Property acquisition programs including:
a) fee simple purchases of undeveloped
lands, b) acquisition of development and
easements, and c) relocation of existing
structures out of hazardous areas.
6. Incentives approaches including: a) transfer
of development rights from environmentally
sensitive/ hazardous areas, b) density
bonuses in environmentally/ hazardous
areas, c) clustered development in
environmentally sensitive/ hazardous areas.
7. Financial tools: a) lower tax rates; b) special
tax assessment; and c) impact fees or special
assessments.
8. Critical public and private facilities policies:
a) requirements for locating public facilities
and infrastructure; b) requirements for
locating critical private facilities and
infrastructure; and c) using municipal
service areas to limit development.
9. Public-private sector initiatives: a) Land
trusts; and b) Public-private partnerships.
10. Hiring Professionals to a) Identify suitable
building sites; b) Develop special building
techniques; and c) Conduct windstorm/ roof
inspection.
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
On the whole, the findings clearly suggest
that some policies are much more extensively
employed than others, although the overall
rates to which many are utilized appear to be
quite low. A convenient method for quickly
ascertaining the relative “popularity” assessed
in terms of the relative usage of each of these
planning tools and strategies can be obtained by
calculating and comparing the average rating of
each.
Remembering that the response categories
range from “0” indicating the tool/ strategy is
not employed at all to “3” indicating the method
is employed extensively, the closer the average
is to three the more extensively the method is
employed across coastal jurisdictions.
Figure 1.1 presents a bar graph of the
average usage ratings for each planning tool,
where the size of the bar represents the average
extent of usage. In addition, the planning tools
have been rank ordered such that higher ranked
125
and hence more extensively employed tools
appear higher on the figure.
environmental impact assessment/EIA (2.19),
and 2) plan unit development (2.10).
The top two planning tools are the only
strategies that have average ranks over
two, suggesting that they are on the whole
employed somewhat rather extensively across
coastal jurisdictions in Java. These two are: 1)
It is interesting to note that environmental
impact assessment has been widely enforced.
The reason is this policy was commonly enforced
among the business entities at the local level
after the law of EIA has been in place since 1982.
Figure 1. Ranking of land use and development regulations
The next cluster consists of five tools that,
while there significant drop in their average
rating from the top two, all have averages that
fall between 1.97 and 1.64, suggesting they are
126
employed to a small extent but clearly
approaching the “to some extent” levels
across jurisdictions. This cluster from high to
low include, standard subdivision ordinance
(1.97), agricultural and open space zoning
(1.84), building code (1.77), citizen involvement
in mitigation planning (1.71) and special
overlay district (1.65). These results suggest
that kabupaten and kota in Java have varieties
strategies adopted at the local level.
When considering the top ten policies is use
among coastal jurisdictions, six (6) are related
with land use and development regulations
and three (3) are related to information
dissemination & awareness. The findings with
respect to land use and development regulations
show that local government are generally more
focused on trying to shape development via
plan unit development, residential subdivision
ordinances, and to mitigate through storm water
retention requirements and agricultural/open
space zoning, with some limited introduction of
more incentive based and flexible approaches
like special taxing for environmental sensitive
areas. In addition, awareness program through
citizen involvement in mitigation planning and
public education on hazard mitigation were
also popular as these strategies less costly
for local government and relatively easy to be
implemented.
Yet, around a half of the 41 policies/tool
considered have averages of one or above,
suggesting at least some usage among
jurisdictions. The remaining 13 planning tools
found very little use among coastal kabupaten
and kota in Java. By far the least utilized of
these tools include special taxing districts,
taxes for environmental protection, impact
fees, insurance program and density bonus.
These findings indicate that local jurisdictions in
coastal Java have very little affinity toward using
taxes for steering development to less hazards
areas and introducing insurance program for
mitigating any impact of hazards in their areas. It
is possible that one reason for the relatively low
usage of these forms of incentives is, as Schwab
et al. (2007) suggested, that they are often
difficult for local governments to implement and
for landowners to understand and accept.
On the whole, these findings suggest a very
limited tool bag of land use planning policies are
being employed by kabupaten and kota along
the Java coast whether directly or indirectly
attempting to promote and improve hazard
mitigation.
When comparing policies and practices
between kabupaten and kota in the north and
south of Java, a t-test was computed for each
of 41 specific policies and strategies. Overall,
there are no significant differences between
north coast and south coast. Only three have
significant different consisting 1) wetland and
coastal vegetation protection (t= 3.51, p≤ .05);
2) land trust (t= 2.83, p≤ .05); and 3) publicprivate partnership (t= 2.36, p≤ .05).
The findings suggest that local governments
in the north coast of Java tend to adopt and
protect their coastal wetland and vegetation
strategies compared to local government in the
south coast. It can be understood as the north
coast is low lying areas and its ecosystem has
heavily coastal mangrove forest, meanwhile in
the southern coasts tend to have more rocky
coastal cliff. Thus, northern coast were suffered
from coastal erosions and the loss of natural
barrier because of rapid development.
Meanwhile, the findings suggesting that
the local government in north coast have more
public private partnership could be explained
by the fact that many businesses and ports are
located in the north coast. These encourage
the opportunity to participate in the planning
process.
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
4.1 Conclusion
On the whole, the portfolio of hazard
mitigation strategies and policies is quite limited
among kabupaten and kota in Java, particularly
incentives and financial tools. The findings are
consistent with studies that found activities
involving finances tend to be overlooked as they
have bigger consequences for local government,
(Beatley, 2009; Schwab et al., 2007)
However, there are varieties of policies
have been exercised. The results partially
support Olshansky and Kartez’s (1998, p. 167168) suggesting that after the 1970s, many
local governments have moved beyond zoning
and subdivision regulations and have added
more techniques and instruments that can
work in tandem with conventional regulations,
particularly in mitigating losses from natural
127
hazards. As also suggested by Preuss that no
single mitigation tool is responsive to all hazards
or appropriate all locations, therefore hybrid
approaches is needed to integrate diverse tools
(2006).
Second, there are no considerable differences
between local jurisdiction in northern and
southern Java. The major difference is the
adoption of wetland and coastal vegetation
protection and public-private partnership. An
obvious explanation for this difference is that
the northern part is low-laying areas where
more population concentrated.
4.2 Recommendation
Although this study provides a picture of the
extent to which local jurisdictions are employing
hazard mitigation policies and strategies, the
response rate for this study was only moderately
high (47.69%). While there is no reason to think
that the study results are particularly bias,
increasing response rates may have enhanced
findings.
Future studies should add a qualitative
survey to obtain additional in-depth information
on the process of how local jurisdictions employ
hazard mitigation policies and strategies as
well as the challenges they face in utilizing
these policies. Further research may also
elaborate a comparison of the usage of land use
planning and development regulations between
kabupaten and kota in Java and the outer island
in Indonesia. It may also be interesting to study
and do plan evaluation of the hazard mitigation
components in the local master plan, to see the
commitment of local government in reducing
any impact of disaster in coastal area.
Acknowledgment
This article is based on research supported in
part by Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta
as a comparative study for the similar studies
that taken in Texas coastal areas. The study
in Texas was in part written as dissertation
and supported in part by grants from NOAA
(NA07NOS4730147) administered by the Texas
General Land Office and the Coastal Coordinating
Council (08-023-000).
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129
CLIMATE CHANGE AND ECONOMIC POLICY FOR
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Rony Bishry
Resource Economic Researcher
The Agency for the Application and Application of Technology (BPPT)
Climate Change and Economic Policy for Developing Countries
Rony Bishry
Resource Economic Researcher
ABSTRACT
This is an analytical study of the response of developing countries for climate change visioned
as incoming natural disasters globally and of the developing countries’ climate change
vulnerabilities. We also discuss the extent of our knowledge about the short- and long term
economic impacts of these climate change disaster, prevention, mitigation and post-disaster
policies that may be implemented.
As an example the case of FIP program for REDD+ wil be analyzed. Innitially REDD agreement
comprised of 1) emission reduction from deforestation and 2) emission from degradation. In the
REDD+, agreement was extended for the role of conservation, sustainable forest management
and the increase of forest carbon reserve. FIP program analyzed is a global effort to support the
REDD+, the economic impacts of this program is the main concern of this paper. In Indonesia,
net benefit of FIP program is positive and the benefit will outweigh the cost. The implementation
of the FIP Program is suggested.
Keywords: economics of climate change, climate change economic policy, environmental
economics, climate change cost and benefit
1. INTRODUCTION
Climate change gives impacts economically to
the developing countries. Destructive disasters
caused by climate change create economic loss.
Many of the most destructive disasters caused
by the climate change will affect developing
countries people: among others its agriculture,
its water resources, weather disturbances,
increased of infectious diseases, human
migration and climate catastrophes.
The most important countries in the global
climate change are the high- emitting countries.
To avoid worst scenario, high-emitting rich
countries do not want developing countries to
follow in their footsteps of creating emission.
To give burden to the main player, developing
countries want rich countries to take the initial
steps in reducing emissions. However, even
among the rich countries there is a tendency to
ask other to act first before their own action.
Therefore it is always interesting to learn
the response of developing countries for
climate change as they look at climate change
as the global incoming natural disasters and
of the developing countries’ climate change
vulnerabilities. The discussion also about the
extent of our knowledge about the short and
long term economic impacts of these climate
change disaster, prevention, mitigation and
post-disaster policies that may be implemented
by developing countries.
As a case study, program for REDD+ in
developing countries will be analyzed. Innitially
REDD agrreement comprised of 1) emission
reduction from deforestation and 2) emission
from degradation. In the REDD+, agrreement
was extended for the role of conservation,
sustainable forest management and the increase
of forest carbon reserve. FIP program analyzed
is a global effort to support the REDD+, the
economic impacts of this program is the main
concern of this paper.
131
2. THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF CLIMATE CHANGE
The opportunity cost of preventing disasters
caused by climate change is how much the
cost of the destruction caused by the climate
change if it happens. It can mean the cost of
reducing greenhouse gas emissions. “Reducing
greenhouse gas emissions is supposed to reduce
the probability and severity of climate change
damages”1). It can also be valued by the cost
of mitigating and adapting to climate change.
For practical use the economic value of clmate
change can be estimated the price of the damages
caused by each additional ton of carbon dioxide
(CO2) released into the atmosphere. This price
can mean the price of one ton of carbon in the
market or the the carbon tax
The estimate is found through an economic
assessment of the expected damages of
climate change and the costs of avoiding them.
Nordhaus (2008)2, working in this tradition,
tells us that optimal climate policy would
involve a carbon tax of about $17 per ton in
2005, ramping up to $270 per ton in 2100. The
Stern Review provides a different perspective
on the economics of climate change, claiming
that the optimal carbon tax now is $311 per
ton (Stern 2006)3. Nordhaus does this in order
to identify economically efficient mitigation
strategies, Nordhaus is working towards a global
benefit–cost analysis. He takes this to be an
empirical exercise and seems confident about
what a competent study can hope to achieve.
While Stern is more interested in evaluating
pathways that avoid unacceptable atmospheric
concentrations of greenhouse gases while
identifying trade-offs.
In Stern’s view, inaction on climate change
would lead to damages worth at least 5% of
world output per year, and, depending on
how the damages are calculated, perhaps as
much as 20%. Most of these damages could be
prevented, according to Stern, by spending 1%
of world output annually on mitigation. Other
economists assume both a more substantial
rate of pure time preference, and a larger
growth-related component, yielding discount
rates as high as 6%. The difference this makes is
enormous: $100 of benefits 100 years from now
would be worth $25 today at a discount rate
of 1.4%,versus $0.25 at 6%. In short, economic
analysis can “see” much more of the future at
a discount rate as low as Stern’s, but becomes
myopic at a rate as high as 6%.
The main difference between Stern and
Nordhaus approaches are how to value costs and
benefits that occur in the future. Nordhaus uses
3 percent for the discount value, it is declining
to the discount rate of 1 percent in 300 years;
he considers these rates to be the people's
actual discounting behavior. Stern used the
discount rate which is the rate of growth of per
capita consumption, plus 0.1%. Since economic
growth averages 1.3% in his model, his discount
rate averages 1.4%. His argument is that those in
the future who will bear the costs and benefits
of present policies are different people from
those who bear them at present. Carbon price at
International carbon trade is mostly assumed to
be a constant carbon price of US$ 5/ton over the
period in many carbon accounting calculation.
Cost effectiveness:
• FIP budget: USD 1.5/t CO2e
• Leverage budget (FIP & IFC): USD 4.6/t CO2e
The Magnitude of Damages to Developing
Countries
If we consider the rich and developed
countries are the biggest carbon emitters and
the developing countries are those who receive
damages, “ Indeed, through disproportionate
emissions of greenhouse gases alone, the rich
group may have imposed climate damages
on the poor group greater than the latter’s
current foreign debt. “ (Srinivasan 2007)4 If
their current debt is around 30% of their GDP,
the damages is worth of more than 30% of
their GDP. The developing countries are also
the carbon emmiters. It is true in the economic
development effort in the developing countries,
carbon emmission is also the impact of the
development. Therefore the effort to lower
emmitted carbon shouls also become the effort
of the developing countries along with the
biggest emmitter,the developed countries.
Externalities considered to be the damages
to developing countries are among others:
• to their agriculture, forestry, water
resources, energy use impacts;
• increased weather disturbances;
• loss of wetlands, dry-lands, and coastal
protection;
• increased/decreased heat/cold stress;
132
•
•
•
•
increased incidence of infectious diseases;
human migration;
disruption to unmanaged ecosystems;
risk of climate catastrophes.
These externalities will contribute to the
magnitude of damages and the cost of climate
change mitigation.
3. REDD+ PPROGRAM IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Recently, however, market opportunities are
emerging to support interventions that reduce
deforestation and forest degradation under
“Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and
Degradation” (REDD) programs. The protocols
and methods for developing and implementing
REDD projects, however, are complex. Use of
remote sensing and GIS data and analysis are
important and necessary in project development
and implementation tools. Linking projects to
financial markets also requires a certain level of
expertise. Several developing countries include
Brazil and Indonesia expect that their efforts to
maintain sustainable forest can be supported
financially through REDD programs.
The basic questions for developing countries
are:
1. Are developing as well as developed
countries ready for the REDD program?
2. How much is the economic benefit of
the effort of decreasing carbon emission
through the REDD+ program? Global concern over climate change impacts
and risks has increased greatly in recent
times. Mitigating climate change has been
recognized as an economic challenge, not just
an environmental one. REDD and its scheme
has been widely discussed in the UNFCCC
convention by the participating parties. It was
first included by Costa Rica and Papua New
Guinea in the COP11 agenda in 2005. REDD
then became the main topic of deliberation at
COP13, held at Bali in December 2007, and also
at COP14 in December 2008 at Poznan-Poland.
It was also in the agenda of the convention in
Copenhagen 2009, in Cancun Mexico 2010, and
in Durban South Africa last year.
To limit and reduce global emissions requires
action in both developed and developing
countries. Large opportunities to reduce
emissions through REDD exists, but most carry
economic costs and so will not be implemented
unless policy settings change. The international
dynamics are mutually-reinforcing: one
country’s action depends on other countries
doing their part. The more countries that
commit to significant policies, the easier it will
become to draw others in.
Innitially REDD agrreement comprised of
1) emission reduction from deforestation and
2) emission from degradation. In the REDD+,
agrreement was extended for the role of
conservation, sustainable forest management
and the increase of forest carbon reserve. FIP
program analyzed is a global effort to support
the REDD+, the economic impacts of this
program is the main concern of this paper.
4. THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF REDD+ PROGRAM
A. Cost of REDD Program
It is important to estimate the cost of the
REDD+ program for economic analysis puposes.
The cost of REDD+ is different for one area
compared to others. Besides, the issue is how
much the carbon reduction given certain carbon
reduction cost.
The cost for REDD+ program is comprised
of: Opportunity costs, operating cost and the
transaction cost.5) They are as follows:
Opportunity Costs. Deforestation actually
gives benefit to the society as the log can be sold,
the empty land is for agriculture or plantation
(forest land for other used). Deforestation
reduction means the decrease in potential
benefit. The case is similar for the forest
degradation caused by logging, wood harvest
and catle feeding which give benefit from forest
degradation. Degradation reduction means the
decrease in potential benefit. To calculate this
benefit, estimate of the benefit from forest or
other use of forest is needed.
