jt-127TRIS - Journal Of Taphonomy
Transcription
jt-127TRIS - Journal Of Taphonomy
P R O ME T H E US P R E S S / P A L A E O N T O L O G I C A L N E T W O R K F O UN D A T I O N Journal of Taphonomy (TERUEL) 2012 Available online at www.journaltaphonomy.com Horwitz et al. VOLUME 10 (ISSUE 2) Recent Indian Porcupine (Hystrix indica) Burrows and their Impact on Ancient Faunal and Human Remains: A Case Study from Tel Zahara (Israel) Liora Kolska Horwitz* National Natural History Collections, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Susan L. Cohen Department of History and Philosophy, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA Wieslaw Więckowski Department of Bioarchaeology, Warsaw University, Poland Henk K. Mienis National Natural History Collections, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Jill Baker Independent Scholar, 4027 Pine Tree Drive, Miami, Fl. 33140, USA Emilia Jastrzebska Department of Bioarchaeology, Warsaw University, Poland Journal of Taphonomy 10 (2) (2012), 85-112. Manuscript received 8 May 2012, revised manuscript accepted 8 March 2013. It has long been known that porcupines accumulate and modify bones, but few actualistic studies on the contents of porcupine burrows have been undertaken. Here we present the results of an investigation of recent Indian porcupine (Hystrix indica) burrows that riddle the archaeological site of Tel Zahara (Israel). Faunal remains were recovered from the den entrances and inside a burrow system that we excavated. Bones exhibiting typical porcupine gnaw-damage i.e., flat-bottomed parallel grooves, were recovered from all dens, but no clear porcupine damage was evident on human osteological remains that were encountered by the porcupines during excavation of their dens. The surface patina of many of the bones is dark, signifying long-term burial, and is probably indicative of their archaeological origin. Article JTa127. All rights reserved. *E-mail: [email protected] 85 Indian porcupine taphonomy Porcupine gnawed areas on these bones are lighter in colour and so post-date the patina. Compared to the Roman period deposits on the tel, the den assemblage contains significantly higher numbers of wild taxa, a lower proportion of large-sized taxa, but a similar proportion of bones of medium-sized taxa, suggesting preferential selection of smaller-sized bones. Both tel and den deposits comprise similar frequencies of burnt bones and body part breakdowns are alike. As expected, higher frequencies of rodent and carnivore gnawed bones were found in the den samples. The results suggest that the porcupine burrow sample is a selected sub-set of the Roman faunal assemblage from the tel. This study has led us to conclude that the Indian porcupine plays a significant role as an agent of bioturbation of archaeological sediments and also as a collector and modifier of bones. Keywords: Hystrix indica, NEAR EAST, TEL ZAHARA, PORCUPINE BURROWS BONE DAMAGE, BIOTURBATION rats and porcupines, are known to practice ‘osteophagia’ or bone consumption (Maguire, 1976; Brain, 1980, 1981; Brett, 1991; Haglund, 1992; Haglund et al., 1988; Klippel & Synstelien, 2007; Rabinovich, 1987; Rabinovich & Horwitz, 1994; Thornton & Fee, 2001; Kibii, 2009). This practice is thought to meet their calcium and phosphorus demands but also to sharpen their incisors, which continue to grow throughout life (Brain, 1980, 1981; Duthie & Skinner, 1986; Rabinovich & Horwitz, 1994). Although it is claimed that for this purpose rodents preferentially select dry, weathered bones (Brain, 1980; Gifford, 1981), there is extensive evidence to indicate that omnivorous rodents do consume soft tissue, which may result in damage to the associated bones (Haglund, 1992, 1997; Klippel & Synstelien, 2007; Rabinovich, 1987; Ropohl et al., 1995; Tsokos et al., 1999). Rodent damage to bones (or plants) is caused by the pincer movement of the upper and lower incisors. In most cases the upper incisors hold the bone steady, while the chisel-shaped incisors of the lower jaw are free to move (Haglund, 1997), while it is also common for both the upper and lower incisors to drag across the bone simultaneously, converging on a point. Since these teeth are Introduction It is well documented that burrowing animals disturb archaeological deposits (e.g. Blackham, 2000; Bocek, 1986; Erlandson, 1984; Fowler et al., 2004; Johnson, 1989; Pierce, 1992; Wood & Johnson, 1978). These and numerous other studies demonstrate that burrowing activity may result in: (a) the introduction of modern material, (b) vertical and horizontal mixing of archaeological material, (c) sizesorting of artifacts, (d) destruction of architectural/ sedimentary features, (e) destruction of, or damage to, objects, and (f) burrowing animals functioning as ‘ecosystem engineers’ by causing physical state changes in biotic or abiotic materials and so modify and/or create microhabitats (Wilby et al., 2001). Rodents, such as porcupines, are especially attracted to archaeological sites due to the presence of food debris and also since the archaeological sediments are often less densely packed than those of the surrounding area, making them eminently suitable for burrowing. Indeed, this form of disturbance is so common in archaeological sites that Butzer (1982) coined the term “rodenturbation”. Though rodents primarily consume subterranean and above-ground plant parts, a broad spectrum of species, such as squirrels, beavers, mice, 86 Horwitz et al. Figure 1. Bones recovered from the Tel Zahara Indian porcupine burrows showing typical striae or grooves that form crenellations resulting from porcupine gnawing. A: Unidentified bone shaft fragment Tel Zahara NW B6; B and C: damage on a large mammal femur shaft from Tel Zahara burrow NW B6. (scale: each block = 1 mm). paired, damage typically takes the form of parallel, quite broad but shallow, flatbottomed striae or grooves that form a crenellated pattern (Brain, 1981; Haglund, 1992, 1997; Klippel & Synstelien, 2007; Rabinovich & Horwitz, 1994) (Figure 1A-C). Damage patterns are, however, variable and may be fan-shaped, crisscross or random, while not all marks left by rodents conform to the parallel striation pattern attributed to rodents. (Shipman & Rose, 1988; Klippel & Synstelien, 2007). Rodent-damaged areas on bones are usually located where there is