Operating cost. The cost includes the cost to
guard forest against illegal logging, agriculture
and plantation intensification to reduce the use
of forest area, rerouting of the road construction,
and the relocation of the hydro
133
electric plant away from the natural forest
and others.
The cost includes the cost for the identification
process of the REDD+ program, negotiation
and transaction, monitoring, reporting and
verification.
From the research findings, Boucher’s
(2008)6 who reviewed 29 forest areas found
out an estimate of opportunity costs at the
amount of US$2.51/tCO2, average cost for
African countries is US$2.22/tCO2, for American
countries is US$2.37/tCO2, and for Asian
countries is US$2.90/tCO2. The estimate for
the average operating and transaction costs is
US$1/tCO2.
B. The Benefit of REDD+ Program
The benefit of REDD+ program received by
developing countries is the insentive payment
since it will decrease deforestation and
degradation. To see the benefit, we can see the
support system od the REDD+ program which is
classified into 1) market 2) monetary support 3)
the stages approach.
The market approch means the support is
based on international carbon market system
with the unit payment of ton of equivalent per
ton. It is assumed that the approach is the most
feasible aprroach because it involved the private
sectors.
Monetary support/budgeting approach for
the REDD+ program can be designed to suport
the cost based on target and the criteria needed
by a country or donor country. The support from
carbon market will be based on the emission
reduction. However for the budgeting approach,
it can be based on emissin reduction and for
supporting the capacity building in the developing
countries in the framework to develop carbon
market in the future. In the existing budgeting
proposal it include voluntary support from the
country, tax for the emission reduction for the
project of joint implementation.
The stages/phasing approach budget is that
the budget is from different source based on the
need of the developing countries, comprising
of 3 (three) phases as follows : (i) Voluntary
financing for “capacity building”; (ii) Binding
financing instrument for policies and solution;
and (iii) market system for emission reduction.
C. Forest Investment Program (FIP) for REDD+
There are eight areas for FIP investment in
Indonesia for agreed in the program, they are as
follows:
a. REDD+ in Community Forestry including
the prospects for redirecting the current
$300+ million fund for community forest,
improved credit systems, access to REDD+
performance-based payments, forest carbon
markets, and payments for ecosystem
services.
b. Land and Forest Tenure Reform including
policy reforms to improve enabling
conditions
for
Sustainable
Forest
Management (SFM) .
c. Addressing illegal Logging and associated
trade: addressing the remaining hot spots
for illegal logging, including the introduction
of policy and institutional reforms, and
introducing REDD+ incentives as alternatives
to illegal behavior.
d. Forest Management Units (FMUs) and
REDD+: supporting the development of
FMUs using REDD+ as a management
objective and FMUs as REDD+ monitoring
units.
e. Degraded Lands Development: Redirecting
plantations from forests to degraded lands
in conjunction with implementation of
national REDD+ strategy.
f. Ecosystem Restoration Concessions and
REDD+: scaling-up the use of Ecosystem
Restoration Concessions, with an emphasis
on generating REDD+ revenues as an
important source of revenues.
g. Market-based REDD+ Incentives: Expanding
the use of REDD+ financial incentives to
reshape land and forest management
practices, including the integration of REDD+
The notional funding resource envelope for
FIP in Indonesia is up to $70 million, including up
to $37.5 million in the form of grant assistance,
and up to $32.5 million as concessional finance7).
An additional complementary grant pool
of about $6.5 million will be made available
through the FIP Dedicated Grant Mechanism
for Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities
representatives of the private sector, which
included upstream and downstream forestry
companies and concessionaires, industry
associations, international NGOs working on
private sector sponsored projects, management
134
consultants with sector expertise, and local
banks with natural resource investments.
The private sector supported by the FIP
process and recognized its importance in
providing transformational investments and
inquired about:
(i) criteria to be used to select partner
enterprises for financial support,
(ii) possibilities for using FIP financing for
existing businesses such as industrial
plantations (HPH) and natural forestry
(HPH)
(iii) a realistic timeline for the delivery of the FIP
private sector concessional financing, citing
concerns on cash flow affecting businesses,
(iv)possibilities for using FIP funds as a market
guarantee to fund forest carbon credits,
(v) the eligibility of projects very far along in
the process for funding,
(vi)prospects for one district or province
that supports ERCs to receive support in
promoting them via the FIP funding.
For the economic analysis, the focus will be
for the concessional finance which is used to
strengthen forest private enterprises to mitigate
carbon emissions starting January 2013 at the
soonest.
Private sector investments will be
supported and leveraged to strengthen the
productive capacities and business skills of
forest enterprises, including smallholder and
community small businesses and cooperatives,
as well as medium and large forest sector firms.
The targets of the FIP for the role of the
private sectors are as follows:
Output
(i) Timber production
200,000 ha (with impact potential to scale up
another 500,000 ha in other concession areas)
with direct use benefit/net rent of US$ 58/M38)
and with the timber productivity maximum
20M3/ha, the use direct benefit is US$ 232
Million. Non timber benefit will increase this
value.
(ii) Plantation Management
another 200,000 ha in other concession areas).
The benefit is already recorded in the increase in
timber productivity.
(iii) Ecosystem Restoration
another 200,000 ha in other concession areas).
Since the value of restored ecosystem might
take time, use direct value is not calculated.
(iv) Community and small-holder forestry,
agroforestry
20,000 ha (with impact potential to scale
up another 20,000 ha in adjacent undeveloped
concession areas).
The benefit is already recorded in the carbon
emission reduction and the productivity of
timber.
GHG abatement potential
The carbon emission saving potential of
applying these interventions is estimated to
be around 2.05 Mt CO2 over five years with
a monetary value of around S$10.25 million
assuming a constant carbon price of $5/ton over
the period.
Cost and Benefit
Considering the cost of FIP program in term
of concessional loan of US$ 32.5 Millions, the
benefit outweigh the cost, since the carbon
emission saving is amounted to US$ 10.25
Millions based on the average carbon price of
US$5/ton and the timber total use direct value
as the total net rent is amounted to US$232
millions. The benefit will be higher if benefit is
calculated based on the carbon tax estimated
US$ 17/ton in 2005 up to US$ 270/ton in 2010
5. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
Global climate change is challenged by
carbon emission due to resource utilization.
The developed countries are blame to be the
biggest sources and responsible for reducing the
emmission. However, developing countries has
also become significant source of emmission
and therefore they also have to have policies for
reducing the emission.
One of the important policies is in the
framework of REDD+ program where the
policy is to reduce the emission by decreasing
deforestation, degradation and other effort
such as conservation. The FIP program is the
implementation of the REDD+ program in
developing countries.
135
The economic of this policies is analysed by
comparing the benefit and cost of the program.
In Indonesia, the planned FIP program will
have net benefit. Considering the cost of FIP
program in term of concessional loan of US$
32.5 Millions, the benefit outweighs the cost,
since the carbon emission saving is amounted to
US$ 10.25 Millions based on the average carbon
price of US$5/ton and the timber total use
direct value as the total net rent is amounted to
US$232 millions.
Based on the cost benefit analysis, The FIP
program for the REDD+ program in Indonesia
need to be implemented, hoping the benefit will
outweigh the cost.
REFERENCES
Dale Jamieson (2011), ”The Nature of the
Problem”, in Schlosberg, The Oxford Handbook
of Climate Change and Society, Oxford University
Press.
Nordhaus (2008) , A Question of Balance,
New Haven: Yale University Press.
Stern, N ( 2006) The Economics of Climate
Change: The Stern Review. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Srinivasan, U.T. ( 2007 ), The Debt of Nations
and the Distribution of Ecological Impacts
from Human Activities, at www.pnas.org_cgi_
doi_10.1073_pnas.0709562104
Level,” Forest Carbon Partnership Facility. World
Bank, ENVIRONMENT WORKING PAPER No. 11
Boucher, D. C (2008). “What REDD can do:
The Economics and Development of Reducing
Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation.” Washington: Union of Concerned
Scientists. At http://siteresources.worldbank.
org/INTCC/Resources/whatREDDcando.pdf
Republic of Indonesia (2012), Forest
Investment Program, Indonesia FI-Plan
Document, March 2012.
PTISDA BPPT (2011), The Natural Resource
Accounting of East Kalimantan Province.
Pagiola, Stefano and Benoît Bosquet (2009),
“Estimating the Costs of REDD at the Country
136
BRIDGING THE GAP: KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT IN CLIMATE
CHANGE ISSUES IN ACEH
Saiful Mahdi
Statistics Program, Mathematics Department, College of Sciences, Syiah Kuala
University; International Center for Aceh and Indian Ocean Studies (ICAIOS), Banda
Aceh
[email protected]
Bridging the Gap: Knowledge Development and Management in Climate
Change Issues in Aceh
Saiful Mahdi
Statistics Program, Mathematics Department, College of Sciences, Syiah Kuala University; International
Center for Aceh and Indian Ocean Studies (ICAIOS), Banda Aceh
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This paper argues that there is a gap between high level policy and grass-root understandings
on climate change issues in Aceh. ”Aceh Green Vision” introduced by local government in 2007,
while being applauded by some, has not been totally grasped and celebrated by civil society and
the general public in Aceh. On the other hand, Aceh’s civil society, especially those working on
environmental issues, seems to be active enough in discussing and working on topics related to
climate change. Technical capacities in natural sciences and technology of climate change are
also adequately mastered by academicians in Aceh. From ICAIOS’ Climate Change and Poverty
Project, however, it was learned that there is a need to develop a more open multidisciplinary
dialog and understandings in addressing climate change issues in Aceh. Knowledge development
and management in climate change can, therefore, be used to bridge the gap.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
Following Helsinki Peace Accord of 15
August 2005 between Indonesia Government
and the Free Aceh Movement (GAM), partly
made possible by 26 December 2004 Tsunami,
Aceh exercised its right for a historical, first
direct election in December 2006. Irwandi
Yusuf, a former GAM leader running as an
independent non-political party candidate , was
democratically elected as Governor of Aceh.
Within six months after his inauguration on
8 February 2007, the ex-rebel governor had
introduced two major policies on environment
and development in Aceh, based on
understandings of “the rise of climate change as
one of the most imminent threats to the security
and prosperity of the Asia Pacific region.”
The two policies, considered a breakthrough
by many, a shock to national policy makers,
are logging moratorium and Green Economic
Development and Investment Strategy for Aceh,
known as “Aceh Green Vision” or simply “Aceh
Green”, was considered a shock to the national
government because the policy was “not
common” and was seen as a move to exercise
Aceh “self government” based on Indonesian
Law of Government of Aceh (LoGA) No. 11/2006,
known as UUPA (Undang-Undang Pemerintahan
Aceh), .
The logging moratorium, declared by
Governor Irwandi Yusuf in Aceh on 6 June 2007
, came out as a consensus from a meeting to
address climate change issues with Papua’s and
West Papua’s governors on 26 April 2007. The
Institute Green Aceh, Editorial: Apakabar
Moratorium Logging di Aceh? 13 July
2012. Available at http://www.greenaceh.
o r. i d / 2 0 1 2 / 0 7 / 1 3 / e d i t o r i a l - a p a ka b a r moratorium-logging/; Accessed on July 14,
2012. LoGA is a national law resulted from
Helsinki MoU.
3
The Helsinki MoU stipulated that an
“independent candidate” can run for leadership
position, making Aceh the first to introduce such
electoral arrangement in Indonesia.
1
Concept Paper: Green Economic Development
and Investment Strategy for Aceh, Indonesia:
Aceh Green, July 2008.
2
138
Based on Governor Instruction (Instruksi
Gubernur) No. 5/INSTR/2007
4
moratorium was expected “to provide the
Governor time to a) review the current status
of Aceh’s forests (including forest cover,
concessions, and sustainable production
capacity); b) redesign a proper and sustainable
forest development and management strategy
(including forestry zoning, policy framework,
and institutional framework); and c) reenact stronger, more effective enforcement
mechanisms to prevent violations of this policy.”
The moratorium was also intended to send “a
message to the international community that
the province is willing to stop deforestation but
not without receiving something in return, i.e.,
new revenues from trade, not only aid.”
Logging moratorium was later on
strengthened by a more comprehensive vision
and holistic strategy, the Aceh Green Vision, “to
rebuild the economy of Aceh in the aftermath
of the December 2004 Tsunami and the three
decade-long conflict for independence.” This
vision was introduced on 7 December 2007 when
Governor Irwandi signed a joint declaration with
the Governors of Amazonas, Brazil, Papua, and
West Papua, during the Conference of Parties
(COP-13), United Nations Framework Conference
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Nusa Dua, Bali,
3-14 December 2007. With this declaration,
the governors agree “to a) implement
policies/programs aimed at promoting forest
conservation and poverty alleviation to reduce
emissions from deforestation; b) share best
practices in research and public policies applied
to sustainable development, forest conservation
and reduction of deforestation; c) exchange
technical and scientific information; and d)
establish mutually beneficial linkages between
local communities.”
The concept paper notes that “Aceh
Green will integrate and expand carefully
and consciously integrated themes of climate
change via renewable energy and land use
management,
community
development,
commerce and conservation”. Further it states
that, “The Governor recognizes that achieving
environmentally sustainable outcomes is
only possible with economically sustainable
livelihoods for the people of Aceh, especially
the dispossessed and disenfranchised.” Then
the paper claims that “In anticipation of a postKyoto regime, Aceh Green is economically viable
and visionary.”
The bold move of Governor Irwandi Yusuf
on climate change issues did not stop there.
He became part, and, together with Governor
Arnold Schwarzenegger of California, is one of
initiating governors of Governors’ Climate and
Forest Taskforce (GCF). “The GCF is a unique
multi-jurisdictional collaborative effort between
17 states and provinces from Brazil, Indonesia,
Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, and the U.S. focused
on the development of rules and capabilities
necessary to generate compliance-grade assets
from Reducing Emissions from Deforestation
and Forest Degradation (REDD). It grew out of
November 2008 Memoranda of Understanding
(MOUs) signed at the First Governors’ Global
Climate Summit in Los Angeles….” Banda Aceh
was on highlights when it hosted one of the
meeting for these “green governors” task force
on 17–22 April 2010, attended by delegates
from different countries.
But the march of Aceh to become a “green
province” as envisioned by Irwandi and his
“Aceh Green Secretariat” in the “green concept
paper” was suddenly halted by the change of
leadership. Irwandi Yusuf lost his bid for the
second term of governorship to Zaini Abdullah,
another former GAM leader but from different
faction, on 9 April 2012 local election. Since his
inauguration on 25 June 2012, the new governor
has not touched nor said anything about “logging
moratorium” and Aceh Green. He did, however,
comment on mining issues in Aceh saying that
its management needs a look over.
This has raised questions among concerned
environmental activists, analysts, institutions,
and concerned citizens alike. What will happen
5 Concet Paper…op.cit. p. i
6
Ibid
7
Ibid. p. ii
8
Ibid. p. 2
13
Ibid
Ibid. p. 3
11
http://www.gcftaskforce.org/about; Accessed on August 8,
2012.
12
The election was re-scheduled for three times from its initial
schedule of November 2011 on the demand of GAM leaders, a
move believed to sideline Irwandi and lower his electability.
9
10
The new governor promised to issue a new instruction soon for
“mining moratorium” as reported by Atjeh Post, an online media
known to be closed to the new administration.
http://atjehpost.com/read/2012/07/31/16470/5/5/PemerintahAceh-Segera-Berlakukan-Moratorium-Tambang. Accessed on
August 16, 2012
139
Bridging the Gap: Knowledge Development and Management in Climate Change Issues in Aceh
to logging moratorium policy in Aceh? What
about Aceh Green Vision? Will it be cut off merely
due to different leadership and leadership vision
in Aceh?