thick cortical bone, such as on the edges of bones or on jutting protuberances. These areas may also be chosen since they are more easily accessible to rodents which have a limited jaw gape. However, Klippel and Synstelien (2007) demonstrated that the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) preferentially attacked areas where the cortical bone was thinnest in order to gain access to the grease-rich cancellous bone, demonstrating consumption of fresh rather than dry bones. In this regard, Haglund (Haglund, 1992; Haglund et al., 1988) noted that in gnawed bones where the bone is thin, typical rodent striae may be absent. As for carnivores (e.g. Domínguez-Rodrigo & Piqueras, 2003), the size class of the rodent responsible for marks should be correlated with the size of the grooves made by their incisors. Haglund (1992) discussed how rodents may contribute to the transport/movement of bones. Indeed, porcupine osteophagia may result in the accumulation of, as well as damage to, large piles of bones in their burrows as documented by several researchers for the Cape porcupine, Hystrix africaeaustralis (Alexander, 1956; Maguire, 1976; Maguire et al., 1980; Brain, 1980, 1981; O’Regan et 87 Indian porcupine taphonomy al., 2011) At the site of Tel Fendi (Jordan), almost directly across the Jordan River from Tel Zahara, Blackham (2000) documented the impact of burrowing activities of the Palestine mole-rat (Spalax ehrenbergi) on archaeological remains and concluded that mole-rat activity may account for the high fragmentation and poor preservation of bone at this as well as other Levant sites. The Indian porcupine is a large rodent with adult body masses ranging from 10-15 kg. As such it was not surprising that in experiments carried out on captive animals in Israel it was demonstrated that they not only readily gnawed bones and wood, but often totally destroyed them (Rabinovich & Horwitz, 1994). Mendelssohn and Yom-Tov (1999:395) accepted that the Indian porcupine is a modifier of bones but proposed that this species does not introduce lining material or food into its burrow, suggesting that the Indian porcupine may not accumulate bones in their burrows. The current study focuses on this question through an actualistic study of modern porcupine burrows located on the archaeological site of Tel Zahara in the Jordan Valley, Israel. The study examined animal and human bones recovered from the entrance area of several porcupine burrows located on the surface of the mound, as well as material found during excavation of a burrow system on the same mound. Background Tel Zahara, a small mound (ca. 25 hectares in extent) is located ca. 5km west of the town of Beth Shean at the confluence of the Figure 2. Map showing location of Tel Zahara and other locations mentioned in the text. 88 Horwitz et al. Figure 3. Map showing the location of each porcupine burrow and its number. Listing of burrow entrances with their elevation (m.a.s.l.): Western part of the Tel: SW–B1 (elev. Top = 97.01, Bottom = 95.85) – the burrow had human remains, not active, the entrance roof collapsed leaving almost a vertical shaft. SW–B2 (elev. Top = 96.19, Bottom = 96.49) – the burrow had human remains, probably still active as shown by footprints. SW–B3 (elev. Top = 96.03, Bottom = 95.33) – the burrow was not examined. SW– B4 (elev. Top = 96.68, Bottom = 95.96) – no human remains. Northern part of the Tel: NW–B5 (elev. Top = 99.09, Bottom = 98.55) – no human remains. NW–B6 (elev. Top = 99.53, Bottom = 99.03) – human remains, at least two individuals (child, and an adult – the last exposed inside the den, in the roof – two human leg bones visible). NE–B7 (elev. Top = 99.11, Bottom = 98.53) – human remains present. NE–B8 (elev. Top = 99.48, Bottom = 98.85) – human remains nearby, has a double entrance. 89 Indian porcupine taphonomy Figure 4. Tel Zahara. Left: Indian porcupine burrow entrances on Tel Zahara each marked by a person (A) burrows in the southwest (B) burrows in the northwest. Right: Examples of burrow entrances. 90 Figure 5. Tel Rehov. Arrows indicate (A) Indian porcupine burrow entrances on the tel surface (B) Porcupine burrows in a standing section on-site. Horwitz et al. 91 Indian porcupine taphonomy Jezreel and Jordan Valleys, on the south bank of Wadi Harod (Figure 2). On the surface of the tel is a historical Muslim cemetery which overlies and in places, cuts into, a Roman period farmhouse and associated structures (dating to the 1st–3rd centuries AD), which probably served as a satellite to the larger Roman city at Beth Shean (Scythopolis) during this era. The Roman material represents the bulk of the finds, while beneath it are deposits dating to the Hellenistic, Iron Age III/Persian, Middle Bronze Age II and Early Bronze Age periods (Cohen, in press; Cohen & Więckowski, 2007). During excavations and surveys on the tel, the excavators were struck by the abundance of modern burrow entrances that dotted the surface. The burrows were located primarily on the top and upper slopes of the mound, especially on the western side (Figures 3, 4A). The burrows evident on the surface were identified as belonging to the Indian porcupine (Hystrix indica) due to size of the entrances, presence of porcupine quills, faeces and footprints at the entrance to some of the burrows, as well as reports of sightings of porcupine on the tel, going back at least two decades, by members of Kibbutz Nir David, on whose agricultural land the mound sits. While the archaeological excavations were located in areas distant from the burrow entrances, encountering the results of porcupine and other animal activities at the site was unavoidable (Figure 4). The burrows often resulted in contaminated loci; the tunneling sometimes caused later ceramic material to be found in earlier levels or cut through archaeological features. As illustrated in Appendix A, a significant amount of archaeological material, spanning all periods represented on the tel, was recovered from the Indian porcupine burrows that we excavated (see below). Numerous porcupine burrows also dot the surface of the neighbouring archaeological site of Tel Rehov, located some 5 km south of Bet Shean (Figure 5). Here, too, there is clear evidence for subterranean penetration of porcupine burrows deep into the archaeological deposits, indicating that porcupine disturbance to archaeological sites in this region may be an important taphonomic factor. In northern Israel, burrowing rodents constitute a high percentage of the local mammalian fauna (Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov, 1999). Of the common burrowing species, perhaps the most prodigious are the Indian porcupine, the Palestine mole-rat (Spalax ehrenbergi), Wagner’s gerbil (Gerbillus dasyurus) and Tristram’s jird (Meriones tristrami). Compared to those of other burrowing taxa in the region, gerbil burrows are relatively shallow (ca. 30-40 cm deep or slightly more), have several openings with a resting chamber and with a nest at the end of one of the tunnels. The burrow of the Palestine mole-rat is a closed tunnel system that may span up to 39 m in length in winter, is the width of the animal’s body and ranges in depth from 10-40 cm in winter to as deep as 1.5 m in summer (Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov, 1999). The Palestine mole-rat has been shown to have the ability to assess the dimensions, density and relative distance of an obstacle encountered underground and then to select the most suitable digging strategy to bypass it (Kimchi et al., 2005), a factor which may account for the irregular nature of their tunnels in archaeological sites. Indian porcupine burrows can be 15 m or longer and have one or more openings ca. 30 cm high and 40 cm wide (Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov, 1999). The tunnel width fits that of the animal and has a large chamber at 92 Horwitz et al. the far end. The burrows are often excavated under rocks, which then serve as the den’s roof or else are located inside natural caves. Within their territory there is a permanent burrow as well as several others which may be used in times of danger. They usually live in pairs and use the burrows for hiding in during the day (since they are nocturnal) as well as for breeding. Newborn porcupines are weaned at 3 months but nibble food within several days of being born. In Israel, as elsewhere in the world, the density of porcupines varies primarily according to food availability. For example, Indian porcupines in the Negev desert occur in densities of 2.1 animals/km2 (Alkon, 1999), while on the Mediterranean coastal plain their densities are higher, at 4 animals/km2 (Server & Mendelssohn, 1991). Indian crested porcupines utilizing potato crops in the Negev desert (i.e., a locality with artificially high food availability) attained even higher densities of ca. 7.5 animals/km2 (Alkon, 1999). The fact that Tel Zahara is surrounded by agricultural fields increases the likelihood of a relatively high density of porcupines. This factor may also have contributed to increased porcupine density around tel sites when they were occupied in the past. instances old footprints of porcupines were visible leading into the burrows. Each burrow entrance was given a unique number, and all items of material culture (Appendix A), as well as the organic remains (plants, bones, molluscs, quills and faeces; Figure 6, Appendix B) that were littering the surface adjacent to the entrance were hand collected for analysis and superficial soil deposit adjacent to the burrow entrances sifted using a 5mm mesh. Among the bone samples, both human and animal remains were identified (Figure 7). This material represents items collected/ transported to the burrows by porcupines or other animals inhabiting them, or items encountered by the porcupines while digging the burrows and in some instances were brought by them to the surface. In addition to the surface collections, a small excavation was undertaken of two adjacent burrow entrances, B6 and B8. The primary objectives were: (a) to map the extent and contour of this part of the burrow system and see if the entrances of B6 and B8 met as well as to and locate the burrow chamber; (b) to investigate the burrow contents. In this regard, of primary interest was whether the porcupines had introduced bones into their burrows for gnawing or not. All items recovered from the burrow entrances and inside the burrows were examined. The bones collected from the entrance areas of six burrows, from the excavated area between B6 and B8, and from the burrow chamber B6, were identified to species and skeletal element wherever possible. Where it was not possible to identify the species, bones were placed in size classes: medium mammal = sheep/goat sized, large mammal=cattle sized. In addition, both identified bones and fragments were measured using a vernier caliper. Length was taken along the long axis of the bone and represented the maximum dimension, width Methods In the summer of 2009, a total of 10 burrow entrances were located during a surface survey of Tel Zahara. They were concentrated on the NW and SW aspects of the mound (Figures 3, 4). However, given the dense vegetation cover on the tel, it is likely that more burrow openings were overlooked by our survey team. At the time of our survey, some of the burrow entrances appeared to be disused, as they were overgrown with vegetation. In some 93 Indian porcupine taphonomy Figure 6. Typical bone assemblage from the surface in front of a burrow entrance. Tel Zahara, burrow B5. Scale in mm. 94 Horwitz et al. Figure 7. A: Photograph showing the roof of the main chamber of burrow B6 containing embedded human tibiae from an overlying grave. Note that the epiphyses of both bones are missing, possibly gnawed by porcupines and also the presence of vegetation (bottom left corner) on the chamber floor. B: Den entrance B1 with bleached human femur lying adjacent to it. 95 Indian porcupine taphonomy was the maximum dimension perpendicular to length and depth was the maximum thickness of the piece. The state of weathering (W) of the surface of each animal bone was recorded using scores loosely based on Behrensmeyer (1978) where: 0= not weathered; 1= slight roughness/pitting of bone surface; 2= exfoliation, root damage; 3= fissures, cracks. This was undertaken in order to ascertain whether the bones were fresh, had been exposed on the landscape for some time, or had been rapidly buried. The surface of all animal and human bones recovered from the burrow entrances and inside the burrows (i.e., recovered during the excavation of the burrows) were examined using a magnifying glass (10x) for evidence of damage. The type and location of surface modifications were identified and recorded. They included cut marks, burning, rodent gnawing and carnivore damage (Binford, 1981; Brain, 1981; Lyman, 1994). The porcupine den assemblage was compared to the faunal assemblage from the Roman period recovered from Tel Zahara. Non-paramateric tests (chi square and contingency tests) were used to test for statistical differences between them using the PAST 2.14 program (Hammer et al., 2001). burrow (the head lay towards the west). In the west, the burrow was cut by the trench, showing the large inner chamber. In the roof of the chamber, two human leg bones (tibiae) were embedded, indicating that the burrow was excavated underneath a grave (Figure 7A). The burrow has a complex plan. The western entrance leads to the actual burrow chamber that opens ca. 1 m from it to the south. There is a corridor leading southeast which slopes downwards, that after ca. 1 m starts to climb up and connect with the sloping floor of the corridor leading downwards and westwards from the eastern entrance. This corridor divides into two. One corridor leads off to the southwest (leading to the burrow chamber), and one corridor goes north, most probably connecting with entrance B7. There is one more corridor going north that leads to a dead end but most probably connects with the corridor between B7 and B8. There is a Roman or Byzantine wall in the middle of this system. It seems that this is the reason why the corridor leading from B6 through the burrow to B8 dips down and curves in order to connect with the corridor leading down from B8. It is not clear if the second entrance of B8 is part of that system or not. Burrow Excavation Results As part of the investigation of the porcupine burrows on the tel, a trench was dug (length = 6.50 m, width = ca. 1.00 m, depth [the deepest part] = ca. 1.30 m (Figure 8). All soil removed during excavation was sifted using a 5 mm mesh. About 1 m from the eastern entrance of B6, a child’s burial, part of the historical Muslim cemetery, was found in the section, ca. 60 cm below the topsoil, right above the Animal Remains Only seven of the 10 burrow entrances located during our survey yielded bone remains. A total of 86 faunal items were recovered from the burrow entrances, from the excavation between B6 and B8, and inside the burrow system of B6. The largest assemblage was from the entrance of B8 96 Horwitz et al. Figure 8. Section drawings of excavated Indian porcupine burrow system on the tel, showing relationship between burrow entrances. A: South section. B: North section. Key. B = burrow numbers in circles; 1 – disturbed top layer (with plant roots); 2 – top layer (probably natural accumulation); 3 – remains of the stone walls. Figure 9. Frequency of weathering stages for each Indian porcupine burrow. (W0= least weathering and W2= most). 97 Indian porcupine taphonomy (N=31, 36.0% of the sample collected), followed by B6 (N=17, 19.7% of the sample). Only three bones were recovered inside the burrow system of B6 (at distances of 1 m and 1.5 m from the entrance), and a further seven bones were found during the excavation to connect burrows B6 and B8. Although it is not possible to determine whether the bones from inside the burrow complex and chamber were intentionally introduced by the porcupines or were accidentally encountered by the animals while digging, the fact is that they do exhibit characteristic porcupine damage (Figure 1). This conclusively demonstrates that the Indian porcupine does indeed gnaw bones inside its burrow, although we are unable unequivocally to counter the claim by Mendelssohn and Yom-Tov (1999) that this species does not collect bones in its dens. It is difficult to know the number of animals or lifespan of the Zahara dens that have led to these accumulations. For the Cape porcupine, Brain (1981:114) found that over a period of 12 years, 380 objects (including bones, wood, stones and others) were introduced into the Nossob den (Kalahari), while over the period of a year, 57 objects (of which 44 were bones) were introduced into the Hartebeesthoek den, located close to the city of Johannesburg. It should be noted that for the Cape porcupine only material from inside the den was examined, while in this study material we have included material from the burrow entrances as well. The frequency of different types of weathering observed on the bones from the Zahara burrows is given in Figure 9 compared to weathering frequencies on bones from the Roman deposits on the tel (Figure 10; Horwitz, in press). It is evident that none of the bones associated with the burrows were very weathered (W3), i.e., exposed on the mound’s surface for a long time, with the majority either showing no weathering at all (W0) or only slight Table 1. Animal remains from the burrows and the Roman deposits on the Tel – Identified versus Unidentified remains (Numbers of Bones and %). Den # SW B2 SW B4 NW B5 NW B6 Inside B6 SE B7 SE B8 Between B6 & B8 Total Den N (%) Roman Tel Fauna N (%) Identified Bone 5 4 8 9 2 2 19* 4 53 (61.6%) Unidentified Bone 3 1 5 8 1 0 12 3 33 (38.4%) Total 249 (65.4%) 132 (34.6 %) 381 * two are worked bones 98 8 5 12 17 3 2 30 7 86 Horwitz et al. Table 2. Animal species representation for each Indian porcupine burrow and Roman deposits on the Tel. SPECIES SW B1 Sheep (Ovis aries) Goat (Capra hircus) Sheep/Goat (Ovis aries/ Capra hircus) Cattle (Bos taurus) Pig (Sus scrofa) Donkey (Equus asinus) Canid cf. Dog (Canis cf. familiaris) Fallow deer (Dama dama mesopotamica) SW B2 N SW B4 N NW B5 N 1 Indian Porcupine Burrows NW Inside SE SE B6 B6 B7 B8 N N N N 1 1 3 1 4 1 1 1 * Between B6 & B8 N 1 N 1 % 1.1 % 6 1 4 4.6 2 11 12.7 41 3 3.4 14 1 1.1 12 2 1 1 TOTAL 2 1 1 1.1 0.5 Gazelle cf. Mountain 0.5 (Gazella cf. gazella) Indian porcupine (Hystrix indica) Indian porcupine quills Indian porcupine faeces Micro-mammal (Rodentia) Unid. Medium mammal Unid. Large mammal Bird (Aves) Reptile (Reptilia) Fish (Pisces) Freshwater crab (Potamon fluviatalis) TOTAL N** 2 1 1 1 6 7 4 X X 3 1 5 9 2 2 1 1 X 8 5 13 3 2 22.0 - X - 2 49 56.9 9 2 7 8.1 7 1 1 1.1 2.5 2 2 2.3 - 1 1.1 - 2 2.3 1 86 100 249 22 31 7 *Tel Roman Fauna; **does not include porcupine quills, faeces or bone artifacts; X, present. 