In a broader perspective, given its integrated
and comprehensive approach at least as
claimed by Aceh Green supporters, why
cannot Aceh Green be carried on through the
new administration? Can and will civil society
organizations and general public propose to
the new administration to adopt the policies
once applauded by many? If not, what should
be (or have been) done to make it more likely
that the vision will be embraced by the new
administration and general public, especially
those of environment friendly development
advocates. What are roles of knowledge
development and management in this scenario?
1.2. Study Objective
The objective of this study is two-fold. Firstly,
to learn about Aceh Green Vision, its concept,
milestones, and actors around the vision and its
implementation. Secondly, to see whether there
is knowledge development and management on
climate change and how it might (have) help(ed)
shape environmental and development policy in
Aceh. Based on these, I would then suggest how
likely such a policy like Aceh Green Vision will
sustain.
in Aceh. Nor has it been seen as favorable policy
as such by some of environmental activists,
organizations, and the general public. This is
due to the fact that Governor Irwandi Yusuf
and his Aceh Green Secretariat had failed to
build inclusive ownership of the vision and
was not able to educate enough people on the
supposedly reasonable, if not great, vision so
people will defend and or carry it on. That is,
there is an obvious gap between high level policy
and grass-root understandings on the vision,
and thus, on climate change issues in Aceh.
I then propose that knowledge development
and management on climate change issues, both
from natural and social sciences perspective,
both of governmental and non-governmental
actors can fill the gap and so to build
multidisciplinary dialog and understandings of
such myriad issues surrounding climate change.
The rest of the paper is structured as follows.
After briefly stating methodological approach
used in this study in Section II, I provide main
results and discussion in Section III. Section IV
concludes and states several recommendations.
1.3. Aceh Green Vision and Knowledge
Management
Based on my observations, interviews,
communications, reports from different
organizations, documents, and several FGDs
I attended, some of which I will lay out in the
following sections, I find Aceh Green Vision is
less likely to survive the change of administration
14
Institute Green Aceh, Editorial: Apakabar
Moratorium Logging di Aceh? 13 July 2012. Available
at
http://www.greenaceh.or.id/2012/07/13/
editorial-apakabar-moratorium-logging/; Accessed
on July 14, 2012
140
2. METHODOLOGY
I used a combination of desk research
(internet reference, previous publications,
and secondary data) and personal interviews/
communications here. I also incorporated
minutes from several FGDs I was part of in 20112012.
3. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. The Aceh Green Vision
The formation of Aceh Green Vision was
very much influenced by global agenda on
climate change issues. In its proposal to be a
REDD+ pilot demonstration, “the Government
of Aceh” states that “The Government of Aceh
is very serious in following up global agenda,
especially those related to climate change and
its implication, …” (Pemerintah Aceh, 2011:5).
According to Lassa (2010), “The thirteenth
Conference of Parties (COP 13) in Bali, Indonesia
provided a new momentum for the provincial
government to fine tune its new policy, namely
the Aceh Green Vision (AVG).” He calls AVG as
“The rebranded policy” that “aims to reduce
emissions from deforestation and forest
degradation (REDD) with planned financial
support from voluntary markets.” But it does
include local interests in Aceh. At least, as Lassa
(2008) put it, it is “strongly characterized by
global-local interconnection.”
The Aceh Green Vision was started with
a move by Aceh Government under then
Governor Irwandi Yusuf to temporarily stop
logging activities in Aceh, known as “logging
moratorium”. It was declared on 6 June 2007 in
Aceh. Irwandi said logging moratorium policy is
needed to return forest function as balancing
factor to the nature and climate. Following
logging moratorium policy, the government
also introduced three “grand strategies”:
redesign, reforestation, and reduction of forest
destruction rate, known as 3R Strategy. With
this policy and strategy, the government claims
to have saved 500,000 hectare of forest in
Aceh from logging activities in 2008 from forest
concession active permit alone. But it does not
totally stop logging, both legal and illegal one,
in Aceh (Pemerintah Aceh, 2011). While the
problems of illegal logging and forest destruction
were not resolved, Aceh had to face yet another
challenge: unemployment.
With about one million hectare forest already
destroyed by previous illegal activities and forest
concession holders, increasing unemployment
was predicted to worsen situation in Aceh by
mid 2009 as post-tsunami rehabilitation and
reconstruction would end. Many former GAM
members were still unemployed after four
years of 2005 Helsinki Peace Accord. These two
challenges were addressed by Aceh Government
under Irwandi Yusuf with Aceh Green concept
(Gumay, 2008).
In its initial final concept paper titling
“Concept Paper: Green Economic Development
and Investment Strategy for Aceh, Indonesia:
Aceh Green, July 2008” , known as “green paper”
, Aceh Green consists of three priority categories
with eight main components :
1. Land Use, Land Use Change and Forest
(LULUCF) Management
Component 1: Primary Forest Protection
and Management
Component 2: Reforestation and Forest
Restoration
Component 3: Community Forestry and
Agro-forestry Development
2. Sustainable Economic Development
Component 4: Smallholder Estate Crop
Development in Partnership with Private
“On file with government of Aceh” (Dunlop,
2009:12) This concept paper is anonymous,
dated July 2008. My computer file indicated that
I downloaded it from www.aceh-eye.org on 17
September 2010. The website has been turned
down since mid 2012 by the management of Eye
on Aceh for their personal reasons (communication
with T. Samsul Bahri, Eye on Aceh, June 2012). Eye
on Aceh is “an independent research organization
that for several years has been publishing reports
on critically important themes from Aceh’s past and
present. …”. This is very likely the same concept
paper “provided by the Governor of Aceh to the
ESCAP secretariat on 14 December 2007” (UNESCAP, 2008). This might also be the concept paper
referred by DAI (2009), a report done by Lyndal
Meehan, a consultant who used to work for UNDP
in Aceh, as “Originally a work of foreign consultants,
this is now a much more complete and relevant
Document”
15
CSIRO (2008: ii)
15
141
Sector and Parastatal Estate Crops &
Associated Infrastructure
Component
5:
Spatial
Planning,
Management, and Development of
Capture Fisheries and Aquaculture
Component 6:
Development
Public
Infrastructure
3. Renewable Green Energy
Component 7: Geothermal Energy
Component 8: Micro Hydro
Lyndal Meehan in her report to Development
Alternatives, Inc (2009), however, reported
that Aceh Green has four key-sector and 10
components (sub-sector):
1. Energy security through green energy
Development
a. Geothermal
b. Hydropower
2. Environmental Conservation based on
sustainable forestry management
a. Developing management and
protection of forest
b. Reforestation and rehabilitation
c. Developing agro-forestry and
community forestry
3. Food and livelihood security through
sustainable economic development
a. Developing partnerships between small
holders and private plantation sector
b. Development and management of
fisheries and aquaculture
c. Development of public infrastructure
that supports protection of the
environment.
4. Waste management and renewable
energy
a. Management of waste materials
through reducing volume, pollutants
and adding value
b. Management of mineral energy and
mining
Aceh Green is known as an initiative
by Governor Irwandi Yusuf to promote
“environmentally
sustainable
economic
development in Aceh”. This is done through
‘Aceh Green Transitional Secretariat’, a team of
advisors funded by several non-government
agencies. The team, nevertheless, was officiated
by a formal Governor’s Decision in 2008 (DAI,
2009).
While key sectors and strategies were, more
or less, clearly laid out, defining ‘Aceh Green’
itself was not an easy task. DAI (2009) reported,
“Two years have passed since the first mooting
of Aceh Green and, despite numerous gains,
many parties still find defining ‘Aceh Green’
and its development agenda a difficult task.
The Secretariat team describes Aceh Green as a
development ‘philosophy’ or approach....”
The Aceh Green Secretariat always insisted
that Aceh Green is a philosophy or approach or
a vision. But many saw it as a program. Some
event think that it included a livelihood program
as indicated by confusion around Aceh Forest
and Environment Project (AFEP), a USD 17.5
million project funded by Aceh Multi Donor
Fund (MDF) under the World Bank management
in Aceh. Fauna Flora International (FFI) had to
clarify this matter:
“AFEP adalah proyek untuk hutan dan
lingkungan Aceh, dan bukan merupakan proyek
yang khusus menangani persoalan livelihood
atau peningkatan ekonomi masyarakat di sekitar
hutan, walaupun demikian, sekitar 5 hingga 7,5
persen dari total dana AFEP telah dialokasikan
untuk Livelihood.” 20
The Secretariat members were drawn from the
Governor’s “Assistance Team” and include: Ilarius
Wibisono and M. Yacob Ishadamy, GIS/IT specialists;
Nurdin M. Husin and M. Nur Rasyid, legal experts;
Hasan Yudie Sastra and Idal Bahri, economic
specialists (Development Alternatives Inc, 2009).
Some of this members are Irwandi Yusuf colleagues
when he worked at Fauna Flora International (FFI) in
the 90s.
18
Yacob Ishadamy and Irwandi Yusuf are still listed
respectively in “local contacts” as “representative”
and “governor” on Governors’ Climate and Forest
(GCF) Task Force official website: http://www.
gcftaskforce-database.org/StateOverview/Aceh.
Yacob is titled as “Head Aceh Green”, most probably
to mean “Head of Aceh Green Secretariat”.
19
FFI – Aceh Program is one of two organizations
funded under Aceh Forest and Environment Project
(AFEP). The other is Leuser International Foundation
(Yayasan Leuser Internasional, YLI).
17
142
(AFEP is an Aceh forest and
environmental project, and is not a
project specifically deals with livelihood
or forest community economic
development, although about 5 - 7.5
percent from AFEP total funding is
allocated for livelihood)
AFEP is claimed by Government of Aceh
as one of “two main cornerstones for the
Governor’s Green Economic Development
and Investment Strategy for Aceh” and “has
successfully mapped extensive land use and
conservation protection opportunities”. The
other main “cornerstone” is Community Climate
and Biodiversity Alliance (CCBA) which audited
Aceh Avoided Deforestation Voluntary Carbon
Program (AADVCP) in Ulu Masen Ecosystem,
“a multi-million dollar project funded and
administered by Carbon Conservation Pty Ltd.,
involving many parties at the forefront of forest
carbon markets including SmartWood and the
World Bank.”
Besides AFEP, there are several progresses
reported by personals representing the Aceh
Green Secretariat. Yacob Ishadamy and Fadmi
Ridwan , for examples, include several actions
in what they call, respectively, “effort for REDD
implementation” and “Actions Update”.
Following
logging
moratorium,
the
Government of Aceh recruited forest rangers
(Pamhut) whom were also trained to be
facilitators to increase awareness on forest
conservation. The Aceh Green concept paper
noted that to “To help enforce the moratorium,
the Governor recruited and employed 1,000
forest rangers/forest facilitators to raise
awareness within Aceh’s communities to be
more actively involved in forest protection and
implement sustainable forest management. He
will add as many as 2,000 more forest facilitators
FFI-Aceh Program press release as in “Tudingan”
Penyalahgunaan Dana AFEP dan Karbon in Bulletin
Ulu Masen. Edisi IV, April-Juni 2008. Page 6-7.
21
Anonymous. 2008. Concept Paper: Green Economic
Development and Investment Strategy for Aceh,
Indonesia: Aceh Green, July 2008.
22
Op.cit 18: Yacob Ishadamy…
23
Fadmi Ridwan is REDD Aceh Task Force Coordinator
(OC). He is a state employee Pegawai Negeri Sipil
(PNS) at Biro Perekonomian Setda Aceh
20
over the next two years.” (Concept Paper: Green
Economic Development and Investment Strategy
for Aceh, Indonesia: Aceh Green, July 2008).
To “Redesign Aceh Forestry”, Governor
Irwandi Yusuf established Forestry Redesign
Team (Tiperiksa) mandated to propose new
forest spatial, governance, and authority
arrangements, including forest concession
review. In line with this action, a “multi
stakeholder forum” was established for
“community capacity building”. The Aceh Green
Secretariat also had been developing Aceh
Spatial Planning (RTRW) , a result of which is yet
to be accepted by local parliament and districts
government. Meanwhile, efforts to reforest and
reduce forest destruction by the secretariat
include the establishment of “Concession Task
Force” to evaluate mining concessions. There
was also an “Aceh Marine and Fisheries Team”
which was tasked to develop fisheries strategic
planning, to revitalize Aceh aquaculture sector
and marine conservation, and to develop
“better management practices” in capturefisheries, aquaculture, post-fishing technology,
and sea resources management. There were
also actions for Payment Environmental Services
(PES), which include the establishment of
“carbon trade (REDD) task force” and efforts to
manage Krueng Peusangan river basin (DAS) in
North Aceh.
DAI (2009) calls those listed above and
several others as “ground breaking initiatives”
and “breakthroughs”. It outlines them as the
following:
Among the breakthroughs are:
1. The moratorium on all logging in Aceh
(declared by the Governor in 2007)
2. A forestry concessions review.
3. The establishment of the TIPERIKSA and
development of a draft forestry spatial
plan.
4. The historic Reducing Emissions through
Deforestation and Degradation (REDD)
agreement that grew out of the UNFCC
meeting in Bali.
5. The agreement on carbon credits signed
with the Governor of California (and
another long-standing agreement with
Merrill Lynch that has yet to see credits
flow, partly due to the financial crisis).
24
25
RTRW, Rencana Tata Ruang Wilayah
DAS, Daerah Aliran Sungai
143
6. Establishment of the Leuser Ecosystem
Regional Development Board (Badan
Pengembangan Kawasan Ekosistem
Leuser – BPKEL).
7. Advising on the formulation and
implementation of the Aceh Forestry
and Environment Program (AFEP) funded
through the Multi-Donor Fund, the single
largest environmental project in Asia,
valued at USD17.5 million over four years.
That is why there have been concerns among
environmental activists and analysts alike on the
environmental and development policy in Aceh.
These concerns are not necessarily about the
Aceh Green Vision in its format as envisioned by
the former governor and his team, but more on
overall policy related to sustainable economic
development. For forest governance, Eye on
Aceh (2009), for instance, has underlined this in
its conclusion:
8. Creation of the SIM - C database that
combines tracking government spending
with spatial data, to enable environmental
monitoring of programs.
For good forest government to
be implemented, Aceh requires a
strengthening both of regulatory capacity
and long term political will. For now,
Governor Irwandi is a strong supporter
of forest governance reform; however, if
he is voted out, reform will stagnate or go
into reverse unless better legislation is in
place; implementation and monitoring
capacities and commitments are
improved; and resistance on the part of
provincial and district level bureaucrats
to what commonly perceived as the
“overindulgence of the governor for
policies than come from non-Acehnese”
is overcome.
9. A re-drafting and re-fining of the Aceh
Green document and program (in
Indonesian). Originally a work of foreign
consultants, this is now a much more
complete and relevant document.
10. Socialization to SKPA and provincial
leaders of Aceh Green and steps to
leveraging programming to meet Aceh
Green criteria.
(DAI, 2009: 12)
“Other areas in areas in which Aceh Green is
progressing” are waste management and palm
oil sector development (DAI, 2009: 13). But
“most time and effort” of Aceh Green Secretariat
“has been devoted to forestry conservation”,
including, if not all about REDD and “carbon
trade.”
Now that the government in Aceh is
changing, it is very interesting and important to
see how Aceh Green Vision will proceed. Will
it be put down after Governor Irwandi Yusuf, a
conservationist himself loss 2012 election from
Zaini Abdullah, a medical doctor who lived in
Sweden for more than 20 years before coming
back to Aceh after the Helsinki MoU of 15 August
2005. Some have already mentioned that at
least the new governor’s living experience in
Europe will help conservation efforts in Aceh.
But, it requires not only a “long term political
commitment”, but also “regulatory capacity”
(Eye on Aceh, 2009).
26
Eye on Aceh. 2009
(Eye on Aceh (2009: 22), emphasis in
italics from author)
Dunlop (2009) voiced similar concerns on
governance, especially on tenure security for
forest community.
But, the biggest drawback of Aceh Green
Vision to proceed in the future might as well
come from the fact of Aceh Green Secretariat ‘ad
hoc’ status. As written in DAI (2009) executive
summary:
The secretariat has had only ‘ad hoc’
involvement to date with government
departments and have exhibited almost
no interest in engaging the government
planning mechanisms that underpin the entire
development process.
As a result, it further notes, “there are
currently many gaps”:
1. Poverty reduction and rural development
strategies are rudimentary; civil society
participation is minimal despite recent
gains;
144
2. Supply chain development is a long way
off;
3. Non-government
assistance
in
government development planning,
particularly in sectoral agencies such as
agriculture, is currently non-existent;
4. ‘Disconnects’ between and within
government agencies in planning and
program implementation exist across the
province (DAI, 2009:7)
However, in its undated “Up Date from Aceh”,
Taskforce REDD Aceh with the support of Fauna
Flora International and Carbon Conservation
claimed to have achieve the following:
1. Preparation and establishment for
permanent REDD management site in
Aceh
2. Vegetation and pilot survey of forest
carbon in the district of Ulu Masen:
a. Carbon stock assessment
(DPRA). Legislation is expected to be
finished in 2011
3.2 Reception to Aceh Green and REDD
With such coverage, comprehensive and
holistic approach, one might expect there would
be open and wide reception of “Aceh Green”, be
it as a vision, approach, or philosophy; especially
with such a high profile coverage in the media
and international engagement. And indeed, as
a vision it was applauded by many in Aceh, and
even more at the national and international
level. The reception, however, is not without
reservation.
Lassa (2010), for example, notes that “New
initiatives, such as the Aceh Green Vision, are
seen as a set of strategic movements from a
certain strategic groups with mixed motives
regarding strategic resources, which are packed
fashionably as the sustainable development
policy, and strongly characterized by global-local
interconnection.”
Others see Aceh Green is understood only
by a small circle around Governor Irwandi Yusuf
and its drafters. As a result, it was viewed as an
exclusive and not “conflict sensitive” process,
as written by Marthunis Muhammad, a scholarbureaucrat at Aceh Provincial Planning Board
(Bappeda) Aceh:
b. Deforestation assessment
c. Leakage and risk assessment.
3. Community involvement strategy:
a. Information and education
Inisiatif lingkungan Aceh termasuk
sangat baik. Visi Aceh Green juga luar
biasa, tetapi tidak dilakukan berdasarkan
pendekatan
"sensitif
konflik"….
Aceh Green juga terkesan eksklusif.
Pemahaman Aceh Green yang baik hanya
berada pada Gubernur Irwandi dan para
konseptornya. Tidak membumi di dinas/
badan apalagi DPRA. Konsekuensinya,
bombastis di dokumen dan media, tapi
tumpul di program/kegiatan APBA. Yang
paling terasa adalah ketika pembahasan
tata ruang Aceh yang cenderung stagnan
dengan DPRA. Selain dipicu oleh political
divide antara eksekutif dan legislatif saat
itu, juga akibat eksklusivitas prosesnya. 27
b. Land rights and natural resources
c. Complaints mechanism and feedback
4. Consultation on FPIC [Free, Prior, and
Informed Consent] and benefits sharing’s
scheme with local indigenous people
(imum mukim)
5. Strengthening the role of community
rangers (PAMHUT/POLHUT) in the forest
protection
6. Optimizing the function of
Conservation Response Unit (CRU)
the
7. Preliminary draft of the REDD+ regional
development strategy
8. Recognition process of indigenous rights
(Mukim) in forest management
9. The Spatial Plan of Aceh Region (RTRW):
RTRW is in prcess with Aceh Parliament
Email communications with Marthunis
Muhammad in Aceh Researcher Forum (Forum
Peneliti Aceh, FPA) mailing list. FPA has been
working to mainstream
27
145
(Translation here)
I have heard many comments on
“exclusiveness” as above from Aceh bureaucrats
at provincial and district level, as well as from
NGO activists, academics, and analysts. This
is maybe why Eye on Aceh (2009) terms it as
perceived “overindulgence of the governor
[Irwandi Yusuf] for policies that come from nonAcehnese.”
National Executive Coordinator of WALHI
Desk Aceh-Nias, Sofyan, (dalam Gumay, 2008)
adds that “Aceh Green Vision concept mooted
by the government has to be socialized and
understood by all the people. This way, there
will be public sphere for people to voice their
opinions before all programs are implemented.”
Lassa (2008) criticizes on how Aceh Green
Vision has been conceptualized as “Building
on a Donor-Driven Economy” (title of section
C, page 4, final English version, in the “green
paper”). He is concerned that while research
has shown the importance of trust in building
and maintaining Aceh’s social capital, as shown
by Thorburn’s (2008) survey, the Aceh Green
Vision drafter(s) has (have) “implicitly assumed
that the reconstruction processes in Aceh
have been donor-driven.” Citing several other
examples, Lassa concludes that those examples
“indicate that overall, the international donor
organizations involved in the reconstruction and
rehabilitation process have little understanding
that sustainability of projects require local
approval and support, and they have fewer
regard for local public participation in order to
secure these approval and support.”
The challenge of governance is also voiced
by Eye on Aceh (2009), particularly in forest
governance, a prerequisite to a successful
implementation of Aceh Green Vision. The
findings of the report “suggest that most
problems of forest management in Aceh are
governance problem.” Eye on Aceh suggests,
however, that these challenges of governance
are not unique to forest sector.
“evidence-based policy” in Aceh. Quoted with permission.
18 July 2012.
28
Emphasis in italics is made by the author to show that
even prominent environmental activist thinks that Aceh
Green Vision also constitutes program.
29
Available from indosasters.blogspot.com INDOSASTERS
(Indonesian Disasters Studies Gateway). This blog is
maintained by Jonatan Lassa - PhD a researcher on DRR
governance).
… most problems of forest management
in Aceh are governance problems that
affect many sectors, including forestry,
rather than problems relating only to
forest governance per se. In particular,
the future of Aceh’s forests is profoundly
complicated by the fact that an entrenched
culture of opportunism and corruption
is pervasive in the province. … forests in
Aceh have now become an integral part
of the local political economy, which is on
the whole dominated by predatory and
corrupt practices.
Dunlop (2009) looks into more detail on this
governance issues by examining local community
tenure security issues. She recommends that
Enhancing tenure security of forest
dependent communities can help to
address legal uncertainties surrounding
REDD projects. This will not only empower
forest dependent communities but will
also benefit governments, REDD project
developers and investors.
Particularly on Ulu Masen REDD project,
three NGOs, Forests for Peoples Programme,
Pusaka, Yayasan Rumpun Bambu Indonesia
writes in one of their ‘Rights, forests and climate
briefing series’:
Several issues could make the sustainable
implementation of the Ulu Masen project
challenging, particularly in terms of
respecting indigenous peoples’ rights and
reducing deforestation. Despite being five
years into the development phase, the
Ulu Masen Pilot Project does not have a
strong legal basis to manage the forests
within the project site.
The problem with REDD implementation
is of course not unique to Aceh, though. And
community knowledge about this seems to
be pivotal. Purnomo et al (2012), for example,
observes knowledge on REDD+ in Jambi as the
key factor if it is to be success fully implemented.
Ratsimbazafy, Harada, Yamamura (2011) also
finds the lack of knowledge on REDD among
forest community members in
146
Madagascar as a possible obstacle in its
implementation.
Worse is yet to come for Aceh Green Vision.
When people talk about the vision, one that
always comes up recently is about carbon trading
and REDD project in Ulu Masen Ecosystem. This
project is seem to fail because of political change
in Aceh and, subsequently, the failure of private
sector to bring about benefits as it promised in
carbon trading.
The political change in Aceh is believed
to hinder carbon trading initiatives in Aceh.
“Change in Aceh hinders carbon plan” reports
Michael Bachelard in Sidney Morning Herald on
8 June 2012. The next day, another Bachelard’s
report appears, “Credits lost in tangle of Aceh's
forest” on the same paper, reporting the Ulu
Masen project “to develop a carbon credit
scheme has stalled, perhaps fatally, and 770,000
hectares of forest [in Ulu Masen Ecosystem] is
in limbo.” In this report, Bachelard writes how
Dorjee Sun, a young Australian entrepreneur
who owns Carbon Conservation, an Australian
carbon brokerage firm working with Irwandi’s
Government of Aceh on Ulu Masen Project, has
“sold out”. Sun, once Time magazine's "Heroes
of the Environment", “sold half his business to
a Canadian gold mining company, whose aim is
to turn a forest-clad mountain-top into an opencut mine using cyanide leaching to extract the
riches.”
Bachelard’s reports are based on
comprehensive observations, interviews, and
film documentary, one of which is the basis for
his statement: “[Dorjee Sun’s] partner in the
effort, former Aceh governor Irwandi Yusuf, was
so disillusioned with REDD he accused the global
community of using his region as a "carbon
toilet"”.
Harada is now doing similar analysis on REDD
and forest communities in Aceh. 31
http://www.smh.com.au/world/change-inaceh-hinders-carbon-plan-20120608-201jm.
html (Accessed August 20).
32
http://www.smh.com.au/environment/
conservation/credits-lost-in-tangle-of-acehsforest-20120608-201gl.html (Accessed August
20).
30
Local, national and international NGOs
have expressed their concern on this latest
development. Forest Peoples Programme,
Pusaka, Yayasan Rumpun Bambu Indonesia
wrote in their briefs in October 2011:
In a development that may turn many
against the Ulu Masen Project and
exacerbate existing concerns, in May
2011, Carbon Conservation sold half of its
assets to the Canadian mining company,
East Asia Minerals Corporation.
To this end, I have discussed about the Aceh
Green Vision and how it is received in Aceh.
The vision itself is indeed a holistic one and has
been applauded by many upon its introduction.
But further reception, let alone engagement
and implementation, has shown mixed results.
Although it will need further research and
analysis, I argue that there is a gap of bridging
processes and actors between high level policy,
that is, Aceh Green Vision, and its understandings
and implementation at the grass-root level (civil
society, forest communities, general public).
This might be what Lassa (2008, 2010) calls
“knowledge trap” in governance in general and
in carbon management policy in particular.
The power to define space/spatiality is
practically in the hands of consultants
and experts hired to do the job. Their
discretionary power is prone to bias
either due to pressure from certain
interests, for example powerful groups
such as donors and lenders, or due to
the so-called "knowledge trap" where
the data, information, and knowledge are
implemented without any understanding
of the corresponding unknowns of local
context and dynamics (Evers, Gerke, and
Menkhoff 2006 in Lassa 2010).
Lassa further his argument while looking at
the process of carbon management policy in
Aceh as
“…there are risks of the "knowledge trap"
due to the ignorance or dismissal of factors that
support sustainability, specifically, the principles
of participation and legitimacy (Lassa 2010 and
Adger et al. 2002 in Lassa 2010). He cites Lesley
McCullough of Eye on Aceh, writing:
There is anecdotal information that the circle
that promotes carbon management policy is not
147
dominated by the official local stakeholders
of government officials such as Bappeda, and
sectoral provincial departments but by donors
and expatriate experts (Interview with Lesley
McCullough, 2008 in Lassa 2010).
Lassa (2010), therefore, proposed a more and
better involvement of local experts, bureaucrats,
and civil society such as “experts go green” and
“bureaucrats go green”. I want to expand on
this proposal by arguing that there should be
knowledge development and management on
“sustainable economic development in Aceh”
if not on “Aceh Green Vision”. In particular,
Aceh needs to build evidence-based policy by
developing T-shape professionals in sustainable
economic development.
3.3 Knowledge development and management
I want to begin this section by fully quoting
one paragraph from Ismid Hadad on the
multidisciplinary and multisystem nature of
climate change issues:
Kendati disebabkan oleh dan berdampak
pada kondisi sosial ekonomi, namun
perubahan iklim selama ini hanya
dianggap sebagai masalah geofisika
dan teknis lingkungan belaka; tidak ada
kaitannya dengan urusan pembangunan
atau
kebijakan
publik.
Masalah
perubahan iklim seolah-olah hanya
menjadi perhatian dan urusan ilmuwan
fisika, ahli cuaca, dan pakar lingkungan
saja. Disisi lain, upaya pengurangan emisi
GRK [Gas Rumah Kaca] oleh negara maju
dan berkembang masih lebih banyak
mengandalkan pendekatan teknologi dan
ilmu pengetahuan alam. Mereka belum
menyertakan kebijakan pembangunan
sosial ekonomi serta pendekatan politik
dan kultural yang diperlukan untuk
mengatasi masalah kompleks tersebut
secara komprehensif. (Hadad, 2010)
(Tranlation here)
Ismid Hadad is a prominent former student activist,
environmental and development activist and scholar,
and philanthropist. He serves as negotiator and
Indonesia Delegate secretary in COP-13 UNFCCC
(2007) in Bali, delegate and negotiating member in
COP-14 in Poznan, Poland (2008), and for COP 15
in Bonn. He is also the chair of Funding Mechanism
Working Group in Indonesia National Council for
Climate Change (DNPI).
33
Issues of climate change, as those emerging
challenges in our new world such as poverty,
conflict, disaster, and other environmental and
development issues indeed necessitate interand multi-disciplinary approach. In another
word, we need build a more inclusive approach
at different levels.
In term of technical capacities, Aceh seems
to have fairly good human resources in natural
science and engineering. This can at least be
seen from the profile of state universities in
Aceh, Syiah Kuala University in particular, which,
until recent years, put more attention to the
field of science and engineering vis a vis social
and humanity sciences. As a result, knowledge
in Aceh (and Indonesia in general) is very much
compartmentalized in conventional department
system and very rigid to foster inter- and multidisciplinary approach. For example, I can easily
find among my colleagues in Aceh expertise on
advance environmental modeling, but not in
the socio-economic implications of such fancy
models. My experience at the International
Center for Aceh and Indian Ocean Studies has
attested to this reality (more on this is in the
next chapter).
This has been exacerbated by low to no
willingness among scholars from different fields
to work together to address multidisciplinary
challenges such as climate change. Formal
regulations and reward system in Indonesian
academics are also favoring highly specialized
experts and scholars. A common anecdotal
illustration of this is “linearity” condition for
an academics to advance to professorship in
Indonesia. But there is no such thing as a single
term for “climate change” expert.
Despite this problem, however, discourses
on climate change and other environmental
and development issues have been very vibrant
in Aceh, thanks to mostly non-government
initiatives such as from national NGOs (e.g.
Walhi, Yayasan Rumpun Bambu Indonesia,
Solidaritas Perempuan; International NGOs (Eye
This is a complicated issue in post-colonial
society like Indonesia. My contemplation on this
is in Mahdi, Saiful. 2010. Melawan Paradigma
Pendidikan Kolonial. Aceh Institute in Tabloid
Kontras, Banda Aceh.
34
148
on Aceh, IDLO, Transparency International).
But, as Lassa (2010) indicates, there is a risk of
“knowledge trap”: “where the data, information,
and knowledge are implemented without any
understanding of the corresponding unknowns
of local context and dynamics (Evers, Gerke, and
Menkhoff 2006 in Lassa 2010).
To prevent “knowledge trap”, I would suggest
that Aceh needs not only a comprehensive
capacity building programs on climate change
issues, but also an orchestrated efforts to breed
more T-shape professionals in sustainable
economic development as suggested by
Donofrio, Spohrer, and Zadeh, 2009: “T-shape
professionals have problem-solving (depth)
and complex-communication (breadth) skills.
The phrase originated in computer education
and the spread to other areas in part to create
a contrast with traditional, highly specialize
I-shape professionals.” Figure 1 shows a
supposedly T-shape professional skill profile.
importance of evaluating not only the output
and results of a research, but also on the impact
of them.
Looking at a closer level, Purnomo et al
(2012) describes the nexus between “actors’
knowledge and power in terms of implementing
REDD+” in Jambi and shows that those who have
more knowledge about REDD+ do have more
powers to influence policies. In addition, those
who have more knowledge are more receptive
to REDD+.
On REDD community knowledge, Dunlop
(2009) recommends: “To be effective, REDD
projects need to be supported by community
education and awareness-raising that target
the gaps in community knowledge identified….
Such activities should be culturally appropriate
and tailored to the circumstances of local
communities.”