99 19 X 1 17 - - 1 1 1.1 X X 6 1 Indian porcupine taphonomy Figure 10. Frequency of weathering stages for Roman levels on the tel. (W0= least weathering and W2= most). weathering (W1). This pattern is most evident in the two burrows with the highest numbers of animal bones, burrows B6 and B8. The small size of some of the bone samples has in some instances biased the results. For example, of the three bones found inside B6, two were quite heavily weathered (W2), resulting in a noticeable peak in this weathering stage. Likewise, both bones recovered from burrow B7 were well-preserved, resulting in a peak in stage W0. Overall, the extent and pattern of surface weathering observed on the fauna recovered from the burrows resembles that found on bones deriving from the archaeological deposits at Tel Zahara, and when tested statistically were found to be non-significant. Although the tel sample contains a handful of more severely weathered specimens (W3), the majority, like those from the burrows, fell into weathering stages W0 and W1, suggesting a similar burial history. The archaeological bones from the Roman deposits and the majority of porcupine den remains are stained with a dark patina, probably the result of their long-term burial. However, where the den bones have been gnawed by porcupines, they reveal lightercoloured bone underlying the patina (e.g., Figures 1, 12). This indicates that the porcupine damage was more recent than the bones modified, and that these had probably been buried for some time, probably deriving from the archaeological deposits. As shown in Table 1, the majority of animal remains from the burrows were identifiable to species or size class, and this follows a similar trend to bones derived from the Roman levels on the tel. The species found in these two faunal assemblages are given in Table 2. Chi square and contingency table tests were used to compare the proportions of wild versus domestic species in the den and tel samples. Significant differences were between them, with more wild taxa in the den sample than in the tel (P < 0.000). The latter class includes reptiles, micromammals, crustacean etc. many of which 100 Horwitz et al. Figure 11. Left: Carnivore damage on cattle vertebral centrum showing v-shaped notches where bone has been gouged out (solid arrows) and a carnivore puncture hole from a canine (circle). Recovered between Burrows B6 and B8. Scale in mm. Right: From inside burrow NW B6, cattle left distal humerus with (a) gnaw damage on the distal end (open arrows) probably from a porcupine; (b) butchery damage (chop and cut marks) on the proximal end of the shaft (solid arrows), Scale in mm. Figure 12. Tel Zahara burrow NW B6, Large mammal femur shaft showing porcupine damage (A) light coloured crenellated striae and adjacent pits which have penetrated the darker archaeological patina of the bone (solid arrow); (B) a light coloured patch of stripped/whittled bone (in circle); (C) an uneven, gnawed bone edge (open arrow); (D) random gnaw striae on bone shaft (open arrow). Scale in mm. 101 Indian porcupine taphonomy Table 3a. Skeletal element breakdown for all taxa (a) found in burrows (pooled). Unidentified Upper Lower Upper Lower Total Feet Fragments Burrows Cranial Forelimb Forelimb Hindlimb Hindlimb Trunk N SW B2 1 1 1 2 5 3 SW B4 1 1 1 3 2 NW B5 2 2 1 2 7 5 NW B6 2 2 2 3 9 8 Inside B6 1 1 2 1 SE B7 1 1 2 SE B8 4 2 2 1 7 1 17 13 Between B6 2 1 1 4 3 & B8 TOTAL N 12 8 2 7 3 16 1 49 35 24.4 16.3 4.0 14.2 6.1 32.6 2.0 % (Note: counts in this table do not include numbers of porcupine quills, faeces or freshwater crab chelipods, nor the two bone artifacts from B8) Sheep/Goat (Ovis/Capra) 31.4 13.8 5.5 4.6 12.9 21.2 10.1 108 Cattle (Bos) 42.4 15.1 0 6.0 9.0 21.2 6.0 33 Pig (Sus) 40.0 13.3 3.3 6.6 6.6 30.0 0 30 Table 3b. Body part breakdown (%) for three main taxa found in Roman levels on the Tel. Cranial Upper Forelimb Lower Forelimb Upper Hindlimb Lower Hindlimb Trunk Feet Total N Key: Cranial: skull, antler, horn, maxilla, mandible and loose teeth. Forelimb: scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, proximal metacarpal, carpals. Hindlimb: pelvis, femur, tibia, patella, calcaneum, astragalus, proximal metatarsal, tarsals. Thoracic Region: atlas, axis vertebrae, cervical, thoracic, lumbar and caudal vertebrae. Feet: 1st, 2nd and 3rd phalanges 102 22 (40.7%) Roman Tel Fauna N - 103 calcaneum Right tibia & fibula Left and right humeri, left and right radii, left and right ulnae, left and right femora, tibia metatarsal adult adult child 3-4 years Between B6 & B8 adult rib radius SW B4 B6 Inside den B6 Inside den SE B7 SE B8 <18 adolescent years child adult SW B2 Left and right humeri, radius, ulna, left and right femora, ribs, phalanges, pelvis distal humerus adult SW B1 Skeletal Element Age of Individual Burrow - 6 13.6 17 (31.4%) 4 9.0 3 Cut 1 - 6 13.6 1 1 Bleached 4 Bleached on one aspect indicating that it was exposed on the surface for some time. Edges on both the distal and proximal ends are broken/gnawed Distal shaft – uneven break; fibula is missing proximal end The long bones are missing at least one epiphysis 6 (11.1%) 2 4.5 2 Worked Bone (tools) Bleached on one aspect. Two small pits on the distal shaft end Possible gnawed edges, puncture hole adjacent to one edge No epiphyseal ends. Two small tooth pits adjacent to end of shaft – carnivore. Half the bone is gone-broken/gnawed In all bones the edges are broken/gnawed. The long bones are missing at least one epiphysis Damage Description 9 (16.6%) 4 1 7 15.9 5 2 1 5 11.3 Burnt 1 1 1 V-shaped Notch 2 Tooth Punctures Table 5. Listing of modifications observed on human remains. (%) Rodent Gnawed 1 1 3 3 1 1 3 1 14 31.8 Den # SW B2 SW B4 NW B5 NW B6 Inside B6 SE B7 SE B8 Between B6 & B8 TOTAL DEN N % Table 4. Damage to bones from Indian porcupine burrows and the Roman period tel deposits (Numbers of Bones and %). Horwitz et al. Indian porcupine taphonomy may be natural mortalities in the dens. Furthermore, when species from the two samples were grouped into size classes (large, medium, small), they too differed significantly (P<0.000), with markedly fewer large-sized taxa and more smaller-sized taxa in the den sample than in the tel assemblage. The difference between the two samples was not marked in the medium-sized category, reflecting similar proportions of the most common domestic taxa - sheep (Ovis