Although there was a drawback in 2009 COP15 in Copenhagen, many still celebrate Bali 2007
COP-13 UNFCCC as a strategic milestone for
Indonesia’s moving forward in climate change
initiatives. Since then “awareness, community
movement, and mass media coverage on
environmental issues and climate change have
been incessant and widespread, besides it has
produced program and policy breakthroughs,
and new organizations….” Aceh enjoys this
blossoming awareness more, if not the most,
compared to other places in Indonesia.
There has been strong ‘knowledge
production’ in this field in Aceh as indicated by
Figure 1. T. Shape professionals: combining
problem solving (deep) and
communication (broad) skills
(Donofrio, Spohrer, and Zadeh, 2009)
Pending further exploration for width and
depth of this knowledge, for example, by ongoing
Harada’s project, it might be the case that more
people in Aceh know about ‘climate change’ and
‘REDD’ than other places, no matter how vague
is the understanding; as Michael Bachelard 8
June 2012 report in Sidney Morning Herald
put it: “We are in the heart of the massive Ulu
Masen project, where ordinary people probably
know more than most about REDD.” (emphasis
by author)
35
In regard to the importance of research in
environmental policy, it will now be too cliché
to claim one as there have been so many proofs
available. Bell, Shaw and Boaz (2011), for
example, states, “… Research has a central role
to play in the development of environmental
policy, both in shaping its overall strategic
direction and also in the identification and
implementation of specific objectives.” But
they cautions researchers to produce a more
down-to-earth results. They also underline the
149
increasing number of reports and scientific
articles, some of which are listed in this paper
reference section. Thanks to Governor Irwandi’s
initiative with other governors and head of
states from 15 provinces/states in Brazil,
Indonesia, Nigeria, Mexico, and the US, GCF
website, http://gcf.wsodqa.com/ has provided
a comprehensive “REDD+ knowledge database”
on 13 GCF member states/provinces in Brazil,
Indonesia, Nigeria, and Mexico. This is one of its
kind databases with proper and timely updates.
One can find fairy large number of information
from individual states/provinces. It remains to
be seen how Aceh is going to play its role and
represented in this website with Aceh Green
Secretariat had lost its patron, former Governor
Irwandi Yusuf.
The knowledge production, however, has not
been as local as one might have expected. Other
than in the issue of ‘mukim-ization of forest
governance’, most consultants and researchers
are foreigners hired by foreign organizations
with locals playing roles as ‘resource persons’,
‘local consultants’, ‘local expert’ or merely as
‘assistants’ and ‘interviewee’. This is in fact a
portrait of Aceh being ransacked by national
and international researchers in Missbach
(2011): “Aceh has become a 'social laboratory'
for foreign researchers who study Indonesia's
northern-most province from every angle.” This
was the basic thesis for ICAIOS to propose and
run the ‘Climate Change and Poverty’ project to
train more local researchers in the field.
To complicate the issue further, while
‘knowledge production’ has been strong,
‘knowledge distribution’ has been minimal. This
must have been one of the causes that make
Aceh Green Vision seen to be having ‘exclusive’
process.
The Aceh Green Secretariat seems to be
aware of the situation. There have been efforts
to embrace more people and organizations into
the discussion of the vision. Figure 2 shows how
the consultants and drafter(s) of Aceh Green
Vision map the actors and issues around the
vision. UN-ESCAP and ICAIOS, for example, were
mapped to play role in ‘knowledge and research
management’.
Figure 2. Mind Mapping of Aceh Green
Development
(M. Yacob Ishadamy’s presentation, Aceh Green
Secretariat)
Unfortunately, this is too on the ‘ad hoc’ basis
without any formal agreement whatsoever.
ICAIOS is willing to be involved based merely on
good will for a greater purpose to strengthen
Aceh’s knowledge sector development. This
might be, on the Secretariat part, due to its
‘ad hoc’ status itself which prevent them from
entering into any MoUs or agreements without
involving the Aceh Government officially. To
date, ICAIOS has never been updated on its
status in the map. Alas, this map occurring in the
secretariat’s presentation might have been seen
by others as ICAIOS direct involvement with the
Aceh Green.
3.4 ICAIOS Experience: Climate Change and
Poverty Project
Recognizing the enormous challenge that
Indonesia is facing to address climate change,
there is an urgent need to start developing
the human resources that will be required
the coming decades. Currently, the number of
well-trained national experts is very limited
and largely restricted to some universities and
research agencies in West and Central Java. This
is becoming a major barrier for the Government
of Indonesia and development agencies
who are struggling with mobilizing human
resources for the rapidly expanding program
on climate change. Meanwhile, the situation
in the provinces is even direr. Human capacity
is substantially lower in the provinces outside
of Java, but because of the decentralization
process, an increasing amount of responsibility
and authority is given to local governments.
150
Particularly, Aceh is in need of developing
its human resources to address climate change
and poverty. Due to protracted conflict and
the massive infrastructural damage and
humanitarian losses caused by the December
2004 earthquake and tsunami, the province
generally has weakened capacity in academic
expertise. This is particularly the case within
the fields of social and political sciences, but
also such specific disciplines as environmental
studies.
Despite its abundant natural resources Aceh
remains one of Indonesia’s poorest provinces.
Socio-economic inequalities and exploitation
of natural resources by outsiders have been
indicated as major factors contributing to the
separatist conflict that lasted in Aceh for three
decades. Since August 2005 there has been a
relatively successful implementation of a peace
accord between the separatist movement
GAM and Indonesian Government. However,
numerous problems remain to be resolved to
ensure the sustainability of peace in Aceh. A
major challenge is how to raise the population
above the poverty level; poverty in Aceh remains
higher than other Indonesian regions with some
26.5 % in 2006 (average in Indonesia being over
ten percent lower), and poverty is even higher in
rural areas of Aceh .
The urgent need to provide food and
livelihood opportunities for the population may
lead to unsustainable solutions and accelerating
exploitation of natural resources. Excessive
logging and turning rain forests to plantations
(oil palm, rubber, cocoa and coffee in Aceh case)
lead to deforestation and contribute to climate
change. Climate change, as has been shown by
several recent reports on the issue, tends to lead
to extreme weather conditions, declining crop
yield and due to this growing need to acquire
more forest land to agriculture.
Meanwhile, the Government of Indonesia
has significantly increased its commitment
to address climate change since the UNFCCC
conference in Bali, December 2007. The National
Action Plan addressing Climate Change has been
issued by the ministry of Environment, and
Bappenas has clearly indicated to donors the
national priorities. Of major importance is the
World Bank (2008) Aceh Poverty Assessment
2008: The Impact of the Conflict, the Tsunami and
Reconstruction on Poverty in Aceh
36
recent establishment of the National Council on
Climate Change (DNPI), chaired by the President
of the Republic of Indonesia.
On the other hand, Aceh government
under Governor Irwandi Yusuf has taken a
proactive role in addressing deforestation
and environmental protection. Signs of this
include the full moratorium of logging in Aceh
in June 2007, and the launching of the Green
Economic Development and Investment
Strategy for Aceh, or the ‘Aceh Green’-plan
by Aceh Governor. The strategy illustrates the
awareness of Aceh Government of linkages
between climate change and poverty: the need
to fight against deforestation and the need to
develop economically sustainable livelihoods
for people in post-conflict and post-tsunami
Aceh. Aceh government has in 2008 established
the Aceh Green Secretariat to implement the
environmental strategy and develop sustainable
policies. To ensure successful implementation
of Aceh Green-plan it is necessary to train local
scholars to have expertise in the areas of climate
change and poverty alleviation.
International Center for Aceh and Indian
Ocean (ICAIOS) itself has a general goal to
rebuild and strengthen the capacity of local
scholars and universities and assist them in
building up national and international networks.
ICAIOS also aims to develop its own innovative
research program that is based on Aceh’s needs.
This project is a part of its efforts to reach
these general goals. Researcher training is a
long process, but increased research capacity
of participants can be detected easily through
the seminar papers and publications they will
provide at the end of the project.
As an Indonesia inter university training and
research center with global engagement, ICAIOS
is in unique position to play its role in issues such
as climate change. Through its “Training Future
Experts on Climate Change and Poverty in Aceh,
in short Climate Change and Poverty (CCP),
ICAIOS aims to train local junior researchers in
Aceh to do research and provide policy advice
on issues related to climate change and poverty.
In the long term, the project objective is to
increase research capacities of local scholars,
non-academic researchers, and officials at
relevant government departments. In short
term, it has provided important information on
the effects of climate change and poverty in
151
Aceh’s villages, as well as on the efforts of
local populations to tackle these problems.
Such information is essential to strengthen local
government’s capacity to implement its Green
Development and Investment Strategy, the Aceh
Green, and develop environmentally sound and
sustainable policies.
It was proposed base on the understandings
that it important to increase locally produced
research as it is more likely to have direct
influence on policymakers than research with
global focus. A third objective for this 12 months
pilot project was to prepare a plan and funding
proposal for a three year research training
program with the same focus. This full scale
program is yet to be implemented.
As agreed between the International Centre
for Aceh and Indian Ocean Studies (ICAIOS)
and the United Nations Development Program
(UNDP), ICAIOS has implemented a jointly
planned Climate Change and Poverty project that
has received funding from the Ford Foundation.
The implementation period is from 15 July
2009 to 15 June 2010. The project’s primary
objective is to train local, junior researchers in
Aceh province to become experts on climate risk
management and poverty. It is hoped, that these
experts would in the future be in a position to
provide policy advice on these issues to the local
government.
3.4.1 Basic Training
In September 2009 the opportunity to
participate in four weeks training course on
climate change and poverty was announced
to the public via information boards at local
campuses as well as relevant mailing lists on
the Internet. Almost 100 candidates applied
for the training program. ICAIOS established a
team to select 20 participants for the training.
The selection process included administration
review, in which the team examined the
candidates’ Curriculum Vitae and study history.
30 candidates were interviewed on 6 – 9 October
2009. The twenty selected candidates fulfilled
the required gender balance criteria. There
were fifteen local academic scholars, three NGO
workers and two government officials amongst
the selected candidates.
A four week training program started on
October 12, 2009 and ended on November 8,
2009. The training was divided in two parts,
consisting of class room activity and fieldwork
training. During the classroom training the
participants had a chance to increase their
knowledge and understanding on climate risk
management and poverty issues from eleven
local, national, and international experts. As part
of the training, the participants also enhanced
their skills on research methodology. During the
classroom training the participants learned how
to prepare a research proposal and present it in
both written form and orally.
For the field training, the participants were
divided into four groups. Two groups went
to the sub-district of Saree in Aceh Besar, and
focused on Agriculture and Agro-forestry. The
two remaining groups were assigned to Sabang
as their training site, and their thematic focus
was on coastal zone communities. The purpose
of the field research training was to teach the
participants in primary data collection. Dr. Edy
Rudy, a local marine ecologist from Syiah Kuala
University, was appointed as team leader/
mentor to the Saree, Aceh Besar District field
training while Dr. Zahari Zen, an ecologist from
North Sumatera, was appointed for the research
team in Sabang Island. After the training, one full
day was allocated for presentations on the field
data and preliminary analyses by each group.
The classroom and field training was
successfully completed within the allocated
timeframe. The high (almost 100%) attendance
indicates that the training was perceived
interesting and beneficial by the participants.
The trainers were also enthusiastic about such
a new training theme. The inclusion of field
training was seen particularly useful. A sign on
keen interest in continuing to work on climate
change issue in Aceh is the website http://
acehclimatechange.org/ and the establishment
of an NGO called ACCes (Aceh Climate Change
Study) by the Alumni of CCP training. The
members of ACCes are young scholars from two
universities in Banda Aceh, the University of
Malikussaleh in Lhokseumawe and University of
Teuku Umar, Meulaboh.
3.4.2 ICAIOS Training through Research
All twenty trainees were invited to and
submitted a research proposal for the second
component of the training. Four proposals were
152
awarded a six-month research grant for the
period of December 2009 to May 2010. The
assessment for the twenty research proposals
included, relevance of the research topic,
literature review, research design, methodology,
research ethic, and institutional affiliation. The
following four candidates were selected:
To guide the four awarded researchers, ICAIOS
selected four national supervisors and one local
supervisor from the Syiah Kuala University. Two
supervisors are experts on climate change in
CCROM, one a senior expert on poverty studies
from SMERU Research Institute and one on
forestry and community from Syiah Kuala. Each
supervisor was responsible for guiding two
researchers. In addition to this, each researcher
was mentored by the CCP- Coordinator. The
supervision focused on research methodology,
data collection, data analysis, report writing
and writing a final article. As the capacity of
experts in Aceh is relatively low in this field, the
researchers visited CCROM in Bogor, and SMERU
Research Institute in Jakarta in January 2010, for
one week to learn directly from expert peers.
All four researchers successfully prepared
a more detailed research plan according
to comments, suggestions and instructions
provided by mentors and the CCP Coordinator.
The early months of 2010 were used to collect
field data. Each researcher had a different
district as their field site. Due to this, the project
covered a large part of Aceh province, including
coastal and mountainous areas. A common
theme for all was water: rising and lowering
water level, changes in rainfall and flooding that
all have impact on poor communities in Aceh.
With regular communication with supervisors,
the researchers analysed the field data in the
context of wider research on their respective
topics. Despite limitations in time and resources
these local junior researchers have managed
to produce, for the first time ever in Aceh’s
history, four reports that address the issues of
climate change and poverty. This pilot project
has assisted ICAIOS and other stakeholders to
develop a better understanding of research
needs in these fields, and indicated directions
for future research and training programs.
3.4.3 Results and Dissemination of Results
It was decided that a public seminar would
be organised to discuss the preliminary results of
four researchers. In addition to that the seminar
that was held on 3 March 2010 involved three
senior academics as speakers (John MacCarthy
from the Australian National University, Impron
from CCROM and Muhammad Syukri from
SMERU). The seminar attracted an audience of
over one hundred people. All four researchers
gained from the comments and suggestions
received from the audience, and had an
opportunity to practice public presentation.
By 31 May 2010 all researchers had submitted
a draft article. They received final comments
from their supervisors and resubmitted draft
articles by 10 June 2010. Some budget fund was
left unused and was decided to be allocated
for publication purpose. It materialized in the
form of training manual on climate change and
poverty (Panduan Pelatihan: Perubahan Iklim
dan Kemiskinan) jointly published by ICAIOS
and UNDP Indonesia. The research results
have also been disseminated through the Third
International Conference on Aceh and Indian
Ocean Studies (ICAIOS) on 25-26 May 2011 in
Banda Aceh.
General findings of the research are as follows.
In her research ‘The impact of climate change
to mosquito-born diseases in poor communities
in Aceh Tamiang’ Nanda Ayu Puspita, a Medical
Faculty of Syiah Kuala University finds climate
elements such as rainfall and environmental
conditions are closely related to characteristic
and behavior of hosting vector mosquito in
villages surveyed in Aceh Tamiang.
Muhammad Nizar, a faculty member of
Serambi Mekkah University and Walhi Aceh
staff, in his research, ‘Relation between rainfall
and access to clean water in the poor villages of
Aceh Utara’, finds that the village communities
do not understand the principles of water
conservation. They do not do water storage or
hold water for more than one day or create a
reservoir. But they realize that one day clean
water will be hard to find. Therefore, they have
requested the government to provide water
conservation measures. Meanwhile Evalina of
Urban and Regional Planning Faculty of Syiah
Kuala University finds direct and indirect impacts
of flood to poor coastal community in Bireuen.
The direct impacts for the community include
153
difficulties to find daily products; the increasing
price of daily product at around 2-3%; no access
to clean water; increasing expenses as drinking
water needs to be bought at around IRD 5,000 a
day; and increasing debt. This is found under her
research ‘Adaptation strategies of poor coastal
communities in Bireuen towards flooding caused
by climate change’.
The fourth research funded by ICAIOS’ CCP
Project is by Isma Arsyani, researcher with
Central Aceh’s Planning Agency (Bappeda). In his
research ‘How communities adapt to the falling
water level of Lake Laut Tawar in Central Aceh’
finds that the falling water level of Lake Laut
day; and increasing debt. This is found under her
research ‘Adaptation strategies of poor coastal
communities in Bireuen towards flooding caused
by climate change’
Tawar is mainly caused by the decreasing
land coverage and land use change around
the lake. Rain and temperature variation plays
somewhat less significant role in determining
the water level.
4. FURTHER DISCUSSION
“The
challenge
in
environmental
management is in managing human interactions
on environmental issues, not in managing
human interactions with environment”—
Jacques Weber, an environmental economist
In the end, the quote above is very relevant
in understanding what has taken place in Aceh
(and maybe Indonesia). Inclusive approach is
imperative if a policy such as the Aceh Green
Vision is to sustain and be implemented. By
referring to peace process in Aceh as an analogy,
Marthunis Muhammad of the Provincial
Bappeda put it this way:
Belajar dari pengalaman, saya kira para
stakeholder lingkungan perlu beralih
pada pendekatan inklusif, dengan
menurunkan ego masing-masing. Ibarat
proses perdamaian, perlu take and give
dan momen pertemuan kesepahaman
[harus] sering dilakukan. Good intention
is not enough, tapi bagaimana niat baik
itu menjadi operasional dan dilaksanakan
dengan tidak menggerutu.
(Learning from experience, I think the
environmental stakeholders need to
change gear to inclusive approach, by
reducing their respective ego. Similar
to the [Aceh] peace process, it needs
‘take and give’ and meetings to seek
mutual understandings should be done
frequently. Good intention is not enough,
but instead how that good intention
become operational and implemented
without grumbling)
This suggestion has been welcome by Dewa
Gumay, an environmental activist from South
Sumatra working for Fauna Flora International
(FFI) and the Aceh Green Secretariat.
Saya belum bicara operasional-nya, tapi
kalau itu yang terjadi ... Jika Aceh Green
masih dianggap relevan, mudah-mudahan
Bappeda sebagai lembaga Mainstreaming
bisa membuatnya menjadi lebih inklusif
dan dipahami para stakeholder di Aceh,
serta bekerja secara operational.
(I have not talked about its operation,
but if that happens… If Aceh Green is
still considered relevant, I hope Bappeda
[Aceh] as a mainstreaming organization
can make it more inclusive and understood
by various stakeholders on Aceh, and will
be operational.)
However, Gumay ended the communication
by saying that it is all about “perspective”:
Tapi sudahlah, seperti postingan diawal
'jangan terlalu membuang energi' ini soal
perspektif masing-masing kepala, saya
hanya melihatnya sebagai dinamika saja.
(But let’s end this [debate], as our first
post in the [mailing list], ‘don’t waste too
much energy’, this is about perspective
in everyone’s own head, I see it as a
dynamic)
I would, therefore, conclude that the stake of
Aceh Green Vision in Aceh will remain mostly, if
not solely, with Governor Zaini Abdullah and his
Response to email communications with Marthunis
Muhammad in Aceh Researcher Forum (Forum Peneliti
Aceh, FPA) mailing list.. 18 July 2012.
39
Ibid
38
Email communications with Marthunis Muhammad.
Quoted with permission. 18 July 2012.
37
154
new government in Aceh. Then, let’s hope
that the ‘perspective’ of the new government
in Aceh as the result of 2012 election, both at
the provincial and district levels, will somehow
converge with holistic and comprehensive
sustainable economic development from
whoever and wherever it might come from.
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156
Day 1
Tuesday, September 4, 2012
Ruang Komisi 1 : The Economic of Climate Change and Social Participation
Rony Bishry
Resource Economic Researcher,
ABSTRACT
This is an analytical study of the response of developing countries for climate change visioned
as incoming natural disasters globally and of the developing countries’ climate change
vulnerabilities. We also discuss the extent of our knowledge about the short- and long term
economic impacts of these climate change disaster, prevention, mitigation and post-disaster
policies that may be implemented.
As an example the case of FIP program for REDD+ wil be analyzed. Innitially REDD agrreement
comprised of 1) emission reduction from deforestation and 2) emission from degradation. In the
REDD+, agreement was extended for the role of conservation, sustainable forest management
and the increase of forest carbon reserve. FIP program analyzed is a global effort to support the
REDD+, the economic impacts of this program is the main concern of this paper. In Indonesia, net
benefit of FIP program is positive and the benefit will outweigh the cost. The implementation of
the FIP Program is suggested.
Keywords: Economics of climate change, climate change economic policy, environmental
economics, climate change cost and benefit.
158
Bridging the Gap: Knowledge Development and Management in Climate
Change Issues in Aceh
Saiful Mahdi
Statistics Program, Mathematics Department, College of Sciences, Syiah Kuala University; International
Center for Aceh and Indian Ocean Studies (ICAIOS), Banda Aceh
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This paper argues that there is a gap between high level policy and grass-root understandings
on climate change issues in Aceh. ”Aceh Green Vision” introduced by local government in 2007,
while being applauded by some, has not been totally grasped and celebrated by civil society and
the general public in Aceh. On the other hand, Aceh’s civil society, especially those working on
environmental issues, seems to be active enough in discussing and working on topics related to
climate change. Technical capacities in natural sciences and technology of climate change are
also adequately mastered by academicians in Aceh. From ICAIOS’ Climate Change and Poverty
Project, however, it was learned that there is a need to develop a more open multidisciplinary
dialog and understandings in addressing climate change issues in Aceh. Knowledge development
and management in climate change can, therefore, be used to bridge the gap.
159
Economic and Adaptation Costs of Climate Change: A Case Study of
Perdinan1,2,3, Rizaldi Boer1,2, Kiki Kartikasari2, Bambang Dwi Dasanto1,2, Rini Hidayati1,2, and Diva
Oktavariani2
2
3
1
ABSTRACT
Climate change is already occurring. In Indonesia, many evidences such as changing rainfall
patterns in many parts of the country (e.g., Sumatra and Java) indicate the impacts of global
climate change on Indonesian climate. This new climate regime eventually will influence water
availability in many parts of the country. This paper discusses economic loss (unit costs) incurred
on major economic sectors (i.e., agriculture, fishery, drinking water, and health) of Indramayu
districts – West Java Indonesia due to flood and drought as an approximation to quantify
potential economic consequences of climate change. The estimation was based on discussions
with the local authorities and communities (field survey) in 2008. The unit costs were estimated
based on rice production loss (agriculture), milk fish and prawn production loss (fishery),
additional costs for clean water supply (drinking water), and additional incidences of dengue
fever (DBD) and diarrhea (health). Seven adaptation options and their estimated costs are also
proposed to cope with flood and drought in the region. The options are 1) construction of a
reservoir, 2) change of cropping pattern, 3) rehabilitation of irrigation canals, 4) improvement of
irrigation canals (cementing the canals), 5) improvement of drainage system, 6) normalization
of rivers, and 7) implementation of system rice intensification (SRI). Potential benefits from each
adaptation are also discussed. Such discussion, together with estimated adaptation costs, will
be useful for further evaluation to measure the net benefits from each adaptation which can be
helpful to assist decision makers in choosing plausible adaptation options.
Keywords: climate change, economic costs, adaptation, flood, drought, Indramayu
160
Climate Change and Food Security: Reality and Consequence in Livestock
Production, Human Nutrition and Health
Suhubdy
Professor in Animal (Ruminant) Nutrition and Director, Research Centre for Tropical Rangeland and Grazing
Animal Production Systems (Recent Trend & Gaps), Faculty of Animal Science, University of Mataram,
Mataram-NTB, Indonesia.
ABSTRACT
Climate change is natural phenomenon that is happening globally and affecting all aspect of
livelihoods and possibly the existence of nature. One current significant example of the effect
of climate change is the disturbance of the production, availability, and distribution of food.
Till present, the total number of world population is approximately seven billions and will be
increasing significantly in the future. In the developing nations, there are many people suffering
from famine, illness, and died caused by limiting food consumption. While in most developed
countries, people have excess production of food grain and even they serve the grain as feed
for livestock production and biofuel. Limiting consumption of animal protein food will cause
retardation of growth rate and reduce intelligence of humans and in the long run this will
impact to a generation loss. These are dilemma and will need to be wisely solved. It is important
to understand that obtaining and serving adequate quantity and quality of food are human
rights. This paper reviews and elucidates about the relationship between climate change and
food security with special reference to livestock production, human nutrition and health.
Key words: animal protein, climate change, disaster, food production, livestock production,
mitigation, human nutrition and health
161
Livestock Production, Greenhouse Gases Emission, and Global Warming:
Disaster or Bliss?
Sudirman1 and Sububdy2
Chief Division of Feed Evaluation and 2Professor and Director, Research Centre for Tropical Rangeland
and Grazing Animal Production Systems (Recent Trend & Gaps), Faculty of Animal Science, University of
Mataram, Mataram-NTB, Indonesia.
1
ABSTRACT
Global warming cause’s climate change or vice versa. It is blamed that human being is the
main actor for this disaster. Intensive livestock production is one of people activities that are
blamed as a cause of global warming and/or climate change. It is believe that several types
of greenhouse gases (GHG) such as methane (CH4), Carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrate (NO3), and
ammonia (NH3) are produced from intensive livestock production. Meanwhile, essential food
from livestock such as egg, milk, and meat are rich in protein, energy, essential mineral and
vitamins content which are very important in supporting the children growth rate, brain/
intelligence development, and preventing from blindness. Since there is a trade-off between the
importance of livestock in human food consumption and the GHG damage that it will exert to
the environment. Out of disadvantages of the intensive livestock production, this paper reviews
and discusses the importance of greenhouse gases (eg. methane) from livestock production
activities to be extensively utilized as a potential, chief, clean, and useful bioenergy or biofuel
that could support the livelihood of rural community.
Key words: climate change, disaster, food production, livestock production, greenhouse gases,
methane production, mitigation, potential energy
162
The Spatial and Economic Modeling for the Mitigation and Adaptation of
Technology: A Business Plan to Address Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in
Indonesia
Agus Pratama Sari
Chair, Working Group on Funding Instruments, Presidential Task Force on REDD+
ABSTRACT
Indonesia has committed to a reduction of climate change-inducing greenhouse gas emissions
by 26 percent unilaterally, extended to 41 percent when there is financial assistance made
available by other countries for Indonesia, from their otherwise business as usual trajectory in
2020. This translates to a reduction of about 1.2 billion tons (gigatons, gt) by 2020. A "business
plan" needs to be in place to ensure that these commitments are achieved. The business plan
should include: the most appropriate and cost-effective emission reduction trajectories to 2020
that reflects both the business as usual as well as the optimum target-achieving trajectories.
The business plan should also include the costs of adapting to climate change and where the
costs are borne in the most vulnerable places and sectors in Indonesia. Finally, the plan should
explore how Indonesia may be able to finance this plan. Technology plays a crucial role in
mitigating and adapting to climate change. In fact, it is one of the four building blocks of the
Bali Roadmap, the world's climate change action plan established in Bali, Indonesia. This paper
will also address the role of technology in the above business plan.
163
Ruang Komisi 2 : Disaster Mitigation and Risk Reduction
Geological Evidences of Mega-Tsunami Cycles in Aceh-Andaman Region and
Their Context in Aceh History
1
2
ABSTRACT
Mega-tsunami in Aceh-Andaman region in 2004 triggered a monumental changes of history
from a society that used to ignore the threats of natural disasters, especially from earthquakes
and tsunami, became aware of the responsible to anticipate natural disasters that may threat
the existence of human civilizations in anytime. On the otherside, this natural event also acts as
a major cause for changing in politics and social infrastructures in Aceh, from a period of terror
and darkness to a new episode of society that reassemble and develop better life. In fact, the
event like mega-tsunami in 2004 was neither the first time nor the last one. Paleoseismological
studies, from coral microatolls in Simelue Islands and from stratigraphical records of soil layers
along the coasts of Banda Aceh as well as Thailand, indicate that there were two similar
tsunami events around the early 14 Century, in around 1390 AD and 1440 AD. These facts are
also confirmed by tectonic geodesy (GPS) data that the earthquake with magnitude Mw 9.2
like in 2004 can be produced by strain accumulations on the subduction interface caused by
plate relative motions in about every six hundred years. Meanwhile, in Aceh region, an ancient
kingdom (pre-Islamic period) had existed at least since 600 AD as indicated by a 1400 tears old
ancient stepped pyramid structure below the historical Indrapuri Mosque that was first built
in 13 Century on top of that more ancient structure. A few sources indicate about the first
ancient Islamic Kingdom, named Jeumpa, had appeared in 770 AD. The Jeumpa Kingdom is
often misinterpreted as “Champa” (an ancient Kingdom in Cambodia). Later in 840 AD, another
Islamic Kingdom, Perlak, appeared. These Islamic Kingdom were most likely co-existed with
Hindu-Budha Kingdoms, including what so-called the Lamuri Kingdom or Lam-reh. In 1236
AD, the most famous and well known Islamic state, Samudra Pasai, came into play, marking a
new era in Aceh. After 1450 AD, Samudra Pasai seems to be going dimmed and mysteriously
disappeared. Later in 1496 AD, a new Islamic Kingdom, Aceh Darussalam, appeared and
dominated the Aceh region. Aceh Darussalam achieved its golden age during the period of
the King Iskandar Muda (1607-1636). It is strongly suspected that the change of power from
Samudra Pasai to Aceh Darussalam was linked with the mega-tsunami events in 1390 and 1440
AD. It needs further in-deep geological and historical studies to investigate those ancient megatsunami disasters and their affects to the people of Aceh in ancient time, if possible back to the
time before Samudra Pasai period. Understanding ancient natural catastrophic and the affected
society is crucial in developing concept and strategy in natural-disaster mitigations, especially in
developing a true local wisdom.
164
Weather Modification Technology for Hydro-Meteorological Disaster
Mitigation
Tri Handoko Seto and Halda A. Belgaman
Indonesia Weather Modification Technology Center, BPPT
ABSTRACT
Data acquired from the National Disaster Management Agency (BNPB) showed that the year
2000 to 2012 approximately 87% disasters in Indonesia is dominated by hydro-meteorological
disasters. This hydro-meteorological disaster includes floods, flash floods, droughts, landslides
and cyclones/micro tornadoes. Hydro-meteorological disaster mitigation is carried out in
a multitude of ways; among them is through weather modification technology. Weather
modification technology (WMT) is a man made effort conducted to change naturally occurring
weather or deliberate human intervention to influence atmospheric process that constitute such
weather. Triggering, intensifying or redirecting atmospheric processes by cloud seeding is one
of the ways to perform weather modification. Cloud seeding is the act of adding foreign objects
(like cloud condensation nuclei – CCN or Ice nuclei – IN) to change the type and amount of
precipitation that a cloud will release. The objective of cloud seeding is to increase or decrease
rain events. Cloud seeding can be done in cold or warm cloud environment, with silver iodide
(AgI) is used as an ice nuclei (IN) to seed cold cloud in purpose to change supercooled water
into ice, and hygroscopic materials (Salt particles, Ammonium nitrate, Sodium Chloride) to seed
warm clouds in order to enhance the collusion and coalescence process. Many countries have
performed WMT to mitigate the hydro-meteorological disasters, Indonesia being one of them.
Utilization of WMT in Indonesia is carried out in order to anticipate droughts, forest and land
fires, and floods. There are three kinds of WMT which are used in the world today. First, WMT
for rain enhancement implemented in order to mitigate drought and shortage of water supply in
hydropower plants reservoir. Secondly, rain reduction WMT that is carried out to mitigate flood
disaster. The last, hail suppression is usually done to prevent the disaster caused by a hailstone.
Keywords: Weather Modification Technology, Cloud seeding, hydro-meteorology, disaster
mitigation
165
Who’s Next? Accessing Vulnerability to Major Earthquakes and Tsunami in
Eastern Indonesia
Ron Harris and Nova Roosmawati
Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, USA
ABSTRACT
Using Dutch records of geophysical events in Indonesia over the past 400 years, and tsunami
modeling, we have identified mega-thrust earthquake sources in eastern Indonesia that caused
severe devastation in the past and are likely to reoccur in the near future. The earthquake
history of Western Indonesia has received much attention since the 2004 Sumatra earthquakes
and subsequent events. However, the present threat of earthquake and tsunami disaster is just
as great in eastern Indonesia. The problem is that strain rates along a variety of plate boundary
segments are just as high in eastern Indonesia, but the earthquake and tsunami history is poorly
known. Due to the rapid population growth and urbanization in coastal regions in eastern
Indonesia it is essential and urgent to access the regions vulnerability to seismic and tsunami
hazards and implement protective measures.