aries), goat (Capra hircus) and to a lesser extent, pig (Sus scrofa). Domestic pigs are not raised in the region around the mound today and were not kept historically in this area except for the Roman period, when pork consumption peaked in the region (Horwitz & Studer, 2005). As such, they most likely derive from the Roman levels on the tel. The skeletal remains of reptiles, porcupine and micro-mammals, that undoubtedly represent natural mortalities of local animals inhabiting the tel and its environs, occur only in the burrow samples and are absent in the archaeological assemblage from the tel. Their fresh state of preservation supports their recent origin. The skeletal element breakdown for all taxa combined is given in Table 3. The 49 bones identified to skeletal element cover the full range of body parts, with the majority representing thoracic (32.6%) or cranial elements (24.4%). Foot bones are the least common. Statistical tests showed there to be no significant differences in body part representation between the porcupine den sample when compared to the Roman period tel sample of caprines, cattle and pigs, respectively (Table 3). This may indicate that the burrow assemblage fauna originates from the archaeological deposits. Statistical tests carried out on the different types of modifications (Table 4) indicates some significant differences between the den sample and that from the tel (P<0.004). The tel sample has a far higher frequency of butchered (cut) bones than the burrow sample (31.4% on the tel compared to 9.0% for the burrows- Figure 11b), while as expected, a slightly lower frequency of bones with animal-derived damage are found on the tel (40.7%) compared to the burrows with 56.7% (pooled rodent and carnivore damage). The burrow assemblage contains a similar frequency of burnt remains to that found in the Roman deposits in the tel; 16.6% in the tel assemblage versus 15.9% for the burrows, but bleached bones, resulting from exposure on the surface, occurred only in the burrow assemblages and not in the tel sample. Rodent damage is slightly more common in the burrow assemblages than carnivore damage (Table 4). The latter is represented by tooth puncture holes and v-shaped notches (Figure 11a). It has not been possible to ascertain the carnivore species responsible, but the possible role of dogs cannot be excluded. No unequivocal carnivore damage was present on bones from the Roman period archaeological layer (Horwitz, in press), such that it unlikely that some or all of this damage occurred in antiquity. Finally, examination of the size (length, breadth and thickness) of the bones occurring in the different burrow samples shows that they are similar in their mean dimensions (Figure 13a-c), but show a very large size range. Ranges for all burrows combined are: length 8.5-122.9 mm; width 2.1-133.1 mm; depth 1.0-66.2 mm. The material from the excavated area between burrows B6 and B8 is the most variable, since it contains the longest items. Mean bone length is shortest in burrow B2. For bone breadth and thickness the sample from inside burrow B6 is exceptional since aside from two small bone 104 Horwitz et al. fragments, this sample contains an almostcomplete cattle distal humerus with shaft (Figure 11). As noted above, it is not known if this large bone was introduced into the burrow by a porcupine or else encountered by the animal while digging its burrow. The porcupine gnaw-damage on the distal epiphysis of this bone is lighter-coloured than the dark surface patina of the rest of the bone (Figure 11a), indicating that the bone was buried for some time prior to its modification by porcupines and is probably archaeological in origin. Burrows B6 and B8 contained thicker and broader bones, both in the entrance sample and material from inside the burrows, than those of other burrows studied. To conclude, the metric data for the burrow assemblages are on the whole consistent. Looking at the maximum dimensions of bones recovered from the burrows, porcupines seem to have little trouble in dealing with bones that are 123 mm long, 133 mm wide and 66mm thick, which is not surprising given their relatively large size, and the ease of access for gnawing exposed bone margins on larger skeletal elements. However, the size classes of taxa recovered from the dens indicates a preference for medium and small sized animals. Minimum bone size in the den assemblages is quite small: 12 mm long, 4 mm wide and 1 mm thick. It should be borne in mind that the latter sizes may be the end-result of gnawing on much larger bones, given that porcupines have been documented to destroy relatively large objects entirely (Rabinovich & Horwitz, 1994). Molluscs The eight porcupine burrows yielded 186 terrestrial and freshwater molluscs (Appendix B). Only six molluscs were found inside the excavated porcupine burrow, and these probably represent archaeological remains or natural inclusions in the soil matrix (Table 5). Seven taxa were identified including freshwater and terrestrial species. Of the seven recognized taxa, four are freshwater species: Melanopsis buccinoidea, Melanopsis cerithiopsis, other Melanopsis sp. and Unio terminalis terminalis. The Melanopsis species is most probably a hybrid between M. buccinoidea and M. cerithiopsis. The gastropods (Melanopsis spp.) are still found in the waters of the Harod Valley (Milstein et al., 2012). The freshwater mussel (Unio), represented by a single fragment, is still found in the nearby Jordan River and the Sea of Galilee and so most likely represents a local species rather than an imported item of trade (Milstein et al., 2012). It may have been introduced by people or animals, such as birds. The terrestrial mollusc fauna is represented by three species: Monacha obstructa, Xeropicta vestalis joppensis and Helix engaddensis engaddensis. Also in this case, all three species are still commonly found in the Harod Valley (Heller, 2009). The burrows yielded similar ranges of taxa, although there were slightly more specimens of Monacha and fewer Helix in the burrows located to the SW than those in the NW (B1-B4). A large part of the Melanopsis shells (68.7%) show a damaged aperture. This damage was most probably carried out by the freshwater crab Potamon potamios, which chips away the lip of the aperture with its pincers in order to feed