Arthur Wichmann’s Die Erdbeben Des Indischen Archipels [The Earthquakes of the Indian
Archipelago] (1918) documents 30 regional earthquakes and 29 tsunami between 1629 to 1877
in eastern Indonesia. The largest and best documented are the events of 1629 and 1852 in the
Banda Sea region, 1770 and 1859 in the Molucca Sea region, 1820 in Makassar, 1857 in Dili,
Timor, 1815 in Bali and Lombak, and 1699, 1771, 1780, 1815, 1848 and 1852 in Java. All of these
events caused damage over a broad region even with high seismic attenuation. Several tsunami
were recorded with run-up heights greater than 5 meters. Two tsunami > 15 meters occurred
in the Banda Sea region, which engulfed many islands and washed away several coastal cities
that now have more than ten times more people. The earthquakes associated with these events
were felt over a region as large as the recent Tohoku Earthquake in Japan and were followed by
decades of aftershocks.
The Tohoku event, and those occurring in Haiti (2010) and Chengdu (2008), all happened in
regions mapped as ’low’ seismic hazard. One factor contributing to this forecasting failure is the
reliance on the thin time slice of the earthquake cycle provided by instrumental records. Where
paleoseismologic data is lacking, reliable historical records can help broaden the time slice and
identify which active faults are nearing full-cycle.
One example of using historical accounts to successfully constrain earthquake source parameters
and recurrence is the historical analysis of major seismic events along the Sumatran subduction
zone by Newcomb and McCann (1987). They primarily used historical accounts documented
in the Wichmann catalog to reconstruct several mega-thrust earthquakes that occurred along
different segments of the Sumatran subduction zone during the 19th century. Some of these
events have now reoccurred, such as the 2005 northern Sumatra earthquake near Nias Island,
which ruptured nearly the same area as in the 1861 accounts in the Wichmann catalog.
Because no major shallow earthquakes have struck eastern Indonesia during the past century it
is characterized as an area incapable of mega-thrust earthquakes (Heuret et al., 2012). However,
during this time of relative quiescence enough tectonic strain energy has accumulated across
several active faults in to cause major earthquake and tsunami events, like those documented
in historical records. The most vulnerable areas are the Molucca and Banda Sea regions where
65-90 mm/a of strain is accumulating along various subduction zone segments.
The recent recurrence of events like those listed in the Wichmann catalog, such as mega-thrust
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in Sumatra and Java, demonstrate a significant increase
in the disaster potential of Indonesia. More death and destruction is happening from events
that caused few, if any, losses in the past. The reasons behind the greater losses to nature
are multifaceted, but one major contributing factor in Indonesia is unregulated urbanization in
hazardous regions. For example, some of the most seismically active regions of Indonesia, from
a historical perspective, are also the most populated. Another critical problem is that most of
the urban centers in eastern Indonesia are transitioning from traditional building materials to
166
unreinforced masonary structures. With limited resources to address these issues it is imperative
that mitigation efforts focus on the regions at highest risk. Historical earthquake research in
Indonesia provides a way to better identify high-risk areas by extending the earthquake record
back at least four centuries and capturing a broader time slice of seismic activity in the region.
Parameterization of the major events documented in the Wichmann catalog is helping us
identify the most active fault, estimate recurrence intervals and better forecast who’s next.
167
Development of Landslide and Banjir Bandang Early Warning Technology
Iwan G. Tejakusuma and Supriyono
Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology, Jakarta, Indonesia
BPPT Building 2, 18th Floor, Jl. M.H. Thamrin No. 8, Jakarta 10340
email: [email protected], [email protected], Ph. 021-3169652, 0813 1555 2439
ABSTRACT
Landslide and banjir bandang disaster event become more frequent to occur in Indonesia.
Examples in the last few years are banjir bandang disasters in Wasior, Teluk Wondama Regency,
West Papua Province on 4 October 2010 which resulted in 169 people died, 168 missing, 105
heavily injured, 3.374 wounded and 9.016 have been evacuated; in Pesisir Selatan Regency,
West Sumatera Province banjir bandang happened in 3 November 2011, in Padang City and
adjacent banjir bandang occurred on 24 July 2012 and the latest banjir bandang 25 Auguts
2012 in Parigi Moutong Regency, Central Sulawesi in which 2 people died and hundreds of
houses were destroyed.
Geological conditions of Indonesia which lies in a tectonic active area with earthquake and
faulting, quaternary and volcanic sediments with hilly and mountainous topography as well as
high rainfall rate could result in landslide and banjir bandang disaster. Climate changes with
modified rainfall rate and increasing human activities which modified land surface and land
cover could trigger landslide and banjir bandang disaster.
Relocation of existing human settlement from the disaster prone areas often are complicated
because people have been living there for a very long time as well as the livelihood and
the heritage reasons. In order to reduce the landslide and banjir bandang disaster risk, the
application of early warning technology is an important choice. This technology aims to
minimize loss of human life and properties.
Landslide and banjir bandang technology has been applied in Malalak District, Agam Regency,
West Sumatera Province. In this area landslide and banjir bandang has happened several times
and the last event was on 8 November 2008 where 6 people have died, causing 250 people been
evacuated and destructions of buildings and bridge. Wireless Sensor Network technology has
been applied for the landslide and banjir bandang warning system. Sensor installed include rain
gauge to record the rainfall rate, accelererometer and soil moisture to detect land instability
and geophone and wire sensors to detect banjir bandang flows. The sirine are connected to
the sensor that could give warning for people. The data from the sensor are continuously
transmitted to the crisis center at the Agency for Disaster Mitigation in Lubuk Basung. This
technology can be applied in the other areas with high risk to landslide and banjir bandang
disaster.
168
The Evident of Subsidence and Uplifting Process in 2004 Great Sumatera Andaman Earthquake and Tsunami from Bathymetric Data
Udrekh1, Yusuf Surachman2, Teguh Fayakun2, Haryadi Permana3,
Digital Marine Resource Mapping Team & 2004 Sumatra - Andaman Earth quake consortium.
1
Badan Pengkajian dan Penerapan Teknologi (BPPT).
2
Badan Informasi Geospasial (BIG)
3
Pusat Geoteknologi LIPI
ABSTRACT
The 26th December 2004 Sumatra – Andaman giant earthquake has attracted many scientists
all over the word to investigate rupture area. This earthquake triggered catastrophic tsunami,
killing over 230000 people in fourteen countries. More than 15 investigations were carried out
in order to understand the subduction and accretion process which cause such kind of a huge
earthquake and tsunami and to observe some geological evidences. These investigations have
given us better understanding about tectonic process, historical earthquake, displacement, .etc,
which are supported by various data such as bathymetric data along western part of Sumatra,
ROV investigation, Seismic refraction and reflection data, OBS, Heat flow, and coring data.
However, those investigations could not find any significant evidences of rupture area. Only
small part of subsidence area was investigated. This result could not generate a huge oceanwide tsunami with average heights of more than 20 meters. Bathymetric data could produce an
interesting image of sea floor morphology. However, we cannot identify which rupture area can
be claimed as the source of 2004 tsunami generation.
We have digital marine resource mapping survey acquired in 1990's. This data was compared
to after 2004 earthquake bathymetric data. Some questions about subsidence and uplifting
location may be answered from this evidence.
Keywords: 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake, Tsunami generation, Bathymetric data,
subsidence, uplifting.
169
Day 2
Wednesday, September 5, 2012
Ruang Komisi 1 : Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change and Sustainable Development
Adaptation and Mitigation of Climate Change in Indonesia
Edvin Aldrian
Director of Center for Climate Change and Air Quality, BMKG
ABSTRACT
The maritime continent is located in between two large oceans and two large continents as well
as over three tectonic plates. The adverse weather and climate of the region is still exacerbated
by the long term adverse impact of ongoing global warming and its subsequent result of climate
change. Currently the government of Indonesia pays specific attention on the climate change
issue and had actively participated in the many various activities for climate change adaptation
and mitigation as well as to comply with international cooperation on climate change. The
climate change has been the priority on the national development planning and to be included
in the national middle term development planning. Activities to establish scientific foundation
on the issue as well as to identify specific local characters are still ongoing. Although global by
nature, climate change has specific impact when comes to local due to specific condition of
social economic and the geographic and geological conditions. The fact is that climate change
in Indonesia has been, is going and will be still happening in the future.
The adaptation strategy for climate change in Indonesia should be based on basic science that
provides appropriate baseline and future direction of action. There are unanimously convincing
and hard evidence on the occurrence of climate change in Indonesia from the melting of
everlasting Papua ice glacier and the changing of temperature and rainfall patterns. That science
basis should give the guideline on every adaptation and mitigation measures in Indonesia. For
the adaptation measures there are ample of government document already prepared such as
the National Action Plan for Adaptation of Climate Change by KLH in 2007 and Bappenas this
year.
For the Mitigation measures there are already the National action Plan for Mitigation of
Greenhouse gasses under the government commitment to reduce the long term GHG up to
26% by 2020. In understanding the impact of climate change we also need to understand the
basic climate system that drives the climate change property in Indonesia. Hence we should
understand the basic limit or threshold level to the climate as the long term position of our
climate in the coming century. Some of the basic features include the monsoonal system of the
maritime continent, strong and coherent influence from the Pacific southern oscillation and the
decadal variability of inner Indonesian Ocean.
Based on the empirical relationship and several climate projection modeling studies, the
southern part of Indonesia will experience the El Nino like future climate or will have strong
tendency of drought years predominate, while the northern part of those will be predominantly
wetter climate compare to the present climate. Of course there is a limit of such seemingly
contradictory climate pattern. Whenever there is a strong El Nino, then the above case of
southern region will prevail, while on the period of weak and moderate El Nino year there will
be high probability that Indonesia will experience wetter climate that we known today as the
“kemarau basah”. Based on those several Science facts, we need to extend our study to the
locality and how local climate behave in the future and the appropriate impact to the socio
economy of locality.
171
Identifying Low Carbon Technology for Sustainable Development
Kardono
Center of Environmental Technology, Agency for The Assessment and Application of Technology
20th Fl Bulding II BPPT, Jl. MH Thamrin No. 8 Jakarta
ABSTRACT
Over the past 30 years, significant findings regarding global warming highlighted the need to
curb carbon emissions. Carbon emissions are believed acting as green house gas (GHG) that
heat the atmosphere. In terms of carbon emissions, both developed and developing countries
have basically employed technologies at certain levels. These technologies have contributed in
emitting carbon dioxide (CO2) and resulted CO2 concentration in the atmosphere to increase.
From this, the idea for low carbon power was born. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), set the scientific precedence for the introduction of low carbon power or in
general it can be called as a low carbon technology (LCT). In the application of LCT in developing
countries such as Indonesia there are some constraints that need to be resolved. The first
problem is about the imported LCT due to the human resource capability and opportunity, and
the second one is the financial limitation.
Actually as a developing country, Indonesia has voluntarily committed to reduce its GHG
emissions by 26% by 2020 with its self financing or 41% with addition of foreign aids. This target
will carry consequences for Indonesia to make an action plan and at the same time to choose
which LCTs are employed in reducing GHGs to support the target. Several state documents have
been launched for curbing carbon emission, particularly from energy sources.
This paper will focus on discussing energy sector since the LCT is usually applied much more
in the energy sector than others. From 2009 TNA study, the technology option for reducing
CO2 emission (LCT) is suggested to be applied both for supply and demand sides. For supply
side technology it is prioritized for clean coal technology, geothermal and renewable energy
resources including biomass, hydro, wind, solar. For demand side, priority of technology is given
to energy efficiency technologies for industrial, residential and commercial building. Also, soft
technology such as energy audit, energy rating and labeling was proposed. Technology option
for transportation sector is outlined. Those are the use of advance lightweight material, power
and control system and engine technology. In terms of fuel used, the vehicles are suggested to
utilize cleaner alternative fuel such as gas to substitute gasoline. Transport demand management
is also proposed to improve, like using intelligent transportation system (ITS) and mass rapid
transportation system (MRTS).
172
Long-term Climate Variations in the Western Indonesian Region under the
Warming Earth
Iskhaq Iskandar1,2, Akmal Johan1, Muhammad Irfan1, Pradanto Poerwono1, and
Fadli Syamsuddin3
Department of Physics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Sriwijaya
Jl. Palembang – Prabumulih Km. 32, Inderalaya, Ogan Ilir, Sumatra Selatan, 30662, Indonesia
2
Center for Geohazard and Climate Change Study, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University
of Sriwijaya
3
Badan Pengkajian dan Penerapan Teknologi (BPPT), Jakarta, Indonesia
1
ABSTRACT
Long-term climate variations in the western Indonesian region (e.g. Sumatra and Kalimantan)
are evaluated using precipitation data as a proxy. The result shows that the long-term
precipitation in Sumatra and Kalimantan are seasonally dependent. The long-term precipitation
in both islands indicates two distinct characteristics: a drying trend during the southeast
monsoon (June – September) over most of region and a wetting trend during the northwest
monsoon (December – March). The long-term precipitation in Sumatra and Kalimantan is linked
to couple air-sea interactions in the Indian and Pacific oceans. The connection between the
seasonal climate trends and sea surface temperature (SST) in the Indian and Pacific oceans is
demonstrated by the simultaneous correlations between the climate indices (e.g. Dipole Mode
Index (DMI) and the Niño3.4 index) and the precipitation in Sumatra and Kalimantan. It is shown
that the patterns of SST-precipitation correlation are similar to those of precipitation trends.
These features suggest a connection between the SST anomaly in the Indian and Pacific oceans
and the low-frequency variations of Indonesian climate. Possible connection between the longterm climate variations in Indonesia and the global warming will be discussed.
Key words: climate variations, dry season, Sumatra and Kalimantan precipitation, wet season
173
Implications on Insect Population Dynamic Under Climate Change
Arinafril1,2, Sika Yulianti1, Umi Yati1, Yunia Candra Primia Suterasari1
Pesticide Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture,
Sriwijaya University Study Center for Disaster, Sriwijaya University, Indralaya Campus 30662, Ogan Ilir,
South Sumatra, Indonesia
1
2
ABSTRACT
Global warming causes climate change. During the past ten decades, surface temperature
in the earth increased by circa 0.6 oC, and will increase by 1.4 – 5.8 oC by 2100. Global and
regional climate changes could affect profound effects on agriculture sectors. Food production
depends on climate. It is clear that temperature is the single most important environmental
factor which influences insect behavior, dispersal, development, survival, range, abundance and
reproduction. Relative humidity, rainfall and light intensity are the supporting factors which
drive crop growth and have little evidences of any direct impacts on insect’s life. Climate change
consequently influences on insect-plant interaction. Ecosystems will be got influenced due to
unexpected changes in insect diversity and dynamic. Several species of insects will behave
difference in feeding habit as response to changing plant growth and nutrition contents. Plant
physiologist and entomologist are supposed to expect increased phenomenon with insect pests
as they develop and grow very quickly in response to rising temperature and rainfall intensity,
and decreasing relative humidity, where these climate conditions are more suitable for insects to
develop, grow and reproduce. Climate ecosystem alters have significantly influences not only for
insect population dynamic. Sustainable agricultural efforts which are based on implementation
of environmental friendly insect pest management are needed to reduce the use of pesticide
use. Climate changes drive insect pest behavior and reproduction. Increased temperature and
decreased relative humidity will favor some agricultural pests. Insect development will be
quicker. Plant damages will occur more rapidly than currently expected.
Insect population outbreaks also occur in forest or boreal insect pests. Increased temperature
which is occurred in forest area could lead forest fire, where not only could beneficial insects be
affected, but also other biodiversity richness in forest will be threatened. Forest trees become
more vulnerable to insect infestation. It is big challenge to carry out further studies to minimize
the effects of climate change on insect population dynamic and to keep maintained the initial
function of natural ecosystem. The need for intensive studies to set up new model in predicting
the long term influences of climate change is essential.