on the snail's meat. Likewise, eight shells out of a total of 72 belonging to Monacha obstructa and five shells out of 25 belonging to Xeropicta vestalis joppensis show traces of predation by small mammals, either shrews or rodents. These occur in both SW and NW 105 Indian porcupine taphonomy assemblages. However, burnt shells were only found in the excavated area between B6 and B8 and probably relate to bush fires on the mound. Any evidence that the land snails and freshwater molluscs have been exploited by humans or served as food for porcupines is lacking. Human Remains Our survey of porcupine burrows on the tel recovered human remains that originally derived from historical graves lying close to the site surface (Figure 7; Cohen & Więckowski, 2007; Więckowski, in press). At least seven individuals are represented. These remains derive from burrows in the southwestern and central part of the tel (Figure 3) and in most instances were isolated bones. Only in one case were the human remains possibly in articulation: the remains of a child from the entrance of burrow B8, discovered while excavating the trench to link the opening of burrow B8 and burrow B6. Because of the limited horizontal exposure of this excavation (a trench), it was difficult to establish the precise nature of this burial and whether the skeleton was in anatomical position. Leg bones (tibiae) belonging to an adult individual found in the roof of burrow B6 (Figure 7a) were not examined in detail, since it was not possible to extricate them without destroying the den entirely. The south-western group comprised: B1: an accumulation of human bones retrieved from the deposit outside and inside the collapsed burrow. The identified bones were several fragments of the vertebral column (from the cervical, thoracic and lumbar parts), a few rib fragments, part of the humerus and radius diaphysis (left), part of the wing of the ilium and two manual phalanges. The morphology of the bones shows that they may belong to the same adult individual, suggesting that this represents a grave disturbed by porcupine activity. B2: an isolated bone retrieved from the deposit in the entrance to the burrow. The bone was identified as the distal part of humerus, with a septal aperture present. The state of ossification indicates it belonged to an individual likely less than 18 years old. B3: no human remains were associated with this burrow. B4: an isolated bone was retrieved from the deposit at the entrance of the burrow opening. It was identified as a small piece of a rib from a child’s skeleton. The central group comprised: B5: no human remains associated with this burrow. B6 and B8: the bones were retrieved from inside the trench excavated in order to join entrances B6 and B8 of what appear to be the same porcupine burrow. The bones belonged to at least two individuals, an adult and a child. The adult remains included a metatarsal, a phalanx and a talus. The remains of the child were found in the trench, right above the burrow entrance leading from the B8 entryway. They consisted of an almost complete skeleton; the bone inventory lacks only the right tibia and fibula, as well as the lower part of the vertebral column. The preserved teeth indicate the age at death was 3-4 years. No grave goods were found. From the section orientation (Figure 8) it can be assumed that originally this burial was on an E-W axis, with the head towards west. B7: the bones were retrieved from the deposit at the entrance to the burrow. The identified bones consist of a right tibia missing the proximal end, a fragment of the right fibula, a small rib fragment and small 106 Horwitz et al. fragments possibly from the pelvis. All likely belonged to the same adult individual, indicating that this was probably a disturbed burial. Figure 13. Box plots of bone dimensions from the Indian porcupine burrow assemblages at Tel Zahara. Outliers are shown as stars (>1 specimen) or open circles (=1 specimen). Burrow # Key: A= Burrow Entrance B2; B= Burrow Entrance B4; C= Burrow Entrance B5; D= Burrow Entrance B6; E= Inside Burrow B6; F= Burrow Entrance B7; G= Burrow Entrance B8; H= Between Burrow Entrance B6 and B8. Out of eight surveyed porcupine burrows, only two did not yield any human remains. One of them was located in the southwestern group on the eastern slope of the tel and one in the central group but also at some distance from the burrows that have yielded human remains. The excavations in the trench between burrow openings B6 and B8 showed that the burrows were located in close proximity to the human burials. There was one burial in the trench, right between the two openings, and one possible in situ burial visible in the roof of the burrow chamber. While digging their dens, it is evident that the porcupines exploited the softer, less dense earth that had been previously disturbed by the human burials and so encountered and disturbed human burials. Some 90% of human bones examined had no weathering (W0) and only 10% fell in the slightly weathered category (W1). Since the bones are all historical in age, they lack the distinctive dark patina of the more ancient animal bones from the Roman deposits on the tel that have been buried for a much longer time. As illustrated in Table 6, the majority of human long bones are missing their epiphyseal ends. However, no typical rodent gnaw marks were observed on any of the human remains. This includes the two tibiae, from an overlying grave, that were embedded in the roof of burrow B6 (Figure 7). It is however possible, that the thin cortical bone covering the epiphyses of human long bones has impeded the preservation of typical porcupine gnaw marks as argued by Haglund (Haglund, 1992; Haglund et al., 1988). In at least two instances (B2 and entrance sample from B6), small tooth pits were observed adjacent to the broken/gnawed edges of the bones, while typical carnivore 107 Indian porcupine taphonomy puncture holes were found on the child rib in B4 and another on an adult distal femur in B1. Thus, the most parsimonious explanation is that carnivores were responsible for most, if not all, of the observed damage to the human bones found on the mound surface. Given the small size of most of the pits, a small carnivore such as a cat, fox or even a small dog was probably the agent of modification. A larger