Key words: Climate change, Insect population dynamic, Sustainable
174
Climate Change and Potential Disaster: Study the Phenology of flower of
Trees in Tropical Forest as a Bioindicator of Climate Change
I.G. Mertha1,2 and Suhubdy1
Researchers at Research Centre for Tropical Rangeland and Grazing Animal Production Systems (Recent
Trend & Gaps), Faculty of Animal Science, University of Mataram
2
Lecturer at Department of Education Biology, Faculty of Education and Teacher Training, University of
Mataram, Mataram-Indonesia, E-mail: [email protected]
1
ABSTRACT
A monitoring had been conducted to the period (the time) of flowering of several kinds of trees
in tropical forest aimed at reviewing and understanding the phonological status of each tree
species as affecting by climatic condition. This research has been conducted during four years
(2008-2012) in area of tropical forest of Indonesia. The time or period of phenology of trees
was recorded and data obtained then compared with the previous recorded phenology data of
each tree based on the related published literature of Indonesian flora. The results show that
the phenology of several trees recorded has been charged due to local environment that are
affected by climate change. Those trees identified changing in phonological status could be used
as an eficative bioindicator of a change and development of flora due to time-to-time in relation
to climate change perspective.
Keywords: phenology, bioindicator, climate change, monitoring
175
Edge vs Interior Habitat of Forest Plantation in Gunung Walat, Sukabumi:
Response of Insectivorous Birds to Changing in Microclimate?
Yeni A. Mulyani1 and Noor F. Haneda2
Departemen Konservasi Sumber Daya Hutan dan Ekowisata, Fakultas Kehutanan Institut Pertanian Bogor
1
Kampus IPB Darmaga Bogor 16680. Email: [email protected]
Departemen Silvikultur, Fakultas Kehutanan Institut Pertanian Bogor, Kampus IPB Darmaga, Bogor 16680,
email: [email protected]
2
ABSTRACT
Forest plays an important role in providing ecosystem services, including mitigating the impact
of global climate change. Habitat edges formed by fragmentation in the forest will promote
changes in microclimate in the surrounding matrices. Birds are often studied to examine the
effect of environmental changes. This study aims at examining the impact of differences in
microclimate on bird community, especially insectivorous birds The study was conducted
in a + 350 ha plantation forest surrounding by agricultural land and human settlement in
Gunung Walat Education Forest (GWEF), Sukabumi West Java. A zero-cutting policy has been
implemented in this forest since the last decade. Monthly observation was done from January
to June 2010 to record temperature and bird diversity, while arthropod samplings were done bimonthly. Birds were counted by using point count with fixed radius of 30 m. Points were located
in the interior and edges of the Schima stands. A total of 44 bird species of 19 families were
identified in the study plots. Based on major diet, 24 bird species (54 %) were insectivores, while
12 were species that usually include insects in their regular diet. Positive correlation was found
between total number of birds and total number of arthropods. Edge habitats had a higher
temperature compared to interior habitats. A higher bird abundance and richness was recorded
in edge habitats, however the number of insectivorous species tend to be lower in edge habitats.
176
Ruang Komisi 2 : Adaptation in Disaster Management and National Strategy
Hybrid Socio-Technical Approach for Strategic Disaster Risk Reduction
Program in Indonesia
Dwikorita Karnawati1, Teuku Faisal Fathani1, Budi Andayani1, Sani Tanaka1 and Eric G. Frost2
1Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia – Fulbright Alumni
2San Diego State University, USA.
ABSTRACT
Indonesia is frequently struck by various types of geological disasters, such as earthquake,
tsunami, volcanic eruption, landslide and debris flood. Unfortunately, the communities living
in the disaster prone areas are not always well-prepared to face those disasters due to various
limitations, such as limited access for the community to have appropriate information and
knowledge about the phenomena of disasters and how to reduce the risk of any potential
disasters, as well as because of the unavailable or ineffective disaster management system in
their living area. As the result, more and more socio-economical losses occurred due to those
disasters, despite a lot of efforts that have been conducted to develop and implement the
Science and Technology for mitigating and reducing the risk of such disasters.
Accordingly, Karnawati et al (2008 and 2009) promoted the Hybrid Socio-Technical
approach as a strategic and effective effort for developing the appropriate technology
in disaster mitigation and risk reduction. This approach emphasized on the integration
of social system into technical system, by implementing the research-based community
learning and empowerment. To ensure the effectiveness of disaster mitigation and risk
reduction, the technical system must be established by implementing simple and low
cost technology with respect to the indigenous knowledge, for hazard monitoring as
well as disaster early warning and mitigation. As a part of the technical system, the
community-based hazard and risk maps need to be developed to decide the installation
site of the implemented technical system, as well as to support the development of
appropriate landuse management system and to facilitate the emergency plan at the
village.
In parallel with the development of technical system, the social system must be developed by
implementing the research-based community learning process and public education program.
To support the effectiveness of the social system, socio-cultural and psychological mapping and
analysis are required, and thus the existing community perception and knowledge about the
respective hazard and disaster phenomena in their living area can be identified, and also the
community expectation on the disaster risk reduction program can be evaluated to encourage
their willingness to actively participate in disaster mitigation and risk reduction program.
Therefore, by implementing both social and technical systems a strategic disaster management
system can be developed with the effective mitigation and risk reduction program.
Keywords: socio-technical system, mitigation, risk reduction
177
Ocean and Atmosphere Related Disaster in the Indonesia Maritime
Continent:
Emerging Needs of Operational Oceanography and Meteorology
Fadli Syamsudin
Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology (BPPT)
ABSTRACT
Indonesia Maritime Continent (IMC) with its complex topography and bathymetry surround by
large scale ocean and climate systems. They are at the central importance of El Nino Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) and Asian monsoon so that could influence
directly on the Pacific and Indian oceans heat and water mass transport affecting on regional
and even climate changes. A small change in Sea Surface Temperature (SST) transmits from
Pacific to Indian oceans through the current system so called Indonesian throughflow will affect
the magnitude of monsoon and climate over the regions. In this critical perspective, the IMC
in a whole system of earth, atmosphere, and ocean play important role in regulating global
climate changes. Because if its position and role, they could be also very reluctant with the
natural disasters come from the ocean and atmosphere, such as tsunami, drought, flood, and
many others in having more local impacts such as internal waves and local cyclones. In this
presentation, we are going to introduce our on-going JST/JICA SATREPS project with theme
entitle: Climate Variability Study and Societal Application through Indonesia - Japan "Maritime
Continent COE (center of excellent) in dealing with technological aspects to monitor and
mitigate all ocean and atmosphere related disaster in the IMC. A national platform of this automonitoring system is also proposed.
178
Towards the Development of Sustainable Ocean Observation System for
Ocean-Climate and Tsunami Monitoring in Indonesia
Wahyu W. Pandoe1, Bambang Herunadi1 , Velly Asvaliantina2 and Sidarto Handoyo3
BPPT Technology Center for Marine Survey (BTSK), Jln. MH Thamrin 8, Jakarta 10340, Indonesia
2
BPPT Technology Center for Coastal Dynamics (BPDP), Jogjakarta, Indonesia
3
BPPT Technology Center for Strength of Structure, PUSPIPTEK Serpong, Tangerang, Indonesia
1
ABSTRACT
The two Oceans: Pacific and Indian Oceans surrounds the Indonesia Archipelago. These two
oceans plays an important role on the climate change and natural disaster issues not only for
Indonesia but also for regional countries and even the entire Earth. For example, the Nino and
Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) indexes leads the scientists able to do climate forecast on countries
connected to Pacific and Indian Oceans. Some scientists discover the connection between the
physical changes in both oceans to the climate in Indonesia. Geologically both oceans are
also well known as a source of subsea earthquake and geodynamic. However, the shortage
of a sustained open ocean observation data in Indonesia gives less accurate estimation of the
climate prediction and related ocean source natural disaster monitoring.
BPPT since 2007 has initiated the deep sea tsunami buoy program through the the Indonesian
Tsunami Early Warning System (InaTEWS) National Program. This BPPT’s Operational InaBuoy
TEWS Program plays an active role in designing, development engineering and operations
as well as the maintenance of the tsunami buoys , also known as Tsunameter, in all over the
Indonesia waters. This observes and records changes in sea level out in the deep ocean. This
system improves the capability of real time early warning system before the tsunami reaches
coastline. All the data from the open sea buoys are received and processed in real time at InaBuoy
Read Down Station (RDS) located at BPPT Building I / 20th Floor in Jakarta. This receiving station
operates 24-hour and 7-day continuously. The operational data buoys are then reported directly
to Indonesia Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics Agency (BMKG), in which BMKG is the
National Tsunami Warning Center of InaTEWS.
Challenges ahead for Indonesia tsunami buoy are optimizing the effectiveness of tsunami
detection and confirmation of local / near field tsunami. Therefore, in addition to the existing
operational buoys, BPPT makes a new effort to detect near field tsunami using a submarine
fiber-optic cable, hence called Indonesia Cable-based tsunameter (InaCBT). This new system
connects the bottom pressure sensor sitting on the deep sea floor to the receiving terminal on
shore using an underwater fiber optic cable. First prototype with 3.5km submarine FO cable will
be launched in September 2012 for 6-months operational test in southern coast of West Java.
Premise on evaluation results of the first prototype, other four locations along western coast of
Sumatra are proposed for 2013 until 2014.
At the same time, in collaboration with foreign partners such as PMEL-NOAA of USA and
JAMSTEC-Japan, as well as with national agencies such as Balitbang KP of Indonesia, BPPT has
also actively involved in the design engineering, development and operational of ocean-climate
buoys in the eastern Indian Ocean west off Sumatra. Under these collaborations, BPPT also aims
capacity building for scientists, engineers and technicians. BPPT now receive all operational
ocean-climate buoys all over Indian and Pacific Oceans in near real time. The joint analysis of
the ocean observing data has been able to predict the occurrence of repeating La Nina season in
early to mid of 2012 and some other ocean physics phenomena. BPPT engineers have also been
able to design and manufacture the prototype coastal ocean-met buoy.
The existence of long term and sustain ocean observing system in Indonesia shows an important
role and necessary for short-term climate and natural disaster monitoring such as extreme
weather , tropical cyclone, storm surge and marine safety, as well as long-term monitoring
such as climate change, sea level rise and other ocean-atmosphere interactions. For long term
ultimate goal, it is considerably necessary to develop the Indonesian Data Buoy Center (IDBC) to
establish a complete and sustain ocean observing system in Indonesia.
Keywords: InaTEWS, tsunami buoy, cable-based tsunameter, ocean-climate buoy
179
Arif Arham
ABSTRACT
The participation of large numbers of private citizens who are informal in the creation of
geographic information is widespread for centuries and has been reserved to official agencies.
This participation becomes a dramatic innovation that will certainly have profound impacts on
geographic information systems (GIS) and more generally on the discipline of geography and its
relationship to the general public. This phenomenon is called volunteered geographic information
(VGI), a special case of the more general Web phenomenon of user-generated content such as
Wikimapia (www.wikimapia.org), a service allowing citizens to provide descriptions of places
of interest to them; Picasa (www.picasaweb.google.com), a collection of worldwide georeferenced photographs; OpenStreetMap (www.openstreetmap.org), a volunteer effort street
map project of the entire world; and Google Earth, a software that is link to the internet and
provide satellite image of the globe with geography information that can be provided by public
from everywhere. This technology can be used to share information about the emergency
situation to others. Emergency manager can use the data to further emergency management
and decision making. This paper also discusses about the uncertainty of geography information
for the uncertainty of an unpredicted emergency event.
Keywords: Emergency, information, internet, response, volunteer.
180
Community Participation in Post-Tsunami Redevelopment: The Case Studies
of Four Villages in Aceh
Ichsan
Malikussaleh University, Kampus Bukit Indah, Jln. Sumatera No 1-2, Lhokseumawe, Indonesia
ABSTRACT
The research aims were to examine the implementation of community participation in posttsunami redevelopment in Aceh. The methodological approach used in this study was case
studies of Acehnese communities in the tsunami-affected areas consisting of the following
villages: Lam Teungoh, Lam Hasan, Lambung, and Merduati. In this study, I employed qualitative
methods consisting of document analysis and in-depth interviews.
The sources of data were documents pertinent to the profiles of case study villages as well as
the nature of community participation at the case study villages adopted prior to and following
the tsunami. Interviews were conducted with three groups: government officials, NGO and
International Agency workers, and community leaders (heads of villages and informal leaders).
The four case study villages were selected based on the level of development and tsunamiaffected. Key aid organizations and agencies involved in post-tsunami redevelopment were
chosen in the four case study villages. Each village was represented by two aid organizations or
agencies.
This research finds that the occurrence of “ad hoc” participation (participatory activities mainly
mobilized by community members) was related to community members’ urgent needs right
after the tsunami as well as their creativity and networking. With regard to aid organization/
agency-promoted participation (participation mobilized by NGOs, international agencies, and
the Indonesian Government), the findings indicates this kind of participation was associated
with the willingness and capacity of aid organizations/agencies, nature of recovery projects,
readiness of residents to participate, adequate time in exercising participation, and community
facilitators’ approaches.
Keywords: community participation, post-tsunami, redevelopment efforts.
181
Political Dynamic and External Factors in a Post Disaster Rehabilitation
& Reconstruction; Case Study of Nias Islands Post the 2004 and 2005
Earthquake and Tsunami
Faisar Jihadi
ABSTRACT
Rehabilitation and reconstruction activities in Nias Islands post the 2004 tsunami and 2005
earthquake were highly affected by 3 factors: (1) the delay in the response of the government of
Indonesia in enacting laws and regulations on Disaster Risk Reduction concerns; (2 the political
separation process of Nias to North Sumatra started with the proliferation of Nias Islands
from 2 districts in 2005 to 5 districts/municipality; and (3) the resulting lack of access to aid
for development by civil society organization, due to presence of the National Implementation
Modality System (NIMS) policy implementation to control the flow of donor aid and activities
for post disaster recovery.
Each factor is associated one into another and shapes the impact of the rehabilitation and
reconstruction activities toward the safety of Aceh and Nias Islands from future disaster risks.
All of the abovementioned factors are relatively external factors which was associated with
political decisions at national level, which are beyond the control of local decision makers in
Nias Islands. However, those factors defined the planning, implementation and evaluation
of rehabilitation, reconstruction and Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) efforts in Nias Islands.
Therefore, this it is important to access on how local community and government institutions
participation for Disaster Management happen under such an uncontrollable planning situation
for them. More specifically, how economic, social, infrastructural and institutional resilience
status of Nias Islands has significantly changed under such environment?
182
Rahmawati Husein
Jl. Lingkar Selatan, Taman Tirto, Kasihan, Bantul, 55183 DIY. [email protected]
ABSTRACT
There has been a growing literature on the role of land use planning and development regulations
can play toward hazard mitigation (Beatley, 2009; Burby, 1998; Godschalk et al., 1999).
However, almost none of the research has been done in Indonesia, particularly in mitigating
the coastal hazards although Indonesia has one of the longest coastal areas in the world. This
study investigates policy and practices of local jurisdictions, municipalities and regencies, along
Java coastal areas where they are vulnerable toward hazards. This study, specifically, examines
the adoption and implementation of land use planning, development regulations including
building standards and information dissemination strategies at the local levels (Kabupaten
and Kota). The paper provides an overall assessment of the types of land use and development
regulations and policies implemented by local jurisdictions based on survey of leading planner
(head of Bappeda) and leading public work officer (head of Dinas PU). In total 31 municipalities
and regencies participated in the survey from the total 65 regencies and municipalities in Java
coastal areas. Statistical models were developed to assess the adoption and extensiveness of
using various forms of land-use regulations, hazard mitigation programs, and hazard related
building standards. Results suggest wide variation in the adoption and extensiveness of usage
the policies and strategies for reducing any impact of hazards in the coastal areas.
Key Words: mitigation, land use planning, development regulations, Java coastal
areas
183

volunteered geographic information for emergency response

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