puncture hole on a distal femur found outside burrow B1 (Figure 13a, b) suggests the activity of another larger carnivore such as a jackal or large dog. Conclusions This study has demonstrated that the Indian porcupine is a major taphonomic agent responsible for bone modification and bioturbation of deposits in Israeli tel sites. Their burrowing and bone collection activities are sources of major disturbance to archaeological sediments, resulting in mixing and damage to archaeological contexts and material. Porcupine damage was evident on numerous bones recovered from the entrances and their burrow system, many of which may be archaeological in origin based on their dark patina. Thus, contrary to the claims of Mendelssohn and Yom-Tov (1999), this species appears to gnaw bones inside their burrows, although it is unclear whether these bones were intentionally introduced by the porcupines into their dens or were accidentally encountered during burrowing. Typical porcupine gnawing was not identified on the human remains from Tel Zahara. However, their role as taphonomic agents responsible for the destruction of the epiphyses of these bones could not be entirely discounted. 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New York: Academic Press, pp. 315-381. 110 Horwitz et al. 1 red slip sherd, interior and exterior, bowl, Bronze Age? 1 red slipped body sherd 1 large bowl rim, red slip interior and exterior, Early Bronze Age Appendix A: Material culture retrieved in association with the Indian porcupine burrows The survey and subsequent excavation of two of the Indian porcupine burrows (B6 and B8) yielded a relatively small amount of material culture. The vast majority of this material consisted of very small, plainware body sherds; in general, these sherds were either two small or too generic to be identifiable for either form or date. Other diagnostic sherds from the burrows ranged from the Early Bronze Age through the Islamic eras, which is entirely consistent with what is known about the occupational history of Tel Zahara. It demonstrates how material may be mixed as a consequence of porcupine bioturbation In addition to the ceramic finds, the survey and excavations uncovered a small amount of flint, glass, and other small objects, including two beads; these last items might have been part of the grave goods associated with the disturbed human remains from the cemetery, although it is also possible that they were introduced into the area by the burrowing activity of the porcupines. B4: 1 piece of flint 1 sherd, open form, with vertical grooves on rim, date? 45 plainware sherds, mixed B5: 2 pieces glass, modern 1 stopper 1 tessera 86 plainware sherds, mixed B6: 1 piece flint 1 jar rim, Roman 1 rim and handle of jar, date? 24 plainware sherds B7: 1 piece flint 1 waster, Islamic? 1 bowl rim, Roman 36 plainware body sherds B8: 1 sherd Islamic glazed ware 2 pieces flint 1 red slip bowl rim, Roman 157 plainware sherds A complete list of the finds from the burrows is provided below. B1: 2 pieces flint 73 plainware body sherds, mixed periods 1 bone bead, 1 mm thick, 0.9 mm wide B2: 1 stone weight (?), flat circular stone, pierced in center, 3.9 cm wide, 0.7 cm thick 1 stone bead, greenish (agate?), 0.8 cm wide, 0.4 cm thick 3 pieces flint 27 plainware sherds 1 Early Bronze Age red slipped sherd 1 red and black body, possibly Early Bronze Age Trench between B-6 and B-8: 1 piece Islamic glazed ware 1 piece Roman glass 2 tessera 1 bowl rim, Roman 1 carinated bowl body fragment, Middle Bronze Age 1 store jar rim 111 Indian porcupine taphonomy Appendix B: List of malacological specimens recovered from the Indian porcupine burrows Aquatic species Melanopsis buccinoidea (Olivier, 1801) SW-B1: four shells of which one is missing the top whorls and three show damaged apertures; SW-B2: four shells of which three show damaged apertures; SW-B4: seven shells of which six show damaged apertures; NW-B5: six shells of which one is missing the top whorls and five show damaged apertures; NW-B6: four shells of which one is missing the top whorls, all show damaged apertures; SE-B7: one shell missing the top whorls and with a damaged aperture; SE-B8: four shells of which one is missing a large part of the body whorl; Excavation between B6 and B8: one burnt shell with a damaged aperture. Melanopsis cerithiopsis Bourguignat 1884 SW-B1: four shells; SW-B2: three shells; SW-B4: nine shells of which five show damaged apertures; NW-B5: eight shells of which one is missing the top whorls and all show damaged apertures; NW-B6: two shells, both show damaged apertures; SE-B7: two shells both with damaged apertures; SE-B8: three shells of which two show damaged apertures; Excavation between B6 and B8: two shells of which one burnt. Melanopsis hybrid? SW-B4: one shell; SE-B8: one shell with a damaged aperture. Family Unionidae Unio terminalis terminalis Bourguignat 1852 SW-B2: one tiny fragment. Terrestrial Species Monacha obstructa (Pfeiffer, 1842) SW-B1: 14 shells of which one shows predation by a small mammal; SW-B2: eight shells of which one shows predation by a small mammal; SW-B4: 34 shells of which four show predation by small mammals; NW-B5: four shells of which one is heavily damaged by a small mammal; NW-B6: seven shells of which one shows predation by a small mammal; SE-B7: two shells of which one is missing the top whorls; SE-B8: one shell; Excavation between B6 and B8: two shells. Xeropicta vestalis joppensis (Schmidt, 1855) SW-B1: six shells of which one shows predation by a small mammal; SW-B2: two shells of which one shows predation by a small mammal; SW-B4: nine shells of which one shows predation by a small mammal; NW-B5: five shells of which two damaged by small mammals; NW-B6: two shells; SE-B7: one shell. Family Helicidae Helix engaddensis engaddensis Bourguignat, 1852 SW-B1: one shells showing a small hole probably made by an invertebrate larva, and three tiny fragments of probably one other specimen; SW-B2: one fragment of the lower part of the columella of a juvenile specimen; SW-B4: three shells and two small fragments; NW-B5: four small shells and two small fragments; NW-B6: one small shell; SE-B7: one shell; SE-B8: three fragments belonging to at least two different shells; Excavation between dens B6 and B8: one small fragment of the body whorl near the aperture. 112